Material Snapshot TENCEL

Material Snapshot
TENCEL ®
Material Scenario
Undyed woven TENCEL®1 textile. TENCEL® is a regenerated cellulose fiber (similar to rayon2)
produced from dissolving wood pulp with an organic solvent using an air gap (also called dry-wet)
spinning process. The generic name for this fiber type is Lyocell. Its development in the 1980s was
partially motivated by concern over environmental impacts associated with rayon (Kadolph, 2007,
p. 137). TENCEL® is the branded version produced by Lenzing from plantation eucalyptus and other
trees. Unit processes begin with cultivation of trees which are processed into chips and pulped. This
pulp is dissolved and spun, washed, and dried. It is then drawn and woven or knit. Data is on global
production, with specific data on TENCEL® used where available.
Common Uses In Apparel And Footwear
TENCEL® may be used for knits, shirting, active wear, denim and other apparel applications (Lenzing,
n.d.(a)). Its properties are similar to that of cotton and it is valued for softness and breathability
(Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). TENCEL® is often blended with cotton, wool, polyester, and other fibers.
Alternative Textiles That May Be Substituted For Material
• Acetate • Acrylic • Cotton • Modal • Polyester • Rayon
Life Cycle Description
Functional Unit
1 kilogram of woven fabric
System Boundary
Cradle to undyed fabric. The data include all steps required to turn the raw material or initial stock
into woven fabric, including energy inputs but excluding transportation. Capital equipment, space
conditioning, support personnel requirements, and miscellaneous materials comprising <1% by weight
of net process inputs are excluded. Geographic coverage is a mix of locations depending on the data
source.
1 This Snapshot describes the life cycle of TENCEL®; generic lyocell may differ in some process aspects and in the data
for unit and aggregate processes.
2
In Europe, rayon is more commonly referred to as viscose.
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Allocation
System expansion for acetic acid in pulping; economic value for pulping by-products xylose, furfural,
and thick liquor (lignosulfonate) (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 13). A combination approach is used
for waste heat for incineration. A mass approach is used for sodium hydroxide production from
electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride.
Unit Process Descriptions
Material Sourcing
The basic raw material of TENCEL® is wood, typically from relatively fast growing species such
as eucalyptus (Fletcher, 2008, p. 30), pine, and beech (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 6). In the case
of TENCEL®, wood is sourced from plantations in multiple countries; some of which is certified to
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards and some to Programme for the Endorsement of Forest
Certification (PEFC) standards (Fletcher, 2008, p. 32; NRDC, 2012; Lenzing, 2012). Eucalyptus is
commonly used due to a maturity rate of 5-15 years (Clay, 2004, p. 308). Trees are grown on cultivated
plantations from seeds raised in large nurseries, often from cloning or vegetative propagation to
ensure genetic similarity (Clay, 2004, p. 313). Agricultural chemicals may be used in growing nursery
stock, but plantations that provide wood fiber for Lenzing’s TENCEL® fiber are managed without
synthetic pesticides or fertilizers (NRDC, 2012). Once trees are mature, they may be clear cut or
selectively harvested, though species such as eucalyptus will regenerate for two to three cycles after
harvest without replanting (Clay, 2004, p. 313).
Due to the mass of the harvest, pulping mills are often located nearby. Once harvested, the wood
is mechanically debarked in field or at the mill. Bark may be used for fuel, mulch or returned to the
soil. Debarked wood is fed into chipping machines and then processed in a digester usually using
the acid sulfite process (bisulfite) to remove the lignin, resins, and most of the hemicellulose that
binds the cellulose fiber; the kraft process (sodium sulfate and sodium hydroxide) typically does
not reduce hemicellulose to desired levels (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 8; Clay, 2004, p. 316; USEPA,
1995, Chapter 10, Flickinger et al., 2011). The resulting dissolving pulp is greater than 90% cellulose
(specialty grades can be as high as 96%) and can be used for textiles, cellophane, tire cords, acetate
production and other applications (Sappi, 2014, p. 2). The pulp is then shipped to customers for use as
an input material in the fiber production facility. Lenzing sources pulp for its TENCEL® products either
from market pulp in long-term contracts with selected suppliers or from its own pulp mills in Austria
and the Czech Republic (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 6; Lenzing, 2015a). Beech wood is transported via
rail or truck to Lenzing’s pulping facility in Austria; spruce wood is supplied to the pulp factory in the
Czech Republic. Market pulp is mainly eucalyptus sourced from the southern hemisphere which is
transported to fiber production sites via transoceanic ship to fiber manufacturing in Asia and Europe
(Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7).
TENCEL® production utilizes co-products from the wood as fuel for pulp production (Lenzing, 2010, p.
30). Annual production capacities at Lenzing’s four sites are: 65,000 tons at Heiligenkreuz, Austria,
67,000 tons at Lenzing, Austria, 50,000 tons at Mobile, AL, USA and 40,000 tons at Grimsby, UK
(Lenzing, 2015b, pp. 10-11).
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Processing Pulp Into Fiber
The wood pulp is wetted out with a dilute amine oxide solvent (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137), typically NMMO
(N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide), followed by evaporation of excess water to create a viscous cellulose
dope for spinning (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 9; Woodings, 2001, p. 65). The dope solution is filtered
to remove remaining intact pulp fiber and any inorganic compounds (sand, etc.). It is then extruded
through multiple spinneret jets into an air gap where the fibers are drawn to condition the fibers and
cooled by a controlled gas flow before being sent through a dilute amine oxide spin bath where the
solution coagulates (regenerates) into fiber. All the fibers from the spinneret (which may number in
the thousands) are gathered into a single tow and washed in water to remove the solvent; the wash
water is purified, and then reused in the spin bath system to maintain liquor concentrations (Kadolph,
2007, p. 137, Woodings, 2001, pp. 68-69). An estimated 99.5% of the solvent is recovered and recycled
within the process (Fletcher, 2008, p. 30). Temperatures must be carefully controlled to prevent
exothermic degradation of NNMO (color changes and degradation products that include N-methyl
morpholine plus other amines). Specially designed ion exchange systems and thin film evaporators
are used in solvent recovery; recovered solvents contain a stabilizer such as propyl gallate to chelate
copper and iron that would catalyse the degradation under elevated temperatures (Woodings, 2001, p.
72).
Washed filaments receive softening and antistatic treatments and can be bleached as well. Following
drying, the filaments are crimped and may then be cut into staple form for shipment to yarn mills
(Woodings, 2001, pp. 69-70). In staple form, TENCEL® is spun into yarn similar to cotton to produce
yarns of various properties. As filament yarn, TENCEL® is smooth and uniform and relatively little twist
may be imparted to improve the lustre of the fabric (Kadolph, 2007, p. 214).
Textile Construction
TENCEL® fibers have a relatively high tendency to fibrillate when wet; they peel into individual hairlike fibrils. Depending on the intended use, the fibrils may be enhanced to produce a particular
aesthetic in the final textile or controlled to produce a smooth surface. Lenzing offers two crosslinked fiber types (TENCEL® A 100 and TENCEL® LF) that limit fibrillation; non cross-linked fibers may
be mechanically polished to reduce fibrillation through a tumbling process and a resin finish after
reactive dyeing (Lenzing, 2010, p. 22). This cross-linked resin utilizes Reaktant DH, made of dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea (Blackburn, 2006, p. 114). TENCEL® requires very little processing to
prepare for weaving/knitting and finishing, as it has no contaminations and does not require bleaching
(Lenzing, 2010, p. 43). Dye uptake is high, reducing inputs into the dyeing process (Taylor, 2011).
Woven textiles are produced on looms that combine warp yarns with filling yarns to produce a stable
fabric. The type of loom used in the weaving process determines the environmental impacts: waterjet looms have high water usage, though it is reclaimed, but the fabric must be dried before storage,
increasing energy consumption (Kadolph, 2007, p. 221). Projectile looms are low energy, accounting
for half as much energy as rapier looms, and a third as much as air-jet looms (Kadolph, 2007, p. 221).
Knitting is done by machines that loop yarns together to create a more flexible textile. Knitting
requires significantly less energy than weaving, with a 20 fold decrease in energy demand (van der
Velden, 2013, p. 347). Vibration, lint, noise and energy are all lower on knitting machines than for
weaving looms (Kadolph, 2007, p. 270).
End-of-use
TENCEL® is 100% bio-based. Biodegradability and compostability, under industrial as well as home
compost conditions, are proven by standard procedures (Lenzing, 2015c).
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Figure 1: Cross Section Of Lenzing TENCEL® Fibers
Source: Lenzing, 2010, p. 16
Process Inputs3
Energy
Harvesting of European beech is done entirely by machine, which requires energy to
operate (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). Ecualyptus for producing market pulp is mostly
harvested by hand (80%) with the remainder harvested by machine. Machinery is
estimated to require 0.3-3.6 kg diesel/ha for harvesting (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 35).
Production of TENCEL® staple fiber requires an estimated 101 MJ/kg of energy use (Shen
and Patel, 2010, p. 19).
The energy requirements for spinning of staple fiber into a yarn is highly dependent on the
yarn fineness (van der Velden, 2013), and on the region where the operation takes place,
due to the efficiency of the electric grids. A typical 200 dtex (Nm50) yarn requires 19.4 MJ/
kg under Western European conditions (Austria). (Appendix Table A, Terinte et al. 2014).
Weaving energy is as well dependent on the fineness of the yarn and ranges between 229
MJ/kg textile for 70 dtex yarn to 53 MJ/kg textile for 300 dtex yarn (270 denier); (van der
Velden, 2013, p. 350). Cradle to gate energy for a typical unfinished woven textile based
on a 200 dtex yarn is estimated to be 196 MJ/kg (Appendix Table A).
3 The primary data source (Shen and Patel, 2010) uses 1 kg of staple fiber as the functional unit. Data are for TENCEL®
Austria.
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Figure 2: Cumulative Energy Demand - NREU (Non-renewable energy use) & REU (Renewable
energy use)
Note: Gigajoules per metric ton (GJ/t) equal megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). TENCEL®, Austria
represents the current average situation of energy requirements.
Water
Neither European beech or spruce trees nor southern hemisphere eucalyptus trees use
irrigation for cultivation (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). However, the process of pulp wood
can be a water intensive activity (NRDC, 2012, n.p). Process water in the form of softened,
deionized water or tap water accounts for 20 L/kg TENCEL® staple fiber production (Shen
and Patel, 2010, p. 23).4
Water use is very limited in yarn spinning and weaving. Estimated water use in spinning is
0.4 L/kg yarn; weaving is 1.7 L /kg textile. Total water use from cradle to gate unfinished
woven textile is estimated to be 265 L/kg, most of which is cooling water (Appendix Table
B).
Chemical
The European beech and spruce trees used to produce TENCEL® are not fertilised and have
no chemical inputs, however market pulp from eucalyptus may utilize small amounts of
nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7). Fertilizer use is 42 kg/ha/yr
(Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 35). Caustic soda (NaOH) and sulfur dioxide are used to produce
pulp (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 15).
NMMO (N-methyl morpholine oxide) is used as the solvent for turning wood pulp into
spinning dope. Other chemicals include the use of softeners and antistatic agents. Propyl
gallate is used as a stabilizer with NMMO to minimize degradation in solvent recovery.
4
Cooling water is 243 L/kg TENCEL® staple fiber, primarily for energy production (Lenzing, 2010, p. 23).
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Physical
Physical inputs for production of TENCEL® are the seeds used to cultivate and grow the
eucalyptus and spruce trees (beech regenerate naturally), and chemicals used in the
processing of wood pulp to fiber (Shen and Patel, 2010, pp. 6-8).
Land-use Intensity
Production of TENCEL® requires pulp from trees, typically grown as plantations. Land
intensity for TENCEL® is estimated to be 4,167 kg TENCEL®/ha (Appendix Table C).
Eucalyptus trees grow quickly in dense stands on low-grade land, requiring significantly
less land per tonne than cotton (NRDC, 2012, n.p.). Tree plantations for pulp can be
established on nearly any type of land, including exhausted cropland or degraded and
heavily logged areas (Clay, 2004, p. 313). The trees used for TENCEL® are grown on
marginal land that would not otherwise be used to produce food crops (Smith, 2008, p. 11).
The plantations used for eucalyptus as well as the beech and spruce forests maintained
for production of TENCEL® have been managed since before 1990 and are not considered
conversion of wildlands (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 7; von Carlowitz, 1713/ 2013). Beech
and spruce forests in Central Europe have been managed sustainably for centuries (von
Carlowitz, 1713/ 2013).
Process Outputs
Co-products & By-products
Wood grown for processing into pulp creates a co-product of bark, which has no economic
value but may be used to amend the soil or as a fuel (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 5; Clay,
2004, p. 316). Lenzing’s pulping process produces 39% pulp, 11% acetic acid, furfural and
xylose, and 50% thick liquor and bio-sludge (Lenzing, 2012, p. 43). This liquor and sludge
is used for recovery of pulping chemicals and combusted for energy production (Shen
and Patel, 2010, p. 8). The acetic acid, furfural and xylose are all co-products that have
various uses; acetic acid and xylose as food ingredients and furfural as a basic chemical for
synthesis (e.g. in plastics production).
Market pulp processes for TENCEL® generate a smaller quantity of by-products than
Lenzing pulp and do not yield xylose, furfural and acetic acid (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 8).
Solid Waste
The Shen and Patel (2010) LCA did not contain any explicit information on solid waste
generation; no other source of solid waste LCA information was identified for regenerated
cellulose fibers. Lenzing estimates that solid waste from yarn spinning and weaving is less
than 5%.5
Hazardous Waste/Toxicity
Furfural has evidence of carcinogenic activity and may be toxic (Irwin, 1990, p. 43).
NMMO, the solvent for turning wood pulp into spinning dope, is in concentrated form
(100% monohydrate) classified as a flammable solid and may intensify fire. (Huntsman,
2015, p.2). The traded form of a 50% solution in water is not classified as dangerous
according to Directive 1999/45/EC and its amendments. (Huntsman, 2015, p.1).
Propyl gallate is used as an antioxidant and is as such listed as a cosmetic ingredient
(European Commission, 2006, p. 403).
5
Lenzing communication from K. Christian Schuster, August 20, 2015
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Wastewater
Pulp processing mills are known to produce effluent that is highly polluting, containing low
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), though most mills now treat their wastewater (Clay,
2004, p. 323). Lenzing’s pulp mills and TENCEL® production plants have reduced their
wastewater effluent to very low levels (Lenzing, 2010, p. 31).
Efficient dye processes for TENCEL® result in higher uptake of color and reduced unfixed
dye in wastewater (Taylor, 2011).
Emissions
The majority of Lenzing group’s energy usage comes from non-fossil fuels, with a
companywide average of 52% and a site specific sourcing of 83% non-fossil fuels, reducing
their carbon emissions (Lenzing, 2015b, p. 39).
Approximately 1.1 kg CO2eq/kg TENCEL® staple fiber are emitted, after subtraction of
biogenic carbon embedded in the fibers (Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 24). These fossil
emissions are due to the burning of natural gas for process heat (Shen and Patel, 2010, p.
25).
Emissions caused by spinning of staple fiber into a yarn are due to electric power use and
as such highly dependent on yarn fineness and the regional electric grid. A representative
yarn spinning process to make a 200 dtex (Nm 50) yarn is estimated to generate 0.8 kg
CO2 eq/kg (Appendix Table A). Weaving emissions are also dependent on the fineness
of the yarn and range between 10.7 kg CO2 eq/kg textile for 70 dtex yarn to 2.5 kg CO2
eq/kg textile for 300 dtex yarn (270 denier); 3.5 kg CO2 eq/kg textile are emitted for a
woven fabric based on 200 dtex (180 denier) yarn (van der Velden, 2013, p. 351). Cradle
to gate GHG emissions for an typical unfinished woven textile (based on 200 dtex yarn) is
estimated to be 5.4 kg CO2 eq/kg (Appendix Table A).
Other emissions associated with TENCEL® production include VOCs and ozone depleting
compounds from energy production and sulfur dioxide from pulp production and energy
production (Shen and Patel, 2010, pp. 26-28).
Table 1. Inputs And Outputs For 1 Kg Of TENCEL®
Cradle to Gate Unfinished
Woven Textile
Energy (MJ)
196
Water (L)
265
Waste (kg)
< 0.05
GHG emissions (kg CO2)
5.4
Note: See Appendix Tables A-C for sources and calculations
Performance And Processing
Functional Attributes And Performance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Typically stronger than cotton
Durable
Very soft
Very breathable
Non-irritating on skin
Reduced bacterial growth
Strong dimensional stability
Rapid and deep dyeing
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Table 3. Mechanical Attributes Of TENCEL®
Melting Temp (oC)
N/A (Cellulose does not melt)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Dry 37
Wet 30
i
Tensile Strain (%) ii
14 - 16
Tensile Strength (kg/cm²)
Not available
Young’s Modulus (kg/cm²)
Water Retention (%)
ii
10
60 - 70
i
Natural moisture content at 65% r.H (%)
11
Intrinsic Viscosity (dL/g)
Not available
Breaking Stress (kg/cm²)
Degree of polymerization
Not available
i
Breaking Strength (MPa)
850
Not available
References
i Lenzing, 2010, p. 6
ii Kadolph, 2007, p. 134
Mechanical Attributes
The fibers are round with a smooth longitudinal appearance and unlike rayon will not collapse on
itself (Kadolph, 2007, p. 137). It can be produced in a variety of deniers and lengths, and yarns may be
produced for staple fibers and tow in ranges from 1 to 15 denier per filament. It may be mechanically
crimped or textured for use in blends and other products. TENCEL® is 100% cellulose and has a
longer polymer chain than rayon, but shorter than that of cotton (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). Similar to all
cellulosic fibers, TENCEL® tends to swell in water (Lenzing, 2010, p. 14).
Processing Characteristics
As it is a manufactured fiber, the characteristics such as lustre, length, and diameter of TENCEL®
may be altered depending on purpose (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138). It may be blended with any natural
or synthetic fiber to produce a variety of textiles, and can be finished in many processes depending
on desired effect. TENCEL® performs similarly to cotton and is the strongest of cellulosic fibers,
with exceptional strength when wet. Good durability and soft hand make TENCEL® long lasting and
attractive for apparel applications (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138).
TENCEL® tends to split lengthwise when wet and abraded and form tiny fibres, called microfibrils, on
its surface (Goswami, 2004, p. 70). This can produce pilling and a fuzzy texture that is undesirable on
smooth fabrics (Kadolph, 2007, p. 138), but can be ideal for producing a peached affect (Goswami,
2004, p. 70). Enzymatic treatments to remove fibrils before weaving or knitting have been developed
to reduce fibrillation before home washing (Fletcher, 2008, p. 32). TENCEL® A100 and TENCEL® LF are
cross-linked TENCEL® types that exhibit significantly less fibrillation (Kadolph, 2007, p. 139; Lenzing,
2010). This is achieved by using a crosslinking agent that blocks disruption of the hydrogen bonding
that causes splitting (Lenzing, 2010, p. 23).
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Aesthetics
A very soft fiber, TENCEL® is also known for having an attractive drape, fluidity, and wrinkle resistance
(Goswami, 2004, p. 70). It is highly dyeable and can be produced in vibrant colors. It can be used
as 100% TENCEL® textile, or blended with cotton to produce a stronger textile, wool for a higher
absorbent textile, rayon for better stability than 100% rayon, or with polyester or polyamide for
functional sportswear (Goswami, 2004, p. 71, Schuster, 2006).
TENCEL® does not attract static and has high absorbency, but has poor thermal retention (Kadolph,
2007, p. 138). Apparel, sportswear and home textile applications made with TENCEL® exhibit excellent
comfort properties (Schuster, 2006). TENCEL® is moderately resilient, and can wrinkle. However, it
maintains dimensional stability well, and has superior elastic recovery to rayon and acetate. It may
shrink when washed (Kadolph, 2007, p. 139). Due to its sensitivity to abrasion, it is recommended to
dry clean or wash on a gentle cycle.
Potential Social And Ethical Concerns
Pulp produced from eucalyptus trees raises possible risks from monoculture plantations that may have
potential impacts on biodiversity and deforestation of natural habitat, as well as cause soil erosion
and nutrient loss (Clay, 2004, p. 320). These are often located in developing tropical countries due
to low costs of land, laxity of environmental regulations, and ideal growth conditions (Clay, 2004, p.
312). Monoculture plantations face higher risks from disease and pests and may require chemical
control (Clay, 2004, p. 315). Plantations may reduce harvest pressure on natural forests and land-use
intensity. There are also concerns over displacement of people, and impacts on local populations from
pesticide application (Clay, 2004, p. 324). Risks associated with pulp used by Lenzing are minimized
by sourcing forest products that are 100% certified or controlled according to FSC and PEFC standards.
Dry cleaning is sometimes recommended, which is associated with toxic and polluting solvents.
Availability Of Material
TENCEL® is widely available in Europe, the U.S. and Asia. The TENCEL® brand is owned by Lenzing
and licensed to manufacturers that meet their requirements, when a chain of custody can be assured
(Lenzing, 2015d).
Availability Of Certified Materials
Wood sources that are used in pulp destined for TENCEL® production are available with certificates
from the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC), Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI), and the Programme for
the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC); certification to these standards are done by a variety
of entities. TENCEL® fiber is available with FSC or PEFC certification. All TENCEL® fiber is certified to
Oeko-Tex Standard 100 to be free of harmful substances, and has received the European Eco-Label
(Lenzing, 2012 , p. 53).
Questions To Ask When Sourcing This Material
Q: What type of wood was sourced for this fiber?
Q: Are the forests used to produce this fiber certified by FSC or PEFC?
Q: Is this TENCEL® or generic lyocell?
Q: What factory and country was this produced in?
Q: Is this TENCEL® protected against defibrillation or are processsing routes or end products suitable
for fibrillating fiber?
Q: What treatments and dyes were used on this fabric?
Q: Is this blended with any other types of fibers?
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Figure 1. System Diagram Of TENCEL®
Trees
Water
Water
Chemicals
Dissolving Pulp
Water
Chemicals
Dissolving In NMMO
Solvent
Recovery
Energy
Water
Recovery
Water
Water
Chemicals
Wastewater
Spinning
Washing
Softening & Other
Treatments
Greenhouse
Gas Emissions
Fuel-related
Emissions
Wastewater
Drying, Crimping,
Cutting Into Staple
Yarn Spinning
Weaving
1 kg Unfinished Textile
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Appendix
Calculated Data
Table A. Energy And GHG Emissions
TENCEL® Austria Staple Fiber
NREU
MJ
REU
MJ
Total
kg CO²eq/kg Source
Cradle to gate staple fiber
42
59.0
101.0
1.1
Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 19
TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex)
19.4
0.8
Terinte, , 2014
Weaving (200 dtex)
75.8
3.5
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Cradle to gate undyed textile total
196.2
5.4
Calculation
Table B. Water
TENCEL® Austria Staple Fiber
Units
Process
Cooling
Total
Quantity
Source
Cradle to gate staple fiber
L/kg
20.0
243.0
263.0
Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 19
Electricity production water use factor
L/MJ
0.0
Plastics Europe, 2005, p. 7
TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex) energy
MJ/kg
19.4
Terinte, 2014
TENCEL® yarn spinning (200 dtex) water
L/kg
0.4
Calculation
Weaving (200 dtex) energy
MJ/kg
75.8
van der Velden, 2014, p. 351
Weaving (200 dtex) water
L/kg
1.7
Calculation
Cradle to gate undyed textile total water
L/kg
265
Calculation
Table C. Land Use
Units
Quantity
Source
ha/a/t fibre
0.24
Shen and Patel, 2010, p. 22
t fiber/a/ha
4.17
Calculation
kg fiber/a/ha
4,167
Calculation
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