How Video Games can be used as an Effective Learning

How Video Games can be used as an Effective Learning Environment for
Cognitive apprenticeship theory-based learning
By
Eunjoon ‘Rachel’ Um
Jonathan William deHaan
rachel.um@nyu.edu
jonathan.dehaan@nyu.edu
Educational Communication and Technology
Steinhardt School of Education
New York University
239 Greene Street, Suite 300
New York, NY 10003
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Introduction
Cognitive science and its theories have been used in designing learning environments and many
researchers have suggested that technology can assist in the implementation of these theories (Spiro et
al, 1991; CTGV, 1993; Jonassen, 2004). Video games have become one of the most influential forms
of technology in the world. This paper examines the potentials of video game technology as a
cognitive apprenticeship-based learning environment by exploring the principles of Collins-Brown’s
(1989) model of cognitive apprenticeship with current video games and how the principles are applied
effectively using the unique characteristics of video games.
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Situated Cognition
Cognitive apprenticeship is situated within the social constructivist paradigm (Brown et al.,
1989; Resnick, 1989).
The theory of situated cognition claims that every human thought is adapted to the
environment (Clancey, 1997). Moreover, what people perceive, think, and do develops in a
fundamentally social context (Driscoll, 2000). The cultural context, the co-constitutive nature of
individual-action-environment, and multiple knowledge communities have all become elements of
situated cognition theory. Wenger (1998) summarized the basic premises of situated cognition theory:
(1) We are social beings, which is a central aspect of learning; (2) Knowledge is a matter of
competence with respect to valued enterprises, such as singing in tune, discovering scientific facts,
fixing machines, and so on; (3) Knowing is a matter of participating in the pursuit of such enterprises,
that is, active engagement in the world.
Cognitive Apprenticeship theory
Based on the limitation they perceived of in today’s formal schooling, Collins and his
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colleagues (1989) proposed an alternative method of instruction – cognitive apprenticeship, a
synthesis of formal schooling and traditional apprenticeship. The goal of cognitive apprenticeship is
to make the thinking process of a learning activity visible to both the students and the teacher. The
teacher employs the methods of traditional apprenticeship (modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and
fading) to effectively guide student learning.
Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989) and Collins (1991) identified four aspects of cognitive
apprenticeship-based learning: content, instructional methods, sequencing of instruction, and
sociology.
Content refers to the different types of knowledge required for expertise and includes domain
knowledge of concepts, facts, and procedures and strategic knowledge of an expert's ability to make
use of concepts, facts, and procedures to solve problems.
Instructional methods are the learning activities used during instruction to help students
construct, use, manage, and acquire new knowledge. They recommended seven instructional methods:
"modeling," "coaching," "scaffolding," "fading," "articulating," "reflecting" and "exploring."
Application of Cognitive Apprenticeship
The basic methods of cognitive apprenticeship have been successfully applied to teaching in
the domains of reading, writing, and mathematics (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Scardamalia & al. 1984;
Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985; Schoenfeld, 1985). In these domains, they emphasize two things. First,
the method is aimed primarily at teaching the processes that experts use to handle complex tasks.
Where conceptual and factual knowledge are addressed, cognitive apprenticeship emphasizes their
use in problem solving and carrying out tasks. Conceptual and factual knowledge are exemplified and
situated in the contexts of their use. There is a dual focus on expert processes and situated learning.
Second, it focuses on the learning-through-guided-experience of the cognitive and metacognitive,
rather than physical, skills and processes.
Most of the studies in these domains incorporate the basic elements of cognitive
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apprenticeship, using the methods of modeling, coaching and fading and of encouraging student
reflection on their own learning. Especially in Scardamalia and Bereiter’s ‘Procedural facilitation of
writing’ case (1984, 1985), they applied tenets of cognitive apprenticeship by providing explicit
procedural supports based on contrasting models of novice and expert writing strategies. Their
approach was designed to give students a grasp of the complex activities involved in expertise by
explicating modeling of expert processes, gradually reducing support or scaffolding for students
attempting to engage in the processes, and providing opportunities for students to reflect on their own
and others’ efforts.
Cognitive apprenticeship has been supported by media, mainly via the computer and the
Internet.
Lesgold and his colleagues (1992) developed ‘Sherlock,’ a computer-coached practice
environment, to develop the troubleshooting skills of Air Force electronics technicians. The system is
based on the cognitive apprenticeship theory of modeling, scaffolding and coaching using a schematic
diagram that demonstrates expert understanding to the trainees.
Jarvela (1995) and Snyder et al. (2000) demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive
apprenticeship as an instructional design approach for teaching technical skills in an online
environment by incorporating the use of discussion databases, e-mail and multimedia. They used
cognitive apprenticeship techniques such as expert modeling, coaching, scaffolds, articulation,
reflection, and exploration.
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Video Game Technology
Video games have become one of the most influential forms of entertainment in the
world. Video games are a form of popular culture very similar to film or television in their
impact. Generally, video games’ characteristics such as competition, interactivity and realism
are presumed to be the main factors that affect users by providing continuous and engaging
visceral and behavioral thrills (Norman, 2004; Squire, 2004). Educators have not researched
video games as much as other media (computers, the Internet, film and television, for
example), but as video games have recently advanced both technologically and in popularity,
there has been a movement to study the cognitive potential of games and how human
interaction and the design of learning environments can be supported through game study
(Squire, 2004).
Research on Video Games and Learning
The most significant attempt at researching video games in a learning context was
done in Gee’s “What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy” (2003)
in which he outlined several learning principles by analyzing the various strengths and
patterns used in popular video games. These principles can be taken into consideration when
we design learning environments.
Other educators see video games as powerfully motivating digital environments and
study them in order to determine how motivational components of popular video games might
be integrated into instructional design (Bowman, 1982; Driskell & Dwyer, 1984; Bracey,
1992).
The “Games to Teach” Project (Jenkins, 2002), a collaborative effort between
Microsoft and MIT’s Comparative Media Studies Program, conducted a series of elaborate
“thought experiments,” and developed several conceptual prototypes exploring different models
for how games might enrich the instruction of science, engineering and math at the advanced
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placement high school and early college levels. Their studies suggest that games do offer
teachers enormous resources they can use to make their subject matter come alive for their
students, motivate learning, offer rich and compelling problems, model the scientific process
and engineering contexts, and enable more sophisticated assessment mechanisms.
Video Games as a Cognitive Apprenticeship-based Learning Environment
Good video games immerse users in rich interactive digital micro-worlds. Bowman
(1982) suggests that educators could use video games as a model for improving learning
environments by providing clear goals, challenging students, allowing for collaboration, using
criterion-based assessments, giving students more control over the learning process and
incorporating novelty into the environment.
Many other game researchers have implied that video games could be used to create
a cognitive apprenticeship-based learning environment (Jenkins, 2002; Prensky, 2002; Squire,
2004). However, none of them deeply studied how video games can support certain learning
theories.
The following are specific implications of game technology and how and why it can
be used in learning according to the principles of Collins-Brown’s (1989) model of cognitive
apprenticeship.
Content: Teach tacit, heuristic knowledge as well as textbook knowledge.
Collins et al. (1989) refer to four kinds of knowledge: domain knowledge, heuristic
strategies, control strategies and learning strategies. Domain knowledge is the conceptual and
procedural knowledge typically found in textbooks and other instructional materials. Heuristic
strategies are ‘tricks of the trade’ or ‘rules of thumb’ in which people use narrow solution
paths to solve a problem. Control strategies are for students to monitor and regulate their
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problem-solving activity.
Video games’ high interactivity and rich multimedia elements are almost unlimited in
presenting different knowledge or strategies. In video games, domain knowledge can be easily
presented by providing a tutorial or presentation using media such as text, narration, graphics,
video and animation.
Heuristic, control and learning strategies can be fostered through repeated problemsolving practice (Squire, 2004). In the virtual environment of video games, learners can repeat
actions without the anxiety of failure. Also, by taking part in simulations, learners can easily
observe the natural uses of domain knowledge and later apply it in an authentic context.
Most video games first present domain knowledge and require players to apply this
knowledge in problem-solving activities. Domain knowledge is especially necessary in roleplaying and simulation games; without it users often cannot succeed in the game. By solving
problems and achieving incremental goals, game players also learn other strategies. For
example, in the PC game ‘Monopoly Tycoon,’
users first go through an interactive tutorial
and static text to learn the basic words,
concepts and strategies of buying and
managing real estate properties. When the
actual game starts, players use the basic
knowledge and strategies and domain
knowledge from the tutorial in order to experiment with more advanced and less explicit
strategies for completing objectives; they ultimately learn complex and contextualized real
estate management skills.
Situated Learning: Teach knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way the knowledge
will be useful in real life.
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Sociology is one of the building blocks of the cognitive apprenticeship model, in
which, all instruction is placed within ‘authentic’ contexts that mirror real-life problem solving
situations. The learning environment should reproduce the technological, social, temporal and
motivational characteristics of real-world situations where what is being learned will be used
(Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989).
Games have a great potential to support this principle by providing a realistic
environment in which learners can practice and
apply newly acquired knowledge and problem
solving abilities. In ‘CSI: Dark Motives,’ the
player is a new trainee at the Las Vegas
crime lab, and must gather and analyze
evidence, interview suspects, and work with
other lab members in order to solve the crimes and be hired by the team. The gameplay
takes place in a true-to-life environment: the player has a believable incentive for solving the
crimes (employment), the various suspects and characters assert themselves in realistic ways,
and authentic forensic tools must be mastered in order to solve the cases.
Role-playing and simulation games can also give learners the experience of
contextualized learning, in particular when interaction and collaboration are integral success
strategies. Video game consoles with multi-player online or wireless gaming capabilities
appear to be an increasingly important part of the video game environment supporting the
principle of situated learning (Squire, 2004). In many Massively Multiplayer Online Role
Playing Games (MMORPGs), character class skill sets and areas are designed so that no one
player can survive without bonding with others. Even in MUDs (Multiple User Dungeons),
text-based online environments, users can collaborate in groups to complete quests and solve
puzzles.
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Modeling and explaining: Show how a process unfolds and give reasons why it happens that
way.
In a video game, the modeling of processes and the demonstration of expert
performances can be easily visualized. Squire (2004) suggests that computerized simulations or
‘edutainment’ video games can be powerful tools for learning for four reasons: (1) learners
can manipulate otherwise unalterable variables, (2) students can view phenomena from new
perspectives, (3) learners can observe a system’s behavior over time and (4) students can
visualize a system in three dimensions.
Most video games contain features that model and explain gameplay using visual aids,
allowing a player to observe a process and
understand its underlying factors. In the first
battle of ‘Final Fantasy Tactics,’ you do not
have control over all the members of your
party. Rather, you only control the main
character and can watch how your computercontrolled allies move, attack and use items in
the battle. You are free to engage in the battle or stay at the rear of your party and merely
observe (you can rotate the battleground in order to view the battle from four different
directions). After this battle, you gain control of all the members of your party. The unique
initiation to gameplay in ‘Final Fantasy Tactics’ allows the player to understand the methods
and strategies necessary for successful future battles.
Coaching: Observe students as they try to complete tasks and provide hints and help when needed.
In the learner-centered environments of video games, the player often requires guidance on
what to do next. Gee (2003) mentioned that good video games deal with overt information and
guidance on one hand and immersion in practice on the other.
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Coaching in an apprenticeship-based video game environment can be accomplished through a
variety of forms of guidance: from programmed feedback for certain inputs to virtual coaches as Gee
(2003) described using the example of Professor Von Croy (a character in the ‘Tomb Raider’ game
series) who guides Lara, the heroine, over a variety of obstacles. In driving simulation games such as
‘Crazy Taxi’ or ‘Grand Theft Auto III’, a navigating map with marks indicating safe houses or
mission locations is another form of a hint. In the ‘Sonic the Hedgehog’ games, memo-style notices
suggest what the user should do to finish a game stage. In the ‘Monster Rancher’ series, an in-game
assistant gives continuous information on how your virtual-pet monster is feeling, how well it may do
in competitions, and what the result of certain training methods may be (spoiling may lead to a lazy
monster; attempting a difficult task may frustrate a monster). By following the assistant’s advice, a
player learns the most appropriate methods for raising a healthy and victorious monster.
In MMORPGs, less experienced players often ask higher-level players advice about where to
find a particular shop in a city, which weapons or
spells are the most effective, or how to defeat a
certain enemy. ‘A Tale in the Desert,’ however,
makes coaching an integral element of gameplay.
In this social experiment of sorts, players start
with nothing and learn to gather materials and
construct objects in order to progress in an Ancient
Egyptian society. Various skills can be learned in the game, ranging from art or architecture to
leadership or the human body. One of the requirements of a player who decides to train in leadership
is to become a ‘mentor’ for less experienced players. Mentors are ‘on-call,’ and there are mentors
specifically devoted to speakers of languages besides English. A player can contact her mentor as
often or as seldom as it is necessary, placing gameplay and learning directly in her Zone of Proximal
Development (Vygotsky, 1978).
Virtual coaches or masters who help players use some functions of a game, hint at some goals,
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tactics, or strategies can be easily integrated into games.
Articulation and Reflection: Have students think about their actions and give reasons for their
decisions and strategies, thus making their tacit knowledge more explicit; Have students look back
over their efforts to complete a task and analyze their own performance.
Cognitive apprenticeship also requires extended techniques to encourage the development of
self-correction and monitoring skills. It encourages reflection by noticing differences between novice
and expert performance and by using techniques such as abstracted replay (Collins & Brown, 1998).
In video games, the replaying of learners’ actions and strategies and giving feedback can
facilitate articulation and reflection. Malone (1981) also suggested that multiple goal structures and
scoring can give students feedback on their progress. Video games can provide multiple sources or
dimensions of feedback based on users’ performance in authentic contexts. One example of how
video games can prompt reflection is through the slow-motion replaying and reviewing of learners’
actions like in many martial arts fighting
games such as ‘Tekken’, ‘Street Fighter’, and
‘Soul Caliber.’ More advanced methods of
prompting reflection are evidenced in ‘Mario
Kart 64,’ in which a player can race around
the track against a ‘ghost’ kart (the driving
data of his best lap), and ‘ESPN NFL 2K5,’ in
which the computer can analyze every aspect of a player’s play style, save this profile to a memory
card, and allow that person or a friend to practice against her play style and learn her strengths and
weaknesses. These latter two examples demonstrate how video games can support prediction,
hypothesizing and experimentation, which focus a student’s attention directly on her own thought
processes (Herrington & Oliver, 1995).
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Articulation is seen less frequently in ‘stand-alone’ video games, although some games, like
‘Myst IV: Revelations’ do contain ‘journal’ and ‘photography’ systems that allow a player to focus
more attention on her cognitive processes while playing the game. However, MMORPGs such as
‘World of Warcraft’ or ‘Everquest,’ because of their collaborative nature, foster a player’s frequent
articulation of his knowledge when negotiating with
his group mates about which dungeon to enter, the
method of attack or how to complete a particular
quest. A player often needs to not only suggest a
course of action to the group, but also to be able to
give several reasons why and how it should take
place, or why it should happen one way and not another.
Exploration: Encourage students to try out different strategies and hypotheses and observe their
effects.
In the real world, exploration costs money, time, and sometimes has risks in various situations.
In virtual environments, especially in simulation and role-playing games, learners can apply as many
different strategies and hypotheses as they want.
Gee (2003) suggested a multiple routes principle from this point of view: there are multiple
ways to make progress or move ahead. This allows learners to make choices, rely on their own
strengths and styles of learning and problem solving while also exploring alternative styles (p.108).
In designing video games, we can allow students to choose different ways to solve problems,
and this design strategy is easily found in many strategic simulation games. For example, in firstperson World War II simulations such as
‘Battlefield 1942,’ and ‘Medal of Honor,’
players can choose different types of soldiers
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and apply different strategies to defend or attack territories. A novice player might choose to fight as a
sniper and find himself very ineffective against a battalion of tanks. Players can experiment with
different troop types and combinations, vehicles and offensive and defensive strategies. These games
allow a player countless opportunities to plan, act, and adjust strategies in order to become a more
effective team member. Also, in ‘Star Craft’, players can use different strategies to fight back against
two other enemies; exploration of strategies also takes place when dealing with more and varied
enemies. By observing the effect of the strategies they choose, players can learn different perspectives.
Sequence: Present instruction in an order from simple to complex, with increasing diversity, and
global before local skills.
Sequencing involves the staging of learning whereby tasks are presented in increasing
complexity and diversity so that students develop a broad understanding of the domain of expertise.
One of the common characteristic features of video games are their increasing complexity and
diversity as students build certain skills and knowledge of strategies. In games, multiple difficulty
levels can be provided to adjust the game difficulty as learner’s individual skills develop (Malone,
1981). In addition, reducing the amount of help from virtual guidance or coaches as the game
progresses can be easily included in a game’s design.
Several skill-related games employ this strategy, usually providing some rewards as a
motivational factor as the learner gains more
expertise. A good example is the game ‘SSX
Tricky’, the snow boarding role-playing
simulation game. In the beginning of the game,
the character can only snowboard on easier
slopes. After viewing demonstrations of new
tricks, then practicing and mastering these techniques, the game allows the player to advance to more
difficult slopes. As a reward for mastering both tricks and slopes, a player is allowed to customize her
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character with more fashionable outfits and boards.
Conclusion
The Cognitive apprenticeship theory and its effective implementation strategy have been built
through an analysis of traditional apprenticeship and the extensive body of cognitive science research.
As discussed above, video game technology has a great deal of potential in designing learning
environments. Besides its great effect on learners’ motivation, video games have many features that
can be strong advantages, when compared to other media, in designing cognitive apprenticeship-based
learning: it provides realistic virtual worlds; it is effective in visualizing and modeling processes and
strategies; it allows for high levels of interaction; and it is effective in giving feedback and
opportunities for practice. Applied properly, these features can make cognitive apprenticeship-based
environments more engaging for both students and teachers.
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