D7 Ebook - St. Ninian`s High School

St Ninian’s High School
GCE Unit 1 Part 2
D7 Politics, Presidency and Society, the USA 1968-2001
Electronic Textbook
Politics, Presidency and Society the US 1968-2001
The focus of this topic is on the domestic history of the United States in the last third of
the 20th century, addressing social, political and economic issues but not foreign policy
except in terms of its domestic impact. Since the focus of Unit 1 is on broad themes,
questions will not be set which concentrate exclusively on depth of knowledge, for
example about one particular individual or event, other than those which are specifically
listed in the content bullet points. Students will, however, be expected to demonstrate
their understanding of the themes defined in the content bullet points by the selection and
deployment of relevant information as exemplification.
Collectively, the four content bullet points offer a framework for understanding the themes
of the exercise of power and the influence of ideology on decision making and the exercise
of power. The bullet points cannot be taken in complete isolation from one another and
students should develop an appreciation of links between them. For example, a question
on race relations would straddle bullet points 2, 3 and 4.
• The Presidencies of Nixon, Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush and Clinton: reasons
for the outcomes of elections; Watergate and the constitutional issues to which
it gave rise.
The first bullet point relates to the salient political developments surrounding the
presidency and affecting the power of the office of president in these years. Students
should be aware of the reasons for Nixon’s victories in 1968 and 1972 and why Watergate
became an important constitutional issue and the reasons for his resignation in 1974. They
should understand why Carter triumphed in 1976 but lost to Reagan in 1980 and why
Reagan achieved such popularity, winning a second term by a large margin in 1984. They
should understand why his successor served only one term, losing to Clinton in 1992, and
why Clinton achieved such popularity. Students will not face question on congressional
elections but should be aware of the effects of such elections on presidential power.
• Social issues and their political impact: feminism; the rights of minorities;
religious belief; the importance of the Supreme Court.
The second bullet point relates to social issues and their impact on politics. Students
should understand why issues of feminism, religious belief, abortion and gay rights
achieved such political prominence, and the continuing issue of race and race relations.
They should understand the importance of the Supreme Court with regard to these issues
and the ways in which it, in consequence, became a political battleground. Questions will
not be set which focus exclusively and specifically on events or individuals not
given in the specification, but students should be able to provide exemplification when
addressing the impact of these issues.
• Popular culture: the media, film, television, radio and journalism; the
importance of sport for race relations.
The third bullet point relates to popular culture and how far popular culture was
oppositional over this period. Students should have some understanding of salient
developments in popular music, films, television and radio, appreciating the importance of
the latter in many localities. They should have some understanding of popular sports and
the celebrity culture it engenders and the possible impact of these developments on race
relations.
• The debate over the role of the state in the economy – Reagan and the New
Right: ‘Reagonomics’ and free market ideas.
The fourth bullet point relates to the debate over economic policies and the correct role of
the state. Students should understand the reaction to enhanced federal spending that
developed in the 1970s, the new emphasis on the virtues of lower taxes and free market
ideas associated with the Reagan presidency, and the congressional resistance to
Democrat initiatives under Clinton in the 1990s.
The Presidents
Richard Nixon, Elected 1968, 1972 President 1968-1974
Born Yorba Linda, California
Vice President to Eisenhower 1953-61, Presidential candidate defeated by JFK 1960
Defeated under questionable circumstances but refused to challenge for recount as it
would “tear the country to pieces.”
1962 defeated in run for Governor of California.
By 1968 had positioned himself as loyal republican - moved moderate after Goldwater’s
(radical republican) large defeat. BUT rarely mentioned republicans - more personality.
Feb 1968 started declaring “America needs new leadership”
New electioneering technique - more TV, topped up tan in florida
Eisenhower's, David Eisenhower and Julie Nixon were dating from 1966 - Waldorf Astoria
debutante ball. Engagement from 1967, by 1968 Julie only 18 - both brought “sex appeal”
Eisenhower (pressure from kids) endorsed Nixon after his 5th heart attack while in
hospital in wheelchair, wearing dressing gown.
Nixon won nomination as experienced ex-VP associated with success of Eisenhower and
stable 50s. His running mate - Governor of Maryland, Spiro Agnew - “Spiro Who?” from
press. Help win border states - gaffes “when you’ve seen one slum you’ve seen them all.”
Gerald Ford declined the slot.
Nixon identified himself with “silent majority” of Americans sick of counter culture, hippies,
rioters violence and disruption - “My source of strength was more Main St than Wall St”
Promised less govt. - campaigned on law and order.
“In the past 45 minutes there have been 1 murder, 2 rapes, 45 major crimes of violence”
Nixon’s Southern Strategy - playing to the South that was disillusioned with Johnson and
the Democrats after Civil Rights laws by promising to slow down school desegregation very successful in South.
Promised peace in Vietnam - had been illegally contacting govt. of South Vietnam and
discouraging chances of truce with North during LBJ’s govt. - LBJ couldn’t reveal that as
he knew through illegal tapping.
Peace in Vietnam and ending the draft was very popular.
Other candidates - Hubert Humphrey Democrat, George Wallace (Southern politician
campaigning on a law and order, anti-hippy platform. His VP candidate wanted to nuke
Vietnam.)
Democratic Convention 1968 - Humphrey given nomination but had not won 1 primary.
Convention imploded in chaos and violence with democrats in background and democratic
mayor Daley ordered police into attacks. Anti-war democrats had no one to support many disrupted Humphrey’s platforms.
Nixon refused to let long haired people into his rallies and when hecklers got through
either secret service or local police roughed them up.
Race turned nasty.
“we don’t want to play politics with peace” - very close indeed. Lowest winning margin
since 1912, only 43.4% of popular vote - won electoral college by some way.
Problems - Vietnam divided nation - peace with honor? Inflation growing, massive federal
deficit
Inauguration - first ever to be demonstrated at.
Re-election in 1972
1970 Time magazine Nixon = the embodiment of Middle America”
Made comments against liberal supreme court decisions, especially against busing - tried
but failed to slow desegregation - when Supreme Court tried to further desegregation in
north “Knock off this crap. Do only what the law requires and not one thing more.”
Busing unpopular and opposed by 80% of Americans.
Got 1 conservative to the Supreme Court, had 2 racist southerners rejected - played on
them being rejected because they were southern.
Affirmative Action - Nixon called it “reverse discrimination” Polls showed majority of
(white) Americans agreed.
Welfare - Make those receiving benefits work. Decrease bureaucracy - Family Assistance
plan popular but he knew it wouldn’t get through Congress
Decreased spending on Great Society anti-poverty schemes - appealed to conservatives
Suppressing of Black Panthers was popular with white conservatives.
Anti-War protests grew - San Diego students set fire to banks, 80 bomb threats at Boston
U during 1970
May 4 Kent State, Ohio 1970 - Peaceful protest rally ended when National Guard shot 4
students dead and wounded 11 (2 walking to school) . Following week 2 killed in Jackson
State, Mississippi
Nixon talked of “these bums blowing up campuses” - 50% of Americans polled blamed
students for the deaths.
Bruce Springsteen - Where was Jesus in Ohio, Ohio Crosby Stills and Nash, Beach Boys
student demonstration time, Steve Miller Jackson Kent Blues
5 days later 100,000 students protested outside Washington Charles Colson (aide to
Nixon) “This is a nation at war with itself”
Projectiles thrown at presidential car - first time ever, sympathy from Middle America
In 1972 “he ran against pot, permissiveness, protest, pornography and dwindling
patriotism” Stephen Ambrose. - 1972 year Deep Throat released.
Attempts at helping Youth Culture Invited Jefferson Airplane to the White house - wanted to bring Yippie leader and plotted
to lace the White House punch with LSD hidden under her fingernails. Journalist tipped off
WH.
May 9 Lincoln Memorial Nixon went walkabout and talked to 30 or so students in an
attempt to engage with them - failed!
Counter culture of freedom was seen as dangerous by Middle America - 1970-71 Janis
Joplin, Jim Morrison and Jimi Hendrix all died of overdoses. - ironically he invited Elvis to
the White house to aid the war on drugs.
1971 Economic measures stimulated economy - helped re-election
Spiro Agnew acted as attack dog for the president in the election - did all the dirty work,
as Nixon had for Ike.
Environment plays a part for first time - Nixon “people don’t give a shit about the
environment” - but was responsible for the biggest advances in environmental protection
in Us history clean air and costs 1970-2 and created 642 state parks
After upping the bombing campaigns in Vietnam and invading Cambodia he declared
“peace is at hand” - Detente thawed relations in Cold War, visited China,
My Lai Massacre - 500 civilians killed (Colin Powell was one of the soldiers) - Calley as
commanding officer was imprisoned, Nixon ordered him released - sat well with
conservatives.
George Wallace disabled after assassination attempt in 1972 - Southern votes now open to
Nixon. Edward Kennedy (youngest brother) in scandal when car went off bridge and his
passenger 29 year old woman died. He took a lengthy amount of time to tell police.
Democrats selected George McGovern - seemed to be part of counter culture - called
McGovern the candidate for 3 a’s - Acid, Abortion and Amnesty.
Nixon won with landslide. 60.7% 49/50 states.
Why so successful?
Experience
Silent Majority - anti-counter culture candidate
Vietnam “Peace with Honor”
Southern Strategy
Weakness of Democrats
Strong Economy
Watergate
Brief Timeline of Events
1968
• November 1968: Richard Milhous Nixon, the 55-year-old former vice president
who lost the presidency for the Republicans in 1960, reclaims it by defeating Hubert
Humphrey in one of the closest elections in U.S. history.
1972
• June 17, 1972: Five men, one of whom says he used to work for the CIA, are
arrested at 2:30 a.m. trying to bug the offices of the Democratic National
Committee at the Watergate hotel and office complex.
• June 19, 1972: A GOP security aide is among the Watergate burglars, The
Washington Post reports. Former attorney general John Mitchell, head of the Nixon
reelection campaign, denies any link to the operation.
•
October 10, 1972: FBI agents establish that the Watergate break-in stems from a
massive campaign of political spying and sabotage conducted on behalf of the
Nixon reelection effort, The Post reports.
•
November 11, 1972: Nixon is reelected in one of the largest landslides in
American political history, taking more than 60 percent of the vote and crushing the
Democratic nominee, Sen. George McGovern of South Dakota.
1973
• January 30, 1973: Former Nixon aides G. Gordon Liddy and James W. McCord Jr.
are convicted of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping in the Watergate incident.
Five other men plead guilty, but mysteries remain.
•
April 30, 1973: Nixon's top White House staffers, H.R. Haldeman and John
Ehrlichman, and Attorney General Richard Kleindienst resign over the scandal.
White House counsel John Dean is fired.
•
May 18, 1973: The Senate Watergate committee begins its nationally televised
hearings. Attorney General-designate Elliot Richardson taps former solicitor general
Archibald Cox as the Justice Department's special prosecutor for Watergate.
•
July 13, 1973: Alexander Butterfield, former presidential appointments secretary,
reveals in congressional testimony that since 1971 Nixon had recorded all
conversations and telephone calls in his offices.
•
July 23, 1973: Nixon refuses to turn over the presidential tape recordings to the
Senate Watergate committee or the special prosecutor.
•
October 20, 1973: Saturday Night Massacre: Nixon fires Archibald Cox and
abolishes the office of the special prosecutor. Attorney General Richardson and
Deputy Attorney General William D. Ruckelshaus resign. Pressure for impeachment
mounts in Congress.
•
November 17, 1973: Nixon declares, "I'm not a crook," maintaining his
innocence in the Watergate case.
•
December 7, 1973: The White House can't explain an 18 1/2 -minute gap in one
of the subpoenaed tapes. Chief of staff Alexander Haig says one theory is that
"some sinister force" erased the segment.
1974
• April 30, 1974: The White House releases more than 1,200 pages of edited
transcripts of the Nixon tapes to the House Judiciary Committee, but the committee
insists that the tapes themselves must be turned over.
•
July 24, 1974: The Supreme Court rules unanimously that Nixon must turn over
the tape recordings of 64 White House conversations, rejecting the president's
claims of executive privilege.
•
July 27, 1974: House Judiciary Committee passes the first of three articles of
impeachment, charging obstruction of justice.
•
August 8, 1974: Richard Nixon becomes the first U.S. president to resign. Vice
President Gerald R. Ford assumes the country's highest office. He will later pardon
Nixon of all charges related to the Watergate case.
Watergate damaged both the Republicans and the Presidency in the short term - the first
President to resign was forced to do so due to criminal activity!
Gerald Ford, an ex-male model, became President “Not a Lincoln but a Ford.”
Jimmy Carter
The 1976 Election became a referendum on Nixon’s behaviour with Watergate damaging
the Republicans chances greatly.
Jimmy Carter, an ex Peanut farmer and Governor of Georgia, won - standing as a
Washington outsider. When he announced to his mother he was running for President she
had asked “President of what?”
He won the election fairly narrowly, having begun the campaign with a substantial lead.
Carter was the first president to deal with Gay Rights, opposing the Briggs initiative which
wanted to ban homosexuals from serving as public school teachers.
Unfortunately Carter’s presidency was dominated by Economic crisis - stagflation - rising
unemployment together with rising inflation meant Americans were suffering. The Oil crisis
of 1976 onwards which led to price controls on gas and oil and Carter declaring energy
conservation as the moral equivalent of war.
A group of 52 Americans were taken hostage in Iran in early 1980. The disaster of
Operation Eagle Claw, the military attempt at rescuing them that led to the loss of 8
American servicemen, 6 helicopters and a plane during the campaign for President. This
had a significant impact on Carter’s support.
Ronald Reagan
Carter beaten so badly he had conceded before the polls closed on the west coast
Reagan - left office 8 years later with highest approval rating since WW2, 15 million new
jobs, massive economic growth - despite coming to power in a recession.
Reagan revolution - dominance of conservative movement - time of massive change.
Why so successful? Worked within the centre - compromised or withdrew if he had to
Background - father shoe salesman alcoholic, born in Illinois, sportsman and lifeguard
(saved 77 people from drowning).
Radio sports-broadcaster, 1937 broke into movies. Joined army in 1942 - made training
films - became President of Screen Actors Guild, informer for FBI during McCarthyism.
1962 now nationally known and switched to Republican, campaigned for Nixon.
1966 Became Governor of California - Watts Riots etc played to him.
Nearly won nomination 1975
1980 election - Carter gave speech taking Americans to task for the economy - too
concerned with material goods - offended middle American, economy failing “Are you
better off now than you were 4 years ago”
Reaganism
*didn’t get bogged down in detail, governed in broad strokes - dependent on staff.
Reagan system - 1 page sheet
Co-ordinated media - line of the day, focus on media cycles, Reagan’s acting and
presenting skills used in TV broadcasts - Saturday morning radio addresses.
Economics - largest tax cut in history, economics focus, following year had to increase
taxes
1983 invasion of Grenada, USA seen as increasingly strong, mood of celebration
LA Olympics 1984 - worry - Montreal from 1976 1 billion in debt, due to clear debt by
1997
LA decided not to use any tax money - needed $500 million, sold TV rights $280 mill,
sponsorship $117 mill, ticket sales $117 - this earned interest of 57mill! Used existing
facilities
Olympic Torch relay - included OJ Simpson, American triumph - emergence of Carl Lewis,
Michael Jordan
Eventually made profits of $215 mill
By 1984 Reagan in charge of a happy country that was celebrating and financially
successful - Democrats still divided and weak with no clear leadership.
Walter Mondale - Carter’s VP - campaign dogged by Gary Hart’s challenge - attacked
Reagan personally “scary, intolerant” I will not exploit my opponent’s age”
“Morning in America”
Why Re-elected?
Morning Again TV commercial- USA patriotism, Reagan’s personality
Ran against Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro - first woman on a ticket, Mondale attacked
Reagan saying both would have to increase taxes but Reagan wouldn’t tell the truth about
it. Reagan - I wanted to tell him he was taxing my patience but why should i give him
another idea, it’s the only tax he hasn’t thought of.”
72% of Southern White vote.
Strong defence reputation
Reagan won a landslide victory 49/50 states
Movement was for his personality politics not party politics - lacked focus
Political team in the White house was weakened. New chief of staff Regan lacked
experience and compromise, hated by Nancy Reagan.
Congress 1986 becomes Democratic again CHECKS AND BALANCES - the US elections
almost always have separate parties in charge of Congress / Presidency 1986-89 Lame Duck - Congress in charge, last victory is Tax reform.
Congress took lead on trying to balance the budget - worked together for Tax reform
(i.e. code reduction from 14 to 4) to eradicate loopholes that favoured companies etc
Iran Contra 1986 Reagan had shipped arms to Iran in an attempt to get hostages freed in
Lebanon the profits had been used to fund Contra rebels (anti-Communist) in Nicaragua Iran was one of the US’s enemies but was being sold weapons? The President was funding
troops to bring down a government in Central America without asking Congress or the US
people? They were rewarding terrorists and negotiating with them?
Reagan’s approval rating fell 20% overnight Investigative commission (Tower commission)
said his management delegation was inadequate. By 1987-9 it became apparent that for
all Reagan’s denials that he knew about this he had authorised it - if this had been known
in 1986 it was grounds for impeachment.
WHY? He was 76, forgetful, or didn’t believe he was wrong and blamed the press.
Supreme Court - tried to appoint Robert Bork 1987 (was a swing court 4 liberal, 4
conservative) Bork = ultra conservative, had criticised racial equality, opposed women’s
rights - liberal lightening rod. Senate rejected him - silly choice He had managed to “Reaganise” the judiciary with 1 Supreme Court and 50% of all
federal judges - conservative law interpretations. Very successful in his agenda on crime,
porn, abortion etc but couldn’t overturn Roe Vs Wade.
“Amiable Dunce” Reagan relied on notes, “economic illiterate”
perhaps it was lack of focus, did have Alzheimer's diagnosed in 1990s
Legacy - massive economic weakness (1990s recession) Huge national debt, reduction in
federal government, “We made a difference” Presidency as ceremonial was restored after
Watergate.
But republican party not invigorated, Democrats held House of Rep
throughout and Senate after 1986 = people voted for Reagan
The USA in the 1980s
Society changes - education rose, computer and business studies appeared
Personal computers appeared.
Japanese VS American cars - Japan forced to sign a price agreement for trade - added
High margin features of luxury to their cars to keep sales but American cars benefitted UNTIL japan introduced the luxury brands like Lexus to compete
Lower airfares due to 747s and new airlines constantly emerged, merged or bust
AT&T - phone monopoly broken - company forced to lose 90,000 jobs - that used to be
jobs for life, massive culture shift BUT competition improved service and lowered prices
(free local calls are usual in USA from this time) - all due to Reagan’s deregulation
Space shuttle Columbia 1981 - first reusable space vehicle. Vietnam war memorial helped
heal divisions.
Stock Market Boom - Wall Street “Greed is good” - NYSE shares from 1.1 trillion to 2.4
Yuppies - Young Urban Professionals - disposable incomes bought Japanese cars, sports
cars, ice cream and chocolate.
Credit cards appear and are used widespread by all
Restaurant meals double
Home technology - VCRs, computers prices fall as technology improves so people get
them
Large dept. stores are replaced by chains - The Gap, Victoria’s secret etc - targeted at
specific customers. Other stores are either speciality e.g. Circuit City or Wal Mart - Giant
killer discounts!
Out of town office parks
War on Drugs - Nancy Reagan launched “Just say no” $15 billion spent per year on the
war on drugs, futile - Crack appeared and spread through the ghettos, drugs as escape
from poor conditions and social mobility (large amounts of money made) 12,000 drug
deaths per year (200,000 booze)
Union’s lost ground - Reagan vs Air Traffic Controllers
Black workers disproportionately affected by job displacement i.e. industry stopping to
exist! Computers cutting steel etc. Also by Reagan not enforcing Affirmative action.
Increased immigration from Asia and South America
Women gained in society - wages rose, number in education rose, access to professions
increased. See Working Girl clip - 1st scene
Increased divorce rates and normalcy of illegitimate births
By 1988 due to peace and prosperity the NY times reported “bread and butter concerns ...
have lost their fire”
Reaganisms
"I've noticed that the people who are in favor of abortion
have already been born" - Ronald Reagan
"No arsenal, or no weapon in the arsenals of the world, is so formidable as the will and
moral courage of free men and women." - Ronald Reagan
"Here's my strategy on the Cold War: We win, they lose." - Ronald Reagan
"The most terrifying words in the English language are: I'm from the government and I'm
here to help." - Ronald Reagan
"The trouble with our liberal friends is not that they're ignorant: It's just that they know so
much that isn't so." - Ronald Reagan
"Of the four wars in my lifetime none came about because the U.S. was too strong." Ronald Reagan
"I have wondered at times about what the Ten Commandment's would have looked like if
Moses had run them through the U.S. Congress." - Ronald Reagan
"The taxpayer: That's someone who works for the federal government but doesn't have to
take the civil service examination." - Ronald Reagan
"Government is like a baby: An alimentary canal with a big appetite at one end and no
sense of responsibility at the other."- Ronald Reagan
"If we ever forget that we're one nation under God, then we will be a nation gone under."
- Ronald Reagan
"The nearest thing to eternal life we will ever see on this earth is a government program."
- Ronald Reagan
"I've laid down the law, though, to everyone from now on about anything that happens:
no matter what time it is, wake me. even if it's in the middle of a Cabinet meeting." Ronald Reagan
"It has been said that politics is the second oldest profession. I have learned that it bears
a striking resemblance to the first." - Ronald Reagan
"Government's view of the economy could be summed up in a few short phrases: If it
moves, tax it. If it keeps moving, regulate it. And if it stops moving, subsidize it." - Ronald
Reagan
"Politics is not a bad profession. If you succeed there are many rewards, if you disgrace
yourself you can always write a book." Ronald Reagan
Bill Clinton - It’s the Economy Stupid.
Democrat Governor of Arkansas - ran on the Economy during the 1990’s recession. Social
Liberal - strong supported of African Americans and women. Very personable and
charismatic - especially when compared to Bush Snr.
Presidency - First Term
Don’t Ask don’t tell - Gay Rights in Military. Gun Control after the 1993 Waco siege and
tourist killings in Florida. NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) 1993. Tax cuts
for poor, increases for rich - manages a balanced budget!
Struggled with Congress. First Lady Hillary Clinton ran health insurance reform - failed.
Awful relationship with the press. 1994 Midterm elections were a Republican landslide.
1995 Republican Congress refused to agree Clinton’s budget - lead to shut down of
Federal Government, reflected badly on Republicans. He used the Presidential veto to
effectively block the Republicans - except for a “Brutal” Welfare reform bill as he felt that
may cost him the election.
Clinton had to put up with a large escalation of attack politics, especially from Newt
Gingrich, the Republican leader of the House. Joe Klein commented “American politics had
turned rancid.” These attacks culminated in the appointment of Kenneth Starr as special
prosecutor in 1994, investigating the Whitewater land deal.
Second Term
Clinton won re-election in 1996 against the weak and elderly Republican candidate Bob
Dole. The economy was booming and Clinton’s incredible fundraising together with his
charismatic appearances lead to 54% of the vote - winning using the African American
and women vote.
Kenneth Starr, through Linda Tripp, gained evidence of the President having an
inappropriate sexual relationship with white house intern Monica Lewinsky. Monica-gate
led to Senate hearings and the Starr report focussed on it - damaging Clinton’s presidency
and almost leading to impeachment.
1992 Election
1996
Sample Exam Questions
Why was Clinton able to win the Presidential elections of 1992 and 1996?
Did the New Right lead to the Republican success of 1968-1988?
Was the Democratic party so unsuccessful in Presidential elections in the years
1968-1988?
Why was the Republican Party so successful in Presidential elections in the years 1968–
88?
Why in the 1980s did moral and religious issues gain such importance in US politics?
Why was Reagan able to win the Presidential elections of 1980 and 1984?
Factors in Winning the Presidency 1968-2001
The Economy
1977-81 Oil Crisis, unemployment
and stagflation means a poor
economy.
Reagonomics is seen as bringing
prosperity.
1990-92 Recession and rising
unemployment
Clinton balances the budget
Personality
Humour and the “Beer factor”
played important roles in people
deciding who to support.
Nixon 1968 won 43.4% 1972 won 60.7%
Californian lawyer seen as strong anticommunist and moderate Republican, had
been vice President under Eisenhower.
New Economic Policy Used media
effectively.
Seen as the law and order candidate
against rebellious youth.
Watergate
Nixon’s plumbers break in to the Democratic
HQ and a cover up at the highest level is
started. The Oval Office tapes provide a
“smoking gun” and Nixon is forced to resign damaging the Republicans, is this why
Carter wins?
Vietnam
The Democratic party is tarnished
by the involvement in Vietnam LBJ cannot run in 1968, Humphrey
is seen as the Vietnam candidate.
Nixon promises new strategy, and
in 1972 “peace with honour”
Silent Majority
Appeals to law and order, generally
conservative - a response against the
counter culture of the 1960’s?
Sunbelt
Reagan
1980 won 50.7%, 1984 won 58.8%
Governor of California, - the great
communicator and ex TV Star
Reagonomics, wins Cold War
Defeated Equal Rights Amendment,
Iran -Contra scandal - “teflon president”
1980 won 51% of vote, 1984 won 59%
Morning in America - 1984
LA olympics
Population shifted to the Southern and Western
states - mainly wealthy, white collar people.
All presidents after JFK were governor of, or
from a Sunbelt state.
The South was targeted specifically by Nixon’s
Southern Strategy slowing desegregation and
Reagan’s calculated dismissal of Civil Rights
groups.
South also the centre of the Religious Right
New Right -Religious Right
Social and moral issues to the fore
with Porn / Feminism / Homosexual
rights and Abortion becoming
“wedge” issues.
Around 5 million people who vote
effectively as a power block. Moral
Majority
Weakness of Democrats
1968 Humphrey - Dump the Hump,
associated with 1968 Convention chaos,
and counter culture
1972 George McGovern - labelled as
offering “amnesty, abortion and acid”
1980 Jimmy Carter - Damaged by
economy
1984 Walter Mondale - said he would
raise taxes
1988 Michael Dukakis - seen as a flip
flopper, weak on law and order
Until Clinton there was no clear
Democratic front runner - lots of
infighting.
Society in the USA
Protest
Students for a Democratic Society SDS
This was the largest student movement from 1965-1969 and was focussed on taking
direct action to force the government to change policy as part of it’s “participatory
democracy” ideal.
It was part of the New Left movement and aimed for peace. SDS grew, and it’s tactics
became concentrated on resistance with the increase in the Draft for Vietnam in 1965.
They held teach-ins against the war (firstly at the University of Michigan) , and quickly
became the leading student group.
Sit-ins spread as did organised protest marches and student strikes. By 1967 SDS was
radical and calling for women’s liberation for the first time, as well as being infiltrated by
the FBI who believed SDS to be a potential danger to democracy.
SDS marched on the Pentagon and violence resulted, as it had in a number of student sitins. By 1968 SDS was calling for “Ten Days of Resistance” which culminated on April 26
with one million students staying away from classes however infighting and splits between
left factions, and more radical factions led to SDS fading from power by 1970.
The Weather Underground Organisation, or weathermen took their name from the Bob
Dylan lyric “You don’t need a weatherman to tell which way the wind blows”. They were a
radical New Left group which developed from Students for a Democratic Society and
wished for a white liberation force to fight alongside the Black revolution for the
destruction of imperialism and beginning of a communist state.
They started the “Days of Rage” in 1969 to “bring the war home” with a bombing of a
statue in Chicago and revolutionary marches in the city. The police stopped them. The
Days of Rage ended with the leadership of the Radical Youth Movement and Weathermen
in prison - needing bail of $243000.
During 1970 after the police killing of a Black Panther and the imprisonment of the
Panther 21 a number of petrol bombing campaigns and property destruction took place
and was claimed to be the Weather Underground Organisation. They also broke Timothy
Leary out of prison and transported him to Algeria.
The Draft
The draft meant that all men between the ages of 18 to 35 were eligible to serve in
Vietnam. Their draft cards were entered into a lottery with numbers being called up as
needed. Men burnt their draft cards. Over 100,000 fled the USA. 3.5 Million men served in
Vietnam, and 2.2 million of these were drafted.
Black Americans were disproportionately affected by the draft as many white men were
excluded on the grounds of being a student - more whites went to college.
"Rich man's war, poor man's fight"
Famous draft dodgers include Presidents Bill Clinton and George W Bush who avoided the
war by enlisting in the Texas National Guard
The Radicals
Radical Feminist organisations like RW Radical Women and SCUM appeared at this time.
Valerie Solanas called for the “gendercide” of men and later shot artist Andy Warhol - with
whom she had worked.
Social Issues
Social Issues took on huge importance in the time between 1968-2001. They dominated
politics and led to the existence of a new political pressure pushing America to the right.
The key social issues were all to do with sex - Abortion, Gay Rights, Women’s Rights and
the rise of Pornography.
The left wing pushed for individual freedoms while the right wing, in particular the
Religious right wanted a traditional society with restrictions on what they perceived as
“lifestyles.”
The country also saw a geographic shift from the political dominance of the Industrial
North East and the big cities - Chicago, New York, Boston, Washington DC, to the Sunbelt
- the region of the South and South West which saw a huge population increase with
much relocated industry.
Women
“Women made peanut butter, waited on table, cleaned up and got laid. That was their
role” SDS
Anti War Slogan - “Girls say yes to guys who say no.”
•The Feminine Mystique - Written by Betty Friedan, 1963
•“She provided an alphabet that women used to spell out their needs” S. Butler
•Advocated careers for women
•Friedan
was a founder of N.O.W. National Organisation of Women - Founded to take
action for Civil Rights for Women.
•1968 Miss World Protests - Pageant targeted by Feminists as “the degrading boobie girlie
symbol.” “Judge us not our appearance. They were also anti-war and provided a Bin for
Bras.
•The Pill Licensed for use early 1960’s - only to married women.Use spread during the late
60’s - age of consent lowered to 18 early 70‘sFree love
•Roe VS Wade
•Supreme
Court legalised abortion based on the case of “Jane Roe” - suing for right of
abortion for her pregnancy that was result of rape.
Case took 3 years. Supreme Court backed Roe 7 to 2 making abortion a fundamental right
under the constitution. Women were more free than they had been in 1950 but there were
still severe restrictions.
Huge Rise in Divorce 40%
2/3rd s of college students agreed that “the idea of a woman’s place in the home is
nonsense Women were paid 73% Salaries of Men 66% of poor were women
Carter’s Presidency
Considered female candidates for each post
Appointed more females to high posts than ever before including 2 women in cabinet
Opposed federal funding to abortion
Reagan’s Presidency
Did not campaign for ERA
For the first time under 50% of women were homemakers
Women earned 72% of male wages
Operation Rescue (1988) - blocked access to abortion clinics, bombing of clinics and
murder of Drs who practiced abortion.
Fed. funded Family Planning forbidden to discuss abortion
Bowen Vs Kendrick forbade funding to pro-choice
ERA defeated 1982
Bush’s Presidency
Webster VS Reproductive Services of Missouri - states could ban public abortion facilities.
Only 3 states used this
1992 Supreme Court reaffirms Roe Vs Wade
Clarence Thomas nominated for Supreme Court despite sexual harassment case.
Clinton’s Presidency
Clinton very much in favour of women (!)
Pro- Choice - undid Bush’s restrictions. Florida doctor shot.
Hillary!
The Rise of Pornography
1970s Porn theatres begin to appear in cities - newly liberal attitude
New technology - VCRs & Camcorders lead to porn entering the home environment massive growth in porn industry
Power of porn - format wars of 80s Betamax VS VHS - Adult industry went for VHS
1990s - campaigns for laws and regulations especially on college campuses.
1986 the case of a female bank employee who had been fondled and coerced into having
sex by a male supervisor. In Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the court ruled unanimously
that sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sexual discrimination, which was
prohibited by the 1964 Civil Rights Act
1971 Universities gave 5000 sports scholarships to men, 50 to women
1967 Sport “the female breasts and other organs can be injured seriously.”Less earning
capacity as less spectators Texas High School $250,000 for boys, $970 for girls.
1964 Civil Rights Act used to enforce equality 1972 Education Amendments Act gave equal
participation rights Still unequal! But Women’s soccer in US is better than in the UK.
1970s Equal Rights Amendment - This would be added to the Constitution agreeing Equal
Rights for women. Phyllis Schafely led opposition saying it would damage the protection
given to the role of wife and mother. The ERA failed as states would not ratify it.
So?
2001 - Much improved but there remained a “Glass ceiling” that prevented women from
reaching the top of their professions.
Roe Vs Wade still stands despite challenges
Equal Rights Amendment dead.
The Supreme Court
The Supreme Court was responsible for much of focus on social issues due to their court
decisions - for example Abortion is legal in the US due to a Supreme Court decision, not a
law being passed. Consequently the Supreme Court was a battleground for social issues
throughout this time period - and the most important place to effect social change.
The Supreme Court is divided into the periods of a Chief Justice - 1969-1986 Burger Court
(Warren E Burger) and 1986-2001 Rehnquist (William H Rehnquist)
1967 First African American Justice - Thurgood Marshall was appointed to the Court.
(Appointed by LB Johnson)
1991 Clarence Thomas succeeded Marshall and became the second African American
Justice (appointed by George HW Bush)
1981 Sandra Day O’Connor - first woman Justice (appointed by Reagan)
1993 Ruth Bader Ginsberg (appointed by Clinton)
There are 9 Justices - usually 4 conservative and 4 liberal with one “swinging” judge - this
was the case in the Burger court.
The Burger Court (1969–1986) ruled that
*abortion was a constitutional right (Roe v. Wade),
*reached controversial rulings on affirmative action (Regents of the University of
California v. Bakke)
* held that the implementation of the death penalty in many states was unconstitutional
(Furman v. Georgia), but that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v.
Georgia).
* 1974 United States Vs Nixon, voted 8-0 against Nixon’s attempt to keep Watergate
secret.
The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005)
*decriminalized homosexual sex (Lawrence v. Texas);
*altered the Roe v. Wade framework for assessing abortion regulations (Planned
Parenthood v. Casey);
Gay Rights
The Gay Rights movement began in New York City at the Stonewall bar in 1969. After
Police harassment and arrests the so-called Stonewall Riots began with groups of Gay,
Lesbian and transgender people organising themselves to resist discrimination. “Gay
Power” meetings were held in Greenwich village with
and slogans like “Gay is good’
started appearing for the first time. Pride parades commemorate these events annually.
San Francisco was a centre for gay rights, particularly in the Castro district in the late
1970s when Harvey Milk became the first openly gay publicly elected official in 1977. He
was assassinated. In 1980 the Democratic Party stated they were against discrimination.
By 1981 the slow growth of acceptance was halted by the appearance of a new disease AIDS, the so called gay plague due to it’s quick spread through the gay community.
Reagan cut federal funding for research into the disease. AIDS retained it’s stigma until
the 1990s when Magic Johnson, himself suffering from HIV, became an avid campaigner.
Clinton passed the Ryan White CARE act in 1990 federal funding the fight against AIDS.
Despite Gerry Studds becoming the first openly gay Congressman in 1983 Gay Rights took
a step back as Reagan allowed the Army to remove 17,000 Homosexual service personnel
saying being gay is inconsistent with military service. Pat Buchanan - A republican advisor
to Nixon, Ford and Reagan said of AIDS - "The poor homosexuals, they have declared war
upon nature, and now nature is extracting awful retribution."
In 1993 Clinton passed Don’t Ask Don’t Tell - a compromise on gays serving in the Military
that both angered the gay community and the army. However, he also signed the 1996
Defense of Marriage Act making marriage only legal between a man and a woman. Culture
played a large part in normalising Gay Rights, with Will and Grace - a sitcom with gay lead
characters, appearing in 1997, the year after Ellen came out in her own sitcom. Gay Rights
became increasingly normalised in society - by society itself, rather than through actions of
the Federal Government. The Supreme Court finally legalised homosexual sex in the
Lawrence Vs Texas decision of 2003!
The Religious Right
The Religious Right was a name given to a loose group of around 2 million Right wing
activists who entered the political arena after the Roe Vs Wade decision and what they
saw as the decreasing public morals of America. Due to their intense activism and
willingness to vote, speak and be well organised they have wielded a disproportionate
effect on the American political landscape with all Republican candidates having to gain
their support.
ANTI
Liberals
Crime
Abortion
Big Government
Pornography
Feminism
Communist
Women’s rights
Homosexuality
Democrat
Darwin
Sex Education
Stop the baby killers... these anti-life baby killers are already organising, working, raising
money to re-elect pro-abortionists like George McGovern. Abortion means killing a living
baby, a tiny human being with a beating heart and little fingers.
Example of RR mail shot
Jerry Falwell
Baptist leader of “Moral Majority.” Shows broadcast on 225 TV stations, 300 Radio stations
per week.
“We are going to single out those people in government against what we consider to be
the Bible moralist position.”
Registered 2 million voters in 1980, contributed millions to Reagan’s campaign.
Phyllis Schlafly - “Sweetheart of the Silent Majority”
Lawyer and Catholic mother of 6. Formed the Eagle Forum organising mail shots against
abortion and the ERA - she had 50,000 members.
Said the Equal Rights Amendment would lead to gay marriage and women in combat. Also
campaigned for women’s skirts to be two inches below the knee.
Race 1968-2001
Affirmative action
This was a program designed to increase African American’s access to economic and
educational opportunities "This is the next and more profound stage of the battle for civil
rights," Johnson asserted. "We seek… not just equality as a right and a theory, but
equality as a fact and as a result."
The program meant that places such as employers and universities had to ensure African
Americans had equal access to promotions, salaries, admissions etc. A backlash from
white conservatives began.
As historian Roger Wilkins pointed out, "blacks have a 375-year history on this
continent: 245 involving slavery, 100 involving legalized discrimination, and
only 30 involving anything else."
Black Middle Classes
By the 1980’s the Black Middles classes had grown - due in part to Affirmative Action.
In 1961, 13% of American blacks earned $10,000 or more a year; by 1971 30% were
making that amount, and 12% earned $15,000 or more.
Between 1967 and 1972 the number of blacks enrolled in college doubled to 727,000;
18% of all blacks aged 18 to 24 were attending college in 1972, compared with 26% of
whites.
Between 1960 and 1971 the number of blacks in professions—doctors, lawyers,
engineers, teachers, writers, entertainers —jumped by 128%,
The number of black managers, officials and proprietors almost doubled.
This emergent group were represented by show’s such as the Cosby Show following an
affluent family in which the parents were a doctor and a lawyer.
The Fresh Prince of Bel Air followed an young urban black man born and raised in
Philadelphia moving in with his uncle, a judge in Hollywood. Both shows also dealt with
the issue of middle class blacks “acting white” - represented by Carlton in the Fresh
Prince.
Role models such as Oprah Winfrey, the Chicago based entrepreneur and talk show host
who had the most watched show in America, and sports stars such as Tiger Woods and
Magic Johnson also greatly helped.
In 2001 Robert Johnson became the first African American billionaire due to his role as
CEO of Black Entertainment Television.
Pop Culture - How far was popular culture in opposition to US
values and society?
Does Hollywood complement or contradict US Society and Values? You must be able to
use at least 3 examples. For example is Star Wars the story of a small town farm boy who
takes on the might of a huge military with some friends and defeats it - using his gut
feelings? Or is Star Wars the tale of how the Blackest man in the galaxy was defeated by a
young white man? Indiana Jones - the tale of how one brave and clever American
archaeologist beats the Nazis?
Likewise how do TV shows represent and shape America? Did Will and Grace help smalltown America come to terms with gay rights? Why did the Friends live in a New York that
had so few Black people?
And in the words of George Bush Snr - should America have wished to be more like the
Waltons and less like the Simpsons?
Comic Books - Superman has fought Muhammad Ali, the KKK and wife beaters! The
Falcon was the first African American comic book character, he was followed by Black
Lightening and Power Man. Some comic characters have come out as gay such as
Northstar of the X-men and Batwoman is shown in Lesbian relationships.
Music - the sound of a generation? And does it agree with the prevailing culture? Below
are a selection of songs from the period along with some key lyrics.
Nina Simone - Young, Gifted and Black (1970) There are billion boys and girls
Who are young, gifted and black, And thats a fact!
John Lennon Give Peace a Chance (1969) Everybody's talking about Bagism, Shagism,
Dragism, Madism, Ragism, Tagism, This-ism, that-ism, ism ism ism / All we are saying is
give peace a chance
Pete Seeger - Where have all the flowers gone Where have all the young men gone? /
Gone for soldiers every one / When will they ever learn?
Joni Mitchell - Big Yellow Taxi (1970) Don't it always seem to go
That you don't know what you've gotTill its gone/They paved paradise/ And put up a
parking lot
Marvin Gaye - What’s Going on (1970) Picket lines and picket signs/ Don't punish me with
brutality/ Talk to me, so you can see/ Oh, what's going on
Mercy Mercy me (1972) Woo mercy, mercy me, /Ah things ain't what they used to be, no
no/ Oil wasted on the ocean and upon our seas, fish full of mercury
Inner City Blues (1972) Rockets, moon shots / Spend it on the have nots /Money, we
make it / Fore we see it you take it
Helen Redy - I am Woman (1972) Feminism I am woman, hear me roar / In numbers too
big to ignore /And I know too much to go back an' pretend
'cause I've heard it all before/ And I've been down there on the floor/ No one's ever gonna
keep me down again
Merle Haggard - Okie from Muskagee (1969) Protest against counter-culture We don't
smoke marijuana in Muskogee /We don't take no trips on LSD /We don't burn no draft
cards down on Main Street /We like livin' right, and bein' free.
Black Sabbath - War Pigs (1971) Politicians hide themselves away/ They only started the
war /Why should they go out to fight? /They leave that role to the poor
John Lennon - Imagine (1971) Imagine there's no countries /It isn't hard to do /Nothing
to kill or die for / And no religion too
Crosby, Stills and Nash - Ohio (1970) Protest against Kent State Shootings
Stevie Wonder - You haven’t done Nothin (1971) Addressed to Nixon. And we are sick and
tired of hearing your song /Telling how you are gonna change right from wrong
The Ramones - Bonzo goes to Bitburg (1985) About Reagan’s Visit to a German Cemetery
Bonzo goes to bitburg then goes out for a cup of tea/
As I watched it on TV somehow it really bothered me/ Drank in all the bars in town for an
extended foreign policy
Bruce Springsteen - Born in the USA (1984) I got in a little hometown jam /And so they
put a rifle in my hands /Sent me off to Vietnam /To go and kill the yellow man
Billy Joel - Allentown (1984) - protesting against lack of development in the Rust belt. Well
we're living here in Allentown /And they're closing all the factories down...They threw an
American flag in our face
Madonna - Material Girl (1984) Living in a material world/ And I am a material girl
Papa Don’t Preach (1986) Papa don't preach, I've been losing sleep / But I made up my
mind, I'm keeping my baby, oh
NWA - **** tha police (1988) **** tha police/ Comin straight from the underground /
Young nigga got it bad cuz I'm brown /And not the other color so police think /They have
the authority to kill a minority
Public Enemy - Fight the Power (1989) Our freedom of speech is freedom or death / We
got to fight the powers that be
Bon Jovi - Livin on a Prayer Tommy used to work on the docks /Unions been on strike/He’s
down on his luck...its tough, so tough
Prince Sign O’the Times (1987) At home there are seventeen-year-old boys/ And their
idea of fun/ Is being in a gang called the disciples /High on crack, totin a machine gun
Martika - Toy Soldiers - Drugs How could I be so blind to this addiction? / If I don't stop,
the next one's gonna be me
Rage Against the Machine - Killing in the name of (1991) Govt Oppression Killing in the
name of! /Some of those that work forces/ are the same that burn crosses
Nirvana Smells Like Teen Spirit (1992) With the lights out, it's less dangerous/ Here we are
now, entertain us /I feel stupid and contagious /Here we are now, entertain us
Timed Essay 35 mins
To what extent was popular culture oppositional throughout the years 1968–2001?
Indicative content
This invites a broad survey of US popular culture-music, film and television in the context
of and its relationship to broad political and sociological developments in these years.
✦The influence of the anti war protest movements of 1968-73 will doubtless figure
✦as will the influence of radical feminism and
✦radical black movements on pop culture.
✦At level 3 and above expect some real debate with music such as hip-hop and rap set
against mainstream and traditional genres like country and western, popular television
series like MASH and South Park. which might be said to subvert, set against Dallas,
celebrating wealth and Friends.
✦The Simpsons famously compared unfavorably with the Waltons might be used
to support both sides of the argument.
✦Films like Apocalypse Now, Midnight Cowboy, Easy Rider might be set against
blockbusters such as Star Wars, Indiana Jones Ghostbusters with their simple
celebration of ‘American values’ and good and evil in combat.
✦Comment might be made on the working class white back-lash to radicalism expressed
by Archie Bunker in ‘All in the Family’, initially intended like its British progenitor as a
liberal satire but taken up by its audience for different reasons. Race as shown by the
Fresh Prince of Bel Air and the Jeffersons
✦The mass rise of pornography both in magazines and videos might be
✦seen as significant and set against the feminist writings of the early 1970s in the
✦construction of the debate invited.
I need a dollar, dollar, dollar is what I need. - The US Economy
1970’s - stagflation (rising inflation and slowing economy)
Oil Crisis
Carter Crumbled?
1980’s Reagonomics
2 goals - reduce taxes to stimulate economy, cut federal spending.
Supply side economics ( breaks for businesses will bring money into government)
Was it “voodoo economics” - storing problems for later?
Boom time
New technology - Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak invent personal computers and start
Apple.
Bill Gates starts providing software for them, calling his company Microsoft.
The Space shuttle program leads to the development of infra red cameras and brain
tumour treatments!
Huge Government spending
Federal deficit soared as the Government embarked on huge spending program especially military budgets. Deregulation led to many hostile takeovers.
Greed is good
Uneven growth - the rich got richer....
1990s Recession under Bush
Reagan’s boom was at the cost of the economy in the years under Bush Sr. A savings and
Loan crisis under Reagan cost US taxpayers $152 Billion and this together with a
significant rise in unemployment forced Bush to raise taxes, despite his election pledge
“read my lips, no new taxes.”
Clinton’s balanced budget
Clinton won the 1992 Election with “it’s the economy stupid”
Clinton balanced the Federal Government’s budget and removed the deficit. In 1991 the
deficit was $290 billion annually. By 2000 there was a government surplus of $230 billion.
Boom
Unemployment had fallen to 4% and Clinton presided over the longest running cycle of
Business growth in US history. His agreement to NAFTA (North American Free Trade
Association) aided the boom.
Sample D7 Questions.
To what extent can Watergate and the subsequent resignation of Richard Nixon be
regarded as just a short term crisis with no lasting impact on the institution of the
Presidency?
Personalities, rather tan major social and political issues, explain the victories of Clinton.
How far do you agree with this assessment of the Elections of 1992 and 1996?
To what extent did race relations across the USA improve in the years 1968-2001?
To what extent did the rise of the New Right transform politics in the USA in the 1980s
and 1990s?
A high profile in sport and the media did more than anything else to improve the standing
of African Americans in the USA in the years 1968-2001. How far do you agree with this
judgement?
Personal scandal tarnished an otherwise successful presidency in domestic affairs. How far
do you agree with this judgement?
Exam Skills
Remember you have 35 minutes for each quesiton and will always have a choice between
questions.
Exam mark boundaries
A - 23/30
B - 20/30
C 18/30
D 16/30
E 14/30
ONLY 9 Marks separate an A from an E - make every mark count!
Use the 7 paragraph structure
1)Introduction - set out the terms of the question
2)3) Paragraphs explaining points that agree
4)5) Paragraphs explaining points that disagree
6)Paragraph on either agree or disagree
7)Conclusion - Get off the fence and chose a side! Make a judgement.
Quick tips *always make sure you use links - use the words of the question to make a judgement at
the end of each paragraph.
*Use a range of evidence - from the dates set out in the question, don’t go outside these!
*Answer the question - always include judgement
*Check your work - reading it through just once and adding corrections generally adds 2
marks.
*Knowledge of Chronology is essential
* Use paragraphs and good english
* Deal with all the terms in the question
Level 1:
Answers at this level will be very simplistic, irrelevant or vague.
Level 2:
Answers at this level might tell the story or part of the story without addressing the
question, or might list the key points without backing them up with specific examples.
Level 3:
At level 3 answers will attempt to focus on the question and have some strengths (some
paragraphs will have point, supporting evidence and linkage back to the question), but
answers will also have significant areas of weakness. For example, the focus on the
question may drift, the answer may lack specific examples or parts of the essay may
simply tell the story.
Level 4:
At level 4 answers will clearly attempt to tackle the question and demonstrate
a detailed knowledge of the period studied.
Level 5:
Answers that are judged to be level 5 will be thorough and detailed – they will
clearly engage with the specific question providing a balanced and carefully
reasoned argument that reaches a clear and supported judgment.
Full List of all previous Examination Questions.
AS Sample Paper
How far did race relations improve in the USA in the years 1968–2001?
Why in the 1980s did moral and religious issues gain such importance in US politics?
Jan 2009
Why was the Republican Party so successful in Presidential elections in the years 1968–
88?
How successfully did Ronald Reagan deal with the economic problems which faced the
USA in the early 1980s?
June 2009
How far do you agree that the Watergate scandal seriously undermined the power and
prestige of the presidency in the 1970s and 1980s?
To what extent did social issues increase the divisions between the Democratic and
Republican parties in the years 1968–2001?
January 2010
How far do you agree that the application of free market ideas was the main reason for
sustained economic growth in the USA in the years 1980–2001?
How accurate is it to say that the years 1968–2001 saw the development of greater
equality between different races in the United States?
June 2010
To what extent were changes in popular culture responsible for dividing rather than
uniting US society in the years 1968–2001?
Why was Clinton able to win the Presidential elections of 1992 and 1996?
Jan 2011
Why was Nixon elected by a landslide in 1972 but forced to resign in August 1974?
To what extent were sport and popular culture responsible for improving the status of
African Americans in the years 1968-2001?
June 2011
Why was Carter unsuccessful in his attempt to secure re-election in 1980?
How accurate is it to say that supporters of both feminism and gay rights made substantial
progress in achieving their aims in the years 1968-2001?
Best of luck!
JCE 2012
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