Woman`s Art Inc.

Woman's Art Inc.
Botticelli's "Primavera": A Lesson for the Bride
Author(s): Lilian Zirpolo
Source: Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Autumn, 1991 - Winter, 1992), pp. 24-28
Published by: Woman's Art Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1358279
Accessed: 10-01-2016 18:31 UTC
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L
AND
SUES
~INSIGHTS]:
he Primavera
(c. 1482;
goddessof love appearsas in an
amidtheveryflowersof
Sandro
Botti1)
epiphany
Fig.
by
the Tuscanspring...togreetand
celli depictsa mythologiblessthepatronandhisbride.9
cal scene thatmustbe read from
to
with
the
right left,beginning
Indeed, the Primavera can be
figurerepresentingZephyrus,
viewed as an epithalamium,a
theWestWind. Zephyruschases
visualpoemin honorofthebride
the nymphChloris,who,startled
and groom,as Barolsky
describes
his
a
pursuit,produces string
by
it. Yet,ratherthandealingwith
of flowers from her mouth.
the implicationsof the premise
Chloris,in turn,is transformed
thatthe Primaveracelebratesa
into Flora, the third figure,
whose garment is luxuriously
marriage,Barolskypursues the
By LilianZirpolo
connectionbetween Botticelli's
decorated with floral motifs.
Flora gathersher dress,cradling
painting and Dante's Earthly
Paradise.'o
some flowersamidstthe folds.
She scatterstheseflowers,
in the directionof Venus,
Althoughthepaintingembodiesthe Neoplatonicphilosophy
primarily
and drawsfroma gamutofliterary
the goddessof love,who occupiesthe centralpositionin the
sources,itsoriginalfunction
was
serve
a
to
as
model
of
behavior
forthebride. Therefore,
its
To
Venus's
are
the
Three
her
Graces,
painting.
right
frequent
companions.Cupid,the productof the unionbetweenVenus analysisshouldbe treatedinthecontextofRenaissancemarriage
and Mercury(standingat thefarleft),hoversabove his mother rituals,and the statusof the bridemustbe takenintoaccount.
To accomplishthis,it is necessaryto examinethePrimaveraas
whilepointinghis flamingarrowat one of the Graces. This
was originally
a comscene takesplace in a fertilegardenfilledwithan innumerable partof a greaterwhole,sincethepainting
of
a
decorative
of
blossoms
and
shaded
trees
in
the
backponent
program.
by orange
variety
In 1975,WebsterSmithpublishedtheresultsofhisarchival
ground.
Most art historianswho have contributedto the under- studies relatingto Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco'spossessions."
standingof the Primavera'shighlycomplexiconographic
pro- ExaminingMedici inventoriesdated 1499, 1503, and 1516,
locatedin
have
it
within
the
context
of
gram
interpreted
Neoplatonism, Smithconcludedthatthe Primaverawas originally
oftheMedicicircle. Botticelli, the Medici house on the Via Larga in Florence, in a room
whichdominatedthephilosophy
a Medici proteg6,enjoyedthe companyof the mostbrilliant adjoiningthe nuptialchambersharedby the youngLorenzo
the manner
Florentinehumanists,
scholars,and poetswithwhomLorenzo and his bride. Smithwas also able to reconstruct
in
which
room
was
The
this
furnished.
the Magnificent
surrounded
Primavera,
himself,
Marsilio
Ficino,
adjoining
including
he found,was affixeddirectly
on thewall above a lettuccio,or
the greatest exponent of Neoplatonism.' In fact, E. H.
bedstead. The lettuccio,
Gombrichhas suggestedthatFicino himselfmayhave been
apparently
highlyornate,as suggested
its
value
in
elevated
the
1499
was mountedon a
for
the
of
the
Primavera.2
by
inventory,
responsible
program
UmbertoBaldiniperceivedtheworkas a symbolic
reference predella. Its backrestservedas a cappellinaiowherehatswere
as a cassone,or marriagechest.
to thePlatoniccycle: "thepassagefromtheactiveto theelevat- hung,and itsbase functioned
ed, morecontemplative
life,fromthe temporalto the eternal Botticelli'sso-calledPallas and the Centaur(c. 1482; Fig. 2)
theembodiment and an anonymousMadonna and Child also decoratedthis
plane."3MirellaLeviD'Anconaalsorecognized
area. Accordingto the inventory,
Pallas and the Centaurwas
in
and
ofNeoplatonic
the
Primavera
described
itas:
thought
locatedabove the entranceway
of the room,oppositethe wall
themanifest
occupiedbythePrimavera.The Madonnaand Child adorned
ofsensualbeautyofbodiesand natureregulatedby
a thirdwall,whilethefourth
side ofthechamberwas takenup
and
as
an
inducement
to
therhythm
dance
music...conceived
of
an
armoire.
A
a
table
withstools,and some chairs
the
which
the
consist
intelbed,
by
of
enjoy fargreaterpleasuresof soul,
lectualstudyand metaphysical
rapture....As thevariousimages completedthedecor.12
Smith'sreconstruction
suggeststhatthe decorativeprogram
unfoldin thepicture,thesoul of thebeholderis graduallyled
of
the
this
room
this
world
to
the
the
the
adjoining maritalchamberservedas a meansof
far greaterbeautyof
from beautyof
Lorenzodi Pierfrancesco's
brideand supplying
her
which
all
admonishing
heavenly
spirit
pervades things.4
withlessonson chastity,
andprocreation.
submission,
NoblewomenoftheRenaissancewereboundto chastity,
and
Scholarshave also relatedthe Primaverato the literature
thatwas eitherread or writtenby membersof the Medici cir- the paintingsin the adjoiningroomprovidedSemiramidewith
cle. For example,Paul Barolskydiscussesthe relationship
of
symbolicencouragementto chaste behavior.'"In 1975 John
Botticelli'sPallas and the Centauras a
Botticelli'spanel withDante's Divine Comedy,5
AbyWarburg Shearmaninterpreted
in his 1978 monoas did RonaldLightbown
associatesitwithOvid'sFasti,6and CharlesDempseyproposes symbolofchastity,
of
the
As
Shearman
on
an analogybetweenthePrimaveraand Poliziano'sRusticus.I
artist.'"
out,
points intheinventory
graph
as
Camilla
and
a
1499
referred
to
Pallas
and
the
Centaur
is
most
art
historians
now
believe
Primavera
the
was
Although
thatis plausiblesincePallas'sspearand
commissionedon the occasionof the weddingof Lorenzo di
Satyr,an identification
de' Medici to Semiramided'Appiani,"
fewrelate the aegisbearingthe head of a Medusa are notpresentin the
Pierfrancesco
its iconographyto nuptial ritualsand customspracticedin
painting.'"He also explainsthatCamillawas one oftheheroines
of Virgil'sAeneid,whereshe is describedas a Volscianwarriorforexample,has
Florenceduringthe Quattrocento.Barolsky,
maidenwho carriesa battle-axe
notunlikethe weaponheldby
is
thatthePrimavera
written
the femalefigurein Botticelli'spicture. In the Aeneid,she is
inwhichthe referredto as "Decus Italiae Virgo"or "GloriousMaiden of
orpoemcelebrating
a sortofepithalamium
marriage,
BOTTICELLI'S
PRIMAVERA
A LessonfortheBride
0
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Italy."As a servantof Diana, goddess
of the hunt, she cherishes her
weaponsandhervirginity.'"
Shearmanalso foundmentionof
Camillain Boccaccio'sDe mulieribus
claris,where,as in the Aeneidshe is
as a model of virtuousand
portrayed
chastebehavior.Boccaccio,at theend
of his chapter,advisesyoungwomen
to follow in the footsteps of the
remarkable Camilla by exercising
moderationin speech,gestures,food
and beverageconsumption,
and,most
their
lascivif.:importantly,
by curbing
?-lkL
ous urges.' The desirablewomanly
qualitiesstressedby Boccaccioin the
14th centurywere still considered
lb.`~rEF~r~L~41
befitting of the women of the
Quattrocento.In FrancescoBarbaro's
influential treatise, "On Wifely
Duties," writtenin 1415 in honorof
the marriageof Lorenzo de' Medici,
the son of Giovanni de' Bicci, to
GinevraCavalcanti,the writerasserted: "Moderationin a wifeis believed
Fig. 1. Sandro Botticelli,The Primavero (c. 1482), tempera on wood,
203 x 314 cm. Uffizi.
to consistespeciallyin controlling
her
demeanor, behavior,speech, dress,
the eyes, a hastygait, and excessive movementof the hands and
eatingand lovemaking."'"
The iconographyof Botticelli'sCamilla and the Centaur otherparts of the body cannot be done withoutloss of dignity.2
One mustask, however,whetherSemiramidewould have
gains deeper meaningin the lightof this literarydiscourse.
The restraining
actionbythefemalefigureupon thecentaur,a
recognizedthefemalefigurein Camillaand theCentaurandthe
lustfulcreaturewhose behavior is governedby his animal Three Graces in the Primavera,and whethershe would have
whatthesefigures
understood
weremeantto represent.During
as both a symbolof the controlof
nature,can be interpreted
the Renaissance,the humanistdesireto reviveclassicalideals
carnaldesiresrepresentedby the centaurand the restraint
of
conductreferred
to by Boccaccio. Thus,thelesprovidedan arenawhereeducationnotonlyformenbutalso for
inappropriate
son offeredto thebridebyBotticelli'sCamillaand theCentaur womenbecame the norm.' However,menwereeducateddifis thatshe too is expectedto be chaste and virtuous,a true ferently. Humanists argued that studyof the writingsof
"Decus ItaliaeVirgo."
Demosthenes,Aristotle,
Pliny,and othersprovidednobleboys
withthenecessarypreparation
fortheirfutureroleas complete
The themeof chastityfoundin Camillaand the Centauris
and
citizens
social
servants.2
in
the
where
the
Three
Graces
allude
to
Girls,on the otherhand,
Primavera,
capable
repeated
chastebehavior. The attendantsof Venus,theyare described were moldedintothe role of perfectwifeand mother. They
andplaying
weretaughtsocialgraces,including
dancing,singing,
by Seneca as virginsbecause theyare "pureand undefiledand
a musicalinstrument.),
holyin the eyes of all."'1 The pearlsadorningthe hairof the
LeonardoBruni,the humanistwho servedas Chancellorof
as wellas thepearlon hernecklace,suggest
Grace on theright,
Yet
Florencefrom1427 to 1444,advocatedfemaleinstruction.
her purityand thatof her two companions. Cupid pointshis
arrowat one of the Graces,implying
thatshe is aboutto aban- forhim,limitshad to be seton whatwomenshouldlearnsince,
don virginity
formarriage,"just as Lorenzodi Pierfrancesco's in hisview,certainstudieswereimproperfora lady. Although
bride relinquishedher virginity
afterviewingthe Primavera settingno boundarieson subjectssuitableformales,he advocated history,
her
husband's
bedroom
forthefirsttime.2'
poetry,religion,and moralsas the onlyappropriuponentering
Botticelli'sGraces, like Camilla,representnot onlypurity ate studiesforfemales. Bruni'sviewsare clearlyexpressedin
and chastitybut also the demeanorthatbefittedthe virtuous his letterto BaptistaMalatesta,in whichhe praisesher intellito expandher
Renaissancewoman. Theirmeasuredand elegantgesturesand
genceand encouragesherto continueherefforts
theirunemotionalfacadesevoke not onlyBoccaccio'sconcept knowledge:
of the commendablemaidenbut also Barbaro'snotionof the
I am led to address this Tractate to you, Illustrious Lady, by the
ideal wife. In the Primaverathe Three Graces performa
dance withmovements
thatare as calculatedand restrained
as
high repute which attaches to your name in thefield of learnthe movementsBarbarorecommendedfora virtuouswifein
ing; and I offerit partly as an encouragementto furthereffort.
Were it necessary I mighturge you by brilliant instancesfrom
"On WifelyDuties":
antiquity:Cornelia,thedaughterof ScipiowhoseEpistlessurI therefore
would like wivesto evidencemodestyat all times vivedfor centuriesas modelsofstyle;Sapphothepoetess,held
rNEI
and in all places. They can do this if theywill preservean evenness and restraintin the movementsof the eyes, in their walking, and in the movementof their bodies; for the wandering of
WOMAN'S
in so great honourfor the exuberance of her poetic art.... Upon
these, the most distinguishedof a long range of great names, I
would have you fix your mind;for an intelligencesuch as your
ART JOURNAL FALL 1991/WINTER 1992
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Thereis,howevrestoredherhonor.:33
a morelogicalexplanation.Roman
er,
f~u
humanist Marco Antonio Altieri
vp ;
(1450-1532) perceivedthe originof
'N o?
.
??
marriagein the rape of the Sabine
Brunithenindicatesthetypesoflearnwomen. In histreatiseLi Nuptiali,he
fora woman:
wrote that all wedding ceremonies
ingdeemedappropriate
recall this collective rape.34In his
debate
To herneithertheintricacies
when a man takes his wifeby
view,
of
nor the oratoricalartificesof action
the hand he exhibitsthe same use of
and deliveryare of the least practical
violence on her as was used against
4t
use if indeed theyare not positively
the Sabinewomen.' Altieri'streatise
What
then
is filledwithassociations
betweenthis
unbecoming.
Disciplines
are properlyopen to her? In thefirst
from
and
story
antiquity the nuptial
ritualsofthe Renaissance.For examplace she has beforeher,as a subject
peculiarlyher own,thewholefieldof
ple, he viewedthe raisingof a sword
and
morals....
First
overtheheadsofthebrideand groom
among
religion
suchstudiesI place History:a subject
thattookplace duringnuptialcerewhich must not on any account be
moniesas an evocationof the forced
neglectedby one whoaspirestrueculmarriagesof the Sabine womenpertivation....I come now to Poetryand
formed by Romulus, who held a
thePoets-a subjectwithwhichevery
swordthroughout."
educatedlady mustshewherselfthorIn the Renaissance,cassoni,maroughlyfamiliar.27
riage chests in which bridal
trousseauswere stored,oftenwere
For poetryand theclassics,human- Fig. 2. Sandro Botticelli,Camilla and the Centaur(?)
decoratedwithrapescenes,including
(c. 1482), tempera on canvas, 207 x 148 cm. Uffizi.
ists emphasized Cicero, Virgil,and
the rapes of Proserpina, Helen,
lessonsin
the
Seneca,authorswho offered
Europa, and, most importantly,
as
the
Primavera
and
Camilla
such
in
Altieri's
Sabine
as
As
women,
3."
womanlyvirtues."2
Paintings
Figure
writingssuggest,
and the Centaur providedwomenwithreadilyrecognizable thesewere used to evokethe ancientmythof the founding
of
lessons.
visualversionsoftheseliterary
Rome and to implythat,just as the Sabinewomenwere raped
of
forthebridewas theimportance
Anotherlessonfurnished
submisin orderto ensurethesurvival
ofRomulus'ssettlement,
submission
to herhusband.DuringtheRenaissancenoblemar- sion to the male by the Quattrocento
femalewas necessaryto
ofthe species."3
riages were arranged as political, economic, and dynastic guaranteea stablesocietyand theperpetuation
to
enhancements."The marriageof Lorenzodi Pierfrancesco
the rape of Chlorisby Zephyrus
Thus,the imagerepresenting
Semiramidewas arrangedby Lorenzo the Magnificent,the
thebrideto submit
depictedin thePrimaveraservedto instruct
cousin
and
this
the
for
the
sake
of
and theconto
her
new
husband
union,
order,
groom's
guardian.30 Through
stability,
oftherace,or as in thiscase, theMedicifamily.
Magnificentwas able to secure the supportof the Appiani tinuation
locatedabove
The Primavera,
as statedearlier,was originally
againstthePope and theKingof Naples,and gainaccess to the
ironminesofElba,whichwerepartoftheAppianidomain."
a lettuccio,
whichalso servedas a cassone. AlthoughtheinvenSincemarriages
werearrangedas strategic
itwas
toriesdo not describethe decorationon the cassone,theydo
maneuvers,
ofutmostimportance
thatthebrideconform
to thewishesofthe specifythatthelengthofthispiece offurniture
to
corresponded
familiesinvolvedin the liaison,and thatshe submitto hernew
the lengthof the Primavera."3 This suggeststhatthe painting
ofherfeelings.In thePrimavera,
thisvision and thelettuccio
weremeantas an ensemble,and thatthescene
husband,regardless
ofmarriageforthesakeofthefamiliesand theemphasison the depictedin the Primaveramayhave complemented
the scenes
bride's submissionare expressedby the rape scene showing on thecassone,emphasizing
the lessonson the need fororder,
ChlorispursuedbyZephyrus,
theWestWind,whoseintention
is
stability,and survivalof the family. In Florence,images of
to ravishher. ThisscenestemsfromOvid'sFasti,whereChloris ancienthistory
Italianliterature
and contemporary
beganto be
narratesthatshe was rapedbyZephyrusand thenrewardedfor elevatedfromthe surfaceof cassoni and otherfurnishings
to
theviolenceperpetrated
againsther. To compensateChlorisfor largescale panelsduringthe decade of the 1470s,whenartists
his actions,Zephyrusmarriedher and gave her the domainof suchas Pollaiuoloand Botticelli
initiated
theuse ofthesethemes
her
name
to
Flora."2
in
flowers,
changing
painting.4'
The atmosphere
is so festivein thePrimaverathatthebrutalA finallessonconveyedto the brideby the Primaverawas
thatprocreation
was the mainpurposeof marriage.Duringthe
ityof the rape scene can hardlybe discerned.Yet,upon close
itbecomesevidentthat,unliketheotherfemalefigures MiddleAgesand theRenaissancesexualintercourse
wasofficialscrutiny
who are tall, slender,and graceful,Chloris has a beastlike lyviewedas onlyforprocreative
of
a
means
producing
purposes,
and
in theological
heirs.Thisnotionoriginated
thatadvocatappearance. Her stance resemblesthatof a frightened
writings
defenseless
creaturewhotriesin vainto
ed marriageas a cureforfornication
and describedsexualinteranimal,a panic-stricken
fleeas sheis aboutto fallpreytoherhunter.
courseas a sin unlessperformed
withbreedingin mind. Saint
a mar- Augustineassertedtheseprinciplesin the fifth
Whya rape scene in a paintingthatcommemorates
century.4'That
riage? D'Anconasuggeststhatalthoughan imagerepresenting his ideas remainedin fullforceduringthe MiddleAgesis eviin thiscase
sucha violation
is unsuitablefora marriage
denced in the writingsof men like Peter Lombardand Saint
painting,
the scene is justifiablesince ZephyrusmarriedChloris and
for
ThomasAquinas,bothof whomviewedsexualintercourse
own can be satisfied,with nothingless
than the best. You yourself,indeed
may hope to win a fame highereven
thantheirs."2
;
a...
~
?k
RML
m--?z
0
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
any reason other than
begettingchildrenas a sin
worse than fornication,
incest, and adultery.42
During the Renaissance,
Barbarowrotethat
the unionof man and wife
was first invented, and
oughtto be esteemedespecially,for the purpose of
procreation....We should
indulge in sexual intercoursenotforpleasurebut
only for the purpose of
offspring.43
procreating
t lk"
SO
?l
All.
motherhood,the primary
role of the wife in marriage. The Madonna and
Child displayed in the
same room as the
Primavera served to
emphasize this point by
representingthe perfect
example of Christian
motherhood.
Gombrich suggests a
relation
betweenBotticelli's
Primavera and a letter
written to Lorenzo di
Pierfrancescoby his tutor
Marsilio Ficino, in which
Ficino describedMercury
as Reason and Venus as
Humanitas." He advised
youngLorenzo:
k~T~~?
Similarly,Leon Battista
Alberti wrote in Della
Famiglia(1432-34)thatthe
Fig. 3. Apollonio di Giovanni, Rape of the Sabine Women (fragment),
object of marriage is to (early-mid 15th c.), 38.8 x 61.7 cm. National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh.
Your Luna-the continuhave children."4 He believed thatin choosinga wife,a man mustlook fornot only ous motionof yoursoul and body-should avoid theexcessive
this
virtueand good habitsbut also the abilityto bear strongand
speedofMars and thetardinessof Saturn....Furthermore,
children."Asforphysical
Luna withinyou shouldcontinuously
beholdthe Sun, thatis
healthy
beauty,"he wrote,
God Himself...for
you musthonorHim above all things....She
thatis on goodcounsel,
we shouldnotonlytakepleasurein comeliness,
charmand eleshouldalso directhergaze on Merqury,
reasonand knowledge,
withgance,butshouldtryto have in our housea wifewell-built
for
fornothingshouldbe undertaken
be said or donefor
outconsulting
thewise,norshouldanything
bearingchildrenand strongofbodyto insurethattheywillbe
bornstrongand robust.'"
whichno plausiblereasoncan be adduced....Finally,he should
thatis to say on Humanity....For
fixhereyeson Venusherself,
noblewiveswereobligatedto producelarge Humanityherselfis a nymphof excellentcomeliness,born in
SinceFlorentine
in orderto ensurethecontinua- heavenand morethanothersbelovedby God all highest."'
numbersofhealthydescendants
it was important
thattheybe "well-built."
tionof the family,"i
This messagewas providedforLorenzodi Pierfrancesco's
bride For Gombrich,Ficino's letterto Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco
in thePrimavera.As CharlesDempseyhas observed,thereis a
andthescenedepicttocreatethePrimavera,
inspiredBotticelli
connectionbetweenVenus,the centralfigurein thiswork,and
ed was meantas Ficino's visual lesson forhis youngpupil.
lesColumella'sDe re rustica.17In De re rustica,Venus,assistedby
However,whileFicinoprovidedthegroomwitha humanist
Cupid, presidesoverthe springmatingrituals. As Columella son, at the same timelessonsforthe brideon the subjectsof
describesit:
chastity,submission,and procreationwere suppliedthrough
Botticelli's
paintings.These lessonsmayalso havebeen directed
Now'sthetimewhenall the worldis mating...the
the
to
the
ofhiswife'sexpectedbehavior.
spiritof
groomas enforcer
In Florence,as elsewherein RenaissanceItaly,noblemen
worldin Venus'sreveljoins and, headlongurgedby Cupid's
in the publicarenaand were inculcatedwithsocial
goads,itselfits progenyembracesand withteemingoffspring functioned
even
the
whole
wide
world
is
on theotherhand,thoughgiveneducavirtues.
Noblewomen,
fills...hence
celebrating
their
memwere
tional
Venus,
satiated,
spring...till
impregnates
fruitful
opportunities, in generalconfinedto the homeand
bers...andeverfillstheworldwithnewoffspring.4'
expected to behave as chaste wives and virtuousmothers.'
Works of art such as the Primavera, while embodying
in the Primaveraclearlyengagein a celeThe protagonists
the intellectual
activities
of
Neoplatonicthoughtand reflecting
brationof springsimilarto the one describedby Columella. the Medicicircle,also servedas visualtoolsto providewomen
That Venus in the Primaverais depictedas Columella'sgod- withmodels of expectedbehaviorand, at the same time,as
dess of fertilityis indicated by her central position, the
reminders
oftheirlesserrolein society.*
on
her
abdominal
and
the
fruitful
area,
emphasis
garden
where the scene takes place. Flora can be interpretedin a
NOTES
similarmanner. In Ovid's Fasti she exclaims: "I was the first An earlierversionof thispaper was deliveredat the 1989 FrickCollectionto scatternew seeds amongthe countlesspeoples." (Fasti,V:
to Rona Goffen
InstituteofFine ArtsSymposiumin New York. I am grateful
me to a new approachto arthistory.
221-22) In the Primaverashe scattersflowerswhile Mercury forhersupportand forintroducing
raiseshis caduceus and stirsthe clouds to ensurethe fertility
1. UmbertoBaldini,Primavera: The Restorationof Botticelli's
of the garden. Flora's abdomen is accentuated,like thatof
Masterpiece,MaryFitton,trans.(New York: Abrams,1986), 12, 27-28.
2. E. H. Gombrich, "Botticelli's Mythologies: A Study in the
Venus, to emphasize her potential fecundity. Tamed and
contrastedwiththe wild and
domesticated,Flora is explicitly
Neoplatonic Symbolism of His Circle," Journal of the Warburg and
Chloris. Her smileshowsher satisfaction
animal-like
notonly Courtauld Institutes(1945), 7-60. Gombrich'stheoryis discussed laterin
withher new statusas a bride but also withthe prospectof
greaterdetail.
WOMAN'S ARTJOURNALFALL1991/WINTER1992
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3. Baldini,
thePrimavera
as follows:"Zephyr,
27. Ibid.,23-25.
90,described
Primavera,
humanloveandthelife-giving
seizesChloris,
28. Woodward,
"Vittorino
da Feltre,"
247-48.
personifying
powerofnature,
whois transformed
intoFlora.Venus,withtheaidofEros/Cupid,
bothkin29. ElizabethWardSwain,"MyExcellentand MostSingularLord:
dlesthiscarnalloveandguidesit,through
a processofintellectual
sublima- Marriage
in a NobleFamily
ofFifteenth-Century
ofMedieval
Italy,"
Journal
thegoalofcontemplation
and
Renaissance
Studies
171.
tion(theGraces),toward
(1986),
(Mercury)."
4. Mirella Levi D'Ancona, Botticelli'sPrimavera: A Botanical
30. Lorenzo
andhisbrother,
diPierfrancesco
cameunderthecusGiovanni,
and theMedici(Florence: todyof Lorenzothe Magnificent
in 1476 uponthedeathoftheirfather,
IncludingAstrology,
Interpretation
Alchemy
OlschkiEditore,1983),21.
Pierfrancesco.
of Dante,"
"Botticelli's
Primavera
and theTradition
31. Lightbown,
72. Forbackground
information
ontherivalry
5. PaulBarolsky,
"Botticelli,"
1(1983),1-6.
between
theMediciandthePopeandKingofNaples,see HaroldActon,
The
Konsthistorisk
Tidskrift,
GeburtderVenusundFruhling," PazziConspiracy:
ThePlotAgainst
theMedici(London:ThamesandHudson,
6. AbyWarburg,
"SandroBotticelli's
inGesammelte
1979).
1969),32.
(Nendeln-Lichtenstein,
Shriften
32. Ovid,Fasti,V,195-212.SeealsoLightbown,
79.
7. CharlesDempsey,"MercuriusVer: The Sourcesof Botticelli's
"Botticelli,"
33.
44.
251-73.
and
Courtauld
Institutes
the
D'
"Botticelli's
Ancona,
Primavera,"
(1968),
of Warburg
Primavera,"Journal
34. MarcoAntonio
Li Nuptiali,
EnricoNarducci,
ed. (Rome,1873),
8. Thewedding
Botticelli:
tookplaceinMay1482. RonaldLightbown,
Altieri,
inogneaptonuptiale
la memoria
delquelraptode
ofCalifornia,
1978),72,wasthefirst 73: "Sicherepresentandose
LifeandWork,I (Berkeley:University
was paintedon theoccasionof this Sabine."
to suggestthatBotticelli's
Primavera
theSabineswereinvited
35. Ibid.,93. According
to legend,
a suggestion
thathasbeenacceptedbyseveralscholars
byRomulus,
including
wedding,
to
inthenewsettlement.
wanted
ofRome,toa festival
Romulus
"Botticelli's
Primavera, thefounder
2, and D'Ancona,Botticelli's
Primavera,"
Barolsky,
thecity.Duringthecelebrawivesforhismenso theycouldpopulate
11-14.
provide
tiontheSabinewomenwereseizedandtheirmendriven
2.
9. Barolsky,
"Botticelli's
Primavera,"
away.Warensued
thetwonations,
anditwasnotuntiltheSabinewomenplacedthembetween
10. Ibid.,4.
achieved.Bothgroups
thetwoarmiesthatpeacewasfinally
selvesbetween
Art
11. WebsterSmith,"On theOriginalLocationofthePrimavera,"
andtheKingof
andassented
tothejointruleofRomulus
cametoanagreement
whohad conductedan
Bulletin(March1975),31-39. JohnShearman,
inthe
theSabines.See Livy,Ab UrbeCondita,
theresults
ofhisresearch
to Smith's,
archival
IX-XIII,especially
IX,
I, Chapters
published
studysimilar
oftheYoungerBranchoftheMedici," lines7-16andXIII,lines1-5.
sameyear. See his"TheCollection
ofLi
52. For a comprehensive
"Li Nuptiali,"
36. Altieri,
1975),12-27.
interpretation
Burlington
Magazine(January
12. Smith,"On the OriginalLocation,"32-35,and Shearman,"The
Women,Family,and Ritualin
Nuptialisee ChristianeKlapisch-Zuber,
ofChicago,
trans.(Chicago:University
Renaissance
18.
Collections,"
Italy,LydiaCochrane,
247-60.
see JoanKelly-Gadol,
on theissueofchastity,
13. Fora discussion
1985),
"Did
Cassoni(Leipzig,
37. Forotherexamples
see PaulSchrubing,
in Becoming
Visible:Womenin European
WomenHave a Renaissance?,"
1915),Table
No. 377;TableCX,No.
and ClaudiaKoonz,eds. (Boston: Houghton XI, No. 75; TableLXIV,No. 280;TableLXXXVIII,
RenateBridenthal
History,
466;andTableCXI,No.476.
Mifflin,
1977),152-61.
andPurposes
theFamily:Portraits
38. DianeOwenHughes,
83-85.
and
14. Shearman,
19, Lightbown,
"TheCollections,"
"Botticelli,"
I,
"Representing
12. For
in
36.
Modem
the
and
15. Shearman,
(Summer
1986),
"On
Location,"
Collections,"
18,
ofInterdisciplinary
History
Smith,
Italy,"
Journal
Original
'The
di
further
ofimageson cassonisee EllenCallmann,
and651.
16. Aeneid,
XI passim,
508,582-84,
Apollonio
interpretations
especially
Giovanni
De mulieribus
17. Giovanni
"TheGrowing
XXXIX.
1974),39-51;Callmann,
(Oxford:Oxford
claris,
Boccaccio,
University,
Florentine
in
Threatto MaritalBlissas Seenin Fifteenth-Century
G. Kohl,trans.,
18. Francesco
"OnWifely
Duties,"Benjamin
Barbaro,
Paintings,"
Rituals
and
Brucia
in
andSociety,
Studies
onGovernment
TheEarlyRepublic:ItalianHumanists
Witthoft,
73-92;
(1979),
"Marriage
Iconography
Benjamin
5
Artibus
et
in
of
and
Chests
Historiae,
(1982),
Florence,"
G. KohlandRonaldG. Witt,eds.(Philadelphia:
Quattrocento
Marriage
UniversityPennsylvania,
43-59.
1978),202.
18. Thereis no reasonto doubtthat
39. Shearman,
Mass:
"TheCollections,"
19. Seneca,MoralEssays,JohnW. Basore,trans.(Cambridge,
witheither
suchfurnishings
was
since
the
cassone
15.
Harvard
decorated,
1935),
embellishing
University,
the
or
scenes
was
common
historical
75-77.
20. Lightbown,
Quattrocento.
during
"Botticelli,"
literary
practice
wouldseemto
as suggested
wasnotconsidered
tainted
21. Chastity
bythefol- The highvalueassignedto thispiecein the1499inventory
bymarriage,
this.
confirm
Duties":
"OnWifely
lowing
passageinBarbaro,
di Giovanni,"
40. Callmann,
23-24,39.
"Apollonio
41. VernL. Bullough,SexualVariancein Societyand History(New
inthatsortoftemso thatshewillbe...chaste
I wishthatshewillcurbherself
toachieving
this York:Wiley,1976),372.
isderivedItwouldbeconducive
fromwhich
chastity
perance
42. Ibid.,379-80.
toserowouldaccustom
themselves
husbands
result
iffromtheverybeginning,
43. Barbaro,
"OnWifely
rather
thanpassion.AndwivesshouldbearthemDuties,"212.
ofnecessity
ingas helpers
44. GuidoA. Guarino,ed., TheAlbertisofFlorence:Leon Battista
and
intheir
married
andmodesty
selveswithdecorum
lifeso thatbothaffection
125.
Penn.:Bucknell,1971),
"DellaFamiglia"
their
willaccompany
moderation
(213)
(Lewisburg,
Alberti's
lovemaking.
45. Ibid.,122.
22. Ibid.,202.
46. Swain,"MyExcellent
andMostSingular
Lord,"194.
261-62.
47.
"Mercurius
Italian
Renaissance
Women
23. MelindaK. Blade,Education
ver,"
(Mesof
Dempsey,
48. Quotedinibid.
quite,Tex.:Ide House,1983),14-21.
andOtherHumnanist 49. Gombrich,
Vittorino
da Feltre
24.William
Harrison
16-17.
"Botticelli's
Woodward,
Mythologies,"
50. Quotedinibid.
Teachers
2d. ed. (NewYork:Columbia
Educators,
College,1963),
University
182-84.
154.
"Did WomenHavea Renaissance?,"
51. Kelly-Gadol,
31.
25. Blade,"Education,"
NelsonKersey,
Classicsin theEducation
26. Quotedin Shirley
ofGirls Lilian Zirpolo is a doctoral candidate in art historyat Rutgers
20-27.
andWomen
Scarecrow,
1981),
(Metuchen,
University.
N.J.:
O
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