CULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE BALKANS

CULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE BALKANS:
Convergence vs. Divergence
Abstracts
Centre for Southeast European Studies (Ghent)
General informations:
The conference is organized with
the financial support of the Fund for
Linguistic Approaches
Victor A. Friedman (Univ. of Chicago)
e-mail: vfriedm@midway.uchicago.edu
Scientific Research, Flanders, the
Fac. of Arts and Philosophy and the
Turkisms, Balkan Identity, and Balkan Linguistic Ideologies
Dept. of Slavic and East European
Studies at Ghent Univ., in cooperation with the Slavic and Oriental
Dept. of the KULeuven.
Organizing comittee:
Prof. Dr. Elka Agoston-Nikolova; Prof.
Dr. Raymond Detrez; Prof. Dr.
Tat'jana Soldat'enkova; Dr. Pieter
Plas; Dr. Katja De Herdt; Dr. Ingrid
Merchiers; Dr. Johan Vandewalle
Scientific comittee:
Prof. Dr. Elka Agoston-Nikolova; Prof.
Dr. Gunnar De Boel; Prof. Dr. Raymond Detrez; Prof. Dr. Ger Duyzings;
Prof. Dr. Joep Leerssen; Prof. Dr. Bernard Lory; Prof. Dr. Rik Pinxten; Prof.
Dr. Eugeen Roegiest; Prof. Dr. Clemens Ruthner; Prof. Dr. Tat'jana
Soldat'enkova
Time: December 12/13, 2003.
Location: Univ. Conference Centre,
Het Pand, Onderbergen 1, B-9000
Although the concept of ›substratum influence‹ was crucial in the initial theorizing of the
Balkan linguistic league, and morpho-syntactic convergence is taken by linguists today as
the chief defining factor, it is arguable that the shared lexical component which entered the
Balkan languages from or via Turkish is a more salient unifying factor in terms of the way ordinary people think about language. At the same time, the status of Turkisms has risen and
fallen and risen again in response to external events. I shall examine the symbolic deployment of Turkisms as signs in various types of identity formation and in linguistic ideologies,
i.e. in the ideas that people have about language and language use. I shall show that Turkish
continues to be a site for the exercise of lexical and symbolic power and contestation in the
Balkans even ninety years after Turkey in Europe was reduced to the territory of eastern
Thrace, but the symbolism changes according to a number of variables.The object of puristic
movements during nation-state formation (even in Turkey itself, since many of these words
were of Arabo-Persian origin), this same vocabulary was used to signify democracy in post
1989 ex-communist Balkan countries. Among the exceptions to this trend are former SerboCroatian-speaking Yugoslavia, where Turkisms became entangled in the Wars of Succession,
and the newly emerging Aromanian and Romani standard languages, where Turkisms have
become symbolic capital not in anti-establishmentarianism but in its opposite, namely, the
construction of an establishment. There is also the question of the interface between Turkish
and the Christian/Muslim divide, which is not a matter of simple one-on-one mapping. Furthermore, despite the usual emphasis on Turkisms as a shared component in the Balkan linguistic league, there are also important divergences in the selection of Turkish vocabulary in
the individual languages. Thus, for example, an examination of the best dictionaries of Turkisms in Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian shows that over a third of the Turkish vocabulary in
one language is not shared with the other. Finally, I shall also discuss how ideology affects
scholarship on Turkisms.
Gent, Belgium.
Contact: Prof. Raymond Detrez
Christian Voss (Freiburg Univ.)
e-mail: christian.voss@geschichte.uni-freiburg.de
(CZES, Ghent Univ.), Dr. Pieter Plas
(CZES), Mrs. Inge Claerhout (CZES,
Linguistic Divergence and (Re-)Convergence in the Macedonian Standard/Dialect-Continuum
Ghent Univ.), Centre for Southeast
European Studies (CZES), Dept. of
Slavic and East European Studies,
Ghent Univ., Rozier 44, B-9000
Gent, Belgium;
Tel. +32 / 9 / 264 38 48 / 38 46;
Fax: +32 / 9 / 264 / 38 10.
Practical information:
Public transport coming from Brussels National Airport: directly from
Zaventem to Ghent: train from 5.48
till 21.48 every hour. If you arrive
later: train from Zaventem to Brussels-Midi station, then the train
from Brussels-Midi to Ghent. Last
This paper compares the linguistic development in Vardar- and Aegean Macedonia diachronically by using the model of divergence and (re-)convergence: The historical region of Macedonia after 1913 was divided by culturally highly ambiguous political borders which tended
to create new linguistic borders, when Serbian (in Vardar-Macedonia) and Greek (in Aegean
Macedonia) became the umbrella languages for the local vernaculars. This asymmetry was
aggravated by the most important step of Macedonian nation building after 1944, the implementation of the Macedonian standard language, which only by means of the Communist partisan press spilled over into Greece during the Greek Civil War.
After 1989 we observe osmotic interrelations between the two existing Macedonian
identity models, the national Tito-Yugoslav and the local one of the Slavic-speaking minority
in Greece (where Macedonianness is a synonym of indigenity).
The crucial point is to work out the mechanisms (language, symbols, politics of memory)
of the Macedonian cross-border cohesion which in the last 10 years has led to a slow and
partial ethnicisation and even nationalisation of Greece's Slavic minority towards the Republic of Macedonia, especially in the centre of the »ethnic revival«, i.e. the border region of
Florina.
train at 23.02.
page 1/15
http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/materialien/CZSE3.pdf
Public transport coming from the
railway station: Main station Ghent
St. Pieters: tram 1-10-11-12 to the
Korenmarkt. General information
about public transport:
www.nmbs.be
Coming by car: Ghent is on the cross
of the E17 and the E40. Take the
B401 into Ghent. When you come
from the coast or from Bruges it can
be confusing. Don't take the turn
Gent St. Denijs (14) or the turn GentZwijnaarde (15) but follow the direction Gent-Antwerpen. If you enter
Ghent via the B41 and this will lead
you right to the center. Follow the
yellow P(arking)-route. P7, the StMichielsparking is situated at 50 m.
from the conference center.
Lodging in Ghent:
This can be seen from the publications of the RAINBOW-party of National Macedonians
which officially started in 1989 as a typical indigenous movement with an exclusively local
frame of reference, whereas the movement's publications during the 1990s are brought into
line with the press of the Canadian and Australian Macedonian diaspora, joining the global
ethnic network (described by Danforth 1995 and representing a prototype case of Appad-urai's ethnoscapes 1996). The message of this paper is to contest the functioning of language
as the central symbol of ethnic boundaries, since the subjective feeling of social exclusion is
at the very core of Macedonian identity in Greece .
On the northern side of the border, the political and cultural revisionism of the pro-Bulgarian government of Ljubco Georgievski (VMRO-DPMNE) 1998-2002 brought to an end the
ideal of linguistic equidistance followed by Blaze Koneski after 1944: This openly anti-Serbian
linguistic policy (e.g. the daily TV emission Govorete makedonski 2000-2002) corresponds to
the phenomenon of post-communist language planning corrections (comparable to Clyne
1997 Undoing and Redoing Corpus Planning), in our case it leads to a linguistic rapprochement with the Bulgarian standard and the roofless dialects, too.
This paper resumes some results of my habilitation project Linguistic Convergence and
Divergence in the Macedonian Standard/Dialect-Continuum. Language Planning, Language
use and Language Attitudes in Vardar- and Aegean Macedonia during the 20th Century, including impressions of several fieldwork stays in the region between 2000 and 2003 as well as
results of the conference Minorities in Greece. Historical Perspectives and New Issues, organised by Sevasti Trubeta and me in Berlin in January 2003.
A map of Ghent and useful information on accommodation and hotels
in walking distance from the con-
Tanja Petrovic (Serbian Acad. of Sciences and Arts)
e-mail: taxema@yahoo.com
ference venue can be found on
http://www.gent.be/gent/english/.
Language Ideology of Serbs in Bela krajina: Between Balkan Values and European Modernity
For additional information, contact
Mrs Inge Claerhout:
e-mail: inge.claerhout@UGent.be;
tel.: + 32 / 9 / 264 38 46;
fax +32 / 9 / 264 38 10).
page 2/15
In the Slovenian southern region Bela Krajina there are four Orthodox Serbian speaking villages: Bojanci, Milici, Paunovici, and Marindol. These villages are inhabited by Serbs – descendants of Uskoks, renegade refugees from the Ottoman Empire, who have settled down since
1526 in several migration waves. Most of them were included into the framework of the
Habsburg Military Border, while the major part of Bela Krajina became the border's hinterland. These villages are settled near to the Croatian border and are surrounded by Slovene
speaking settlements.
Although outside of the area which is commonly designated as the Balkans, these four
villages in Slovenia are considered to be part of »Balkan patriarchal culture«, both for the
cultural heritage and shared social values and norms prevailing among their inhabitants. The
Orthodox, Serbian-speaking population of the four villages have managed to preserve their
native vernacular, and religious and cultural identity for more than five centuries, mainly
because of very strict social rules restricting interactions with the surrounding Slovene-speaking, Catholic population. Significant social changes that took place in the middle of 20th
century caused by industrialization and deagrarization, resulted increased mobility of population emergence of intermarriages and consequently in a rapid decline in use of the native
vernacular among these Serbs, which is being replaced by the dominant Slovenian idiom.
The present situation indicates a contact-induced language shift: only the oldest generation
of inhabitants has a full, native-like competence in Serbian, the middle generation speaks it
occasionally, mainly in communication with their parents, while children in these villages
understand their Serbian speaking grand-parents, but almost always respond to them in
Slovene.
On the basis of a number of narratives recorded among Serbs in Bela Krajina, I will try to
outline basics of their language ideology, i.e. explicit or implicit representations of language
read out from community's linguistic practice, metapragmatic discourse by which speakers
interpret their own language behavior, and from shared representations related to power
structures.
Understood as a cultural conceptualization of language which has the social dimension
and is necessarily related to social power, the language ideology of the Serbian community
in Bela Krajina can clearly show the way in which its members deal with dialectic relationship between a positive cultural stance towards the native language, which advocates the
integrity of the language and speech community, and a pragmatism concerning sociocultural and linguistic change which adopts a course of action in which modernization and the
urban developments take priority over traditionalism.
Razvan Dumitru (Univ. of Bucharest)
e-mail: razvan_dumi@yahoo.com
Vlaski language and Vlaski Identity in the Vidin Region (Bulgaria)
The paper shows the relation between identity and the spoken language/(s). The people
from the Vidin region are connecting their identity with their use of two different languages
(Bulgarian and a Romanian dialect called Vlaski).
It seems that the people from the villages (Kapitanovti and Pokraina were we had the
fieldwork) can be grouped in three categories upon how they connect their identity with
their Vlaski use.
The relationship between »to be« and »to speak«
I.
In several cases, the two verbs are overlapping. Those who declare themselves as Romanians based on their Romance language belong to the peripheral categories of system constructed on the bases of national symbolical order, in our case Bulgarian nation. In this category, we include the persons that were not socialized in the Bulgarian
educational system (generally speaking, the ones who were born in inter-war period or
earlier). Still, their connection to urban life has not been permanent, their main occupation being agriculture and other adjacent activities (the selling of agricultural products
at the market was/is a secondary one).
Urban space belongs also to official system of power represented by office-workers
and strangers.
II.
On intermediary level, there are the ones who distinguish between to be and to speak
and have a problematic identity. Though they use the language, they perceive such a
linguistic identity as a factor of exclusion even for their children from the social structure. Therefore, the use of Vlaski language may correspond to a danger of social exclusion;
that's why the younger generations keep their children apart from Vlaski dialect. At the
discursive level this matter is expressed through »not to spoil childrens' language«. To
spoil the language meaning to pollute one's language symbolically represents a potential of exclusion that can decrease one's chances of access to the state social system.
III.
There is the third category of subjects, for whom to speak it doesn't have any link with
to be. To speak in Vlaski or Romanian is, at discursive level, just another language that
can be used or not in utilitarian way. For those people to speak Vlaski doesn't interact at
all with to be Vlaski, and for this reason they don't perceive any danger to their national
identity. They are declaring themselves as Bulgarians though they use the Vlaski dialect
in different proportions compared with the older generations. In this category, I enclosed both people who were active in urban centers, in this way they were/are separated
from the community of their parents, and children who have learnt to speak Vlaski from
their grandparents as a curiosity. TTheir parents are probably Vlaski speakers who don’t
use it, even in the family.
Thus a specific connotation of the Vlaski language system is strongly connected with the
symbolic system to which a person is involved in.
People use many systems of signs (signification systems) more or less connected for dealing with different linguistic, ethnic, or some identities like Romanian/Bulgarian, villager/city
man, old/new, traditional/modern.
The three categories determine them to make connections between Vlaski language and
self-identity (defined as the relationship between the two verbs to speak and to be ) correspond to three ways of manage with two symbolical systems.
A local community, a specific dialect, and the peasant life style define one. The other defined by modern institution of the national state, national language and urban space as politic and economic center.
What remains to discuss is the relationship between the symbolic system of Romanian
national state and Vlachs communities. What turns out from our study is the absence of any
dispute over the relationship, we didn't meet people having a feeling of belonging to Romanian nation.
Despite the attempt of homogenizing made by Bulgarian national state the local and
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previous symbolic system still survives. However it is re-signified under the new social interactions that emerge across local and national boundaries. The relatively recent re-implication of the politic and economic power of the national states as well as the supra-national
organizations (i.e. the European Union) concerning the re-structuring of these new re-signification processes can be study and approached.
Anthropological Approaches
Ger Duijzings (Univ. of Amsterdam, Univ. College London)
e-mail: G.Duijzings@inter.NL.net
Cultural Identities in the Borderlands of the Balkans
This paper deals with cultural and social identification and group formation in the borderlands of the Balkans, where the existing ethnic and religious lines of division have always
been felt most accutely. Ger Duijzings will draw from his own research in areas such as Kosovo and (eastern) Bosnia , and he will demonstrate how processes of both convergence and
divergence, fission and fusion, have been at work here. Furthermore, he will show that in
borderlands (or »ethnic shatter zones«) identities tend to be less fixed and more fluid, and
that processes of cultural divergence and convergence are more salient here than elsewhere.
One of the examples which will be used to illustrate these phenomena of shifting and multiple identities is the case of the Albanian crypto-Catholics. This case also shows that new
principles of identification or »groupness« have emerged in the Balkans, and that there has
been a general shift from religiously defined identities during the Ottoman period to ethnically defined »national« identities in the 20th century.
Roel Schuyt (Univ. of Amsterdam)
e-mail: roelschuyt@tiscali.nl
Convergence and Divergence in Balkan Folk and Local Professional Music
One of the first scholars to deal with the interaction between the Balkan languages was
Kristian Sandfeld. Similar interactions, affecting larger or smaller areas, can be observed in
other spheres of culture. They are due to contacts between neighboring or intermingled peoples or language groups, or to the influence of powerful cultural and political centers in the
Roman, Byzantine and later Ottoman, Habsburg and Russian Empires and the Italian lands.
As concerns music, the resulting common features can be described in terms of metres, modality, harmony, instruments, the use of vocal and instrumental techniques, and textual elements.
With the gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of Enlightenment and
Romanticism to the various Balkan areas, there developed a trend towards an own identity
and political, religious, linguistic and cultural autonomy or even independence. Within this
framework belongs the production of dictionaries, grammars, textbooks and even alphabets
of the various languages, and the collection of folklore in its manifold manifestations. An important ideological role in nationalism, both political and scholarly, was attributed to old memories which were recovered, reconstructed, or even newly invented. This resulted in competing claims on territory or cultural heritage.
The tendency towards delimitation of national identity, in most Balkan countries for decades combined with Socialist nationalism, but simultaneously countered by reverse trends
of unification and regional or even global openness, has remained actual until the present
day. And it has so on different levels (from states to individuals) and in numerous fields. In
this paper I want to discuss its consequences for what we generally call post-war ›Balkan
music‹ – a term which already implies some sort of unification.
1.
2.
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Many scholars, writers, composers, arrangers and players had to work in difficult circumstances, but tried to offer the best of the talents they had.
In the new, postwar Socialist states and some new Soviet republics, a number of State
Folk Ensembles were formed, adapted to an existing Soviet model. They created a normative ›national folk culture‹, and had some image building value for export. One of
their typical characteristics is the »scaling up« of traditional ensembles to symphonic
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
dimensions. Simultaneously, existing rural and urban traditions managed to survive in
various degrees, and new ones developed, often seeking (or restoring?) contacts with
neighbouring countries or the West. Western genres were adopted and imitated, and
fusions between Balkan and Western music appeared.
Textual themes which fitted national conscience were placed on the foreground, newly
composed pieces glorifying the national past, socialist society or national unity appeared. Similar developments took place in the new states of former Yugoslavia , where
people have always been sensitive about the origin of tunes and the associations they
bear.
Pre-existing musical instruments were adapted and claimed as national. In the 1870's,
this happened in Hungary. More recent examples are found in Russia and postwar Bulgaria.
Ancient ›transnational'‹elements were claimed as purely national. In times of territorial
tensions songs from beyond the disputed frontier were incorporated.
On a local scale, folklore – as any other form of culture – was firmly directed and controlled by ›culture houses‹.
Research by foreigners was subjected to strict regulations, and in the 1970's Romania
declared the music of the Transylvanian Hungarians a state secret, in order to avoid
Hungarian revivalists stirring up national feelings. But the right contact could always
create unexpected possibilities, as people tended to hover between conformism and
hospitality.
In non-Communist Greece , the (uncontrollable) rebetiko tragoudi was dealt a severe
blow when it was forbidden by the colonel regime of 1967-1974. Singing in (Slavic) Macedonian often proved hazardous.
Alexandre Popovic (CNRS, Paris)
e-mail: nathalie.clayer@ehess.fr
La magie chez les populations balkaniques: convergences et divergences
Travaillant depuis quelques années dans le cadre de mon séminaire de l'EHESS de Paris
(Histoire moderne et contemporaine des musulmans balkaniques) sur la magie chez les musulmans des Balkans, j'ai eu l'occasion de regarder une très importante documentation sur la
magie en général dans cette région – concernant donc non seulement les populations
musulmanes, mais également les populations catholiques et orthodoxes de la Péninsule.
Parmi les premières constations qui ressortent de cet examen en cours, la principale est
que la magie dans le monde musulman, et en particuler chez les musulmans balkaniques,
montre une sophistication incomparablement plus grande que chez les chrétiens. Elle repose
sur une littérature à la fois ancienne et abondante et sur des pratiques très variées et très
élaborées, liées notamment à des croyances dans la valeur numérique des lettres et dans
l'existence des djinns. Cependant, il existe des éléments similaires. Et il n'a jamais été rare de
voir des fidèles d'une religion venir consulter des spécialistes d'une aure religion.
Dans la communication annoncée, je voudrais aborder rapidement ces phénomènes et
essayer de présenter quelques remarques sur ces divergences et ces convergences, tant sur le
plan des théories et systèmes, que sur le plan du »matériel« et du rituel magique, à travers la
documentation concernant les XIXe et XXe siècles.
Georgios Plakotos (Univ. of Glasgow)
e-mail: gplakotos@hotmail.com
Christian and Muslim Converts from the Balkans in Early Modern Venice: Patterns of Social
and Cultural Mobility and Identities
After the consolidation of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, the Republic of Venice
maintained strong commercial links to the Ottoman Balkans. Early modern Venice became a
popular destination for individuals and groups, ranging from itinerant merchants to mercenaries from the Balkans. Throughout the same period, Venice witnessed the influx of individuals and families from the Balkans, of such diverse religious background, as Christian Orthodox, Muslim and Jewish, who reached Venice and, appearing before the tribunal of the Inquisition of the city or other ecclesiastical institutions, such as the House of Converts (Casa
page 5/15
dei Catecumeni ), they asked to embrace Catholicism. Before arriving to Venice , those individuals' and groups' religious background had often been shaped by earlier voluntary or not
conversions, mainly from Christianity to Islam. Before the Inquisition, those people provided
accounts of their past and explained their motives for wishing to become Catholics.
Their narratives allow us to reconstruct the lives of that obscure group of people from
the Balkans who during their lives moved from one religion to another. Through those narratives my paper explores the social and cultural identities of those individuals and groups. It
illustrates that the cultural identities of those people, despite their diverse religious background, had been shaped by a notion of ›convergence‹ that is demonstrated in the common
patterns of crossing religious boundaries. The paper points out that in those conversions to
Catholicism, certain groups figure prominently, which, despite their different religious background, in their decision to assume the Catholic identity were determined by their social position and profile. Additionally, the paper discusses how people from the Balkans, either Muslims or Christians, who stayed permanently or for short periods in the unfamiliar and often
unfriendly environment of Venice, adopted a sense of »Balkan identity«, either through close
business association, marriage and wider networks, or in geographical patterns of residence
that they developed in the city.
My paper is based on archival material drawn from the Venetian State and Patriarchal
Archives.
Julia G. Krivoruchko (Univ. of Haifa)
e-mail: jkriv@research.haifa.ac.il
A Case of Divergent Convergence: The Cultural Identity of Romaniote Jewry
The impact of Ancient Greek civilization and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, on Balkan
Jewry is known to be both deeply penetrating and all-embracing. Its most important consequence for the later historical developments was the language shift, namely the transition
of Balkan Jewish communities from the Aramaic/Greek or Hebrew/Greek diglossia to the
Greek monolinguism. Even after the 9th century, when Biblical Hebrew regained its status of
main heritage language, the religious instruction was given in colloquial Greek, and Greek
continued to be used in the liturgy.
During the pre-modern era the common language can be said to smooth over the religious difference, to certain degree. The Romaniotes were deeply influenced by the surrounding Greek Orthodox society, as they pursued rural occupations, owned domestic animals
and enjoyed freedom of dwelling inside the towns. Almost in all the spheres of their everyday life (seasonal festivals, family celebrations, marriage rites, legal practices, etc.) they became profoundly assimilated. The Greek folklore provided the basic building elements for various forms of the Romaniote creative writing, including the poems written in Hebrew. The
liturgical music of Romaniotes was recognized as Balkan-inspired by its investigators A. Shiloah and L. Levi. The affect of the mainstream Greek culture on the elite Romaniote learning
of the late Byzantine period was noticed by S. Bowman, Z. Ankori and others.
However, many of the abovementioned phenomena were mistakenly described as
»Christian influences«, while they should be called, after S. Vryonis , »religious balkanisms«
or rather »cultural balkanisms«. Widespread throughout the peninsula, they were not limited neither to Greek nor to Orthodox population.
Modern era was not particularly favorable for the development of Romaniote identity, as
the options for divergence became extremely limited. In the new Greek national state the
Romaniotes had equal rights with the rest of population and were rapidly integrated into
new networks. Yet the Romaniote Jews could not claim any form of political or administrative autonomy, as they were few. They could not develop separate linguistic identity since the
image of their sociolect (like that of other Greek dialects) was purely negative. The current
sociolinguistic situation encouraged them to cultivate Standard Greek (see e.g., the poetry of
Yosef Eliya). As a result, no literary form of Judeo-Greek has ever been created. A divergence
was still possible in the realm of religion, but the latter was dominated by the Sefaradim, the
Spanish-speaking newcomers – and thus not sufficiently Romaniote. Besides, Judaism was
rapidly loosing its importance in the modern world, so that the Romaniotes influenced by
European haskala voted for learning French rather than Hebrew.
Toward the middle of the 20th century, the unique Romaniote identity has been largely
replaced by the more encompassing identity of Greek Jewry.
page 6/15
Historical Approaches (1)
Paschalis Kitromilides (KNE, Athens )
e-mail: kne@eie.gr
Title to be confirmed
Nathalie Clayer (CNRS, Paris)
e-mail: nathalie.clayer@ehess.fr
Convergences et divergences dans le nationalisme à travers l'exemple albanais
Dans cette communication, il s'agira de reconsidérer l'idée selon laquelle les convergences
concernent principalement la culture populaire, tandis que les divergences sont davantage
situées au niveau de la Hochkultur et des constructions idéologiques, en particulier des constructions identitaires nationales.
A travers l'exemple du nationalisme albanais, je voudrais en effet montrer d'abord comment, dans les processus de construction d'identité nationale, les divergences ne concernent
pas seulement la »fabrication« des altérités avec d'autres groupes ethnico-nationaux, mais
qu'elles se trouvent aussi dans les différentes façons de construire l'identité nationale à partir d'autres types d'identité pré-existantes.
Dans un second temps, je voudrais également montrer que ces processus de construction
identitaire résultent de convergences. D'une part l'ingéniérie de ces promoteurs fait appel à
des outils empruntés aux promoteurs d'autres identités nationales. D'autre part, il a existé et
il existe des constructions hybrides, qui ont tendu à combiner différentes identités ethniconationales, mais qui sont souvent moins repérables, du fait d'un courant divergent dominant, et moins durables. Pour donner un exemple, l'albanisme s'est d'abord développé en
grande partie au sein même de l'hellénisme.
Basil Gounaris (Aristotle Univ., Thessaloniki)
e-mail: bcgounar@auth.gr
Constructing and Deconstructing a Common Balkan Past in Nineteenth Century Greece
The making of modern Greek national ideology and tradition was certainly part of the ›divergence process‹ in the Balkans. Greeks gained their independence and built their modern
state on the arguments and grounds of Hellenic antiquity, which secured for them a golden
age in the past and a distinctive culture in the future. However their ancient cultural glory
and distinctiveness contradicted their participation in the Balkan cultural commonwealth. By
doing so it certainly negated Greek irredentism and even undermined the prospects for cooperation. Was it possible to retain the Balkan entity without renouncing the Hellenic past?
Some Greeks thought it was, through the vision of an Eastern Federation (or at least through
bilateral co-operations) based on assumed ethnic kinship, Orthodoxy and anti-Turkism. However, their vision gradually came into sharp contrast with the formation of other Balkan
nations.
Through a variety of literary sources (which include political brochures, caricatures, magazines and newspapers) this paper examines how 19th century Greeks saw, commented,
and interpreted this »incomprehensible« process from the 1830s until the days of the Balkan
Wars. For many reasons divergence from what was regarded as a common past was indeed
an ideological drama. Firstly it involved the rise of independent nations which did not satisfy
the Greek criteria and did not fit in the Greek view of Balkan »national geneology«. Furthermore it implied conflict of political interests, the rise of anti-hellenism in varying degrees, a
fierce Balkan counter-offensive on disputed ethnic grounds, the disappearance of the Greek
language from the Balkan urban centres and, the worst, the rapid assimilation of Greece's
Balkan Diaspora, a capital overestimated before the 1850s.
The overall argument is that, although the making of the Balkan ›other‹ was clearly nothing more than a reflection of the making of the Greek ›self‹, Greeks failed to evaluate and
explain the negation of a common past without invoking dubious conspiratorial theories
and historical argument. Through such arguments resentment became traditional, the quest
for a common past undesirable and, in the end, divergence absolutely natural.
page 7/15
Boyko Penchev (Univ. of Sofia )
e-mail: litvestnik@yahoo.com
Tsarigrad/Istanbul and the Spatial Construction of Bulgarian National Identity in the 60’s
and 70’s of the 19th Century
The paper explores the spatial discourses, participating in the construction of Bulgarian national identity in the third quarter of 19th century. The starting assumption was that building
up of a nation identity entails re-working of the local, place-bound identities and successful
»merging« of the lived spatial experience with the abstract homogeneous »territory« of the
nation, symbolically represented as the common »homeland«. In this respect the representations of Tsarigrad/Istanbul in the Bulgarian public space of the 19th century seems to be a
promising field of research. The specific »extraterritorial« position of Tsarigrad in regard with
the imaginary and non-imaginary Bulgarian borders, combined with the presence of a large
Bulgarian community in the Ottoman capital made it a center of different »mappings« and
identification strategies. Tsarigrad (literally »The City of the Kings«) could be regarded as a
spatial node, generating different political projects which undermine the nationalistic ideological vision.
In the 60's and the 70's Tsarigrad has been employed as a repository of images for the
negative construction of collective identity. Negative exactly as in the photography. Tsarigrad
has been forced to participate in the formation of a normative standard what the Bulgarian(s) should be. In the satiric writings of Hristo Botev and Lubn Karavelov Tsarigrad was
presented as a center of very strange map – a map of »dark places«, signifiing deviation and
sexual pervertnes. The crucial feature of these places – and the harem as most important
and frequently used at the time – was their presumed resistance to the gaze of the normative public discourse. Everything that is happening »secretly« cannot be legitimized – as far
the modern legitimization of power is funded in the public opinion. Thus the harem becomes the emblematic counterpart of the patriarchal Home. The imagery of lewdness makes
the moral decay and the system of power inseparable. The map of lewdness connects in a
menacing network all the »dark places« of sexual excess and perverted deeds. This map consists not only of harems and coffeehouses, but of monasteries, brothels (brought to life with
the progress of the railroads) and even factories. By representing both the administration
and the social progress in terms of sexual perversion, Botev and Karavelov were trying by all
means to mock and discredit the idea of the possible cohabitation between the Bulgarians
and the other ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire, especially the Turks. Tsarigrad was »the
world upside down«, as an un-homely place it was opposed to the »true Homeland«, represented by figures like »fatherly fireside« etc. There should be no »mixing| and contersecting«
between the imaginary territories and the supposed ethnic identities – it was the crucial
claim of the nationalistic discourse.
There were alternative political projects however, born within the context of the struggle
for eclesiastical independence, which took Tsarigad as their symbolic and institutional center.
For example, the so called »Turkophiles« were convinced liberals, proposing a totally different map, envisioning the Bulgarians as an integral part of the modernized Turkey. The institutional practice of the Bulgarian Exarchate (the independent eclesiastical body, established
after the Sultan's Firman in 1870) provided another spatial model, differing from that of the
newly established Bulgarian state. Tsarigrad wasn't only the opposite of the »true Bulgarianness« – it was seriosly considered as the political and symbolical center of the Bulgarian nation. After the Russian-Turkish war in 1877-78 and the establishment of the Bulgarian Principality however, these political and cultural projects proved to be in very compromised position.
To put it shortly, the representations of Tsarigrad took active part in the construction of
the homogeneous national space and rigidly defined cultural identity. It generated, however,
alternative discourses as well, which deconstruct the normative ideological vision of »pure«
Bulgarian territory and identity.
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Nada Alaica (Oxford Univ.)
e-mail: nadaalaica@yahoo.com
A Mixing of Cultural Identities: The Croatian Borderlands in the 19th Century
The question of how cultural identity has developed in the Balkans is perhaps most intriguing in those areas where peoples lived together in mixed communities before the advent
of nationalism. My research into the Croatian part of the Habsburg Military Frontier, where
Serb and Croat peasants lived side by side for centuries, exemplifies how such mixing made
for ambiguous notions of cultural identity. While a few aspects of life in the Military Frontier
reveal similarities with other peasants in the Balkan lands, it was far more common that the
notion of cultural identity was extremely localized. In my paper, I intend to present one aspect of my research and share my findings concerning customs among Serb and Croat peasants in the 19th century.
This research reveals that by sharing many of the same experiences and interacting on a
daily basis, some Serb and Croat traditions seem to have changed in response to their new
environment on the Military Border, converged and thus increasingly resembled each another. For instance, a similar oral tradition in which rather prosaic themes dominated was certainly held in common, but many songs also paid tribute to the shared military heroics of
both Serb and Croat peasants against Ottoman domination. Some of this oral literature was
also widely shared among peasants throughout the Balkans. Forms of entertainment, such
as marriage and dances varied in detail from one village to the next but also display general
patterns common to other rural peoples. Rituals connected to agricultural pursuits also reveal traditions that were shared not only with one another but with rural folk throughout the
wider Balkan region. Dress is especially interesting for it reveals the significance of geography, gender and social class in determining a people's choice of apparel. Choice of dress reveals how problematic it is to impose any generalizations on the nature of similarities or differences in customs.
The reality of rural life was extremely diverse and a number of competing factors shaped
Serb and Croat customs. Any attempt to determine whether these customs fit the pattern of
convergence or divergence is consequently fraught with difficulties. While folk customs were
certainly non-national in the 19th century Military Frontier, it is also erroneous to suggest
that ›convergence‹ characterises these customs. More often than not, cultural identity was a
reflection of the peasant's specific rural milieu. An empirical analysis of that milieu reveals
that for the 19th century peasant in the Croatian Military Frontier, cultural identity was above
all localised – in other words a marker of one's place of origin.
Magdalena Elchinova (New Bulgarian Univ., Sofia)
e-mail: magi_el@hotmail.com
Alien by Default: The Identity of the Turks of Bulgaria at Home and in Immigration
By the end of 1984 the communist authorities in Bulgaria launched an assimilation campaign against the Turkish minority in the country, aimed at the overt change of their identity
and their ultimate Bulgarisation. This campaign, known as the Revival Process, lasted until
the autumn of 1989 and was admittedly considered among the major reasons for the fall of
the communist government in the country. The last months of this assimilation policy were
marked by mass migration of Turkish families from Bulgaria to Turkey – within three months
from June through September 1989 over 350 000 Turks left Bulgaria, and more than half of
these returned to their homeplaces by the end of the same year. In the early 1990s this migration continued on a limited scale, resulting in the formation of a considerable community
of new immigrants from Bulgaria in Turkey .
This paper discusses how the identities of Bulgaria born Turks are shaped and reshaped
in critical situations and under the impact of certain official politics of identity. This is viewed
at a local level and from within the group of interest – the Turks of Bulgaria. How are their
shared images and identity strategies constructed in everyday culture? What is the role of
language, kinship, religion and local affiliation in their identity constructions? How do Bulgarian born Turks cope with their position of being always ›Others‹ – both in their country of
birth and in the country of immigration? What are the shifting meanings of ›Turkishness‹?
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These questions are commented in the paper on the basis of fieldwork observations and interviews carried out in certain local communities in Northeastern and Southeastern Bulgaria, as well as in the city of Izmir in Turkey. Two types of strategies of identification and cultural adaptation are compared – of Bulgaria's Turks who returned and/or stayed in their
country of birth, and of others who permanently settled down in the Republic of Turkey . It is
clear in both cases that ethnicity is rather insignificant in ingroup identity constructions.
Other components, such as kinship, gender, religious and local affiliations, varying in significance with regard to the particular context, determine their position in local and official social categorisations. Ethnicity is as a rule introduced and enhanced in everyday discourses by
means of official nationalist rhetorics. The case of the Turks of Bulgaria also demonstrates
the flexibility of identity and reveals how the concept of »pure« identities, sustained both in
official and popular culture, is challenged and denied in actual intergroup contacts.
Historical Approaches (2)
Bernard Lory (INALCO, Paris)
The Bulgarian-Macedonian Divergence: Why Does It Look So Complicated?
La divergence bulgaro-macédonienne: dénouer le noud gordien?
La notion de divergence est particulièrement opératoire pour rendre compte des relations
bulgaro-macédoniennes. D'abord parce qu'elle neutralise les deux approches essentialistes:
les Bulgares et les Macédoniens seraient, par essence, un seul et même peuple (Sofia); les
Macédoniens seraient, par essence, différents des Bulgares (Skopje). D'autre part, la divergence se définit comme un processus, donc elle s'inscrit dans la durée historique.
La divergence bulgaro-macédonienne devient un fait avéré en 1944-45, mais ce repère
chronologique ne représente ni le début, ni l'aboutissement du processus: c'est juste la ligne
de flottaison de l'iceberg. Le processus de divergence se poursuit encore de nos jours.
La question de la périodisation, et particulièrement celle de l'apparition des premiers indices significatifs, pose un problème très intéressant pour les historiens. Les principaux jalons chronologiques sont: les années 60 du XIXe siècle, 1878, 1893, 1903, 1913, 1918, 1944, 1991.
L'importance de ces jalons pour la partie macédonienne et la partie bulgare respectivement
reste à discuter. En effet, les deux parties ne se meuvent pas dans la même temporalité.
Une autre question passionnante pour le chercheur est celle de savoir si la divergence est
le produit de contradictions internes ou le résultat de décisions extérieures, internationales.
Mais l'aspect le plus fascinant est l'impressionant argumentaire développé de part et
d'autre, sinon pour nier, du moins pour camoufler la divergence bulgaro-macédonienne. Plus
que les arguments fournis dans ce débat (ce dialogue de sourds), nous essayerons de montrer ici la place des non-dits dans les deux discours.
En conclusion, on tentera de montrer les éléments d'évolution indiquant récemment le
rejet de l'approche essentialiste et la prise en compte de la notion de divergence.
Robert Stallaerts (CZES, Ghent )
e-mail: robert.stallaerts@skynet.be
Shifting Images of Society in Bosnian Fiction
In his book Making a Nation, Breaking a Nation, Andrew Baruch Wachtel analyses the role of
literature and cultural politics in the disintegration of Yugoslavia. He discusses four major aspects of the attempts at cultural national nation building, namely (1) linguistic policies that
functioned to create a shared national language or at least a unified Serbo-Croatian language (2) the promulgation of a Yugoslav literary and artistic canon (3) educational policy, particularly relating to the teaching of literature and history in schools and (4) the production of
new artistic works that incorporated a Yugoslav view variously defined.
In this paper we both narrow and extend the scope of Wachtel's project. On the one
hand, we focus on the fourth component of his study, and moreover we limit ourselves to literature produced in Bosnia-Hercegovina. On the other side we broaden the analysis to the
literary production in most recent years. In order words, we will concentrate on the view of
society in recent post-war literary production. So along with a short reconsideration of the
work of Ivo Andric, Mesa Selimovic and Vojislav Lubarda, we will discuss mainly the work of
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authors such as the novel writers Zilhad Klucanin, Asmir Kujovic, the poets Marko Vesovic,
Abdullah Sidran and Mile Stojic, and the playwrights Almir Imsirevic and Alija Isakovic.
Zoran Terzic (Univ. of Wuppertal )
e-mail: zterzic@yahoo.com
Art from Somewhere Else – The Fuzzy Logic of Yugoslav Cultural Identities in the Light of
War, Art and Literature
1) »Ethic« Identity and Ethnic Identity
The modern civilian concept of identity originates from the jurisdiction of the Roman emperor Justinian. Identity meant simply a juridical reference to a concrete person in accordance
with state law. Unlike contemporary notions of cultural identity »civilian« identity did not
discriminate persons on the basis of »cultural«, religious or ethnic origin – rather the opposite: identity necessarily referred to every juridical subject equally.
Nowadays, when for example someone says, that he has a German passport, but – as he
was born and educated in Italy –, he »feels« or he is »truly« Italian by heart, we encounter
these two concepts of identity on a contemporary level.
We do not consider our identification document to represent our »real« being, instead
we refer to personal experience or irrational justifications to explain what we »really« are,
how we »really« feel. However, analogous to passports these »feelings« are nothing but
symbolical representations of identity. In this regard we subscribe more authority to »inner«
representation than to »outer« representation, and we refuse to believe that our feelings or
our reasoning may be as trivial or arbitrary as identification cards.
Our modern passports and IDs represent precisely the Justinian concept of identity (in
the sense of identification) whereas our post-19th century imaginings of cultural identity include essentialist and contrafactual longings (cultural »origin«, heritage, racism, chauvinism,
historical fatalism, myths, sociobiological constructs, etc.) that we subscribe to societies as
well as to individuals.
A third concept of identity that is of relevance in this context relates to the artistic dealing-with or anthropological observation of cultural patterns (behaviour, fashion, folklore,
aesthetics, communication, etc.), which we in accordance with Gregory Bateson could call
»ethic identity« (not ethnic). [1] This concept of ethic identity has its roots in the universalist
era of Enlightment and defines the borders of identity neither in the juridical nor geographical nor cultural (contrafactual) sense, but in the sense of »daily life«, that is in the sense of
how people organize a society, how they communicate, how they manage to make a living,
solve problems, etc.
fig. left: Slobodan Milosevic during his speech commemorating the Battle of Kosovo on June 28, 1989;
right: Podium, 2000, German artist Thomas Demand
rebuilt Milosevic's platform thus trying to extract the
»aura« of the fateful anniversary.
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2) The Yugoslav disintegration is a very good example to illustrate on one hand a failed concept of »civilian« identity, and on the other hand the rise of divergent cultural identities, i.e.
the rise of exclusive, mythical, irrational longings and concepts.
The process of cultural differentiation began in some areas of Hochkultur (cultural policies,
language issues, novels) from the mid 60's on.
Beside a »Yugoslav reality« a »national reality« existed that has permanently been perpetuated by parts of the cultural elite which tried to challenge the meaning and the national
»logic« of Yugoslavia .
On the other hand, one could observe unifying tendencies and activities in the area of
popular culture (e.g. up to date one speaks of »Yugorock« whereas there exists no topoi »Yugoliterature« in the analogue sense) and official cultural policy.
3) In my proposal I want to display several phenomena of convergence respectively divergence that have to be seen in the context of the Yugoslav disintegration. Of particular interest are:
a) The Istocnici discourse as ideological tool on one hand and as a proposition for a Balkan identity on the other.
fig.: One small Country of Indomitable Serbs. The »fun« postcard during the NATO war against FR Yugoslavia in 1999 mirrors also aspects of cultural policy.
fig.: Retro-avantgarde: Milic od Macve's account of the NATO
bombardment in 1999 in religious icon-style. In this image two
completely different cultural concepts collide.
The word »Istocnici« (»genuine people from the East«) refers initially to the originality
of Eastern »culture«, and was used by some authors (e.g. D. Ugresic) to define the origin
of their production beyond national affirmations. On the other hand, in Serbia the concept was used as a means to propagate national ideology by deliberately distancing
oneself from Western cultural agendas. In 1994 nationalist hardliner Dragos Kalajic
organized the exhibition Istocnici in the Belgrade Museum of Modern Art as an attempt
to display the rural, heroic premodern aspects that – in his eyes – made up Serbian culture.
A non-explicite Istocnici discourse, however, can be traced back to the 70's and 80's
in the field of literature (e.g. war novels).
b) »Yugonostalgia« as a virtual remains of a pop-cultural or – if you will – »ethic« identity beyond national borders.
I shall discuss four forms of current »Yugonostalgia«:
1. revisionism – vague longing for socio-political unification
2. escapism – distraction from current hardship, longing for »better times«
3. active nihilism – artistic non-position, »Yu-Mythology« (e.g. www.juga.com)
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fig.: One can apply for membership in »Cyberyugoslavia« at
www.juga.com
c) Homo Balkanicus – The »Barbarian Network«: In 1992 former PRAXIS philosopher Miladin Zivotic coined the term ›homo balkanicus‹ in an attempt to describe a certain
mentality among many former Yugoslav cultural activists and intellectuals that had fallen for the nationalist idea.
›Homo balkanicus‹ is nothing but a synonym for the modern barbarian: a semantic
figure that expresses the revolting, uncompromising, and radical side in our Eastern and
Western societies. This chapter will investigate the role of cultural protagonists in the
scope of identity debates.
fig.: Artists to weapons! Poster by Vlado Martek at the exhibition
For the Defense and Renewal of Croatia, Zagreb 19
The question is whether the outlined phenomena will condense to distinct cultural concepts
or figures or whether they will vanish in the near future.
I cannot give definite answers, of course. What I hope is to contribute some aspects to
the complex discussion on »Cultural identity in the Balkans« from an art-theoretical and
phenomenological point of view.
[1] The German philosopher Martin Heidegger translates gr. »ethos« allegorically as »place«. The eidetic (wesensmäßig)
place of a communiy defines its identity and defines the individual.
Galia Lazarova Dimitrova (St. Kliment Ohridski Univ., Sofia)
E-mail: galialazar@yahoo.com
La redéfinition de l'identité nationale bulgare: Le rôle des images médiatiques
La Bulgarie postcommuniste a pris le chemin pour son adhésion à l'Union européenne et à
l'OTAN. Dans les années 1990, le pays s'est imposé comme un «île» de la paix et de la stabilité dans les Balkans. La politique ethnonationaliste de l'ex-régime, dont l'expression fulgurante a été le »processus renaissant« (1984-1989), c'est-à-dire l'assimilation forcée des Turcs et,
en général, des Musulmans bulgares, a été rejetée. Aujourd'hui la politique officielle est d'intégration des minorités à la société bulgare. Suite aux élections législatives de 2001 le Mouvement pour des droits et libertés (MDL), dont la base électorale est formée surtout des Turcs
bulgares, fait partie du gouvernement. La plupart des partis politiques tiennent des discours
en faveur de l'intégration des minorités, pour l'expression libre des différences culturelles
dont la cohabitation serait un atout pour l'intégration européenne de la Bulgarie. Marginalisé sur le champ politique, l'ethnonationalisme réapparaît pourtant dans le discours journalistique.
Nous discernons dans la presse nationale contemporaine deux types de discours sur l'identité nationale. L'un est ethnonationaliste, l'autre – intégrationniste. L'un construit la bulgarité comme une identité ethnique, l'autre – comme une identité nationale. L'un cherche à
définir les »vrais« Bulgares, la majorité, de laquelle délimite les minorités. L'autre parle des
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citoyens bulgares malgré leurs différences culturelles. Les images des Turcs et des Roms bulgares, les deux plus grandes minorités dans le pays, incarnent l'altérité culturelle présupposée dans l'espace nationale.
Le discours ethnonationaliste narre la conquête inachevée de la Bulgarie par les Turcs
ottomans. Dans les années 1990, le danger était un éventuel séparatisme de la population
turque, aujourd'hui c'est le MDL qui véhiculerait »les intérêts néocoloniaux d'Ankara« en Bulgarie. Ce discours est codé par la mémoire collective de martyr des cinq cent ans de joug ottoman du pays. Il rejet l'image des Turcs bulgares – victimes de l'ex-régime, leur image concurrente dans la presse, et dénonce la monopolisation du »modèle ethnique bulgare« de la
part du MDL au détriment de la majorité et des autres minorités. L'élite politique turque est
représentée soit comme le garant soit comme le danger pour la paix en Bulgarie.
Les mêmes stratégies de victimisation et de culpabilisation régissent la représentation
ambiguë des Roms bulgares. Leur image des »dangereux« apparaît à coté de celle des
»Turcs-conquérants« à la fin des années 1990. Au début le »Rom criminel«, après la »Foule
désocialisée« est ce qui fait peur à la majorité. Ils sont souvent représentés comme le visage
non authentique de la Bulgarie qui va »nous« déshonorer et empêcher »notre« intégration
européenne. L'image des Roms en tant que les perdants de la transition est rejetée. A l'image
»des discriminés« s'oppose une contre-image: celle des »privilégiés«, gagnants de leur pauvreté. Ce serait la minorité qui profiterait des aides sociales, du »droit d'extorsion contre
l'Etat«, des moyens financiers de l'étranger, etc. L'effet de ce type de discours est la superposition de deux frontières entre la minorité et la majorité – sociale et ethnique. C'est le faux,
le mauvais pauvre, le Rom, qui est opposé à la »population bulgare« laborieuse. Les autres
effets sont l'ethnicisation des problèmes socio-économiques et le renversement des rapports
majorité/minorité: majorité discriminée – minorité privilégiée serait la vraie relation.
Dans les deux cas, des Turcs et des Roms bulgares, il est intéressant de voir la construction de leur identité/altérité par rapport à la majorité, les mécanismes dont cette construction procède, les hybridations du discours journalistique, ainsi que les glissements du discours ethnonationaliste vers des discours eurosceptique, anti-européen, anti-globaliste.
Nadia Capuzzo ( Univ. of Geneva )
E-mail: nadia.capuzzo@socio.unige.ch
Multiculturality vs. Cultural Homogenization: The Status of Landmarks in the Reconstruction
of Sarajevo
The theme of my paper will deal with the changes sustained by local imaginary-urban identity caused by the siege of Sarajevo (Bosnia & Herzegovina) and the problematic of urban reconstruction of the city. The articulation between space, memory and identity is therefore
central as the process of identification and of identity-building are based on multiple elements going from the familiar environment to expressive forms such as the language and
the religion including space and memory.
Cities in Bosnia & Herzegovina, particularly Sarajevo, are/were the symbol of a common
history, of the blending of cultures and religions (›convergence‹). These elements influenced
the architectural and urban development through history in this region. When the siege of
Sarajevo began (April 1992) the city became a target as a figure of the cultural identity, starting with the historical and religious monument (›divergence‹).
The kind of destruction undergone by Sarajevo during the siege orients the reflection on
its reconstruction. In fact, reconstruction does not have to be understood solely as the act of
construction of what has been demolished. The stake of reconstruction in this case is the restoration of the pre-war appearance of Sarajevo in order that residents regain possession of
the image of their city. The need to restore the pre-war image of a war torn city is existential
and does not imply the negation of what has happened. In this sense, destruction can be
seen as tokens of the recent history since destroyed buildings, as well, belong to the urban
topography of the city.
The transformation of the urban social fabric of Sarajevo has a consequence on the status of landmarks. By this term, we refer to buildings and monuments with a symbolic meaning for the inhabitant. These prove to be the support of the local identity, that is to say, the
one of citizens living in cities. The symbolic meaning carried out by these structures participates of the collective memory of a community. Thus, since the beginning of the siege, we
notice that some buildings, identified by assailants as landmarks of the culture to annihilate,
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have been deliberately taken for target. It is the case, for example of the National and University Library, known under the name of »Vijecnica«, former municipality of Sarajevo under
the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The destruction of landmarks put in evidence in a symptomatic manner the problematic
of identity linked to reconstruction. Will the urban cultural identity of the inhabitants of Sarajevo undergo changes due to the partial destruction of landmarks or the transformation of
the social urban fabric? Will the new nationalist iconography favouring national styles, symbols and expressions be materialised or a new iconography will be revealed? These interrogations reveal the current complex situation of the Bosnian identity, and particularly of the
Sarajevan identity, divided between multiculturality and cultural homogenization.
Andreas Hemming (Karl Franzens Univ., Graz)
E-mail: hemming@eth.mpg.de
Albania and the EU: How State Ambitions Have Become Part of National Identity
The Balkans are converging again, on the European Union. If the disparate countries of the
Balkans have anything in common then it is their ambition to join the EU, rather sooner than
later. And the public discourse on the EU has emerged to become an essential part of the local discourse. This paper will discuss how for the case of Albania the EU has become part of
that local discourse, what it represents for the people and how they perceive themselves in
the European mirror.
Albania finds itself in a unique position in this respect. On the one hand the people have
emerged and are emerging still from an extremely isolated political situation where the understanding of the self was always constructed against a hostile other on all sides. The postsocialist transition has required a complete rethinking of the other and the self. On the other
hand, Albania is in a geographically unique situation compared to most other postsocialist
nations, only 60 km away from the Italian »heart« of the EU across the Adriatic and sharing
a very permeable common border with Greece .
Many Albanians (a third of adult males, for example) have »EU experience«, having worked, both legally and illegally, in the above mentioned Greece or Italy or elsewhere in the EU.
Those experiences have become an essential part of their identity, in how they are perceived
at home and how the local population perceives itself. »EU experience« has become an essential part of what it means to be Albanian.
This paper will discuss which (real and imagined) elements of the »EU« have become a
part of Albanian identity and self-perception, what these images represent for the Albanian
population and what developments they may be heralding for the future.
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