Kafta Humera Woreda Livelihood Report

Tigray Livelihood Zone Reports
Kafta Humera Woreda
Western Administrative Zone
Humera Sesame and
Sorghum Livelihood Zone
This food sufficient livelihood
zone has a valuable sesame
industry that attracts on average
200 000 migrant workers every
year from the rest of Tigray,
northern Amhara, and Sudan.
The sesame crop exported to
markets in the Middle East and
Asia. As a result of high crop
production, there is significant
consumption of non-staple,
pulses, sugar and oil.
.
Western Cereal and Sesame
This zone combines highland cultivation of teff, barley, millet, wheat,
noug and beans, with lowland cultivation of sorghum and sesame.
Residents of this zone live in the woina dega and dega areas, and
migrate to the lowlands during the sorghum and sesame cultivation
season where they rent-in land. Differences in wealth are determined
by the amount of land households are able to access in the lowland.
Sesame is the main cash crop. Availability of sesame labor is
reliable and consistent every year. Poor roads condition is the biggest
problem in the zone.
Contents
Map & livelihood zone description
Population by livelihood zone
Livelihood zone profiles
Key parameters for monitoring
Tigray Livelihood Profile
Population by Livelihood Zone and Kebele (2005)
Woreda:
Zone:
Kafta Humera
Western
Woreda population
45,814
Livelihood Zone:
Humera Sesame and Sorghum
LZ Population:
Population by Kebele:
Adebay
Adi Hirdi
Adi Teker(Tsetser)
Baeker
Bereket
Habesha Adigoshu
May Kadra
Rawyan
Livelihood Zone:
Western Cereal and Sesame
40,454 LZ Population:
Population by Kebele:
9,770 Sola
7,741
5,350
497
867
5,448
4,576
6,204
Livelihood Zone:
not assigned
4,550
810
Population by Kebele:
4,550 Unknown
810
Note: The 2005 woreda population is that estimated by the Central Statistical Authority. The list of
kebeles in the woreda was taken from the 1994 census and each kebele's 2005 population calculated by
multiplying the 1994 census figure by the increase in total woreda population since 1994. Information
from the 1994 census was used in preference to other sources of information since this represents the
main offical source of population data for the woreda. Difficulties were encountered due to changes in
woreda and kebele boundaries since 1994. Many kebeles have been combined since 1994. Where
kebeles have been renamed or combined since 1994, woreda officials were asked to assign the old
1994 kebele to one or other new kebele in the woreda. It was sometimes not possible to locate a kebele
(e.g. because woreda officials did not recognize the name or did not include the kebele in their list). In
these cases an 'unknown' category has been included in the population analysis. A 'not assigned'
category has also been included for livelihood zone. Kebeles included in the 'not assigned' category
could not be assigned to any of the livelihood zones in the woreda.
2
Humera Sesame and Sorghum – Key Parameters
Item
Crops
Key Parameter - Quantity
•
•
Meher Sorghum
Sesame
•
•
Meher Sorghum
Sesame
Livestock production
•
•
•
•
•
Cows’ milk production
Cattle sales
Goat sales
Labour (ploughing /harvesting)
Firewood sales
•
•
•
•
•
Cows’ ghee/butter prices
Cattle prices
Goat prices
Labour (Ploughing/ harvesting)
Firewood prices
Other food and cash
income
Key Parameter – Price
Western Cereal and Sesame – Key Parameters
Item
Crops
Livestock production
Other food and cash
income
Key Parameter - Quantity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sesame
Meher Sorghum
Meher Wheat
Meher Barley
Meher Teff
Meher Millet
Cows Milk
Cattle sales
Goat sales
Firewood
Labour Harvesting/ Ploughing
3
Key Parameter – Price
•
•
Sesame
Meher Sorghum
•
•
•
•
•
Butter sales
Cattle sales
Goat sales
Firewood
Labour Harvesting/ Ploughing
Livelihood Profile
Tigray Region, Ethiopia
Humera Sesame and Sorghum
Livelihood Zone.
February 20071
Zone Description
The Humera Sesame and Sorghum livelihood zone is
spread across Kafta Humera, Tsegedie, and Welkait
woredas in Western Tigray. The zone borders Eritrea to
the north, Sudan to the west, Amhara region to the south,
and Tselemti, Asegede Tsimbla and Tahtay Adiabo
woredas in the east. This is predominantly a kolla
(lowland) zone, though the southern tip of Kafta Humera
and parts of western Welkait are mountainous and lay in
woina dega altitude (midland). Kolla topography is
mainly plains covered in wide open plains covered in bush
scrub and acacia trees. Temperatures rise to an average
42 degrees Celsius between April and June and fall to
between 25 and 35 degrees Celsius during the moderate
months between June and February. Crop production is
exclusively dependent on the kremti rains (average rainfall
400-650mm per year), which last from June to September.
The major rivers in the area are the Bahir selam, and Rubasa rivers, both of tributaries of the Tekeze river. The zone
consists of abundant farmland that is rich in fertile black cotton soil, clay loam and red clay soils. The population is
sparsely spread. A resettlement program is currently being implemented to bring settlers in to the region. So far, the
program has resettled over 16000 people, mainly from eastern and central Tigray.
This is a mixed farming zone with crop and livestock production. The economy is centered on the production of
sesame. Sesame is a high-value oil crop that is cultivated for export to Israel, Turkey, the Middle East, Japan and
China. Over 400 large-scale investors are each cultivating an average 600 hectares of sesame. Local farmers cultivate
up to 12ha each. Both investors and local farmers cultivate sorghum as both a cash and food crop. Investors cultivate
58% of the 186,000 ha of cultivable land, and local farmers cultivate the remaining 42%. Sesame production is labor
intensive especially during the weeding and harvesting period. It attracts an average of 200,000 workers from Tigray,
northern Amhara and Sudan each year. In Kafta Humera, sesame production is semi-mechanized and tractors are hired
for land preparation. Local farmers mainly sell their sesame to large-scale marketing enterprises through locally
established marketing cooperatives. Prior to 1996, cotton was the dominant cash crop, but recent low prices and the
poor access to markets discouraged further production, especially by the local farmers. Both the investors and the local
farmers cultivate sorghum extensively. Investors cultivate sorghum as a cash crop, while for local farmers it is grown
for consumption as the staple food crop and any surplus is sold. The Humera Sesame and Sorghum livelihood zone is a
productive and food sufficient area because of adequate access to fertile land and the income earned from sesame sales.
A food deficit has not been recorded in the zone in recent years.
Cattle and shoats (sheep and goats) are the primary livestock. Shoats are most commonly sold and are usually sold
when they are at least 8 months old. Cattle are traded when they are at least 18 months old, though less frequently
compared to shoats. The main market for livestock is Sudan. Since the livestock trade is export oriented, oxen and
mature cows are replaced from within the herd. There is ample grazing land and browse for livestock. The main
diseases affecting livestock are Bovine and Ovine pasteurellosis, lump skin disease, and trypanosomiasis. Chickens are
mainly affected by Newcastle disease. Availability of treatment for these diseases within the zone is unsatisfactory.
The availability of water for both human and animal consumption is a serious problem. In most cases, water is
purchased from hand pumps and some households are forced to drink from rivers and ponds. Drinking from open water
sources exposes the community to water-borne diseases. Malaria and diarrhea are the major health risks. The
prevalence of HIV/AIDS is unknown but the influx of migrant workers creates concern about public health in the zone.
1
Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in February 2006. The information presented refers to September 2005- August
2006 (EC 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information
in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD =
8.676ETB.
4
Markets
The main product traded is sesame, which is exported via two routes. During the peak trading season, January to May,
sesame is transported from Humera to Addis Ababa via Gondar and then exported to China and Japan through the port
of Djibouti. The second route is through Sudan, which takes the crop to markets in the Middle East and Israel. Local
farmers sell their sesame crop directly to local traders, or through local marketing cooperatives to large scale marketing
enterprises such as Ali Abdu Ali and Guna Trading. Local farmers sell sesame for between 450 and 550 Ethiopian birr
(ETB) per quintal (100kg). The international selling price for sesame was between 1996 and 1998 (EC) was on average
740 to 800 United States Dollars (USD) per ton.
The second most important crop traded is sorghum, which is traded locally all year round. Demand for sorghum on the
local market increases during the peak hunger months of June, July and August, when prices also increase Sorghum is
exported to Gondar and to the central regions of Tigray.
The main livestock traded are cattle and shoats. The livestock trade is oriented toward export markets in Sudan. Cattle
heading for Sudanese markets are supplied by the local better-off farmers, as well as by farmers from as far as Sheraro.
A limited local oxen trade takes place at the start of land preparation activities in February. Shoats follow the same
marketing route as cattle. The highest trading months are February, March, April, July and August. Shoat trade and
slaughter increased during the festival season in January (Epiphany/Timkat), April (Easter/Fasika), and September
(New Year/Meskerem).
The main gravel road that connects Humera to the major urban centers of Dansha and Gondar is in fair condition, as is
the feeder road that links Humera to Sheraro, Endaselassie, and Axum. Secondary rural roads within the zone are in
poor condition. Poor road conditions restrict trade to within the local areas.
The main seasons are Keremti
rainy season and planting time:
June- September; Meher
(harvest season from October
– December Hagay Bega)
from January to May.
Agriculture activities are
dependant on the July to
August Kremt rains. Land
preparation activities are
completed during the dry
season, thereby allowing
planting to begin with the
onset of the rains. Planting of
all crops begins in June,
followed by weeding in July
and August.
The consumption year begins
in September with green
consumption of pulses. The
sesame harvesting starts at this
time. The main pulses harvest
starts in October.
The staple sorghum is harvested in November and December. Harvesting and threshing of sesame is labor intensive
and should be carried out within a short period after maturity in order to prevent the sesame pods from shattering. This
increases both the demand and wages paid for labor. During this period, over 200,000 migrant workers migrate into the
lowlands from the whole of Tigray, northern Amhara, and Sudan. Cotton harvest on the large-scale farms attracts some
of the workers in December.
The sale of cattle and sheep begin in April. Some farmers, especially outside Kafta Humera, use oxen for plowing
despite the widespread use of tractors. The plowing season leads to an increased demand for oxen. Shoat sales increase
in January, April and September during annual festivals. The better off tend to receive better prices for their livestock
reflecting the condition/size of the animals. Better-off households are able to purchase crop residues to feed the
animals and are under less pressure to sell animals. Whereas, poor households have less access to crop residue and at
times will sell younger animals for low prices under pressure to earn income for unexpected expenses.
Staple food purchases peak at the same time as the hunger season from June to August. For poor households,
agriculture labor provides households with the income necessary to purchase household food, whilst the better off sell
shoats.
Malaria and diarrhea are the main health risks in the zone. Malaria is associated with the onset and offset of rain.
5
Humera Sesame and Sorghum Livelihood Zone
Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics
HH size
Land area
cultivated
Crops cultivated
Livestock Holding
Very Poor
4-6
1-2.5ha
Sesame, Sorghum, Pulses
0-1 donkey
Poor
5-7
2-5ha
Sesame, Sorghum, Pulses
0-1 oxen, 2-4 cattle, 3-6
shoats, 1 donkey
Middle
6-7
3.5-9ha
Sesame, Sorghum, Pulses
1-3 oxen, 4-10 cattle, 5-18
shoats, 1 donkey
Better-off
7-8
10-22ha
Sesame, Sorghum, Pulses
2-4 oxen, 10-25 cattle, 15-45
shoats, 1-2 donkeys
0%
20%
40%
% of population
60%
There are four wealth groups: the very poor, poor, middle and better-off. The middle account for the largest group 3550%; the better off comprise the smallest group 10-15%and the very poor and poor each comprise 15-25% and 20-30%
of the population respectively. The key determinants of wealth are access to land (both own land and through renting
in land) and access to credit for hiring labor. Land is primarily used for the cultivation of sesame. To get access to
additional land for cultivation, the poor, middle and better off rent in additional land between 2- 6 ha. Over half of the
land cultivated is planted with sesame with average yields of 500kg to 600kg per ha. Sesame production is labor
intensive. Land not used for sesame production is committed to the cultivation of sorghum for household consumption.
Land reserved for sorghum is about one-third of that used for sesame cultivation. The very poor proportionally allocate
more land to the cultivation of sorghum than sesame, despite the higher value of the latter crop, as they prefer to ensure
sufficient food for household consumption before using some of their land for cash crops.
Credit is used to hire tractors for land preparation, and to hire labor for weeding and harvesting. The very poor cannot
afford to rent tractors and do not own oxen. This reduces the area that they can cultivate, so some rent out part of their
land and receive one third of the produce from the rented land. To access plough oxen, the very poor provide 2 days
human labor in exchange for access to one day’s oxen labor. The higher incomes in this livelihood zone, resulting from
sesame sales enables the poor, middle and better off to maintain larger livestock holdings. Cattle in particular provide a
safety net in the event of a bad year. Credit is available from Maret, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(MoARD), the household package, local cooperatives and informal sources. Formal sources charge an average of 15%
interest over a 12-month repayment period. Local cooperatives have lower interest rates of between 5% and 18% with
repayment periods as long as four years. Informal sources are mainly used by the very poor and poor. They charge
interest rates as high as 10% per month. They also demand repayment immediately after harvest. The demand for
immediate repayment of loans after harvest forces the poor and very poor to sell early and receive lower prices for their
sesame crop. Failure to repay immediately after harvest compromises access to credit in the following production year.
Loans given out from all sources range from 500 ETB to 5000 ETB.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
The main source of food for all
households is own production of
sorghum. The very poor and poor
also purchase additional staple food,
mainly from May to August during
the hunger season. Non-staple foods
purchased include: pulses, sugar and
oil. The better off is the only wealth
group that can afford to purchase teff,
a high value cereal, for consumption.
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food
requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person
per day.
6
Humera Sesame and Sorghum Livelihood Zone
Livestock products such as eggs, milk and butter, are consumed by the poor, middle and better off who have livestock.
The very poor do not own livestock and cannot afford to purchase these products. No food deficit has been experienced
in recent years in this livelihood zone.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.
Annual
income (ETB)
2000- 6000
3000-7000
12,00016,000
20,00060,000
The main source of income for all
wealth groups is sale of sesame.
Sesame is sold at an average 450
ETB per quintal (100kg) to local
marketing cooperatives and local
traders, who in turn sell to largescale marketing enterprises that
export the crop to the Middle East
and Asia. The very poor and poor
often get lower prices for their
sesame crop because: a) they are
forced to sell immediately after
harvest to repay loans borrowed
for sesame production costs, b)
the quality of their sesame is
slightly lower due to poor land
and crop management practices.
The middle and better off produce sufficient sorghum to meet own food requirements and be able to sell sorghum.
All wealth groups take loans every production year to finance sesame cultivation. The size of the loan correlates to the
size of land cultivated and the amount of sesame produced by each wealth group. Hence, loans increase with the scale
of production undertaken by each wealth group. Loan sizes range from 750 ETB for the very poor to 5000 for the better
off. Loans are necessary to hire tractors, and weeding and harvesting labor. In some cases, part of the loans is used to
purchase livestock.
The middle and better off earn significant income from livestock sales. Shoats (goats and sheep) are sold twice as often
as cattle in order to increase household access to disposable income. Cattle are sold in limited numbers by the middle
and better-off, when there is a need for large amounts of cash or to dispose of ageing cattle. Livestock product sales,
especially butter, make a small contribution to the income of the middle and better off.
Agricultural labor on sesame and cotton large-scale farms provides income for the very poor and poor groups.
Agricultural labor wages range from 20ETB to 50 ETB per day. Harvesting wages are higher than weeding wages.
Agricultural labor is more important for the very poor than it is for the poor. Firewood sales (self-employment) are the
least important income source for the very poor and poor.
The better off have small businesses (shops, market stalls, tea shops, and hotels), which contribute to their income.
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Staple food (sorghum) expenditure is
incurred only by the very poor and poor.
Non-staple food expenditure for all wealth
groups includes: salt, kerosene, sugar and
oil. Water is a serious problem in the zone.
All wealth groups need to purchase water
for
both
human
and
livestock
consumption, but only the middle and
better off have the resources to purchase
sufficient water.
The biggest expenditure for middle and
better off is investment in essential inputs:
land rental, agriculture labor, fertilizer,
livestock restocking and animal drugs. 70- The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to
75% of the middle and better off category of expenditure.
expenditure on inputs is spent on labor.
Clothes and expenditure for health and education are important for all wealth groups. Other expenditure includes
money spent on repayment of loans, community obligations, festivals, and religious ceremonies. All wealth groups
repay their loans within the 12-month repayment period.
7
Humera Sesame and Sorghum Livelihood Zone
Hazards
The main crop hazard is the Striga weed, which affects sorghum. The sesame bug is an intermittent hazard that sucks
the internal part of the seed, leaving only the seed coat. This pest attacks sesame every 3 years.
Livestock (cattle and shoats) are chronically affected by pasteurellosis. Lump skin disease and Trypanosomiasis also
affect cattle every 3 years. Chickens are affected by Newcastle disease new year.
The most common natural hazards are drought and frost, which occur every three years, as well as excessive rainfall,
which causes water logging. The latter happens every five years.
Coping Strategies
The most common response strategy to a hazard used by the better off is livestock sales. Shoats are sold first.
Households delay cattle sales to avoid depleting the household asset base. It is harder for households to rebuild the
livestock herd through purchase after a bad year, so they avoid selling until they have exhausted the less harmful
coping strategies. As a last resort, the better off eliminate teff consumption and increase teff sales. They would also
reduce the consumption of non-staples such as pulses, oil and sugar. The better-off reduce non-essential expenditure
on events such festivities, transport, and community obligations.
The poorer households readily reduce consumption of pulses and sell these in order to purchase cheaper alternatives
such as sorghum.
Summary
This food sufficient livelihood zone has a valuable sesame industry that attracts on average 200 000 migrant workers
every year from the rest of Tigray, northern Amhara, and Sudan. The sesame crop is produced for export markets in the
Middle East and Asia. The population is sparse and land holdings are large enough to allow even the very poor
households to meet over half of their food requirements from own production and still have land that can be used for
cash crop productions. Crops sales (specifically sesame) account for between 65% - 70% of income for the poor,
middle and better-off households. As a result of high crop production, there is significant consumption of non-staple,
pulses, sugar and oil. The zone has enough land to accommodate residents from the neighboring mixed cereal and
sesame zone who rent-in land in the zone. A resettlement program is presently underway in the zone, bringing in
residents from other regions of Tigray to settle in the area. Cultivation in most of the zone is semi-mechanized, using
tractors for land preparation. Credit is available every year to finance sesame labor costs. Livestock sales are also
important especially for the middle and better-off. Agricultural labor is an important source of income for poor
households.
8
Humera Sesame and Sorghum Livelihood Zone
Livelihood Profile
Tigray Region, Ethiopia
Western Cereal and Sesame
Livelihood Zone
February 20071
Zone Description
The Western Mixed Cereal and Sesame Zone spreads
across the Kafta Humera, Tsegede and Welkait woredas
and lays in the kola (lowland), dega (midland) and woina
dega (highland) agro-ecology. The kola altitude ranges
from 530 to 1831 meters above sea level (MAS), the dega
from 830 to 2700 MAS, and the woina dega from 2600 to
3100 MAS. The lowlands are predominantly plains
comprised of black cotton soil while the midland and
highland areas are rugged mountains and plateaus with
clay soils. The vegetation consists of acacia trees,
eucalyptus trees, and bush scrubs which are scattered
across the terrain. In the midland and highlands, the wider
spaces are used for livestock grazing and are interspersed
with family farms, which are typically located on slopes
adjacent to the homestead. Villagers build rock terraces
along these slopes to prevent soil erosion as crops are
primarily irrigated by rainfall.
The annual rainy season lasts from June to September with an average rainfall of between 800 and 1200 mm per year.
Four main rivers namely the Minimine river, Kalima river, Kaza river and Tekeze river provide water for both livestock
and human consumption. Population density is sparse in the lowlands, and medium in the uplands.
Livelihoods in this zone combine the attributes of highland areas, which include cultivation of teff, barley, millet, and
wheat, noug and beans, along with lowland crops such as sesame. Sorghum is the staple food crop, and sesame is
cultivated for export markets. Residents live in the dega and woina dega altitudes. Land suitable for farming is limited
in their home areas, because of the mountainous terrain and infertile soil. As a result, the population migrates to the
kolla to supplement highland crops with the cultivation of sesame and sorghum. To access farmland in the kolla,
farmers pay in cash to rent land or cultivate unutilized land at no cost. After selling the sesame, they return home with
the sorghum harvest. Oxen provide draught power, though hand cultivation is necessary to cultivate the slopes. Both
men and women weed the fields, while men do the harvesting. Food security in the livelihood zone is adequate because
of the access to additional cultivable land in the lowlands and the subsequent opportunities for sesame trading. The
main hazards to crop production are the sesame bug, shoot fly, and stalk borer. Shoot fly and stalk borer attack teff and
sorghum respectively. Treatment for these pest attacks is available from the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural
Development (BoARD) for cash.
Livestock holdings are mainly cattle and shoats (sheep and goats), which are generally small compared to those of
lowland residents. There is limited cattle trade and herds are generally replenished from within the herd. When cattle
are sold, it is usually done when they are at least 18 months old. Shoats are traded more often than cattle when they are
at least 6 months old. There is ample grazing land to maintain the modest livestock holdings. The major hazards
affecting livestock rearing are disease and cattle rustling. The main diseases are trypanosomiasis, lump skin disease and
black leg. There have also reportedly been cases of anthrax. Treatment for the main diseases is available from the
BoARD at affordable prices.
This zone is remote and inaccessible. Roads leading to Welkait and Tsegede woredas were only recently built and are
in poor condition. Consequently, most of the villages, especially in Welkait, are inaccessible by vehicle. Poor roads
make trading activities more difficult. The area has very poor physical infrastructure and poor access to health and
educational services. Diarrhea is common and is exacerbated by both the lack of access to clean water and poor health
services.
1
Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in February 2006. The information presented refers to October 2005- September
2006 (EC Timkit 1998 to Meskerem 1999), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the
economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The exchange rate
January 2006 1USD = 8.676ETB.
9
Markets
Markets are medium sized, serving traders and farmers from the surrounding villages. The main trading centers are
Humera and Dansha. The most important commodity traded is sesame, a high value crop that produces oil. Sesame is
traded from January to June and is sold to the export market through two routes. The first route takes the sesame
through Humera and then on to Sudan and further on to the Middle East. The second route takes the crop to Dansha,
where it is then transported through Gondar and Addis Ababa for export to Japan, China and also the Middle East.
Sesame is sold by the local farmers for 450 Ethiopian Birr (ETB) per quintal (100kg).
The second cash crop is noug, which is also an oil seed. It is available on the market from January to June. Noug is
transported through Dansha to its final market in Gondar. Noug is sold for 250 ETB per quintal. Sorghum is sold
throughout the year for 120ETB per quintal. There are no food imports into the zone.
The main livestock sold is shoats. The main suppliers of shoats are Kafta and Baeker. Shoats are sold in the Humera
local market but are also transported further to Sheraro and Adidaero. Shoats from Tsegde are mainly sold in Dansha.
Shoat prices range from 150 ETB to 400 ETB depending on the size of the animal. The main trading seasons are
September to December and from April to May. Cattle are sold in the local markets throughout the year for 1600ETB.
Livestock products such as butter are only sold in the local markets.
The biggest constraint to marketing in the zone is the poor condition of roads. As most villages are inaccessible by
road, there is very limited inflow of products from more distant markets. Infrastructure that could attract traders from
outside the zone to the area is also poor.
25% of the population doing casual labor in this zone migrate to Humera and Dansha in search of agricultural labor on
the sesame farms. 60% seek wage labor within the local areas, and 10% find work in surrounding towns.
Seasonal Calendar
The main seasons are Keremti
rainy season and planting time:
June- September; Meher
(harvest season from October –
December
Hagay/Bega) from January to
May. Agriculture activities are
dependant on the July to August
Kremt rains. Farming activities
are reliant on the Kremti rains.
Land preparation starts in
February until June. Finger
millet and sorghum, long cycle
crops, are planted in May.
Barley, teff, wheat and pulses,
short season crops, are planted
in June. The weeding period
peaks in July and August. The
consumption year begins with
the harvest of millet and sesame
in October. All other crops are
harvested in November and
December. The hunger season
starts in August when most
households have consumed the
entire crop
from their own production and have to rely on purchase to household food needs. household food. The hunger season
and food purchases typically peak in August and September. The search for income is the main livelihood strategy
during this time. The first income opportunity available is agricultural labor. Agricultural labor is available locally and
in the neighboring Humera Sesame and Sorghum livelihood zone for weeding and harvesting labor from August to
December. Opportunities are found on the farms of the better-off, and also on the farms of large scale sesame growing
investors. Local farmers migrate for up to three months in search of these opportunities. The middle and better off
households sell livestock. Shoats are mainly sold in April/ May during the Easter (Fasika) festival, and also in
September during the New Year (Meskerem) celebrations. Oxen sales in May are in response to the demand for oxen to
plough the land for the planting season.
Malaria is associated with the offset of rains in September.
Western Cereal and Sesame Livelihood Zone
10
Wealth Breakdown
W ealth Groups Characteristics
HH size
Land area
cultivated
Crops cultivated
Livestock Holding
Very Poor
3-7
1-2 ha
Barley, W heat, Teff,
Sorghum, Finger Millet,
Sesame
2-4 chicken
Poor
5-7
1.5-2.5 ha
Barley, W heat, Teff,
Sorghum, Finger Millet,
Sesame
2-4 chicken, 3-4 shoats,1-2
cattle,1 oxen, 0-1 donkeys
Middle
6-8
3-5 ha
Barley, W heat, Teff,
Sorghum, Finger Millet,
Sesame
3-5 chicken, 6-13 shoats, 7-10
cattle, 1-3 oxen, 1-2 donkey
Better-off
7-8
3.5-6 ha
Barley, W heat, Teff,
Sorghum, Finger Millet,
Sesame
3-5 chicken, 7-22 shoats, 8-16
cattle, 2-4 oxen, 1-3 donkeys
0%
10%
20%
30%
% of population
40%
Wealth is established on the basis of the amount of land cultivated and oxen ownership. All wealth groups have limited
land suitable for cultivation in the dega and woina dega. The very poor and poor households generally own 1 ha, while
the middle and better off own 1.4ha. This smaller and less productive land is used to cultivate food crops such as
barley, teff, millet and wheat. Significant differences among the wealth groups emerge from the amount of land
households are able to rent-in in the lowland. Land is rented-in for 200ETB per hectare. The better off rent in an
average 3.5 ha, the middle, poor, and very poor rent- in 2.5ha, 1ha, and 0.5ha respectively. The lowlands are reserved
mainly for sesame cultivation and also some sorghum. Access to capital for renting land permits households to
participate in the lucrative sesame trade. In some cases, unutilized land is available for cultivation by any household.
Cultivation is done using plough oxen. The very poor have no oxen. To access oxen for plowing, the very poor and
poor provide two days labor on the middle and better off farms and in exchange, receive one day of oxen labor to
cultivate their farms. Alternatively, the very poor and poor rent-out land to the better off groups and receive one fifth of
the produce from that land. Cattle ownership is also important because it provides the household with assets that can be
sold during bad years. Livestock herd growth in the zone is hampered by the high incidence of cattle rustling and the
prevalence of diseases such as trypanosomiasis, and black leg.
Household size increases with wealth reflecting the poorer wealth groups’ dependence on the middle and better off for
assistance in taking care of their household members.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
Own crop production is the main
source of food for all wealth groups.
This provides 80%-85% of the food
for the very poor and poor, and 90%
for the middle and better off. Cereals
produced are sorghum, barley, teff,
wheat, and finger millet. Sorghum is
the staple food in the zone. The high
contribution of own crop production
to household food consumption is
indicative of the good crop
production in the livelihood zone.
The very poor and poor are the only
groups that purchase staple food.
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food
requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person
per day.
All wealth groups purchase non-staple pulses, which are important dietary supplements along with sugar. The poor,
middle and better off also purchase oil, meat and vegetables. They also consume small amounts of butter, and eggs. The
very poor cannot afford these products.
11
Western Cereal and Sesame Livelihood Zone
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.
Annual
income
(ETB)
1,7002,200
3,3003,800
6,0006,500
The main income source for all
wealth groups is sesame sales.
Sesame yields on average 5
quintals per ha. Sorghum sales
make a minimal contribution to
the incomes of the middle and
better off wealth groups and is not
sold by the very poor and poor as
they do not produce enough to
meet households requirements.
All wealth groups also sell small
amounts of Noug.
Livestock sales contribute 22% of
the income for the better of, 17%
for the middle and 8% for the
poor..
8,7009,200
The main livestock type sold is shoats but cattle are also sold by the middle and better-off. The second most important
income source for the very poor and poor is firewood sales. Agricultural labor is also important for these wealth groups.
Whilst the middle and better off sell butter..
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
The biggest expenditure for the
middle and better off is non-staple
food purchases The main nonstaple-foods purchased are beans,
sugar, oil, meat, coffee and
vegetables. The very poor do not
purchase meat.
The poor and very poor also
purchase staple food from June to
August during the hunger season.
Expenditure on inputs includes
seeds, fertilizer, tools, livestock
drugs, labor hire and land rental.
The largest
component of
essential inputs for the middle and The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of
expenditure.
better-off is labor and land rental.
The very poor and poor are spend most of their essential inputs expenditure on renting land in the lowlands.
Other includes community obligations, festivals and transport as well as other non-essential expenditure.
Social services (health and education) expenditure comprises an average 5% of expenditure for all wealth groups i.e.
increasing amounts of money in absolute terms as wealth increases. This reflects both larger household sizes and the
quality of educational supplies and medical attention purchased.
Hazards
The chronic crop hazards are striga weed, and shoot fly. Striga is a parasitical weed that affects sorghum. The major
chronic hazard affecting sorghum is the parasitical striga weed. Shoot fly attacks both sorghum and teff. The sesame
bug is an intermittent hazard that attacks teff once every three years.
Livestock are chronically affected by Trypanosomiasis, and Bovine and Ovine pasteurellosis. Trypanosomiasis affects
cattle, while pasteurellosis affects both cattle and shoats. Black leg and lump skin disease affect cattle once every three
years
The main natural hazard is excessive rainfall and the late onset of rain. These hazards occur once in 5 years.
Coping Strategies
Household response strategies are informed by the need to maintain household access to sufficient amounts of the right
food in the face of a hazard.
The better off respond by expanding existing income and food sources, while the poorer groups reduce non-essential
Western Cereal and Sesame Livelihood Zone
12
purchases in an effort to stretch the available resources. The better off households can earn more income by increasing
the sale of shoats. Households raise livestock specifically to have assets that can be sold if the need arises. The better
off begin to sell the teff production rather than consume it. Teff is a high values crop, and income earned from its sale
can purchase up to two times more sorghum than the teff sold. The better off resort to borrowing money for food
purchases.
As the poorer households have limited options, one of their earlier responses is to reduce non-food expenditure by 50%
and to reassign it to staple food purchases. If the hazard persists, poorer households reduce the size and frequency of
meals to two per day. The poor groups also migrate after their options have been exhausted.
Summary
This zone combines highland cultivation of teff, barley, millet, wheat, noug and beans, with lowland cultivation of
sorghum and sesame. Residents of this zone live in the woina dega and dega areas, and migrate to the lowlands during
the sorghum and sesame cultivation season. Cultivable land is limited and infertile in the rugged highlands, and food
security is attained from access to/renting of fertile kolla lands. Differences in wealth are pronounced by the amount of
land households are able to access in the lowland. All wealth groups receive at least 80% of their food requirements
from own crop production, mainly sorghum. Sesame is the main cash crop. It provides over 50-70%of income. Surplus
production of sorghum allows the middle and better-off to earn additional income from sorghum sales. Other important
income sources are livestock and livestock product sales. Shoats are the commonly sold livestock, though the middle
and better off also have a few cattle sales. The very poor and poor rely on weeding and harvesting labor for additional
income. Labor opportunities are available on the sesame farms of the middle and better-off, and also on large scale
sesame investor farms. Availability of sesame labor is reliable and consistent every year. Sesame production is
however, vulnerable to fluctuations in price on the international market. The main expenditure items for all groups are
purchase of essential inputs, household items and non staple food purchases. Poor roads condition is the biggest
problem in the zone.
13
Western Cereal and Sesame Livelihood Zone