History

History
1
History
[1]
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.
—George Santayana
History (from Greek ἱστορία - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge
acquired by investigation"[2] ) is the study of the human past. History
can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars
who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research
which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events,
and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of
cause and effect that determine events.[3] [4] Historians debate the
nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study
of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing
"perspective" on the problems of the present.[3] [5] [6] [7] The stories
common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources
(such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as
cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by
the discipline of history.[8] [9] Events of the past prior to written record
are considered prehistory.
The title page to The Historians' History of the
World
Historia (Allegory of History)
By Nikolaos Gysis (1892)
History
Etymology
The word history comes from the root *weid- "know" or "see".[2]
Ancient Greek ἱστορία[[Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek
language text [10]]] means "inquiry" or "knowledge from inquiry",
from ἵστωρ[[Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek language text
[11]
]] (hístōr) "judge" (from the Proto-Indo-European agent noun
*wid-tor: "one who knows").[12] It was in that sense that Aristotle used
History by Frederick Dielman (1896)
the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι[13] (Perì Tà Zôa Ηistoríai
"Inquiries about Animals"). The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early
on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either
"judge" or "witness", or similar).
It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about
"Natural History". For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of
knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy).
The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In Middle English,
the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" arises in the late 15th
century. In German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, the same word is still used to mean both
"history" and "story". The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[14]
Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive
"history" is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter
sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, "History", or the word historiography.[13]
Description
Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to
interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce,
"All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the
production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.[14] The modern discipline of history is
dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.
All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record.[15] The task of
historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate
accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general
archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true
past').
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and other times as part of the social
sciences.[16] It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both.
Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification.[17] In modern . In the 20th century,
French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as
economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and
have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. For the
beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of
historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically
preserved, and historians often consult all three.[18] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes
before.
2
History
3
Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed,
contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its
discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are
independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed,
Historical Archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of
contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis,
Maryland, USA has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record,
demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical
environment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written documents at this time.
There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and
thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The
International Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concern
themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward
specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends.
History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple
intellectual curiosity.[19]
History and prehistory
Human history
and prehistory
↑ before Homo (Pliocene)
Three-age system prehistory
•
Stone Ages
•
•
•
•
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Bronze Age
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Lower Paleolithic: Homo, Homo erectus,
Middle Paleolithic: early Homo sapiens
Upper Paleolithic: behavioral modernity
Neolithic: civilization
Near East • India • Europe • China • Korea
Iron Age
•
Bronze Age collapse • Ancient Near East • India • Europe • China • Japan • Korea • Nigeria
Recorded History
•
Earliest records
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Antiquity
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Middle Ages
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Early modern
•
Modern
•
Contemporary
see also: Modernity, Futurology
↓Future
The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as that
experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of
knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood.
Human history is marked both by a gradual accretion of discoveries and inventions, as well as by quantum leaps —
paradigm shifts, revolutions — that comprise epochs in the material and spiritual evolution of humankind. By
History
4
studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of
a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit
exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the
West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[20] In 1961, British historian E. H.
Carr wrote:
The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in
the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the
handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the
future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[21]
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals
and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even
before their contact with European civilization.
Historiography
Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of
the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative
towards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical
writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during
the 1960s"). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of
descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the
narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professional
historians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of
competing narratives.
Philosophy of history
History's philosophical questions
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What is the proper unit for the study of the human past — the individual? The polis? The civilization? The culture? Or the nation state?
Are there broad patterns and progress? Are there cycles? Is human history random and devoid of any meaning?
Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history.
Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design,
purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not be
confused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods
and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with the
history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time.
History
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Historical methods
A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria
Historical method basics
The following questions are used by historians in modern work.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
Where was it produced (localization)?
By whom was it produced (authorship)?
From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?
The first four are known as higher criticism; the fifth, lower criticism; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is
called internal criticism.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other
evidence to research and then to write history.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC)[22] has generally been acclaimed as the "father of history".
However, his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) is credited with having first approached history
with a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike
Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause
and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention.[22] In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized
chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek
historians also viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[23]
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. The
groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian known
as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his timeless
written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians of
subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for
biographical literature.
Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through
the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around
1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular
approach in historical study.[19]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of
seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as
History
strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of
another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to
which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational
principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical
acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and he often
referred to it as his "new science".[24] His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role
of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[25] and he is thus considered to be the "father of
historiography"[26] [27] or the "father of the philosophy of history".[28]
In the West historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in
France and Germany. The 19th century historian with greatest influence on methods was Leopold von Ranke in
Germany.
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify
the nation or individuals, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of
historical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as an
art, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse
collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie,
Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre and
Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary
approach. Braudel combined history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with
economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone,
Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography,
anthropology, and economics. More recently, the field of digital history has begun to address ways of using
computer technology to pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.
In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs,
Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was the
power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art. French historians
associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical
individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual
historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in
history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and
socio-economic groups. Another genre of social history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte
(History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine
what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.
Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene D.
Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hill
have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the
Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier,
Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians
such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner,
Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the
past. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that
all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J.
Evans, a professor of modern history at Cambridge University, defended the worth of history. Another defence of
history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of
History.
6
History
7
Areas of study
Particular studies and fields
These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of science, history of
mathematics and history of philosophy.
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Ancient history : the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.
Atlantic history: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean.
Art History: the study of changes in and social context of art.
Big History: study of history on a large scale across long time frames and epochs through a multi-disciplinary
approach.
Chronology: science of localizing historical events in time.
Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.
Contemporary history: the study of historical events that are immediately relevant to the present time.
Counterfactual history: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal
circumstances.
Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.
Digital History: the use of computing technologies to produce digital scholarship.
• Economic History: the study of economies in the past.
• Futurology: study of the future: researches the medium to long-term future of societies and of the physical world.
• Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development
over time.
• Maritime history: the study of maritime transport and all the connected subjects.
• Modern history : the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.
• Military History: the study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of
military history, Naval History.
• Natural history: the study of the development of the cosmos, the Earth, biology and interactions thereof.
• Paleography: study of ancient texts.
• People's history: historical work from the perspective of common people.
• Political history: the study of politics in the past.
• Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.
• Pseudohistory: study about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an
equivalent of pseudoscience).
• Social History: the study of the process of social change throughout history.
• Universal history: basic to the Western tradition of historiography.
• Women's history: the history of female human beings. Gender history is related and covers the perspective of
gender.
• World History: the study of history from a global perspective.
Periods
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give
these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by
historians.[29] The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the start and end
of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the
dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past.
The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.[30]
History
8
Geographical locations
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities.
Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather
patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example,
to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is
essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on
its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone
did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.
World
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. It has led to highly controversial
interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. World history is especially important as a
teaching field. It has increasingly entered the university curriculum in the U.S., in many cases replacing courses in
Western Civilization, that had a focus on Europe and the U.S. World history adds extensive new material on Asia,
Africa and Latin America.
Regions
• History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its
modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.
• History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the
Caribbean.
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• History of North America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent
in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere.
• History of Central America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent
in the Earth's western hemisphere.
• History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.
• History of South America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent
in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere.
History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed
to exist in the far south of the globe.
History of Australia start with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on
Australia's north coast.
History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who
developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land.
History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South
Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia
and Eastern Europe.
• History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present
day.
• History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia,
South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.
• History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.
• History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East
that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
History
9
• History of South Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the
Sub-Himalayan region.
• History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign
powers.
Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new military
history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics,
and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.[31]
History of religion
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to
be taught in seminaries and academe. leading journals include Church History, Catholic Historical Review, and
History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and
liturgy.[32] Every major country is covered [33] , and most smaller ones as well.
Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their
strategies and institutions for coping with life.[34] In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and
1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the
proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%,
while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[35] In the history departments of British
universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while
political history came next with 1425 (25%).[36] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of
topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the
sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and
the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and
political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history
unintelligible."[37] While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also
been defended as "history with the people put back in."[38]
Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:
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Demographic history
Black history
History of education
Ethnic history
Family history
Labor history
Rural history
Urban history
History
Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the
approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of
historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a
group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic.
Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history, sometimes referred to as "Rankian History"[39] in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses on
politics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in
history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across
state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of
what history should be.
Economic history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies
have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.[40]
Environmental history
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially
in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.[41]
World history
World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States[42] ,
Japan[43] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world
as globalization proceeds.
The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990[44] . The H-World
discussion list[45] serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions
among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
People's history
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of
common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the
outsiders. Individuals not included in the past in other type of writing about history are part of this theory's primary
focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten
people. This theory also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave
of smaller events cause certain developments to occur.
Gender history
Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It
is in many ways, an outgrowth of women's history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History (and its
forerunner Women's History) has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s,
when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different
phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been
quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of
women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle.
10
History
Public history
Public history is a term that describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the
discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has
quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other
related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become
increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums,
historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of
government.
Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard
historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Works which draw controversial
conclusions from new, speculative or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political,
military and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.
Teaching history
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment
has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level
to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.
At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the
humanities. Many view the field from both perspective.
Political correctness
In many countries history textbooks have been censored to put the national story in a more favorable light. For
example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War II
is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.[46] It was standard policy in communist countries to
present only a rigid Marxist historiography.[47] [48]
In the United States the history of the American Civil War was airbrushed to avoid giving offense to white
Southerners and blacks.[49]
Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.[50] [51]
Bibliography
• Benjamin, Jules R. A Student's Guide to History (2009)
• Carr, E.H. with a new introduction by Richard J. Evans; What is History?; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
2001, ISBN 0333977017.
• Evans, Richard J.; In Defence of History; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0393319598.
• Furay, Conal, and Michael J. Salevouris. The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide (2010)
• Kelleher, William. Writing History: A Guide for Students (2008) excerpt and text search [52]
• Presnell, Jenny L. The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students (2006) excerpt
and text search [53]
• Tosh, John; The Pursuit of History (2006), ISBN 1405823518.
• Woolf D. R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vol
1998) excerpt and text search [54]
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History
References
[1] George Santayana, "The Life of Reason", Volume One, p. 82, BiblioLife, ISBN 978-0559478062
[2] Joseph, Brian (Ed.); Janda, Richard (Ed.) (2008). The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing (published 30 December
2004). p. 163. ISBN 978-1405127479
[3] Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). "The Two Faces of E.H. Carr" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Focus/ Whatishistory/ evans10. html).
History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. . Retrieved 10 November 2008.
[4] Professor Alun Munslow (2001). "What History Is" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Focus/ Whatishistory/ munslow6. html). History in
Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. . Retrieved 10 November 2008.
[5] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.p 52
[6] Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.), ed (2000). "Introduction". Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and
International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.
[7] Nash l, Gary B. (2000). "The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in Schools". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas,
Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York
University Press. pp. 102–115. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.
[8] Seixas, Peter (2000). "Schweigen! die Kinder!". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning
History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.
[9] Lowenthal, David (2000). "Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing
Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 63.
ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.
[10] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=i(stori/ a
[11] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=i(/ stwr
[12] "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=history). Etymonline.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[13] Ferrater-Mora, José. Diccionario de Filosofia. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.
[14] Whitney, W. D. The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ). New York: The Century Co, 1889.
[15] WordNet Search – 3.0 (http:/ / wordnet. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn), "History".
[16] Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, The History and Philosophy of Social Science. Routledge 1991. Page 1. ISBN 0415056829
[17] Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press. Page 416.
[18] Michael C. Lemon (1995).The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0415123461
[19] Graham, Gordon (1997). "Chapter 1". The Shape of the Past. Oxford University.
[20] Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jo1UVi48KywC& pg=RA2-PA1930& dq=Jack+ Goody+
2007& sig=g0N7ZF9nz_Uy8nrQTiGdsc0N3sI#PPA12,M1) (from Google Books)
[21] Carr, Edward H. (1961). What is History?, p.108, ISBN 0140206523
[22] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings
Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 0881338346.
[23] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings
Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0881338346.
[24] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN
0691017549.
[25] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
[26] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
[27] Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 9839541536
[28] Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
[29] Marwick, Arthur (1970). The Nature of History. The Macmillian Press LTD. p. 169.
[30] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Education Limited. pp. 168–169.
[31] Pavkovic, Michael; Morillo, Stephen (2006). What is Military History?. Oxford: Polity Press (published 31 July 2006). pp. 3–4.
ISBN 9780745633909
[32] Eric Cochrane, "What Is Catholic Historiography?" Catholic Historical Review Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1975), pp. 169-190 in JSTOR (http:/ /
www. jstor. org/ stable/ 25019673)
[33] For example see Sofia Boesch Gajano and Tommaso Caliò, "Italian religious historiography in the 1990s," Journal of Modern Italian
Studies, Fall 1998, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp 293-306
[34] Peter Stearns, ed. Encyclopedia of Social History (1994)
[35] Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time
professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic
History and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34-43 at p. 4 2; online at JSTOR (http:/ /
www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2539326)
12
History
13
[36] See "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 - listed by research interest" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Resources/
Teachers/ a27. html)
[37] G. M. Trevelyan (1973). "Introduction". English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Book Club
Associates. p. i. ISBN 058248488X.
[38] Mary Fulbrook (2005). "Introduction: The people's paradox". The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker. London:
Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780300144246.
[39] Burke, P. (1998). New perspectives on historical writing. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press. Page 3.
[40] Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?," Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp 17-20, with responses
pp 20-27
[41] J. D. Hughes, What is Environmental History (2006) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ What-Environmental-History/ dp/
0745631886/ )
[42] Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck, eds., Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)
[43] Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan,"Chinese Studies in History, Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp
84-96
[44] see JWH Website (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ jwhindex. html)
[45] see H-World (http:/ / www. h-net. org/ ~world/ )
[46] Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective," Annals of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science, May 2008, Vol. 617, pp 107-122
[47] "Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History," Russian Studies in History, Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp 61-62
[48] "Blackwell-Synergy.com" (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1111/ j. 1468-2346. 2008. 00708. x?cookieSet=1).
Blackwell-Synergy.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[49] James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
"Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India," History Workshop Journal, April 2009, Issue 67, pp 99-110
Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the USSR," History Teacher, Feb 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp 179-188
http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195337557/
http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195176510/
http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/ dp/ 0815315147/
External links
Further reading
• Williams, H. S. (1907). The historians' history of the world (http://books.google.com/
books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ). (ed., This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes; PDF version is available (http://books.google.
com/books/pdf/The_Historians__History_of_the_World.pdf?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ&output=pdf&
sig=fg_jzCIwiXQiuqVE7Q_ciy4ulok))
• Tilly, Chrles; Why and How History Matters (http://books.google.com/books?id=jCeDng_in8gC&
pg=PA417&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0&sig=ACfU3U1VpmEPRGImHqDqxsV8ZsU2sVUQTw), in Robert
Goodin & Charles Tilly, eds., Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis (http://books.google.com/
books?id=jCeDng_in8gC) (2006) Oxford: Oxford University Press, online (http://professor-murmann.info/tilly/
2006_History_Matters.pdf)
General Information
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Best history sites .net (http://www.besthistorysites.net/)
BBC History Site (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history)
Mapping History Project (http://mappinghistory.uoregon.edu/) – University of Oregon
The History Channel Online (http://www.history.com)
Web Portal on Historiography and Historical Culture (http://www.culturahistorica.es/Templates/Welcome.
html)
• Internet History Sourcebooks Project (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See also Internet History
Sourcebooks Project. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
History Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416281759 Contributors: (jarbarf), *drew, -The Bold Guy-, 0x6D667061, 119, 12 Noon, 199.174.163.xxx, 1freethinker,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Gyzis 006 (Ηistoria).jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyzis_006_(Ηistoria).jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Badseed, Dada, Diligent, Jic, Mattes
File:The Historians' History of the World - Title Page.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: w:Tiffany & Co.Tiffany & Co.
File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Artist is Frederick
Dielman (1847–1935). Photographed 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946–), who explicitly placed the photograph in the public domain.
File:ancientlibraryalex.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Domitori
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
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