A review of the Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in the Chinese Tianshan

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
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A review of the Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in the Chinese Tianshan
and Altay orogens (Xinjiang Autonomous Region, NW China):
Principal characteristics and ore-forming processes
Jing Wen Mao a,*, Franco Pirajno b, Zuo Heng Zhang a, Feng Mei Chai c, Hua Wu d,
Shi Ping Chen e, Lin Song Cheng d, Jian Min Yang a, Chang Qing Zhang a
a
d
Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
b
Geological Survey of Western Australia, 100 Plain Street, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia
c
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
No. 6 Geological Party, Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration and Development, Hami 839000, Xinjiang, China
e
Hami Bureau of Land and Resources, Hami 839000, Xinjiang, China
Abstract
Several Cu–Ni sulphide deposits and occurrences have recently been discovered along parallel deep faults in the Chinese Tianshan and
Altay orogenic belts, Xinjiang Province, NW China. The Kalatongke and several other Cu–Ni mineralized intrusions are located along
the Irtysh fault, which separates the Altay orogenic belt from the Junggar basin. The Huangshan, Huangshandong, Xiangshan, Tudun,
Erhongwa, Tula’ergen, and Hongling deposits occur along the Kanggurtag suture, which separates the Jueluotage orogenic belt from the
Turpan-Hami (Tuha) basin. The Baishiquan, Tianyu, and Tianxiang deposits are located along the Arqikekuduke fault, which separates
the Jueluotage orogenic belt from the Central Tianshan Precambrian terrane. The Poyi, Poshi, and Luodong deposits are located along
the Baidiwa fault, which separates the Central Tianshan Precambrian terrane from the Beishan Paleozoic rift. Re–Os dating of Cu–Ni
sulphide ores reveals that these Cu–Ni ore belts formed in a narrow age range of 298–282 Ma. This age range is about the same as those
of associated intrusions and dykes dated by the SHRIMP zircon U–Pb method. Tectonic and geochronological constraints suggest that
the amalgamation of continental blocks mainly occurred during the Late Carboniferous in the Central Asian orogenic belt. Large-scale
hydrothermal and magmatic metallogenesis in the region occurred during post-collisional stages of Latest Carboniferous to Early Permian age. The Cu–Ni sulphide deposits are part of this metallogenic event.
The Cu–Ni orthomagmatic sulphide deposits in northern Xinjiang are represented by: (1) net-textured type deposits by segregation of
a Cu–Ni metal sulphide melt and (2) magma conduit type. Some mafic–ultramafic suites exhibit lithological zoning caused by strong
differentiation. Stratiform orebodies are hosted by ultramafic rocks at the base of the magma chamber. Good examples are the Kalatongke, Huangshandong, and Poshi deposits. Others, such as the Xiangshan, Baishiquan, Tianyu, and Tula’ergen deposits, are hosted
by magma conduits, consisting of peridotite, troctolite, and pyroxenite. These ultramafic rocks either occur within faults or are surrounded by gabbroic and dioritic intrusions. These two types of orthomagmatic Cu–Ni sulphide deposits are also distributed along
the same ore belts. For instance, the differentiated sill-related Huangshandong deposit co-exists with the magma conduit type Tula’ergen
deposit in the Jueluotage orogenic belt.
Orthomagmatic Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in northern Xinjiang formed during post-collisional extension and are possibly related to a
Late Carboniferous–Early Permian mantle plume event. The mafic–ultramafic suites and associated Cu–Ni deposits are commonly
accompanied by dyke swarms and are characterized by elongated outcrops occurring along parallel E–W-trending regional faults. These
mafic–ultramafic suites and accompanying dyke swarms are generally fractionated, implying that they were feeders of presently eroded
flood basalts.
Crown copyright 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jingwenmao@263.net (J.W. Mao).
1367-9120/$ - see front matter Crown copyright 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.10.006
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
185
Keywords: Cu–Ni sulphide deposit; Post-collision; Mantle plume; Tianshan–Altay; Xinjiang; China
1. Introduction
In the 1970s, Cu–Ni sulphide deposits (Kalatongke,
Huangshan, Huangshandong, Xiangshan, Tudun, and
Hulu) were discovered in the southeastern Altay Mountains and in the East Tianshan, Xinjiang, China. In recent
years, exploration successes for magmatic Cu–Ni sulphide
deposits include the discoveries of Baishiquan, Tianyu,
and Tianxiang on the northern margin of the Central Tianshan, south of the Huangshan–Jing’erquan ore belt, and
the Poshi, Poyi, and Luodong occurrences in the Pobei
area, in the Paleozoic Beishan rift south of the Central
Tianshan. More recently, the Tula’ergen Cu–Ni deposit
was found at the eastern end of the Huangshan–Jing’erquan ore belt and the Hongling deposit was identified at
the western end of this ore belt. Re–Os dating of sulphide
ores and SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating of related mineralized mafic intrusions indicate that these Cu–Ni sulphide
deposits formed at 298–270 Ma (Li et al., 1998; Mao
et al., 2002; Han et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2004; Wu
et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2005) during post-collisional
extensional tectonism.
In the past 20 years, many researchers have discussed
the basic features of the Kalatongke, Baishiquan, Huangshan, and Huanshandong deposits (Wang et al., 1991;
Pan and Wang, 1992; Yan et al., 2003). Wang et al.
(1992), Li (1996), and Wang et al. (2000) summarized the
metallogenic characteristics of local districts in northern
Xinjiang. Ni (1992), Gao (1992), Bai (2000), Shen (2003),
Zhang et al. (2003), Zhou et al. (2004), and Chai et al.
(2006) discussed the mineralization associated with these
mafic–ultramafic rocks. Based on previous research, combined with the new advances in current mineral exploration
and prospecting, in this paper we summarize the main
characteristics of these deposits, examine ore-forming processes, and attempt to understand the relationship of these
deposits and host mafic–ultramafic rocks with the geodynamic evolution of the region and explore their possible
link with mantle plume activity.
a Paleo-Asian Ocean, developed during the Paleozoic.
From north to south, the principal tectonic units of Xinjiang are the Altay orogen, eastern Junggar orogen, Junggar
block, Bogda Shan orogen, Tuha basin, East Tianshan (or
Jueluotage), and Beishan orogens (Li et al., 2006b).
The tectonic evolution in the region was divided into the
pre-Sinian, Sinian-Carboniferous, Permian to Cenozoic
stages. The pre-Sinian stage includes an Archean–Paleoproterozoic basement and the Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic successions of the Tarim craton, as well as
microcontinental fragments within the Tianshan and other
areas which correspond to the stages of assembly of the
supercontinents Columbia and Rodinia (Li et al., 2006).
In the Middle Neoproterozoic, concomitantly with the
breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, a Paleozoic ocean
formed in Central Asia. The Altay and Tian Shan orogens,
the Tarim craton and the microcontinental fragments that
are included in these orogenic belts were separate terranes
within this paleo-ocean. The Sinian–Cambrian stage was a
period of seafloor spreading, but from the Ordovician
onward, the paleo-ocean began closing and in the Late Carboniferous the terranes became amalgamated to form the
continental crust of present day Central Asia.
A stage of extensional tectonics began in the Permian
and continued through the Triassic to the Neogene. The
Permian was a stage of post-collision crustal evolution in
the region characterized by mantle-derived magmatism.
From the Late Triassic to Jurassic, the crustal evolution
of the region was mainly dominated by the closing of the
Paleo-Pacific Ocean (an ocean that was the precursor of
the Mongolia-Ochotsk orogenic belt) and Paleo-Tethys
Ocean (an ocean that was the precursor of the Kunlun
Mountains). The Cretaceous to Neogene was a period of
relative quiet and stability in the geological history of the
region. From the Pleistocene on, as a result of the India–
Eurasia collision, reactivation and on-going uplift of the
orogenic belts took place, forming the present basin-range
framework.
3. Cu–Ni sulphide deposits
2. Geological setting
In NW China (Xinjiang Province), the Altay Mountains, the lower mountains and hills of the East Junggar,
Junggar basin, and the East Tianshan ranges, in northeastern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, are on the southern margin of the Altaid or Central Asia Orogenic Belt
(Sengör et al., 1993; Jahn, 2004; Li et al., 2006b; Windley
et al., 2007). The main tectonic features of NW China consist of Late Paleozoic NW- and nearly E–W-trending orogenic belts with inliers of pre-Sinian blocks (Li et al.,
2003b). These orogenic belts were originally separated by
Northern Xinjiang is one of the regions in the world
where Cu–Ni sulphide deposits are particularly numerous.
Up to now, 19 Cu–Ni sulphide deposits and occurrences
including Huangshan, Huangshandong, Xiangshan,
Huangshannan, Tudun, Erhongwa, Kalatongke, Xingdi,
and Qingbulake deposits were discovered in the 1970s
and 1980s, with the Hongling, Baishiquan, Tianyu, Tianxiang, Tula’ergen, Poshi, Poyi, and Luodong deposits discovered in the past few years. The distribution of these
deposits and occurrences are shown in Fig. 1 and their
main characteristics are given in Table 1. Due to the preli-
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J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 1. Distribution of magmatic Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in northern Xinjiang (modified from Wang et al., 2006 and Chen et al., 1997).
minary levels of exploration, demonstrated reserves are all
of a medium or small size. The Huangshandong and Kalatongke deposits may be assigned to the large category
according to China’s current reserve classification, but they
are not comparable to world-class Cu–Ni sulphide deposits, such as Jinchuan of China, Sudbury and Voisey’s Bay
of Canada, and Noril’sk of Russia. Except for the Xingdi
and Qingbulake deposits (whose mineralization ages are
controversial), the majority of Cu–Ni sulphide deposits discussed in this paper (Kalatongke in the southern Altay,
Huangshan–Jing’erquan ore belt in the East Tianshan, Baishiquan–Tianyu district in the Central Tianshan, and Pobei
district in the Beishan rift) were formed during a post-collisional tectonic regime. The above mentioned Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in Xinjiang fall into two main styles: (1)
net-textured (2) magma conduit system. Net-textured type
deposits form by fractional crystallization of the magma
after its emplacement with segregation of a Cu–Ni metal
sulphide melt and its settling at the base or in the lower
parts of a magma chamber. Typical examples are the
Huangshan, Huangshandong, Kalatongke, and Poshi
deposits. Conduit type deposits, on the other hand, form
in a lower magma chamber with several pulses of melt
being channeled upward through a conduit. The melts
solidify in the conduit, segregating sulphide ore. Tang
and Li (1995) emphasized that a large ore deposit can be
formed from a small intrusion in this way, as exemplified
by the Tula’ergen, Baishiquan, and Tianyu deposits.
3.1. Kalatongke ore district
The Kalatongke (or Karatungk) ore district is located in
the southern Altay Mountains, 28 km southeast of the
town of Fuyun. It was found by the Fourth Geological
Party of the former Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (now Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration and Development) in 1978 and
exploration was completed in 1985. The measured reserves
in the Kalatongke ore deposit included 420,000 tonnes of
Cu, 240,000 tonnes of Ni, more than 4000 tonnes of Co,
2.5 tonnes of Pt, and 3.4 tonnes of Pd (Yan et al., 2003).
The deposit has been mined since 1989.
The Kalatongke ore district is located on the southern
side of the Ertix (or Ertyish) fault, which marks the boundary between the Altay Caledonian orogenic belt and the
Junggar Hercynian orogenic belt (Coleman, 1989; Huang
et al., 1990). A series of mafic–ultramafic bodies intruded
along the Sarbulak-Sasekbastao synclinorium and faults
(Fig. 2a). These folds and fold-parallel faults trend NW
and NNW. The rock successions in the area belong to
the Lower Carboniferous, >450 m thick (Yan et al., 2003)
Nanmingshui Formation. This formation consists of red
argillaceous sandstone, argillite, tuffaceous slate with limestone and chert in the lower part, volcaniclastics, carbonaceous tuff with andesite and tuffaceous chert in the middle,
volcaniclastic rocks, carbonaceous slate and minor limestone with alkali basalt, basaltic latite and andesite in the
upper part.
In the Kalatongke area there are 11 mafic–ultramafic
bodies form a northeastern and southwestern belt, intruded
into slate and tuff in the middle and upper parts of the
Nanmingshui Formation. The Nos. 1–3 intrusions form
the southwestern belt. These three intrusions are highly differentiated, and host economic mineralization. The northeastern belt consists of six mafic–ultramafic complexes
(Nos. 4–9) but compared with the southern belt intrusions
Table 1
Main features of the major Cu–Ni–(PGE) deposits in the Chinese Tianshan–Altay
Ore district name and Tectonic position
geographical location
and district/county
Kalatongke ore
district; E:
8940 0 3200 –
8942 0 0400 , N:
4644 0 3400 –
4645 0 3100 ; Fuyun
County, Altay area
Junction between
Altay Caledonian
fold system and
Junggar
Hercynian fold
system
Intrusion size
Reserves
(length · width) (10,000
km
tonnes) @
grade%
I
0.7 · 0.29
II
0.875 · 0.52
III
1.3 · 0.2
Huangshan- 5.3 · 1.12
dong
Mineralized
rock
Cu:
23.2@1.4%,
Ni:
15.4@0.88%
Biotite–
hornblende–
biotite norite
and
hornblende
pyroxenite
Cu:
Biotite–
10.6@1.1%, hornblende
Ni:
norite and
5.0@0.6%
biotite–
hornblende
gabbro
Cu:
Hornblende
8.1@1.1%, gabbro and
Ni:
hornblende
4.6@0.6%
norite
Cu:
Gabbro
18.8@0.3%, norite and
Ni:
hornblende
36@0.52% lherzolite
Huangshan
3.8 · 8
Cu:
21@0.31%,
Ni:
32@0.49%
Tudun
1.4 · 0.7
Cu:
0.3@0.2%,
Ni:
1.5@0.3%
Xiangshan
10 · 3.5
Tula’ergen
Dyke swarm
Hornblende
gabbro and
hornblende
lherzolite
Hornblende
peridotite,
hornblende
gabbro and
norite
Hornblende
Cu:
2@0.3%,
wehrlite,
Ni: 4@0.5% pyroxenite
and
hornblende
gabbro
Cu:
Gabbro and
@0.27%,
hornblende–
Ni:
olivine
10@0.24–
gabbro
0.42%
Orebody
shape
Ore type
Country rocks of intrusion
Data sources
Funnelshaped
Dominantly
disseminated
and massive and
subordinately
colloidal and
vein
Flat vein Dominantly
disseminated
and
subordinately
cumulophyric
and massive
Lenticular Cumulophyric
and
disseminated
Clastic rocks with volcanic
Wang et al. (1991, 2000), Yan
rocks of Lower
et al. (2003), No. 4 Geological
Carboniferous Nanmingshui Party et al. (2003)
Formation (Rb–Sr isochron
age 311 Ma; Wang et al.,
1991)
Lenticular Dominantly
and bed- disseminated
like
and
subordinately
massive and
stockwork
CometDominantly
shaped
disseminated
and
subordinately
massive and
stockwork
Lenticular Disseminated
Turbidite of Lower
Carboniferous Gandun
Group
Lotus
Disseminated
root joint- and massive
shaped
Volcanic rocks of Lower
Carboniferous Wutongwozi
Formation
Tubular
Turbidite with volcanic rocks
of Carboniferous Tudun
Formation
Disseminated
Wang and Li (1987); Qin et al.
(2003), No. 6 Geological Party
et al. (1987), Geophysical and
Geochemical Exploration Party
(1996), San et al. (2003)
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Huangshan–
Interarc basin on
Jing’erquan ore
north margin of
belt; E: 9400 0 –
Tarim plate
9500 0 , N: 4200 0 –
4220 0 ; Hami City,
Hami area
Deposit
(continued on next page)
187
Arcuate or quasibathtub-shaped
Plagioclase
websterite
and
plagioclase
peridotite
2 · 1.6
Poshi
Cu:
7.01@0.48%,
Ni:
9.43@0.32%
Olivine
pyroxenite
and
pyroxenite
Vein-like
Sparsely
disseminated
and
stockwork
Erhongwa
South:
3.3 · 2.56,
north:
1.72 · 1.74
Baishiquan ore district; E:
Junction
9455 0 –9501 0 , N: 4155 0 –
between Tarim
plate and
4159 0 ; Hami City, Hami
Central
area
Tianshan plate
Pobei ore district; E: 9127 0 – Hercynian
9150 0 , N: 4032 0 –4043 0 ;
Beishan rift
Ruoqiang County,
Bayinguolin Prefecture
Lherzolite,
gabbro norite
and olivine
gabbro
1.6 · 0.4–0.7
Irregularrounded
Tuffaceous sandstone and
pyroclastic rocks of
Lower Carboniferous
Yamansu Formation
Disseminated Meta-arkosic sandstone
of Lower Carboniferous
Gandong Formation
Ultramafic rocks Vein-shaped Veinlet and
(undifferentiated)
disseminated
Cu:
@0.27%,
Ni: @0.24–
0.42%
Cu:
0.4@0.2%,
Ni:
1.8@0.2%
Baishiquan
Hongling
0.4 · 0.5
Ni:
14.7@0.3–
0.6%
Metamorphic rocks of
Mesoproterozoic
Xingxingxie and
Kawabulak formations
Data sources
Country rocks of
intrusion
Ore type
Orebody shape
Mineralized
rock
Reserves
(10,000
tonnes) @
grade%
Intrusion size
(length · width)
km
Deposit
Tectonic
position
Ore district name and
geographical location and
district/county
Table 1 (continued)
Massive and Schist with pyroclastic Li (1994),Yang et al.
disseminated rocks of Lower
(2002), Li et al.
Carboniferous
(2006a)
Hongliuyuan
Formation
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Wu et al. (2005),
Chai et al. (2006),
No. 6 Geological
Party et al. (2003)
188
they are poorly differentiated and no orebodies have been
identified.
The No. 1 intrusion occurs as an irregular lens at the
surface, is 695 m long, 29–289 m wide, strikes 333 and dips
N60–85E. In cross-section it is funnel-shaped, flaring
upward and pinching out downward (Fig. 2b). Wang
et al. (1991) have noted that mafic rocks increase from
the surface downward and include, in descending order,
biotite-rich diorite, biotite-amphibole norite, biotiteamphibole-olivine norite, and biotite-amphibole gabbro.
The more mafic rocks usually contain olivine, whereas
those less mafic, in the upper sectors of the intrusion, contain quartz. The rocks with higher mafic components are
usually ore-bearing. The No. 1 intrusion has Cu reserves
of 232,000 tonnes and Ni reserves of 154,000 tonnes, averaging 1.4% and 0.88%, respectively. The orebody is zoned
with sparsely disseminated and densely disseminated sulphides surrounding a core of massive sulphides (Fig. 2b).
The grades of the massive sulphide orebody can reach up
to 6.5% Ni and 3.5% Cu. Locally, the massive sulphides
exhibit crosscutting relationships with the wall rocks and
the disseminated ore zones.
The No. 2 intrusion, situated 400 m southeast of the No.
1 intrusion, is 1400 m long, 39–200 m wide and its long axis
strikes 300 and dips NE at 70–80. In section, it has a funnel-like and exhibits distinct zoning is similar to that of the
No. 1 intrusion. The No. 2 intrusion contains two orebodies; one is 1000 m long and 100 m thick and is hosted in
biotite-amphibole-olivine norite, and the other resembles
that of the No. 1 intrusion, and is located at the bottom
of the intrusion. On the whole, the No. 2 intrusion’s ore
is relatively poor and consists of disseminated sulphides.
The No. 3 intrusion, situated at the southeasternmost
end, is 1320 m long and 200–420 m wide. The lithological
zoning in this intrusion is similar to that observed in the
Nos.1 and 2 intrusions. The mineralization occurs at the
base of the intrusion, with a length of 1000 m and a thickness of 20 m. The Nos. 2 and 3 intrusions have a total of
187,000 tonnes of Cu ore and 96,000 tonnes of Ni ore with
grades of 1.1% and 0.6%, respectively.
The ores consist of sulphides, arsenides, tellurides, oxides, native metals, and metal compounds. The dominant
ore minerals are pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and pentlandite,
with subordinate magnetite, pyrite, violarite, and ilmenite
and minor sphalerite, galena, alabandite, vallerite, bornite,
and skutterudite, as well as noble metallic minerals such as
native gold, native silver, electrum, hessite, Pt–Pd–melonite, merenskyite, Ni–merenskyite, Ag–Bi–merenskyite,
and sperrylite. A total of more than 50 ore minerals have
been identified.
3.2. Huangshan–Jing’erquan ore belt
The Huangshan–Jing’erquan Cu–Ni sulphide ore belt is
currently the largest known ore belt in Xinjiang, with the
newly found Tula’ergen deposit in the east (San et al.,
2003), the Hongling deposit in the west (Fig. 1), and the
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
189
Fig. 2. Belts mafic–ultramafic intrusions in the Kalatongke Cu–Ni sulphide ore field (a) and cross-section of the No. 1 intrusion and ore zones of
Kalatongke, note massive sulphides enclosed in disseminated sulphides (b) (after Yan et al., 2003; based on a map by the No. 4 Geological Party of the
Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1985).
Huangshan, Huangshandong, Huangshannan, Xiangshan,
Erhongwa, and Tudun deposits in the central parts of the
belt (Figs. 1 and 3). This ore belt extends more than
200 km along the Kanggurtag fault. The relatively differen-
190
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 3. Geological sketch map of the Huangshan area and distribution of magmatic Cu–Ni and Ti–V deposits (after Li et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2006).
tiated mafic–ultramafic intrusion bodies and related dykes
are distributed discontinuously as E–W-elongated lenses.
The intrusions have a small outcrop area, generally 2–
6 km2, and some intrusions probably represent magma
conduits. The country rocks belong to the Carboniferous
Gandun Formation and Middle Carboniferous Wutongwozi Group or Qi’e Group. The former consists predominantly of turbidites with small amounts of limestone and
volcanic rocks, while the latter is a suite of basaltic–andesitic rocks, spilite–keratophyre, andesitic tuff with tuffaceous
sandstone and sandy conglomerate.
3.2.1. Huangshandong deposit
The Huangshandong deposit, located 160 km southeast
of the town of Hami, is the largest and the best representative in the Huangshan–Jing’erquan ore belt. The Huangshandong mafic–ultramafic intrusions intruded into the
Middle Carboniferous Gandun Group turbidites. The
Cu–Ni ore is hosted in a well-differentiated intrusion
(Fig. 4a) with an outcrop area of 2.8 km2. The Huangshandong complex is a multiple intrusion formed in three stages
(Wang and Li, 1987). The first stage consists of gabbro,
olivine gabbro, hornblende gabbro–diorite, ilmenite gab-
bro, and diorite, with rhythmic layering and banding.
The second stage is represented by dark-colored olivine
gabbro–norite, to the west, north, and south of the first
stage gabbro. The third stage is characterized by peridotite,
and lherzolite–pyroxene–hornblende peridotite. The orebodies are from 120 to 1140 m long with thicknesses of
15.5–30.6 m (Wang et al., 1986). The modes of occurrence
of the orebodies include: stratiform sulphide lenses in the
middle and lower parts of the ultramafic rock (Fig. 4b),
or along contact zones between the ultramafic and gabbro
rocks; as steeply dipping en-echelon lenses in gabbro–norite, and as small copper-rich veins hosted by gabbro. The
stratiform sulphide lenses, constitute economically viable
ore. Three ore types are recognized: massive sulphide,
densely disseminated, and sparsely disseminated sulphides.
The massive sulphide ores are further subdivided into
massive pyrrhotite–pentlandite–chalcopyrite ore, chalcopyrite–pentlandite ore and late-stage chalcopyrite veins.
Chalcopyrite, pentlandite, and pyrrhotite are also the
dominant ore minerals in the disseminated ores, and may
be dispersed in hornblende lherzolite and hornblende
gabbro. Other ore minerals are chromite, ilmenite, rutile,
titanomagnetite, ulvite, chalcopentlandite, chalcopyrrho-
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
191
Fig. 4. Simplified geological map of the Huangshandong mafic–ultramafic complex (a) and cross-section (b) of the Huangshandong funnel-shaped
complex and Cu–Ni sulphide orebodies (after Wang and Li, 1987).
tite, trigonal polydimite, nickelite, cubanite, cobaltite, siegenite, gersdorffite, nickeliferous stibnite, wehrlite, violarite,
machinawite, valleriite, marcasite, sphalerite, and bornite.
3.2.2. Xiangshan Cu–Ni sulphide deposit
The Xiangshan complex (Fig. 5) is located to the northwest of the Huangshan complex, at the intersection
between the Tudun-northern Jing’erquan ductile shear
zone (F8 in Fig. 5) and the Huangshan ductile shear zone.
The complex generally strikes 60 and extends discontinuously for 10 km, with widths of 100–800 m and an outcrop area of 6 km2. This intrusion is also interpreted as
representing a magmatic conduit (Zhu et al., 1995). In plan
view its shape resembles a lotus root. Local geologists have
named the three lotus root shapes of the complex: Xiangshandong (eastern part), Xiangshanzhong (middle), and
Xiangshanxi (western) intrusions (Wang et al., 2006). The
intrusion consists of a hornblende gabbro envelope surrounding lenses of ultramafic rocks, which include peridotite, harzburgite, pyroxenite, and diorite. The Cu–Ni
sulphide orebodies are mainly hosted by peridotite and
harzburgite (Fig. 5) (Li et al., 1996; Sun et al., 1996). The
conduit is within volcanic rocks of the Lower Carboniferous Wutongwozi Formation. The Xiangshan complex contains more than 10 major Cu–Ni sulphide orebodies,
divided into three types (Sun et al., 1996): (1) orebodies
that form beds and lenses at the bottoms of the peridotite,
pyroxenite, and gabbro zones. These ores are of low-grade,
with Cu + Ni < 1% and Cu/Ni < 1, and there is no distinct
boundary between the orebodies and wall rocks. (2) Orebodies that form lenses and veins at the contact zones
between gabbro–norite and hornblende peridotite and
probably resulted from the injection of ore-bearing magma
along zones of structural weakness. These orebodies and
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J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 5. Distribution of the lotus root-shaped mafic–ultramafic complex, divided into an eastern, middle, and western parts, in the Xiangshan ore district
(after Zhu et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2006).
wall rocks have clear-cut boundaries and the ore grade is
Cu + Ni > 1% with Cu/Ni > 1. (3) Orebodies that occur
as veins in fractures of various rock types, which consist
of sulphide veinlets or sulphide-bearing quartz veins or carbonate veins and are small in size, with Cu + Ni 1% and
Cu/Ni > 1.
Ore minerals are pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite,
millerite, violarite, pyrite, marcasite, cubanite, machinawite, sphalerite, galena, magnetite, chrome-spinel, gersdorffite, nickelite, wehrlite, and bismuthotellurite.
Zhang (2003) and Wang et al. (2006), recently, reported
that, in addition to Cu and Ni sulphides, there is also Ti–
V–Fe mineralization in the Xiangshanxi area. Using a
TiO2 cut-off grade of 5%, five orebodies were identified,
ranging in size from 400 to 1000 m long and 1–15 m thick
and extending to depths off 100–250 m. The TiO2, FeTot,
and V2O5 grades are 5–8.4%, 9–19%, and 0.1–0.3%, respectively. These Ti–V–Fe ores are vein-like and lenticular in a
plan view and stratiform in section, and consist of disseminated ilmenite in a gabbro host within hornblende gabbro.
The boundary between these orebodies and wall rocks is
not well defined. The dominant ore minerals are ilmenite,
titanomagnetite, and magnetite, with minor hematite, siderite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, ulvite, and celite
(Wang et al., 2006). In the Xiangshanxi area, although
Cu–Ni sulphide minerals and V–Ti magnetite coexist, their
orebodies are separated, and even in the same stage two
types of ore occur as separate bands in the gabbro body.
The mechanism for the coexistence of Cu–Ni and Ti–V–
Fe mineralization remains to be further studied.
the 704 Geological Party of the Xinjiang Bureau of Nonferrous Metals Exploration (San et al., 2003). This deposit is
at the easternmost edge of the Huangshan–Jin’erquan belt,
about 200 km east of Hami (Fig. 1) (Xiao et al., 2005). The
rocks in the district are predominantly turbidites of the
Carboniferous Tudun Formation, whereas on the northern
side of the Kanggurtag fault are volcanic rocks of the
Devonian Dananhu Formation (Fig. 6a). In the southern
part of the district a Late Paleozoic granitic pluton is present, whereas within the district itself, apart from mafic–
ultramafic intrusions, there is a swarm of WNW- and E–
W-trending granitic dykes and Late Paleozoic granodiorite,
andesite porphyry, diorite porphyry, and granite porphyry
intrusions. The mafic–ultramafic intrusions comprise hornblende peridotite, harzburgite, and hornblende gabbro.
The Cu–Ni sulphide mineralization is at the margin of
hornblende peridotite, near the contact between gabbro
and hornblende peridotite. The mineralization has gradational boundaries with the wall rocks, and is concordant
with the boundaries of the intrusion (Fig. 6b). The orebody
is 740 m long and 5–12 m thick at the surface, but the
thickness intersected by recent drilling reaches a maximum
of 31 m. Nickel ore reserves are 100,000 tonnes, with average grades of 0.24–0.42% Ni, 0.27% Cu, and 0.024% Co
(San et al., 2003). The mineralization is associated with
alteration which includes mineral phases such as serpentine, talc, epidote, and tremolite, in addition to malachite,
limonite, and jarosite at the surface. The dominant ore
minerals are pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite. This
deposit is still in the exploration stage.
3.2.3. Tula’ergen deposit
Tula’ergen is a Cu–Ni sulphide deposit discovered in
2002 during the follow-up of a geochemical anomaly by
3.2.4. Hongling deposit
The Hongling Ni deposit is located at the western end of
the Huangshan–Jing’erquan belt, south of the Kanggurtag
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
193
Fig. 6. Simplified geological map of the Tula’ergen area (a) and cross-section (b) of the Tula’ergen Cu–Ni sulphide deposit (modified from Xiao et al.,
2005).
fault, about 120 km southwest of Hami (Fig. 1). The deposit
was found and first evaluated by the Geophysical–Geochemical Survey Party of the former Xinjiang Bureau of
Geology and Mineral Resources during ground follow-up
of an airborne geophysical survey in 1991, followed in
1996 by a reconnaissance program. The rocks exposed in
the district are mainly from the lowermost part of the Lower
Carboniferous Yamansu Formation and include tuffaceous
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J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 7. Geological map of the Baishiquan area and distribution of the Cu–Ni sulphide ore zones (after Wu et al., 2005; Chai et al., 2006; Mao et al., 2006).
sandstone and pyroclastic rocks with lesser limestone. The
main intrusions are ultramafic rocks, albite porphyry, and
quartz porphyry dykes. The ultramafic rocks may be divided
into Nos. 1 and 2 intrusions, which strike nearly E–W. In the
west is the No. 1 intrusion, which is 180 m long and 30 m
wide at the surface. In the east is the No. 2 intrusion, which
is 400 m long and about 40–50 m wide. Both intrusions dip
north steeply at 70–85. The intrusions lie in a fracture zone,
and there is serpentine and talc alteration. Cu–Ni mineralization is present at the base of No. 2 intrusion and is in fault
contact with the footwall rocks. The mineralized zone is
200 m long and about 5–15 m wide at the surface. It extends
as a sheet in a nearly E–W direction and is concordant with
the host intrusion. The Ni grade is 0.4–0.8% and may reach a
maximum of 1.1%; the Cu grade is 0.15–0.5% and may reach
a maximum of 0.77% (Geological–Geophysical Survey
Party of the Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Resources, 1996). The mineralization consists of sulphides
in vein-stockworks, disseminated, and massive sulphides.
The dominant ore minerals are pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite,
and azurite, and limonitization and jarositization are developed at the surface. The dominant gangue minerals are serpentine, talc, chlorite, and carbonate. The deposit is still
being evaluated.
3.3. Baishiquan ore district
The Baishiquan Cu–Ni sulphide ore district, situated
about 170 km southeast of Hami (Fig. 1), is on the north-
ern margin of the Central Tianshan block and on the
southern side of the Shaquanzi fault. The latter is the
boundary between the Jueluotage Late Paleozoic fold belt
and Central Tianshan block. In this ore district there are
the Baishiquan and Tianyu Cu–Ni sulphide deposits, and
Tianxiang occurrences, all of which belong to conduit type
magmatic mineralization. The three deposits (or occurrences) were recently discovered and preliminarily evaluated by the Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Exploration and Development. These deposits are close
to one another and share similar features. Chai et al.
(2008) provide details of the geology and geochemistry of
the Baishiquan deposit.
The Baishiquan deposit is the first Cu–Ni sulphide
deposit found in the Central Tianshan. It was discovered
in 2002 by the No. 6 Geological Party of the Xinjiang
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration and Development during a mineral reconnaissance survey. The area is
underlain by metamorphic rocks of the Xingxingxia Formation of the Proterozoic Changchengian System and the
Kawabulak Formation of the Jixianian System. The main
structure in the ore district is the Shaquanzi deep fault
and its subsidiary structures. There are 20 small mafic–
ultramafic intrusions at the surface, with the largest being
0.8 km2. The overall shape of the Baishiquan intrusions is
quasi-elliptical with the long axis oriented NE–SW
(Fig. 7). The Baishiquan intrusions are composed mainly
of olivine pyroxenite, pyroxene peridotite, troctolite,
hornblendite, diorite, norite, and gabbro. These were
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
emplaced in two stages. The first stage comprises 90% of
the complex and consists of diorite, gabbro, and norite.
The boundary of these rocks is indistinct, but zones of contact metamorphism mark the boundaries between diorite
and wall rocks. The second stage forms dikes and irregular
bodies of hornblendite, peridotite, troctolite, and pyroxenite, which have well-defined boundaries. Both peridotite
and olivine pyroxenite of the first stage are the host rocks
to Cu–Ni ores Chai et al. (in this issue).
So far, 14 mineralized Cu–Ni sulphide zones have been
found, of which five are exposed and 9 are buried (Wu
et al., 2005). The exposed five zones are hosted in ultramafic intrusions and are mainly distributed at the margins
of the diorite bodies in the central part of the ore district.
The buried mineralized zones, are mainly distributed in
the southern part of relatively large ultramafic bodies.
Pyroxenite hosting mineralization has commonly undergone alteration with chlorite, sericite and magnetite mainly.
Most orebodies occur as bands and veins. The dominant
195
ore minerals are chalcopyrite, pentlandite, native copper,
pyrite, and chalcocite. The gangue minerals are olivine,
pyroxene, plagioclase, uralite, chlorite, and sericite. Ores
are mainly sparsely disseminated. The average grades are
Cu 0.22–0.44%, Ni 0.2–0.57%, and Co 0.01–0.03%.
3.4. Pobei area
The Pobei area is located in the Hercynian Beishan rift
zone, northeast of Lop Nur and 300 km southwest of Hami
(Fig. 1). In this area is a mafic–ultramafic complex comprising the Pobei gabbroic intrusion and the Poyi, Poshi
ultramafic bodies, which were found in 1989 during the
implementation of the Xinjiang’s 305 project. The mafic–
ultramafic complex is located on the south side of the
ENE-trending Baidiwa deep fault, encompassing an area
of approximately 16 · 8 km (Gao, 1992; Li, 1994)
(Fig. 8). In recent years, the No. 6 Geological Party of
the Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration
Fig. 8. Geological sketch map of the Pobei area, showing the distribution of Cu–Ni sulphide deposits (modified from the 1:200,000 geological map and
relevant data; see also Pirajno et al., 2008).
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J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 9. Geological map of the mafic–ultramafic complex and ore zones (a) and cross-section showing distribution of sulphide lenses (b) in the Poshi Cu–Ni
sulphide deposit (after the Xinjiang Bureau of Geology, Mineral Resources, Exploration and Development, 2005).
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
and Development discovered Cu–Ni mineralization in Poyi
and in Poshi. At a later stage, Yang et al. (2003) found the
nearby Luodong intrusion, further to the west and on the
north side of the Baidiwa fault (Fig. 8), by using remote
sensing image interpretation and field follow-up, which
led to the discovery of Cu–Ni sulphide mineralization. In
the following year, the No. 6 Geological Party resumed
work in the area and exploration is still under way. The
Pobei area is underlain by Proterozoic basement rocks,
mainly schist and migmatites, Lower Carboniferous pyroclastic rocks of the Hongliuyuan Formation, and Middle
Carboniferous tuff with marble of the Maotoushan Formation, and lavas of the Upper Carboniferous Shengliquan
Formation (Yang et al., 2002).
The Poyi and Poshi ultramafic bodies, intruded the
Pobei gabbroic rocks and Precambrian metamorphic
rocks. The Poyi ultramafic body occurs in the western part
of the larger gabbroic intrusion, has a trapezoidal shape in
plan view, is up to 3.2 km long from east to west and
197
1.08 km wide from north to south, with an outcrop area
of 3.6 km2. It dips gently in the south at 40 and steeply
in the northeast at 70. The Poshi body has an elliptical
shape and is located west of Poyi (Fig. 8), is 2 km long
from east to west and 1.6 km wide from north to south,
covering an area of 3.2 km2 (Fig. 9a). The two ultramafic
bodies have distinct and similar zoning with gabbro to
pyroxene peridotite to peridotite and dunite from the orebearing rock outward (Fig. 9a). To the west and on the
other side of the Baidiwa fault is the 370 m long and
210 m wide Luodong complex (Fig. 10). The Luodong
complex consists of gabbro, olivine gabbro, peridotite,
harzburgite, and pyroxenite. The ultramafic rocks were
emplaced during a later phase than the gabbro. N–S- and
NW-trending diabase dykes were intruded last. Sulphide
mineralization is present in the peridotite.
Although the surface geochemical Ni and Cu anomalies
over the Poyi ultramafic body are pronounced, most Ni is
contained in the olivine (Dai, 2005) and no sulphide miner-
Fig. 10. Geological map of the Luodong mafic–ultramafic complex and Cu–Ni sulphide ore zones (after the Xinjiang Bureau of Geology, Mineral
Resources, Exploration and Development, 2005).
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J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
alization has yet been identified. On the other hand, sulphide zones have been identified in the Poshi ultramafic
body. Exploration drilling has outlined four outcropping
sulphide zones and five below the surface. The outcropping
mineralization has a semi-circular shape (Fig. 9a). The sulphide mineralization forms lenses, which more or less follow the shape of the lithological zones (Fig. 9b) and dip
toward the center of the complex at 22–80. The styles of
the mineralization are net-textured, and injection veins of
sulphides. Grades range from 0.3% to 0.6% Ni with maximum values of up to 0.96%. The Cu and Co contents in the
ores are low, generally below the cut-off grade, but locally
where the Ni content >0.6%, the Cu and Co grades rise
above the cut-off grades. The Ni resources in the Poshi
complex are 147,000 tonnes, but further exploration is
ongoing. The dominant ore minerals are pentlandite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, and chrome-spinel with
very small amounts of vallerite, bornite, and millerite.
The dominant gangue minerals include olivine, augite,
enstatite, hornblende, phlogopite, and plagioclase. The
ore minerals have euhedral–subhedral granular textures
and locally net-textured, forming mainly sparse disseminations, locally densely disseminated and massive.
4. Discussion and conclusions
4.1. Main characteristics of Cu–Ni sulphide mineralization in
the Chinese Tianshan and Altay orogens
Zhou et al. (2002) pointed out that the most important
features that can explain the origin of Cu–Ni sulphide
accumulations are the ore texture (massive vs. disseminated) and ore distribution (stratiform vs. stratabound),
which are affected by sulphide saturation and intrusion
dynamics (cumulate magma conduit vs. differentiated sill).
Copper–Ni sulphide deposits in the Jueluotage (East Tianshan) mainly contain low-grade disseminated ore, while
high-grade massive ore only occurs in Kalatongke and Tianyu. However, both of these types reflect the injection of
ore-bearing magma in a late mineralization stage. The orebodies are mainly stratiform and usually form at the bottom of a magma chamber. The sulphide mineralization
formed as sulphide liquid injections and as hydrothermal
veins, during post-magmatic stages.
In the Chinese Tianshan and Altay orogens, Cu–Ni sulphide deposits belong to one of two types: net-textured and
conduit. The former is represented by the Kalatongke,
Huangshan, Huangshandong, and Poshi deposits, while
representative deposits for the latter include the Baishiquan, Tianyu, Tula’ergen, and Xiangshan deposits. Based
on a study of the world-class Jinchuan deposit, Tang
(1996, 2002) found that the Jinchuan intrusion has only
an area of 1.34 km2 but contains 5.45 million tonnes of
Ni metal (with a grade of 1.06%) and 3.50 million tonnes
of Cu metal. Tang (1996, 2002) proposed that a large ore
deposit forms in a small intrusion when the parent magma
undergoes fractional crystallization at depth before it is
intruded into the present position, resulting in separation
of the parent magma into ore-rich magma, and barren
magma. This may be followed by one or multiple injections
of sulphide liquid. Based on the chemical composition of
the intrusion, Chai and Naldrett (1992) proposed another
model, namely that Cu and Ni sulphides are derived by
the differentiation of Mg-rich basaltic magma, and that
the ore-rich dunite is in the root zone of the magma chamber. Extensive Mg-rich basalt may have erupted at the surface and is probably eroded away. The superlarge Noril’sk
deposit of Russia is in general terms similar to the model
proposed by Tang (1996, 2002), although the Noril’sk
deposit is the product of emplacement of subvolcanic
magma along conduits, associated with the outpouring of
continental flood basalt in Siberia.
The mafic–ultramafic bodies and their contained Cu–Ni
sulphide deposits of the Chinese Tianshan and Altay orogens, are all comparatively small, and even the Kalatongke,
Huangshan, Huangshandong, and Poshi intrusions, which
have distinct zonings due to magmatic differentiation, are
all <5 km2 in area. Drilling also indicates that these
mafic–ultramafic complexes are funnel-shaped, or lotus
root-shaped, becoming smaller with depth (Figs. 2b and
4b). Thus, it is possible that both types are magma conduits
forming differentiated intrusions distributed along deep
faults and emplaced in the same period of time. The intrusions are commonly elongated, which seems to reflect the
features of the root zone of extensive continental
magmatism.
The Cu–Ni sulphide deposits of the Chinese Tianshan
and Altay orogens are predominantly characterized by
sparsely disseminated sulphides and are generally of lowgrade. Li et al. (2003a) argued that the reason for this phenomenon is the lack of adequate sulphur concentration in
the magma system. Although the Re/Os isotope (Mao
et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006c; Han
et al., 2006) and Sm/Nd isotope (Zhou et al., 2004) studies
suggest that the magma chamber was contaminated by
crustal materials. The crustal materials incorporated in
the magmas were mostly turbidite, clastic rocks, carbonate
rocks, and schist, all of which are deficient in sulphide. This
is unlike the superlarge Jinchuan Ni deposit, where a large
amount of black shales in its surrounding Proterozoic
strata may have provided the sulphur contaminant to the
parental magma (Tang and Li, 1995) or the Noril’sk
deposit, where the magmas may have interacted with evaporite beds (Naldrett, 1999).
4.2. Tectonic environment and mineral deposit model
There are a number of classification schemes of magmatic Cu–Ni–(PGE) sulphide deposits, which are all
related to the characteristics of mafic–ultramafic rocks
and their geological environment (Chai et al., 2005). Naldrett (1989, 1997) distinguished four deposit types: (1) greenstone belt, (2) continental-margin rift, (3) cratonic, and (4)
active orogenic belt. The last type may be subdivided into
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
deposits related to synorogenic intrusive rocks and deposit
related to the Alaskan type complexes. The Alaskan type
mafic–ultramafic complexes are concentrically zoned intrusions that may have been emplaced in an island-arc setting
and/or possibly in a back-arc setting. The possibility that
some of the Tian Shan and Altay mafic–ultramafic intrusions have similar features to Alaskan type complexes is
discussed by Pirajno et al. (2008). Tang and Li (1995) classified magmatic ore deposits into: (1) Proterozoic deposits
related to meteorite impact structures; (2) post-Proterozoic
deposits in small intrusions emplaced in continental rifts,
(3) Phanerozoic deposits related to continental flood
basalt, (4) deposits related to komatiite fields in an Archean
greenstone belt, and (5) Paleoproterozoic deposits related
to continental layered intrusions. Pirajno (2000) emphasized the close relationship between mantle plumes and
magmatic Cu–Ni sulphide. Typical examples are the
world-class Cu–Ni sulphide deposits of Noril’sk in Russia
and the smaller deposits of Jinbaoshan, Yangliuping, and
Limahe, and the Panzhihua superlarge V–Ti–magnetite
deposits related to the Emeishan mantle plume in SW
China. The Cu–Ni sulphide deposits of the Chinese Tianshan and Altay are in orogenic belts; however, they are neither the product of orogenic processes nor of active
continental margins, but are associated with post-collision
tectono-thermal events.
Recently Re–Os dating of Cu–Ni sulphide ores from the
Kalatongke, Huangshandong, and Xiangshan deposits
(Table 2) yielded ages of 298–282 Ma (Mao et al., 2002;
Zhang et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006c; Zhang et al., 2008); zircon SHRIMP U–Pb dating of mineralized intrusions
(including Kalatongke, Huangshandong, Huangshan, Baishiquan, Poshi, and Poyi) yielded ages of 285–270 Ma
(Han et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2005; Li
et al., 2006a; Jiang et al., 2006). These age data indicate
199
that these Cu–Ni sulphide ore districts are associated with
the same geodynamic event. In addition, and importantly,
they overprint deformation fabrics in the Altay, Junggar,
and Jueluotage orogenic belts, Central Tianshan block,
and Beishan Hercynian rift. In fact, this ore-forming event,
occurring in the period from the Late Carboniferous–Early
Permian, not only generated magmatic Cu–Ni sulphide
deposits but also hydrothermal Fe, Fe–Cu, and Pb–Zn–
Ag deposits related to granite activity, shear zone-hosted
orogenic Au deposits, and epithermal Au deposits (Li
et al., 1998; Mao et al., 2005). Therefore, we conclude that
this is a large-scale ore-forming event not only in the Chinese Tianshan and Altay, (Xinjiang Province), but also in
the adjacent Central Asian Tianshan and Altay. For example, world-class gold metallogenic belt also formed in this
same period of time in the South Tianshan (Yakubchuk
et al., 2001; Mao et al., 2004).
There are contrasting views as to the geodynamic evolution, the role of the closure of oceanic basins, accretionary
tectonics and the suturing of colliding terranes in the Central Asia Orogenic Belt of northern Xinjiang and Central
Asia (Ma et al., 1990; Xiao and Tang, 1991; Xiao et al.,
2004; He et al., 1994; Li et al., 2003b). Most researchers
prefer the view that a Paleo-Thetys Ocean closed during
the Mid-Late Carboniferous to Early Permian. The timing
of the opening and closing of this paleo-ocean in northern
Xinjiang and its adjacent regions differed from place to
place (Li et al., 2006b). The study of Xia et al. (2004) indicates that the extensive 345–325 Ma volcanism affected an
area of 1.5 · 106 km2 in the Tianshan formed in a rift environment and was probably related to mantle plume activity. In recent years there has been a growing interest in
post-collisional tectonic processes in Xinjiang and its adjacent regions. Wang and Xu (2006) suggested that the postcollision in northern Xinjiang experienced two cycles, one
Table 2
Ages of the Cu–Ni sulphide deposits and related mafic rocks in the Chinese Tianshan–Altay
Name of deposit or
complex
Tectonic position
Analytic method and rock/ore
Age (Ma)
Data source
Kalatongke deposit
Altay orogenic belt
Kalatongke No. 1
intrusion
Huangshandong deposit
Altay orogenic belt
Re–Os isochron; sulphide ore,
No. 1 orebody, No. 2 orebody
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb; norite
282.5 ± 4.8
290.2 ± 6.9
287 ± 5
Zhang et al.
(2005)
Han et al. (2004)
Re–Os isochron; sulphide ore
282 ± 20
Mao et al. (2002)
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb; biotite–olivine norite
274 ± 3
Han et al. (2004)
Re–Os isochron; sulphide ore
298 ± 7.1
Li et al. (2006c)
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb
285 ± 1.2
Qin et al. (2003)
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb; diorite
269 ± 2
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb: Quartz diorite, Gabbro
diorite, Gabbro
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb; gabbro
SHRIMP zircon U–Pb; hornblende gabbro
285 ± 10, 284 ± 9,
284 ± 8
278 ± 2
274 ± 4
Zhou et al.
(2004)
Wu et al. (2005)
Huangshandong
complex
Xiangshan deposit
Xiangshan intrusion
Huangshan intrusion
Baishiquan complex
Poyi complex
Poshi complex
Jueluotage orogenic
belt
Jueluotage orogenic
belt
Jueluotage orogenic
belt
Jueluotage orogenic
belt
Jueluotage orogenic
belt
Central Tianshan
block
Beishan Paleozoic rift
Beishan Paleozoic rift
Li et al. (2006a)
Jiang et al. (2006)
200
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Fig. 11. Model of the formation and preservation of post-collisional magmatic Cu–Ni sulphide deposits in the Chinese Tianshan and Altay orogenic belts.
of the Early Carboniferous extension–Late Carboniferous
compression and uplift and one of Early Permian extension–Late Permian compression and uplift. The earlier
extension was probably associated with lithospheric delamination, following the main accretion/collision event,
whereas the second extension was probably related to the
impingement of a mantle–plume onto a more rigid continental crust. Voluminous mafic volcanic rocks of the Early
Carboniferous extension stage are present in northern
Xinjiang, whereas for the Early Permian extension stage
only sporadical volcanic rocks remain, probably due to
erosion, although thick sequences of basaltic rocks are
locally present. For example, the thickness of the Early
Permian volcanic rocks in the Santanghu basin between
the Tianshan and Altay are >1000 m (Hao et al., 2006),
and Yang et al. (2006) discovered Permian (272 ± 4 Ma)
andesite–rhyolite in middle part of the North Tianshan
during regional geological mapping. Moreover, Chen
et al. (1997) confirmed 200,000 km2 of flood basalt based
on the data of outcrop distribution, drilling wells and aeromagmatic anomalies in Tarim basin. Xing et al. (2004) recognized the basalt in the periphery of the Tu–Ha basin. As
stated above, large-scale mineralization occurred during
the Early Permian post-collisional extension event, accompanied by A-type granite intrusions with eNd = +6.7 to
+9.3 and that produced vertical crustal accretion (Jahn
et al., 2000, 2004; see also Pirajno et al., 2008). For both
large-scale mineralization and crustal vertical accretion,
large amounts of heat energy are required. The contemporaneous mafic and felsic magmatism was the consequence
of a regional geodynamic event, which may have been part
of the mantle plume activity that affected the whole of Central Asia (Dobretsov and Buslov, 2005; Borisenko et al.,
2006; Pirajno et al., 1997). The E–W-trending mafic–ultramafic bodies that are distributed along several regional
faults and their associated Cu–Ni sulphide deposits are
likely to have been the roots or feeder conduits of the overlying lavas. Following the closing of the Neo-Tethys ocean,
the collision of India with Asia and the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, the Tianshan–Altay were reactivated and significantly uplifted in the Cenozoic. This reactivation and
uplift caused the erosion of the Early Permian volcanic
rocks, however their feeders and magma chambers, which
form the mafic–ultramafic complexes are still preserved.
The Cu–Ni sulphide mineralization is contained in these
feeders and magmatic chambers (Fig. 11).
4.3. Reflections on further mineral exploration
With the rising prices of mineral commodities, more
prospecting and exploration are being carried out in China
than ever before. In the past few years several new Cu–Ni
sulphide deposits and occurrences have been discovered in
Xinjiang and several low-grade deposits have began production. More attention is now directed to where and
how more deposits, especially large and superlarge deposits
can be discovered.
Two main types of Cu–Ni sulphide deposits are distinguished: (1) deposits in large layered complexes such as
the Bushveld Igneous Complex of South Africa and the
Sudbury Igneous Complex of Canada, although the latter
is related to a meteorite impact and (2) differentiated sill
and conduit type deposits related to small intrusive complexes. In the eastern part of northern Xinjiang, the Cu–
Ni deposits belong to second type. Therefore, we suggest
that mineral exploration should focus along the regional
deep faults both in Xinjiang and the Central Asia region
in order to identify small exposed mafic–ultramafic complexes and associated diabase dykes swarms. Most parts
of Xinjiang have good exposure and mafic–ultramafic complexes related to Cu–Ni sulphide deposits usually exhibit
strong alteration, such as serpentinization, uralitization,
chloritization, and tremolitization. In such conditions, the
use of remote sensing techniques to recognize hydrated minerals and/or copper-bearing minerals can be very effective.
We suggest that attention be given to areas with black
shales and evaporites rocks, because these may have provided the necessary sulphur contamination to the mafic–
ultramafic magmas.
Acknowledgments
This research was jointly supported by National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 40402012), Geological
J.W. Mao et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32 (2008) 184–203
Survey Project (Nos. 1212010561506, 1212010633911) and
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral
Resources (No. GPMR200627). We are grateful to the
Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Exploration
and Development and its affiliated Nos. 6 and 4 geological
parties and related leaders and staff members of the State
305 Project for their great logistical and moral support.
We have greatly benefited from the exchange of ideas with
our colleagues such as Li Jinyi, Liu Dequan, and Qin Kezhang. Franco Pirajno publishes with the permission of the
Executive Director of the Geological Survey of Western
Australia.
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