Key Competence in Computer Science

Transcription

Key Competence in Computer Science
Schlüsselqualifikationen für Informatiker
Stefan Klinger
Databases and Information Systems
University of Konstanz
Winter 2015
0 · Prelude
0.1
I
I
What this is all about
Having fun with cool software!
Show you the UNIX toolbox:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
I
What this is all about · 0.1
Unix-like environments & the shell.
The usual command-line suspects (e.g., GNU coreutils).
Editors, and text encoding.
Writing papers with LATEX.
Secure Shell, and cryptography.
Shell scripting.
Source code management with Subversion.
...
Not in this order!
1. Short term: Use LATEX and Subversion to hand in your exercises.
2. Long term: Become a proficient (Unix) user. (cf. page 13)
This course is ...
I ...“the same” as last semester.
I ...not an official “Schlüsselqualifikation” course.
Stefan Klinger · DBIS
Key Competence in Computer Science · Winter 2015
2
0 · Prelude
0.2
Personnel · 0.2
Personnel
Prof. Marc Scholl Chair for Databases and Information Systems (DBIS)
web http://dbis.uni-konstanz.de/
office PZ811
Stefan Klinger I give this Lecture
mail stefan.klinger@uni-konstanz.de
office PZ804
Claudia Bartholt Tutor
mail claudia.bartholt@uni-konstanz.de
pool V304, Do 15:15–17:00
Benjamin Stauss Tutor
mail benjamin.stauss@uni-konstanz.de
pool V304, Fr 15:15–17:00
3
0 · Prelude
0.3
Coordinates · 0.3
Coordinates
material https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/
This will be updated on a regular basis.
lecture Monday, 10:00–11:30, M629
tutorials There are no tutorials.
I The tutors attend the pools regularly (cf. previous slide).
I
It is not mandatory to see the tutors, only if you need help.
credits One very simple assignment every week.
I Released every Monday, due on the next Monday, 9:45 a.m.
I
To pass, you need to achieve 50% of all exercise points, and not
more than 3 assignments may be graded < 10%.
I
You will work on the exercises in teams, cf. next slide.
4
0 · Prelude
Coordinates · 0.3
How much work is it?
I
This course: 3c
I ECTS1
I
Rule of thumb: Double the lecture times for your homework.
Unit c for credits.
says: 1c ≡ 30h
Unit h for hours.
This semester: 15w
Unit w for weeks.
3c · 30 hc
h
= 6
15w
w
I
2 wh for the lecture (actually, it’s only 1.5h), plus
I
4 wh to post process the lecture, get help from the tutors, and solve the
exercise.
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System
5
0 · Prelude
0.4
Registration · 0.4
Registration — Important
This week
Form groups of two as described in the 1st assignment2 .
Deadline: next Monday.
“Prüfungsanmeldung” You have to sign up (binding!) for this course
via StudIS3 , during the registration period4 .
cf. Information by faculty
2 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/assignment01.pdf
3 https://studis.uni-konstanz.de/
4 http://www.informatik.uni-konstanz.de/studieren/studium/
pos-pruefungsinformationen/pruefungsanmeldung/
6
1
Toolbox basis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Free_or_Die
1 · Toolbox basis
1.1
Why use Unix? · 1.1
Why use Unix?
I
Unix [pl. Unices] — rather a generic term today, dates back to 1969 at
the AT&T Bell Labs.
I
The trademark UNIX is owned by The Open Group. Must be used
solely for systems certified according to the Single UNIX Specification.
Similar systems manifest the family of unixoid or unix-like operating
systems, e.g.,
I
•
•
•
•
•
GNU/Linux
Android
the BSD family
Mac OS X
...
Standardising documents: POSIX, Linux Standard Base, etc.
⇒ The “Unix Idea” is wide-spread and well-established.
8
S 4.3.5
NetBSD
Unix
System
NetBSD 0.9
iOS 5
iOSV
iOS 5.1Why use
march0.8
1, 1999
Unix? · 1.1
1989
october 12, 2011 april 20, 1993
(S800)
4.1ES
august
23, 1.1
1993
may
7
march
2012 Release BSD
Mach
2.5 7, SunOS
SunOS
SunSoft UNIX
1.2
1.3.3
Net/1
NetBSD
1.4.
2.0
H1 1991MachNetBSD
december
199
(4.3BS
1988
april 1984
Interactive 4.1
december 23, 1998 UniSoft
august 26,
199
january 1985
er 1988
june
FreeBSD 1.0
1992
UniPlus
NIX
Time-Sharing System
nix SVR3.2
Microport Unix
SVR4.0
Microport
december
1993 5.1
NetBSD
1.4 Unix SVR4.1
Silver OS
OpenBSD
m
System Vmt Xinu
Ninth Edition (V9)
HP-UX 9.0
(S800)
OpenBSD
5.0 8.02 (S800)
more/BSD
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12,
1999
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8.06
(S800)
HP-UX
8.0
(S300/S800)
july 10, 2004
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may
1,
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2.12012
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1986
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7, 1992m
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1988
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1.6.2
august
5,
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0.1
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27,
1991
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3.029, 2004
1988SVR4 Issue 2
february
Dell Unix
3.2
ekkoBSD
1.0 BETA FreeBSD
2
july 14,
1992
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3.1 1987
Dell
Unix
SVR4.0
october
16, IRIX
1998
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IRIX
2.08.04 (S800)
ekkoBSD
BETA 2
1999
february
15,
1999
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july 7, 2004 may 18,
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BLS
1990
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0
patch
100
1986
NonStop-UX
november
18,
1987
june 10,
Darwin
11.1
february
18, 2004
DragonFlyH2 1991
DragonFly
december
27,
1998
Dar1
Darwin 11.2
DragonFly
BSD 1.0-RC1
2.10.1BSD
january
1993
Darwin
11.3
april
10,
1987
august
25,
DragonFly
BSD
(beta)
Linux
0.02
BSD
1.0 0.12 BSD 1.0A Linux 0.95
0.01
OpenSolaris
2008.05 Linux
Linux
FreeBSD
2.2.8 1989
may
october
12,
2011
june
28,
2004
january
february
6,
2012
SCO
XENIX
2011
march
october 5,
1991
MachSys
julyjanuary
12,V/386
2004
july 15, 2004march
8, 1992
SCO
XENIX System
november 29,(Indiana)
1998 5, 2004august 1, 1991
16, 1992
V/386 release
2.
SCO UnixWare
7.1.4 4.10
FreeBSD
may
5, 2008
1985 9,0
october 1987
IRIS&GL2
5.0
MidnightBSDjune
0.1
PS/2
AIX/370
HP-UX
0OS XAIX
HP-UX
8.07
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0c
1989
MIPS
OS
Maintenance
Pack
4 2004
HP-UX
8.01
(S700)
10.6.8
HP-UX
8.05
(S300/700)
may
27,
IRIS GL2 6.0
dec.
1986
august
5,
2007
1.2.1
(S300/S70
june 11,2008 4.4BSD
february415, 2004
RISC/os
AndroidUNIX
1.0 Time-Shar
february 1991
.3.01
4.4BSD(S300/S700)
Encumbered
v1.1
july 1991
1987
february
22,
GNULite
(Trix)
4.4BSD
21991
november
2,a1
Eighth Editio
june 1, 1993
november
21,
1991
september
23, 2008
2007
june 1993
y 25, 2011
Venix 3.2.4
1986
OpenBSD
2.5
DragonFly
BSD february
1
4.3BSD
Reno
SD
2.3
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2.4
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n
9
HPBSD
2.0
OS
X
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OS
X
Lio
OS
X
Lion
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may
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1999
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X
Lion
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BSD
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9,
december 1, 1998
1.10.0
june
1990 V/386
y 1998
BSD
1.8.02.6.25
1
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Linux
Linux
2.6.27
UNIX
System
april
19932.6.26
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10.7.2
10.7.4
10.7.1
10.7.3
1.8.1
december
1992
SD
5.2
6, 20079, 2008augusF
30,april
200717,
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1
13,
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2008
Release
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V/386
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3.0
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NX/Neutrino
may
9, 20
august
2011
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V
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Sy
OS
10.6.82.0
february
1,
2012
m VX
march
27,
2007
12,
2004
february 25, 2004
1992
QNX
4.0
DesktopBSD 1.6-RC3
1991
MirBSD
Release#7quater
3.2
QNX 2.21
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rver1998
v1.13.1
.0
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AIX
1990
july
2007
SCO XENIX
june
14, 2004
OS
X25,
Mountain
RISC
Unix Lion
1987
198
y 25, 2011
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XENIX 3.0
1990
OpenBSD 3.5
Coherent
4.0S
6.2 1990
System
Darwin 0.21984
Darwin 0.1
betaDarwin
0.3 V/286
198810.8
february
april 1983
4.1.3
SunOS
4.1.3_U1
02007SunOS
may 1,IRIS
2004
G
may
1992
may
13,
1999
march
16,
1999
august
16,
1999
1985
february 16, 2012
1.1a)2.0
(
IRIS GL2 1.5
A/UX
A/UX 3.0 (Solaris 1.1.1)
es (Solaris
SunOS 4.
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Chorus/MiX
V3.2
augustSunOS
1992
1993
OS X (DP1) SunOS
4.0 Oracle Solaris
SunOS10
4.0.3
4.1
june
1990
8/111983
april 16,
1992 december
aug
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AIX
PS/2
1.3
(Solaris
1988
may 10, 1999 march 1990
Solaris 2.3 (sparc)
Solaris
2.2 (sparc)
1989
may
september
15,1989
2011
Solaris 2.1
june
3, 2004
october
2,
1991
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Unix
november
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PureDarwin
Unicos
2.0 5.1)
Unicos
(SunOS7.2.1
5.3) september 2
(SunOS3.0
5.2)
(SunOS
Solaris
719, 1986
UNIX
System ju
july
16,
2004
Solaris2007
7,
3/99 may25,
december
september
1987
Solaris
7,
8/99
Solaris
7,
5/99
november
1993
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7
1993
december
1992
(SunOS
5.7)
march 1999
augustV/286
1999
may V
1999
marchBlackBerry
1988
octoberNeXTSTEP
27, 1998
BlackBerry BBX
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10
OpenBSD
4.1System
UNIX
System
V 3.0
NeXTSTEP
3.2 1985
NeXTSTEP
3.1Release
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7.4
Darwin
7.3HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0806
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3.0
(announced)
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.2
(announced)
may
1,
2007
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OS
X
Server
1.0
psody DR2
september
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january
1983 1992 march 15, 2004
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may
25,
1993
may
26,
2004
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2008
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OS
1.0
october
2003
may
1,1999
2012
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2.04.1 au
16, 1999 april 1984
1.018, 2011 marchMac
ay,
1998
july
22,
UNIX
Solaris 2.0 (x86) NeXTSTEP
OS X 10.4 (Tiger
beta)
Solaris
2.1Interactive
(x86)
august
21,32
june
29, 2007 HP-UX
18, 1990
11.31/11iv3
Update
18, 1989
ate 2 (0803)
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Unix V/386
1988
end 1992 septemberMac
Mac OS Xsept.
10.3.5
Dynix
june
28, 2004
OS X 10.3.4 Oracle Solaris
11
laris 2.5.1 Mac OS X 10.3.3
september
2008
september
1987
august
9,
2004
1984
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2.0
HP-UX 2.1
may 26, 2004 november 9, 2011AppleTV 1.1
AppleTV
1.0
march
2004
er 1998 HP-UX
1.015,
(S800)
HP-UX 1.1
HP-UX
(S800)
march
2007
2.6 1.2
Mach 3 (S800)
june 20,Mach
2007
november
20,21,
1986
Mac OS X 10.3.4
(S800)CXOsMac march
OS X 10.3.5
Darwin 8.9 (S800)
OpenIndiana
1988
july
1988
Mac OS X 10.3.3 Server
Tru64
Unix
V5.0
TS 5.2
Tru64 Unix
V4.0F
august
17, 1987
Serverapril
nov. 16, 1987
Server
17, 2007
build
august 12, 1999
1984
UNIX151a
Time-Sharing
System
march
15, 2004 1983
february
1, 1999
Sinix
5.40
Sinix
5.41
SPIX
32 september
may
26,
2004
august
9,
2004
14,
2011
Mac
OS
X
10.4
Server
OSF/1
July 2013 from
http://www.levenez.com/unix/
1992 IRIX 6.5.2 Tenth Edition (V10)
1993 HP-UX 6.2
RIX
6.5.1M
HP-UX
5.2
HP-UX Xinu
6.0
Macbeta)
OS X 10.4.10
ac OS
XHP-UX
10.4.9
(Tiger
1990
october 1989
5.1
(S200/S300)
6.5.4
5.0juneIRIX
IRIX 6.5.3 IRIX
Sinix
5.20
1984
IRIX
6.5.5
IRIX
4.0.4
november
17, 1998 AIX
ust 14,13,
1998
IRIX 5.1 (S300)
(S300)
(S300)
20,11,2007
6.1 TL1
arch
2007
june
28,·2004
Stefan Klinger
· H1
DBIS
Key Competence
in Computer
Science
Winter
2015
may
1999
february
9, 1999
1986
august
march
1993
1990 6, 1999 9
HP-UX
7.08basis
t25,
17,
1998
1 ·2011
Toolbox
2004
Unix history
2007
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
UNIX Time-Sharing System
Seventh Edition Modified
(V7M)
december 1980
1982
1983
V7M 2.1
october 1981
1984
1985
Ultrix 32M 1.0
1984
2.79BSD
april 1980
2.8BSD
july 1981
1986
2.8.2BSD
september 8, 1982
2.8.1BSD
january 1982
2.9BSD
july 1983
1987
1988
Ultrix-11 v3.1
1986
Ultrix-11 v3.0
1986
Ultrix-11
1989
Ultrix 4.2
Ultrix 32M 2.0
1987
Ultrix 32M 1.2
1985
mt Xinu
(4.2BSD)
mt Xinu
july 19, 1983
2BSD
may 10, 1979
1BSD
march 9, 1978
UNSW 01
january 1978
UNIX 32V
may 1979
BRL Unix V4.1
july 1979
LSX
Second Edition (V2)
june 12, 1972
Third Edition (V3)
february 1973
Fourth Edition (V4)
november 1973
Fifth Edition (V5)
june 1974
Sixth Edition (V6)
may 1975
4.1aBSD
april 1982
4.1BSD
june 1981
4.1bBSD
august 1982
UniSoft
UniPlus V7
1981
UNSW 81
april 1981
V7appenda
february 12, 1980
Tunis
1981
QNX beta
1983
SunOS 1.0
february 1982
PWB 1.0
july 1, 1977
PWB 2.0
1978
PWB 1.2
CB
UNIX 2
CB UNIX 1
USG 1.0
SunOS 1.1
april 1984
UniSoft
UniPlus
System V
1983
SunOS 2.0
may 15, 1985
SunOS 3.2
september 1986
SunOS 3.0
february 17,
1986
BRL Unix
(4.2BSD)
1985
TS 4.0.1
1981
SCO XENIX 3.0
february 1984
IRIS GL2 1.5
mid-1984
SCO XENIX
System V/286
1985
Plan 9
UNIX System V
Release 3.0
1986
CXOs
1984
Xinu
1984
TS 5.2
1983
IS/3
CXOs 0.9
sept. 1985
Interactive 386/ix
1985
IS/5
HP-UX 1.0 (S500)
H1 1983
HP-UX 2.0 (S500)
H1 1984
HP-UX 2.1 (S500)
september 1984
HP-UX 2.0 (S200)
august 1983
Locus
1985
Venix
Chorus
1986
Unicos 1.0
april 3, 1986
Venix 1.0
1985
IRIS GL2 5.0
dec. 1986
GNU (Trix)
1986
UNIX System
V/386 rel 3.0
Unicos 2.0
december 19, 1986
HP-UX 5.0
(S200/S300)
H1 1986
Venix 2.0
1986
HP-UX 1.0 (S800)
november 20, 1986
SPIX 32
HP-UX 5.1 (S200/S300)
H1 1986
Note 1 : an arrow indicates an inheritance like a compatibility, it is not only a matter of source code.
Note 2 : this diagram shows complete systems and [micro]kernels like Mach, Linux, the Hurd... This is because
sometimes kernel versions are more appropriate to see the evolution of the system.
Coherent
june 1983
AIX/RT 2
1986
Acorn RISC Unix
1988
Xinu 7
march 1988
Venix/286
Minix 1.0
1987
AIX/RT 2.1.2
HP-UX 6.2
(S300)
june 1988
Venix 3.2
AIX/RT 2.2.1
1987
HP-UX 3.0
(S800)
nov. 11, 1988
CTIX 4.0
HP-UX 7.0
(S300/S800)
H2 1989
Dell Unix SVR1.1
november 1, 1989
HP-UX 7.06
(S800)
H2 1990
Venix 3.2.3
AIX/6000 v3
1989
A/UX 1.0
february 1988
AIX 3.1
1990
AIX 3.2
1990
A/UX 2.0
june 1990
HP-UX 8.01 (S700)
february 1991
Venix 3.2.4
SunSoft UNIX
Interactive 4.1
1992
HP-UX 8.02 (S800)
august 5, 1991
Linux 0.02
october 5, 1991
HP-UX 8.05 (S300/700)
july 1991
AIX/ESA 1
1991
BSD/OS 2.0
(BSDI)
january 1995
AIX/ESA 2.1
1992
A/UX 3.0
april 16, 1992
Coherent 4.0
may 1992
SunOS 4.1.3_U1b
(Solaris 1.1.1B)
february 1994
AIX 3.2.4
july 1993
A/UX 3.0.1
1996
BSD/OS 2.1
(BSDI)
february 13, 1996
1997
BSD/OS 3.0
(BSDI)
february 26, 1997
FreeBSD 2.1.5
july 14, 1996
FreeBSD 2.1.6
november 16, 1996
FreeBSD 2.1.7
FreeBSD 2.2.1
february 20, 1997
march 25, 1997
2.11BSD
patch 366
february 1997
OpenBSD 2.0
october 1996
FreeBSD 2.2.5
october 22, 1997
OpenBSD 2.1
june 1, 1997
Linux 1.0.9
april 17, 1994
AIX/ESA 2.2
1994
A/UX 3.0.2
OpenBSD 2.3
may 19, 1998
Dynix/ptx 4.4
1996
AIX 4.1
august 12, 1994
Linux 1.3
june 12, 1995
Unicos/mk 1.2.5
november 11, 1996
AIX 4.1.1
october 28, 1994
A/UX 3.1
Coherent 4.2.10
1995
AIX 4.1.3
july 7, 1995
A/UX 3.1.1
1995
AIX 4.1.4
october 20, 1995
OPENSTEP 4.1
december 1996
UnixWare 2.1.2
october 1996
Unicos/mk 1.3
december 9, 1996
Unicos 9.1
march 15, 1996
OPENSTEP 4.2
january 1997
AIX 4.1.5
november 8, 1996
2000
BSD/OS 4.1
(BSDI)
december 20, 1999
Mach 4
1998
OpenBSD 2.5
may 19, 1999
FreeBSD 3.5
june 24, 2000
IRIX 6.5.1M
IRIX 6.5
august 14, 1998
june 15, 1998
NonStop-UX C50
june 3, 1998
OpenServer 5.0.5
august 12, 1998
Solaris 8
(beta)
nov 2, 1999
IRIX 6.5.3
february 9, 1999
UnixWare 7
Unix System V Release 5
march 3, 1998
Xinu 8
1998
UNIX Interactive 4.1.1
july 21, 1998
OS/390 Unix V2R5
march 27, 1998
UnixWare 7.0.1
september 8, 1998
Unicos/mk 2.0.3
may 1998
Dynix/ptx 4.4.4
1998
Unicos 10.0.0.2
Unicos 10.0.0.3
may 1998
october 1998
UnixWare 7.1
february 23, 1999
Unicos/mk 2.0.4
january 25, 1999
Unicos 10.0.0.4
february 1999
OS/390 Unix V2R7
march 26, 1999
HP-UX 11.0 9905
may 1999
MkLinux Pre-R1
1999
Linux 2.0.37
june 14, 1999
Linux 2.1.132
december 22, 1998
Minix 2.0.0
january 1997
AIX 4.3
october 31, 1997
AIX 4.3.1
april 24, 1998
Dynix/ptx 4.5
1999
Unicos 10.0.0.5
may 1999
Unicos/mk 2.0.5
october 18, 1999
NonStop-UX C52
april 20, 2000
IRIX 6.5.8
may 22, 2000
Tru64 Unix V5.1
august 2000
FreeBSD 4.4
september 19, 2001
Minix 2.0.2
december 1998
Monterey
(announced)
october 1998
AIX 4.3.2
october 23, 1998
Linux 2.2.0
january 26, 1999
Linux 2.2.8
may 11, 1999
UnixWare 7.1.1+LKP
august 21, 2000
Linux 2.3.14
august 19, 1999
OS/390 Unix V2R9
march 31, 2000
MkLinux R1
december 11, 1999
Linux 2.3.51
march 10, 2000
HP-UX 11.10
march 2000
Linux 2.4.0 test8
september 8, 2000
OS/390 Unix V2R10
september 29, 2000
Darwin 5.1
Mac OS X
Mac OS X
10.1.2
10.1.1
nov 13, 2001 dec 20, 2001
Solaris 8 10/01
october 2001
Mac OS X
Server 10.1.1
november
21, 2001
Mac OS X
Server 10.1
september 29, 2001
Darwin
5.2
Darwin 5.3
Mac OS X 10.1.3
february 19, 2002
Linux 2.2.12
august 26, 1999
Mac OS X Server
10.1.3
february 20, 2002
Linux 2.2.16
june 7, 2000
Linux 2.2.17
september 4, 2000
IRIX 6.5.15
february 6, 2002
IRIX 6.5.13
IRIX 6.5.14
november 7, 2001
august 8, 2001
NonStop-UX C53
october 19, 2001
Debian GNU/Hurd G1
Debian GNU/Hurd H2
october 10, 2001
december 4, 2001
OpenServer 5.0.6a
june 8, 2001
Linux 2.2.18
december 11, 2000
Open UNIX 8 MP1
Release 8.0
august 8, 2001
Open UNIX 8
Release 8.0
june 11, 2001
Linux 2.4.3
march 30, 2001
Linux 2.4.5
may 25, 2001
Open UNIX 8 MP2
Release 8.0
november 6, 2001
Debian GNU/Hurd H3
february 26, 2002
Unicos/mk 2.0.6
january 2002
2003
BSD/OS 4.3.1
december 21, 2002
2004
BSD/OS 5.0
may 2, 2003
NetBSD 1.6.1
april 14, 2003
DragonFly BSD
july 16, 2003
FreeBSD 4.6.2
august 15, 2002
Linux 2.4.15
november 23, 2001
S-E Linux 2.0
september 26, 2001
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0109
september 2001
Linux 2.4.17
december
21, 2001
z/OS Unix V1R2
october 26, 2001
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0112
december 2001
Linux 2.5.0
november 23, 2001
HP-UX 11.20 aka 11iv1.5 (IA)
june 2001
Linux 2.2.20
november 2, 2001
MirBSD
august 29, 2002
MirBSD #0
october 11, 2002
QNX 6.2 (patch A)
october 18, 2002
Darwin 6.0.1
sept. 23, 2002
Darwin 5.5
Mac OS X 10.2
(Jaguar)
august 13, 2002
Mac OS X
10.2.1
sept. 18, 2002
Mac OS X
Server 10.2.1
sept. 18, 2002
Mac OS X Server
10.2.3
december 19, 2002
Mac OS X Server
10.2.2
november 11, 2002
Solaris 9 OE 12/02
december 2002
Solaris 9 OE 9/02
sept. 2002
Unicos/mp 1.0
august 23, 2002
NonStop-UX C61
october 2, 2002
OpenServer 5.0.7 (announced)
august 26, 2002
Debian GNU/Hurd J2
october 10, 2002
Mac OS X Server
10.2.4
february 24, 2003
Mac OS X Server
10.2.5
april 14, 2003
Solaris 9 x86 PE
february 6, 2003
Linux 2.5.10
april 24, 2002
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0206
june 2002
Linux 2.5.18
may 25, 2002
Unicos/mp 2.0
december 20, 2002
GNU/Hurd-L4
(announced)
november 18, 2002
Unicos/mp 2.1
march 17, 2003
IRIX 6.5.19
february 5, 2003
NonStop-UX C62
january 17, 2003 OpenServer 5.0.7
february 24, 2003
Debian GNU/Hurd K2
march 3, 2003
Debian GNU/Hurd
K1-Unstable
december 12, 2002
Darwin 7.0 Preview
june 25, 2003
Mac OS X 10.3 beta (Panther)
june 23, 2003
Linux 2.5.44
october 19, 2002
Linux 2.2.23
november 29, 2002
Linux 2.5.52
december 15, 2002
Linux 2.5.62
february 17, 2003
Linux 2.2.24
march 5, 2003
Linux 2.5.65
march 17, 2003
AIX 5L 5.0
october 24, 2000
Minix-VMD 1.7.0
november 9, 2000
AIX 5L v5.1
may 4, 2001
Darwin 6.7
sept. 22, 2003
IRIX 6.5.21
august 6, 2003
Darwin 6.8
sept. 22, 2003
Mac OS X
10.2.8
september 22, 2003
Mac OS X Server
10.2.8
september 22, 2003
Darwin 7.0
october 24, 2003
Mac OS X 10.3
october 24, 2003
Mac OS X 10.3
Server
october 24, 2003
FreeBSD 5.2
january 12, 2004
Darwin 7.3
march 15, 2004
Darwin 7.2
december 19, 2003
Mac OS X 10.3.3
march 15, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.2
december 17, 2003
december 19, 2003
march 15, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.4
may 26, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.4
Server
may 26, 2004
Linux 2.4.23
november 28, 2003
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0309
septembre 2003
HP-UX 11.23 aka 11iv2 (IA)
september 2003
Linux 2.6.0
december 17, 2003
Linux 2.6.1
january 8, 2004
Linux 2.4.24
january 5, 2004
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0312
december 2003
Linux 2.6.4
march 10, 2004
Linux 2.4.25
february 18, 2004
Linux 2.6.6
may 9, 2004
MirBSD #8-beta
october 16, 2004
OpenBSD 3.6
october 29, 2004
Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger beta 2)
october 30, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.6
november 5, 2004
NetBSD 2.0.3
october 31, 2005
DragonFly BSD 1.2.0
march 8, 2005
DesktopBSD 1.0-RC1
july 25, 2005
FreeBSD 6
FreeBSD 6
BETA 3
(announced)
august 29, 2005
july 2, 2005
Darwin 7.9
april 15, 2005
Darwin 7.8
february 9, 2005
Mac OS X 10.3.8
february 9, 2005
Mac OS X 10.3.7
december 15, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.7
Server
december 15, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.9
april 15, 2005
Mac OS X 10.3.8
Server
february 9, 2005
april 15, 2005
Darwin 8.0.1
april 29, 2005
Mac OS X 10.4
april 29, 2005
Mac OS X
10.4.2
july 12, 2005
may 19, 2005
Unicos/mp 3.0
march 2005
IRIX 6.5.27
february 2, 2005
OpenServer 6
(Legend beta)
february 23, 2005
Gnuppix GNU/Hurd-L4
0503
march 1, 2005
OpenServer 6
june 22, 2005
OpenSolaris
(announced)
june 14, 2005
Linux 2.6.12
june 17, 2005
Linux 2.4.30
april 3, 2005
PC-BSD1.1
may 28,
2006
PC-BSD 1.11
june 19, 2006
FreeBSD 5.5
may 25, 2006
OpenBSD 3.9
may 1, 2006
GNU-Darwin 1.1 Opteron
may 26, 2006
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 2
october 2003
PC-BSD 1.3
december 31, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.6
Server
april 3, 2006
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 3
may 2004
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 4
december 2004
AIX 5L v5.3
(announced)
july 13, 2004
AIX 5L v5.3.0
august 30, 2004
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 5
january 2005
AIX 5L v5.3
Maintenance Level 1
january 2005
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 6
may 2005
AIX 5L v5.3 ML 2
may 2005
Minix 3
V3.0, V3.1, V3.1.1
october 24, 2005
AIX 5L v5.1 ML 9
september 2005
2008
AIX 5L v5.2 ML 7
september 2005
AIX 5L v5.3 ML 3
september 2005
NetBSD 4.0 RC3
october 19, 2007
MidnightBSD 0.1
august 5, 2007
DragonFly BSD
1.10.0
august 6, 2007
DesktopBSD 1.6-RC3
july 25, 2007
DragonFly BSD
1.8.1
march 27, 2007
DragonFly BSD
1.10.1
august 21, 2007
Plan 9
20060522
may 21, 2006
PC-BSD 1.4
september 24, 2007
DesktopBSD 1.6
january 9, 2008
FreeBSD 6.3
january 18, 2008
OpenBSD 4.1
may 1, 2007
Darwin 8.9
april 17, 2007
iPhone OS 1.0
june 29, 2007
iPhone OS 1.1.1
sept. 27, 2007
iPhone OS 1.0.2
august 21, 2007
AppleTV 1.1
june 20, 2007
Darwin 8.10
october 30, 2007
Darwin 9.0
october 30, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.10
june 20, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.9
march 13, 2007
iPod OS 1.1
sept. 13, 2007
Mac OS X 10.5
(Leopard)
october 26, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.10
Server
june 20, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.9
Server
march 13, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.8
Server
september 30, 2006
Solaris 10 11/06
december 12, 2006
Solaris 10 update 4 8/07
september 4, 2007
Mac OS X 10.5
Server
october 26, 2007
iPhone OS 1.1.3
january 15, 2008
Linux 2.6.21
april 26, 2007
Linux 2.6.22
july 8, 2007
AIX 5L v5.3 TL5
august 2006
iPhone OS 2.0.1
august 4, 2008
AppleTV 2.1
july 10, 2008
Darwin 9.3
june 19, 2008
april 17, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.4
june 30, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.4
Server
june 30, 2008
iPhone OS 2.1
september 12, 2008
Linux 2.4.35.2
september 8, 2007
iPhone OS 2.2
november 21, 2008
AppleTV 2.3
november 20, 2008
Darwin 9.5
september 17, 2008
OpenSolaris 2008.05
(Indiana)
may 5, 2008
SCO UnixWare 7.1.4
Maintenance Pack 4
june 11,2008
Linux 2.6.26
july 13, 2008
Linux 2.6.25
april 17, 2008
2010
Linux 2.6.28
december 24, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.8
Server
august 5, 2009
Darwin 10.1
september 15, 2009
Darwin 10.0
august 28, 2009
Mac OS X 10.6
(Snow Leopard)
august 28, 2009
Mac OS X 10.6
Server
august 28, 2009
iPhone OS 3.1.3
february 2, 2010
AppleTV 3.0.1
november 7, 2009
Darwin 10.2
november 13, 2009
OpenBSD 4.7
may 19, 2010
iPhone OS 3.2
april 3, 2010
AppleTV 3.0.2
february 10, 2010
Darwin 10.3
april 1, 2010
FreeBSD 8.1
july 23, 2010
iOS 4.0.1
july 15, 2010
iOS 4.0.2
august 11, 2010
iOS 3.2.1
iOS 3.2.2
july 15, 2010
august 11, 2010
QNX Neutrino RTOS 6.5.0
july 2010
iOS 4.1
sept. 8, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.3
Server
march 29, 2010
FreeBSD 8.2
february 24, 2011
FreeBSD 7.4
february 24, 2011
iOS 4.3
march 9,
2011
iOS 4.2.1
november 22, 2010
Darwin 10.5
november 17, 2010
Darwin 10.6
january 9, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.5
Server Update 1.1
november 15, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.6
Server
january 6, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.5
Server
november 10, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.4
Server Update 1.1
july 22, 2010
iOS 4.3.2
april 14,
2011
iOS 4.3.3
may 4,
2011
OpenBSD 4.9
may 1, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.7
march 21, 2011
Mac OS X 10.7 beta (Lion)
february 24, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.7
Server
march 21, 2011
FreeBSD 9.0
january 12, 2012
iOS 4.3.4
july 15, 2011
iOS 5
october 12, 2011
Darwin 11.1
august 25,
2011
Mac OS X 10.6.8
Server v1.1
july 25, 2011
OS X Lion
10.7.1
august 20, 2011
2013
NetBSD 6.0
october 17, 2012
NetBSD 6.0.1
december 27, 2012
PC-BSD 9.1
december 18, 2012
DragonFly BSD
3.0.1
february 22, 2012
DragonFly BSD
3.0.2
march 26, 2012
DragonFly BSD
3.0.3
august 22, 2012
DragonFly BSD 3.2.1
november 2, 2012
FreeBSD 9.1
november 12, 2012
FreeBSD 8.3
avril 18, 2012
iOS 5.1.1
may 7, 2012
OpenBSD 5.1
may 1, 2012
iOS 6.0 beta
june 11, 2012
iOS 6.0
september 19, 2012
iOS 6.0.1
november 1, 2012
Darwin 12
august 1, 2012
Darwin 12.1
august 28, 2012
OS X Lion
10.7.4
may 9, 2012
OS X Lion
10.7.3
february 1, 2012
Android 2.2
Froyo
may 20, 2010
Android 2.1
january 12, 2010
Linux 2.6.32
december 2, 2009
Linux 2.6.33
february 24, 2010
Android 2.3
Gingerbread
december 6, 2010
Linux 2.6.34
may 16, 2010
Linux 2.6.35
august 1, 2010
Linux 2.6.36
october 20, 2010
Linux 2.6.37
january 4, 2011
OS X Mountain Lion
10.8.1
august 23, 2012
OS X Lion
10.7.5 update 1.0
october 4, 2012
OS X Mountain Lion
10.8.2
september 19, 2012
OS X Mountain Lion
10.8.2 update 1.0
october 4, 2012
BlackBerry 10
(announced)
may 1, 2012
Oracle Solaris 11.1
october 4, 2012
Oracle Solaris 11
november 9, 2011
GNU/Hurd 0.401
april 1, 2011
Android 3.0
Honeycomb
february 22, 2011
Android 3.1
may 10, 2011
Linux 2.6.38
march 15, 2011
OpenIndiana
build 151a
september 14, 2011
Android 4.0.1
Ice Cream Sandwich
october 19, 2011
Android 3.2
july 15, 2011
Android 4.0.3
december 16, 2011
Android 4.1.1
Jelly Bean
july 9, 2012
Android 4.0.4
march 29, 2012
Android
4.1.2
oct. 9, 2012
Android
4.2
oct. 29, 2012
Android 4.2.1
november 27, 2012
Linux 2.6.39.4
august 3, 2011
Linux 2.6.39
may 18, 2011
Linux 3.0
july 22, 2011
Linux 2.4.37.11
december 18, 2010
z/OS Unix V1R12
september 24, 2010
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 6 (1003)
march 2010
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 5 (0909)
september 2009
Minix 3 V3.1.4 (4203)
march 26, 2009
AIX 6.1 TL1
may 30, 2008
AIX 6.1
november 9, 2007
AIX 6.1 TL2
november 2008
Minix 3 V3.1.5
november 5, 2009
AIX 6.1 TL4
november 2009
AIX 6.1 TL3
may 2009
AIX 5L v5.2 TL10 SP8
july 1, 2009
AIX 5L v5.3 TL8
april 2008
AIX 5L v5.3 TL9
november 2008
AIX 5L v5.3 TL10
may 2009
DragonFly BSD
3.2.2
december 16, 2012
Darwin 12.2
october 1, 2012
OS X Lion
10.7.5
september 19, 2012
OS X Mountain Lion
10.8
july 21, 2012
OS X Mountain Lion
10.8 beta
february 16, 2012
BlackBerry BBX
(announced)
october 18, 2011
Solaris 11
Express 2010.11
november 15, 2010
OpenIndiana
build 148
december 17, 2010
OpenSolaris 2010.03
march 2010
Android 2.0
Eclair
october 26, 2009
Linux 2.6.31
september 9, 2009
z/OS Unix V1R11
september 25, 2009
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 4 (0903)
april 9, 2009
iOS 6.0.2
december 18, 2012
OpenBSD 5.2
november 1, 2012
QNX Neutrino RTOS 6.5 SP1
july 11, 2012
Darwin 11.4
may 18, 2012
Darwin 11.3
february 6, 2012
OS X Lion
10.7.2
october 12, 2011
Oracle Solaris 10 8/11
september 15, 2011
Tru64 Unix V5.1B-6
october 2010
OpenIndiana
build 147
september 14, 2010
Darwin 11.2
october 12, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.8
v1.1
july 25, 2011
OS X Lion
10.7
july 20, 2011
september 8, 2010
Solaris 10
update 8 10/09
october 8, 2009
Debian GNU/Hurd L1
october 19, 2009
iOS 5.1
march 7, 2012
OpenBSD 5.0
november 1, 2011
Darwin 11.0
july 20,
2011
Mac OS X 10.6.8
june 23, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.8
Server
june 23, 2011
iOS 4.3.5
july 25, 2011
OpenBSD 5.0 beta
july 18, 2011
Darwin 10.8
june 27, 2011
Darwin 10.7
march 28, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.6
january 6, 2011
Mac OS X 10.6.5
november 10, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.4
Server
june 15, 2010
iOS 4.3.1
march 25,
2011
OpenBSD 4.8
november 1, 2010
Darwin 10.4
june 17, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.4
june 15, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.3
march 29, 2010
Mac OS X 10.6.2
november 9, 2009
Mac OS X 10.6.2
Server
november 9, 2009
2012
NetBSD 5.1.2
february 11, 2012
PC-BSD 9.0
january 13, 2012
PC-BSD 8.2
february 24, 2011
DragonFly BSD 2.10.1
april 26, 2011
FreeBSD 8.1 beta 1
may 29, 2010
FreeBSD 7.3
march 23, 2010
AppleTV 3.0
october 29, 2009
Mac OS X 10.6.1
september 10, 2009
Mac OS X 10.6.1
Server
september 10, 2009
Android 1.6
Donut
september 15, 2009
Linux 2.6.30
june 9, 2009
MidnightBSD 0.3
january 28, 2011
DragonFly BSD 2.6.1
april 6, 2010
FreeBSD 8.0
november 26, 2009
iOS 4.0
june 21, 2010
Mac OS X 10.5.8
august 5, 2009
OpenSolaris 2009.06
june 1, 2009
Android 1.5
Cupcake
april 30, 2009
Linux 2.6.29
march 23, 2009
Linux 2.4.37
december 2, 2008
z/OS Unix V1R10
september 26, 2008
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3 Update 3 (0809)
september 2008
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3 Update 2 (0803)
march 2008
AIX 5L v5.3 TL7
november 2007
NetBSD 5.1
november 19, 2010
PC-BSD 8.1
july 20, 2010
PC-BSD 8.0
february 22, 2010
Darwin 9.8
august 10, 2009
Mac OS X 10.5.7
may 12, 2009
Mac OS X 10.5.7
Server
may 12, 2009
april 30, 2009
OpenBSD 4.6
october 18, 2009
iPhone OS 3.1.2
october 8, 2009
iPhone OS 3.1
september 9, 2009
iPhone OS 3.0.1
july 31, 2009
AppleTV 2.4
june 24, 2009
Darwin 9.7
may 14, 2009
Android 1.1
february 9, 2009
Linux 2.6.27
october 9, 2008
2011
NetBSD 5.0.2
february 12, 2010
FreeBSD 7.2
may 4, 2009
OpenBSD 4.5
may 1, 2009
iPhone OS 3.0
june 17, 2009
may 2009
Tru64 Unix V5.1B-5
march 2009
OpenSolaris 2008.11
december 1, 2008
Android 1.0
september 23, 2008
Linux 3.1
october 24, 2011
Linux 3.2
january 4, 2012
Linux 3.3
march 18, 2012
Linux 3.4
may 20, 2012
Linux 3.5
july 21, 2012
Linux 3.6
september 30, 2012
Linux 3.7
december 10, 2012
z/OS Unix V1R13
september 30, 2011
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0806
june 2008
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0712
december 2007
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3 Update 1 (0709)
september 2007
AIX 5L v5.3 TL6
june 2007
AppleTV 2.3.1
february 25, 2009
Mac OS X 10.5.6
Server
december 15, 2008
october 31, 2008
DragonFly BSD 2.4
september 16, 2009
DesktopBSD 1.7
september 7, 2009
FreeBSD 8.0 RC1
september 21, 2009
FreeBSD 8.0 beta 1
july 7, 2009
iPhone OS 2.2.1
january 27, 2009
Darwin 9.6
december 18, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.6
december 15, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.5
september 15, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.5
Server
september 15, 2008
OpenServer 6
Maintenance Pack 4
february 9, 2009
OpenSolaris
(build 86)
march 4, 2008
Linux 2.6.24
january 24, 2008
Linux 2.4.36
january 1, 2008
Linux 2.4.35.3
september 23, 2007
z/OS Unix V1R9
august 7, 2007
Minix 3 V3.1.3a
june 8, 2007
AIX 6 open beta
july 11, 2007
AIX 5L v5.2 TL10
june 2007
DragonFly BSD 2.2.1
april 26, 2009
FreeBSD 7.1
january 5, 2009
2.11BSD patch 447
2.11BSD patch 446
december 27, 2008
december 31, 2008
PureDarwin Xmas
december 25, 2008
OpenBSD 4.4
october 31, 2008
october 30, 2008
AppleTV 2.2
october 2, 2008
Darwin 9.4
july 18, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.3
may 28, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.3
Server
may 29, 2008
Debian GNU/Hurd K16
december 21, 2007
Android beta
november 5, 2007
Linux 2.6.23
october 9, 2007
Linux 2.4.35
july 26, 2007
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0706
june 2007
Minix 3 V3.1.3
april 13, 2007
AIX 5L v5.2 TL9
august 2006
iPhone OS 2.0
july 11, 2008
AppleTV 2.0.2
april 14, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.2
february 11, 2008
Debian GNU/Hurd K15
november 19, 2007
Linux 2.6.20
february 4, 2007
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0612
december 2006
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0609
september 2006
PC-BSD 7.1.1
july 6, 2009
PC-BSD 7.1
april 11, 2009
DragonFly BSD 2.2
february 17, 2009
FreeBSD 6.4
november 28, 2008
AppleTV 2.0.1
march 28, 2008
Darwin 9.2
february 13, 2008
Mac OS X 10.5.2
Server
february 11, 2008
OpenServer 6
Maintenance Pack 3
november 2, 2007
OpenSolaris
(build 78)
october 29, 2007
Solaris 11 beta
Nevada build 74
october 9, 2007
Linux 2.6.19
november 29, 2006
Linux 2.4.34
december 23, 2006
z/OS Unix V1R8
september 29, 2006
NetBSD 5.0.1
august 2, 2009
NetBSD 5.0
april 29, 2009
NetBSD 4.0.1
october 14, 2008
DragonFly BSD 2.0
july 20, 2008
OpenBSD 4.3
may 1, 2008
iPhone OS 1.1.4
february 26, 2008
AppleTV 2.0
feb. 12, 2008
Darwin 8.11
november 14, 2008
Darwin 9.1
november 15, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.11
november 14, 2007
Mac OS X 10.5.1
november 15, 2007
Mac OS X 10.4.11
Server
november 14, 2007
Mac OS X 10.5.1
Server
november 15, 2007
2009
MidnightBSD 0.2.1
august 30, 2008
PC-BSD 7
september 16, 2008
PC-BSD 1.5.1
april 23, 2008
DragonFly BSD 1.12.2
april 20, 2008
FreeBSD 7.0
february 27, 2008
MirBSD #10
march 16, 2008
OpenBSD 4.2
november 1, 2007
iPhone OS 1.1.2
november 1, 2007
Tru64 Unix V5.1B-4
december 2006
Debian GNU/Hurd K14
november 27, 2006
OpenSolaris (build 52)
october 19, 2006
Linux 2.6.18
september 20, 2006
Linux 2.4.33
august 11, 2006
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0606
june2006
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0606
june 2006
Minix 3 V3.1.2a
may 29, 2006
AIX 5L v5.2
Technology Level 8
february 2006
AIX 5L v5.3
Technology Level 4
february 2006
PC-BSD 1.5
march 12, 2008
DragonFly BSD 1.12
february 26, 2008
PureDarwin
2007
AppleTV 1.0
march 21, 2007
Darwin 8.8
november 8, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.8
september 30, 2006
IRIX 6.5.30
august 16, 2006
Plan 9
20060628
june 28, 2006
Linux 2.6.17
june 18, 2006
Linux 2.6.16
march 20, 2006
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0603
march 2006
NetBSD 4.0
december 19, 2007
MidnightBSD 0.1.1
november 4, 2007
PC-BSD 1.4.1
november 16, 2007
FreeBSD 6.2
january 15, 2007
2.11BSD patch 445
december 26, 2006
OpenBSD 4.0
november 1, 2006
Darwin 8.7
august 16, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.7
Server
june 27, 2006
Solaris 10 6/06
june 26, 2006
OpenSolaris (build 38)
march 28, 2006
Linux 2.6.15
january 2, 2006
Linux 2.4.32
november 16, 2005
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0512
december 2005
PC-BSD 1.3.01
january 6, 2007
DragonFly BSD 1.8.0
january 30, 2007
DragonFly BSD 1.6.0
july 24, 2006
MirBSD #9
june 25, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.7
june 27, 2006
Mac OS X 10.5
(Leopard, beta)
august 7, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.5
Server
february 15, 2006
Unicos/mp 3.1
april 2006
IRIX 6.5.29
february 8, 2006
OpenServer 6
Maintenance Pack 2
march 7, 2006 Debian GNU/Hurd K11
april 26, 2006
SCO UnixWare 7.1.4
Maintenance Pack 3
january 2006
2007
NetBSD 3.1
november 4, 2006
NetBSD 3.0.2
november 4, 2006
PC-BSD 1.2
july 12, 2006
FreeBSD 6.1
may 8, 2006
Mac OS X
10.4.6
april 3, 2006
Mac OS X
10.4.5
february 15, 2006
Solaris 10 1/06
january 25, 2006
Linux 2.6.14
october 27, 2005
z/OS Unix V1R7
september 30, 2005
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0509
september 2005
HP-UX 11.31 aka 11iv3
february 2007
Minix 2.0.4
november 23, 2003
AIX 4.3.3 Maintenance Level 11
february 2003
PC-BSD 1.0
april 28, 2006
DragonFly BSD 1.4.4
april 23, 2006
FreeDarwin PR1
march 16, 2006
Darwin 8.5
Darwin 8.6
february 15, 2006
april 10, 2006
Darwin 8.4
jan. 10, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.4
Server
january 10, 2006
Debian GNU/Hurd K10
october 26, 2005
OpenSolaris
(build 21)
july 26, 2005
Linux 2.6.13
august 28, 2005
Linux 2.4.31
may 31, 2005
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0505
may 2005
DesktopBSD 1.0
march 28, 2006
MirBSD #8
december 23, 2005
Mac OS X
10.4.4
january 10, 2006
Mac OS X 10.4.3
Server
october 31, 2005
IRIX 6.5.28
august 3, 2005
OpenServer 6
Maintenance Pack 1
august 4, 2005
Solaris 11 beta Nevada build 23
october 18, 2005
Linux 2.6.11
march 2, 2005
PC-BSD 1.0rc2
january 20, 2006
DragonFly BSD 1.4
january 8, 2006
FreeBSD 6.0
november 4, 2005
Darwin 8.3
october 31, 2005
Mac OS X
10.4.3
october 31, 2005
Mac OS X 10.4.2
Server
july 12, 2005
Tru64 Unix
V5.1B-3
june 2, 2005
Debian GNU/Hurd K9
may 13, 2005
SCO UnixWare 7.1.4
Maintenance Pack 2
february 2005
Linux 2.4.29
january 19, 2005
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0412
december 2004
NetBSD 3.0.1
july 24, 2006
NetBSD 3.0
december 23, 2005
PC-BSD 1.0rc1
november 10, 2005
DesktopBSD 1.0-RC3
november 26, 2005
OpenBSD 3.8
november 1, 2005
Darwin 8.2
july 12, 2005
Darwin 8.1
may 16, 2005
Mac OS X 10.4.1
may 16, 2005
Mac OS X 10.4 Server
april 29, 2005
Solaris 9 OE 9/05
september 3, 2005
Solaris 10
january 31, 2005
Debian GNU/Hurd K8
december 30, 2004
Linux 2.6.10
december 24, 2004
Linux 2.4.28
november 17, 2004
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0409 (IA/PA)
september 2004
Linux 2.0.40
february 8, 2004
Linux 2.2.26
february 24, 2004
AIX 5L v5.2
Maintenance Level 1
may 2003
AIX 5L v5.2
october 18, 2002
NetBSD 2.1
november 2, 2005
PC-BSD 0.8.3
october 23, 2005
OpenBSD 3.7
may 19, 2005
Darwin 7.7
december 15, 2004
Darwin 7.6
november 6, 2004
Solaris 10
(announced)
november 15, 2004
Unicos/mp 2.5
november 2004
IRIX 6.5.26
november 3, 2004
Linux 2.6.9
october 18, 2004
z/OS Unix V1R6
september 24, 2004
DesktopBSD 1.0-RC2
october 8, 2005
FreeBSD 5.4
may 9, 2005
FreeBSD 5.3
november 6, 2004
november 5, 2004
Debian GNU/Hurd K7
september 22, 2004
Linux 2.6.8.1
august 14, 2004
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0406
june 2004
HP-UX 11.23/11iv2/0403
march 2004
PC-BSD 0.7.8
july 18, 2005
PC-BSD 0.7
may 18, 2005
GNU-Darwin 1.1 rc2
september 29, 2004
Darwin 8.0b1
september 2004
Solaris 9 OE 9/04
august 16, 2004
IRIX 6.5.25
august 4, 2004
SCO UnixWare 7.1.4
Maintenance Pack 1
july 2004
Linux 2.6.8
august 13, 2004
Diamond SVR6 (announced)
august 3, 2004
Linux 2.4.27
august 7, 2004
2006
NetBSD 2.0.2
april 15, 2005
NetBSD 2.0
december 9, 2004
FreeBSD 4.11
january 25, 2005
FreeBSD 5.3-BETA1
august 22, 2004
Darwin 7.5
august 10, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.5
august 9, 2004
Mac OS X 10.3.5
Server
august 9, 2004
OpenServer 5.0.7 Update Pack 3
july 9, 2004
Linux 2.6.7
june 15, 2004
Linux 2.4.26
april 14, 2004
z/OS, z/OS.e Unix V1R5
march 26, 2004
NetBSD 2.0 RC5
november 12, 2004
FireFly BSD 1.0
september 2004
Triance OS
1.0-BETA
august 23, 2004
GNU-Darwin
1.1 rc1
august 17, 2004
OpenDarwin 7.2.1
july 16, 2004
Mac OS X 10.4 Server
(Tiger beta)
june 28, 2004
SCO UnixWare 7.1.4
june 15, 2004
Linux 2.6.0-test11
november 26, 2003
Linux 2.4.22
august 25, 2003
DragonFly
BSD 1.0A
july 15, 2004
MirBSD #7quater
june 14, 2004
Darwin 7.4
may 26, 2004
Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger beta)
june 28, 2004
Solaris 9 OE 4/04
april 1, 2004
Tru64 Unix V5.1B-2
may 2004
Unicos/mp 2.4
march 2004
IRIX 6.5.23
IRIX 6.5.24
february 4, 2004
may 5, 2004
NonStop-UX C63
february 6, 2004
february 18, 2004
Debian GNU/Hurd K6
may 9, 2004
Debian GNU/Hurd K5
november 24, 2003
Linux 2.6.0-test1
july 13, 2003
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1
0306
june 2003
Linux 2.5.75
july 10, 2003
2005
ekkoBSD 1.0 BETA 2
july 7, 2004
DragonFly
DragonFly BSD 1.0-RC1
BSD 1.0
june 28, 2004
july 12, 2004
FreeBSD 4.10
may 27, 2004
FreeBSD 5.2.1
february 25, 2004
OpenBSD 3.5
may 1, 2004
Darwin
7.1
Mac OS X 10.3.1
november 10, 2003
Mac OS X 10.3.1
Server
november 10, 2003
IRIX 6.5.22
november 5, 2003
SCO UnixWare 7.1.3 /OKP
july 31, 2003
Linux 2.5.70
may 26, 2003
NetBSD 2.0 RC1
september 27, 2004
Silver OS
july 10, 2004
NetBSD 1.6.2
february 29, 2004
ekkoBSD BETA 2
february 18, 2004
DragonFly BSD (beta)
march 5, 2004
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0c
february 15, 2004
FreeBSD 5.2-RC1
december 10, 2003
QNX 6.3
june 3, 2004
Darwin 7.0.1
november 14, 2003
Solaris 9 OE 12/03
december 2003
Tru64 Unix V5.1B-1
october 20, 2003
Unicos/mp 2.3
october 2003
july 31, 2003
Debian GNU/Hurd K4
july 29, 2003
Linux 2.5.68
april 19, 2003
Linux 2.2.25
march 17, 2003
Minix 2.0.3
may 22, 2001
Monterey beta
AIX 4.3.3
september 17, 1999
FreeBSD 5.2-BETA
november 26, 2003
MirBSD #7ter
november 22, 2003
MirBSD #7bis
october 4, 2003
OpenBSD 3.4
november 1, 2003
GNU-Darwin 1.1
october 8, 2003
MirBSD #7semel
september 28, 2003
OpenBSD 3.4 beta
august 11, 2003
Solaris 9 OE 8/03
july 29, 2003
Solaris 10 Preview
july 29, 2003
Unicos/mp 2.2
july 2003
Linux 2.4.21
june 13, 2003
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0303
march 2003
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0212
december 2002
Linux 2.5.48
november 18, 2002
Mac OS X
10.2.7
august 18, 2003
Mac OS X Server 10.3 beta (Panther)
june 23, 2003
SCO UnixWare 7.1.3
Update Pack 1
may 8, 2003
Linux 2.4.20
november 28, 2002
september 27, 2002
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0209
september 2002
Linux 2.2.22
sept. 16, 2002
MirBSD #6
july 8, 2003
OpenDarwin
6.6.1
may 27, 2003
IRIX 6.5.20
may 7, 2003
Debian GNU/Hurd K3
april 30, 2003
SCO UnixWare 7.1.3
december 4, 2002
Unicos 10.0.1.2
may 2003
MkLinux Pre-R2
august 5, 2002
Linux 2.5.30
august 1, 2002
HP-UX 11.22 aka 11iv1.6 (IA)
august 2002
Linux 2.2.21
may 20, 2002
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0b
december 7, 2003
MicroBSD 0.7 beta
october 27, 2003
FreeBSD 5.1
june 9, 2003
MirBSD #5
june 11, 2003
Darwin 6.6
may 14, 2003
Mac OS X Server
10.2.6
may 8, 2003
Solaris 9 OE 4/03
april 2003
Tru64 Unix V5.1B
january 20, 2003
IRIX 6.5.18
november 8, 2002
SCO UnixWare 7.1.3
(announced)
august 26, 2002
Linux 2.4.19
august 3, 2002
march 29, 2002
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0203
march 2002
Linux 2.5.5
february 19, 2002
ekkoBSD 1.0 BETA1B
november 25, 2003
FreeBSD 4.9
october 28, 2003
2.11BSD patch 444
february 10, 2003
FreeBSD 5.0
FreeBSD 5.0 DP 2
january 19, 2003
november 18, 2002
MirBSD #4
MirBSD #1
MirBSD #3
MirBSD #2
april 16, 2003
november 31, 2002
march 2, 2003
january 28, 2003
OpenBSD 3.2
OpenBSD 3.3
november 1, 2002
may 1, 2003
GNU-Darwin 1.0
january 10, 2003
QNX 6.2.1 (Momentics)
february 18, 2003
OpenDarwin-20030212
february 17, 2003
Darwin
Darwin 6.0.2
Darwin 6.5
Darwin 6.2
Darwin 6.4
Darwin 6.3
6.1
oct. 28, 2002
april 15, 2003
Mac OS X
Mac OS X
Mac OS X 10.2.3
Mac OS X 10.2.4
Mac OS X 10.2.2
10.2.5
10.2.6
december 19, 2002
february 13, 2003
november 11, 2002
april 10, 2003
may 6, 2003
Solaris 8 12/02
december 2002
Mac OS X
Server 10.2
august 13, 2002
IRIX 6.5.17
august 7, 2002
Debian GNU/Hurd J1
august 5, 2002
Open UNIX 8 MP4
Release 8.0
july 3, 2002
Linux 2.4.18
february 25, 2002
Linux 2.5.3
january 30, 2002
ekkoBSD
august 6, 2003
FreeBSD 4.8
april 3, 2003
FreeBSD 4.7
october 10, 2002
MicroBSD 0.6
october 12, 2002
MicroBSD 0.5
august 14, 2002
QNX 6.2
(Momentics)
june 4, 2002
Mac OS X
10.1.5
june 4, 2002
Mac OS X Server
10.1.5
july 1, 2002
Solaris 9 OE
may 22, 2002
Yamit (alpha)
may 5, 2002
IRIX 6.5.16
may 8, 2002
NonStop-UX C60
may 3, 2002
GNU (GNU/Hurd,
GNU Mach 1.3)
Plan 9 r4 may 27, 2002
april 28, 2002
Open UNIX 8 MP3
Release 8.0
february 12, 2002
Unicos 10.0.1.1
may 2002
Linux 2.4.7
july 20, 2001
z/OS Unix System Services V1R1
march 30, 2001
HP-UX 11.11/11iv1/0106
june 2001
Linux 2.2.19
march 25, 2001
OpenBSD 3.1
may 19, 2002
Darwin 5.4
Mac OS X Server
10.1.4
april 15, 2002
Tru64 Unix V5.1A
september 2001
IRIX 6.5.12
may 9, 2001
Unicos 10.0.1.0
june 2001
Linux 2.4.0
january 4, 2001
HP-UX 11.11 aka 11iv1
december 2000
Linux 2.0.39
january 9, 2001
Linux 2.2.13
october 19, 1999
Mac OS X 10.1.4
april 17, 2002
Solaris 8 2/02
february 2002
Mac OS X Server
10.1.2
january 17, 2002
Solaris 9 EA
october 2, 2001
Solaris 9 alpha
IRIX 6.5.11
february 2, 2001
UnixWare 7.1.1 DCFS
november 27, 2000
Unicos 10.0.0.8
november 22, 2000
Linux 2.4.0 test12
december 12, 2000
Security-Enhanced Linux 1.0
december 22, 2000
Linux 2.0.38
august 25, 1999
NetBSD 1.6
sept. 14, 2002
FreeBSD 4.6
june 15, 2002
MicroBSD 0.1
july 14, 2002
FreeBSD 5.0
Developer Preview 1
april 8, 2002
Darwin 1.4.1
october 1, 2001
Solaris 8 7/01
july 2001
Mac OS X Server
10.0.4
july 3, 2001
GNU-Darwin (beta 2.5)
march 12, 2002
QNX RTOS 6.1.0
patch A
september 28, 2001
Mac OS X 10.1
(Puma)
sept. 29, 2001
Mac OS X 10.0.4
june 22, 2001
Solaris 8 4/01
may 2001
Mac OS X Server
10.0.3
may 21, 2001
IRIX 6.5.10
november 8, 2000
Dynix/ptx 4.5.3
october 2001
Unicos 10.0.0.7
january 2000
OS/390 Unix V2R8
september 24, 1999
Linux 2.3.0
may 11, 1999
NetBSD 1.6 beta
may 28, 2002
NetBSD 1.5.3
july 22, 2002
FreeBSD 4.5
january 29, 2002
OpenBSD 3.0
november
27, 2001
QNX RTOS
6.1.0
Darwin 1.3.1
april 13, 2001
ReliantUnix 5.45
2000
IRIX 6.5.9
august 9, 2000
OpenServer 5.0.6
august 21, 2000
Debian GNU/Hurd A1
august 2000
UnixWare NSC 7.1.1+IP
june 26, 2000
UnixWare 7.1.1
december 30, 1999
Unicos 10.0.0.6
june 1999
Linux 2.4.0 test 1
may 25, 2000
OS/390 Unix V2R6
september 25, 1998
Mk Linux DR3
july 31, 1998
Linux 2.0.36
november 15, 1998
Linux 2.1.32
april 5, 1997
AIX 4.2.1
april 25, 1997
BSD/OS 5.0
beta
Solaris 8 1/01 (su3)
february 20, 2001
Trusted Solaris 8
november 20, 2000
IRIX 6.5.7
february 10, 2000
NetBSD 1.5.2
september
14, 2001
OpenBSD 2.9
june 1, 2001
xMach current
march 16, 2001
Mac OS X 10.0
(Cheetah)
march 24, 2001
Solaris 8 10/00 (su2)
october 2000
Mac OS X Server 1.2v3
october 27, 2000
Tru64 Unix V4.0G
may 2000
IRIX 6.5.6
november 10, 1999
IRIX 6.5.5
august 6, 1999
GNU-Darwin
january 17, 2001
QNX RTOS 6
january 18, 2001
Darwin 1.2.1
november 15, 2000
Mac OS X (beta)
september 13, 2000
Solaris 8
6/00 (su1)
june 2000
Tru64 Unix V5.0
august 12, 1999
IRIX 6.5.4
may 11, 1999
OpenServer 5.0.5a
february 1999
Plan 9 r3
june 7, 2000
Unicos/mk 2.0
october 13, 1997
Unicos 10.0
november 19, 1997
OS/390 Unix V2R4
september 26, 1997
HP-UX 11.0
november 1997
Linux 2.0.28
january 14, 1997
2002
BSD/OS 4.3
february 14, 2002
NetBSD 1.5.1
july 11, 2001
2.11BSD patch 433
november 5, 2000
TrustedBSD beta
OpenBSD 2.8
december 1, 2000
xMach DR 01
august 6, 2000
Darwin 1.1
may 15, 2000
Mac OS X (DP4)
may 15, 2000
Mac OS X (DP3)
february 14, 2000
Solaris 8
january 26, 2000
Mac OS X Server 1.2
january 14, 2000
Mac OS X Server 1.0.2
july 22, 1999
Trusted Solaris 7
november 2, 1999
IRIX 6.5.2
november 17, 1998
NonStop-UX C51
december 8, 1998
FreeBSD 4.3
april 22, 2001
FreeBSD 4.1.1
september 27, 2000
FreeBSD 5.0 beta
march 2000
TrustedBSD (announced)
april 9, 2000
OpenBSD 2.7
june 15, 2000
Darwin 1.0
april 5, 2000
Mac OS X (DP2)
november 10, 1999
Solaris 7, 11/99
november 1999
FreeBSD 4.2
november 21, 2000
FreeBSD 4.1
july 27, 2000
FreeBSD 4.0
march 14, 2000
OpenBSD 2.6
december 1, 1999
QNX/Neutrino 2.10
(QRTP)
Darwin 0.3
august 16, 1999
Solaris 7, 8/99
august 1999
Solaris 7, 5/99
may 1999
Mac OS X Server 1.0
march 16, 1999
Tru64 Unix V4.0F
february 1, 1999
NonStop-UX C41
november 14, 1997
2001
NetBSD 1.4.3
november 25, 2000
NetBSD 1.5
december 6, 2000
FreeBSD 3.4
FreeBSD 3.3
december 20, 1999
september 17, 1999
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0a
october 10, 1999
2.11BSD
patch 430
december 13, 1999
FreeBSD 3.2
may 18, 1999
Darwin 0.2
may 13, 1999
Mac OS X (DP1)
may 10, 1999
Solaris 7, 3/99
march 1999
Trusted Solaris 2.5.1
september 1998
Digital Unix 4.0D
december 1997
NonStop-UX C40
august 20, 1997
OpenServer 5.0.4
may 1997
GNU 0.2 (GNU/Hurd)
june 12, 1997
Unicos 9.3
august 1997
OS/390 OpenEdition V1R3
march 28, 1997
HP-UX 10.30
july 1997
Mk Linux DR2.1
BSD/OS 4.2
(BSDI)
november 29, 2000
NetBSD 1.4.2
march 19, 2000
NetBSD 1.4.1
august 26, 1999
NetBSD 1.4
may 12, 1999
FreeBSD 3.1
february 15, 1999
Darwin 0.1
march 16, 1999
Solaris 7
(SunOS 5.7)
october 27, 1998
Rhapsody DR2
may, 1998
Rhapsody DR1
september, 1997
ReliantUnix 5.44
1997
Unicos/mk 1.6
july 21, 1997
Unicos/mk 1.4.1
march 3, 1997
Unicos 9.2
january 13, 1997
march 29, 1996
september 27, 1996
HP-UX 10.10
HP-UX 10.20
december 1995
june 1996
Mk Linux DR2
Mk Linux DR1
december 1996
1996
Linux 2.0.21
Linux 2.0
september
june 9, 1996
20, 1996
Linux 1.3.100
Linux 2.1
may 10, 1996
september
30, 1996
Minix 1.7.2
march 1996
AIX 4.2
may 17, 1996
1999
BSD/OS 4.0.1
(BSDI)
march 1, 1999
NetBSD 1.3.3
december 23, 1998
Lites
OPENSTEP 4.0
july 22, 1996
UnixWare 2.1
february 13, 1996
Linux 1.2.13
august 2, 1995
Linux 1.2
march 7, 1995
Linux 1.1.95
march 2, 1995
1998
xMach
Solaris 2.6
(SunOS 5.6)
august 1997
Solaris 2.5.1
(SunOS 5.5.1)
may 1996
Mach 4
Mach 4
UK02p21
UK22
november 3, 1995
march 29, 1996
Digital Unix
Digital Unix 4.0
Digital Unix
4.0A
(DEC OSF/1 V4)
4.0B
Sinix ReliantUnix 5.43
september 1996
may 1996
december 1996
1995
IRIX 6.2
IRIX 6.4
IRIX 6.3
march 1996
november 1996
september 1996
NonStop-UX Cxx
february 1996
OpenServer 5.0.2
june 1996
Unicos-max 1.3
november 15, 1995
GNU 0.1 (GNU/Hurd)
september 6, 1996
Unicos 9.0
september 21, 1995
Trusted Unicos 8.0
march 9, 1995
MVS/ESA OpenEdition SP5.2.1 MVS/ESA OpenEdition SP5.2.2
september 29, 1995
june 20, 1995
HP-UX 10.01
HP-UX 10.0 (S700/S800)
may 1995
february 1995
HP-UX BLS 9.09+
december 1, 1994
4.4BSD Lite 2
OpenBSD 2.4
december 1, 1998
QNX/Neutrino 2.0
1998
QNX 4.25
QNX 4.24
Lites 1.1u3
march 30, 1996
Plan 9 r2
july 1995
Trusted IRIX/B 4.0.5 EPL
february 6, 1995
UnixWare 2.0
Unix System V Release 4.2MP
january 1995
MVS/ESA OE SP5.2.0
september 13, 1994
Linux 1.1.52
october 6, 1994
FreeBSD 3.0
october 16, 1998
4.3BSD-Quasijarus0
december 27, 1998
FreeBSD 2.2.8
november 29, 1998
FreeBSD 2.2.7
july 22, 1998
2.11BSD
patch 400
january 1998
OpenBSD 2.2
december 1, 1997
QNX/Neutrino 1.0
1996
QNX 4.22
Digital Unix
(DEC OSF/1 AXP)
march 1995
IRIX 6.1
july 1995
NonStop-UX B32
june 12, 1995
OpenServer 5.0
may 9, 1995
Unicos-max 1.2
november 30, 1994
Chorus/MiX SVR4
Linux 1.0.6
april 3, 1994
HP-UX 9.05
april 19, 1994
Linux 1.1.0
april 6, 1994
AIX 3.2.5
october 15, 1993
NetBSD
1.3.1
march 9,
1998
NetBSD 1.3
january 4,
1998
FreeBSD 2.2
march 16, 1997
2.11BSD
patch 300
february 1996
OpenBSD
october 1995
Solaris 2.5
(SunOS 5.5)
november 1995
NeXTSTEP 3.3
february 1995
Linux 1.0
march 14, 1994
BSD/OS 4.0
(BSDI)
august 17, 1998
NetBSD
1.3.2
may 29,
1998
BSD/OS 3.1
(BSDI)
december 10, 1997
NetBSD 1.2.1
may 20, 1997
NetBSD 1.2
october 4, 1996
NetBSD 1.1
november 26, 1995
FreeBSD
2.1
november 19, 1995
4.4BSD Lite 2
june 1995
QNX 4.2
AOS Lite
1995
Lites 1.1
march 24, 1995
Lites 1.0
february 28, 1995
Sinix 5.42
IRIX 6.0
december 1994
NonStop-UX B31
november 1, 1994
Unicos 8.0
march 11, 1994
UNIX Interactive 4.1a
june 1994
MVS/ESA OpenEdition SP5.1.0
june 24, 1994
HP-UX 9.04 (S800)
november 17, 1993
HP-UX 9.03
december 16, 1993
Venix 4.2
Coherent 4.2
may 1993
Lites
IRIX 5.3
december 1994
Unicos-max 1.1
june 10, 1994
UnixWare 1.1.1
Unix System V Release 4.2
1994
Chorus/MiX SVR4
Xinu
Linux 0.99.15j
march 2, 1994
FreeBSD
2.0.5
june 10, 1995
ArchBSD
november 1994
Solaris 2.4
(SunOS 5.4)
december 1994
Mach 4
UK02
july 20, 1994
IRIX 5.2
march 1994
SCO UNIX 3.2.4
(Open Desktop)
1994
Unicos-max 1.0
november 15, 1993
Dell Unix SVR4 Issue 2.2.1
1993
Linux 0.99.11
july 18, 1993
SunOS 4.1.4
(Solaris 1.1.2)
september 1994
OSF/1.3
june 1994
Sinix 5.41
1993
IRIX 5.1
september 1993
UnixWare 1.1
Unix SVR4.2
may 18, 1993
Dynix/ptx 2.0.4
1993
MVS/ESA OpenEdition SP4.3.0
march 26, 1993
HP-UX 9.02
august 1993
Minix 1.5
december 1992
AIX PS/2 1.3
october 2, 1992
FreeBSD 2.0
november 22, 1994
386 BSD 1.0
12 november 1994
2.11BSD
patch 200
december 1994
HPBSD
QNX 4.1
1994
SunOS 4.1.3_U1
(Solaris 1.1.1)
december 1993
Solaris 2.3 (sparc)
(SunOS 5.3)
november 1993
NeXTSTEP 3.2
october 1993
Solaris 2.1 (x86)
IRIX 5.0
march 1993
NonStop-UX B22
november 22, 1993
Trusted XENIX 4.0
september 17, 1993
HP-UX 9.0 (S800)
october 7, 1992
Dell Unix SVR4 Issue 2.2
1992
HP-UX BLS 8.04 (S800)
H2 1991
Linux 0.95
Linux 0.12
march 8, 1992
january 16, 1992
HP-UX 9,01
HP-UX 8.07
(S300/S700)
(S300/S700)
november 2, 1992
november 21, 1991
BSD/OS 2.0.1
(BSDI)
august 1995
Ultrix 4.5
november 1995
FreeBSD 1.1.5.1
july 1994
4.4BSD Lite 1
march 1, 1994
4.4BSD Encumbered
june 1993
Solaris 2.2 (sparc)
(SunOS 5.2)
may 1993
NeXTSTEP 3.1
may 25, 1993
ASV (final release)
august 1992
Unicos 7.0
october 29, 1992
Unix System V
Release 4.1ES
december 1992
Microport Unix SVR4.1
HP-UX 8.06 (S800)
H2 1991
1995
NetBSD 1.0
october 26, 1994
FreeBSD 1.1
may 1994
FreeBSD 1.0
december 1993
4.4BSD
june 1, 1993
UnixWare 1
Unix System V
Release 4.2
november 2, 1992
Chorus/MiX SVR4
1991
Unicos 6.0
february 14, 1991
HP-UX 8.0 (S300/S800)
march 27, 1991
Dell Unix SVR4.0
1990
AIX PS/2 & AIX/370
1.2.1
february 22, 1991
SunOS 4.1.3
(Solaris 1.1a)
august 1992
Solaris 2.1
(SunOS 5.1)
december 1992
NeXTSTEP 3.0
september 1992
Solaris 2.0 (x86)
end 1992
Trusted XENIX 3.0
april 8, 1992
AMiX 2.2
Xinu
HP-UX 7.08
(S800)
H1 1991
AIX PS/2 & AIX/370
1.2
march 30, 1990
Sinix 5.40
1992
IRIX 4.0.4
march 1992
IRIX 4.0
september 1991
GNU
(GNU/Hurd)
may 7, 1991
ASV (dev release)
1991
HP-UX 7.02
(S800)
H2 1989
Linux 0.01
august 1, 1991
AIX PS/2 1.1
march 31, 1989
1994
BSD/OS 1.1
(BSDI)
february 14, 1994
Ultrix 4.4
NetBSD 0.9
august 23, 1993
2.11BSD
patch 100
january 1993
HPBSD 2.0
april 1993
Solaris 2.0
(sparc)
(SunOS 5.0)
july 1992
OSF/1
1992
Sinix 5.20
1990
Unicos 5.0
may 15, 1989
BOS
1989
Coherent 3.0
A/UX
1993
Ultrix 4.3A
NetBSD 0.8
april 20, 1993
386 BSD 0.1
july 14, 1992
MIPS OS
RISC/os 5
4.4BSD alpha
june 1992
AOS Reno
1992
SunOS 4.1.2
(Solaris 1.0.1)
december 1991
NeXTSTEP 2.1
march 25, 1991
Mach 3
Atari Unix
1989
HP-UX 3.1
feb. 1989
HP-UX 6.5
(S300)
H1 1989
BSD/OS 1.0
(BSDI)
Ultrix 4.3
386 BSD 0.0
february 1992
2.11BSD
february 1992
NeXTSTEP 2.0
sept. 18, 1990
Trusted XENIX 2.0
january 9, 1991
Plan 9
1990
AMiX 1.1 (Amiga Unix SVR4)
1990
UNIX System V/386
Release 4
Unicos 4.0
july 15, 1988
CTIX 3.2
UNIX Interactive 4.1
1988
HP-UX 2.0 HP-UX 2.1
(S800)
(S800)
march 1988
july 1988
OSF/1
1990
NonStop-UX B00
august 22, 1989
SCO UNIX System V/386
release 3, 1989
UNIX System V
Release 4
1988
Chorus/MiX V3.2
1988
HP-UX 6.0
(S300)
H2 1987
SunOS 4.1.1
(Solaris 1)
november 1990
SunOS 4.1
march 1990
Mach 2.6
IRIX 3.0
june 10, 1988
SCO XENIX System
V/386 release 2.3.4
june 1989
UNIX System V/386
Release 3.2
CTIX 3.0
HP-UX 5.2
(S300)
H2 1987
1992
BSD/386 0.3.2
(BSDI)
february 28, 1992
RISC iX 1.21
1991
mt Xinu
mach 2.6
QNX 4.0
1990
SunOS 4.0.3
may 1989
NeXTSTEP 1.0
september 18, 1989
Tenth Edition (V10)
october 1989
Sinix 2.1
1988
IRIX 2.0
NonStop-UX november 18, 1987
april 10, 1987
SCO XENIX System V/386
october 1987
IRIS GL2 6.0
1987
Unicos 3.0
september 25, 1987
Microport Unix V/386
september 1987
HP-UX 1.1
HP-UX 1.2
(S800)
(S800)
august 17, 1987
nov. 16, 1987
Minix
Open Systems
january 26, 2013
© Éric Lévénez 1998-2013
<http://www.levenez.com/unix/>
1991
BSD Net/2
(4.3BSD Lite)
june 1991
4.3BSD Reno
june 1990
QNX 2.21
SunOS 4.0
1989
Mach 2.5
1988
Sinix 2.0
1987
UNIX System V
Release 3.2
1987
CTIX/386
Microport
Unix SV/AT
january 1986
IBM IX/370
1985
HP-UX 2.1 (S200)
H1 1985
Locus
1983
UCLA Locus
1981
SunOS 3.5
1988
NeXTSTEP 0.8
october 12, 1988
Ninth Edition (V9)
september 1986
IRIS GL2 4.0
march 1986
UNIX System
V/286
1985
UNIX System V
Release 2
april 1984
TS 5.0
1982
SPIX
1982
UCLA Locally Cooperating
Unix Systems
1980
IBM AOS
1988
Mach 2.0
Eighth Edition (V8)
february 1985
IRIS
GL2 1.0
1983
UNIX System V
january 1983
UNIX System IV
1982
Dynix
1984
TS 3.0.1
1980
Interactive
IS/1
Eunice 4.3
1987
BRL Unix
(4.3BSD)
1986
Mach
1985
XENIX 3.0
april 1983
XENIX 2.3
UNIX System III
november 1981
TS 3.0
1979
PC/IX
RT 1.0
1977
Ultrix 4.2A
2.10.1BSD
january 1989
MIPS OS
RISC/os 4
Eunice 4.2
1985
SunOS 1.2
january 1985
Plurix
1982
Sinix
XENIX OS
august 25, 1980
CB UNIX 3
USG 3.0
USG 2.0
TS 2.0
1978
TS 1.0
1977
MERT
1974
4.3BSD Tahoe
june 1988
HPBSD 1.0
april 1988
HPBSD
1987
QNX 2.0
QNX 1.0
1984
Eunice 2
1982
Seventh Edition (V7)
january 1979
IRIX
1986
PWB/UNIX
1974
mt Xinu
mach386
more/BSD
december 1988
2.10BSD
april 1987
4.3BSD
june 1986
4.2BSD
september 1983
4.1cBSD
december 1982
QUNIX
1981
The Wollongong Group
Eunice (Edition 7)
1980
UNSW 04
november 1979
Mini Unix
may 1977
First Edition (V1)
november 3, 1971
1990
Acorn RISC iX
1989
BSD Net/1
november 1988
mt Xinu
(4.3BSD)
2.9BSD-Seismo
august 1985
2.9.1BSD
november 1983
MIPS OS
RISC/os
4.0BSD
october 1980
3BSD
march 1980
UCLA Secure Unix
1979
SRI Eunice
UNSW
UNICS
september 1969
Minix 3 V3.1.6
february 8, 2010
AIX 6.1 TL5
april 2010
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 7 (1009)
september 2010
Minix 3 V3.1.7
june 16, 2010
AIX 7 open beta
july 14, 2010
AIX 5L v5.3 TL11
october 2009
AIX 5L v5.3 TL12
april 2010
Minix 3 V3.1.8
october 4, 2010
AIX 6.1 TL6
september 2010
AIX 7.1
september 10, 2010
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 8 (1103)
march 2011
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 9
september 2011
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 10
march 2012
HP-UX 11.31/11iv3
Update 11
september 2012
Minix 3 V3.2.0
february 29, 2012
AIX 6.1 TL7
october 2011
AIX 7.1 TL1
october 2011
october 21, 2011
AIX 6.1 TL8
november 9, 2012
AIX 7.1 TL2
november 9, 2012
june 27, 2012
Linux 3.7.4
january 21, 2013
1 · Toolbox basis
Why GNU/Linux
I
It’s for free. Imagine you’d have to pay for the software you use...
I
It’s free. Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) ⇒ allows for a look
under the hood, and even distribution of your own modifications.
I
It gives you freedom. If there’s only FOSS on your device, you’re in
control of what it does. Otherwise, you’re not!
Getting GNU/Linux
Debian
Arch Linux
Ubuntu
Linux Mint
Fedora
many more
http://www.debian.org/
http://www.archlinux.org/
http://www.ubuntu.com/
http://linuxmint.com/
http://fedoraproject.org/
http://distrowatch.com/dwres.php?resource=major
“Live systems” are not an appropriate substitute: Poor performance, no
persistence, not extensible, ...
10
1 · Toolbox basis
Without Linux you’re pretty much doomed
Workstations are available in the pools:
V304 a few Linux boxes, some Macs, and some empty space to work with
your own machines.
Y326 about 4 PCs (rear left), the rest of the lot belongs to the
economists (FB WiWi).
Log in with your RZ-Account5 .
For those with an Apple
I
Mac OS X seems to be suitable for this lecture.
I
You will encounter subtle deviations, i.e., some commands will not
behave as shown in this lecture.
I
All the software we use should be availabe for you, too.
Remote login to one of our compute servers (cf. page 15).
5 i.e.,
user.name as in your email address @uni..., and the according password
11
1 · Toolbox basis
1.2
What the shell... · 1.2
What the shell...
What is the shell?
I
A command interpreter, it reads the commands you type in, and
executes them.
(...um, yes, it does look somewhat like MS-DOS)
Why use this arcane style of user interaction?
I
It’s a flexible, versatile, and powerful tool,
I
it’s available on all unices,
I
it can be combined easily with other tools,
I
it can be used to easily combine other tools,
I
and works locally as well as remote.
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) abstract from fundamental concepts,
making the most common tasks easy, and everything else impossible.
12
1 · Toolbox basis
Showroom
Try this using your OS’s standard GUI tools:
Find the top ten words in a file:
I
1
grep -o -E '\w+' bigFile.txt | sort -f | uniq -ci | sort -rn | head -10
For all files in this folder, change the suffix from jpg to jpeg.
I
1
ls | sed -n 's/^$.*$jpg$/mv & \1jpeg/p' | sh
Basically, in the shell you organise the way in which a bunch of small tools
cooperate to get the job done.
The aim of this course is to give you
I
an introduction to some of these small tools,
I
the knowledge how to combine them, and
I
an idea about where to find tools yet unknown to you.
13
1 · Toolbox basis
Getting a shell
Linux & Mac There are various terminal emulators available. On Linux,
xterm is most commonly installed. On Mac OS X, look for the “Terminal”
application.
What you see inside the window is
the shell. The window itself is a
terminal emulator. More on that
later.
sk@phobos90:~$
Windows Users For the long term, you need to
toss Windows, and install Linux. Seriously!
I
• But better don’t fry your only running system during the semester.
I
Until then, you may try to
• establish a remote session with our compute servers (cf. page 15),
• or install a virtual machine6 running Linux.
• Emulations (e.g., CygWin) are not recommended.
6 e.g.,
Virtual Box, http://www.virtualbox.org/
14
1 · Toolbox basis
1.3
Remote login to titan07 · 1.3
Remote login to titan07
If you suffer from having Windows installed, there’s help:
I
Use the compute server titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de,
I
log in via Secure Shell (SSH)
user name the pop number7 associated with your RZ-account
password the password you use for email.
PuTTY8 is a free SSH client for
Windows. A series of screenshots
demonstrating how to log in is in
the lecture’s public repository9 .
7 https://www.rz.uni-konstanz.de/angebote/e-mail/usermanager/
8 http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/
9 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/putty.zip
15
1 · Toolbox basis
Remote login to titan07 · 1.3
Secure Shell from the Command Line
Of course, you can also use SSH from Linux & Mac OS.
ssh user@host
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
z Log
in to host as user, and run the default shell.
sk@verne:~$ ssh pop09951@titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de
# on my machine
The authenticity of host 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de (134.34.224.26)'
can't be established.
ECDSA key fingerprint is 16:7e:fc:e6:bb:9d:f7:e8:bd:4c:4b:f6:66:bc:27:9d.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes # only once
Warning: Permanently added 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de' (ECDSA) to the
list of known hosts.
Password: # RZ-password that came with your mail acount
Last login: Thu Jan 24 13:57:37 2013 from verne.inf.uni-konstanz.de
pop09951@titan07 ~ $
# now I’m working on titan07
I
You should check that the shown key fingerprint appears in the
provided10 listing.
I
We will return to SSH later in this course.
10 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/titan07-fingerprints
16
2
First steps
$
2 · First steps
2.1
Anatomy of a shell · 2.1
Anatomy of a shell
There are many shells. We use the GNU Bourne-Again SHell: bash.
1
I
I
You should see a cursor , its appearance may vary, sometimes it even
blinks.
The text to the left of the cursor ist the shell prompt.
• May vary between hosts, it may be as modest as a plain $.
• On titan07 it is: user@host ~ $.
I
Type in a command. You’ll learn a lot of commands this term...
1
2
3
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ echo hello shell
hello shell
Basic work cycle The shell prompts you → You type in something →
The shell runs it → You see the results, and another prompt.
18
2 · First steps
Anatomy of a shell · 2.1
What is a command?
The shell needs to interpret your input to find out what to do.
For simple commands11 , the procedure is:
1. The shell splits your input into words.
2. The first word specifies the command to be executed.
3. The remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command.
Review the example:
1
2
3
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ echo hello shell
hello shell
I
What is the command being run?
I
What are the arguments?
I
What does the command do with
its arguments?
Note The splitting into words can be quite tricky. Avoid whitespace in
file names! (more on that later)
11 we
will discuss not so simple commands later in this course
19
2 · First steps
2.2
What’s around us? · 2.2
What’s around us?
nano
I
Unix-principle: Everything is a file.
I
Files are organized in directories,
which form a hierarchical structure.
I
The root directory is denoted by a
slash: /.
I
A file is uniquely identified by its path
from the root, e.g., /usr/bin/ssh.
The shell has a current working
directory, the command pwd prints its
name.
I
1
2
bash
bin/
ls
boot/
cp
dev/
init.d/
skel/
etc/
/
home/
nanorc
ssh
tmp/
sbin/
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ pwd
/home/pop09951
usr/
Initial location: your home directory.
passwd
var/
bin/
rsync
local/
sort
lib/
man/
share/
20
2 · First steps
Looking and moving around · 2.3
Looking around
ls [-l] [-a] [name...] z List the current directory, or names if given.
Use -l to get the long listing, -a to see all files.
1
2
3
I
Arguments are passed to a command by typing them right behind the
command name, separated by spaces.
I
It is common style in Unix documentation to mark optional arguments
with brackets [·], and an ellipses ... indicates optional repetition.
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ ls
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ ls -a
. .. .bash_history .bash_logout
I
# No output ⇒ nothing here?
.k5login
.mateconf
.profile
.ssh
By convention, a file whose name starts with a dot is not listed.
⇒ dot-file is Unix jargon for “hidden file”.
Which of the listed items are files, which are directories?
21
2 · First steps
Getting more details
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
d
rwxr-xr-x
siz
e
in
by
t
d= =re
di gu
re la
ct r fi
or le
y ,
10
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ ls -a -l
# short options may be combined, e.g., ls -la
total 32
# 1k-blocks allocated in this dierectory by listed items
drwx------ 4 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Feb 11 11:31 .
drwxr-xr-x 22 root
root
4096 Jan 31 09:38 ..
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 993 Feb 11 11:32 .bash_history
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 220 Apr 3 2012 .bash_logout
-rw-r--r-- 1 pop09951 domain_users
54 Feb 11 11:31 .k5login
drwx------ 2 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Feb 11 12:29 .mateconf
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 675 Apr 3 2012 .profile
drwxr-xr-x 2 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Feb 11 11:32 .ssh
es
tim
m e
od o
ifi f l
ca as
tio t
n
fil
e
na
m
e
1
2
pop09951
domain_users
4096
Feb 11 11:32
.ssh
22
2 · First steps
Moving around
Why move at all?
Unless told otherwise, the commands you issue always work on the
current working directory, e.g., ls lists only the current directory.
I
pwd
z Print
cd [dir]
working directory.
z Change
directory to dir, or to home directory if dir is omitted.
If you change the directory, you’ll see the prompt change as well:
The tilde ~ is a common abbreviation for your home directory.
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ cd /etc
pop09951@titan07 /etc $ pwd
/etc
pop09951@titan07 /etc $ cd schluargl
-bash: cd: schluargl: No such file or
pop09951@titan07 /etc $ cd
# switch to another directory
# you run pwd in the directory /etc
# response printed by pwd
# it’s an error if the directory does not exist...
directory
# ...and we do not move
# no argument, so go back home
⇒ The default prompt shows the shell’s working directory.
23
2 · First steps
Paths can be absolute (leading slash /), or relative to the current
directory (without leading slash).
I
1
2
3
pop09951@titan07 whatever $ cd /usr
pop09951@titan07 /usr $ cd local/bin
pop09951@titan07 /usr/local/bin $
# an absolute path
# from /usr go to local/bin
Every directory contains two extra entries:
I
. refers to the directory it appears in, and
.. refers to the respective parent directory.
4
5
6
7
8
I
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
/usr/local/bin $ cd ..
/usr/local $ cd ../share
/usr/share $ cd .
/usr/share $ cd ../lib/../bin
/usr/bin $
# go to parent directory
# go to sibling named share
# stay in the current directory
# intermediate dirs must exist
Two more commands:
mkdir dir
z Make
rmdir dir
z Remove
directory dir.
directory dir, fails if dir is not empty.
24
2 · First steps
2.4
I
I
Editing files · 2.4
Editing files
There are a lot of text editors available.
You may choose any editor you like if it is suitable for plain text.
Microsoft Word is not! We’ll discuss later what plain text actually means.
I
I’ll show you nano for a quick start, and more complex editors later in
the lecture.
nano [file]
z Run
nano and open file, or an empty buffer if omitted.
I
The prompt disappears, you’re inside nano now. Type some text...
I
At the bottom, some key bindings are shown. Type ˆO (i.e., Ctrl-O) to
save the file, name it “greeting”. Type ˆX to end nano.
25
2 · First steps
2.5
Managing files · 2.5
Managing files
rm [-r] file... z Remove files.
I Recursively remove all subdirectories, if -r is given.
cp [-r] source dest z Copy source to dest.
I If dest is a directory, copy into it.
I If source is not a directory, and a file dest exists, overwrite it.
mv source dest z Move source to dest.
I If dest is a directory, move into it.
I If dest does not exist, rename source to dest.
I If source is not a directory, and a file dest exists, replace it.
Watch out Use all these commands with extreme care. There’s no safety
net, i.e., no “trashbin”, and no “undo”. The shell is a pretty good place to
loose data.
26
2 · First steps
2.6
Looking into files · 2.6
Looking into files
So here’s our new file:
1
2
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ ls -l greeting
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 12 Jan 31 21:03 greeting
file file...
cat file...
less file
z What
kind of data is in the file?
z Concatenate
z Show
files and print their contents.
file and allow scrolling and searching. Press h for help.
(about the name: less is more, improved. more is the traditional Unix file browser)
3
4
5
6
7
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ file greeting
greeting: ASCII text
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ cat greeting
hello world
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ less /usr/share/games/fortunes/literature
Exercise Play with these commands.
27
2 · First steps
2.7
Getting help · 2.7
Getting help
Most important section!
There are various help systems around on a Unix system:
man The standard means of documentation on Unix: manual pages.
help Documentation of shell builtins.
info Arcane hypertext format, commonly used by GNU projects.
And there’s the web, of course.
28
2 · First steps
Getting help · 2.7
Unix manual pages
I
Manual pages (aka. man-pages) are organized in sections.
I
Different pages with the same name may exist in different sections.
I
Common notation to reference a manual page: name(section).
man [section] name z Show the man-page about name (i.e., program,
utility, or function). Limit search to a section, or show first match.
whatis name
z Shows
apropos keyword
header of named manual pages across sections.
z Search
manual page descriptions for keyword.
A list of sections is available in man(1), the man-page about man.
I
Usually the cursor keys and page keys should work for scrolling.
Otherwise, use f (b) to scroll forward (backward).
I
Press h for help, and q to quit.
Exercise Check out nano(1), and the pages of other commands you have
seen so far. (No need to read’em all — for now.)
29
2 · First steps
Getting help · 2.7
Help from the shell
1
2
$ man cd
# There might be no man-page for the cd command.
No manual entry for cd
The command cd is a shell builtin, i.e., part of the shell. So it may not
have its own manual page (on some systems it has).
type [name...]
z For
help [builtin...]
3
4
5
6
7
8
each name show whether it’s a shell builtin.
z Display
information about builtin commands.
$ type cd nano
cd is a shell builtin
nano is /usr/bin/nano
$ help cd
cd: cd [-L|[-P [-e]]] [dir]
Change the shell working directory.
# so this is part of the shell
# path to program to be run
# i have pruned the output a little
Being part of the shell, cd (and all other builtins) are also documented in
bash(1).
30
2 · First steps
Getting help · 2.7
The info system
The info system is accessed through an interactive hypertext browser12 .
info [item...] z Run the info reader, and display item from the menu, or
start at the directory node, which gives a menu of major topics.
Again, info is controlled with keystrokes. Most important:
h displays a list of key bindings.
H brings up the info manual.
Tab Jump to the next link.
Return Follow the link under the cursor.
q Quit.
Exercise There’s an item on “nano”. Go, have a look.
12 The
roots of this system predate the success of HTML.
31
2 · First steps
2.8
Useful keystrokes · 2.8
Useful keystrokes
You’ll be typing a lot on the shell. Here’s how you can be even faster:
Up/Down Scroll backward/forward in the history of commands that you
have used recently.
C-r Start a reverse incremental search in the history.
Type ahead for searching, or type
C-r to search for the same pattern further backwards,
Return to run the line displayed, or
Left/Right to edit the line.
Tab Word completion tries to complete a command if in the first
word, or a filename thereafter. Type Tab twice to see a list of
possible completeions.
C-c Cancel the current line without executing it, or interrupt the
running process.
C-s/C-q Flow control used to stop/resume terminal output. If your
terminal “hangs”, try C-q first.
32
3
Subversion
3 · Subversion
3.1
I
Subversion... as in coup d’état? · 3.1
Subversion... as in coup d’état?
Subversion (SVN) is a version control system. As such it provides
means
•
•
•
•
to keep track of changes between versions of a project,
to allow people to concurrently edit the project,
to resolve conflicting edits, and
to revert to earlier versions of a project.
⇒ SVN keeps a log of all changes!
I
We consider this lecture a project. I do the slides, you solve the
exercises, and the tutors revise them.
I
SVN offers sufficient access control to isolate parts of the project.
• Everybody can read the public directory. That’s where the lecture slides and
assignments are published.
• Each group of students has read & write access to their subdirectory.
• The tutors have read & write access to all group’s directories, and probably
some other rights.
• My boss and I have global access to read & write.
34
3 · Subversion
Basic SVN work cycle
1. Check out a working copy from the central repository.
2. Edit as you like, maybe add further files to the project.
• If you screwed up, revert to the version you have checked out.
3. Update your working copy to reflect changes others have committed in
the meantime.
• SVN tries to merge new changes into your working copy.
• You need to resolve conflicts where SVN fails to guess right.
4. Commit your changes to the central repository.
5. goto 2 (no need to check out again)
Note SVN can only merge edits in plain text data. It cannot trace changes
in binaries (images, PDF or “office” documents, compiled programs)
I
So do not add binaries to the repository if not absolutely necessary.
(Although SVN does have space-efficient binary-diff storage)
I
It is better to add the source that generates the binaries.
⇒ C sources instead of compiled programs!
35
3 · Subversion
Important advice
I
Do not add files unrelated to this course.
I
Only add the files asked for in the assignment.
I
Do not add generated or downloaded data13 .
It is extremely difficult to remove data from the
repository history, once it has been added.
13 Better
add information about how to generate, or where to find the data.
36
3 · Subversion
SVN’s command line interface
SVN’s understanding of arguments differs from traditional Unix tools:
I
SVN can perform a bunch of different tasks.
I
Instead of providing a separate program for each of them, there’s only
one svn program. (well, on the client side)
I
Its first argument decides what task to perform.
svn subcommand [argument...] z Execute one of svn’s many
subcommands with the appropriate arguments.
svn help [subcommand]
one specified.
z Display
a list of subcommands, or help for the
37
3 · Subversion
3.2
Checkout — svn co · 3.2
Checkout — svn co
svn co url
z Get
a working copy from the repository at url.14
To check out the “public”15 part of the lecture’s repository:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
I
Due to magic, it is the same URL as on page 6.
I
I’d suggest doing all this in a dedicated subdir, e.g., ~/sq_15w.
sq_15w $ svn co --username your.name https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/
Authentication realm: <https://svn.uni-konstanz.de:443> Uni Konstanz Subversion
Repository
Password for 'your.name': ****
# the password for your.name@uni-konstanz.de
# ... a warning message about storing passwords unencrypted ...
Store password unencrypted (yes/no)? yes
# your choice
# ... list of what's being checked out, may be empty ...
Checked out revision 73.
# number may differ
sq_15w $ ls
pub
sq_15w $ ls pub/
# ... you should see lecture slides here
14 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.initial.html
15 due
to the current setup, authentification is required
38
3 · Subversion
I
Checkout — svn co · 3.2
To check out your group’s (say foobar) private directory16 :
13
14
15
16
17
18
sq_15w $ svn co --username your.name \
> https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/group/foobar
# You will not be asked for credentials, if you have stored them in the previous step
# ... list of what’s being checked out, may be empty ...
$ ls
foobar pub
19
I
You now have working copies of two different subdirectories of the
repository https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w:
pub is a copy of ^/pub/
foobar is a copy of ^/group/foobar/
(Where ^ is an abbreviation for the repository’s location.)
16 You’ll
learn your group’s name from assignment 1, cf. page 6.
39
3 · Subversion
3.3
Query status / Add files — svn st / svn add · 3.3
Query status / Add files — svn st / svn add
svn st z List files with changes, and new files not yet under SVN’s
control. No output ⇒ nothing to report.17
svn add file...
I
z Schedule
files for addition to the repository.18
SVN does not automatically take care of files you create in a working
copy. You need to tell SVN which files to add to the repository.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
sq_15w $ cd foobar
# in your group's directory
sq_15w/foobar $ nano newfile
# create a new file
sq_15w/foobar $ svn st
?
newfile
# huh? — SVN does not yet handle this file
sq_15w/foobar $ svn add newfile
A
newfile
# scheduling this file for Addition
A
newfile
# SVN is planning to Add this file to the repository
17 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.examine
18 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.edit
40
3 · Subversion
3.4
Commit changes — svn ci · 3.4
Commit changes — svn ci
svn ci -m 'message' [path...] z Commit (aka., check in) all changes,
providing a log message. The commit can be limited to certain paths.19
I
When satisfied with your changes (e.g., adding a file), you need to
commit them to the repository.
I
You have to provide a log message.
Without -m, an editor (probably nano) will be launched where you can enter a message.
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
A
newfile
# SVN is planning to Add this file to the repository
sq_15w/foobar $ svn ci -m 'blah blah blah' # use concise messages
Adding
newfile
# actually adding this file
Transmitting file data .
Committed revision 14.
# no output
19 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.commit
41
3 · Subversion
3.5
I
Updating your working copy — svn up · 3.5
Updating your working copy — svn up
You should regularly update your working copies to receive any changes
committed by your fellow students, tutors, or lecturers.
svn up [path...] z update the working copies in each path, or the current
working directory if no path is given.20
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
I
sq_15w $ svn up pub
At revision 16.
sq_15w $ svn up foobar
A
foobar/greeting
Updated to revision 16.
sq_15w $ ls foobar
greeting newfile
# no new lecture slides in pub.
# greeting has been Added.
How did greeting get there? Probably someone in your group was a bit
faster with the homework.
20 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.update
42
3 · Subversion
3.6
Show modifications — svn di · 3.6
Show modifications — svn di
svn di [file...]
I
the differences in the given files, or all files.21
When editing, svn st tells you which files are new, or have changes, svn
di lists the differences.
In a format known as unified diff.
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
I
z Show
sq_15w/foobar $ nano greeting # change the file your fellow has checked in
M
greeting
# this file has local Modifications
sq_15w/foobar $ svn di greeting
Index: greeting
===================================================================
--- greeting
(revision 95)
# working copy was last updated to rev 95
+++ greeting
(working copy)
@@ -1 +1 @@
-hello
# this line has been removed
+hello world
# this line has been added
You may commit modifications with svn ci, cf. page 41.
21 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.examine
43
3 · Subversion
3.7
Undo your changes — svn revert · 3.7
Undo your changes — svn revert
svn revert file...
or checkout.22
I
changes on file made since the last update
If you are unhappy with your modifications, ou may revert to the version
of your last update.
53
54
55
I
z Revert
sq_15w/foobar $ svn revert greeting
Reverted 'greeting'
# no output
The svn merge command23 even allows to “undo” previously committed
revisions. See the manual, this is rather advanced!
22 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.revert
23 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.branchmerge.basicmerging.html
44
3 · Subversion
3.8
I
When things go awry · 3.8
When things go awry
There are many possibilities where conflicts can arise.
• Two people edit the same region of a file in different ways, so that SVN
cannot merge the edits.
• You try to add a file that someone has added after your last checkout.
• ...
I
If your working copy of modified files is out of date, then svn ci will
fail. You need to update first.
I
The update may fail, leaving you enough information to sort out the
mess.
Note Resolution of tree conflicts (cf. page 49) has changed significantly
since Subversion 1.5. A rather complex example24 can be found in the
manual.
24 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.treeconflicts.html
45
3 · Subversion
A text conflict
Text conflicts arise, when SVN cannot merge concurrent edits that
happened to the same region of a file.
I Assume you have edited a file data which is already part of the
repository:
1
2
M
data
# There are local Modifications, waiting to be committed
But when you try to commit, something strange may happen:
I
3
4
5
6
7
sq_15w/foobar
Sending
svn: E155011:
svn: E155011:
svn: E160028:
$ svn ci -m 'better now'
data
Commit failed (details follow):
File '/home/sk/sq_15w/foobar/data' is out of date
File '/group/foobar/data' is out of date
# local path
# path in repos
• The local working copy of data is out of date, i.e., someone else has
committed changes of data after your last update.
• SVN has failed to automatically merge your edits with those already
committed.
I
So you first have to update your working copy.
46
3 · Subversion
Let’s do so:
I
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
sq_15w/foobar $ svn up
Updating '.':
C
data
# this file contains the conflict
Updated to revision 3.
Conflict discovered in file 'data'.
Select: (p) postpone, (df) show diff, (e) edit file, (m) merge,
(mc) my side of conflict, (tc) their side of conflict,
(s) show all options: p
# see the manual for the other options
Summary of conflicts:
Text conflicts: 1
# there is one text conflict
The update creates a bunch of new files:
I
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
C
data
# merged version of data, contains conflict markers
?
data.mine # backup of your version of data
?
data.r2
# copy of revision 2 of data, i.e., before your edits
?
data.r3
# copy of revision 3 of data, i.e., the one up to date
Text conflicts: 1
Use an editor to fix data, using the other files for reference:
I
1
$ nano data
47
3 · Subversion
Resolving conflicts — svn resolve
svn resolve --accept=working file... z Use the current version of
files to resolve conflicts. See the manual for other values than working
to use with --accept.25
You cannot commit the working copy until the conflict is resolved:
I
1
2
3
sq_15w/foobar $ svn ci -m 'better now'
svn: E155015: Commit failed (details follow):
svn: E155015: Aborting commit: 'sq_15w/foobar/data' remains in conflict
You need to tell SVN that you are done with resolving the conflict:
I
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
sq_15w/foobar $ svn resolve --accept=working data
# tell SVN: conflict is resolved
Resolved conflicted state of 'data'
sq_15w/foobar$ svn st
M
data
# no conflict any more, but uncommitted modifications
sq_15w/foobar$ svn ci -m 'merged my edits'
# try to commit again, may fail again
Sending
data
Transmitting file data .
25 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.resolve
48
3 · Subversion
A tree conflict
Tree conflicts arise, when SVN cannot merge concurrent changes in the
directory structure.
I Assume you have created file1, but not (yet?) scheduled it for addition
to the repository.
1
2
?
file1
# SVN does not care about this file
But when you try to update, something strange may happen again:
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
sq_15w/foobar $ svn up
Updating '.':
C file1
At revision 4.
Tree conflict on 'file1'
> local file unversioned, incoming file add upon update
Select: (r) mark resolved, (p) postpone, (q) quit resolution, (h) help: p
# again, we have typed p here
Tree conflicts: 1
• Someone else has added a file1 after your last update.
49
3 · Subversion
Here we can choose one of two options:
Option 1: revert file1 will toss your version of the file, and replace it
with the one already committed.
I
• You revert to the version where file1 did not exist, then it’s added by the
update.
1
2
3
4
sq_15w/foobar $ svn revert file1
sq_15w/foobar $ svn st # No output, conflict disappeared
sq_15w/foobar $ ls
file1 # this is the file that came from the repository
Option 2: Resolve by accepting the state of the working copy. This will
schedule file1 for deletion.
I
• Note, that this is consistent: In your working copy, file1 is not part of the
repository.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
sq_15w/foobar $ svn resolve --accept=working file1
Resolved conflicted state of 'file1'
D
file1
# Note the D: scheduled for deletion.
sq_15w/foobar $ svn ci -m'file1 should not be checked in'
Deleting
file1
50
3 · Subversion
3.9
Tree changes — svn rm/mv/cp · 3.9
Tree changes — svn rm/mv/cp
You must not (re)move files under SVN’s control using rm or mv.
I
SVN will report moved files as missing, since it cannot trace the OS’s
own mv command.
I
Use SVN’s subcommands to (re)move or copy files26 :
svn rm file...
I
z Mark
files for removal from the repository.
svn mv src dst
z Rename/move
svn cp src dst
z Copy
files under svn’s control.
files under svn’s control.
Conflicting operations on the directory structure may also lead to
conflicts on update.
26 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.7/svn.tour.cycle.html#svn.tour.cycle.edit
51
4
Scientific text processing with LATEX
{\LaTeX}
LATEX
4 · Scientific text processing with LATEX
4.1
Background · 4.1
Background
You might come across the following soon:
Mathe-Übungsblatt: Die Abgabe der Lösung als aus LATEX erzeugte
PDF-Datei ist bis Freitag...
I
LATEX is the document preparation system in the natural sciences,
mathemetics, and computer science.
• Scientific publications are likely to be prepared using LATEX. You may even
have to use it (publisher, co-authors).
• You’ll be asked to prepare your thesis using LATEX.
• We use LATEX a lot ourselves.
• Sometimes, it is quite a nuisance.
I
Being a plain text format (some say: programming language), the source
code is accessible to the Unix toolbox you’re here for.
I
It producdes high quality output, especially when it comes to math.
n
X
i=
i=1
n · (n + 1)
2
1
\sum_{i=1}^ni = \frac{n\cdot(n+1)}2
53
4.2
Getting
Getting LATEX · 4.2
LAT
EX
TEX Live is a TEX distribution, likely to contain all packages and add-ons
you’ll ever need.
I
Most GNU/Linux distributions should offer TEX Live through their
package management system.
I
TEX Live is installed ready-to-use on titan07.
Downloading the TEX Live distribution27 is probably the next easiest way
to use LATEX on almost any platform.
I
Is it TEX or LATEX?
I TEX is the core language and the engine of the text processing system.
LATEX is a macro package for TEX.
I Since plain TEX sucks, everybody uses LATEX, which sucks less.
I
You can ignore the fact that there’s TEX, until you encounter a problem
that must be solved in TEX...
27 http://www.tug.org/texlive/
54
4.3
1
2
3
4
5
LATEX basics · 4.3
LAT
EX basics
% first.tex - A LaTeX example!
\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
Hello world, hello \LaTeX.
\end{document}
Use nano to create a file
first.tex as shown. Good idea:
Do this in a new directory.
line 1 A comment, from % till end of line. This is ignored.
2 The \documentclass sets a couple of defaults, and provides
commands, e.g., to form sections, specify paper size, ...
3,5 The body of the document goes into the document environment.
This defines the visible contents of the document.
I
Commands are introduced by a backslash \, arguments are often passed
in curly braces {·}.
I
Everything before \begin{document} is called the preamble. That’s
where extensions are loaded and commands can be defined.
55
LATEX basics · 4.3
Compiling your first
pdflatex file.tex
file.tex.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
LAT
EX document
z Compile
PDF document file.pdf from
~/foo $ pdflatex first.tex
This is pdfTeX, Version 3.1415926-1.40.10 (TeX Live 2009/Debian)
entering extended mode
# skipping some of the rather lengthy output
Output written on first.pdf (1 page, 21210 bytes).
Transcript written on first.log.
~/foo $ ls
first.aux first.log first.pdf first.tex
Have a look at your PDF document:
Hello world, hello LATEX.
I
I
I
One of the very few occasions we make use of a graphics display.
If you have compiled on your local machine, use any PDF viewer you like.
(xpdf, acroread, evince, gv, ...)
If you have compiled on titan07, you need to get the file first...
56
4.4
Copying files from titan07 to a Windows host · 4.4
Copying files from titan07 to a Windows host
I
With ssh, you can log in to a remote machine, and work there. However,
the data stays on that machine.
I
To transfer files between two machines, you need a different tool: Secure
Copy (scp)
Actually, you can get away with just ssh...
I
ssh and scp both use the SSH protocol: To authenticate yourself, use
the same credentials as for ssh.
WinSCP28 is a free SCP client for
Windows. A series of screenshots is in the
lecture’s public repository29 .
28 http://winscp.net/
29 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/winscp.zip
57
Copying files from titan07 to a Windows host · 4.4
Secure Copy from the Command Line (Linux & Mac OS)
scp user@host:file dest z Copies file to destination, just like cp does.
The prefix user@host: indicates a remote filename or directory.
1
2
3
4
$ scp pop09951@titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de:first.pdf .
Password: # RZ-password
first.pdf
100%
21KB
# Now the file first.pdf has been copied to my computer.
# note the dot
20.7KB/s
00:00
And this also works in the other direction:
1
2
3
$ scp first.pdf pop09951@titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de:
Password: # RZ-password
first.pdf
100%
21KB
# note the colon!
20.7KB/s
00:00
58
4.5
Umlauts · 4.5
Umlauts
By default, LATEX does not understand umlauts.
1
Bse berraschung?
2
3
4
1
Böse Überraschung?
ä ö ü, Ä Ö Ü, ß
2
3
4
5
1
2
ä ö ü, Ä Ö Ü, ß
3
4
5
6
\begin{document}
\end{document}
\begin{document}
B\"ose \"Uberraschung?\\
\"a \"o \"u, \"A \"O \"U, \ss
\end{document}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\begin{document}
Böse Überraschung?\\
ä ö ü, Ä Ö Ü, ß
\end{document}
% Note
For the latter to work, make sure to save your files with UTF-8 encoding.
We’ll cover text encodings later on in this course.
59
4.6
Sections · 4.6
Sections
The article class provides commands to stucture your document into
\sections, \subsections, \subsubsections, and \paragraphs.
1
2
\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
\begin{document}
% Note the setting of the paper size
3
4
5
6
\section{First Section}
Lines of text are wrapped as necessary. Newlines are ignored, but an empty
line (i.e., two or more newlines) starts a new paragraph.
7
8
9
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor
incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
10
11
12
\subsection{Subsection One}
Note, that section numbering happens automatically.
13
14
15
\subsubsection{Sub-Sub-Section} Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis
nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
16
17
18
19
\paragraph{Paragraphs}
Further division into paragraphs is possible, so in total you have five
levels to structure your content.
20
21
\end{document}
60
Sections · 4.6
The previous code renders into this:
1
First Section
Lines of text are wrapped as necessary. Newlines are ignored, but an empty line
(i.e., two or more newlines) starts a new paragraph.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod
tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
1.1
Subsection One
Note, that section numbering happens automatically.
1.1.1
Sub-Sub-Section
Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut
aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Paragraphs Further division into paragraphs is possible, so in total you have
five levels to structure your content.
61
4.7
List-like environments · 4.7
List-like environments
You can use the environments itemize and enumerate to generate lists.
1. item one
1
2
2. item two
3
(a) aaa
5
(b) bbb
7
4
6
8
• This is an item,
9
10
• one with children
\begin{enumerate}
\item item one
\item item two
\begin{enumerate}
\item aaa
\item bbb
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
11
12
– a
13
– b
14
\begin{itemize}
\item This is an item,
\item one with children
\begin{itemize}\item a\item b\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
(Here, I have only shown the document body, not the preamble. If you’re formatting text,
it goes into the body. Everything else goes into the preamble.)
62
4.8
Math environments · 4.8
Math environments
I
LATEX offers a rich language to describe math formulae.
I
To use that language, you need to switch LATEX into math mode.
Math mode?
I
All text is considered to be variables, operators, or commands, and
typeset according to the structure of the formula, rather than the source
code.
I
Spaces do not appear in the output. You’ll need special commands for
spacing, but LATEX is doing a good job already.
I
Also, line breaks are sort of non-significant. But you are not allowed to
have empty lines in math mode.
63
Show, that
a2 −b2
a−b
= a + b holds for real numbers a, b.
For inline formulae, use the math environment:
1
2
3
4
5
Show, that
\begin{math}
\frac{a^2-b^2}{a-b} = a+b
% \frac{a}{b} renders a/b
\end{math}
holds for real numbers \begin{math}a, b\end{math}.
this can be abbreviated with $·$,
1
Show, that $\frac{a^2-b^2}{a-b} = a+b$ holds for real numbers $a, b$.
or even $·$
1
Show, that $\frac{a^2-b^2}{a-b} = a+b$ holds for real numbers $a, b$.
Also on this slide: Superscript a^b, fraction \frac{a}{b}.
64
...non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum.
n
X
ai bn−i = a0 bn + a1 bn−1 + . . . + an−1 b1 + an b0
i=0
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod...
Use displaymath to set larger formulae in their own paragraph.
1
2
3
4
5
...non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum.
\begin{displaymath}
\sum_{i=0}^n a_i b_{n-i} = a_0 b_n + a_1 b_{n-1} + \dots + a_{n-1}b_1+ a_nb_0
\end{displaymath}
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod...
which, again, can be abbreviated with \[·\] — You may come across the
alternative $$·$$, but it might confuse the compiler. Do not use.
Also on this slide: Subscript a_b, grouping with {·}, big sum \sum.
65
Equation 1 is known as the Law of sines.
a
b
c
=
=
sin α
sin β
sin γ
(1)
The equation environment is just like displaymath, but displays a
running number on the right. Use \label and \ref for references.
1
2
3
4
5
Equation \ref{los} is known as the \emph{Law of sines}.
\begin{equation}
\frac{a}{\sin\alpha} = \frac b{\sin\beta} = \frac c{\sin\gamma}
\label{los}
\end{equation}
Note that you have to run LATEX twice for references to work!
Also on this slide: Trigonometric function \sin, greek letters \alpha..., emphasis \emph.
66
sin α
=
cos α
=
tan α
=
Using 1 and 2 in 3 yields tan α =
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent
(1)
(2)
(3)
sin α
cos α .
The eqnarray environment allows you to align multiple formulae at an
operator surrounded by ampersands &. The lines are separated by \\.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
\begin{eqnarray}
\sin\alpha &=& \frac{\textrm{opposite}}{\textrm{hypotenuse}}
\label{sin} \\
\cos\alpha &=& \frac{\textrm{adjacent}}{\textrm{hypotenuse}}
\label{cos} \\
\tan\alpha &=& \frac{\textrm{opposite}}{\textrm{adjacent}}
\label{tan}
\end{eqnarray}
Using \ref{sin} and \ref{cos} in \ref{tan} yields $\tan\alpha=\frac{\sin
\alpha}{\cos\alpha}$.
Also on this slide: \cos, \tan, font style \textrm to distinguish variables from text.
67
4.9
Parenthesis · 4.9
Parenthesis
With \left(·\right), you can build parenthesis that adapt to their
contents:
a2 + )=f
f(
x
1
2
3
4
5
a2 + x
x
{ |x ≤ y} =
y
f(\frac{a^2+\epsilon}{x})
= f \left( \frac{a^2+\epsilon}{x} \right)
\qquad % make a larger gap between them.
\{ \frac xy | x\le y \}
= \left\{ \frac xy \middle| x\le y \right\}
x x≤y
y
% note: \{ instead of {
\left and \right...
I
...work with a number of characters, e.g., ()[]{} and |.
I
...must be balanced. To hide one, specify a . dot (cf. page 70).
I
With \middle, you can add punctuation without leaving the group.
Also on this slide: Create brace with \{, a gap with \qquad.
68
4.10
Arrays · 4.10
Arrays
You can use the array environment to create matrices. The argument,
here {cccc}, specifies number and alignment of the columns (right, left,
or centered).
1

a11
 a21

 ..
 .
am1
a12
a22
..
.
···
···
..
.
a1n
a2n
..
.
am2
···
amn
T
2




4
3
5
6
7
8
\left[
\begin{array}{cccc}
a_{11} & a_{12} &
a_{21} & a_{22} &
\vdots & \vdots &
a_{m1} & a_{m2} &
\end{array}
\right]^T
\cdots
\cdots
\ddots
\cdots
&
&
&
&
a_{1n}
a_{2n}
\vdots
a_{mn}
\\
\\
\\
\\
Again, columns are separated by ampersands &, and lines by \\.
Also on this slide: Create ellipses using \vdots, \ddots, and \cdots.
69
Arrays · 4.10
But you can also use array to align arbitrary formulae. Note the {rcl}.
1
42x
y
=
=
=
=
2a + b
3a + 2b − 42x
3a + 2b − (2a + b)
a+b
2
3
4
5
6
\begin{array}{rcl}
42x &=& 2a + b \\
y
&=& 3a + 2b - 42x \\
&=& 3a + 2b - (2a + b) \\
&=& a + b
\end{array}
Particularly useful: Writing down cases.
cn+1 =
1
2
3
4
5
6
c_{n+1} = \left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
\frac{1}{2} c_n
3 c_n + 1
\end{array}
\right.
1
2 cn
3cn +
if cn is even
1 otherwise
& \textrm{if $c_n$ is even}
& \textrm{otherwise}
\\
70
4.11
More math symbols · 4.11
More math symbols
I
I
Logics & Arrows
Set theory stuff
∀x.∃y.x 7→ y
¬A ∨ B ∧ C
⇒⇐⇔→←↔
x ∈ A, x 6∈ ∅
A∪B∩C ×D\E
1
2
x \in A, x \not\in \emptyset
A \cup B \cap C \times D \setminus E
1
2
3
4
I
\forall x. \exists y. x \mapsto y
\neg A\vee B\wedge C
\Rightarrow \Leftarrow \Leftrightarrow
\rightarrow \leftarrow \leftrightarrow
Character decorations
I
~x, ẋ, x̄, 6=
Comparing things
6<, ≤, ≥, ≡, ∼, 6∼
1
\vec{x}, \dot{x}, \bar{x}, \not=
1
\not<, \le, \ge, \equiv, \sim, \not\sim
71
AM
More math symbols · 4.11
S-LAT
EX
C, N0 , Q+
For more advanced math, you may
want to use the AMS-LATEX
packages provided by the American
Mathematical Society.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I
I
\usepackage{amssymb}
% Note this!
\begin{document}
\[
\mathbb C, \mathbb{N}_0, \mathbb{Q}^+
\]
\end{document}
AMS mathematical facilities for LATEX. http://ctan.org/pkg/amsmath
Scott Pakin. The Comprehensive LATEX Symbol List.
http://ctan.org/pkg/comprehensive
72
4.12
A stub for exercises · 4.12
A stub for exercises
Basic Math
Summer 1932
Solution of Exercise 1
Chestnut Barrow, Elizabeth Parker
Assignment 1
Let r ≡ m mod n. With the assumptions given in the assignment, we have
∃x, y, z. n = t · x ∧ r = t · y ∧ m = z · n + r
With these, we conclude m = z · t · x + t · y by using the equations for n and r, and then
m = t · (z · x + y) ⇒ t|m.
Let us define a stub that you can use to prepare your exercises. It should
render the above output for a fictional Basic Math lecture held in the
thirties.
73
1
\documentclass[a4paper]{article}
2
3
4
5
\usepackage{a4wide}
6
7
8
9
\begin{document}
% filled in on the next slides
\end{document}
Option a4paper sets the paper size
to DIN A4 instead of US letter.
Package a4wide redefines the
margins to utilize more of the
available space.
74
Basic Math
Summer 1932
Solution of Exercise 1
Chestnut Barrow, Elizabeth Parker
1
2
3
4
5
6
\begin{center}
\textbf{Basic Math \hfill Summer 1932}\\
\bigskip
\textbf{\LARGE Solution of Exercise 1}\\
\emph{Chestnut Barrow, Elizabeth Parker}
\end{center}
The header is set in a center
environment. Note, how \hfill
adds rubber space in the first
line, and \bigskip introduces
extra vertical space.
I
\textbf sets its argument in bold face.
I
The available font sizes are \tiny, \scriptsize, \footnotesize,
\small, \normalsize (the default), \large, \Large, \LARGE, \huge,
and \Huge. Their use extends until the end of the group.
75
Assignment 1
Let r ≡ m mod n. With the assumptions given in the assignment, we have
∃x, y, z. n = t · x ∧ r = t · y ∧ m = z · n + r
With these, we conclude m = z · t · x + t · y by using the equations for n and r, and then
m = t · (z · x + y) ⇒ t|m.
1
\paragraph{Assignment 1}
2
3
4
Let $r \equiv m~\textrm{mod}~n$.
assignment, we have
With the assumptions given in the
5
6
\[
7
8
9
\exists x, y, z.~
\wedge
\wedge
n = t\cdot x
r = t\cdot y
m = z\cdot n + r
\]
10
11
12
13
With these, we conclude $m = z\cdot t\cdot x + t\cdot y$ by using the
equations for $n$ and $r$, and then $m = t\cdot (z\cdot x + y)
\Rightarrow t|m$. \hfill$\square$
Also on this slide: Use ~ to introduce spaces, e.g., around mod. The \square needs to be
set in math mode.
76
4.13
Formatting hints · 4.13
Formatting hints
More on spaces
Since dot . marks the end of a sentence, a slightly larger space is added
than between words. Sometimes, this is not intended.
end.
end.
end.
end.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr,
Jack
Jack
Jack
Jack
1
2
3
4
end.
end.
end.
end.
Mr. Jack
Mr.\ Jack
Mr.~Jack
Mr, Jack
\\
\\
\\
\\
%
%
%
%
second space too large
better, allow line break
correct form
comma for reference
Use backslash-space \ to insert a normal-width space which allows line
breaks, and a tilde ~ for a non-breaking space.
In math mode you can choose from the following spaces:
q..a..b. .c. .d. .e. .f. .g.
1
q. \! .a. .b. \, .c. \: .d. \; .e. ~ .f. \
.h.
.i
.g. \quad .h. \qquad .i
77
Formatting hints · 4.13
Typesetting of function names
Use clear formatting30 hints to convey a message!
ax + f x a x + f y
logy
log y
bary
bar y
maint
main t
1
2
3
4
5
6
ax(y + 1)
log(y + 1)
bar(y + 1)
main(t)
ax(y + 1)
log y
bar y
main t
\begin{array}{lllll}
ax + fx & a~x+f~y & ax(y+1) & \textsf{ax}(y+1)
log y
& log~y
& log(y+1) & \textsf{log}~y
bar y
& bar~y
& bar(y+1) & \textsf{bar}~y
main t
& main~t
& main(t) & \texttt{main}~t
\end{array}
&
&
&
&
ax(y + 1)
log y
bar y
main(t)
\textrm{ax}(y+1)
\textrm{log}~y
\textrm{bar}~y
\texttt{main}(t)
I
When do you see a function name, when a product or application?
I
Explicitly add space to separate variables.
I
Use \textrm or \textsf for math function names.
I
Use \texttt to refer to an implementation.
30 Most
\\
\\
\\
of these function names are predefined in the amsmath packages.
78
4.14
Defining Commands · 4.14
Defining Commands
In the document preamble you can define your own commands.
I
\newcommand{\name}{definition} creates a new command \name
using the definition.
• Useful as a shorthand for frequently
1
2
used symbols.
3
• Use suggestive names that describe
4
5
concepts.
6
• If you later want to change the symbol
7
\newcommand{\Nat}{\mathbb{N}}
\newcommand{\union}{\cup}
\begin{document}
\[ x\in \Nat\union M \]
\end{document}
consistently in your document, it’s
much simpler to change a definition.
I
x∈N∪M
\newcommand does not allow you to redefine existing commands. You
may do this with \renewcommand{...}{...} insted.
(A bad idea unless you really know what you are doing!)
79
Sometimes you will want to pass arguments to a command to get
something more flexible.
I
\newcommand{\name}[num]{definition} defines a command that
consumes a number of arguments.
(also works with \renewcommand)
I
Within the definition, you can refer to these arguments by their position
as #1 trough #9 — so num must be ≤ 9.
1
\newcommand{\set}[2]{ \left\{ #1 \,\middle|\, #2 \right\} }
2
3
4
5
6
\begin{document}
\[ \set{x}{x\in A,\, \exists y.~ y\in A \,\wedge\, y \ge x} \]
\[ \set{\frac{2x+1}{y}}{x+y=33,\, y>0} \]
\end{document}
{x | x ∈ A, ∃y. y ∈ A ∧ y ≥ x}
2x + 1 x + y = 33, y > 0
y Stefan Klinger · DBIS
80
Environments
With \newenvironment{name}[num]{begin}{end} you can even define
your own environments.
(there also is \renewenvironment)
I
begin is used before, end is used after the environment’s content.
I
The arguments #1 trough #9 can only be used for the definition in begin.
1
2
3
4
5
Text for Reference.
6
\newenvironment{mylist}{
\begin{list}{$\Rightarrow$}{
\itemsep -1ex \leftmargin 0ex}
}{
\end{list}
}
7
⇒ Left margins are aligned.
⇒ Items are pretty dense.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
\begin{document}
Text for Reference.
\begin{mylist}
\item Left margins are aligned.
\item Items are pretty dense.
\end{mylist}
\end{document}
Also on this slide: The generic list environment.
81
4.15
Maintaining a Bibliography · 4.15
Maintaining a Bibliography
Here [Knu68] you should see a reference to the item below. If there is a
questionmark, the reference was not resolved!
With BibTEX, you can maintain a
database of bibliographic
references.
I
\bibliographystyle sets how
references should be represented.
• Try plain instead of alpha.
• Publishers frequently require you
to use a given style.
I
I
References
[Knu68] Donald E. Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume I:
Fundamental Algorithms. Addison-Wesley, 1968.
1
3
4
5
6
\cite{key} generates a reference 7
8
to an item in the database,
9
10
identified by a key.
\bibliography{file} creates the
bibliography, based on the
database in file.bib.
cf. page 83
\bibliographystyle{alpha}
2
\begin{document}
Here \cite{knuth} you should see
a reference to the item below.
If there is a questionmark, the
reference was not resolved!
\bibliography{database1}
\end{document}
I
Note: The key is “knuth” here.
I
Only cited references will be
added to the document.
82
The BibTEX database
1
BibTEX uses it’s own format to
2
specify bibliographic data sets.
3
4
Togeter with a style specification,
these are rendered into the references 56
7
that appear at the end of your
8
document.
@book{knuth,
author
= {Donald E. Knuth},
title
= {The Art of Computer
Programming, Volume I: Fundamental
Algorithms},
publisher = {Addison-Wesley},
year
= {1968},
}
I
For this example, I’ve used a small BibTEX database31 with only one
entry. Note the key “knuth” in the first line, identifying this entry.
I
When reading papers, you will probably aggregate your own collection
of bilbliographic references.
I
Some web sites32 list publications with their BibTEX entries. You’d
reather cut’n’paste these, than create your own.
31 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/latex-examples/database1.bib
32 e.g.,
http://www.dblp.org, or http://www.citeseer.com/, ...
83
Making it
I
In general you will need multiple runs of pdflatex and bibtex in the
order given below (biblio.tex33 is the document to be TEXed):
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$ pdflatex biblio.tex
# Among others, creates the biblio.aux file.
# ... there is way more output here. Look out for this one:
LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references.
$ bibtex biblio.aux
# Creates biblio.bbl, containing the bibliography.
# Adds the bibliography to the document.
LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references.
# Finally, this gets the references right.
I
To see the effect, have a look at the generated biblio.pdf document
after each run of pdflatex.
I
To ease the pain, there’s the script latexmk, automating this process:
1
$ latexmk -pdf biblio.tex
# Repeatedly run bibtex and pdflatex as needed.
You’ll find more documentation in the man page latexmk(1L).
33 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/latex-examples/biblio.tex
84
4.16
Document classes · 4.16
Document classes
I
Up to now, we have only used the article document class for examples
and for the stub for exercises (cf. page 73).
Other commonly used document classes are report and book.
I
Less mainstream but feature-rich document classes are
I
• KOMA-Script provides alternatives of the standard classes like scrartcl,
scrreprt, and scrbook.
They implement European (in particular German) typography conventions.
• memoir — Can be used for books as well as for theses. Its manual has more
than 600 pages.
• beamer — Used to create slides (like this document).
I
I
Sometimes a publisher will provide you with a document class that you
have to use.
There are lots of specialized classes like exam, minutes, moderncv, ...34
34 http://texcatalogue.ctan.org/bytopic.html#classes,
...#theses, ...#present
85
Document classes · 4.16
Differences
These document classes mainly differ in two aspects35 :
I Available commands and environments (hard to change):
• book and report feature the \chapter, but article does not.
• book and report start a new page for a \part, while article does not.
• Only article and report offer the abstract environment.
I
Default settings (easy to change):
• book uses the twoside option (different margins for even and odd pages,
etc.), article and report default to oneside.
• book and report enumerate figures, tables, etc. per chapter, while article
does it continously.
Which class? Select the document class accoring to your needs, use
I
article for a short paper, report for a longer document and book for
very large documents.
I
These standard classes only provide the bare minimum. Have a look at
the alternatives (cf. previous slide) for more features.
35 A
nice overview is here: http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/36988/
86
4.17
Further reading · 4.17
Further reading
Packages and extensions
(CTAN is the Comprehensive TEX Archive Network)
LAT
I
beamer – A
EX class for producing presentations and slides.
http://www.ctan.org/pkg/beamer
I
pgf – Create PostScript and PDF graphics in TEX.
http://www.ctan.org/pkg/pgf
Getting help (also cf. page 72)
I
Tobias Oetiker. The not so Short Introduction to LATEX.
http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/info/lshort/english/
I
Helmut Kopka. LATEX: Eine Einführung. ISBN 3-89319-434-7.
Hypertext Help with LATEX @ Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/tools/latex/
I
I
I
StackExchange on TEX. http://tex.stackexchange.com/
Examples of sophisticated diagrams made with PGF and TikZ.
http://www.texample.net/tikz/examples/
87
5
Some more shell basics
5 · Some more shell basics
5.1
Globbing · 5.1
Globbing
The shell expands wildcard characters when they appear on the command
line. This is called globbing in Unix jargon.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
$ ls
first.aux first.pdf second.aux second.pdf
first.log first.tex second.log second.tex
$ ls first*
first.aux first.log first.pdf first.tex
$ ls *tex
first.tex second.tex
$ ls *[ca]*[ax]*
first.aux second.aux second.tex
* Matches any sequence of characters.
? Matches any single character.
[list] Matches any single character in the list.
I You may specify ranges as in [0-9] instead of [0123456789].
I If the first character after [ is a ^, the matching is inverse.
(For an in-depth description cf. bash(1), Pattern Matching)
89
1
2
3
4
$ ls *t
test
$ ls .*t
.bash_logout
Globbing · 5.1
I
.lesshst
Dotfiles are omitted from expansion,
unless the dot is explicitly given in the
pattern.
I
Note that the expansion is performed by the shell, not by ls (or any
other command), so the command should not see the pattern.
I
However, if no matching files are found, the pattern is handed to the
command unchanged.
1
2
3
$ ls *tex miss*
ls: cannot access miss*: No such file or directory
first.tex second.tex
You can force bash to print an error message instead of running the
command by setting the shell’s failglob option.
I
shopt [-s | -u] name
4
5
6
$ shopt -s failglob
$ ls *tex miss*
bash: no match: miss*
z Set,
unset, or print shell option name.
# bash complains, ls is not even executed
90
5.2
Permanent settings · 5.2
Permanent settings
I
Settings like shopt -s failglob are lost when the shell terminates.
I
You can make changes permanent by creating a file ~/.bashrc, which
is read and executed during shell startup.
(cf. bash(1), Invocation)
I
Unfortunately, due to long-standing bugs in the bash-completion
package, it is necessary to also disable “Programmable Completion”:
1
shopt -u progcomp
# disable buggy programmable completion
Later we will see another shell option that also triggers this bug.
(Even better: If the box is under your control, uninstall bash-completion)
I
You may also want to disable History Expansion
1
set +H
which makes ! behave funny
# disable history expansion
(or read bash(1), History Expansion)
91
5.3
Quoting · 5.3
Quoting
I want to delete the empty files, the other two are important:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ ls -l
total 8
-rw-------rw-------rw-------rw------$ rm * ˆC
$ rm hello
1
1
1
1
pop09951
pop09951
pop09951
pop09951
world ˆC
domain_users 0 Feb 20 18:57 *
domain_users 29 Feb 20 18:57 hello
domain_users 0 Feb 20 18:57 hello world
domain_users 29 Feb 20 18:57 world
# Plan I: What would happen here?
# Plan II: Is this any better?
I
How can we tell the shell that a space is part of an argument (e.g., a
filename), instead of an argument delimiter?
I
How can we avoid expansion of wildcard characters?
⇒ Quoting is a mechanism to give some text a different meaning.
1
2
3
4
5
$ rm \* 'hello world'
# the asterisk and the space appear quoted
$ ls -l
total 8
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 29 Feb 20 18:57 hello
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 29 Feb 20 18:57 world
92
Quoting · 5.3
The shell knows three quoting mechanisms:
(cf. bash(1), Quoting)
I
An unquoted backslash \ serves as the escape character, i.e., it
preserves the literal value of the following character36 .
I
Single quotes '·' preserve the literal values of the enclosed characters.
⇒ The backslash does not work here ⇒ You cannot put a ' inside single
quotes!
I
Double quotes "·" preserve the literal values of most of the enclosed
characters. Exceptions are the double quote ", dollar $, backtick ‘, and
backslash \, all of which can be escaped with a (now quoted) backslash.
1
2
3
4
5
6
$
*
$
*
$
*
echo
n \
echo
said
echo
said
\* \n \\
7
8
'* said "hello"\n'
"hello"\n
"* said \"hello\"\n"
"hello"\n
36 Exception:
9
10
11
12
$ echo single\'quote
single'quote
$ echo "single'quote"
single'quote
$ echo 'single'\''quote'
single'quote
\newline is removed completely instead of being replaced with a newline.
93
I
Quoting · 5.3
Think of ' and " as a quoting-toggles.
1
2
$ ls -l hel'lo wor'ld
# unusual, but works
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 0 Feb 20 13:49 hello world
• The first ' switches strong quoting on, the second one switches it off.
I
Some metacharacters have a special meaning for the shell, and
therefore must be quoted to get their literal value:
! " # $ & ' ( ) * ; < > ? [ \ ] ` { | } ~
Some of them do not always have a special meaning, but it’s save to always quote them.
I
Double quotes " are also known as weak quotes, since ! $ \ ` retain
their special meaning. Single quotes ' are known as strong quotes.
I
Do not confuse the single quote ' (ASCII 0x27) with the back
tick ` (ASCII 0x60, aka. backwards quote).
94
5.4
Links, hard and soft · 5.4
Links, hard and soft
A link is like a copy, but stays in sync with the original.
I
Soft links, aka. symbolic links, aka. symlinks, refer to a target specified
by its path, which may be relative or absolute.
• Symlinks can span different file systems.
• A dangling symlink refers to a non-existing file.
I
A hard link is just a(nother) name in the file system for a file on disk.
• You cannot distinguish the “original” from the link.
• Removing the last hard link to a file removes the file.
(That’s why deleting a file is frequently referred to as unlinking it)
• You cannot hard-link directories, nor files on different file systems.
ln [-s] source [dest] z Link file source to destination.
I If dest is a directory, create link under it.
I If dest is omitted, create link in current directory.
I With -s, create symlink instead of hard link.
95
Symlink example
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
$ cat foo
# assume we have only this file
hello
$ ln -s foo bar
# create symlink bar
$ ls -l
total 4.1k
lrwxrwxrwx 1 sk users 3 Oct 1 22:24 bar -> foo # note link flag, and arrow
-rw------- 1 sk users 6 Oct 1 22:24 foo
$ cat bar
hello
# so bar is dereferenced to foo
$ nano bar
# Edits to the symlink...
$ cat foo
# ...are applied to the target
hello world
$ rm foo
# if you remove the source...
$ cat bar
cat: bar: No such file or directory # ...the symlink dangles
$ ls -l
total 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 sk users 3 Oct 1 22:24 bar -> foo
96
Hard link example
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
$ cat foo
# assume we have only this file
hello
$ ln foo bar
# create hard link bar
$ ls -l
total 8.2k
-rw------- 2 sk users 6 Oct 2 23:19 bar # note the link count
-rw------- 2 sk users 6 Oct 2 23:19 foo
$ cat bar
hello
# foo and bar are links to the same file
$ nano foo
$ cat bar
hello world
$ rm foo
# you can remove any one you like...
$ cat bar
# ...the other one is still there
hello world
$ ls -l
total 4.1k
-rw------- 1 sk users 12 Oct 2 23:20 bar
# but the link count has changed
97
5.5
Aliases · 5.5
Aliases
Tired of typing ls -l all the time?
alias [name[=value]...]
1
2
3
I
1
2
I
I
I
builtin to define or display aliases.
If the first word of a command is an alias, it is replaced with the
corresponding definition.
I
I
z Shell
~/foo $ alias ..='cd ..'
~/foo $ ..
~ $
# There are no spaces allowed around the equal sign.
# replaced by cd ..
Alias lookup is recursive, and automatically omits cycles:
$ type ls
# cf. page 30
ls is aliased to ‘ls --color=auto'
1
2
3
$ alias l='ls -l'
$ l
# colored output here
Try set -x to see how the shell expands a command.
Functions are even more versatile, e.g., you may pass arguments.
To make aliases permanent, cf. page 91.
For more on aliases, and functions, cf. bash(1), as usual.
98
6
Text Editors
http://xkcd.com/378/
6 · Text Editors
A painter’s brush
computer scientist
painter
=
text editor
brush
Editing text is probably the most common interactive task:
programming
I writing papers
I building presentations
I writing email, letters, web pages, ...
I controlling computations (shell scripting, R, ...)
I querying databases (hacking XQuery, SQL, Prolog,...)
I
Choose your editor well...
...a separate editor for each task?
I ...or one to rule them all?
E.g., the nano editor emerged from pico, which was originally part of the
pine mail user agent.
I
100
6 · Text Editors
Features a text editor typically provides
I
Modifying plain text
•
•
•
•
I
load & save files
cut & paste
search & replace
different text encodings (e.g., ASCII, UTF-8, Latin-1, ...)
Assisting with programming tasks
• syntax highlighting
• integration with developement tools (compiler, debugger)
I
Opportunities for configuration and extension
• rebind keys
• scriptable/programmable
Features typically not available in a text editor:
I
Formatting, as in “make selected text bold, underlined, red, ...”
I
Page layout, including graphics, diagrams, ...
I
Everything you’d expect from WYSIWYG DTP tools.
101
6 · Text Editors
The two wizards
The term editor war refers to the rivalry
between the emacs and vi families of
editors, sometimes assuming features of a
religious dispute.
⇒ amlost only a matter of personal choice.
Disclosure: I am non-ideologically biased towards GNU emacs!
Considerations
I Where will I be editing? Is my editor likely to be available there?
• There’s probably no Eclipse on a dedicated network switch.
I
I
What’s my mode of connection? Is a GUI interface feasible at all?
What will I be editing? Is there any support from the editor?
• text encoding, eol-convention, available fonts (for Unicode)
• syntax highlighting, spell checking, ...
• integration with developement tools (compiler, debugger, linter, ...)
102
6 · Text Editors
vim, 1991 by Bram Moolenaar · 6.1
6.1
vim, 1991 by Bram Moolenaar
I
On the web: http://www.vim.org/.
I
Documentation: http://vimdoc.sourceforge.net/.
Designed as an extension of vi (1976 by Bill Joy37 ), but with a different
code base.
I
•
•
•
•
which started as a visual mode for ex, a line editor
vi is standardised in Unix specifications.
There are many re-implemenations of vi.
vim is often referred to as vi, on some platforms vi is an alias for vim.
(On titan07 it is a symlink! — This is quite usual)
I
Scriptable with vimscript.
I
Plethora of extensions and scripts available.
I
Baffling concept: Different Modes.
37 Co-founder
of Sun Microsystems
103
6 · Text Editors
vim, 1991 by Bram Moolenaar · 6.1
vim [file] z Run the vim editor (opening file if given). Depending on the
installation, typing vi may launch vim instead.
vimtutor z Runs vim with a tutorial loaded. Try this, and work through a
guided tour of basic commands.
I
Leave vim or vimtutor, not saving anything:
1. Hit Esc (maybe repeatedly) to enter Normal Mode.
2. Type :qa! Return.
I
Getting help: Hit F1, or type :help Return.
Exercise(vi)
1. Spend some time with the tutorial. Do not try to find out by trial and
error how vi works.
2. For at least one month, try to use only vi for all text editing tasks. Try
hard (i.e., read the manual, search the web) to solve all problems you
encounter.
104
6 · Text Editors
6.2
I
I
GNU emacs, 1976 by Richard Stallman · 6.2
GNU emacs, 1976 by Richard Stallman
38
On the web: http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs.html.
Initially implemented in TECO macros
• Later versions were written in Lisp,
• and today a combination of C and Emacs Lisp.
• Many reimplementations and forks, most notably XEmacs.
Where the X does not stand for X11 graphics.
I
Scriptable with Emacs Lisp.
A dialect that differs a lot from other Lisps.
I
Plethora of extensions and scripts available.
I
Baffling concept: Key Sequences.
38 Founder
of the Free Software Foundation and the GNU Project, started its C
compiler and debugger, ...
105
6 · Text Editors
emacs [file]
GNU emacs, 1976 by Richard Stallman · 6.2
z Run
the GNU emacs editor (opening file if given).
emacsclient [options] file z Tries to connect a running GNU emacs
server process, and make it open a file. With -a '', launches a server if
none is running. cf. emacsclient(1).
I
Leave emacs, not saving anything:
1. Hit C-g (maybe repeatedly) to cancel any incomplete operation.
2. Hit C-x C-c or type M-x kill-emacs.
(Depending on your terminal, M-x may be Esc x)
I
Getting help: Hit F1 r for the the manual, or F1 t to run the tutorial.
Exercise(emacs)
1. Spend some time with the tutorial. Do not try to find out by trial and
error how emacs works.
2. For at least one month, try to use only emacs for all text editing tasks.
Try hard (i.e., read the manual, search the web) to solve all problems you
encounter.
106
7
Pipelines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pipes_various.jpg
7 · Pipelines
7.1
Standard streams · 7.1
Standard streams
Each Unix process initially is connected to three data streams:
stdin standard input to read data.
This is used to get your input, just like the shell does.
stdout standard output to write data.
This is where a program prints its output, like ls does.
stderr standard error to write error messages.
Also shows up in your terminal, interleaved with stderr.
E.g., cat(1) copies stdin to stdout if no
arguments are given. Pressing C-d signals
end of input39 .
1
2
3
4
$ cat
hello
# user input → stdin
hello
# printed by cat → stdout
# Press C-d on an empty line to exit
Redirection allows you to reassign source or target of a stream.
I
Input can originate from files, or the output of other processes.
I
Output can be saved to a file, or fed to the input of another process.
39 http://unix.stackexchange.com/questions/110240/why-does-ctrl-d-eof-exit-the-shell
108
7 · Pipelines
Redirecting output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
$ ls
# no files here
$ date
Mon Sep 30 23:10:16 CEST 2013
$ date > output
$ ls
output
# new file
$ cat output
# contains output
Mon Sep 30 23:10:21 CEST 2013
$ echo gone > output
$ cat output
gone
# overwritten
$ echo append >> output
$ cat output
gone
# still there
append
40 i.e.,
date z just prints the current time and
date, cf. date(1).
I
The greater-than > redirects stdout of
the command date to the file output.
I
If you redirect to an existing file, it is
truncated40 first.
I
Use >> instead of > to append to a
file.
its content is deleted, subtly different from deleting the file and creating a new one.
109
7 · Pipelines
I
To avoid overwriting of an existing file with >, you may set the shell’s
noclobber option.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ echo hello > output
# (over)write file output
$ set -C
# set the noclobber option
$ echo world > output
# try overwriting...
-bash: output: cannot overwrite existing file
# ... fails
$ echo world >> output
# appending is fine
$ echo bye >| output
# force overwriting with >|...
$ cat output
# ... works
bye
You can make this permanent by adding set -C to your ~/.bashrc.
I
You may redirect to the null device /dev/null, to efficiently get rid of
unwanted data.
“Talk to /dev/null” is a nerd’s insult.
110
7 · Pipelines
Redirect stderr
9
10
11
12
I
I
$ ls missing exists > output
# only the file exists does exist
ls: cannot access missing: No such file or directory
$ cat output
exists
The error message is not written to file output, because stderr is not
redirected.
The three streams are associated with file descriptors:
cf. open(2)
0 ← stdin
I
2 → stderr
The >file is an abbreviation for 1>file, which simply changes the
association to 1 → file.
Using this, redirecting stderr to a file is easy.
1
2
3
4
I
1 → stdout
$ ls missing exists 2> output
exists
$ cat output
ls: cannot access missing: No such file or directory
As usual, 2>> appends to file, 2>| forces overwriting (if set -C).
111
7 · Pipelines
Multiple redirects
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
$ ls missing exists 1> out 2> err
$ cat err
ls: cannot access missing: No # ...
$ cat out
exists
$ ls missing exists 1> out 2> out
$ cat out
exists
t access missing: No such file # ...
$ ls missing exists 1> out 2>&1
$ cat out
ls: cannot access missing: No # ...
exists
I
Straight forward: Redirecting the
two output streams to different
files.
I
Associating both file descriptors
with the same file does not work.
⇒ Data loss!
I
m>&n redirects file descriptor m to
the target of fd n.
Note: There must be no space before
the ampersand, i.e., not 2> &1
So 2>&1 means: What’s written to fd 2 goes to where fd 1 is currently
directed, which is file out in this case.
112
7 · Pipelines
Order of redirections
1
2
3
4
$ ls miss exists >file 2>&1
$ cat file
ls: cannot access miss: No such file# ...
exists
1
2
First 1>file, then 2>&1.
1
2
3
4
$ ls miss exists 2>&1 >file
ls: cannot access miss: No such file# ...
$ cat file
exists
1
2
First 2>&1, then 1>file.
file
file
1
fd 1
2
stdout
fd 1
stderr
fd 2
stdout
2
1
fd 2
I
stderr
Note: Redirections are applied in the order they are specified!
113
7 · Pipelines
Sources for stdin
Ummm..., how many LATEX-files do I have in this directory?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ ls *.tex >out
$ wc -l out
12 out
# for each file
$ wc -l < out
12
# no filename
$ rm out # do not forget
$ ls *.tex | wc -l
12
# no filename
wc [-l | -w | -c] [file...] z count words (-w),
lines (-l), or bytes (-c) for each file, or for
stdin if no files given.
I
<file sends file’s contents to stdin of the
command.
I
The | builds a pipeline of commands: stdout
of the command on the left is connected to
stdin of the command on the right.
I
You can connect multiple commands to a long pipeline.
I
Note that each command in a pipeline can have its own redirections!
1
$ foo 2>foo.log | bar 2>&1 1>/dev/null | wc -l
# what would that do?
114
7 · Pipelines
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$ wc <<< 'hello world'
1 2 12
$ wc <<stop
> Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
> consectetur adipisicing elit,
> stop
2 8 58
I
A string can be fed to a command via
stdin by the <<< operator. This is
known as here string.
I
A similar concept, here documents,
uses a key (here: stop) to delimit the
data to pass:
• <<delim passes the following lines to
stdin of the command,
• up to a line conatining only the
delimiter (no leading spaces).
I
There are many more ways of redirection, we’ll see some of them later in
this course.
I
For an in-depth discussion, cf. bash(1) Redirections.
115
7 · Pipelines
7.2
The usual suspects in a pipe · 7.2
The usual suspects in a pipe
cat [file...]
z Concatenate
all files and print to stdout.
head [-n n] [file...] z Print the first 10 lines of of each file. With -n,
print n lines, with a negative argument, print all but the last n lines.
tail [-n n] [file...] z Like head, prints the last 10 (or n) lines. Use +n
to print lines starting with the nth.
tee [-a] file... z Copy stdin to all files, and to stdout. With -a, append
to, instead of overwrite files.
less [file]
I
z Browse
stdin if no file is given.
Where applicable, these programs accept a single hyphen - as “filename”
to read from stdin.
(e.g., to use ls -l | cat header.txt - footer.txt)
I
The same tools read from stdin, if no input files are given.
I
These conventions are quite handy, and many other tools follow them.
116
7 · Pipelines
7.3
Sorting · 7.3
Sorting
Task
What are the five biggest files/directories in /etc/?
du -s [-h] file... z Summarise disk usage for each file (or directory).
Adding -h prints “human readable” numbers.
sort [options] [file...] z Write a (line-wise) lexicographically sorted
concatenation of all files to stdout. With options:
-n
-h
-M
-r
-s
I
compare number at start of line
compare human-readable number at start of line
compare month name abbreviation (e.g., Jan) at start of line
reverse sort order
stable sort, i.e., keep lines in order if they compare equal.
Main memory limits length of longest line, disk space limits size of files
to sort. ⇒ Suitable for very large files.
(cf. du(1) and info sort)
117
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
8
9
10
11
12
13
$ du -s -h /etc/* 2>/dev/null | sort -h -r | head -n 5
17M
/etc/skel
6.5M
/etc/mateconf
3.7M
/etc/brltty
1.2M
/etc/bash_completion.d
980K
/etc/ssl
118
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
Remark on options and arguments
I
A program sees its command-line arguments as a list of words. It is at
its own discretion how to interpret them! Always refer to the manual.
I
POSIX convention suggests the following:
• Options consist of a hyphen plus one additional character, like ls -l.
• If the option takes an argument, the space in between may be omitted:
head -n 5 ≡ head -n5
• Options that do not take arguments may be combined:
du -s -h ≡ du -sh
• A single hyphen refers to the according standard I/O stream.
• There are only operands after a double hyphen --.
E.g., to create, list, and remove a file named -l.
I
Most GNU tools additionally recognise long options of the form
--long-name[=value].
(cf. http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/html_node/Argument-Syntax.html)
119
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
14
15
16
17
18
19
$ du -sh /etc/* 2>/dev/null | sort -hr | head -n5
17M
/etc/skel
6.5M
/etc/mateconf
3.7M
/etc/brltty
1.2M
/etc/bash_completion.d
980K
/etc/ssl
120
7 · Pipelines
Task
Sorting · 7.3
What’s the file system with the most free space?
df [-h] z Report used and free disk space for each file system.
Report sizes in human-readable form with -h.
(cf. df(1))
sort can extract sort keys from sections of the input lines.
I
By default, fields are separated by the empty string between a non-blank
character and a blank character.
I
Option -k start[,end][arg] uses the indicated area as sort key.
• start and end refer to field numbers. If omitted, end is end of line.
• Fields are counted from 1.
• The arg specifies how to interpret the field, e.g., one of n numeric,
h human-readable numeric, M month abbreviation, maybe r reverse, and
others.
121
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
1
2
$ df -h | tail -n+2 | sort -k4hr | head -n1
/dev/sda1
434G
21G 391G
6% /
122
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
Task Look at the Marathon year rankings file41 . Cut off the header, and
sort it by year.
1
2
3
4
5
$ head marathon
#title: Marathon year rankings
#source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_Year_Rankings
#date retrieved: Wed 2013-Apr-03 14:26:41 CEST
#key: sex, time, athlete, athlete's nationality, date, city, country
6
7
8
9
10
11
M,
M,
M,
M,
M,
2:30:57.6, Harry Payne, GBR, 1929-07-05, Stamford Bridge, England
2:5:42, Khalid Khannouchi, MAR, 1999-10-24, Chicago, USA
2:5:37.8, Khalid Khannouchi, USA, 2002-04-14, London, UK
2:4:48, Patrick Makau Musyoki, KEN, 2010-04-11, Rotterdam, Netherlands
2:10:47.8, Bill Adcocks, ENG, 1968-12-08, Fukuoka, Japan
I
Patrick Makau Musyoki ⇒ varying number of white spaces before
interesting field!
I
You may chose any other delimiting character c with the -tc option.
I
For testing, use the --debug option of sort.
41 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/marathon
123
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
Testing:
1
$ tail -n+6 marathon | head -n20
2
$ tail -n+6 marathon | sort --debug -k6n | head -n20
# fails
3
$ tail -n+6 marathon | sort --debug -k7n | head -n20
# fails
4
$ tail -n+6 marathon | sort --debug -t, -k5n | head -n20
Solution:
5
$ tail -n+6 marathon | sort -t, -k5n
124
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
Further remarks
I
There’s nothing wrong using multiple sort commands in one pipeline.
I
A stable sort (-s) does not reorder lines that compare equal wrt. the
specified keys.
I
The option -u (unique) only lists the first (incoming) result for all lines
that compare equal wrt. the specified keys.
More commands
uniq [input [output]] z Filter adjacent matching lines from input (or
stdin) to output (or stdout).
I The whole line is compared, in contrast to sort -u, which compares
only the key.
I uniq can count the number of matching lines.
shuf [-n n] [file] z Write a random permutation of the input lines to
stdout. If specified, only print the first n lines.
125
7 · Pipelines
Sorting · 7.3
Question What is happening here?
1
2
3
4
5
6
$ ls *.jpeg
christchurch.jpeg
lake_te_anau.jpeg
clearstream.jpeg
lava_desert.jpeg
farewell_spit.jpeg snowy_creek.jpeg
$ ls *.jpeg | shuf -n1
tama_lakes.jpeg
tama_lakes.jpeg
the_gap.jpeg
whale.jpeg
wool.jpeg
126
7 · Pipelines
7.4
Filtering · 7.4
Filtering
Another very common task is to find all lines containing a certain string:
grep -F [-v] [-i] 'string' [file] z Print all lines from file (or stdin)
that contain the string. With -i, ignore case. With -v, invert the
matching, i.e., print non-matching lines.
To show all entries about Patrick:
1
2
3
$ grep -F -i patrick marathon
M, 2:4:48, Patrick Makau Musyoki, KEN, 2010-04-11, Rotterdam, Netherlands
M, 2:3:38, Patrick Makau Musyoki, KEN, 2011-09-11, Berlin, Germany
127
8
Regular Expressions
8 · Regular Expressions
8.1
I
I
Regular Expression basics · 8.1
Regular Expression basics
Searching for fixed strings is boring, i.e., not versatile enough.
Find strings that feature a certain pattern:
• Integral numbers (e.g., 123, not hello)
• Times (e.g., 6:45pm, not 123)
• Dates (e.g., 2012/Dec/21, not 6:45pm)
Regular Expressions
I
describe strings.
(Commonly abbreviated RE, rex, or regex)
If a string s satisfies the description by a regular expression e, we say that
s matches e, more formally, s ∼ e.
(Or the other way round?)
• 2012/Dec/21 ∼ “description of a date”
• 2012/Dec/21 ∼
6 “description of an integer”
I
The strings we want to describe are made of characters, drawn from a
finite Alphabet A. For simplicity, instead of all possible characters,
assume
A = {a, ..., z, A, ..., Z, 0, ..., 9, /, :, ,, -}
129
I
Any single character a ∈ A forms a Regular Expression, that is matched
by exactly the string a. These are the simplest REs.
I
If e1 and e2 are REs, then so is their concatenation e1 e2 . It is matched
by exactly the strings that are a concatenation of strings s1 and s2 , with
s1 ∼ e1 , and s2 ∼ e2 .
a, n, s ∈ A ⇒ a, n, s are REs ⇒ an, ana, ..., ananas are REs
ananas
anna
∼
6
∼
ananas
ananas
I (Up to now, we can only describe fixed strings, like ananas.)
I
If e1 and e2 are REs, then so is their alternative e1 |e2 . It is matched by
exactly the strings that match e1 or e2 .
plum, cherry are REs ⇒ plum|cherry is a RE
plum
cherry
plerry
∼
∼
6
∼
plum|cherry
plum|cherry
plum|cherry
130
I
Concatenation binds tighter (aka. has higher precedence) than
alternative.
2011
2
I
2010|1|2|3
2010|1|2|3
If e is a RE, then so is (e). Use this for grouping expressions, i.e., to
override precedence:
2011
2
I
6∼
∼
∼
6∼
201(0|1|2|3)
201(0|1|2|3)
If e is a RE, then so is its repetition e ∗ . It is matched by exactly the
strings that are a concatenation of any number of strings all matching e.
0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9 is a RE ⇒ (0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗ is a RE
23
0x17
027
∼
6
∼
∼
∼
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗
131
I
It is less confusing to give the empty string a name: ε, or null string.
The RE matched by exactly the empty string is (), i.e., empty, and
frequently also called ε, or null.
ε
x
ε
ε
I
∼
6
∼
6∼
∼
()
()
x
(0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9)∗
Note: ε is not whitespace!
• The space character is not even in our toy alphabet: 6∈ A.
• If it was, i.e., ∈ A, then still 6∼ (), because a string that contains a
whitespace is not empty.
Exercise Describe the Integers Z, disallow leading 0 if the value is not
zero, and disallow empty strings.
132
∗
0 (-|) 1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
I
At this point, you know all the building blocks of Regular Expressions.
I
You will come across Regular Expressions quite often during your studies,
and notation may vary. The basics are the same, though.
133
8.2
Syntactical sugar · 8.2
Syntactical sugar
There is a lot of syntax sugar that makes writing easier, but does not
extend the power of REs:
(Let e be a RE, n ∈ N, and c1 , ..., cn ∈ A)
I
e ? := e|() — matching e is optional.
I
e + := ee ∗ — requires at least one match of e.
I
e n,m — e is matched at least n times, at most m times.
I
. — the period (wildcard) is matched exactly by any single character.
I
[c1 c2 ...] ≡ c1 |c2 |... — matched exactly by any single character in the
character set {c1 , c2 , ...}.
Exactly single lower-case vowels match [aeiou].
I
[c1 − c2 ] ≡ c1 |...|c2 — matched exactly by any single character in the
character range c1 ...c2 .
(A must be ordered with c1 < c2 to make any sense)
Exactly single upper-case letters match [A − Z].
I
[ˆ...] — matched by any character not in the described set, or range.
Exercise Describe the Integers Z, as before.
134
Syntactical sugar · 8.2
0|-? [1 − 9][0 − 9]∗
I
There’s a lot more syntax sugar and notation to learn. But let’s get used
to Regular Expressions first...
135
8.3
grep — a regex filter · 8.3
grep — a regex filter
grep -E [-x] 'regex' [file] z Print all lines from file (or stdin) that
contain a string matching regular expression regex. With -x, only print
lines that match in their entirety.
(cf. info grep, and regex(7))
Print all lines in the file conatining ARG, BRA, or NZL.
I
1
2
3
4
5
Any word with two b characters in it?
I
1
2
3
4
I
$ grep -E 'ARG|BRA|NZL' marathon
# cf. page 123 for the marathon file
F, 2:26:47, Allison Roe, NZL, 1981-04-20, Boston, USA
M, 2:33:19, Juan Zabala, ARG, 1931-10-28, Košice, SVK
M, 2:14:4.8, Michael Ryan, NZL, 1966-11-27, Fukuoka, Japan
M, 2:6:5, Ronaldo da Costa, BRA, 1998-09-20, Berlin, Germany
$ grep -E 'b[^ ]*b' marathon
M, 2:12:11.2, Abebe Bikila, ETH, 1964-10-21, Tokyo, Japan
M, 2:40:48.6, Charles Robbins, USA, 1944-11-12, Yonkers, New York, USA
M, 2:15:16.2, Abebe Bikila, ETH, 1960-09-10, Rome, Italy
Print only female runners. Are these correct?
1
$ grep -E 'F' marathon
1
$ grep -E 'F,' marathon
136
Anchoring
grep returns all lines that contain a matching string somewhere.
I
Option -x returns only lines that match in their entirety.
I
^ matches the empty string at the beginning of a line.
I
$ matches the empty string at the end of a line.
I
\< matches the empty string at the beginning of a word.
I
\> matches the empty string at the end of a word.
1
2
3
All female runners:
1
$ grep -E '^F' marathon
4
5
6
7
8
9
$ cat food
baked apple
applepie
apple turnover
pineapple
$ grep -E 'apple\>' food
# What do you expect here?
$ grep -E 'apple$' food
# And here?
137
Syntax
You may have noticed that the characters we use for the alphabet in the
theory section, are disjoint from the operators:
A ∩ {|, ∗ , (, ), ...} = ∅
I
In reality, the alphabet does contain characters like |, *, (, ), ...
I
What if we need to search for parenthesis?
⇒ We need to distinguish alphabet and operators:
{|, *, (, ), ...} ∩ {|, ∗ , (, ), ...} = ∅
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
alphabet
operators
138
Characters and Metacharacters
Characters that represent an operation are called metacharacters. They
may be escaped with a backslash \ to get the literal character.
RE
operator
∗
+
?
|
(e)
n,m
meta
.
*
+
?
|
(e)
{n,m}
[c1 ...cn ]
^, $, \
grep -E
literal
\.
\*
\+
\?
\|
$e$
[{]n,m}, \{n,m}
\[c1 ...cn ]
\^, \$, \\
To look for the literal string
“[foo*]”
I
1
$ grep -E '\[foo\*]'
Note that the backslash
needs to be escaped if used
literally.
I
1
$ grep -E -x "\\\\"
What does this match?
139
grep’s argument -E stands for extended REs, as distinct from basic REs
(without -E). -P switches to Perl Compatible Regular Expressions42 .
RE
operator
∗
+
?
|
(e)
n,m
I
grep -E
meta
literal
.
\.
*
\*
+
\+
?
\?
|
\|
(e)
$e$
{n,m}
\{n,m}
[c1 ...cn ] \[c1 ...cn ]
^, $, \
\^, \$, \\
grep (i.e., basic RE)
meta
literal
.
\.
*
\*
\+
+
\?
?
\|
|
$e$
(e)
\{n,m}
{n,m}
[c1 ...cn ] \[c1 ...cn ]
^, $, \
\^, \$, \\
Option -F makes grep scan for a fixed string instead of a regular
expression.
42 For
more on PCREs, cf. pcrepattern(3)
140
Interesting fact There is no way to check for the correct usage of
parenthesis in general (i.e., unlimited but finite depth of nesting):
I
Regular Expressions cannot count.
(You’ll learn this in your theoretical CS lectures)
I
Hence it is not possible to count the number of opening parenthesis.
I
So if we see a ), we cannot know whether there have been enough (s
before that.
I
This applies to all kinds of nesting (e.g., XML tags).
Further RE syntax sugar (may not be available on all platforms, e.g. on Mac)
I
\w matches a word constituent, \W matches a non-word constituent.
I
\s matches a whitespace, \S matches a non-whitespace.
Exercise Look at the first example on page 13, and find out how it works.
You probably have to look at some man pages as well.
141
9
sed
$ ls | sed -rn '/ /{h;s/ +/_/g;x
> s/.*/mv -n "&"/;G;s/\n/ "/;s/$/"/;p}' | sh
“If it was hard to write, it should be hard to read”
— unknown
9 · sed
9.1
What is sed? · 9.1
What is sed?
sed [-r] [-n] [-i] script [file...] z Perform scripted edits on the lines
read from input files, or stdin. With -r, use extended regular expressions.
Unless -n is given, print every line to stdout.
Sed is a stream editor (typically used in pipes).
I A sed script specifies which operations to perform on each line.
• Special script language to specify edit operations.
I
It makes one pass over the input data (stdin or from a file).
1.
2.
3.
4.
I
Read one line (into what’s called the pattern space).
Run the sed-script on the pattern space.
Print the result (unless -n is given).
goto 1.
The most common use case: Search and replace a regular expression.
A lot of people only know sed’s substitute comand.
Detailed documentation: sed(1), and info sed
Good tutorial: http://www.grymoire.com/Unix/Sed.html
143
9 · sed
Substitute — s · 9.2
Substitute — s
9.2
I
The substitute command s/regex/replacement/flags replaces the
first match of regex in each line with the replacement text.
I
The separator / may be uniformly replaced by any other character.
Whatever you choose, it must be escaped with a \ to appear inside the
regex or replacement.
I
With flag g, sed replaces every occurrence in a line43 .
1
$ sed -r 's/, */;/g' marathon
# change field delimiters to ;
If you give a number n instead, only the nth match is replaced.
I
With flag p, sed will print a line right after the substitution occured.
Useful with -n, and with multiple commands in the sed-script, cf. page 145.
Tasks
1. Delete everything before the name of a runner.
2. Only print the names of the runners.
43 To
omit writing tail -n+6, we assume the header has been removed, cf. page 149.
144
9 · sed
1. Remove 2 ,-separated fields.
1
$ sed -r 's/([^,]*, *){2}//' marathon
2. Use the previous solution, and strip everything after the next ,
1
$ sed -r 's/([^,]*, ){2}//' marathon | sed 's/,.*//'
You may specify multiple commands to be applied to each line of input.
I
Separate them with a newline, or a semicolon ;
I
The commands are applied in the order given.
1
1
2
$ sed -r 's/([^,]*, ){2}//;s/,.*//' marathon
$ sed -r 's/([^,]*, ){2}//
> s/,.*//' marathon
# press Return here
145
9 · sed
Reusing matched text
I
Within the replacement text, you may use \n to refer to the portion of
the match which is contained in the nth pair44 of parenthesis.
• Another solution of the previous task thus is:
1
I
$ sed -r 's/([^,]*, ){2}([^,]*),.*/\2/' marathon
The special character & in the replacement text inserts the portion of the
input line matched by the whole regular expression.
• What does the following command do?
1
$ sed -r 's/[0-9]+/(&)/5' marathon
Of course, & may be escaped, as in \&.
44 counted
by the opening parenthesis
146
9 · sed
Real world example
1
2
3
4
5
$ ls
Abstract_Colors_Twirls.jpg
Clown_Fish.JPG
Dark_Sunset.jpeg
White_owl.jpg
Forest_Landscape.jpeg
hüpfer.jpeg
Quiet_Fields.jpg
Wild_ducks.JPG
For all files in the current directory, change the suffix from .jpg to .jpeg.
Technique: First generate the commands to get the job done...
6
7
$ ls | sed -rn 's/(.*)\.jpg$/mv -n & \1.jpeg/p'
$ ls | sed -rn 's/(.*)\.jpg$/mv -n & \1.jpeg/pi'
# i-flag: ignore case
...then execute these commands! Idea: Pipe them into a shell:
8
$ ls | sed -rn 's/(.*)\.jpg$/mv -n & \1.jpeg/pi' | sh
sh z is the standard command language interpreter. On many systems,
this may be just bash itself, or a leaner (faster, less comfortable) yet
compatible (POSIX conformant) interpreter, e.g., dash.
(We’ll see more shell scripting later in this course...)
147
9 · sed
Addressing lines
I
s is just one of the many commands known to sed. Most of the other
commands only make sense when restricted to few lines.
• d — “Delete a line”, when applied to all lines leaves nothing.
I
You can prefix each command with an address, which limits the
command to act on addressed lines only.
• Without address, all lines are affected.
I
Addresses can be:
n A line number n, or $ for the last line.
/regex/ A regex selects only lines containing a matching string.
start,end A range selects all lines from start to end inclusively. The
limits can be line numbers, or REs.
addr! Select all but the addressed lines.
Task
Delete lines 1–5 of the marathon file.
148
9 · sed
1
$ sed 1,5d marathon
Inplace edit With command line argument -i[suffix], it is possible to
modify the input file, i.e., sed will replace the original with the result. If a
suffix is given, a backup will be made — overwriting any existing backup!
Use carefully!
1
2
$ sed -i 1,5d marathon
$ head marathon
# check out the result
149
9 · sed
9.3
How sed digests its input · 9.3
How sed digests its input
run script
2
input
1
read
pattern
space
2
a simplified
picture!
1
2
3
output
print
exchange
hold
space
Read one line into the pattern space (replacing its contents).
Apply the whole script to the pattern space (restarted each cycle):
• Modify the pattern space contents (e.g., s).
• Maybe exchange data with the hold space.
• ...
3
Flush pattern space to stdout, unless suppressed with the -n option.
150
9 · sed
9.4
Command overview · 9.4
Command overview
d
z delete
pattern space, skip following commands, start next cycle.
p
z print
current contents of the pattern space. May occur multiple times,
each printing current state.
n
z print pattern space (unless -n is given), then replace it with next line
of input. Do not restart script, rather continue with next command.
{commands}
z Group
of ;-separated commands (useful: addressing).
s/regex/replacement/flags
z substitution,
cf. page 144.
h / H z save pattern space to hold space / append to the hold space (with
a newline in between) instead of overwriting.
g/G
z get
hold space into pattern space / append instead, as above.
x
z exchange
q
z print
pattern space and hold space.
pattern space (unless -n is given), then quit.
Many more commands, e.g., case conversion, file access, flow control, ...
151
9 · sed
Command overview · 9.4
Complex example
In all filenames in the current directory, replace sequences of spaces with an
underscore _.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
$ ls
Abstract Colors Twirls.jpg Forest Landscape.jpeg White owl.jpg
Clown Fish.JPG
hüpfer.jpeg
Wild ducks.JPG
Dark Sunset.jpeg
Quiet Fields.jpg
$ ls | sed -rn "/ /{h;s/ +/_/g;x;s/.*/mv '&'/;G;s/\n/ /;p}" | sh
$ ls
Abstract_Colors_Twirls.jpg Forest_Landscape.jpeg White_owl.jpg
Clown_Fish.JPG
hüpfer.jpeg
Wild_ducks.JPG
Dark_Sunset.jpeg
Quiet_Fields.jpg
Using the hold space is required here, since we need to maintain a copy of
the original filename.
Note for Apple-Users Your version of sed uses -E instead of -r for
extended REs. Also, it does not understand \w, \W, \s, nor \S. See the
manual if in doubt.
152
10
Shell Scripting
#!
10 · Shell Scripting
10.1
I
Script files · 10.1
Script files
Sooner or later you’ll find yourself typing the same commands over and
over again45 .
1
2
3
I
$ cd ~/studium/sq_15w
$ svn up pub
$ svn up foobar
Of course, this can be automated.
•
•
•
•
Any sequence of commands can be put in a script file.
Running the script executes the commands therein.
You can pass arguments to the script, just like to any other command.
The shell offers control structures like conditionals (if/then) or loops
(for, while).
• You can assign to, and use variables.
45 This
only works if you use a directory structure where your working copy of the SQ public
repository is in ~/studium/sq_15w/pub, and the working copy of your group’s private
repository is in ~/studium/sq_15w/foobar.
154
I
A script starts with the shebang #! on the first line, directly followed by
the path to the interpreter.
I
The rest of the script contains the commands to execute.
Although not required, it is good practice to end each command with a
semicolon ;
I
You may also put multiple commands on the same line, separating them
with semicolon.
I
Save this in a file called squp:
1
2
#!/bin/bash
echo 'Updating the SVN repositories for sq_15w';
3
4
5
6
I
cd ~/studium/sq_15w;
svn up pub;
svn up foobar;
# Adapt this as appropriate
# update the public repository
# update my group's stuff
An unquoted hash # introduces an eol-style comment, i.e., a comment
which extends to the end of the line.
155
I
To run the script, you have to make it executable first:
1
I
$ chmod 700 squp
# chmod 700? — cf. page 157
Now you can run the script.
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
$ ./squp
Updating the SVN repositories for sq_15w
Updating 'pub':
At revision 149.
Updating 'foobar':
At revision 149.
# ./ — cf. page 166
Remark: Although you used cd in the script, you’ll still be in the
directory where you launched squp.
• The running squp process changed its working directory, and then
terminated. This has nothing to do with your interactive shell!
• You cannot write shell scripts that “just bring you to another directory”.
(cf.bash(1), Functions.)
156
10.2
Permissions · 10.2
Permissions
So what was this “make executable”-stuff?
I
Maybe you have tried ls -l before and after running chmod:
1
2
3
4
5
I
$ ls -l squp
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 234 Apr
$ chmod 700 squp
$ ls -l squp
-rwx------ 1 pop09951 domain_users 234 Apr
7 18:30 squp
7 18:30 squp
Remember the output of ls -l (cf. page 22)?
157
Permissions · 10.2
file mode
1
pop09951
domain_users
675
Apr 3 18:30
I
Every file or directory belongs to one owner and one group.
I
A group is a set of users.
groups
z List
which groups you are a member of.
chgrp group file...
I
squp
gr
ou
p
---
r
---
ow
ne
rwx
ow
ne
gr r
ou
p
ot
he
rs
-
z Make
files belong to group.
The mode of the file, aka. access rights, specifies who may read (r),
write (w), or execute (x) the file.
158
Permissions · 10.2
Understanding permissions
read
write
exec
I
I
file
read contents
change contents
run program
directory
list contents
add/rm/mv files
access contents
If a file contains a runnable program, it must have the x-bit set to be
executed.
It is possible to have an executable program that you cannot read.
But not so for shell scripts!
I
The difference between read and exec for directories is rather subtle. You
probably want to set both, or none.
There is no concept like “fallback to lesser permissions”:
If you own a file, the user bits alone determine your access rights.
I If you are not the owner but a member of the file’s group, then exactly
the group bits are significant.
I If you are neither owner nor member, then the other’s rights apply.
I
159
Permissions · 10.2
The mode of a file
I
In fact, there are twelve flags in a file’s mode.
I
Most often, you’ll only deal with the lower nine
(3 user classes × 3 permission flags).
A set of individual switches can be modeled as a binary value:
owning user
sticky read
group members
others
suid
sgid
write
exec
read
write
exec
read
write
exec
bits
100000
000000
010000
000000
001000
000000
000100
000000
000010
000000
000001
000000
000000
100000
000000
010000
000000
001000
000000
000100
000000
000010
000000
000001
bin
2048
1024
512
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
dec
4000
2000
1000
400
200
100
40
20
10
4
2
1
oct
The mode of a file is the sum of the flags set.
rwxr-x--- = 400 + 200 + 100 + 40 + 10 = 750
— octal!
160
Permissions · 10.2
Changing the mode
chmod mode file... z For the given files, change the mode to mode.
You need to own the file to change its mode.
The coolest & fastest way certainly is to specify the mode in octal!
I
1
2
3
$ chmod 750 squp
$ ls -l squp
-rwxr-x--- 1 pop09951 domain_users 234 Apr
7 18:30 squp
There’s also a symbolic notation for changing modes:
I
1
2
3
$ chmod u=rwx,g=rx,o= squp
$ ls -l squp
-rwxr-x--- 1 pop09951 domain_users 234 Apr
7 18:30 squp
• Note that there are no spaces in the mode specification! (Why?)
• Symbolic mode notation is a surprisingly expressive language. Read the
manual...
I
For an exhaustive description, cf. info 'File permissions'.
161
Permissions · 10.2
umask — where the mode comes from
When you create a new file or directory, probably only the w-bits are
missing for group and others. — Why’s that?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
$ touch foo
# assuming a new file
$ ls -l foo
-rw-r--r-- 1 sk users 0 Apr 3 2012 foo
$ umask
0022
$ umask 077
$ umask
0077
$ touch bar
# assuming a new file
$ ls -l bar
-rw------- 1 sk users 0 Apr 3 2012 bar
I
The umask says which bits must
not be set (i.e., masked) when
creating.
(cf. umask(2))
I
By default, the umask is
022 = ----w--w-.
umask [mask] z Builtin to set the
umask to mask, or print current
value if omitted.
To set a more secure default mask, edit the file ~/.profile, and add a
line like this:
(cf. bash(1) about ~/.profile)
1
umask 077
# safer default mode
162
Environment Variables · 10.3
Environment Variables
10.3
variable=value z Set variable to string value.
No spaces are allowed around the equal sign. Spaces in the value must
be quoted. (For now, all values are strings.)
${variable} z Expand the variable. If unambiguous, this may be
abbreviated as $variable.
And there are other forms, cf. page 172.
I
Variable names must not start with a digit, and are composed of
a, ..., z, A, ..., Z, 0, ..., 9,
(Some shells may not allow lower case characters.)
I
Variables are expanded when unquoted, or within double quotes.
1
2
3
4
5
$ foo=bar
$ echo $foo
bar
$ echo "$foo"
bar
6
7
8
9
10
11
$ echo \$foo
$foo
$ echo '$foo'
$foo
$ echo "\$foo"
$foo
163
Special variables
I
Every running program has as a set of variables, called the environment.
I
Some variables are predefined in (almost) every environment, e.g.:
$HOME Your home directory.
$SHELL What shell you are running.
1
2
I
$USER Your user name.
$PATH cf. page 166
$ echo "$USER lives at $HOME, and uses $SHELL"
pop09951 lives at /home/pop09951, and uses /bin/bash
The special Variables $1, $2, ... refer to the arguments you passed on
the command line.
Use ${n} for n > 9.
Prompting the user
read [-p prompt] var... z This shell builtin reads variables from stdin,
optionally showing a prompt.
1
2
3
4
$ read -p 'Who are you? ' name
Who are you? I am Bob
$ echo "Hello ${name}!"
Hello I am Bob!
164
An improved version of the squp script:
1
#!/bin/bash
2
3
4
# Config section
dir="${HOME}/studium";
5
6
7
# you need to pass the lecture name as argument!
echo "Updating the SVN repositories for ${1}";
8
9
10
11
cd "${dir}/${1}";
svn up pub;
svn up foobar;
# Adapt this as appropriate
# update the public repository
# update my group's stuff
gives
1
2
3
4
$ ./squp sq_15w
At revision 149.
At revision 149.
165
The right $PATH · 10.4
10.4
The right $PATH
I
We still need to prefix our shell script with ./, but why?
I
When you type in a command, the shell checks whether it knows what to
do. This is the case, e.g., for aliases (cf. page 98) or builtin commands.
If not, it searches the path for a program to run:
I
• The variable $PATH contains a colon-separated list of directories.
• Only these are searched (in order), for a matching file.
1
2
3
4
I
$ pwd
/home/pop09951
$ ls squp
squp
5
6
7
8
9
$ echo $PATH
/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/s
bin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/games
$ squp
squp: command not found
You can override the search, by specifying a path to the program.
1
2
$ /home/pop09951/squp
$ ./squp
# an absolute path
# a relative path also works.
166
A home for your scripts
Create a directory where you store your frequently used scripts:
I
1
2
$ mkdir ~/scripts
$ mv squp ~/scripts/
Add the new directory to $PATH, be sure to keep the existing path:
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ echo $PATH
/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/games
$ PATH+=":$HOME/scripts"
# you may add this to your ~/.bashrc
$ echo $PATH
/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/games:/home
/likewise-open/ADS/pop09951/scripts
Note, that += appends to the variable’s value.
Enjoy!
I
9
10
11
12
13
14
$ type squp
squp is /home/pop09951/scripts/squp
$ squp sq_15w
At revision 153.
At revision 153.
# no './' anymore!
167
Caveats
I
The order in $PATH is significant. If you put ~/scripts in the beginning,
you may shadow existing programs!
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
$ ls -l ~/scripts/ls
-rwx------ 1 sk users 31 Sep 29 14:24 /home/sk/scripts/ls
$ cat ~/scripts/ls
#!/bin/bash
echo 'hello world'
$ echo $PATH
/home/pop09951/scripts:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local# ...
$ ls
hello world
# probably not what you want
I
This is a useful feature if you want to shadow an installed but buggy
tool with a bleeding-edge version.
(You cannot shadow builtins, though)
I
If you do a lot of testing with self-made programs, you may want to run
executables in your current working directory more easily.
⇒ Append . to the end of $PATH.
Now, why is this “the end”-bit so very, very important?
168
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ ls -l /tmp
...
-rwxr-xr-x 1 evil users 29 Jun 18 10:31 /tmp/ls
...
$ cat /tmp/ls
#!/bin/bash
cd ~
rm -rf * .*
I
Never add directories to $PATH that are writable by untrusted users.
I
Be careful when adding relative paths to the $PATH. They may refer to
publicly writable directories.
169
10.5
I
I
More on expansion
Expansion is the process of replacing parts of your input, performed by
the shell.
There are seven ways how your input can get expanded by the shell:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I
More on expansion · 10.5
Brace expansion (cf. page 176),
tilde expansion (which gives a home directory, cf. page 23),
variable expansion (replaces variable with its value, cf. page 163),
arithmetic expansion (i.e., evaluation of arithmetic expressions),
command substitution (cf. page 173),
word splitting (cf. page 19), and
globbing (aka. pathname expansion, cf. page 89).
They are performed in the given order. In most cases, this is exactly what
you’d expect.
⇒ cf. bash(1), Expansion.
170
Variables, again
I
The squp script fails subtly if you do not pass an argument:
1
2
3
4
I
Unknown variables expand to the empty string! This is bad! (Why?)
1
I
$ squp
Updating the SVN repositories for
# something's missing here
Skipped 'pub'
# svn is being run on the wrong dir
Skipped 'foobar'
$ rm -rf *${suffix}
# Idea: remove all files with a certain suffix
The shell option -u makes bash complain instead:
2
3
4
5
6
$ echo "bla
bla bla
$ set -u
$ echo "bla
-bash: qux:
$qux bla"
Improve squp as follows
# fail on unset variable
$qux bla"
unbound variable
1
2
#!/bin/bash
set -u; # add this line
Better fail catastrophically than subtly!
⇒ Maybe make set -u permanent (cf. page 91) for interactive use?
I Good advice:
171
Forms of variable expansion
In the bash manual, this is called parameter expansion.
I
The following forms expand to the value of $name if it is
set and not empty. Otherwise,
• ${name:-default} — expands to default, and
• ${name:?message} — Prints an error message and ends the script.
1
2
3
4
5
$ echo ${foo:?"what's foo, dude?"}
-bash: foo: what's foo, dude?
$ foo=42
$ echo ${foo:?"what's foo, dude?"}
42
I
If the colon : is omitted, these forms accept the empty string, but still
fail/default if the variable is unset.
I
Other forms allow extraction of substrings, determining the length of a
string, etc.
(cf. bash(1), Parameter Expansion)
172
Command substitution
$(command) z this is replaced by with the output of command on stdout.
You might as well use backticks (i.e., ASCII 0x60) as in ‘command‘, but
this behaves less graceful when nesting and quoting.
(cf. bash(1), Command Substitution)
I
Like variables, this works in unquoted, and weak-quoted contexts:
1
2
I
$ echo The date is $(date)
The date is Thu Jun 20 08:27:37 CEST 2013
Useful as a quick way to make a backup:
1
2
3
4
$ cp foo "foo.$(date -u +"%Y%m%d-%H%M%S")" # see date(1) for the time format
$ ls -l foo*
-rw------- 1 sk users 0 Apr 24 12:38 foo
-rw------- 1 sk users 0 Apr 24 12:41 foo.20130424-104101
Note the nesting: The first " inside $(·) starts quoting wrt. the inner
command.
173
Typical use case: Temporary data
Frequently, one creates intermediate data that needs to be stored in a file.
(e.g., the HTML document in this week’s exercise)
Put intermediate results in a temporary place. ⇒ Store below /tmp.
Avoid conflicts with other users, or when running multiple instances of
the same script. ⇒ Invent a unique name.
I
I
(For security: It should be hard to guess!)
mktemp [-t] [-d] template
name to stdout.
z Create
a temporary file, and print its
The name is calculated from the template by replacing the last sequence
of Xs (min. three) with random characters.
With -t, create in a temporary location, usually /tmp.
With -d, create a directory instead of a file.
I
I
I
1
2
3
$ file="$(mktemp -t foo-XXXXXX)"
$ ls $file
/tmp/foo-BdJLPE
4
5
6
7
$ date >| "$file" # file already exists
$ cat "$file"
Mon Jun 4 17:27:59 CET 2013
$ rm "$file"
# important!
174
Other typical use cases for command substitution are:
dirname path
z Strip
last component from a path.
basename file [suffix]
readlink symlink
z Strip
z Print
directory (and suffix) from filename.
target of symlink.
I
These are all part of the GNU Coreutils, cf. info coreutils.
I
Individual man pages are also available, as usual: basename(1),
dirname(1), and readlink(1).
1
2
3
$ file=/lecture/slides.tex
$ echo "$(basename ${file} .tex).pdf"
slides.pdf
175
Brace expansion
prefix{string1,string2[,...]}suffix z is replaced with a list of strings
of the form prefix stringN suffix, iterating over the strings.
1
2
I
$ echo x{foo,bar,qux}y
xfooy xbary xquxy
1
2
$ echo 'a '{b,'c d'} e
a b a c d e
Note that spaces in a brace expression must be quoted!
prefix{first..last[..increment]}suffix z is replaced with a list of
strings of the form prefix num suffix, iterating over the range.
3
4
I
$ echo x{7..12}y
x7y x8y x9y x10y x11y x12y
5
6
$ echo x{07..120..50}y
x007y x057y x107y
A leading 0 in a range generates equal width numbers.
Example Useful when producing LATEX documents.
1
$ rm *.{aux,log,pdf}
# what does this do?
Note, that brace expansion takes place before globbing is expanded!
176
10.6
I
What’s in a command? · 10.6
What’s in a command?
Definition of shell commands
A simple command is a blank-separated sequence of words, optionally
followed by redirections (i.e., <file, 2>&1, etc.).
• The first word indicates the command to run (e.g., a builtin, a program, ...).
• The remaining words are passed as arguments to the callee.
I
A pipeline is a |-separated sequence of one or more commands.
• So each command in a pipeline can have its own redirections.
• The commands may just as well be compound commands, see below.
I
I
A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines, separated by one of:
;
z Sequentially
&
z Runs
runs one pipeline after the other.
Note: A sequence of newlines is equivalent to a ;
the former pipeline in the background.
&&
z and:
||
z or:
(cf. page 186)
Run latter pipeline, iff the former was successful,
Run latter pipeline, iff the former has failed.
(cf. page 179)
Various compound comands exist (next slide), a full list is in bash(1),
Compound Commands.
177
Compound commands
{ list; }
1
zA
group command, the list is simply executed.
$ { echo ’listing of /etc’; ls /etc/; cat footer.txt; } > output
if list; then list; [elif list; then list;]... [else list;] fi z
Conditional — The if-lists are tried in sequence, until one of them
succeeds. Then the corresponding then-list is run. An optional else-list
is run iff all the if-lists fail.
1
$ if cd path/to/dir;
then ls;
else echo 'no such thing';
fi
for variable in word...; do list; done z Iteration — Execute the
list once for each of the words, binding it to variable.
1
$ for x in Joe William Jack Averell; do echo $x Dalton; done
while/until list1; do list2; done z Loop — While/until
execution of list1 is successful, repeat execution of list2.
1
$ while read -p 'name:' x;
do echo "hello $x";
done
# cf. help read
178
What is success?
I
When a command terminates, it returns an exit code.
• An exit code of zero indicates success, while
• a non-zero exit code indicates failure, and why.
• The most recent exit code is stored in the variable $?
I
There are some primitive builtin commands:
true
z always
succeeds, i.e., returns 0.
false z always fails, i.e., returns non-0.
test expr z evaluates a conditional expression, and returns result.
•
•
•
•
I
test "string" — string is not empty.
test -d path — path is a directory.
test -f path — path is a regular file.
...many more, cf. help test for a list.
List separators && and || have the same precedence, and associate to
the left!
1
$ test -d "$d"
&&
cd "$d"
||
echo 'Not a directory, man!'
179
squp final version
1
#!/bin/bash
2
3
4
dir="${HOME}/studium"; # config here
lect="${1:?lecture name unknown}"; # check argument
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
if cd "${dir}/${lect}" 2>/dev/null; then # hide error message
echo "Updating the SVN repositories for ${lect}";
for i in *; do # update all directories
test -d "$i/.svn" && svn up "$i";
done;
else
echo "Cannot change to ${dir}/${lect}!" >&2; # cool: stderr
fi;
gives
1
2
3
4
5
6
$ squp schwurbel
Cannot change to /home/sk/studium/schwurbel!
$ squp sq_15w
At revision 269.
At revision 269.
180
11
Processes & Job Control
11 · Processes & Job Control
11.1
I
I
Programs and Processes · 11.1
Programs and Processes
A running program is called a process.
Launching a program roughly means:
1. Copy the (passive) program code into memory.
2. Tell the CPU to execute the program’s instructions.
These tasks are organised by the operating system kernel.
ps [-A | -u user[,...] | -C command[,...]] z Report processes associated46
with current terminal. The filtering may be changed in various ways, e.g.,
to show all (-A), by users or by commands.
cf. ps(1)
top
I
z An
interactive live display of running processes.
A process is identified by its
process ID (PID), as listed by ps
or top.
46 This
1
2
3
4
$ ps
PID TTY
4730 pts/5
4916 pts/5
cf. top(1)
TIME CMD
00:00:00 bash
00:00:00 ps
“association” is rather intricate!
182
Programs and Processes · 11.1
Multitasking
On a typical system, many processes are running in parallel.
I
The OS’s scheduler decides which process is running when, on which
CPU, and for how long.
I
Frequent task switching gives the illusion of parallel execution, even on
single-core machines.
I
Most programs idle most of the time, e.g., are waiting for input.
1
2
3
4
$ ps -o cmd,etime,time -C emacs,firefox
CMD
ELAPSED
TIME
emacs --daemon
8-23:29:51 00:08:23
firefox
2-23:52:52 00:40:03
# cf. ps(1)
# my text editor
# my web browser
• All my editing (using emacs) during the last 9 days has required only 8
minutes of CPU time.
• The firefox is way more CPU-hungry.
183
11.2
Signals · 11.2
Signals
I
Signals are one means of inter process comunication: Processes can
send signals to other processes.
(You’ll see this again in the OS lecture)
I
A receiving process may react on a signal, mostly they do so by dying.
kill [-signal] pid...
identified by pids.
Available signals
z Shell
builtin to send a signal to the process(es)
There’s also a separate /bin/kill, cf. kill(1).
(an excerpt only — cf. signal(7) for a complete list)
SIGTERM (15) Ask the process to terminate.
The default sent by kill.
SIGINT (2) Interrupt signal from keyboard (e.g., pressed C-c).
* SIGKILL
* SIGSTOP
(9) Tell the OS to end the process. No prisoners taken.
(19) Tell the OS to stop the process.
SIGCONT (18) Tell the OS to continue the process, if it was stopped.
* not
even delivered to the process, but handled by the OS alone ⇒ No chance to react!
184
Signals · 11.2
Have fun, kill some processes =)
1. Open two terminals, run nano in one of them.
2. In the other terminal:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
$ ps -u $USER # show all your processes
PID TTY
TIME CMD
3297 ?
00:00:00 sshd
3298 pts/1
00:00:00 bash
3466 pts/3
00:00:00 bash
3518 pts/3
00:00:00 nano # the victim
3525 pts/1
00:00:00 ps
$ kill 3518 # send SIGTERM to the nano process
3. Observe how nano terminates in the first terminal. Probably with a
message like “Received SIGHUP or SIGTERM”.
• If you have edited nano’s buffer, the message will be something like “Buffer
written to nano.save”. So nano can catch the signal and react.
• If you want to avoid this, send SIGKILL instead:
1
$ kill -9 3518
# send SIGKILL to the nano process
You may see a message “Killed”, which is written by the shell, not nano.
185
11.3
I
I
Background jobs
A running pipeline is called a job.
The shell assigns a job ID to every job under its control.
jobs [-l]
I
I
I
Background jobs · 11.3
z List
jobs controlled by this shell. -l gives more detail.
So far, we have only seen
foreground jobs, blocking the
shell until their termination.
You may launch a job in the
background by appending an
ampersand & (cf. page 177).
When launching a background
job, the shell prints a line of the
form “[jobid] pid” where pid
is the PID of the last process in
the pipeline.
1
2
3
You could run anything now, but we
try the jobs command...
3
4
$ jobs
[1]+ Running
sleep 30 | wc &
Check out the process listing as well
5
6
7
8
9
10
$ sleep 30 | wc &
[1] 29380
$ # the new prompt shows up immediately!
$ ps
PID
29362
29379
29380
29383
TTY
pts/15
pts/15
pts/15
pts/15
TIME
00:00:00
00:00:00
00:00:00
00:00:00
CMD
bash
sleep
wc
ps
186
I
Background jobs · 11.3
stdout and stderr of the job simply show up somewhere on the
terminal.
• This may be confusing.
• Some interactive tools (e.g., nano) redraw the screen when you hit C-l.
I
When a background job
11
terminates, the shell is informed, 12
13
and it prints a message just
before showing the next prompt.
kill [-signal] %jobid...
z Send
signal to all processes of job jobid.
1
I
You can send a signal to all
processes in a pipline, via their
job ID prefixed with %.
Note
$ # hit return to get new prompt
[1]+ Terminated
sleep 30 | wc
$
2
3
4
5
6
$ sleep 30 | wc &
[1] 31870
$ kill %1
# the % indicates a job ID
[1]+ Terminated
sleep 30 | wc
$ jobs
$
Killing jobs must be done with the shell’s builtin kill — why?
187
11.4
I
Foreground jobs · 11.4
Foreground jobs
Hit C-c to interrupt a foreground job.
• The signal SIGINT is sent to all processes in the pipeline.
• Ususally, the job should terminate.
I
Hitting C-z stops a foreground job, and returns control to the shell.
• The signal SIGTSTP (not SIGSTOP) is sent to all processes in the pipeline.
• The job should become a stopped background job.
Note Both signals may be caught and handled by a process (try nano(1)
for an example), so the program may ignore them, or react in other ways.
Why is that good? — You hit C-c, the terminal sends SIGINT to its children. You want
the shell’s foreground job to terminate, not the shell itself!
188
11.5
Resuming jobs · 11.5
Resuming jobs
fg [jobid] z Place the job with jobid in the foreground, making it the
current job. SIGCONT is sent if it was stopped.
bg [jobid...] z Resume (SIGCONT) each suspended job jobid in the
background, as if it had been started in the background with &.
I
Without jobid, both commands
use the current job, i.e., the last
one stopped, or started in the
background. It is flagged with +
in jobs’ output.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$ sleep 90
^Z
# here I have typed C-z
[1]+ Stopped
sleep 90
$ bg
# resume process in background
[1]+ sleep 90 &
$ jobs
[1]+ Running
sleep 90 &
Final remarks
I
A background process is stopped automatically, if it tries to read stdin.
I
Further reading: info bash 'Job Control', and section Job Control in
bash(1).
189
12
(Lehrevaluation)
I
A volunteer student collects the questionnaires and delivers them to the
inhouse mail (Poststelle, A 531).
• They will be centrally processed, “anonymised47 ”, and aggregated.
• The results are forwarded to the lecturer (i.e., me) and to the Studiendekan.
I
When answering, do not refer to other questions. We cannot follow the
link, since all correlation between the answers is lost!
47 we
will see your handwriting, though
13
Secure Shell
Meeting Alice, Bob, and Eve.
13 · Secure Shell
13.1
What is Secure Shell? · 13.1
What is Secure Shell?
A client/server protocol48 providing strong cryptography for remote shell
sessions.
I
Execute commands (e.g., bash) on a remote machine.
I
Copy files, port fowarding, display forwarding, and other cool stuff...
Public key authentication...
I
• ...against man-in-the-middle attacks.
• ...for login without password.
I
SSH intends to replace insecure products, like telnet(1), rsh(1), etc.
Requirements
I
You’ll need access credentials (e.g., username/password) for the remote
machine,
I
an SSH server must be running there, and
I
an SSH client mut be available on your local machine.
48 A
free implementation is OpenSSH: http://www.openssh.org
192
13 · Secure Shell
What is Secure Shell? · 13.1
Typical ssh usage
ssh [user@]host [command] z Run command as user on a remot host.
I Without user, your local username is used.
I Without command, the default shell is launched.
I The standard streams (stdin, stdout, stderr ) of the local ssh process
are redirected to the remote process.
Demo
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh titan07
# start a remote shell
Last login: Mon Sep 16 14:51:43 2013 from p57a2fefe.dip0.t-ipconnect.de
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ ls -l
# this happens on titan07
total 196
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 198268 Jun 26 22:01 bigFile.txt
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ logout
# end remote session
Shared connection to titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de closed.
sk@phobos90:~$
This won’t work out of the box!
The following slides will show you how to get there...
193
13 · Secure Shell
13.2
I
I
I
I
Cryptography Buzzword Overview · 13.2
Cryptography Buzzword Overview
In literature, the legitimate partners in a communication are often
referred to as Alice, Bob, and Charlie.
The bad guys are often referred to as Eve, or Mallory.
An encryped plaintext or message is referred to as ciphertext.
The algorithms used are generally assumed to be known to the public.
(Otherwise: Security by obscurity, a concept considered flawed by crypto experts)
I
A key is a piece of data used by the algorithm to encrypt a message, or
to decrypt a ciphertext. Most often, a key must be kept secret.
Notation In the following, I’ll use symbol ⊕ () to represent encryption
(decryption) in a very handwaving way:
message ⊕ key = ciphertext
ciphertext key = message
If you’re interested in the Real Magic behind cryptography, digest any book on Number
Theory. For an easy read about the history of cryptography, and some ideas behind it,
try: Simon Singh. The Code Book. 4th Estate Limited, 1999. ISBN 1-85702-879-1.
194
13 · Secure Shell
Symmetric Encryption
Goal Alice sends a message m to Bob, that nobody else can read.
I
Alice and Bob both have knowledge of a key k, which must be kept
secret from everyone else: A shared secret.
Alice
knows k
writes m
c := m ⊕ k
Bob
transfer
knows
→c
k
c k =m
Notes
I
The one-time pad encryption scheme uses each key only once. It uses
purely random keys, and provably provides perfect secrecy.
I
How can Alice and Bob share a secret key?
• Personal meeting,
• trusted alternative channel (e.g., snail mail, courier),
• ...?
195
13 · Secure Shell
The problem of key distribution
I
Efficiently and securely exchanging a shared secret over an unsecure
channel was deemed impossible before 1976.
I
Then, the Diffie-Hellman key exchange algorithm was published49 .
Imagine this
1. You meet with Alice and Bob. They do not know each other, and they
have never met before.
2. They start talking — you listen carefully.
3. After a few minutes, they share a secret number. And you have no
chance to know what it is.
I
It is non-trivial mathematics, but there’s a nice explanation with an
analogy in colours50 .
49 Whitfield
Diffie, Martin Hellman. New directions in cryptography. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory 22 (6): 644–654, 1976. https://ee.stanford.edu/~hellman/
publications/24.pdf
50 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffie_hellman
196
13 · Secure Shell
Public Key Encryption
Goal Different approach to solve the key distribution problem51 .
I Bob creates a key pair (bpub , bsec ).
• The public key bpub is visible to the public (Alice, Eve, ...), while
• the secret key bsec is known only to Bob — not even to Alice!
I
Encryption is done with bpub , decryption is feasible only with bsec .
Alice
m
transfer
writes
c := m ⊕ bpub
→ request
pub. key
bpub ←
→c
generates
Bob
(bpub , bsec )
c bsec = m
Notes
I It is infeasible to reconstruct bsec , or m, from the public knowledge.
I Everyone can send encrypted messages to Bob, by looking up Bob’s pulic
key bpub in a phonebook. All senders use the same key!
51 Diffie-Hellman
has the drawback to require Alice and Bob to talk to each other before
they can share a secret. One would like to avoid this.
197
13 · Secure Shell
Message Digest
A cryptographic hash function calculates a hash value of a message.
hash :: message → [0, constant]N
m
7→
h
The following properties are required for a cryptographic hash function:
I
h is within a (large!) known range, i.e., we know how much memory it
will take, not depending on the length of m.
I
hash has an efficient implementation (fast, little memory used).
Given only h, is infeasible to find message m so that hash m = h.
I
• Thus, one cannot generate messages m1 6= m2 so that hash m1 = hash m2 ,
• nor alter a message without changing the hash value.
Notes
I
The MD5 algorithm (128bit, v ∈ [0, 2128 ]) is assumed to be insecure.
I
SHA-n (up to 512 bit) refers to a group of algorithms, some of them
developed by the NSA. Design choices are not always published.
198
13 · Secure Shell
Using hash functions
I
Checking file integrity.
• When you make a backup, store checksum for each file.
• When restoring, recalculate checksums to test whether backup was damaged.
I
Identification of data.
• Checksum of contents is robust against renaming of files.
• Identifies data without revealing the data (tricky).
• Is the remote 6TB file the same as the local one? (e.g., rsync)
I
Encrypted storage of passwords.
• If Eve steals the password database, she still needs to find passwords that
create the stored hash values (tricky).
I
Non-cryptographic hash functions (smaller image, collisions more likely)
are used in some data structures, like hash tables. They are important,
e.g., in database systems.
Tools Some of these tools should be installed: Look for the man pages
md5sum(1), sha512sum(1), and openssl(1).
199
13 · Secure Shell
Signing a message
Goal Alice signs a message m, so that everyone can verify her authorship.
I Alice creates a key pair (apub , asec ), as before (cf. page 197).
I The signature is hash m encrypted with Alice’s secret key asec .
Alice
(asec , apub )
writes m
s := hash m ⊕ asec
Bob
transfer
generates
→ (m, s)
←
→ apub
reads
request
pub. key
m
?
s apub = hash m
Notes
I It is infeasible to construct (m0 , s 0 ) so that s 0 apub = hash m0 .
I Everyone can verify messages from Alice, by looking up apub in a
phonebook. Only Alice can sign messages with asec .
200
13 · Secure Shell
Man-in-the-middle attack
I
The problem of authentication
Eve may hijack a connection (e.g., by setting up a faked WiFi hotspot).
Alice thinks she’s talking to Bob, and vice versa, but both are talking
only to Eve!
Alice
transfer
Eve
transfer
Bob
writes m
gen (bpub , bsec )
→request
→request
pub. key
pub. key
0 , b0 )
gen (bpub
sec
0
b
←
b
pub ←
pub
0
c := m ⊕ bpub
c→
0 =m
c bsec
c 0 := m0 ⊕ bpub
c0 →
c 0 bsec = m0
Notes
I
I
All previously shown schemes are prone to this attack!
I
Only signing a message is no solution: Bob needs to have a valid public
key of Alice! ⇒ The same problem again.
201
13 · Secure Shell
Solution 1: Certificates
I
Bob gets his public key + name signed by a trustworthy third party,
say Charly.
(bpub , "Bob") 7→ (bpub , "Bob", s)
This is called a certificate.
• Charly verifies that Bob is Bob before issuing the certificate.
0
• Since Eve cannot prove being Bob, she won’t get (bpub
, "Bob") signed.
I
When Alice receives a public key for Bob, she needs to verify that
• the key actually mentions Bob as the owner, and
• there is a valid signature from Charly.
Problems
I
How does Alice get Charly’s public key safely?
I
Why trust Charly, in the first place?
202
13 · Secure Shell
Public Key Infrastructure
How does Alice get Charly’s key safely?
I
Certificates from trusted centralized Certification Authorities (CAs)
are pre-installed with your operating system.
I
Their business model is to earn money by issuing certificates.
More certificates sold ⇒ more money earned.
I
A compromised CA allows man-in-the-middle attacks.
• 2001: VeriSign issued invalid certificates52 for Microsoft software updates.
• 2011: DigiNotar issued invalid certificates53 .
• ... (many more in recent history)
52 https://www.cert.org/advisories/CA-2001-04.html
53 http://arstechnica.com/security/2011/08/earlier-this-year-an-iranian/
203
13 · Secure Shell
Web of Trust Why trust Charly (or the CA)?
I
On a key signing party, you sign the keys of everyone you trust...
(Do not sign the key of that unknown girl, claiming she’s Bob!)
I
...and you have every one knowing you sign your key.
I
The more signatures a certificate has from trustworthy people, the more
trustworthy it becomes.
204
13 · Secure Shell
Solution 2: Verification over alternative channel
I
Distribute the key over a separate channel, which must be trustworthy.
I
The more different channels are used to verify a key, the better.
Examples
I
The owner publishes his keys for email contact on an SSL-protected
website, hosted by a trustworthy third party.
I
Alice calls Bob on the phone (recognising his voice!) to verify the key.
I
Your bank sends to you a new TAN block via snail mail.
Fingerprints
Keys are too long to read them loud on the phone.
I
A key fingerprint is a hash value of a key.
I
It is infeasible to construct a key with the same fingerprint.
I
It is sufficient to verify the fingerprint of a key.
205
13 · Secure Shell
13.3
Your first ssh login · 13.3
Your first ssh login
I
The ssh(1) command establishes an SSH connection, cf. page 193.
I
Each SSH server has a host-specific key pair: The host key.
• These are the files /etc/ssh/ssh_host_*.
• There’s two files for each algorithm (e.g., RSA, DSA, ECDSA, ...)
The fingerprint of the host’s public key should be verified by the user.
I
1
2
3
4
5
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh pop09951@titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de
# on my machine
The authenticity of host 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de (134.34.224.26)'
can't be established.
ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:Ya1Jft69XxwE8ZO8vuid4ArcltKUV6mGGz0/NjlXXfg.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)?
• ECDSA is the asymmetric algorithm used to secure this connection.
• SHA256 is the hash function used to verify the public key.
⇒ Find the corresponding line in the file54 published over a secure
alternative channel (Webbrowser, HTTPS secured connection):
7
256 SHA256:Ya1Jft69XxwE8ZO8vuid4ArcltKUV6mGGz0/NjlXXfg root@titan07 (ECDSA)
54 https://svn.uni-konstanz.de/dbis/sq_15w/pub/titan07-fingerprints
206
13 · Secure Shell
Having verified the public key’s fingerprint, you can be sure that there is
no man in the middle. Type yes:
I
5
6
7
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de' (ECDSA) to the
list of known hosts.
The server’s public key will be remembered in ~/.ssh/known_hosts.
Now it is safe to enter your password, it will be encrypted for transfer,
and it is guaranteed to be sent to titan07.
I
8
9
10
Password: # RZ-password that came with your mail acount
Last login: Thu Jan 24 13:57:37 2013 from verne.inf.uni-konstanz.de
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ # now I’m working on titan07
207
13 · Secure Shell
Your second ssh login
The next time you connect to titan07, its public key is recognised.
I
1
2
3
4
I
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh pop09951@titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de
Password: # type your password
Last login: Fri Jan 10 14:49:42 2014 from phobos90.inf.uni-konstanz.de
It may be cumbersome to write username and fully qualified hostname
again and again.
• You can define per-host
defaults in ~/.ssh/config
1
2
3
• Then it’s enough to give the
unqualified hostname:
1
2
3
4
Host titan07
HostName titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de
User pop09951 # your user name
Last login: Fri Nov 1 16:24:21 2013 # ...
(cf. ssh_config(5) for more.)
208
13 · Secure Shell
Your n
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
th
ssh login
Sometimes the host key of the server changes.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@
WARNING: REMOTE HOST IDENTIFICATION HAS CHANGED!
@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
# ...
The fingerprint for the ECDSA key sent by the remote host is
SHA256:Ya1Jft69XxwE8ZO8vuid4ArcltKUV6mGGz0/NjlXXfg.
Please contact your system administrator.
Add correct host key in /home/sk/.ssh/known_hosts to get rid of this message.
Offending ECDSA key in /home/sk/.ssh/known_hosts:7
# so here is the invalid key
# ...
Host key verification failed.
sk@phobos90:~$
I
Verify that this happens for a valid reason, maybe reinstallation of the
server. Check via alternative channel, e.g., call the admin.
I
then remove line 7 from ~/.ssh/known_hosts,
I
and log in again, verifying the new fingerprint as on page 206.
Question How to delete line 7 from a file?
209
13 · Secure Shell
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
sk@phobos90:~$ sed -i 7d /home/sk/.ssh/known_hosts
The authenticity of host 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de (134.34.224.27)' can't b
e established.
ECDSA key fingerprint is HA256:Ya1Jft69XxwE8ZO8vuid4ArcltKUV6mGGz0/NjlXXfg.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'titan07.inf.uni-konstanz.de,134.34.224.27' (ECDSA)
to the list of known hosts.
Password: # ...*sigh*...
Welcome to Linux Mint 17.1 Rebecca (GNU/Linux 3.13.0-37-generic x86_64)
# ...
210
13 · Secure Shell
13.4
Channel multiplexing · 13.4
Channel multiplexing
I
ssh can multiplex multiple connections over one secure channel.
I
You only need to authenticate when the channel is established.
• This makes subsequent connections much faster.
• You do not need to type your password again and again.
I
1
2
3
Put the following lines at the top of your ~/.ssh/config:
ControlMaster auto
ControlPath ~/.cache/ssh-%C
ControlPersist 180
Make sure that the directory ~/.cache exists. ssh will
create files matching ssh-* there. An alternative would
be to use /tmp instead.
(cf. ssh_config(5))
I
Now you can have multiple terminals connected to a remote host, but
your password is required only once.
I
After closing the last session, the connection persists for 3 minutes
(180s). Do not use longer times, this binds resources on the server!
I
Read ssh_config(5) for more information.
211
13 · Secure Shell
13.5
Applications of ssh · 13.5
Applications of ssh
Without further arguments, ssh gives you a remote shell.
I
• The shell is the default command to run, if nothing else is specified.
You may instead specify the command to be run remotely:
I
1
2
3
4
5
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh titan07 ls -l
total 8
drwx------ 2 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Dec
drwx------ 4 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Dec
sk@phobos90:~$ # Note: local host
9 12:15 scripts
9 10:50 studium
You may pass compound commands to be run in the remote shell:
I
1
2
3
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh titan07 'ls -la | wc -l' # wc and ls are run remotely
29
sk@phobos90:~$ # Note: local host
Note ls and wc are run by a remote shell, which manages the pipeline.
212
13 · Secure Shell
Applications of ssh · 13.5
Stream redirection
ssh forwards the standard streams stdin, stdout, and stderr.
I
1
2
3
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh titan07 ls -la | wc -l
29
sk@phobos90:~$
Note The output of ls is piped into a local wc process.
This also works for stdin:
I
1
2
sk@phobos90:~$ date | ssh titan07 'cat >foo'
sk@phobos90:~$ # exercise: how can we test this worked?
Magic ssh does not get the password from stdin!
Question What would this do, assuming all used commands existed:
1
sk@phobos90:~$ genData | ssh titan07 analyze > result
213
13 · Secure Shell
13.6
Public key authentication · 13.6
Public key authentication
I
You still have to enter your password to establish a connection. It times
out quite fast (we have set this to 180s).
I
You have to memorize different passwords for different hosts.
Solution Public key authentication
1. Generate your own pair of keys. Keep the private key secret!
2. Append the public key to ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on each machine
you want to log in to, e.g., titan07.
3. When establishing a connection,
• the SSH server on titan07 will generate a challenge using your public key,
and send it to you.
• You use your private key to calculate a valid response, and send it back,
thus proving your authenticity.

Everyone with your private key can log in to the server!
⇒ Protect it with a password (better: passphrase).
214
13 · Secure Shell
Step 1 — Generate a key pair
ssh-keygen [-t type] [-f file] z Generate key pair of desired type.
The secret key goes to file, the public key goes to file.pub. Default is to
create an RSA key in ~/.ssh/id_rsa(.pub).
ssh-keygen -l [-E hash] [-f keyfile] z Show fingerprint of the given
keyfile, calculated with the given hash function.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh-keygen
Generating public/private rsa key pair.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa): # just press return
Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase): # use a strong passphrase...
Enter same passphrase again:
# ...type it again
Your identification has been saved in /home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa.
Your public key has been saved in /home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
SHA256:2D4A8nPPoIv4QKY3Ym1O8Zr156BJvF+uNPkdyz0IO1E sk@phobos90
# ...
Keep your private key secret!
For an in-depth description, cf. ssh-keygen(1).
215
13 · Secure Shell
Step 2 — Install the public key on the target machine
I
I
I
1
2
3
4
5
On titan07, create a directory ~/.ssh, and set its permissions to 700.
Append the public key to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys.
You may append more keys to allow login from other machines as well.
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
pop09951@titan07
> # copy the public
> .
~ $ mkdir -p ~/.ssh
~ $ chmod 700 ~/.ssh
# ssh refuses to work otherwise
~ $ cat >>~/.ssh/authorized_keys <<.
key here
Alternatively, one could also do this with one pretty cool pipeline:
1
2
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh titan07 'mkdir -p ~/.ssh; chmod 700 ~/.ssh; cat >>~/.ssh/au
thorized_keys' <~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub
If there is no shared connection available (cf. page 211), ssh needs to authenticate you
first. In that case, it will ask you for the passphrase to unlock the private key. This is
useless, because the public key is not yet installed on titan07:
2
3
Enter passphrase for key '/home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa': # useless, press return
216
13 · Secure Shell
Step 3 — Log in using public key authentication
If a private key is locally available, then ssh will always try to use that for
authentication, and ask you for the passphrase to unlock it.
1
2
3
4
Enter passphrase for key '/home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa': # type the passphrase
pop09951@titan07 ~ $ # enjoy
I
If that fails, it will fall back to asking for your password. We have just
seen this on the previous slide, bottom.
I
You can connect to any host that has your public key.
Problem You always have to type in your passphrase.
One might use the empty passphrase, storing the private key unencrypted. If Eve gains
access to the private key (maybe by stealing your laptop), she can impersonate you on
the respective target machines. ⇒ Bad idea.
217
13 · Secure Shell
13.7
The SSH Agent · 13.7
The SSH Agent
A safer place to store an unencrypted private key is in volatile system
memory, aka. RAM.
I
The ssh-agent(1) is a local background process that can hold your
decrypted private keys, and provide authentication for your ssh client.
• It is typically started when you log in, and terminates when you log out.
I
You can add decrypted private keys to the agent using ssh-add(1).
I
All your ssh clients can ask the ssh-agent to perform the
authentication.
218
13 · Secure Shell
Step 4 — Running the SSH agent
ssh-agent [-c] [command] z Launches the agent. If a command is given,
it is executed with information on how to find the agent. Without
command, the required information is printed to stdout. This should be
evaluated by the caller: eval "$(ssh-agent)".
The ssh client tries to contact a running agent through a socket, whose
path is expected in the environment variable on $SSH_AUTH_SOCK.
I
On a modern desktop Linux, an SSH agent is probably running.
I
1
2
3
4
5
I
$ ps -opid,user,cmd -C ssh-agent
PID USER
CMD
6164 sk
ssh-agent
$ ls -l $SSH_AUTH_SOCK
# verify the permissions
srw------- 1 sk users 0 Jan 15 16:59 /tmp/ssh-JpGflXpdrx0Y/agent.6554
Otherwise, you may launch a new ssh-agent(1) by hand.
Read ssh-agent(1), and how to use it on your distro!
219
13 · Secure Shell
Step 5 — Passing public keys to the SSH agent
ssh-add [-l] [-D] [-t timeout] [file] z Decrypt private key from file,
and add it the to the agent. With -t, drop the key after timeout seconds.
With -l, list the keys known to the agent, with -d delete the key.
1
2
3
4
5
I
If no file is specified, ssh-add tries to unlock all keys it finds under
~/.ssh with the same passphrase.
I
When not run from a trminal, or stdin comes from /dev/null, then
ssh-add tries to run a graphical interface to ask the user for the
passphrase, cf. ssh-askpass(1).
sk@phobos90:~$ ssh-add
Enter passphrase for /home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa: # type the passphrase
Identity added: /home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa (/home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa)
sk@phobos90$ ssh-add -l # list known identities
2048 b0:0f:fc:84:88:25:b8:52:da:93:9c:94:70:a6:fb:cb /home/sk/.ssh/id_rsa (RSA)
For more information, cf. ssh-add(1).
220
13 · Secure Shell
Step 6 — use it
You can log in on any host that has your public key, without password:
1
2
3
titan07:~$
Summary
I On each machine you want to log in from:
• Make sure the ssh-agent(1) is running when your session starts, and that
$SSH_AUTH_SOCK is set properly.
• Create a key pair with ssh-keygen(1).
• Add the private key to the agent with ssh-add(1).
I
On each machine you want to log in to:
• Create a file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys, and
• append the public keys of all machines you want to log in from.
Some servers may accept only certain algorithms, maybe ECDSA but not RSA. In that
case, you’ll need a key pair for that particular algorithm. It is completely valid to have key
pairs for different algorithms. See ssh-keygen(1), option -t.
221
14
Other tools
14 · Other tools
14.1
I
I
File archives · 14.1
File archives
Sometimes, one wants to archive a bunch of files or directories into a
single file. E.g., distribution of software packages.
The tape archiver tar was intended to archive files onto tape.
• Appeared in Unix 7, 1979. Many tar implementations followed.
• There are other archivers, e.g. ar(1), cpio(1), ...
I
A tar archive is often referred to as tarball, and usually has a .tar
filename suffix.
Note
I
I
By default, tar applies no compression (like all pure archivers).
We can choose any compressor, independent of the archiver.
Good example of Unix Philosophy:
• Small is beautiful (i.e., write small programs).
• Make each program do one thing well.
• Build programs that cooperate.
223
14 · Other tools
Create an archive
tar -c [-f archive] [-v] [-C dir] (file|dir)... z Create archive,
containing files and directories, and their metadata.
I
I
I
I
Without -f archive, use stdout to write an archive.
Option -v makes tar verbose, i.e., list the files it processes.
With -C change to other directory, and do extraction/archiving there.
It is bad style to create archives that contain multiple top-level entries.
• Create archive of a single top-level directory, say foo.
• Name the archive foo.tar, i.e., like the top-level directory.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
$ ls -lh
drwx------ 2 pop09951
drwx------ 4 pop09951
$ tar -cf studium.tar
$ ls -lh
drwx------ 2 pop09951
drwx------ 4 pop09951
-rw------- 1 pop09951
$ du -sh studium
162M
studium
domain_users 4.0K Jan 15 11:39 scripts
domain_users 4.0K Jan 12 17:44 studium
studium # mnemonic: create file
domain_users 4.0K Jan 15 11:39 scripts
domain_users 160M Jan 20 10:45 studium.tar
224
14 · Other tools
Inspect an archive
tar -t [-f archive] [-v]
I
z List
archive contents to stdout.
It is a good idea to inspect the contents of an unknown archive:
• Unless -k is given, tar may overwrite existing files.
• An archive with many top-level entries will litter your working directory.
• You do not know which files are generated by unpacking!
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Option -v makes tar give a listing in long format, like ls -l.
-rw------- 1 pop09951 domain_users 160M Jan 12 09:57 studium.tar
$ tar -tf studium.tar # mnemonic: type file
studium/
studium/sq_15w/
studium/sq_15w/pub/
studium/sq_15w/pub/lecture08.pdf
studium/sq_15w/pub/putty.zip
# ...
225
14 · Other tools
Extract an archive
tar -x [-f archive] [-k] [-v] [-C dir] z Extract contents from
archive, or from stdin. With -k do not overwrite existing files.
You can extract into your working directory...
I
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
-rw------- 1 pop09951
$ tar -xf studium.tar
$ ls -lh
total 160M
drwx------ 4 pop09951
-rw------- 1 pop09951
$ du -sh studium
162M
studium
# mnemonic: x-tract file
...or somewhere else:
I
1
2
$ mkdir container # make new directory
$ tar -C container -xf studium.tar # extract below container
• The tar program opens studium.tar in the current working directory...
• ...but it changes to directory container before extracting.
226
14 · Other tools
The tar pipe
A nice way to copy a whole directory tree:
1
2
3
4
5
$ ls -l ~/studium/
total 8
drwx------ 4 pop09951 domain_users 4096 Dec 1 18:48 sq_15w
$ mkdir /tmp/demo
$ tar -C ~/studium/ -c sq_15w | tar -C /tmp/demo/ -x
I
I
Without -f, the archive is read/written via the standard streams.
The reading tar (on the left)
• changes to directory ~/studium,
• reading the directoy sq_15w there,
• writing the archive to stdout,
I
while the writing tar (on the right)
• changes to directory /tmp/demo,
• reading the archive from stdin,
• and reconstructing the directory tree.
You could also achieve something similar with cp -r, so why bother?
227
14 · Other tools
Even more fun with tar
Of course, this works across the network via ssh:
1
$ tar -C ~/studium/ -c sq_15w
|
ssh titan07
tar -C studium/ -x
I
The local tar process archives,
I
while the remote tar process extracts.
I
This way, you may even benefit from tar’s other options, e.g., more
control over metadata, file selection, etc....
228
14 · Other tools
14.2
Compressing files · 14.2
Compressing files
Data compression: The art of storing the same data using less space.
Compression algorithms can be grouped in two classes:
I
I
Lossless: The original data can be reproduced exactly.
Lossy: Non-essential data is removed (irrevocably) to save space.
• Often used for audio, still and motion pictures ⇒ lower quality.
For compression of file archives, we’re interested in lossless schemes.
I
Examples of famous lossless compression algorithms:
• Huffman encoding (1952) uses variable number of bits per character,
depending on its frequency.
• Lempel–Ziv (1977) replaces repeated occurrences of data by a single copy.
• Burrows-Wheeler (1994) rearranges data into sequences of similar data.
I
Current tools use combinations and variations of these, and other
algorithms.
229
14 · Other tools
The most popular compressors under Linux are probably gzip(1),
bzip2(1), and xz(1).
I
They vary in (de)compression speed, and compression ratio.
I
They share a very similar command line interface.
I
None of them provides archiving functionality.
⇒ Suitable for singleton files only.
I
Some implementations of tar can even use these tools to directly
(de)compress the tar stream, cf. tar(1).
Others
I
The traditional compress(1) was disliked for patent issues, and is now
surpassed by the above.
I
There is also zip(1), which can do its own archiving (so does not depend
on tar). This may not be available on Unix systems.
I
There are many more...
230
14 · Other tools
gzip and gunzip
gzip [-k] [-n] [file...] z Compress each file into file.gz, and remove
the original. Compression level n (min. 1, max. 9) defaults to 6.
gunzip [-k] [file.gz...]
remove the original.
I
z Decompress
each file.gz into file, and
Typical Unix compressors come in pairs, one for compression, one for
decompression.
• bzip2(1), and bunzip2(1).
• xz(1), and unxz(1).
I
With option -k, keep the original files. Not available in all versions!
I
Without files, (de)compress stdin to stdout.
⇒ They work great in a pipeline.
(See the manuals for many more options)
231
14 · Other tools
The other compressors
I
I
gzip(1), bzip2(1), and xz(1) share a very similar CLI, so you may use
them as a drop-in replacement, using different filename suffixes...
Typically, compressed files have a suffix added to their name.
• This identifies the compression to expect in the file.
I
A typical compressed tarball looks like this:
archive_name-version.tar.gz
I
Some operating systems do not like stacked suffixes!
⇒ The following short forms are accepted as well:
renaming
general
alternative
uncompressed
n
n = m.tar
gzip
n.gz
m.tgz
bzip2
n.bz2
m.tbz2, m.tbz
xz
n.xz
m.txz
Question Why not simply choose the best compressor?
232
14 · Other tools
A rough comparison of the compression tools
The tool time(1) can measure the resource usage of a process.
I
1
$ alias time="/usr/bin/time -f 'took %Us, used %MkB'"
# cf. time(1)
• Make sure not to use bash’s builtin command time.
• %U prints the CPU time used by process, %M the required memory.
Measure compression times, and RAM usage.
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
$ time gzip <sq_15w.tar >sq_15w.tar.gz
took 2.12s, used 3552kB
$ time bzip2 <sq_15w.tar >sq_15w.tar.bz2
$ time xz <sq_15w.tar >sq_15w.tar.xz
Compare compression ratios.
I
1
2
3
4
5
$ ls -hl sq_15w*
-rw------- 1 pop09951
-rw------- 1 pop09951
-rw------- 1 pop09951
-rw------- 1 pop09951
domain_users
domain_users
domain_users
domain_users
40M
37M
38M
29M
Jan
Jan
Jan
Jan
17
18
18
18
23:38
15:30
15:29
15:30
sq_15w.tar
sq_15w.tar.bz2
sq_15w.tar.gz
sq_15w.tar.xz
233
14 · Other tools
Measure decompression times, and RAM usage.
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
$ time gunzip <sq_15w.tar.gz >/dev/null
$ time bunzip2 <sq_15w.tar.bz2 >/dev/null
$ time unxz <sq_15w.tar.xz >/dev/null
Summary
tool
gzip
bzip2
xz
Note
I
compression
2.12s
4MB
12.55s
28MB
21.38s 385MB
decompression
0.33s
5MB
4.46s 16MB
1.35s 37MB
ratio
95.0%
92.5%
72.5%
This survey is incomplete, inaccurate, and biased!
Why?
234
14 · Other tools
Different kinds of data allow for different compression ratios:
I
• Plain text can be compressed very well, whereas
• compressed data (movies, pictures) may even grow in size.
For a proper survey, different sizes and kinds of data, and use cases
must be considered.
I
Example The sources for these lecture slides...
...including all the embedded images...
I
1
2
3
4
-r--------rw-------rw-------rw-------
1
1
1
1
sk
sk
sk
sk
users
users
users
users
2.6M
1.9M
1.9M
1.8M
Jan 18 16:35 lect.tar
lect.tar.bz2 # 1.61s, 7348kB
lect.tar.gz
# 0.18s, 788kB
lect.tar.xz
# 1.33s, 42256kB
...and the plaintext sources alone.
I
1
2
3
4
-r--------rw-------rw-------rw-------
1
1
1
1
sk
sk
sk
sk
users 350K Jan 18 16:36 lect-noimg.tar
users 75K lect-noimg.tar.bz2 # 0.06s, 4248kB
users 91K lect-noimg.tar.gz
# 0.02s, 792kB
users 77K lect-noimg.tar.xz
# 0.25s, 21356kB
235
14 · Other tools
14.3
The rsync tool · 14.3
The rsync tool
Recall the tar pipeline?
I
1
$ tar -C ~/studium/ -c sq_w13
cf. page 228
|
ssh titan07
tar -C studium/ -x
I
What if most files already exist at the destination,
I
or only some of them need update?
I
How to resume the tar pipeline if it was interrupted?
(Not possible)
Solution
I
I
rsync(1) provides an optimised algorithm that only transfers the
missing/updated files to the destination.
Works locally, or via any transparent remote shell (e.g., ssh).
• Modern rsync defaults to using ssh.
Note
rsync must be installed on the remote machine as well.
236
14 · Other tools
rsync [-a] [-v] source... dest z Copy sources to destination. With -a
use archive mode. With -v be more verbose.
I
Either source, or dest may indicate a remote location:
path
z Usual
local path, if there is no colon : before the first slash /.
[[user@]host:]path z Remote location (a relative path is relative to the
remote user’s $HOME).
I
A trailing slash / on the source directory will copy its contents, instead
of the directory itself.
I
In archive mode (-a), rsync recurses into directories, and tries to keep
symlinks (not hard links), permissions, file ownership, timestamps, etc.
I
You can easily use rsync to build incremental backups, see the
--link-dest option.
cf. rsync(1), as usual
237
14 · Other tools
Example
For the initial copy, all data has to be transferred:
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
$ rsync -av lect titan07:
sending incremental file list
lect/
lect/README
lect/advert-qm.tex
# ... list of all files being transferred...
# cool: SSH figures out host and user name!
7
8
9
sent 9,027,975 bytes received 6,995 bytes
total size is 9,004,586 speedup is 1.00
286,824.44 bytes/sec
After some editing and recompilation of the slides:
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
$ rsync -av lect titan07:
sending incremental file list
lect/
lect/other-tools.tex
lect/slides.pdf
# ... fewer files being transferred...
7
8
9
sent 72,233 bytes received 3,430 bytes 50,442.00 bytes/sec
total size is 9,008,764 speedup is 119.06
238
14 · Other tools
14.4
Finding files · 14.4
Finding files
find [option...] [path...] [expression] z Search the paths (or current
directory) for files satisfying the expression.
locate [option...] pattern...
z Find
files matching any of the patterns.
I
find(1) crawls the paths in file system.
I
locate(1) uses a database covering the whole system instead.
• For each file encountered, the expression is evaluated.
•
•
•
•
This is much faster!
The database must be updated regularly by the admin, cf. updatedb(8).
It will not find files added since the last update.
Modern versions will only list files you have permission to see.
Comparison find is much slower than locate, but provides more up to
date information, and offers more control using an expressive syntax.
⇒ We focus on find.
239
14 · Other tools
Simple expressions
-name pat
-type t
f
d
l
z The
file’s name matches the globbing pattern (cf. page 89).
z File
is of the following type:
z regular file,
z directory,
z symbolic link.
-user name
z File
is owned by user name.
-size n z File size is n. A prefix of + finds greater files, - finds smaller
files. Note: n is in 512B blocks, unless a suffix (k = 210 B, M = 220 B,
G = 230 B) is used.
Example
1
2
3
4
5
$ find studium -size +10k
studium/inf3_w13/pub/pk_assignment02/texts/mark-twain.txt
studium/inf3_w13/pub/pk_lecture01.pdf
studium/inf3_w13/pub/.svn/pristine/f3/f379b24c7192a6f8da9f2f3acf779# ...
studium/inf3_w13/pub/.svn/pristine/bf/bf55e06ef0379b33e8aaa59ccd99e# ...
240
14 · Other tools
Combining expressions
I
Expressions are evaluated following operator precedence, from left to
right:
Operators, listed in order of decreasing precedence:
$ expr $
\! expr
z For
z “Not”,
expr1 expr2
grouping of expressions.
i.e., the outcome of expr is inverted.
z “And”,
expr1 -o expr2
expr2 is evaluated only if expr1 is true.
z “Or”,
expr2 is not evaluated if expr1 is true.
Example
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$ find studium/sq_w13 -size +10k \! -name '*pdf'
studium/sq_w13/pub/putty.zip
studium/sq_w13/pub/winscp.zip
studium/sq_w13/pub/.svn/wc.db
studium/sq_w13/pub/.svn/pristine/c1/c1ed62f0c0f7740aecb9dc88228# ...
studium/sq_w13/pub/.svn/pristine/0f/0f4bb1c42aa86f0168a212cccc6# ...
studium/sq_w13/pub/.svn/pristine/ac/ace54b9a541863e9d48a3e4f84f# ...
241
14 · Other tools
Actions
I
Actions are expressions that perform an operation on a file.
-prune z If file is a directory, do not descend into it (but list it). Evaluates
to true.
-print z Print the file’s name, and a newline. Evaluates to true.
Note Filenames might contain newlines! cf. -print0
-delete
z Remove
the file. Evaluates to success of deletion.
Example
1
2
3
$ find studium/sq_w13 -name .svn -prune -type f -o -size +10k \! -name \*pdf
studium/sq_w13/pub/putty.zip
studium/sq_w13/pub/winscp.zip
242
14 · Other tools
Running commands
I
Some actions may run commands.
-exec command [arg...] \; z Run command with the given arguments.
Evaluates to success of command.
The string {} in an argument is replaced with the filename.
Note
There are security risks when operating on unknown file systems!
I
See the info manual55 for a discussion.
I
Consider using -execdir instead of -exec, which rus in the file’s
directory.
I
Make sure $PATH contains no relative directories.
55 $
info 'finding files' 'Security Considerations'
243
15
Text Encoding
15 · Text Encoding
15.1
What is plain text? · 15.1
What is plain text?
Various definitions exist, and the notion of plain text is changing in the
course of history...
Plain text is a linear sequence of characters, independent of font, style,
layout, coloring, ...
— myself, 2013
Some weak points about this
definition:
I
What are characters?
I
Are paragraphs layout?
I
Is the banana plain text?
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
//\
From: Shimrod <csg824@wing.rug.nl>
V \
Newsgroups: alt.ascii-art
\ \_
Date: Mon, 25 Aug 1997 16:53:13 +0200
\,’.‘-.
|\ ‘. ‘.
( \ ‘. ‘-.
_,.-:\
\ \
‘. ‘-._
__..--’ ,-’;/
\ ‘.
‘-.
‘-..___..---’
_.--’ ,’/
‘. ‘.
‘-._
__..--’
,’ /
‘. ‘-_
‘‘--..’’
_.-’ ,’
‘-_ ‘-.___
__,--’
,’
‘-.__ ‘----"""
__.-’
hh
‘--..____..--’
245
15 · Text Encoding
15.2
I
I
The old days: 7-bit ASCII · 15.2
The old days: 7-bit ASCII
Memory is physically made up of bits.
More efficient to handle chunks (aka. bytes) of bits. Let’s say 7.
This is a tradeoff between cost of memory/transmission, and expressiveness!
I
7 bits can represent 27 = 128 values.
I
Associate a character with each of these values.
⇒ American Standard Code for Information Interchange — ASCII56
There’s a man page as well: ascii(7)
I
First 32 bytes (0..1F) represent various control characters (new line,
carriage return, ...). Byte 7F (i.e., the last one) is Delete.
I
The remaining 95 bytes represent digits 0..9, characters a..z, A..Z, and
basic punctuation.
56 Some
nice history reading at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII
246
15 · Text Encoding
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
The old days: 7-bit ASCII · 15.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
NUL
SOH
STX
ETX
EOT
ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT
LF
VT
FF
CR
SO
SI
DLE
DC1
DC2
DC3
DC4
NAK
SYN
ETB
CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
GS
RS
US
0
@
P
‘
p
!
1
A
Q
a
q
"
2
B
R
b
r
#
3
C
S
c
s
$
4
D
T
d
t
%
5
E
U
e
u
&
6
F
V
f
v
‘
7
G
W
g
w
(
8
H
X
h
x
)
9
I
Y
i
y
*
:
J
Z
j
z
+
;
K
[
k
{
,
<
L
\
l
|
=
M
]
m
}
.
>
N
^
n
~
/
?
O
_
o
DEL
Sum up the row and column headers to find the hex code of a byte, e.g., m is at 6D.
Problems with 7-bit ASCII
I
No characters for non-american languages: L, ä, é, , ...
I
No support for symbols: N, ⇒, ∂, 6=, ∈, ...
I
Inconsistent convention to denote end-of-line:
Still inconsistent today!
LF Unix/Linux traditionally uses line feed,
CR some versions of Mac OS use carriage return,
CR+LF Microsoft Windows even needs two bytes to denote EOL.
247
15 · Text Encoding
15.3
Extended ASCII · 15.3
Extended ASCII
I
Most computers used an 8th bit for parity checking.
I
8 bits can represent 28 = 256 different bytes.
⇒ Use the 8th bit to distinguish bytes, extending the character set.
I
ASCII-compatible extensions only redefine the “upper” bytes 80..FF.
Unfortunately various different extensions appeared.
I
• The word code page (coined by IBM) refers to different mappings of the
byte values to characters.
• Popular in Western Europe: Code page 28591, aka. ISO Latin-1, aka.
ISO 8859-1.
• Code page 437 contains box-drawing characters.
Problems
I
Many different, competing, incompatible mappings.
I
By looking at a sequence of bytes, it is difficult to determine what
character set is being used.
I
Working on multilingual text requires handling of different code pages.
248
15 · Text Encoding
15.4
Today: Unicode · 15.4
Today: Unicode
I
Initially57 (1988) designed as a 16 bit encoding, allowing for 65 536
different values (aka. code points in Unicode parlance).
I
Today, Unicode offers 1 114 112 code points (range U+0..U+10FFFF)
•
•
•
•
I
Notation: Unicode code point n is referred to as U+nhex
Not all of the code points are being used (yet).
The codespace is organised in 17 planes of 216 characters each.
The basic multilingual plane, range U+0..U+FFFF, contains the most
important characters for everyday use.
The Unicode Standard58 also defines:
• How to store Unicode text: Text encoding, cf. next slides.
• Character properties (is it a whitespace, digit, diacritic, ...?)
• How to handle characters like the German umlauts:
As character ‘ä’ (U+E4), or as composition of basic ‘a’ (U+61) with diaeresis ‘¨’ (U+308).
• ...
57 Joe
58 The
Becker. Unicode 88. http://www.unicode.org/history/unicode88.pdf
Unicode Consortium. http://www.unicode.org/
249
15 · Text Encoding
Today: Unicode · 15.4
Encoding Unicode Text
How can one serialize a sequence of Unicode code points into a stream of
bytes?
I
I
This process is called text encoding.
There is a variety of encodings, each with its own (dis)advantages.
•
•
•
•
I
UTF-8, the most commonly used one in the western world.
UTF-16, UTF-32, and variations of these.
UCS-1, UCS-2, and UCS-4 are outdated names of similar encodings.
Punycode (used for domain names with umlauts).
We will only cover UTF-32 and UTF-8.
250
15 · Text Encoding
15.5
The UTF-32 encoding · 15.5
The UTF-32 encoding
This fixed width encoding uses 4 bytes for each Unicode code point.
Easy to find the nth code point in a text: At byte position 4 · n.
Unfotunately, this is not necessarily the n character. Think of combining characters.
Main usage is for processing (internal to programs), not for storage.
! At least 11 bits unused per code point (Unicode only uses 21).
Space blowup, 4-times for ASCII data, 2-times for most other cases.
! Not self-synchronizing, i.e., looking at somewhere in the stream of
bytes, it is not possible to tell whether this is the start of a code point!
! Byte ordering (aka. endianness ) becomes relevant.
th
59
A byte-order-mark (BOM) stored at the beginning of a text file is necessary.
glyph
ASCII
code point
UTF-32 BE60
UTF-32 LE
59 cf.
60 BE
A
41
U+41
00 00 00 41
41 00 00 00
λ
U+3BB
00 00 03 BB
BB 03 00 00
⇒
U+21D2
00 00 21 D2
D2 21 00 00
BOM
U+FEFF
00 00 FE FF
FF FE 00 00
Jonathan Swift. Gulliver’s Travels. (Dispute about at which end to open an egg)
= big endian, most significant byte first / LE = little endian
251
15 · Text Encoding
15.6
The UTF-8 encoding
This variable width encoding uses 1..4 bytes for each code point.
ASCII-compatible: Plain ASCII data looks the same when encoded as
UTF-8 (unless a BOM is added).
Lexicographic sorting yields the same order for strings of code points,
and the UTF-8 encoded strings of bytes.
UTF-8 is likely to be detected correctly, i.e., arbitrary data is unlikely
to form correct UTF-8.
UTF-8 is self-synchronizing.
Space efficient for most European languages.
No BOM required. BOM is discouraged in the UTF-8 definition, as its
presence destroys some nice properties (think about #!).
! Some software refuses to work correctly without BOM.
# Potential space blowup when encoding mainly Asian text, but still
efficient when encoding HTML, which contains a lot of non-Asian code.
252
15 · Text Encoding
So how does UTF-8 work?
I
Charactes in the ASCII-range U+0..U+7F are encoded as themselves.
• Each valid ASCII text also represents the same text when read as UTF-8.
• Only the 7 lower bits are required for each of the ASCII characters, so the
first bit is always 0.
I
Larger code points are represented by multi-byte sequences.
•
•
•
•
All their bytes start with 1.
Exactly the leading byte in a sequence starts with 11,
while the followup bytes all start with 10.
The number of 1s at the beginnig of the leading byte indicates the length of
the byte sequence.
range
U+0..U+7F
U+80..U+7FF
U+800..U+FFFF
U+10000..U+1FFFFF
I
byte 1
0
110
1110
11110
byte 2
10
10
10
byte 3
10
10
byte 4
10
bits
7
11
16
21
It would be possible to extend this scheme to even longer byte sequences,
covering an even greater range of code points.
253
15 · Text Encoding
Examples
glyph
ASCII
code point
code point binary
UTF-8 binary
UTF-8 bytes
glyph
ASCII
code point
code point binary
UTF-8 binary
UTF-8 bytes
I
I
L
4C
U+4C
π
U+3C0
⇒
U+21D2
1001100
01001100
11 11000000
11001111 10000000
100001 11010010
11100010 10000111 10010010
4C
CF 80
E2 87 92
BOM
U+FEFF
U+10083
11111110 11111111
11101111 10111011 10111111
1 00000000 10000011
11110000 10010000 10000010 10000011
EF BB BF
F0 90 82 83
An editor expecting Latin-1 will mis-interpret the UTF-8 encoded BOM
as the three-character sequence “ı̈¿”.
The Linear B ideograph
(horse) uses four bytes in UTF-8, but the
leading byte contains only 0-bits as payload.
Question: Would 3 bytes be sufficient to encode
in UTF-8?
254
15 · Text Encoding
15.7
I
General problems with Unicode · 15.7
General problems with Unicode
Unicode defines 8 different character sequences61 for end-of-line.
• Includes LF, CR, and CR+LF.
I
Some characters appear twice with different semantics, e.g., the unit62
of length Å (U+212B), and the Swedisch letter Å (U+C5).
I
Some characters have different representations. E.g., the German
umlaut ä, and most other accented letters:
• As single composed character ä (U+E4), or
• decomposed into character a (U+61) and combining diaeresis ¨ (U+308).
I
Character handling is difficult (and has security implications).
⇒ Use libraries, don’t do this yourself.
61 http://www.unicode.org/standard/reports/tr13/tr13-5.html
62 angstrom,
named after Anders Jonas Ångström: 1Å = 10−10 m
255
15 · Text Encoding
I
General problems with Unicode · 15.7
Unicode63 blurs the line between representing text and typesetting:
• Numbers in the range 1–20 with various decorations:
E.g., encircled
U+246C — in parenthesis
U+2477 — with a period
• Many ligatures, e.g., Latin Small Ligature Fi:
U+2477.
U+1F43C.
⇒ This makes it difficult e.g., to search for text.
I
Unicode even blurs the line between text and graphics:
Panda Face U+FB01.
Chipmunk U+1F43F.
Pile Of Poo U+1F4A9.
High-heeled shoe
U+1F460.
Money Bag U+1F4B0.
Fax machine
U+1F4E0.
Man in business suit levitating (right).
Raised hand with part between middle and ring fingers
U+1F596.
U+1F574
Note
63 all
Don’t like Unicode? See the comic strip on page 244.
sample renderings taken as SVG from the Unicode website
256
15 · Text Encoding
15.8
Text encoding in the wild · 15.8
Text encoding in the wild
I
Most software will handle text encoding automatically for you.
I
You should stick to the EOL-convention native to your system.
I
Checklist for data that leaves your box:
• Encoding?
• BOM?
• EOL-convention?
I
A good text editor should offer means to handle different encodings, and
EOL-conventions.
I
Some tools need help in determining where conversion is applicable.
I
If a file mentions its own encoding, make sure that’s true.
• LATEX: \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
• XML: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
• Python: # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
257
15 · Text Encoding
File System Trouble
1
2
3
4
$ ls -l
total 33k
-rw------- 1 sk users 20k Aug 12 12:24 böse
-rw------- 1 sk users 8.6k Aug 13 11:08 böse
Whassup?
I
What is the problem?
I
How can we solve it?
I
We have actually seen this in 2013, when a Subversion checkout failed
on MacOS, but worked well on Linux and Windows machines. Turned out
that some student had committed two such files.
I
MacOS assumed both names to refer to the same file, telling Subversion
that the file it wanted to write already exists...
I
Files whose names only differ in case cause the same trouble on
MacOS. You can switch this off, making software fail which relies on that bug.
258
15 · Text Encoding
I
I
I
1
2
3
4
5
Failed approach: Cut’n’paste with the mouse in the terminal window does
not work for at least one of the files. Question: Why?
Dirty-hack approach: Try to rename one random file, then use
tab-completion to rename the other one.
Enlightening approach: Figure out which bytes are being used:
$ ls | file -b --mime # cf. file(1)
text/plain; charset=utf-8 # so ls prints its output in UTF-8
$ ls | hexdump -e '16/1 "%02X " "\n"' -e '16/1 "%2_p " "\n"'
# cf. hexdump(1)
62 6F CC 88 73 65 0A 62 C3 B6 73 65 0A # these are the hex values...
b o . . s e . b . . s e . # ...of those bytes (. unless printable ASCII)
UTF-8 byte sequence
encodes code point
which is
0A
U+0A
line feed
CC 88
U+308
combining diaeresis
We can address these files from the shell:
1
2
3
4
$ ls -l $'b\xC3\xB6se'
-rw------- 1 sk users 8.6k Aug 13 11:08 böse
$ ls -l $'bo\xCC\x88se'
-rw------- 1 sk users 20k Aug 12 12:24 böse
C3 B6
U+F6
ö
I When quoting with $'...' one may use
C escape sequences.
I Then, \xHH represents the byte with
2-digit hex code HH.
I cf. section ANSI C Quoting in the
bash manual.
259
15 · Text Encoding
Subversion
I
SVN can adapt files to your OSs native EOL convention.
1
2
$ svn ps svn:eol-style native solution.lhs
property 'svn:eol-style' set on 'solution.lhs'
• Always do this for collaboratively edited plain text files,
• never do this for files in a format with a fixed EOL style.
I
You may have to tell subversion about the MIME type64 , if this is not
detected correctly. Also useful for HTTP access.
1
2
3
4
I
$ svn ps
property
$ svn ps
property
svn:mime-type application/pdf lecture.pdf
'svn:mime-type' set on 'lecture.pdf'
svn:mime-type 'text/plain; charset=us-ascii' file.txt
'svn:mime-type' set on 'file.txt'
See the Subversion manual on properties65 , and portability of files66 .
64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME_type
65 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.8/svn.advanced.props.html
66 http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.8/svn.advanced.props.file-portability.html
260
15 · Text Encoding
Shell scripting
I
A shell script is identified by the shebang #! character sequence as the
first two bytes, cf. page 155.
I
This is not compatible with the presence of a BOM.
I
Use an encoding (like UTF-8) that does not require a BOM.
Windows users: Tell your editor not to store a BOM on such files.
I
In principle, all plain text formats with a magic number as first bytes
suffer this limitation.
261
15 · Text Encoding
LAT
EX
I
The package inputenc supports quite a bunch of encodings.
I
Only few Unicode characters are supported by default.
I
See the manual67 for more information.
1
2
ä ö ü, Ä Ö Ü, ß
3
4
5
6
\begin{document}
Böse Überraschung?\\
ä ö ü, Ä Ö Ü, ß
\end{document}
% Note
67 http://www.tug.org/texmf-dist/doc/latex/base/inputenc.pdf
262
I
The End
http://www.gnu.org/graphics/meditate.html
Image ©2001 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Available under GNU GPL and GNU FDL