Journal of Negro Education

Journal of Negro Education
Rap Music: An Education with a Beat from the Street
Author(s): Catherine Tabb Powell
Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 60, No. 3, Socialization Forces Affecting the
Education of African American Youth in the 1990s (Summer, 1991), pp. 245-259
Published by: Journal of Negro Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2295480 .
Accessed: 16/10/2011 18:29
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Journal of Negro Education is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal
of Negro Education.
http://www.jstor.org
RapMusic:An Education
witha Beat
fromtheStreet
CatherineTabb Powell,University
oftheDistrict
ofColumbia*
in New YorkCityin thelate 1970s,rap-a formofpopular
Originating
music thatentailstalking,or "rapping,"to a rhythmic
musicalbackground-has provedto have wide appeal and stayingpower. Words
and rhythm
aretheheartofrap.1A vocalist(orvocalists)tellsa storyset
to syncopation,
and a discjockey(DJ)providestherhythm
witha drum
machineorby"scratching"
on a turntable
(rapidlymovinga recordback
and forthunder the needle to createrap's famousswishingsound).
Rap lyricsconcentrate
on thecontemporary
primarily
African
American
experience,and themusicis aimedat a marketconsisting
primarily,
but
notexclusively,
ofAfrican
Americanyouth.EveryissuewithintheBlack
is subjectto expositionin therap arena.Hitrap tuneshave
community
broachedtouchysubjectssuch as sex, sexism,racism,and crime;however,as somerappersclaim,theirgoal is different
fromthatofrhythmand-bluesartists.Rap artists,theycontend,"don't talkthe love stuff,
but [rather]educatethelisteners"(Henderson,1988,p. R13).
Indeed,inadditiontoentertainment,
rapmusicprovidesa significant
formofinformal
educationforadolescents,one thatextendsfarbeyond
theconfinesoftheclassroomand intotheirpeergroupcircles.Whether
rapis denigrated
orapplaudedas an artistic
product,itcannotbe ignored
as a dominantmeansofexpression
withincontemporary
African
American adolescentculture.For Blackyouthin particularrap providesa
powerfulforceforidentity,
and emotionalreinforcement.
solidarity,
THE ORIGINS OF RAP
Unlikemanymusicalfadsand fashions,rap's arrivalwas not engineeredby Tin Pan Alley(thecommercial
musicindustry)or otherbig
businessinterests.
Insteaditemergedfromthestreets
ofinner-city
neighborhoodsas a genuinereflection
ofthehopes,concerns,and aspirations
ofurbanBlackyouthin this,thelastquarterofthe20thcentury.Rap is
a homemade,street-level
essentially
musicalgenre.Moreover,rapis part
*Theauthoris a memberoftheAfrican
AmericanWriters
Guild.
'The terms"rap" and "hip-hop"can be used interchangeably.
Hip-hoprefersto the
beatofthemusicandraptotherhythmic
overthebeat.Raphasthreeclassifications:
talking
(1) "quickrap" (one rappertalkstoanother)(2) "life-line"
or "hard-core"
rap(containing
explicitlyrics);and (3) "commercial
rap" (hip-hopand dancerap).
Vol. 60,No.3 (1991)
Journal
ofNegroEducation,
? 1991,HowardUniversity
Copyright
245
thatoriginated
in Africamanycenturies
oforalrecitation
ofa tradition
is exemplified
by theWestAfricangriot,or troubaago. Thistradition
of drumsor otherpercussive
To the accompaniment
dour/storyteller.
griotsentertainand educate theiraudiencesby reciting
instruments,
are oftenembeltribalhistoryand currentevents.Theirperformances
jokes,praise,and ridicule(Nicholls,
lishedby satiricalasides,proverbs,
1991).Talkingagainsta musicalbackgroundhas also been employedin
musicthroughout
Americangospel,jazz, and rhythm-and-blues
African
this century.Popular recordingartistssuch as Cab Calloway,Eddie
Bo Diddley,and JamesBrownhave utilizedthistradition.
Jefferson,
influence
on raphas notbeencommerHowever,themostimportant
but the street-level
practicesof "toasting,""capping,"
cial recordings
"shuckingand jiving,""sounding,""running
"joning,""signifying,"
it down," "gripping,""coppinga plea," and "playingthe dozens."
haveallowedinner-city
dwellers,particall thesepractices
Traditionally,
ularlymales,to competein theiruse ofimageryand verbalskills.Then
and now, when Blackmen gathertogethertheyoftenengagein such
verbalcontests.Accordingto H. "Rap" (HubertGerold)Brown(1972,
pp. 205-206),formerhead of the StudentNon-ViolentCoordinating
Americanmales"playthedozensforrecreCommittee
(SNCC), African
ation,likewhitefolksplayScrabble."Brownexplainsthatthedozensis
a meangamebecauseitofteninvolvesan exchangeofnegativecomments
especiallyhis mother,thatcan
aboutmembersofan opponent'sfamily,
forthe loser.Signifying,
Browncontends,is
be extremely
humiliating
anotherverbalduelingtechniqueusuallyemployedaftera battleofthe
dozensto "cutyouropponentsomeslack"(makehimfeelgood orbad).
beforeone can signify,
"you gotto be able to
Again,Brownmaintains,
rap." In his own youthBrownclaimsthathe was seldomhumiliatedin
anykindofverbalcontest:"That'swhytheycallme Rap, 'cause I could
thevaryingdegreesand typesoforalexperrap." His abilityexemplifies
tisefoundwithinBlackurbancultureat all levels,fromthestreetcorner
to thepulpit.
In theearly1970stheradicalrap poetryofthegroupThe Last Poets
forlaterrap artistssuch as Grandmaster
formeda dominantprototype
Flashand theFuriousFive,theSugarhillGang,theFatBoys,Kool Moe
Dee, RunDMC, and BigDaddy Kane. The LastPoetsconsistedofpoets
OmarBen Hassen, AlafiaPudim,AbiodunOyewole,and percussionist
Nilaja. Theyrecordedon theindependentDouglas Recordslabel,and
withlittleradio airplaysold 160,000copies of theirfirstalbum. With
congabackupthepoetschantedrap poetryclassicssuchas "The White
Man's Gota God Complex,""In theMeanwhile,I Mustbe Insane,"and
"This Is Madness." The Poetstookstreetcornerrap and used it as an
and stereotyped
racialroles.
assaulton racism,Blackself-exploitation,
In Harlemwheretheylivedtheywererecognizedand admiredas stars
(Cott,1970).
Duringthe "disco" musicera, rap becamepopularwiththe street
gangsinurbancenterssuchas Harlemand theSouthBronxinNew York
City.RappersworkedwithDJswho workedtwo or moreturntables
switchingback and forthto mixthe best partsof the
simultaneously,
from
music(Watkins,1984)."The GrandWizard"(TheodoreLivingston)
246
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
thescratching
techniquein rap
theBronxis givencreditfororiginating
changedtheway DJs
music.His sound,whichwas copiedextensively,
1988).OtherDJsquicklylearnedhow
playeddance music(Greenberg,
in the
toalterthemoodon thedancefloorbymakingsmoothtransitions
music.
partoftherecordwas thebreak-the partofa tunein
In theBronx,theimportant
whichthe drumstake over....That was when the dancersflewand DJsbegan
extendingthebreakintoan
cuttingbetweenthe same fewbarson two turntables,
was thepartin whichthedrums
The important
instrumental.
partofthistransition
tookover,thebreakforthehip hop. .. (Toop, 1984,p. 14)
tothisbreakmixture
becameknown
Thosewho dancedacrobatically
the
as "breakdancers."One ofthetwoDJsgivencreditfororiginating
DJwhowent
term"breakdancing"was CliveCampbell,a Jamaican-born
by the name "Herc." AfrikaBambaataa,anotherDJ (and streetgang
leader)fromtheBronxis also givencredit.Hercworkedat a discoin the
sections,"
poor sectionoftheBronxwherehe playedthe"mostfrantic
or thebreaks,ofthemusicoverand over.Bambaataa,whenchallenged
bydancinginsteadoffighting
bya rivalgang,wouldsuggestcompetition
(Greenberg,1988,pp. 13-14).
Toop (1984)givesthisaccountoftheearlydays ofrap:
or "emcees"]who provideda
The DJsteamedup withMCs [mastersofceremonies
catchphrasesand a commentary
abouttheDJ,the
show,creatingspokenrhythms,
overthebeats.A styleofdressgrewup, a fractured
image
clienteleand themselves
casualand sportswear,and thedancingwas fiercely
competitive.
ofcool,combining
was at the heartof hip hop.... Sneakersbecamehighfashion...
Competition
streetrap thatalmostanykid
was providedwiththekindofshowoff
entertainment
on a rival.(p. 15)
was capableofturning
RAP TODAY
success,butitsreputation
Currently
rap is enjoyingunprecedented
languageand sexual
positive.Somerappers'use ofexplicit
is notentirely
and imageryon theiralbumsand musicvideos has created
references
resistanceto rap. Obscenityand freedomof speech issues have been
ofcertainrap artists,notably2 Live
raisedin responseto therecordings
Crew, Ice-T,NWA (NiggasWithAttitude),SlickRick,and Ice Cube.
problemshave also
disputesand distribution
Copyrightinfringement
entryintothe musicalmainstream.
posed barriersto rap's full-fledged
Nonetheless,severalrappersand rap groupshave met withnotable
in theraparena.Someofthemorerenowned
successesand recognition
ofrapwillbe discussedinthefollowing
as wellas infamouspersonalities
sections.
Run DMC
As the group Run DMC, Run (JosephSimmons),DMC (Darryl
McDaniels),and theirDJ,JamMasterJay(ayson Mizell)have achieved
rarelongevityas rap artists.In 1984the groupproducedthe firstrap
albumto be certified
gold. Theywenton to becomethefirstrap artists
to collecttwo gold albumsand a gold and platinumalbumsimultanepop chart,make
ously; the firstto reachthe top ten on the Billboard
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
247
and reachthetop tenon
Number1 on itsBlacksingles(45 RPM) chart,2
its "Hot One Hundred" singleslist;the firstto collecttwo platinum
albums;and the firstto top the two millioncopies sales mark(Grein,
1990).
Kid n' Play
law schoolcandidate,and Christo(Kid) Reid,a former
Christopher
visualartsmajorwhose currentnickname
pher(Play)Martin,a former
is a shortenedversionofhis old one (Playboy),dance and tradeinsults
theyrap about
as therap team"Kid n' Play." Generally,
and witticisms
adolescencein a sassy but playful,sly but innocent,boys-next-door
fashion.The message of theirmusicaldialogues,accordingto Kid, is
evenifyoulook
this:"We teachpeoplenottobe afraidtobe themselves,
different
or act different.... Run with it" (Perlman, 1990, p. 93). Kid,
grewup in
"hi-topfade"hairstyle,
fashionable
who sportsthecurrently
(NY). He is thecomicofthe
theBronxand latermovedto EastElmhurst
duo. Playis thesuave one who playstheroleofthebraggart.The duo
has produceda seriesofhitsinglesand low-budgetvideos as well as a
maga1988album,"From2 Hype," thatmade thetop tenon Billboard
tothepop (popular
no cross-over
zine'sBlackmusiccharts.Withvirtually
audience)market,the album sold nearlyone millioncopies (Seliger,
1990).
M. C. Hammer
One of the mostpopular(or,as theyoungpeople say, "bumpin"')
goesbythestagenameM. C. Hammer.
rappersatthetimeofthiswriting
is oneofeightchildren
Hammer,whoserealnameis StanleyKirkBurrell,
and was raisedin Oakland(CA). He acquiredthenicknameHammerin
theearlyseventiesfroma playerwiththeOaklandA's baseballteamhome-runking"Hammerin"'Hank Aaron. Burrelltravelledwiththe
teamas a batboyduringthe summerbreaksforseven years(Russell,
1990).An overtlyreligiousman,M. C. Hammerpresentsa cleanimage
and his lyricsare not political.He raps abouturbanproblems,saving
youngpeople fromdrugs,and the troublesof the world,and his act
showinessthanon hardrapplaces moreemphasison choreographed
of his entourageof singers,dancers,
ping.Hammeris veryprotective
whichincludessome18-and 19-year-olds.
Reportedly,
and bodyguards,
to theirhotel
aftereach show youngcastmembersmustreturndirectly
roomsand staythereall nightorfacea $100fine("Rap Musician,"1990).
Hammer'sdebut album, "Let's Get It Started,"sold more than a
millioncopies. His secondalbum,"Please Hammer,Don't Hurt'Em,"
rap albumyetto emerge.It is only
is consideredthemostsophisticated
thethirdrap albumin historyto stayat thetop ofboththepop charts
charts.
renamedits"BlackMusic"charts"R & B" (rhythm-and-blues)
2Billboard
recently
The magazinemaintainsthatthe changewas made because the numberof non-Black
peoplemaking"Black"musichas escalated.
248
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
and the R & B chartsforthreemonths.More thanfourmillioncopies
have been sold to date (Russell,1990).
2 Live Crew
2 Live Crew,an X-rated,underground3rap group,recentlyfound
themselvesin courtbecauseoftheirexplicitlyricsand theirinclusionof
scantilyclothedfemaledancersin theiract.The muchpublicizedgroup
fromMiami(FL), consistingof band leaderLutherCampbell,ChristopherWongwon,and MarkRoss,werechargedwithstagingan obscene
at a Hollywood(FL) nightclubin June1990.Throughout
performance
thatsummertheywereundersiege. Theiralbum,"As NastyAs They
describessexualactsand celebratesmale
WannaBe," whichgraphically
by a numlustand violencetowardsubmissivewomen,was blacklisted
berofnationalparent'sgroups,and a judge in southernFloridathreatened recordstoreownerswitharrestifcaughtsellingthealbum(McFadden, 1990).
The obscenitytriallastedfortwo
The case drewnationalattention.
SkyyWalkerRecords(thegroup'srecordlabel)
weeks.In itscountersuit,
rightshad beenviolated.4
assertedthatthecompany'sFirstAmendment
rangingfrom
frombothsideswas presentedbyseveralcritics
Testimony
those who judged the groupsmusic to be "filthy,lewd, disgusting,
towomenand withoutanyartistic
merit,"to others
especiallyoffensive
uninteresting,
[and]unoriginal."Stillothwho vieweditas "simplistic,
"Whynotarrestpeopleforswearingon thestreet?"Expert
ersprotested,
DepartwitnessHenryLouis Gates (now head ofHarvardUniversity's
to rap lyricsas "art" and
mentof AfricanAmericanStudies)referred
words a lot" (Parker,
noted that"even Shakespeareused four-letter
1990).
In the end the prosecutor'scase failedto sway the jurors,who at
timeslaughedopenlyduringthetrial.Thejuryacquitted2 LiveCrewof
by
chargeson thegroundsthatthegroup'srightsareprotected
obscenity
Afterthetrial2 LiveCrewleaderLutherCampbell
theFirstAmendment.
was "good forbusiness."Sales ofthealbum
statedthatthewholeaffair
surpassedtheplatinummark(1.7 millioncopies),whilea purifiedversionofthealbum,entitled"As CleanAs TheyWannaBe," sold 200,000
(Benarde,1990).
Campbellbeganin the musicbusinesswhileattendinghighschool.
He organizeddancesand rapshows,and manyofhisamateurperformerslaterbecamestars.He beganproducinghisownrecordsin 1985after
beingcheatedby otherproducers.His firstofficewas a bedroomin his
parents'home. Campbellis thefirstto admitthattheCrew'slyricsare
"sexual stuff,"but he contendsthe raps are "funnyand raw" and
torapmusicthatis soldinsomerecordstoresbutis notplayed
raprefers
3Underground
rap shownon television.
by majorradiostations;norare thevideosofunderground
to theU.S. Constitution
statesthat:"Congressshallmakeno
4TheFirstAmendment
of religion,or prohibiting
the freeexercisethereof;
or
law respecting
an establishment
ofspeech[italicsadded], or the press;or the rightof the people
abridgingthefreedom
fora redressofgrievances."
peaceablyto assemble,and to petitiontheGovernment
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
249
inspiredby thehumorofpopularBlackcomediansEddie Murphyand
RichardPryor(McFadden,1990).Campbell'sfriendsclaimthathe is a
tohis seven-year-old
daughterand does notpermither
dedicatedfather
to listento theCrew'sx-ratedlyrics.Moreover,Campbellspendsmuch
ofhistimeworkingto improveeducationforBlacks.He has established
Blackseniorsat Miamihighschools,
forpromising
collegescholarships
atFloridaInternational
donates
University,
fundsa businessscholarship
and
University,
moneyto the footballprogramat Bethune-Cookman
totheUnitedNegroCollegeFund(Benarde,1990).
contributes
regularly
PublicEnemy
Otherrapgroupsdrawheavilyon thephilosophiesand doctrinesof
organizations
suchas theNationofIslam5and theBlack
Blacknationalist
Panthersas well as individualpoliticaland religiousfiguressuch as
MalcolmX, MartinLutherKing,Jr.,Nat Turner,and MarcusGarvey.
The mostnotableofthese,PublicEnemy(whoseearlyaudiences,ironiwiththeirhit
cally,werelargelyWhite),gainedworldwidepopularity
Therap,whichdenouncesdrugdealers,theactivsingle,"Terrordome."
(FBI),soap operas,and army
itiesoftheFederalBureauofInvestigation
tactics,heaps praiseson theBlackPanthers,theBlackMusrecruitment
JohnColtrane.PublicEnemyis creditedwith
lims,and jazz saxophonist
debatein rapcircles.Theirrapsare
stirring
up mostoftheAfrocentrism
aimed at castinglighton racialinjusticesagainstBlacks
consistently
and educatingtheirlistenersabouttheseinjustices.Two ofthegroup's
albumshavegoneplatinumincludingsuchtitlesas "It takesA Nation,"
"BringtheNoise," "RebelWithouta Pause," "Don't BelievetheHype,"
"Do theRightThing,"and "FightthePower."
PublicEnemyhailsfromHempstead,LongIsland(NY), and consists
Flavor-Flave
ofleaderChuckD (CarltonRidenhour),
(WilliamDrayton),
X (disc jockeyNormanRogers).Recently,"Securityof
and Terminator
the FirstWorld," the group's onstagebodyguards,came under fire
madebyProfessor
Griff
ofInformation"
becauseofcomments
("Minister
Professor
Griff
ofthesecurity
allegedlystated:
force).In a 1989interview
further
"TheJewsare wicked.And we can provethis."As thereporter
ofJewsareresponsibleforthe
also heldthat"themajority
claimed,Griff
ofthewickednessthatgoes on acrosstheglobe"(Pareles,1989,
majority
rabbisand otherleaders of Jewish
p. C-19). Almostinstantaneously,
groupsbroughtpressureon the rap groupin numerouspress confertalkshows.TheJewishDefenseOrganiencesandonradioand television
zation (DO) announceda boycottof PublicEnemy.Theyalso sent a
armedwithbaseballbatsand chainsto thegroup's
groupofprotestors
theyhad the wrongaddress). The
managementoffices(fortunately,
5TheNationof Islamis generallyacknowledgedas havinga deep influenceon rap
Ex,
music.Rapperssuchas PoorRighteous
Teachers,KingSun,BrandNubian,Movement
fromthe HonorableElijah
and PublicEnemy,frequently
quote and draw inspiration
LouisFarrakhan.
Muhammad(founderoftheNationofIslam),MalcolmX, and Minister
The famedboxer,MuhammadAli,was also an earlyrapper.
250
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
bombardedrecordcompaniesand
JDO and otherJewishorganizations
retailerswithfliersof Griff's
remarks.Numerousarticleswere written
referring
to PublicEnemyas "bigots,""anti-Semitic,"
and "racist."Mira
BolandoftheAnti-Defamation
LeagueofB'Nai B'rithstatedthatProfesthekindofbigotry
sor Griff's"nastyslursreflect
we've cometo expect
Louis Farrakhanand company.. .given
from[BlackMuslimminister]
thepopularity
ofrap musictoday,it'shardto thinkofa moreinsidious
influenceon themindsofyoungpeople" (Harrington,
1989).
Griffinsistedthathis wordshad been takenout of contextby the
MembersofPublicEnemyprotested
thatthemedia"playedup
reporter.
to the sensitiveJewishanglejust to makea story."Theyalso insisted
theyhad no timeto "get hung up" on theJewishissue; rather,they
totrytoregaina Blackconsciousness
claimed:"We'reconstantly
battling
forour people.
. .
. Jewsare not the only targetof ProfessorGriff'sharsh
words. He aims some of his toughestinsultsat middle-classBlacks"
(Harrington,
1989). Nonetheless,ChuckD soon firedProfessorGriff,
stating:"The realenemyis thesystem,nota people... We aren'tantiWe'repro-Black,
cultureand
Jewish,we aren'tanti-anybody.
pro-Black
Griff's
pro-humanrace. . . Professor
as MinisterofInforresponsibility
transmitthose values to everybody,not to
mationwas to faithfully
was laterreinstatedas
sabotagethem"(Pareles,1989).ProfessorGriff
"community
liaison,butessentiallymuzzled";manyfeltthismuzzling
The groupbrokeup
was due to pressurefromthe Blackcommunity.
thereafter
shortly
(Zimmerman,
1989),butithas sincebeen reorganized
Griff.
minusProfessor
RAP IN TRANSITION
Whatbeganas a formofBlackurbanmusicperformed
primarily
by
Blackmen is no longerexclusivelyBlackor male anymore.When rap
musicfirstappearedwomenmerelystoodbythestageor performed
on
stagedancingand cheeringthemenon. Accordingto Toop (1984,p. 6),
however:"On all oftheearlyraprecordsfeaturing
women,thewomen
rapas wellas themenand in somecases farbetter."Althoughrapmusic
was long a mediumdominatedby Blackartists,some Whiterap acts
have recentlymanaged to top the rap charts.Indeed, it seems that
cartooncharacters
everybody's
rappingthesedays:the"Flintstones"
rap
in commercialsforchildren'svitaminsand cereals;McDonald's hamand Coca-Colacommercials
also feature
burgers,Pillsbury,
rapping.SeveralNationalFootballLeagueteamshavecreatedrapvideosand donated
themoneyfromvideosalestocharity.
Raphas beensuccessfully
meshed
withseveralgenresfromrock,pop, and housemusictojazz and gospel.
Womenin Rap
Inrapmusictoday,femaleshavemovedfrombeingtopicstoperformforfemalerappersbeganin 1985.MercedesLadies
ers.The opportunity
and the Zulu Queens were amongthe earlyfemalerappers,but they
Thefirst
nevermadea recording.
femalestomakeraprecordswereShaRockoftheFunkyFourPlus One Moreand DimplesD (DiPrima,1990).
Female rapperswho currently
challengethe mostmacho of the male
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
251
IceyJay,NikkiDee, M. C. Lyte,The Real
rappersincludeAntonnette,
Roxanne,Monie Love, RoxanneShante',Oaktown's3.5.7., J. J. Fad,
TairrieB, Ice CreamTee, Cashmere,M. C. Light,Ms. Melody,Shelly
and thegroupSalt-n-Pepa.
Thunder,SilkTymesLeather,Queen Latifah,
Unlikemalerappers,mostfemalerappersdo notdwellon theirsexual
skillsor flingthemselvesat thecenterofviolentescapades. Rather,the
women of rap striveto best theirmusicalcompetitorswithcolorful
put-downs.
boasts,slyhumor,and good-natured
Althoughfemalerapperswerea presencefromthebeginningofrap,
thefirstto getseriousairplaywerethegroupSalt-n-Pepa.Salt (Cheryl
James),Pepa (SandyDenton),and DJSpinderella(DeidreRoper;added
rappers.James
aftertheduo's secondhit)considerthemselvesfeminist
storetelephone
and Dentonmetwhilebothwereworkingas department
salespersonsin New YorkCity.Therea coworkerpersuadedthemto
helpcreatea songfora class he was taking;theyrecordedthesongfor
a smallrecordcompanyand itsold morethan250,000copies.Theirfirst
12-inchdancesingle,"Hot, Cool & Vicious"(withthehit,"Push It," on
Side B), sold a millioncopies. Salt-n-Pepa'srap blendssex appeal with
leveloffeminist-minded
a definite
independence.Withtheoutstanding
successoftheirdebutalbum,"Black'sMagic"(1990),thesesavvyyoung
womenhave begunto producetheirown works.As Saltcontends,she
wouldliketo see womenless dependenton men:"Womenhave brains
and I hateto see themwastetheirliveswalkingin theshadowofa man"
(Small,1988,p. 544).
One femalerapperdoingbattlein the rap arena despitean Arabic
namethatmeans"delicateand sensitive"is Queen Latifah.BornDana
Owens and hailingfromNew Jersey,Queen Latifahstartedrapping
when she was just 16 years old. Her music stands out because she
combinesrappingand singingtalentsand borrowsfromhip-hop,house
toas the"ArethaFranklin
music,jazz, and reggae.She has beenreferred
ofrap" (Duncan, 1989,p. 14). Queen Latifahhas had some successon
therap chartswithhitsingles"Ladies First,""Come IntoMy House,"
and "All Hail the Queen." In addition,she rappedon Britishpop star
David Bowie's remixof "Fame." Withher dancers,the SafariSisters,
thatshe takesrap seriously.Stressing
Queen Latifah'sactdemonstrates
and posingquestionsofAfrocentricity
and conthatimageis important
positiveideas.
science,she sees herartformas a wayofcommunicating
In herview,rap is "a creativeoutlet... and sometimesit can become
likea newspaperthatpeoplereadwiththeirears" (Duncan,1989,p. 14).
and thatshe does notaim
Althoughshe claimsthatshe is nota feminist
solelyat a femalemarket,theQueen's workand stylebelieherwords.
Whenmostmalerapperstalkaboutfemales,she contends,itis usually
forthehumor"and about"womenwho use theirbodies,
"exaggerated
nottheirminds."Forherownvideos,she counters,she choosesfemale
dancersthatyoung people can respect.To her, manyof the female
dancers who appear on male rappers' videos "look like skeezers
(tramps)":"A lot of thosefemalesdon't have respectforthemselves;
Guys are exploitingthem" (Ehrlich,
theyonlythinkmaterialistically.
1990).
252
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
Anotherdominantvoice amongthe femalerappersis M. C. Lyte
M. C. Lytecontendsthatiffemales
feminist,
(LanaMorer).Alsoa strident
did not buy the recordsor attendthe concertsof male rapperswho
demeanwomen,themenwould changetheirlyrics.M. C. Lyte'sFirst
recordlabeldebut,thesingle,"LyteAs A Rock,"sold
Priority/Atlantic
no airplay.However,
75,000copies in less thana monthwithvirtually
entranceintothe musicbusinesswas fairlyeasy: her
thisperformer's
recordsand her brothersare also
fatheris the head of FirstPriority
rappersand rap musicproducers(Kennedy,1990).
WhiteRappers
Generally,Blackrap artistsexpresssurpriseat seeingWhiterappers
maketheirway up theR & B singlesand albumcharts.Othersexpress
A
anger,"seeingBusinessas Usual stampedall overit.Whitemimicry.
pale copy of the real thing"(Brown,1991,p. 12). WhileBlackrappers
feeltheyrap fromtheirlifeexperiences,theyview Whiterappersas
merelycopyingBlack style.Amongthe Whiterap acts to emergein
recentyearsare theYoungBlackTeenagers,theBeastieBoys,3rdBass,
TairrieB (one ofrap'soutspokenfemale
VanillaIce, and platinum-blond
UnlikemostoftheBlackrappers,who comefromfamiliesof
lyricists).
low or moderateincomes,manyWhiterapperscome frommoreprivileged backgrounds.
The firstWhiterap groupto capturerap's boastfulqualitywas the
ofMCA (AdamYauch),MikeD (MichaelDiaNew Yorktrioconsisting
mond),and KingAd-Rock(Adam HorovitzYauch) and knownas the
in a
BeastieBoys.The BeastieBoysenteredthemusicsceneperforming
band, but by 1983theyhad moved on to rap.
hard-corerock-and-roll
discusssex and vioprimarily
Theirlyrics,whichecho withprofanity,
lence. The group'sdebutalbumsold 720,000copies in six weeks,and
pop chartand theNumber
reachedtheNumber7 positionon Billboard's
musiclist(Russell,1987;DeCurtis,1987).
3 spot on itsthen-Black
plagiarizingthe
A youngman who has been accused of flagrantly
Blacksoundis WhiterapperVanillaIce (RobbyVan Winkle)fromMiami
(FL). AlthoughVan Winkle'srap is sexuallyexplicit,he prideshimself
in his lyrics.CriticsassertthatVanillaIce is
on not utilizingprofanity
and ruthwiththeWhite-controlled
musicestablishment
collaborating
lessly"rippingoff'(stealing)Blackmusic(Brown,1991).Blackrapartists,
rap'sraw,roughedges,makingitsoft
theyclaim,see himas "softening
and bland and safe enoughformass marketconsumptionbut weak,
withoutstayingpower"(Murphy,1990).Beforehe becametheopening
actforrapperM. C. Hammer,VanillaIce was unheardof.Withhisdebut
album,"To theExtreme"(whichsoldsevenmillioncopiesinfiveweeks),
the WhiterapperknockedM. C. Hammerout of a 21-weekstreakas
Number1 on theR & B albumcharts.VanillaIce's single,"Ice Ice Baby,"
became the firstrap song ever to reach Number1 on the Hot One
Hundredsingleslist,thusleadingothermusicindustry
analyststo proclaim him rap's risingstarand the idol of the currentgenerationof
a new
forattracting
Whiteteenagegirls.VanillaIce is indeedresponsible
audience to rap music,but he has been criticalof otherrappers.He
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
253
while
has calledM. C. Hammer'smusic"senselessand commercial,"
extollinghis own rap for"tellinga storyfromstartto finish."Van
Winkle'sownstoryis somewhatvague,however.Althoughhe contends
forrapspringsfrom"hangingout"withBlackteenagers
thathisaffinity
inhisyouth(he claimshe wentto schoolwithLutherCampbellof2 Live
and
Crew),his accountsofhis personalhistoryhave been inconsistent
has provendifficult
tocorroborate
(Murphy,
thetruthofhisbackground
1990).
ChristianRap
Christianrap, popularwithboth Blackand Whiteaudiences,first
artistsas Stesurfacednationallyin themid-1980s
withsuch recording
phenWiley,thefirstChristian
rapperto be signedto a majorlabel.The
popularBlackgospel groupThe Winans,winnersof fourGrammies
(musicindustry
awards),have also issued a populardance single,"It's
Time,"thatblendsrap withgospel. Severalothergospel groupshave
These includeRap DC Talkand Transformation
made recordings.
CruFalwell's Liberty
sade. Both groupsoriginatedat the ReverendJerry
Crusade has
BaptistUniversityin Lynchburg(VA). Transformation
thathave reachedthetop-50listsof
releasedtwogospelrap recordings
Christianmusic.Accordingto a groupmember:"We're
contemporary
notlikeotherrappers,rappingforourselves.We'rerappingforGod and
it's ministry.
We want to see
no one else. It's not just entertainment,
sinnerssaved and saintsreleased"("Gospel withBeat," 1990,p. B-6).
Businessas Usual
has increasedso have itsnegativeconnotations.
As rap's popularity
Some criticsallegethatrap music"promotesviolenceand thatrappers
presentnegativeimages"(Henderson,1988).In a 1988issue ofBillboard
magazineHarrisonpresentedthe findingsfromhis interviewswitha
fromthoseat thetop
numberofrappers.He askeda rangeofrapartists,
of the chartsto those new on the scene, to pinpointthe sources of
aboutrap music.Eighty
themostoppositionto and misunderstanding
theirexplanations,
claimingthat
percentoftheartistssurveyedoffered
resistanceto rap comes from(1) the Blackbourgeoisiewho own Black
news media,and (3) rapperswho abuse the
radio,(2) a misinformed
Whiletherappersnotedthatthe
languagebyusingexcessiveprofanity.
as a whole is verysupportive,theyfaultedpopular
Blackcommunity
Black-audience
publicationssuch as Ebonyand Jetmagazinesforfailing
to supportrap artists,claimingthatWhite-owned
publicationssuch as
RollingStoneand Spinhave been moreresponsive.However,an equal
intheBillboard
surveyindicatedthat
numberofrapperswho participated
theydid notview the negativepropagandaaboutrap as a racialissue
but insteadsaw it as prejudiceagainsta new formof musicthatthe
publicdoes notyetfullyunderstand.
SamplingDisputes
utilizemusicthatis electronically
Moreoftenthannot,raprecordings
recordedmusicofartistswho
lifted,or "sampled,"fromthepreviously
254
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
were popular duringthe 1950s,1960s,and 1970s;these samples are
inserted("dubbed") intothenew compositions
as backgroundmusicor
musicalbridges.Bitsand pieces of the musicof artistssuch as James
Brown,RickJames,Led Zeppelin,Sly Stone,and CurtisMayfieldare
frequentlysampled into contemporary
rap recordings.Segmentsof
recordedspeechesbyMalcolmX,AdamClaytonPowell,Jr.,theHonorable Elijah Muhammad,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,and MinisterLouis
Farrakhanare also commonlyused.
Due to the low costof samplingequipment,manyrap groupsfind
thatincludinga "hook" (a catchymusicalphrase)froman oldersuccessand recording
theirown. However,
fulsongis mucheasierthanwriting
or owner
whenuse ofsampledmusicis notclearedwiththesongwriter
of the music'scopyright,
samplinginfringes
againstexistingcopyright
law. Criticsin themusicpublishingbusinessarguethatlazinessor the
inability
to composetheirown songsleads rapperstouse otherpeople's
has been forcedto stepup itsenforcemusic;thustherecordindustry
laws. A numberoflawsuitshavebeen filed-indeed,
mentofcopyright
thousandsofrappersmaybe illegallysamplingcopyrighted
materialbut fewifany have gone all theway throughthelegal system.As one
entertainment
eitherthe
lawyerstates,goingtotrialwouldfailtobenefit
sampleror thesamplerowner:
The userofsampleswouldprefer
nottoriska case thatwouldeitherincreasethecost
(to licensesamples)ormakesomeuses impossible.On theotherside,theownersof
and recordcompanies,knowthecopyright
law as it
thematerial
sampled,publishers
is written
containstherightto makecertainuses withoutpaying,whichis calledfair
use. (Zimmerman,
1990,p. 69)
Lawyersmaintainthatsamplerscan avoid lawsuitsby applyingfor
licensesto use songsorbitsofsongsin theirraps. Some entertainment
theirrapclientscompactdisk
law firmshaveevengoneso faras to offer
used and manipulatedwithout
"libraries"ofmusicthatcan be lawfully
fearsoflegal problems.
DistributionDifficulties
Fromdayone theindependent
labels(indies)havebeenthelifeblood
orcontrolofthemajorrecordlabels
ofrapmusic.Freefromtheinfluence
theindiescreatedand discoverednew raptalentand createdthemarket
forrap by wordofmouthand street-level
promotion
tactics,personally
urgingretailrecordstoresandvideooutletstocarrytheirartists'products
indiesofrapare:CardiacRecords,
(Mapp, 1989).Someofthewell-known
DeliciousVinyl,Luke Records,Nastymix,NextPlateau,FirstPriority,
Profile,Select,TommyBoy,TuffCity,Wild Pitch,Def Jam,Egyptian
Empire,Ruthless,OriginalSound Equipment,Orpheus,and Sleeping
Records.Additionally,
Bag/Fresh
rappersM. C. Hammerand Luther
Campbellhave establishedtheirown independentproductioncompanies and labels. However,because the musicbusinessis such a risky
one, manyofrap'sindieshavesincefallenbythewayside(Mapp, 1989).
Mostoftheindiesbeganwithlimitedresourcesand zero credibility.
untiltheirartists'
To survive,theyhad tohaveenoughcapitaltofunction
musicwas in demandby the public.Theyhad to workhardand fast.
Withtherapidpace ofrap's development,
speedyreleaseofa recording
TheJournalofNegroEducation
255
was crucial.Then,the producthad to reachthe consumer.The indies
had to negotiatewiththebuyers(pointers)
and theirrecorddistributors
in the
at thevariousrecordretailoutletsto place theirartists'recording
Withhundredsof indiesand majorlabels competingfor
marketplace.
in thevolatilebusinessofmusicsales,
limitedshelfspace and visibility
distribution
becomesa veryimportant
componentoftheoperation.
In theearlydays ofrap musicit was simplerfortheindiesto reach
rap shoppersbecause the marketforthe musicwas small. However,
withouta trackrecordan indyhad no choicebutto distribute
through
in
a privatedistribution
company.Manyindiesexperienceddifficulties
promotion(ifany), and promptpayment
receivingwide distribution,
indiesnow have
frommusicretailers.
manyoftheformer
Consequently
withsuchmajorlabels("majors")as CBS, Warner
distribution
contracts
Brothers,
RCA, MCA, and Atlantic;othersare now whollyowned by
the indy and the
the majorrecordcompanies.In such arrangements
oftherap artist.The indyprovides
majorjointlydesignthemarketing
theknowledgeofthemethodsforreachingtherap consumer,and the
approachto promotionand distribution
majorsuppliesa sophisticated
(Donloe, 1990).
of thoseindiesthathave remainedindependentof
Representatives
withthequalityofrapthatthe
themajorshave expresseddissatisfaction
majorsareplacingon themarket.Independentproducerscomplainthat
because of rap's lowerbottom-line
figures,the majorsare playingrap
cheap. The cost to the majorsto develop a new rap artisthas been
estimatedat an averageof $65,000and upward,whereasthe developmentofa newR & B actcostsabout$300,000(Sacks,1989,p. R-3).Russell
Simmons,co-ownerof independentDef JamRecords,assertsthatthe
majorsarebuyingup indiesforthe"marketshareand notforthemusic,"
withpoor-quality
and thattherap markethas thusbeen oversaturated
ofRunofRun-DMC,teamedup withrapper
rap. Simmons,thebrother
KurtisBlow (CurtisWalker)whilea sociologymajorat CityCollegein
Harlemand becamehis manager.Blowwenton to becomethefirstbig
in 1979.SincethenSimmonshas managedmanyof
solo rap personality
rap's majorartistssuch as Run DMC, PublicEnemy,LL Cool J,and
WhitegroupstheBeastieBoysand 3rdBass (Holden,1987).Despitehis
impressivetrackrecord,however,Simmonsclaimsthat"in six months
everymajorhas putoutmorerapthanI havein sixyears"(Sacks,1989).
also concurthatifindependently
producedrap
Indyrepresentatives
couldgetmoreradioairplaytheirproductwouldmovefaster.Theynote
to crossoverrap,
thatalthoughBlack-ownedradiohas opened slightly
mostBlack stationsare unwillingto accepthard-corerap music and
relegatethe playingof mostrap to the eveningand late nighthours.
Withregardto television,Debbie Bennettof Luke Records,another
that"MusicTelevision
company,maintains
independent
rapproduction
Television
(MTV) has been moresupportivethanBlackEntertainment
(BET)" (Blatt,1990,p. R-8).
CONCLUSION
Manyyoungpeople, especiallythoseBlackyouthfromfamiliesof
low or moderateincomesin the nation'sinnercities,cease to identify
256
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
and dropoutas theyreachtheteenyears.
withtheschoolenvironment
Rap music,thestreet,and thepeergroupare oftenviewedbyyouthas
to formalschooling.Whereasthepeergroupand the
viablealternatives
valuesand attitudesprojectedthereinhas been shownto exerta strong
influenceon youth,thisinfluenceoftenrunscounterto the goals and
of formaleducation.Yet,forsomeyoungpeople, interest
expectations
intherapmusicindustry
has stimulated
theirentrepreneurial
tendencies
and providedthemwithan escape fromthecitystreets.
Ratherthan simplydiscountingrap as a corruptedformof cheap
culture,it should be recognizedthat,forbetteror worse, rap is an
thevaluesand attitudes
ofmany
educationalmediumcapableofaffecting
theriseof many
of our youngpeople. Rap's emergencehas facilitated
creativeyoungAfricanAmericans,some ofwhomare keenlyaware of
theeducationalpotentialofthisuniquemusicalformand oftheinfluence
they,as rap artists,exerton today'syoungpeople. Some publicschool
teachershave determinedthatrap is an effective
teachingtool when
ofBlackyoungsters.
One such teacher
used to enhancetheself-esteem
is Ayana(nee CarolynPlummer)ofOakland(CA). She has preparedher
own rap video and also has a televisionrap show,called"Guess What,
Ayana?All YoungArtistsNeed Attention,"
on localeducationalstation
KDOL (Channel13). The show is aimedat childrenofall ethnicgroups
in theOaklandarea. Psychiatrist
FrancesCressWelsingis a consultant
to theprogram.Ayanastatesthatthegoal of"Guess What,Ayana?"is
and to teachthemto like
to help theseyouthbecomeself-empowered
themselves(Kashif,1983).
and jazz in theirbeginnings,rap
Liketheblues,rhythm-and-blues,
has beenapplaudedbyfew,rejectedbymany,and subjectedtoexploitationbyrecordcompanies,managers,producers,and clubownersalike.
Like its kin it may also prove to have similarstayingpower. Many
rap artistshave enteredthe arena,manyachievingsuccessbut many
disappearinglikethewind. Theyused whateverwas cheap and availitwitha unique
able-fromold recordstoused turntables-andflavored
and vibrantstyleoftalkingtoproducean innovative,
political,danceable
musicalform.Despitetheirlackofaccess to moresophisticated
equipand artisticoutlets,rappersand theirDJshave
mentand promotional
we cannot
undoubtedlycreatedtheirown sound. As educationalists
andbringitintotheeducational
afford
nottotapintosomeofrap'svitality
ouryouthtostayin schooland
settingwhereitcan inspireand motivate
receiverelevanteducations.
REFERENCES
Benarde,S. (1990,March8). Muchmorethannasty.RollingStone,p. 62.
Blatt,W. (1990,November24).Innovatin
indies:Creativestrategies
chase
warriorsontonationalstage.Billboard,
word-of-mouth
p. R-8.
Brown,H. R. (1972).Streettalk.In T. Kochmon,Rappinandstylinout:
in urbanBlackAmerica
Communication
(pp. 205-208).Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress.
Brown,J.(1991,January
18). Crossingoverand cashingin. Washington
Post,p. 12.
TheJournalofNegroEducation
257
Stone,
Cott,J.(1970,September
3). TheLastPoetsand apocalypse.Rolling
p. 13.
12). Young,loud and snotty.RollingStone,
DeCurtis,A. (1987,February
p. 18.
Beattherap: Feministwomen
DiPrima,D. (1990,September/October).
in rap music.Mother
p. 35.
Jones,
Donloe,D. C. (1990,November24). Mintinmajors:Biggunstrainsights
p. R-4.
on explosivestreetmarket.Billboard,
Duncan,A. (1989,November22). Latifah-Thequeen ofrap. Christian
Science
Monitor,
p. 14.
p. 58.
Ehrlich,D. (1990,May). The queen ofhip. Interview,
rewriting
Grein,P. (1990,November24). Bustin'thebeat:Rapmilestones
p. R-12.
pop charthistoryweekly.Billboard,
Gospel withbeat:RappingforGod and no one else. (1990,March23).
Washington
Times,p. B-6.
R. (1989,December29). PublicEnemy'srap recordstirs
Harrington,
Post,p. D-1.
Jewishprotest.Washington
Henderson,A. (1988,December24). Artiston image:Rappersanswer
pp. R5-R13.
critics,pinpointresistanceto youthwave. Billboard,
Holden,S. (1987,August11). A youngcompanyguidesrap musicinto
NewYorkTimes,p. C-13.
themainstream.
Kashif,G. (1983,June).Ayanain fullbloom.Metro,pp. 55-57.
Jones,
p. 35.
Kennedy,L. (1990,September).Beattherap. Mother
Mapp,B. (1989,December16). Rap indies:Givingnewmeaningtoword
ofmouthina crowdedworldwithoutradio.Billboard,
pp. R30-R32.
McFadden,R. D. (1990,June8). Shockgreetsbanningofa rap album.
NewYorkTimes,p. A-10.
Mills,D. (1989,May 22). The hard rap on PublicEnemy.Washington
Times,p. E-1.
Murphy,R. (1990,November7). The ice-mancometh.MiamiHerald,p.
C-2.
danceperfor1991).TiminginWestAfrican
Nicholls,R. W. (forthcoming
factorson rhythm.
In J.H.
mance:The influenceof extramusical
selected
Vol. 3.
research,
Humphrey& L. Y. Overby,Dance:Current
New York:AMS Press
Pareles,J.(1989,August11). PublicEnemyrap groupreorganizesafter
comments.NewYorkTimes,p. C-3.
anti-Semitic
Washington
Parker,L. (1990,October20). Rap lyricslikenedtoliterature.
Post,p. D-1.
Perlman,J.(1990,July).Welcometo thefunhouse.Vogue,pp. 90-93.
Rap musicianM. C. Hammerformsown recordlabel.(1990,July9). Jet,
p. 8.
Russell,L. (1987,February9). The BeastieBoys:Rap's ThreeStooges
fightfortherightto be rude. People,p. 92.
Russell,L. (1990, August 6). M. C. Hammercouldn'tmake the big
field.
leaguesinbaseball,so he beganrappingouthitsina different
People,pp. 59-60.
Sacks, L. (1989,December16). The majors:Marketingthe revolution
downthestreetaroundthecornerand aroundtheworld.Billboard,
p. R-3.
258
ofNegroEducation
TheJournal
Seliger,M. (1990,May 17). Hot rappers.RollingStone,pp. 105-108.
Small,M. (1988,April18). Saltn' Pepa shakeitup, layinga cold rap on
men. People,p. 544.
Toop, D. (1984).Therapattack.Boston:SouthEnd Press.
Grandmaster
from
Watkins,W. H. (1984).Allyouneedtoknowaboutrappin'
Books.
Blaster.Chicago:Contemporary
K. (1990,August1). Old is newagaininworldofsampling.
Zimmerman,
p. 69.
Variety,
TheJournal
ofNegroEducation
259