PERANCANGAN ARSITEKTUR DAN SEJARAH ARSITEKTUR

Masa Arsitektur Modern
(The Modern Age)
 Modernisme dalam Arsitektur
(Modern Movement in Architecture)
 Gaya Arsitektur dan Tokoh
Sumber:
Lucy Peel (et.al), An Introduction to 20th – Century Architecture,
Chartwell Books. Inc., New Jersey, 1989
Eppi P. Suriawidjaja (dkk.), Persepsi Bentuk dan Konsep Arsitektur,
Penerbit Djambatan, Jakarta, 1986
LATAR
BUDAYA
Revolusi Industri mulai di Inggris, abad XVIII
James Watt menemukan mesin uap yang lebih baik: 1764,1769, 1782 dan
seperangkat gerigi mesin untuk gerak memutar: 1781
Adam Smith menulis The Wealth of Nations: 1776
Imanuel Kant
Coulomb menemukan hukum elektrostatik
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier menemukan pokok dasar kimia: 1789
Volta menemukan baterei listrik: 1800-an
Jalan Kereta Api menjadi penting: 1830-an
Michael Faraday dengan hukum tentang elektromagnetik: 1831
Telegraf: 1830-an
Daguerre menemukan fotografi
Linoir menemukan motor pembakaran 2 langkah: 1850-an
Gatling menemukan senapan mesin
James Clerk Maxwell menemukan teori tentang cahaya: 1860-an
Louis Pasteur menemukan penyuntikan pencegah penyakit: 1870-an
Nikolaus August Otto menemukan motor pembakaran 4 langkah: 1870-an
Thomas Edison menemukan lampu listrik: 1879
Mobil mulai dijual komersial: 1890-an
Guglielmo Marconi menemukan radio: 1900
Orville Wright – Wilbur Wright menemukan pesawat terbang: 1903
1900 – 1918
Sejak peralihan menuju abad XX ada
dorongan untuk terbentuknya gaya modern:
•
•
•
•
Industrialisasi
Populasi di perkotaan
Reformasi politik dan sosial
Ketersediaan bahan dan teknologi
Awal abad XX ada perubahan dlm
berarsitektur:
• Memutuskan dengan historisism dan
penyederhanaan arsitektur vernakuler oleh Britain’s
Art dan Crafts Movement
• Memasuki skala internasional karena didukung
teknologi komunikasi; contoh pada Art Nouveau
• Bentang lebar misalnya pada hangar pesawat udara
di Orly (1916)
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau was an international reaction against the
backward-looking historicism that had passed for 19th-century
architecture. Inspired by the imagery of organic structures like
plant-forms and marine life.
Art Nouveau was characterized by sinuous, curving, lines that
appeared in various undulating and interlaced patterns. It was
a style that was readily adopted in many branches of design
including textiles, glassware and jewelry.
To its supporters, art nouveau represented a daring challenge
to the architecture establishment's sterile practice of endlessly
reviving Renaissance and Classical styles.
To its detractors, art nouveau seldom overcame the charge of
being mere surface decoration, and was unworthy of the
status of a truly architectural movement.
In Germany and Scandinavia, art nouveau became known as
'Jugendstil' (gaya muda)
Maison et Atelier Horta, Brussels, Victor Horta, 1898-1900.
Horta built himself a house and studio adjacent to each other. Of the
two, the house has the more remarkable exterior, with its elaborate
ironwork balconies. Inside the studio, Horta demonstrated his ability at
staircases with a typically elegant but fragile banister rail
Castel Beranger, Paris, Hector Guimard,
1895-8.
Guimard readily adopted the whiplash line
pioneered by Horta, and in this Paris
apartement block he used cast plaster as
well as iron for decoration
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
His genius sprang not just from his ability to design buildings
that were pleasing to the eye and to the environment, nor
from his ability to create an interesting interior ground plan,
but predominantly from his intuitive skill in combining all these
elements into organically unified buildings.
Falsafahnya tentang arsitektur menjelaskan bahwa setiap
permasalahan arsitektur pemecahanannya selalu
berhubungan dengan alam atau lingkungan.
Makna bangunan secara obyektif harus terlihat nyata,
sehingga dalam seni membangun tidak hanya mementingkan
efisiensi saja, tetapi juga ketenangan, keselarasan,
kebijaksanaan, kekuatan bangunan dan kegunaannya sesuai
dengan tujuan.
Gaya arsitekturnya dinamakan organik; estetika dan
konstruksi sama pentingnya, lahir dan tumbuh dari situasi
yang alamiah.
Rumah Willits, Highland Park, Chicago, FL Wright,l 1902
Menjadi teladan dan acuan arsitektur perumahan secara meluas.
Rasional tetapi masih romantis.
Wright dianggap sebagai "pujangga terakhir” dari jaman Revolusi
Industri tahap pertama
Solomon R Guggenheim Museum,
New York, FL Wright, 1943-59.
The façade of this building
emphasizes the spiral ramp of the
gallery within. The midly irritating
fact that one foot is always lower
than the other when viewing a
picture is negligible beside the
sheer drama of the interior space
Kaufmann house, Bear Run
Pennsylvania, FL Wright, 1935-39.
Known as Falling Water, this house
successfully combined a sensivity
to the landscape with an interest in
abstract forms. Vertical sections are
made from stone whereas
horizontal elements are constructed
out of reinforced concrete
Price Tower, Bartlesville,
Oklahoma, FL Wright,
1955.
Tampak bahwa selera
romantisnya belum
serba sudut 900
Interior of Unitry Church, Oak Park
Chicago, FL Wright, 1906.
Wright designed the interiors,
including furniture and light fittings,
for many of his buildings. The
'graphic' quality of this interior is
heightend by the decorative lines
1918 – 1945
Bangunan-bangunan pasca PD I:
• Pabrik dan bangunan komersial untuk
menghidupkan perekonomian
• Bangunan komersial dengan gaya Art Deco dan Art
Moderne untuk perbaikan tampak
• Rumah-rumah untuk pasukan perang dan rakyat
dalam skala massal
• Bangunan pencakar langit di pusat kota seperti di
Chicago dan New York
• Merebaknya bangunan di pinggiran kota di AS dan
Inggris ditunjang kemajuan sarana transportasi
terutama KA
Masih 1918 – 1945 …
Formalisasi Modern Movement:
• Arsitek secara sendiri atau berkelompok menyajikan
penafsiran gaya bangunan untuk masa depan
(Cubist, Seni Abstract, Machine Aesthetic, spatial
relationship). Muncul Gaya Internasional sebagai
dasar format awal tentang Modernism.
• Di Eksibisi Weissenhof (1927) banyak arsitek
mengungkapkan persamaan pendekatan dan
makna terhadap arsitektur.
• Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne
(CIAM) diselenggarakan oleh Hélène de Mandrot, Le
Corbusier, Giedion Sigfried: “ini kesempatan
menderivasikan arsitektur”, meskipun organisasi ini
awalnya memberi perhatian pada perencanaan kota
dan ‘habitasi’
Materi Kuliah: 24 September 2007
EXPRESSIONISM
EXPRESSIONISM IN ARCHITECTURE Characterized by
the free use of abstract form, which is considered to take
precedence over considerations of function or historical
precedent. By the early 1920s, though, Expressionism
came to seem escapist, and it was quickly superseded by
the Neue Sachlichkeit – or New Objectivity.
Antoni Gaudi was the pioneer by the two apartment blocks,
the Casa Batló (1907) and the Casa Milá (1910) – he created
an organic quality of undulating masonry that was closely
linked to the Art Nouveau style. In 1921, Erich Mendelson built
an observatory and astrophysical laboratory at Postdam,
named in honour of Albert Einstein.
Mendelson saw 'Einstein House' as a chance to realize his
ideas about the sculptural qualities of concrete, but he was
forced to resort to plastered brickwork in some parts of its
construction.
Chilehaus, Hamburg, Fritz Hoger, 1923
Although a minnow by American standards, the 10
storey Chilehaus was one of the first substantial
office buildings to be
constructed in the centre of a European town
Theatre Project, Walter Gropius, 1926.
was desihgned in response to the idea that Theatre itself was
a political, and therefore participatory, act. Gropius attempted
to meet this demand by technical means as well as aesthetic;
the theatre had an inbuilt flexibilty that allowed three acting
areas as well as film projection on the ceiling and walls to
give the audience the illusion of total involvement.
Einstein House, Postdam, Erich
Mendelson, 1919 - 21.
The plastic quality of the finished
Einstein House can be seen in
Mendelsohn's highly stylized sketch
To symbolizein architectural terms Einstein's Theory and to be the
workshop in which the theory practically. The building was originally
conceived - plastic quality – as a completely reinforced concrete structure.
Unfortunately, it was completed in brick and rendered to simulate that
effect. Einstein described the building as 'organic'.
DE STIJL
DE STIJL Magazine, 1917, espousing abstraction and the
unity of the arts, as well as the artists, designers and
architects supporting its philosophy, the latter group forming a
bridge between pre-WW I Expressionists and 1920s
Modernists.
The name comprised a like-minded group of confident
painters, sculptors, architects who loosely believed in the
application of geometric abstraction and maybe pure color
and form. Architects: Piet Mondrian, JJP Oud, Theo van
Doesburg, and Gerrit Rietveld.
Housing scheme, Hook of Holland, JJP Oud, 1924-27
This scheme comprised two terraces of cheap housing with shops
at the end of each block. The apparent simplicity of the houses with
their white-painted rendered facades and horizontal bands of
windows looks forward to the full-blown International Style
The Schroeder house, Utrecht, Gerrit Rietveld, 1923-24
Rietveld used a lightweight steel frame for this house so
that the walls were no longer load bearing. This meant that
internal walls could be positioned where desired rather
than where necessary. Panels of reinforced concrete were
used to create balconies and overhangs
The Town Hall, Hilversum, Willemm Dudok, 1930
Dudok was an individualist who pursued a middle-of-the-road line between
the romantic ideas of Amsterdam and the rational notions of De Stijl. His
aesthetic ideas were based on the use of plain surfaces of brickwork built
up into cubic masses relieved by the occasional window opening
BAUHAUS
BAUHAUS German design school with arts & crafts,
reorganized in 1919 under Walter Gropius; the word has
come to epitomize the design philosophy of the 1925-32
period of the Dessau Bauhaus.
'Bauhaus' connotes austere Functionalism, the use of
industrial materials, concrete, glass and stainless steel, the
absence of ornament and, typically, flat roofs. Architects:
Walter Gropius, etc.
The Bauhaus, Dessau, Walter Gropius, 1919
The main entrance has the glazed workshop block on its right. The
diagram show the competent grouping of the irregular blocks
Here the curtain-walls is at last fully developed, and forms a
transparent screen, completely exposing the structure within
Fagus Works, Alfeldan-der-Leine, Walter Gropius, 1911
One of the first truly modern building, it was essentially a
cubic block incorporating glass curtain-walling that extended
around the corners with no need for additional support
Siemensstadt Housing, Berlin, Walter Gropius, 1929-30.
The third in a series of housing projects Gropius undertook after leaving
the Bauhaus. Siemensstadt was a development of low-cost flats fitted with
modern conveniences, constructed with the techniques of prefabrication
Gropius had pioneered at Dessau
CONSTRUCTIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVISM Russian art movement which emerged
after the 1917 revolution. For inspiration, Constructivist looked
to industrial methods and materials, and where interested in
the dynamic, often abstract, aspects of composition and
design.
Architects: Konstantin Melnikov, Kasimir Malevich, Vladimir
Tatlin, El Lissitzky.
Rusakov Workers' Club, Moscow, Konstantin Melnikov, 1927-8
The giant projection which overhang the facade of this building
contain the uppermost seats of the auditorium.
The arrangement of sculptural volumes reflects an interest in
contemporary Constructivist abstract painting
Reconstruction of the
Monument to the Third
International, VE Tatlin, 1920
The original scheme envisaged by
Tatin comprised a 990 ft (300 m)
high steel frame from which hung
the glass assembly rooms.
Not surprisingly, the scheme was
more a vehicle of political
propaganda than a practical
building project
LE CORBUSIER
LE CORBUSIER Charles-Edouard Jeanneret , an architect who
was most responsible for formalizing international Modernism.
From Auguste Perret he was able to comprehend the possibilities
of reinforced concrete and from Peter Behrens to learn the
positive implication of combining design with large-scale
mechanization from which he hope to provide quick, cheap
dwellings.
Le Corbusier's sketches for the Maison Citrohan (1919-22)
reveals the hallmarks of his own style – a geometric white block
constructed out of concrete, raised on slender columns (pilotis), a
flat roof, and lots of windows set flush with the wall and terraces.
Each element of the house has been reduced to its bare
functional essentials, geometric expressed – thus it has
become (in Le Corbusier' much-quoted phrase) a 'machine for
living in'. Creating The Villa Savoye, Poissy, near Paris (19289) – Le Corbusier 's self-proclaimed: 'Five Points of a New
Architecture – a free plan, a free facade, pilotis, a terrace and
ribbon windows.
The modernist architecture was looked to the more 'sculptural'
concrete architecture of Le Corbusier and was looked to the
'steel and glass' architecture of Mies van der Rohe.
Falsafahnya tentang arsitektur adalah menciptakan perasaan
aman, keramah-tamahan, kebahagiaan, serta kesatuan yang
harmonis dari bentuk-bentuk yang ada di bumi dan
hubungannya dengan skala manusia.
Selain itu desainnya dipengaruhi oleh bentuk geometris,
beton ekspos, dan permainan bayangan.
The Villa Savoye, Poissy, Le Corbusier, 1928-29
displayed Le Corbusier's 'Five Points of a New Architecture: a roof terrace,
pilotis, a free plan, strip windows and free composition of the façade.
Le Corbusier deliberately undermined the 'reading' of separate internal and
external spaces by creating large picture windows which fell to the floor and
ramps and staircases that were easily 'at home' either within the house or on
the terrace outside
Unite d'Habitation, Marseilles, Le
Corbusier's mass-housing scheme was
to influence a generation of architects.
He became increasingly occupied with
the sculptural properties of concrete.
La Ville Radieuse, Le Corbusier, 1935
A symmetrical scheme, in which rows of identical skyscrapers were
positioned on geometric grids.
Utopian in scale and intention,
these totalitarian schemes were not surprisingly never built
LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE
LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE and the functionalism.
Mies van der Rohe's choice of materials was expected, that his
father ran a stonemason's office in which he himself had
actually worked.
Having worked for Peter Behrens (like Le Corbusier), Mies van
der Rohe's early influences included the work of Karl-Friedrich
Schinkel, the creator of 19th-century neo-Classical Berlin, and
Berlage.
His plans for an office block of 1922 utilizes glass to divide the
building into vast horizontal slabs; the building is supported
'internally' by piers and cantilevered trays. Unconventionally, the
building increases in size gradually with each floor.
In 1923 Mies van der Rohe helped found the Berlin 'G' group
which set out its aim as truth to construction and function. In
the same year he drew up design for a brick villa. The plan
resembles an abstract graphic pattern akin to the creations of
both El Lissitzky and van Doesburg. With a system of
overlapping planes, the building also harks back to Frank
Lloyd Wright's early work.
Falsafahnya tentang arsitektur adalah kesederhanaan,
ketelitian, kerapian, kedisiplinan, keseimbangan dan bersifat
umum. Bentuk bangunannya teratur, simetris, netral dalam
penggunaan, eksterior tidak menunjukkan fungsi, rangka
bangunan kaku dengan dinding pengisi, bahan buatan pabrik,
mencerminkan keindahan mesin, memperhatikan detail.
FUNCTIONALISM
Functionalism preoccupied some architects more than
others, Johannes Brickmann and Leendert van der Vlugt
together with Mart Stam designed and built a factory for the
firm of Van Nelle (1927-30) in which practical considerations –
light, air open floor space – dictated the form.
Windows from floor to ceiling ran the length of the main
building and glazed bridges acted as communication links.
Such functionalism coupled with the social implication of
creating a decent working space undoubtedly dictated a form
that was not a 'style' as such (that is, not until later architects
began to define it).
Dr. Farnworth House, Mies van der Rohe, 1950
sebagai kubus kaca dan bergaya 'matematika murni'
selaku puncak selera rasionalisme
The Seagram Building, New York,
Mies van der Rohe dan Philip Johnson, 1950s.
The ultimate shopistication of the glass box.
ART DECO AND ART MODERNE
The term 'Art Deco' was popularized in the 1960s and is used
to describe a largely decorative style (roughly 1920-1940)
which is characterized by a strong geometric forms, striking
colours and graphic sharpness.
Named after the Paris Exposition Internationale des Arts
Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (1925), it was this exhibition
that provided the first large-scale showcase of the decorative
arts and architecture in a 'moderne' style.
It can be argued that Art Moderne was purely the commercial
interpretation of Modernism; the two movements certainly
shared common influences such as Cubist, Abstract and
Expressionist art, the architecture of the Art and Crafts
practitioners, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Secessionists.
The Kärntner Bar in Vienna, designed by Adolf Loos in 1907,
appears to foresee both Modernism and Art Moderne.
Similarly, Le Corbusier's L'Esprit Nouveau pavilion at the
Exposition was an inspiration to all manner of architects.
While Art Moderne and Art Deco were decorative,
Modernism was exclusive and rarefied, and above all, hard
on eyes accustomed to more ornamental and traditional
forms of architecture.
Art Deco, on the other hand, combined the solid geometric
shapes thought of at the time as decidedly 'modern', but was
mellowed with sculptural ornament, metal-work and colour.
1945 – 1970
Pasca PD II :(lebih banyak kerusakan dibandingkan pasca PD I)
• Banyak negara kesulitan keuangan memicu
produksi bahan bangunan buatan pabrik yang
dibuat massal agar lebih murah
• Berbagai bangunan diperlukan dan harus dibangun
cepat
• Modernisme tumbuh subur 1950-an dan 1960-an
dengan menggunakan beton (Le Corbusier dan
Frank Lloyd Wright) serta baja dan kaca (Mies van
der Rohe) dan juga arsitektur eksperimental
(Buckminster Fuller dan Bruce Goff)
• Kemudian 1970-an perkembangan arsitektur
terlihat mengendor
1970 – 1990
Arsitektur melangkah dari kondisi akseptabel
menjadi fashionable:
• Gaya Internasional dan Modern Movements
menerima banyak kritik
• Setelah resesi 1970-an, kebangkitan arsitektur di
Eropa dan Amerika dengan pola baru, tampil
dengan vitalitas dan antusiasnya perusahaanperusahaan. Muncul arsitek-arsiteknya: Shiro
Kuromata, Joe D’Urso, Ettore Sottsass, Norman
Foster, Nicholas Grimshaw, Richard Rogers. Gaya
arsitekturnya: The New International Style, High
Tech, Neo Klasik, Deconctructivism, dsb
dari sumber lain …
Eppi P. Suriawidjaja (dkk.), Persepsi Bentuk dan Konsep Arsitektur, Penerbit Djambatan, Jakarta, 1986
Periode I (1917 – 1929)
• Dalam pembentukan ruang, selain kegiatan, emosi dan
kemuliaan, ditunjang komposisi, manipulasi, rasio, dimensi
dan daya (power).
• Arsitektur modern berarti putusnya hubungan dengan
sejarah, daerah dan ingin universal (karena sifat industri,
ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang universal).
• Bentuk arsitektur - karena dasar yang universal - menjadi
bentuk yang universal pula dan disebut Gaya Internasional,
dengan pengaruh 'horisontal' dari Frank Lloyd Wright.
• De Stijl, November Gruppe, Arbeitsrat für Kunst, Glaserne,
Zehnerring, Constructivist, Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter
Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier.
Periode II (1930 – 1949)
• Adanya kecenderungan untuk memperluas bentuk
yang dalam beberapa hal mempunyai hubungan
dengan kedaerahan.
• Bentuk arsitektur secara umum dapat dikatakan
memiliki karakter Gaya Internasional, perpaduan
keahlian, teknologi, industri dan seni dengan
dipadukan dengan faham kedaerahan.
• Alvar Aalto, Arne Jacobsen, Oscar Niemeyer.
Periode III (1949 – 1966)
• Setelah kerusakan bangunan yang meluas akibat
perang, prinsip-prinsip perencanaan didasarkan
pada kebutuhan fungsi dipadu dengan hasil
penemuan teknik serta keindahan mesin.
• Bentuk arsitektur geometris dan curvelinier
geometris, berlantai banyak, bentangan lebar dan
banyak menggunakan kaca. Penggunaan bahan,
fungsi, pencahayaan, bentuk massa serta lansekap
dipengaruhi oleh keadaan iklim, topografi dan sifat
kenasionalan.
a. Fase I (1949-1958)
b. Fase II (1958-1966)
Fase I (1949 – 1958)
Dikenal aliran-aliran:
i. Aliran penyederhanaan bentuk. Mies van der
Rohe.
ii. Aliran bentuk sesuai dengan fungsi dan
bahan.Alvar Aalto.
iii. Aliran pernyataan bentuk melalui struktur. Eero
Saarinen.
iv. Aliran organik. Frank Lloyd Wright.
v. Aliran perubahan sikap terhadap jaman lampau.
Minoru Yamasaki.
Fase II (1958 – 1966)
Dikenal aliran-aliran:
i. Aliran brutalisme. Le Corbusier, Smithsons.
ii. Aliran formalisme. Paul Rudolph.
The Modernist architecture built in the 1950s-1960s
can be separated into two camps - that which looked
to the more 'sculptural' concrete architecture of Le
Corbusier and that which looked to the 'steel and
glass' architecture of Mies van der Rohe.
Karakter Arsitektur Modern
menurut Bruno Taut
1. Syarat bangunan mencapai kegunaan semaksimal
mungkin.
2. Material dan sistem konstruksi merupakan
prioritas berikutnya.
3. Keindahan tercapai dari hubungan bangunan,
kegunaan, material dan sistem konstruksi.
4. Tidak membedakan depan-belakang, fasaderencana lantai, jalan- halaman dalam, serta detail
tidak berdiri sendiri.
5. Pengulangan merupakan alat ekspresi artistik.
Telaah terhadap “Arsitektur Modern”
1. Arsitek membuat pilihan berdasarkan pengalamannya dan
tidak berdasarkan keinginan sebenarnya dari pemakai jasa.
2. Arsitek beranggapan bentuk dapat menentukan tingkah laku
manusia.
3. Arsitek memaksakan ide-ide elit arsitektural kepada dunia.
4. Pendekatan universal mengakibatkan lenyapnya perbedaan
kultural.
5. Metode perancangan secara rasional mengarah ke kebutuhan
fisik, sedang pemenuhan kebutuhan spiritual dan nilai sosial
terabaikan.
6. Menolak hiasan. Kejujuran fungsi adalah satu-satunya ukuran
keindahan.
7. Dilupakan kenyamanan psikis, di samping kenyamanan fisik.
sehingga “Arsitektur Modern” dikritik:
1. Konsepnya terlalu logis dan rasional
2. Kurang memperhatikan nilai sosial yang ada.
3. Kurang memperhatikan lingkungan dan emosi
manusia.
4. Memperhatikan bagaimana cara manusia hidup
tetapi kurang memperhatikan kehidupan manusia
sebenarnya.
5. Dianggap sangat kaku, seragam, membosankan,
tidak memiliki identitas.
Matinya “Arsitektur Modern”
Modern architecture went out with a bang. Modern architecture died in St Louis,
Missouri on July 15, 1972 at 3.32 p.m. when the infamous Pruitt-Igoe scheme were
given the final coup de grace by dynamite. Previously, it had been vandalized,
mutilated and defaced by its black inhabitant, and although millions of dollars were
pumped back, trying to keep it alive (fixing the broken elevators, repairing smashed
windows, repainting), it was finally put out of its suffering
Pruitt-Igoe was constructed according to the most progressive ideals of CIAM and
it won an award from the American Institute of Architect when it was designed in
1951. It consisted of elegant slab blocks fourteen storeys high with rational 'streets
in the air' (which were safe from cars, but as it turned out , not safe from crime);
'sun, space and greenery', which Le Corbusier called the 'three essential joys of
urbanism' (instead of conventional streets, gardens, and semi private space, which
he banished). It had a separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, the provision
of play space, and local amenities such as laundries crèches and gossip centers all rational substitutes for traditional patterns. Moreover its Purist style, its clean,
salubrious hospital metaphor, was meant to instill, by good example, corresponding
virtues in the inhabitants.
Alas, such simplistic ideas, taken over from philosophic doctrines of Rationalism,
Behaviourism, and Pragmatism, proved as irrational as the philosophies
themselves. Modern architecture, as the son of the enlightenment, was an heir to
its congenital naivities.