European Symbols

European Symbols
Modules for a European Schoolbook
Euroclassica 2013
Lisbon, 31/8/2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... 2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................ 3 EUROPEAN SYMBOLS – ........................................................................................................ 4 AUSTRIA: Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy ............................................. 5 BELGIUM: Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmus’ Joyous Entry into Political Culture .................. 9 CROATIA: Marko Marulić – the Father of Croatian Literature .............................................. 13 CZECHIA: The Ancient Heroes in Baroque Olomouc ............................................................ 17 DENMARK: Ludvig Holberg Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum ............................................ 21 GERMANY: Melanchthon, the Teacher of Germany ............................................................. 25 GREAT BRITAIN: The Great Charter signed by King John in AD 1215 .............................. 29 GREECE: The journey to Ithaca: Cavafy’s readings of the human soul ................................ 33 ITALY: An Open-air Sculpture Gallery of Classics/Dante Alighieri ...................................... 37 LITHUANIA: Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon ............................................................ 41 REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA: Grigor Prlichev .................................................................... 45 THE NETHERLANDS: Erasmus’ Praise of Folly .................................................................. 49 PORTUGAL: Coimbra, University City .................................................................................. 53 ROMANIA: Dimitrie Cantemir, a Humanist and a Latinist .................................................... 57 SPAIN: The Roman Theater of Merida ................................................................................... 61 RUSSIA: Sigismund von Herberstein, Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii, Vienna, 1549 64 SWEDEN: The royal warship Wasa ........................................................................................ 69 SWITZERLAND: William Tell ............................................................................................... 73 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
„European Symbols“ for Students of Classical Languages
modules for a European schoolbook
Schedule:
30.04.2009
deadline for electronic manuscript of first edition. Send e-manuscript to
the coordinators Peter Glatz peter.glatz@eduhi.at und Andreas Thiel
a.thiel@eduhi.at
30.06.2009 Finish of layout and draft print of the first version.
16.08.2009 edition of the first version of „European Symbols“
27.-30.8.2009 presentation at the Euroclassica 2009 in Skopje
2009/2010
emendation, extension of contributions and improvement of concept
3.-5.9.2010 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2010 in Madrid
25.-28.8.2011 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2011 in Paris
2011- 2013 final layout and ultimate version of „European Symbols“
Current project members - September 2008 – August 2012:
Austria
Belgium
Czechia
Croatia
Denmark
Germany
Great Britain
Greece
Lithuania
Republic of
Macedonia
Glatz Peter
Thiel Andreas
Christian Laes
Barbara Pokorna
Bagaric Jadranka
Jens R. Poulsen
Katri Bügel Jørgensen
Helmut Meissner
David Taylor
Antony Makrinos
Mantas Adomenas
peter.glatz@eduhi.at
a.thiel@eduhi.at
Christian.Laes@ua.ac.be
barbara.pokorna@upol.cz
jadranka_bagaric@yahoo.com
jr@borgerdyd.dk
kj@cg-gym.dk
hmeissner@gmx.de
dwtaylor.hmi@gmail.com
a.makrinos@ucl.ac.uk
ianuarium@gmail.com
Dimovska Vesna
vesna.dimovska@gmail.com
The Netherlands
Tijsseling Egge
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Spain
Oliveira Francisco
Cretia Gabriela
Elena Ermolaeva
José Luis Navarro
Sweden
Tarandi Eva Scough
Switzerland
Christine Haller Aellig
tijssling@felisenum.nl
felitijs@xs4all.nl
euroclassic@ci.uc.pt
gabrielacretia@yahoo.ro
ml304@mail.ru
NAVARRAKIS@terra.es
eva.tarandi@utbildning.stockholm.se
eva@tarandi.se
christine_haller@hotmail.com
photo titlepage: source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/800pxEuropa_und_der_Stier_C.jpg, Valentin Aleksandrovich Serov, The Rape of Europe,
[09.08.2009]
printed by GTI, 2012
European Symbols
3
EUROPEAN SYMBOLS –
A European Schoolbook for Students of Classical Languages
The point of this project is to create a European schoolbook which may be used by pupils in all countries of
Europe. The fascinating idea of the European Union should be represented in this common schoolbook for
all European students of the classical languages showing the common cultural roots of Europe.
Each European country is invited to contribute four pages showing the reception of classical culture
and thinking in politics, social norms, art, literature, philosophy, law, etc. corresponding to the chosen
genuine national symbol, a truly relevant popular text or person of national interest and popularity. The
population of the country should be ready to identify on a broad national consensus with the choice. The
ideal choice is not taken from classical antiquity but rather from later times or the present. The texts meet the
target competences of the ECCL (http://www.anderslernen.net/ec/) at PALATIUM level, which asks for the
introduction of authentic texts on Europa Latina, figures and characters from mythology and history, Roman
roots and ruins in the respective mother country, or/and THESAURUS level, which also caters for authentic
texts including e.g. texts by Erasmus, Comenius, lyric poetry and texts on the impact of Latin language and
literature. All texts are expected to be introduced, commented and supplied with suitable illustrations or
pictures. Special effort is taken in finding sufficient well-considered questions of interpretation to go with the
texts.
The level applied for designing the comments on morphology and syntax should also correspond to
the level of PALATIUM or/and THESAURUS in the ECCL. Annotations and reference to vocabulary will
be adapted to the respective levels as soon as the ECCL word lists are available. There should be no
reference to either national curricula or any national books. The texts are also offered online by
www.euroclassica.eu in a special project community (http://community.schule.at/index.php?cid=9630) and
each individual teacher may adapt the product to their individual needs. Translations, teacher handbooks and
further online materials are offered there as well. As English is taught as the first foreign language in most
countries of Europe, the language of the schoolbook is English thus catering for optional bilingual teaching
in each European country, but, of course, also allowing traditional treatment of the central European texts in
the mother tongue.
In the first three years of the project the following countries have taken an active part in the project
and have contributed material concerning a national symbol: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany,
Greece, Lithuania, The Republic of Macedonia, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden
and Switzerland. As this project was approved by the general assembly of Euroclassica in Ohrid in 2009, all
other European nations are very welcome to join in. The project should be finished within the next 2 years.
As follows you can find the Austrian part of the European schoolbook presenting the Karlskirche of
Vienna as a beautiful example of Habsburg architecture based on the concept of the “translatio imperii”, the
Belgian part on Erasmus’ Panegyric for a Prince as a joyous entry into political culture, the Croatian
contribution on the father of Croatian literature, the Croatian Dante, Marcus Marulus, Denmark’s
contribution on Holberg’s Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum, Germany’s part on Melanchton’s impact, the
Greek contribution on C. P. Cavafy’s mythologoical-didactic poem Ithaca, the Lithuanian part on the
cathedral of Vilnius, the Lithuanian Parthenon, the contribution of the Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia on Grigor Prlichev and his Greek epic on the freedom fighter Skanderbei, which bears clear
allusions to Homer’s Iliad, the Dutch contribution on Desiderius Erasmus’ Praise of Folly, which reflects his
lasting impression on European thoughts and views, the Portuguese part on the University of Coimbra, the
Romanian contribution on Dimitrie Cantemir’s Descriptio Moldaviae, the Russian contribution on
Sigismund von Herberstein’s Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii, which report on his experiences in
Russia in the 16th century, the Spanish part on the theatre of Merida, the Swedish contribution on the Wasa
warship, whose hull and beak are full of figures from Greek and Roman myths and the Swiss contribution on
the freedom fighter Wilhelm Tell.
These contributions are meant as preliminary versions waiting for real classroom testing around Europe,
evaluation and amendment before the final edition.
Andreas Thiel and Peter Glatz, administrators of www.euroclassica.eu , August 2012
European Symbols
4
AUSTRIA: Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy
by Peter Glatz and Andreas Thiel, Austria
The Vienna Karlskirche, one of the most
eminent sacral Baroque buildings in Europe,
was built between 1716 and 1737 in
fulfilment of a solemn vow taken by
Emperor Charles VI in 1713 when the
plague had visited Vienna for the second
time within two decades and roughly 10000
people had died. The magnificent church
was constructed in honour of Charles’ name
saint and the patron saint of the plague, St.
Charles Borromeo, by the architect Bernhard
Fischer von Erlach and later by his son
Joseph Emanuel. The significance of the
Vienna Karlskirche as a Baroque votive
offering is clearly overshadowed by the source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karlskirche_Vienna_Front.jpg, CCobvious spirit of imperial propaganda
BY-SA-2.0-DE, [31.5.2009]
expressed by manifold architectural
allusions devised in Carl Gustav Heraeus’ iconocraphical program of the
church. The exterior of this most spectacular Baroque cathedral north of
the Alps is an eclectic jumble, with an oval dome perched atop a
Classical colonnade reminiscent of St. Peter’s in Rome and a main portal
resembling a Greek temple flanked by two replicas of Trajan's column in
Rome alluding to Boaz and Jachin, two columns which stood in the porch
of Salomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, and the ancient Pillars of Hercules in
source: Tempel Salomos, reconstruction
taken from: Volz, Paul: Die biblischen
the Strait of Gibraltar.
Altertümer. Calw + Stuttgart. 1914, 29.
Heraeus, Carl Gustav, Brevis explicatio numismatum aliquot ex iis quae in imperatoris Carolis VI historia
numismatica aeternitati Augusti dicantur, o.O.,o.J. (ÖNB 45.F.23).
Discussing the medal cast to commemorate the cornerstone ceremony of the Vienna Karlskirche Charles
VI’s iconographer describes the building’s unique exterior:
1
Templi
in
suburbio1
prospectum2
augustiorem3
reddunt Columnae Colossicae, quae intus4 cochlide5
aditum praebent ad minores Campanas6, extra7 Sancti
Caroli Borromaei in utraque fortuna8 Constantiam et
5
Fortitudinem exhibent Opere Anaglyptico9, imitantes
in Trajani, Antoninique Monimentis formam, non
laudes Caesaris, quas Ejus modestia ad Divum suum
deprecatorem10 retulit11, ita ut Columnae muta et
secundaria12
tantum
significatione
Fundatoris
10 Symbolum13 loquantur14.
1. suburbium, -i n.: suburb; 2. prospectus, -us m.: view; 3. augustus 3 :
majestic; 4. intus : adv.: within,
inside, on the inside; 5. cochlis, -idis
f.: spiral shell, conch; 6. campana, ae f. : bell; 7. extra: adv.: outside, on
the outside; 8. in utraque fortuna:
both in fortune and misfortune;
9. anaglypticus 3: carved/embossed in
low/bas relief; 10. deprecator, -oris
m.: one pleading for mercy, gobetween, champion/ advocate;
11. refero, -ferre, -tuli, -latus: to
assign, to transfer; 12. secundarius 3:
of secondary significance; 13.
symbolum, -i n. : here: motto
14. loquor 3 locutus sum: here: to
declare;
Comments:
3 Sanctus Carolus Borromaeus (1538 – 1584): son of Giberto II Borromeo and Margherita de’ Medici;
Italian cardinal and patron saint of the plague
4 Constantia et Fortitudo: constancy and strength were Charles VI’s motto and echo the symbolism of the
two ancient pillars Boaz (strength) and Jachin (unity) of the Salomonic Temple in Jerusalem.
European Symbols
5
6 Traianus, -i. (52 – 117): Roman Emperor 98 – 117; expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent;
deified and buried beneath Traian’s Column in Rome; Antoninus, -i. (121 – 180): Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus Augustus, Roman Emperor 161 – 180 and Stoic philosopher, fought against Germanic tribes and
Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome.
Questions and Tasks:
1. In which different ways is the symbolism of the
Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda?
2. What is the connection between Spain’s national motto
plus ultra and Charles VI’s Constantia et Fortitudo?
What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb
non plus ultra?
3. Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl
Gustav Heraeus?
Traian’s Column
Andreas Thiel)
(photo: Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town
Hall of Seville (photo: Ignacio Gavira,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Columnas_
Plus_Ultra.png, licence: GFDL,[30.5.2009]
The
Coat
of
Spain
(source: Marcus Aurelius’ Column
SanchoPanzaXXI,
(photo: Andreas Thiel)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File
:Escudo_de_Espa%C3%B1a_(mazonad
o).svg licence: GFDL [31.5.2009]
Theresias. Szenen aus dem Österreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745. Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers
in neun Büchern lateinisch und deutsch, Heinz Martin Werhahn, Neuss, 1995.
Charles VI’s daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her father’s
death in 1740. In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which had been designed to guarantee Maria
Theresia’s inheritance of the crown, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims
on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia.
Maria Theresia’s accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic
literature1. Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully
attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale. This is largely due to numerous well
chosen allusions to Virgil’s Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it. In the 8th book of the Theresias after
several of Maria Theresia’s brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine’s defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia
the poet lets her find comfort, when her father, the late emperor Charles VI, appears in her dream2.
1
Elisabeth Klecker, Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes: Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik für Maria
Theresia, in Franz. M Eybl (Hrsg.), Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis: Beiträge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht
des theresianischen Zeitalters, Wien, 2002 (Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten
Jahrhunderts, 17), 233-247.
2
The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker, Maria Theresia und Aeneas:
Vergilrezeption zur Bewältigung der weiblichen Erbfolge, in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126.
European Symbols
6
Theres. 8, 640-646:
640
Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum,
ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus,
O pater, exclamat, pater, o, da4 jungere dextram
teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris!
Dixerat, et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae,
645
par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno
aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago.
1. The PPA conata refers to Maria
Theresia; 2. frustror 1: to deceive,
dupe, trick, disappoint;
3. evanesco 3. -nui: to vanish,
disappear; pass away; 4. do 1 +
Inf.: to grant, to permit;
5. amplexus, -us m. : embrace;
6. subtraho 3. -traxi, -tractus :
here: + Abl.: to evade sth.;
7. promptus 3: refers to Maria
Theresia; prepared, ready;
8. aspicio 3M + subjunctive: to
watch as…;9. aufugio 3M. -fugi :
to flee, escape, disappear;
10 genitor, -is m. : father
Comments:
640sqq.: Ter conata patris…: The whole scene is modelled on Aeneas’ encounter with his father Anchises
in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid. Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his father’s shadow to no avail,
Maria Theresia’s three attempts at hugging her father prove futile.
Compare Aen. 6, 700f.:
ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum;
ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago
642sq.: da jungere dextram:
Compare Aen. 6, 697f.:
Da iungere dextram,
da, genitor, teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro.
645sq: par levibus ventis…
Compare Aen. 6, 702:
par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno
simillima somno: In the Theresias Aeneas’ katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream
appearance, which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature, as the imagination of a Christian leader’s descent
into the Underworld, which was considered to be hell, had to be avoided. In Ioannes Battista Nigronius’
Bellum Pannonicum, Utini, typis Nicolai Schiratti, 1666, Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream.
Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus, De bello germanico liber,
Ingolstadt, Alexander Weissenhorn, 1547.
Theres. 8, 615:
In Virgil’s Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive
account of Rome's future glory, particularly in the glorification of Augustus. Virgil renders Augustus the
epitome of the Roman Empire, the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age. Maria Theresia’s
dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose. After predicting Francis Stephen of
Lorraine’s crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgil’s
catalogue of heroes.
615
Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos
progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes
illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras
expediam5 paucis6: Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7
quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8
620
hic puer, hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9,
qui Romanorum regum, qui stirpis10 avitae11
Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem
heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter.
Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuus…
European Symbols
1. maneo 2. mansi: here: to
expect, to wait for; 2 progenies, ei f.: offspring; 3. illustris, -e:
illustrious, noble; 4. Lotharus, -i
m.: Lothar , founder of the
Lorraine dynasty; 5. expedio 4: to
explain; 6. paucis: scil. verbis; 7.
Iosephus, -i m.: Joseph, Maria
Theresia’s son, then archduke of
Austria, later Holy Roman
Emperor;
8.
negarunt
=
negaverunt; 9. Francisco Caesare
patre: “after his father Emperor
Francis I”; 10. stirps, -is f.: stock;
family or branch of a family; line
of descent; 11. avitus 3: “from his
grandfather”; 12. heros, -ois m.:
hero, refer to inter
7
Comments:
615sqq.: Gloria quanta tuos… :
Compare Aen. 6, 756ff.:
Nunc age, Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur
gloria, qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes
inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras,
expediam dictis
620sq.: hic puer, hic vir erit:
Compare Aen. 6, 791f.:
hic vir, hic est…
Augustus Caesar, divi genus
The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty. The anaphoric hic puer, hic vir
transfers Virgil’s central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph.
Theres. 8, 631:
Joseph’s imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum,
which corresponds to Anchises’ prophesy of Rome’s mission in Virgil’s Aeneid.
631
…pacis servabit pacta fidemque
nec violare sinet; quae si quis laeserit, ille
1. benignus 3: kind, generous,
helpful
terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1
Comments:
631sqq.: … pacis servabit pacta fidemque:
Compare Aen. 6, 852: hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem
parcere subiectis et debellare superbos
Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgil’s epic, the Theresias focuses on the future
emperor Joseph – the new Augustus – through his heroic mother Maria Theresia. Elisabeth Klecker suitably
adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius, who wrote about Virgil’s intention: Homerum imitari et
Augustum laudare a parentibus, to the design of the author of the Theresias: Vergilium imitari et Josephum
laudare a matre Theresia.
In deliberate allusion to Virgil’s panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the
concept of the “translatio imperii”, the “transfer of rule”. This idea represents an eschatological interpretation
of global history: the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler.
The concept’s origin rests in Hieronymus’ exegesis of the Book of Daniel, whose four kingdoms the Church
Father interpreted as Babylonia, Persia, Greece and the Roman Empire. The fall of the last empire will ring
in the end of the world. That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the
Holy Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages the concept of the “translatio imperii” only gradually gained wider
recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history: The imperium had been transferred to the
Church or rather the Byzantine Empire, then after Charles the Great’s coronation in 800 A.C. to the Franks
and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation.
Moreover the doctrine of the “translatio imperii” served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the
throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession. In modern times the aspiring
great powers of Spain (16th century), France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of
Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the “translatio imperii”.
Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west
(ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf. the Capitol, the US claim to world rule
and its dedication as a bringer of world peace). Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there
will be a further shift of power to the west (China, India).
Questions and Tasks:
1. The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years' War triggered a much greater variety of epic
literature than both the Thirty Years’ War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna. What is
surprising about that and what is probably the reason?
2. In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from
Virgil’s Aeneid in terms of intention, perspective and setting?
European Symbols
8
BELGIUM: Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmus’ Joyous Entry into Political
Culture
by Maarten Vermeir, Free University of Brussels
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, painted by Hans Holbein
Philip the Fair, painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend
Desiderius Erasmus, Opera Omnia Des. Erasmi Roterodami, Tomus IV-1, O. Herding and F. Schalk, edd..,
North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974, Amsterdam, p. 64.
You are reading a fragment of Erasmus’ Panegyricus, one of the earliest political writings of this great
European thinker. This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised
version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany, one month
before. Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony, offered by the Estates of
Brabant to their sovereign: Philip the Fair, Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands,
including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430. They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philip’s return to
Brussels after a long stay in Spain, home country to his wife Joanna of Castile.
Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis, ut tibi pareatur2, nisi
parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3
1. itidem: in the same way; 2. parere
+ dative: to obey;
3. maiestas laesa: lèse majesté;
existimas, si quis verbo refragetur4, quin gaudes magis
4. refragari: to resist;
admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5, quo temet in suscipiendo
5. religionis et iusiurandi: this is an
instance of a so-called genitivus
criminis; 6. se obstringere: to bind
oneself;
7. purpura, -ae f.: the purple, i.e. high
dignity or office; 8. ista: refers to
‘purpura’; 9. te clam est + inf.: it is
unknown to you;
principatu obstrinxisti6. Non ignoras quantum oneris cum
purpura7 susceperis, eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit
licentiorem, sed sollicitiorem in omnibus. Neque te clam est9
imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus
contineri, sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum, ut
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9
si non aliis, certe tibi ipsi repetenti, certe deo repetundarum
acturo10 queas rationem reddere11; in summa hanc esse
propriam principis laudem, ut maximum esse sese quasi12
10. repetundarum agere: to demand
satisfaction; 11. rationem reddere:to
render account; 12. quasi: almost
nesciat, optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit.
In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain, which like Brussels, Antwerp and ‘s-Hertogenbosch was a major city
in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium, except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant),
intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time. But he found himself
among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands. His
host in Louvain, Jean Desmarez or Paludanus, was a former courtier and now public orator at the
University. This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip, resulting in the
Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant.
These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy, the Nobility and the four ‘Capitals’, to speak for the people
of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign: the Duke of Brabant. Also for the Duke these
discussions were not completely free of obligations. The Dukes of Brabant were, from a legal perspective,
bound by their solemn oath on their ‘Joyous Entry’: the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time
in 1356. A ‘Joyous Entry’ was written, sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency.
With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest
and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment. The trendsetting
constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality. The ‘Joyous Entries’ were the result
of a permanent struggle of the ‘the people’, represented by the Estates of Brabant.
To this oath and duty, Erasmus referred in addressing Philip: ‘You do not think it lèse-majesté if someone
questions you in word. Rather, you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you
bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant).’ But Erasmus’ politically experienced
entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering. In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was
necessary: ‘Accompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles, you stood out by so far as the day-star
outshines the other lights of heaven, ...’ Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to
admonish him, under the appearance of flattery. The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our
Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work.
In a letter to his English friend John Colet, he admitted: ‘I was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that
I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly, for I saw that this kind of thing could not be
handled without some flattery.’ To Paludanus he wrote ten months before, in February 1504: ’At the same
time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers; they consist of those who
naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery, and those
who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable, or rather perhaps a few things
missing, in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet. Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather
keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character; the other has less effect, because it assails only
my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well. Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as
best I can, while the former must be answered more sharply.’
Eleven years later, Erasmus didn’t waste the perfect chance to do so. After the sudden death of Philip the
Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage, his 15-year old son, the later Emperor Charles V, came into power as
Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515. On this occasion, Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of
princes, his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani. This ‘Education of a
Christian Prince’ had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the
former chancellor of Brabant, Jean Le Sauvage, who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political
work Querela Pacis or ‘the Complaint of Peace’. The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was
published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel, a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens,
who now had moved to Louvain. Erasmus used a revised version, assimilated to the Institutio, of his older
Panegyricus as introduction to his new book. So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his
first political work. It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory.
In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani, like the following, you can read a panegyric, not for a
European Symbols
10
prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with, and for friends who paid honour to him with
their honesty and their true criticism.
Desiderius Erasmus, Opera Omnia Des. Erasmi Roterodami, Tomus IV-1, O. Herding and F. Schalk, edd..,
North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974, Amsterdam, p. 136.
In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1, qui natalibus2 aut
1. clavus, i m.: helm; 2. natales, -ium
m.: birth, origin, lineage;
opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit, sed qui peritia
gubernandi, qui vigilantia3, qui fide superat. Ita regnum ei
3. vigilantia, -ae f.: being alert;
potissimum est committendum, qui regiis dotibus anteit
reliquos, nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione
prouidentia studio commodi publici4. Imagines aurum
gemmae
nihilo
plus
habent
momenti
ad
4. studium commodi publici: concern
for the public well-being;
ciuitatis
administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad
5. conducere, -o: to be important to;
nauim gubernandam. Quod unum oportet spectare principem
in administrando, id unum oportet spectare populum in
principe deligendo, nimirum6 publicam commoditatem
6. nimirum adv.: surely, truly;
procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus.
7. ablegare:
Picture of the town hall of Brussels, built in the 15th century
to remove
Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels, destroyed by fire in
1731
Questions and Tasks:
1. Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant?
2. Why is the ‘Joyous Entry’ called the ‘Joyous Entry’?
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11
3. Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace?
(search on internet: via Google ‘Palace of Brussels + Charles V’)
4. What was the name of this Palace?
(search on internet)
5. Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much?
6. Who were the parents of prince Charles, the later emperor Charles V?
7. What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile?
(search on internet)
8. In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant? (search in
text and on internet)
9. What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of
the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays?
Sources
Secondary Literature
James D. Tracy, The Politics of Erasmus: a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu, University of
Toronto Press, 1978, Toronto Buffalo London, p. 17-22
James D. Tracy, Erasmus: the Growth of a Mind, Librairie Droz, 1972, Genève, p. 88-89
Primary Sources
- Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani
- Desiderius Erasmus, Opera Omnia Des. Erasmi Roterodami, Tomus IV-1, O. Herding and F. Schalk,
edd.., North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974, Amsterdam, p. 64 and 136
Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani
- Desiderius Erasmus, collected works of Erasmus, vol. 27, University of Toronto Press, 1974-1988,
Toronto Buffalo London, p. 44 and 206
Latin edition Letters
- Desiderius Erasmus, Opus epistolarum Des. Erasmi Roterodami, in Percy S. Allen, Helen M. Allen and
Heathcote W. Garrod, edd. ., 1906-1958, Oxford, to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol. I, nr.
180, p. 399, l. 29-38 ; to John Colet vol I, nr. 181 p. 405, l. 54-56.
Translation letters
- Desiderius Erasmus, collected works of Erasmus, vol. 2, University of Toronto Press, 1974-1988,
Toronto Buffalo London, p. 80, 81 and 87
I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the ‘Vrije Universiteit Brussel’, specially professors Hugo
Soly, Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes. Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern
Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me. I will benefit from their
challenging education for the rest of my life.
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12
CROATIA: Marko Marulić – the Father of Croatian Literature
by Sime Demo, Croatia
After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages, during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had
been almost forgotten, during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of
ancient authors. They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and
be active in shaping the world. The medieval conception, according to which the God governs the world
autonomously without human taking part in the process, was replaced with a new image, in which the man
is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself. That is why this cultural movement has
been named humanism (lat. humanus "human, worthy of man").
Many humanists were devoted believers, who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium, but also
searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and
mythology. Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism, but also having
accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity, through their works they made a
bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe.
The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus, 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin,
Croatian and Italian language, and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language, he has been
called the "father of Croatian literature" and "Croatian Dante".As
opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists, who were
working in Italy, Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native
town Split, which emerged as a Greek colony Aspálathos, and its
today's center was built by Diocletian, who made his magnificent
palace there.
Like other humanists, Marko Marulić had diverse interests. He
carried on research in the field of history, translated from foreign
languages, wrote mythological short poems and theological learned
essays, satire and panegyric poems, biblical epics and letters to
contemporaries. The duality of the position in which the intellectuals
of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed
through his personality: On the one hand, the supreme authority of
source:
the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes, and
www.nsk.hr/HeritageDetails.aspx?id=144,
on the other, newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach
[24.7.2009]
for immense treasure of pagan world.
An Archaeologist: Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem, from: "Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae
a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae", (a fragment of: In epigrammata priscorum
commentarius), curavit S. Ljubić in: Rad JAZU, Zagreb (1876), book 36, 37, pp. 83-102.
Aspiring, like other humanists, to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization,
Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for
centuries, in which they had left numerous traces of their culture. Moreover, the emperor Diocletian, an
Illyrian himself, built his residence in Illyricum.
Marulić found, together with his friend Dominik Papalić, numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of
his native town, specifically in the ruins of Salona, in old days an important ancient town, which he listed
and translated for the same friend. These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that
city in his introductory text.
1
Dominice Papalis carissime, nunc maiorum nostrorum
aperiemus1 monumenta, quae saepe tecum per
Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4
iacentia spectavi5, et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri
5
quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10
European Symbols
1. aperio, 4. rui, rtum: to open, to
recount; 2. rudus, deris, n.: a piece of
stone or grass; 3. parietinae, arum,
f.: old walls, ruins; 4. passim: adv.
here and there, everywhere; 5. specto,
1: to observe, to look at; 6. interdum:
adv. sometimes, now and then; 7.
patrius, 3:
father's, ancestral; 8.
solum, -i, n.: ground, soil; patrii soli
nostri: attribute of gloria (extracted
from the dependent clause) 9.
13
Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12:
"Fuimus
Troës,
fuit
Ilium et
ingens13 gloria
Teucrorum!"
Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14, quae a
10 Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit, non modo
reliquiae16 eius testantur17, verum18 et veteris historiae
scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20. Nam et Strabo in suo
Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas
esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis: "Ea gens", inquit,
15 "annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit."
Plinius quoque Secundus ait: "Salona, colonia24 ab
Iadra C millia pass25. Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus
descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae", quos
ibi nominatim29 recenset30… Praeter haec31, in
20 Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M.
Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33, ubi
concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a
Caesaris
amicitia
avertit35
conventum36que
Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque
25 denunciatione40
periculi
promovere41
posset,
oppugnare instituit. "Est autem oppidum", inquit, "et
loci natura et colle42 munitum43." …
Huc accedit44, quod Diocletianus Imperator, Salonis
natus, virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum
30 Imperium meruit46 promoveri41. Deposito deinde
Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria; et quum48
Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50,
maluit hic consenescere51 privatus, quam52 Romā
imperare – usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci
35 et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56.
Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58, quod
maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere
coeperunt: nunc nostrum natale solum8 est, quod
quondam: adv. once; 10. revolvo, 3.
vi, utum:
to consider;
11.
Vergilianus,
3:
Vergilian;
Vergilianum illud: sc. proverbium
12. repeto, 3. tivi, titum: to repeat;
13. ingens, ntis: adi. huge, enormous;
14. exsisto, 3. stiti: to be, to exist; 15.
aequo, 1: to make even, solo aequo to
level with the ground; 16. reliquiae,
arum, f. : remains, remnants; 17.
testor, 1: to testify, to bear witness;
18. non modo … verum et: conict.
not only … but also; 19. indico, 1: to
show, to indicate; 20. auctoritas,
tatis, f.: authority, reputation; 21.
emporium, ii, n.: a market town; 22.
assero, 3 rui, rtum: to state, to claim;
23. complures, ium: adi. many, a fair
number; 24. colonia, ae, f.: a colony;
25. pass. : abbr. passus, us, m.: a
step, a pace; 26. peto, 3 tivi, titum: to
attack, to ask for, to reach towards,
peto iura in+Ab. to have a place as an
administrative center; 27. decuria, ae,
f.: a division; 28. describo, 3 scripsi,
scriptum: to write down, to establish
29. nominatim: adv. by name; 30.
recenseo, 2. ui, itum: to enumerate, to
count; 31. Praeter haec: apart from
that; 32. quod: conict. that; 33.
pervenio, 4. veni, ventum: to reach,
to arrive; 34. concito, 1: to rouse up,
to incite; 35. averto, 3 verti, versum:
to turn away from; 36. conventus, us,
m.: an agreement, an assembly; 37.
Salonensis, e: of Salona; 38. quum:
cum (here: causale); 39. pollicitatio,
ionis, f.: a promise; 40. denuntiatio,
ionis, f.: an announcement, a threat;
41. promoveo, 2 movi, motum to
cause to advance, to move forward;
42. collis, -is, m. : a hill; 43. munio, 4:
to fortify, to protect, to defend;
44. accedo, 3 cessi, cessum: to
approach, huc accedit, quod add to
this, that;
45. res gestae, rerum gestarum, f.:
deeds, affairs;
46. mereo, 2 ui, itum: to deserve, to
merit;
47. perago, 3 egi, actum: to carry
through to the end; 48. quum: cum
(here: historicum); 49. pristinus, 3:
ancient, initial;
50. revoco, 1: to call back, to recall;
51. consenesco, 3 senui: to grow old;
52. quam: than (comparative); 53.
usque adeo: adv. in such a manner;
54. amoenitas, atis, f.: enchantment;
55. tranquillum, i, n.: a calm state;
56. ovis, is, f.: a sheep; 57. exsto, 1:
to be, to exist; 58. proximus, 3:
former, oldtime; 59. eversio, ionis, f.:
a destruction, an overturning;
Spalatum appellant.
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14
Comments:
1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić),
Marulić's friend, with whom he explored
ancient inscriptions from Salona, and to
whom Marulić dedicated his work on the
inscriptions.
3 Salonae, -arum, f., ancient port in Dalmatia
and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian,
today Solin near Split.
7 Vergilius, Aeneis II.325-326
Fuimus Troës, fuit Ilium et ingens
gloria Teucrorum!
Troy is past, Ilium is past, and the great
glory of the Trojans! (translated by A. S. Kline)
10 Gothi, -orum, m., Goths, a Germanic people
Diocletian's Palace in Split (source
that prevailed in Italy after the Romans.
http://www.croatianculture.info/pics/11_diocletians_palace.jpg , [24.7.2009])
12 Strabo, Geographia VII.5
Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians, and also their sea-port, Salo. This tribe is one of those which
carried on war against the Romans for a long time. (translated by H. L. Jones)
16 Pliny the Elder, Naturalis historia II.22
Salona colonia ab Iader CXII. Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae.
The colony of Salona, 112 miles from Iader. Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei, divided in
342 decuriae. (translated by H. Rackham)
17 Iadra, -ae, f., Jader, ancient city in Dalmatia, today Zadar.
20 Caesar, Commentarii de bello civili III.9.1
Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M. Octavius cum eis, quas habebat, navibus Salonas pervenit. Ibi
concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit; conventum Salonis cum neque
pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset, oppidum oppugnare instituit. Est autem
oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum.
But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet, Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had
to Salona; and having spirited up the Dalmatians, and other barbarous nations, he drew Issa off from its
connection with Caesar; but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona, either by promises or
menaces, he resolved to storm the town. But it was well fortified by its natural situation, and a hill.
(translated by. W. A. Macdevitt)
27 Diocletianus, -i, m., Diocletian, Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305), born in Salona.
39 Spalatum, -i, n., Spalatum, a city in Dalmatia, today Split.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulić’s quotations. Did Marulić stick to
original text? Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text?
2. In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgil's verses?
Why did they use perfect forms fuimus, fuit? Why did Marulić quote those verses?
3. Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon, Caesar), and which
during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar)? Who were the invaders, and who defenders in the
first period, and who in the second? What kind of conclusion can you draw from it?
4. Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living.
A Christian Humanist: Marci Maruli Davidias, curavit V. Gortan, Zagreb 1974. (I, 1-11)
In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David. However,
although he dealt with a Christian theme, he used an ancient verse – hexameter, and very often ancient
imagery and names as well. Hence this Marulić’s work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired
European Symbols
15
simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity, which was predominant in Europe
during the entire Middle Ages.
For instance, Marulić, like ancient epic poets, used the so-called invocation, in which a deity is invoked to
help the poet at his work. However, he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the
Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors.
1
Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis
Instituo. Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires
Suppeditet5? Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8
Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo,
5
Non Nysae numen12, furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus,
Pieridumque chorus15. Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae
Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19
Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22,
Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum
10 Mysteriis25. Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor,
Solus, magne Deus, mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28.
1. pius, 3: faithful, righteous, pious, godly;
2. gestum, i, n.: deeds, exploits; 3. inclytus,
3: famous, glorious; 4. in carmina: for the
poem; 5. suppedito, 1: to supply; 6.
Cyrrhaeus, 3: Cyrrhaean; 7. vertex, ticis,
n.: a top, a peak; 8. rupes, is, f.: a cliff, a
rock; 9. descendo, 3 scendi, scensum: to
descend, to go down; 10. laurus, i, f.: laurel,
laurel crown;)11. praecingo, 3 cinxi,
cinctum: to gird; caput praecinctus: with
head wreathed (Greek acc. of. respect 12.
numen, minis, n.: a divinity, a god; 13.
furiatus, 3 mad; 14. furiata mente: insane;
15. chorus, i, m.: a multitude, a chorus; 16.
paro, 1: to prepare, to plan; non dicere
paro: I don't plan to write about; 17.
excidium, ii, n. destruction, an overthrow;
18. spargo, 3 sparsi, sparsum: to sprinkle;
19. cruor, oris, m.: blood; 20. Thessalus, 3:
Thessalian; 21. bellis civilibus: temporal
abl.; 22. arvum, i, n.: land; 23. cognatus, 3:
kindred; 24. arcanus, 3: secret, hidden; 25.
mysterium, ii, n.: a divine mystery; 26.
Quorum: translate with a demonstrative
pronoum; 27. cantanda: things that i should
sing about;28. ministro, 1: to furnish, to
supply; ministres: subjunctive used as an
imperative;
Comments:
3 Cyrrhea rupes, Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian
oracle, because Cyrrha was its seaport.
5 Nysae numen, Dionysus, who was born in the mythical
land Nysa.
Lyaeus, one of Dionysus' names.
6 Pierides, one of Muses' names, because they live at the
Mount Pierus.
7 Troiae excidium, Trojan war.
Thebae, referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven
against Thebes.
8 Thessala arva, decisive battle of the Civil War between
Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke, and which
does he invoke?
2. Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the
word nam. Which are these grounds?
3. Which ancient hero had the epithet pius, like David
here? Consequently, which epic poet did Marulić read
for sure? Why exactly him?
European Symbols
Marulić’s handwriting (photo: Sime Demo)
16
CZECHIA: The Ancient Heroes in Baroque Olomouc
by Barbara Pokorná, Czechia
Maybe it seems too much to look for the link in the ancient reminiscence in areas that Roman colonization
affected only marginally, leaving almost no trace. Yet even here, with varying intensity in the most different
times, we find evidence of ancient traditions faithfully maintained, even if at first sight there only remain
ingenious construction and art principles based on Greek and Roman culture that are hidden in a
sophisticated form to an uninitiated observer.
According to recent archaeological excavations, the official history of Olomouc is deeply rooted in
the Slavonic past before 1055, which is referred to by the first indisputable report of this area preserved by
the chronicler Cosmas3. An interesting legend about the founding of the town, however, has to be dated at
around 57 BC, when a group of Roman soldiers under the leadership of Gaius Julius Caesar stopped here.
He was so enchanted that he fortified this place and in his honor it was then called Julimons or Julimontium.
In fact, however, after 1459 in the period of humanism, which was associated with Roman antiquity directly
in its ideological program, the older name Olomutium was forcibly Latinized, thus giving rise to an
attractive legend that the founder of the city was Gaius Julius Caesar.
Already in the early phase of the development of Olomouc in the late 10th century, the
preconditions for social and topographical zoning of the city, which represented a rising hierarchy, became
evident. In Olomouc the social hierarchy was reflected also in a quantitative symbolic aspect based on the
Roman metrological system, which was based on foot4 and stage5. A few centuries later, when the dynamic
Baroque came to Olomouc, there was a unique sculptural program that used the ancient principles to locate
dominants in the urban area and thematically drew from Greek and Roman antiquity.
The form of the present Upper Square in Olomouc originated in the course of seven hundred years
of development; the most dynamic period in terms of construction works was associated with the years of
the traumatic Thirty Years’ War. These circumstances paradoxically awakened in Olomouc citizens an
intensely creative effort and three generations of citizens worked on a set of works that had fateful
significance for the city. In the center of Olomouc in the first half of the 18th century, a unique set of
fountains was created, crowned by sculptural
figures known from ancient mythology. As in
ancient Rome the fountains in Olomouc were
not only an important source of drinking and
service water, but also played an irreplaceable
visual role in the urban setting. The impressive
location of fountains at the junction of streets
and squares recalls similar locations of fountains
in Rome by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Vistas of the
main streets of Olomouc center were completed
according to the model of prospective
scenography of a baroque theater, always
dominated by a significant sculpture, fountain or
column. This sculpture set is unique not only
because of its allegorical program, but also
Plan of Olomouc fountains: 1. Neptune, 2. Hercules, 3. Jupiter, 4. Saturn, 5.
because it originated in the short period of a few
The Tritons, 6. Caesar, 7. Mercury, 8. Arion, + 9. Spring of Living Water;
decades.
(source: Olomouc fountains, Olomouc 2009.)
The decoration of the fountains remains pagan in
spite of the past leading role of the Catholic Church. The water is guarded by Hercules, Neptune, Tritons or
Arion, the nymphs, dolphins, turtles and other aquatic animals. The first fountain of Neptune was created in
1683 and represents the god of water surrounded by four sea horses, perhaps symbolizing the vision of
Moravia as a fertile land with life-giving springs. This is a common work of stonemason Wenzel Schüller
and sculptor Michael Mandík.
3
Kosmova kronika česká, (lat. orig. Chronica Boemorum), the oldest Czech chronicle written in 1119-1125, translated
by Karel Hrdina, Praha 1975.
4
passus = 1.48 m
5
stadium = 125 passus = 185 m
European Symbols
17
In 1687-1688 the fountain of Hercules was created by the same
artists. The mythical hero holds a checkered Olomouc eagle in his hand and
powerfully averts hostile attacks of Hydra. While Neptune is clearly
associated with the element of water, the iconology of this work has a
political character. In the spirit of the traditional identification of heroes with
Habsburg emperors, Hercules represents the Emperor Leopold I., under
whose protection the inhabitants of Olomouc and Moravia live; the enemies
of the city and state are embodied by the seven-headed Lernaean hydra.
Jupiter fountain dating to 1707 comes from the workshop of Wenzel Render,
who is the designer of the architectural fountain parts, and sculptor Phillip
Sattler, who created the statue of Jupiter, the supreme ruler, clasping a bundle
of bolts of lightning in his hand. The site was originally adorned by a statue of
St. Florian, but later was replaced by a Roman god, apparently in an effort to
thematically unify the emerging complex. Another work by Render is the
fountain of the Tritons, set up in 1709, composed as a large sculptural group
Neptun fountain (source: Michal
in two levels, emphasizing the symbolism of the water element. At the bottom Maňas,
level there are two wild men holding fish along with two large shells. On top http://commons.wikimedia.org/w
of the shell there is a child who holds two dragons tied by strings. The creator iki/File:Neptun_Fountain_in_Ol
of the sculptural components remains unknown, but it is clear that the theme omouc.jpg, CC BY-SA 2.5,
and location refer to the famous Fountain of Triton by Bernini in Piazza [20.4.2013])
Barberini in Rome.
In 1725 Wenzel Render engaged a young
talented
sculptor,
Johann
Georg
Schauberger, and entrusted him with the
creation of a demanding equestrian
monument featuring Gaius Julius Caesar and
two river gods personifying the rivers
Moravia and Danube, bearing the coats of
arms of Moravia and Lower Austria. The
figure of Caesar faces towards Michael's Hill
(Juliusberg-Iulii Mons), from which the
name of the city is mistakenly derived.
Caesar Fountain, referring to the expansion
of the Roman Empire in the Transalpine land
and also to the humanistic legend of the
Triton fountain (source: Michal city‘s foundation by the ancient ruler, so that Caesar fountain (source: Michal
Maňas,
Maňas,
it became the ideological highlight of the http://commons.wikimedia.org/w
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/File:Kasna_Tritonu.jpg , CC BY- whole set.
iki/File:Kasna_Tritonu.jpg , CC
SA 2.5, [20.4.2013])
Sixth, the Fountain of Mercury BY-SA 2.5, [20.4.2013])
erected in 1727, is again a joint work of Wenzel Render and Phillip Sattler and depicts Mercury as a flying
young man looking into the sky to which he raises its caduceus. He symbolically celebrates Olomouc as an
important commercial center.
The crowning decoration oft he whole set was to be Arion Fountain, but due to financial reasons it
was not created. The first unrealized design was made by Johann Anton Richter in 1751 and the present
realization of 2002 by Olomouc native Ivan Theimer6, living in Italy, relates to this concept. The oval pool
houses bronze sculptural groups: an axial obelisk on the shell of a monumental turtle and an eccentrically
situated sculpture of Arion with a dolphin and two children playing instruments. The statues are covered by
the detailed decorative reliefs of “tattoing”, which is a typical feature of Theimer’s work. Here, too,
Olomouc citizens wanted to draw from ancient tradition and chose the legend of the renowned Greek singer
Arion, saved from drowning by dolphins.
This unique baroque set was not only thoroughly planned, but also cleverly artistically designed.
The previously mentioned medieval location revived some ancient principles. The basic principle comprised
a search for perfect proportions and measurements, which found its form in the principle of the golden rule.
The attempt to fulfill this plan is represented by the whole layout of the Upper Square, both in terms of
proportional relationships and location of dominants. The Baroque sense of symbolism is also reflected by
6
In the years 1995-2002, Olomouc native sculptor Ivan Theimer and Tuscany architect Angela Chiantelli took the
contract work.
European Symbols
18
ancient magic numbers. Three or its multiples always played a key role. On the Upper Square three
fountains should be located, of which the Fountain of Hercules depicted the hero fulfilling the third of the
12 tasks.
Six surviving Baroque fountains thematically related by mythological themes from the ancient
world are unique in the Czech Republic7. The fountain is inextricably linked to water and springs hiding
secrets of nature and ancient myths. Already in the ancient world the control of the element of water, naval
battles, and the crossing of the border provinces on waterways are associated with a triumph symbolizing
the power of the ruler. In Olomouc, through sophisticatedly located sculptures, a unique collection was
created, which became a triumphant program without exaggeration. Major roles are played by mythical
Hercules and his mythical descendant Caesar, to whom the foundation of the city is attributed. Ancient
myths are naturally linked to local legends and events.
Questions and tasks:
1. According to legend, what did the city of Olomouc derive its name from?
2. How many fountains belong to the Baroque set and which gods and heroes do they symbolize?
3. In which year did the collection of Baroque fountains become a national monument?
4. What ancient principles are reflected in the Baroque architecture in Olomouc?
Ovidius, Fasti, 2, 79-118: The Story of Arion8
80
85
90
95
100
Quem modo caelatum1 stellis Delphina videbas,
is fugiet visus nocte sequente tuos:
seu fuit occultis felix in amoribus index2,
Lesbida3 cum domino seu tulit4 ille lyram5.
quod mare non novit, quae nescit Ariona tellus?
carmine currentes ille tenebat aquas.
saepe sequens agnam6 lupus7 est a voce retentus,
saepe avidum fugiens restitit agna lupum;
saepe canes leporesque8 umbra iacuere sub una,
et stetit in saxo proxima cerva9 leae10,
et sine lite11 loquax12 cum Palladis alite13 cornix14
sedit, et accipitri15 iuncta columba16 fuit.
Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vocans Arion,
tamquam fraternis obstipuisse17 modis,
nomen Arionium Siculas18 impleverat19 urbes,
captaque erat lyricis Ausonis ora sonis;
inde domum repetens puppem20 conscendit Arion,
atque ita quaesitas arte ferebat opes.
forsitan, infelix, ventos undasque timebas, at tibi nave
tua tutius21 aequor erat.
namque gubernator22 destricto constitit ense23
ceteraque armata conscia24 turba manu.
quid tibi cum gladio25? dubiam rege, navita, puppem:
non haec sunt digitis arma tenenda tuis.
1. caelo, are: to carve, engrave;
2. index, -icis, m.: discoverer,
informer, witness; 3. Lesbis, -idos, f.:
(adj and subst.) Lesbian; 4. fero,
ferre, tuli, latum: to bear, carry,
support; 5. lyra, -ae, f.: a lute, lyre, a
stringed instrument invented by
Mercury and presented to Apollo
6. agna, -ae, f.: a ewe lamb; 7. lupus,
-i, m.: a wolf; 8. lepus, -oris, m.: a
hare; 9. cerva, -ae, f.: a hind; 10. lea,
-ae, f.: a lioness; 11. lis, -litis, f.: a
strife, dispute, quarrel, altercation;
12. loquax, -acis,: talkative,
loquacious; 13. ales, -itis, m., f.: bird,
fowl, bird of pray; Palladis alite (i.e.
owl); 14. cornix, -icis, f.: a crow;
15. accipiter, -tris, m.: a hawk; a fis;
16. columba, -ae, f.: a dove, pigeon;
17. obstipesco, 3, -ui: to become
senseless, lose feeling; to be stupefied,
benumbed; 18. Siculus 3: belonging
to Sicily, Sicilian; 19. impleo 2: to
fill;
20. puppis, -is, f.: the hinder part of a
ship, stern, poop;
21. tutus 3: protected from danger or
harm, safe, secure; 22. gubernator, oris, m.: a steersman, helmsman,
pilot; 23. ensis, -is, m.: a two-edged
sword, brand, glaive; 24. conscius 3:
knowing in common, conscious with,
privy, participant, accessory,
witnessing; 25. gladius, -i, m.: a
sword; 26. venia, -ae, f.: a favour,
7
Since 1995 the collection of Baroque fountains with scenes from ancient mythology, together with the Holy Trinity
Column and the Plague Column of the Virgin Mary have been classified as national cultural monuments.
8
P. Ovidius Naso, Fasti (ed. Sir James George Frazer, 1989)
European Symbols
19
105
110
115
ille, metu pavidus, ‘mortem non deprecor’ inquit,
‘sed liceat sumpta pauca referre lyra.’
dant veniam26 ridentque moram27, capit ille coronam,
quae possit crines28, Phoebe, decere29 tuos;
induerat Tyrio bis tinctam murice30 pallam31:
reddidit icta suos pollice32 chorda33 sonos,
flebilibus34 numeris veluti canentia dura
traiectus penna35 tempora cantat olor36.
protinus in medias ornatus desilit undas:
spargitur impulsa caerula37 puppis aqua.
inde (fide maius) tergo delphina recurvo38
se memorant oneri supposuisse novo;
ille sedens citharamque tenet pretiumque vehendi
cantat et aequoreas carmine mulcet39 aquas,
di pia facta vident: astris delphina recepit
Iuppiter et stellas iussit habere novem.
Comments:
79 Delphinus (= ~ a) is a constellation in the northern
sky, close to the celestial equator. Delphinus was one of
the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer
Ptolemy.
81 Delphinus is associated with two stories from Greek
mythology, one concerning Poseidon and Amphitrite and
second one Arion.
91 Artemis (Diana) was sometimes known as Cynthia,
from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos.
94 Ausona, was a city of Latium, in the more extended
sense of that term, but which, at an earlier period, was one
of the three cities possessed by the tribe of the Ausones.
104 Phoibos~Apollo
107 Tyrus/Tyros, i, f.: an ancient Phoenician city famous
for dyeing fabrics, using purple dye made from a sea snail
called murex.
kindness; allowance; 27. mora, -ae,
f.: a delay, procrastination; 28. crinis,
is, m.: the hair, hair of the head;
29. decet, 2, -uit: to add a grace to,
adorne, become; it is becomming;
30. murex, -icis, m.: the purple dye,
purple, made from the juice of the
purple-fish; 31. palla, -ae, f.: a long
robe, mantle; 32. pollex, -icis, m.: the
thumb; 33. chorda, -ae, f.: catgut, a
string (of a musical instrument);
34. flebilis 2: to be wept over,
lamentable, deplorable; 35. penna, ae, f.: a feather, plume; 36. olor, oris, m.: a swan; 37. caerulus 3:
azure, blue, dark blue, cerulian;
38. recurvo 1: to bend backward, turn
back;
39. mulceo, 2, mulsi: to stroke, graze,
touch lightly, fondle;
Arion
fountain
(source:
Michal
Maňas,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kasna_Tritonu.j
pg , CC BY-SA 2.5, [20.4.2013])
Questions and tasks:
1. The text is full of animals; name them all in Latin, English and your native language.
2. There are two mythological stories connected with a dolphin. Find and retell them.
3. How and where did Arion become so famous?
4. How did Arion survive?
5. By whom and how is Dolphinus rewarded?
Sources:
- Kosmova kronika česká, z latiny přeložil K. Hrdina, Praha 1975.
- Olomoucké baroko. Výtvarná kultura let 1620-1780, Olomouc 2011.
- Pověsti z dějin města Olomouce, red. M. Čermák, Olomouc 2000.
- Ederer A., Uxa J., Pražské kašny a fontány, Praha 2004.
- Chadraba R., K programu olomouckých barokních kašen, Sborník památkové péče v severomoravském
kraji 1, Profil 1971.
- Kaláb K., Pověsti hradů moravských a slezských, Praha 1937.
- Kšír J., Olomoucké kašny, Olomouc 1971.
European Symbols
20
DENMARK: Ludvig Holberg Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum (Niels Klim’s
Underground Travels)
by Christine Nielsen and Katri Bügel Jørgensen
Ludvig Holberg was born in Bergen, Norway, in
1684 and died in Copenhagen, Denmark, in
1754. At that time Denmark and Norway formed
a single monarchy, but with the Napoleonic
wars Norway became independent in 1814.
Holberg is sometimes called ‘the father of
Danish literature’ because of the enormous
quantity of his works and the many different
classical genres, fiction and non-fiction, that he
adopted and transformed in the Danish
language. Among his works we find thirty-three
comedies, epic and lyric poetry (the latter
mostly in Latin), essays and epistles about
philosophical and moral subjects and numerous
historical and geographical treaties.
When he was seventeen, he became a student at
the University of Copenhagen where he later
held professorships in several different fields,
but the position as professor in history, which he
obtatined in 1730, was the one that suited his
interests best. An inspiration to his works were
his many travels in the Netherlands, Germany,
France and England.
Painting of Holberg by Jørgen Roed, 1847, Nasjonalgalleriet Oslo,
source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JRoed_Holberg_1947.JPG,
PD-user|Orland, [5.8.2012].
His writings, which enjoyed great popularity,
and his investments and buyings of land made
him well off. This enabled him to buy the title of
baron, and before he died as a bachelor, he
bequeathed his estate to Sorø Academy which
still exists today.
Although Holberg was not a philosopher, he was largely influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and a
rational approach to his subjects. This can be detected in both his comedies and moral essays where he
argues for common sense, seeking the middle ground and avoiding extremes in all areas of life.
Though he was an ardent believer in the absolute monarchy that existed in Denmark in his times, he was
sceptical about Pietism, a Christian movement that advocated individual devotion in all aspects of life and
dominated the church under Christian VI, king of Denmark and Norway 1730-1746. The pietistic influence
on the monarch meant that it became obligatory to attend church regularly, and that the theatres were shut
down. This spiritual climate was the background when Holberg wrote Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum, a
satirical traveller’s novel influenced by such works as Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726) and
Thomas More’s Utopia (1516), but the novel also draws inspiration from classical epic poems as Homer’s
Odyssey and Virgil’s Aeneid. By writing the novel in Latin, Holberg achieved many advantages: he gained
a literate and learned audience abroad; he was able to show the world his classical and refined Latin and
redeem himself since comedies were not considered a serious merit for an author at the time. The novel was
published under pseudonym in Leipzig, Germany, 1741. Though pietistic members of the church in
Denmark found it too critical of the current religious practises an especially of religious intolerance, it was
accepted by the king and avoided censorship. It quickly became popular abroad and was translated into
several languages, including Danish.
European Symbols
21
The story:
The protagonist of the novel is Niels Klim, a young
and well-educated man from Bergen, Norway.
Exploring the surrounding mountains, he comes upon
a cave which he decides to enter. Klim then falls
through a hole, and thus begins his adventures in the
world beneath the surface of the earth.
As it turns out, the inside of the earth is hollow. (See
illustration below). Initially, Klim lands on the planet
Nazar where he meets the inhabitants of the country
Potu (an anagram of the title of Thomas Moore’s
Utop(ia)). The Potuans are a race of trees but
nonetheless have a neatly organized society, and
Holberg devotes a large part of the novel to the
description of this country. To begin with, Klim is
rather sceptical about the laws and customs of Potu.
But as is the case with the story as a whole, Klim is
portrayed as a protagonist not unaffected by the
strange things he experiences. Consequently, when he
returns to Bergen several years later, it is as a man
with a broadened horizon.
During his years in this wondrous nether world, Klim
encounters several countries and peoples as for
instance Martinia, a country populated by rather
decadent monkeys, a country where all the inhabitants
are musical instruments as well as the extremely
primitive country of Qvama – the only place inhabited
by humans! Klim’s personal fate underground is just
as diverse, ranging from a mere mailman to the
supreme ruler of the biggest empire the world has ever
seen.
Niels Klim finds that the population in Martinia is only
interested in silly and ridiculous ideas, so in order to become
respected and popular, he thinks of the most stupid invention
the Europeans have created, the whig, and introduces this
item of fashion to the Martinians with great success.
Illustration from the first edition 1741, source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Niels_klim_illustrati
on_f%C3%B8rsteudgave.jpg, PD-user| Saddhiyama,
[5.8.2012].
Holberg, Ludvig, Samlede Skrifter, 11. bind, Copenhagen 1931, ed. Carl S. Petersen. (This edition is based
on the first edition 1741 supplemented with the text from 1745)
The king of Potu commissions Klim to explore the planet Nazar. On this journey he reaches the country of
Cocklecu, a country where the population consists of juniper trees and where, to his distress, women are in
charge.
Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum IX, 138:
1
In regione dicta Cochlecu consuetudo obtinebat1 non
1. obtineo 2.: prevail
minus perversa2, et ab Europaeis maxime damnanda.
2. perversus 3: turned the wrong way;
wrong
3. inversus 3.: turned upside down
Inversus3 hic ordo non naturae, sed solis legibus
originem debuit4. Incolae terrae omnes juniperi5 sunt
5
utriusque sexus6: at soli viri ad culinaria, et ignobiles7
4. debeo 2: owe (alicui aliquid)
5. juniperus, i f.: Juniper tree
6. sexus, us m.: gender
7. ignobilis, e: undistinguished
labores damnantur. …
Mulieribus contra maximi ponderis8 negotia, qua9
European Symbols
8. pondus, eris n.: importance
9. qua … qua, adv.: both … and …
22
civilia, qua sacra, et militaria committuntur. Nuper
deriseram10
Potuanos,
quod
in
distributione
10 officiorum nullum sexus discrimen admitterent. At
11
haec gens furere
12
mihi visa est, et naturae penitus
13
10. derideo 2. -risi, -risum : laugh at
11. furo 3.: rage
12. penitus, adv.: deeply
13. adversor 1.: oppose (alicui)
adversari . Capere sane non poteram indolentiam
virorum, qui, cum corporis viribus longe sint
praestantiores, indignum adeo jugum sibi imponi14
15 passi fuerint15, ac tot saecula16 ignominiam17 hanc
concoxerint18. Nam facile esset, jugum excutere19,
modo vellent, aut auderent nervos muliebri huic
tyrannidi incidere20. At, inveterata consuetudo eo
usque21 excaecaverat22 animos, ut nemini in mentem
20 veniret, pro tollenda23 ista ignominia aleam subire24,
quin crederent, naturam ita ordinasse25, ut imperium
penes mulieres esset, virorum vero esset texere26,
molere27, pensum facere28, aedes verrere29, vapulare30.
Argumenta vero, quibus hunc usum tueri31 solent
25 mulieres, haec sunt: cum sexum virilem, corporis
viribus32, et lacertis, ad duros perferendos labores
aptioribus33, natura donaverit, credi potest, solum
14. impono 3: impose (pass. inf.)
15. patior 3.: endure
16. saeculum, i n.: century
17. ignominia, ae f.: disgrace
18. concoquo 3. -coxi, -coctum: tolerate
19. excutio 3. -cussi, -cussum: shake
off
20. incido 3. -cidi, -cisum: break off
(aliquid alicui)
21. eo usque, adv.: for so long
22. excaeco 1.: make blind, dull
23. tollo 3. sustuli, sublatum: endure
24. aleam subire: to risk
25. ordinasse = ordinavisse
26. texo 3. ui, textum: weave
27. molo 3.: grind
28. pensum facio: spin wool
29. verro 3. verri, versum: sweep
30. vapulo 1.: to get a flogging
31. tueor 2.: defend
32. vis, vis f.: power
33. aptus 3: suitable
masculinum genus ad ignobiles ac ferreos labores
relegasse34.
Stupebant
extranei35,
cum
domos
30 introeuntes36 matremfamilias viderent in museo, cum
stilo ac pugillaribus37 sedentem, maritum vero culinae
inerrantem38, et ollas39 patinasque40 tergentem41.
34. relego 1.: ascribe to (relegasse =
relegavisse)
35. extraneus, i m.: stranger
36. introeuntes: PPA of introeo, 4.
37. pugillares, ium m.: writing-tablet
(3.pl)
38. inerro 1.: ramble about
39. olla, -ae f.: pot
40. patina, -ae f.: pan
41. tergeo 2. tersi, tersum: wipe clean
Comments:
1 Cocklecu: the name resembles the sound made by chickens.
10 Potuani, -orum m.: P., inhabitants of Potu
Questions and Tasks:
1. Discuss the differences in meaning of the two words natura and leges in line 3. What does Niels Klim
associate with the two concepts?
2. What do we learn about the narrator and his opinions?
3. Underline words in the text that hold humorous connotations. What would have made the text funny to
Holberg’s readers? Is it still funny today?
4. Does Holberg criticise the traditional roles of men and women?
European Symbols
23
In the following excerpt, Klim has discovered that a certain Tanian from the Underworld has once visited
Klim’s world and even kept a journal, so Klim gets a chance to see what impression the European countries
have left on a tourist from the inner regions of Planet Earth.
Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum XII, 311:
1
Inter literarum cultores maxime aestimantur ii, qui
naturalem vocum1 ordinem ita invertunt, ut id, quod in
1. vox, vocis f.: word
se planum et perspicuum erat, obscurum ac involutum
reddatur. Dicuntur hi poëtae, et vocum ista delocatio2
5
2. delocatio,-onis f.: dislocation
Poësis. At, in sola styli perversitate non consistit
virtus poëtae, requiritur, ut summe3 simul mendax sit.
3. summe, adv.: greatly
Hinc4 divino fere honore colitur antiquus Poëta
4. hinc, adv.: on this account
Homerus, cum in utraque arte excelluerit. Hunc in
phrasibus evertendis, ac in veritate pervertenda multi
10 imitantur5, nemo vero assecutus est6.
5. imitor 1.: imitate
6. adsequor 3. assecutus sum:
match
Questions and Tasks:
1. In what way does Tanian criticise
the poetry of the “real” world?
2. Holberg is known for his
rationalism and adherence to
common sense. Does this show
in the passage about poetry?
3. Does poetry need to be truthful?
4. In what way does Holberg make
use of Graeco-Roman literary
traditions?
Consider
both
extracts!
The globe is hollow and illuminated by a subterranean sun. The country of
Potu is found on the planet Nazar which circulates the sun.
Illustration from the seond edition 1745,
source:
http://www.kierulf.info/en/andre_prosjekter/tekst_annette_mer/andre_prosj
ekter_tekst_av_annette_nicolai_klimii_iter_subterrianum/, [5.8.2012].
European Symbols
24
GERMANY: Melanchthon, the Teacher of Germany
“Combine Greek and Latin literature!”
by Helmut Meissner
Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century: Like
no other humanist, he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the
common welfare. Above all, Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two
concerns: the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church.
In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany, he rendered such meaningful
service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany).
He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and
Königsberg (1544). As vice chancellor of the Wittenberg University
(1523/24), he established new study regulations and reorganised the
university administration in order to better support the intellectual
progress of the students. He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the
universities of Tubingen (1535), Leipzig (1539), Frankfurt on Oder (1540)
and Heidelberg (1557).
He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben, Magdeburg,
Goslar, Lüneburg and Nuremberg. He promoted the natural sciences and
introduced the school subject of geography. He formulated principles for
ensuring the quality of school work.
Philipp Melanchthon‘s name is now less famous for his work in the area
of education policy than for his other main concern: Martin Luther’s
Reformation. Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer.
He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible, a work
that Luther already began in 1521/1522 at Wartburg in Thuringia. Since
Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era, Luther used
his scholarly advice while translating.
Portait of Philipp Melanchthon,
by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543)
source: http://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:PhilippMelanchthon.jpg,
PD, [31.7.2011]
At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530), Melanchthon advocated the cause
of the Reformation. In order to reach an agreement between Luther’s
supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper, the so-called
Augsburg Confession, in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles
in a mild, conciliatory tone. His efforts failed. But the Augsburg
Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers.
After the death of Luther (1546), Melanchthon became the leader of the
Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life.
Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of BadenWuerttemberg) in 1497. His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt.
When he was 11 years old, both his father and his grandfather died within a
Portait of Martin Luther,
few weeks. He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim, a distance of about 20
by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529)
kilometres. This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/
1522), who became aware of the boy’s extraordinary intellectual talent. As
wiki/File:Martin_Luther_by_
a sign of his acknowledgement, Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a
Lucas_Cranach_der_%C3%84
valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he
ltere.jpeg,PD, [31.7.2011]
translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek: Melanchthon (melan- for the
German word “schwarz”, meaning “black”, and -chthon for the German word “Erde”, meaning “earth”:
Schwarz-erd < Schwartzerdt).
Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg. At the age of
15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree. When he was 15, he changed to the University of Tubingen
and passed the exam for the Master’s degree at the age of 16. Thereafter, he dedicated himself to teaching
and wrote his first important works.
Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era. His concept for
European Symbols
25
reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old. He considered
the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatisfactory. He was convinced that it was indispensable to have suitable
preliminary studies to sharpen one’s discernment in order for the
studies to be successful. Melanchthon believed that anyone who
wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning
about grammar, logic and the ancient languages was in danger of
zealotry. Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable
unit for him. Like Erasmus, Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution
of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes).
At the early age of 21, Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Johannes Reuchlin
Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there. A few days after his
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Johannes_Reuchlin.JPG, PD, [31.7.2011]
arrival, he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518, De
corrigendis adolescentiae studiis, in which he described his concept for education. The following text is an
excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11, 22-23):
Fontes artium haurire
1
1
2
Fontes ipsos artium ex optimis auctoribus hauritis.
Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem, ille3
Quintilianum rhétorem, hic3 Plinium – tantum non6
ditissimum7 paedeiae8, ac veluti quoddam copiae
5
cornu9 – , ille3 argutias,10 sed arte temperatas11 docet.
Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri,
mathematica, item poëmata,13 oratores, professoribus
non proletariis.14 – Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine
tractanda sint, certo scio,15 et facilia, et admirandi
10 profectus16 videbuntur.
1. artes, ium f sciences; 2. haurire,
haurio, hausi, haustum to draw
(water.; 3. hic … ille … hic … ille
one … the next … yet another … still
another; 4. natívus,a,um born,
original; 5. sincérus,a,um genuine;
6. tantum non almost; 7. ditssimum
= divitissimum; 8. paedeia
education; 9. copiae cornu
cornucopia; 10. argutiae, arum f
expressive presentation;
11. arte temperatus artfully
moderate; 12. erudítus,a,um
educated; 13. poëma, tis n poem;
plural: poetry;
14. proletarius,a,um inferior, of
inferior quality;
15. certo scire to be sure
16. profectus, us m progress
Quasi viaticum comparare
Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18
– grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica19 – eatenus20
discenda sunt, qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum
instructus, fastigia21 studiorum non temere22
15 affectes.23
17. puerílis,e boyish, meant for
boyhood; 18. progymnasmata
(Greek. preliminary exercises;
19. „grammar, dialectics, rhetoric“;
20. eátenus … qua to an extent that;
21. fastigium, i n summit;
22. témere haphazardly;
23. affectare to seek to reach;
Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis, ut philosophos,
24
theologos, historicos, oratores, poetas lecturus,
quaqua25 te vortas,26 rem ipsam assequare,27 non
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24. „when reading the works of
philosophers, theologians, orators and
poets“; 25. quaqua wherever;
26. vortas = vertas
27. assequare = assequaris
26
umbram rerum, velut Ixion cum Iunone
20 congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit.30
Philosophiam accedere
31
Hoc quasi viatico comparato, per compendia καὶ 32
εὐπετῶς,
ut Plato ait, philosophiam accede.
Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia, ut qui velit insigne
aliquid, vel in sacris vel foro,34 conari, parum35
25 effecturum, ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36
28. cóngredi, ior, gressus sum to
meet; 29. nubes, is f cloud;
30. incídere, íncido, íncidi to get
into;
31. viáticum, i n travelling-money;
32. per compendia kaì eupetõs
„straightforwardly ‚and blithely’“;
33. plane plainly; 34. vel in sacris vel
foro „in either the church or the
state“; 35. parum to little;
36. humanae disciplinae „the
general educational subjects“;
(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum
satis est, exercuerit.
Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari,38 ita
enim fit, ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem
30 obliviscare. Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41, eaque42
cum ad scientiam naturae, tum ad mores formandos43
attinentia44.
45
46
In primis hic eruditione Graeca opus est, quae
naturae scientiam universam complectitur.47 Ut de
35 moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50,
plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia,51 Leges
37. philosophari philosophize;
38. nugari to trifle; 39. communis
sensus (acc.plur.. common sense;
40. ex optimis scil. auctoribus;
41. selígere, séligo, selégi, selectum
to select; 42. isque, eaque, idque and
that; 43. ad mores formandos „to
moral education“; 44. áttinens, ntis
relating to;
45. in primis above all;
46. eruditio, onis f erudition;
47. complecti, complector,
complexus sum to comprise;
48. appósite appropriately, properly;
49. copiose copiously; 50. queo,
quivi to be able; 51. Moralia Ethical
works;
Platonis, poetae, atque ii sane, qui et optimi sunt, et
in hoc legi possunt, ut animos erudiant.52 Homerus
Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum,53 Vergilius ac
52. erudire, io, ívi, ítum to educate;
53. disciplína, ae f discipline,
science;
40 Horatius Latinis.
Historia
Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia,54 cui, si
ausim,55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero,
quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis.
Haec quid sit pulchrum, quid turpe, quid utile, quid
45 non, plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit.
Hac nulla vitae pars, neque publica, neque privata
vacare potest. Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59
domesticarumque60 debet.61
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54. história, ae f historiography,
history;
55. si ausim „if I may dare“;
56. me hercle by Hercules, indeed;
57. emeréri, eméreor, eméritus sum
to deserve;
58. Chrysippus, Crantor Greek
philosophers;
59. urbanus,a,um belonging to the
city, city-; 60. domesticus,a,um
belonging to the house, domestic;
61. debere, débeo, ui, itum to be
indebted to, to depend on
27
Questions and Tasks:
Lines 1-10:
1. Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best. Who are they?
2. According to Melanchthon, the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different
subjects of study. Why should they do so?
Lines 11-20:
3. According to Melanchthon, for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar,
dialectics and rhetoric. What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata?
4. Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature. What would, according to
Melanchthon, happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature?
Lines 21-48
5. Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state, needs, according to
Melanchthon, preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies. What kind of studies does he
mean?
6. According to Melanchthon, philosophy comprises two parts. Which parts?
7. In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum. Melanchthon recommends the
introduction of historiography as a new subject of study. What are his arguments in favour of this
subject?
Sources:
-
Richard Nürnberger (Ed.): Melanchthons Werke. Band III. Gütersloh 1961
-
Martin H. Jung: Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit. Göttingen 2010
-
Hans-Rüdiger Schwab: Philipp Melanchthon. Der Lehrer Deutschlands. Ein biographisches Lesebuch.
München 1997
-
Michael Beyer, Stefan Rhein, Günther Wartenberg: Melanchthon deutsch. Band I. Leipzig 1997
Uwe Birnstein: Der Humanist. Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte. Wichern, Berlin 2010
Martin Greschat: Philipp Melanchthon, Theologe, Pädagoge und Humanist. Gütersloh 2010
Horst Jesse: Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon. Dr. Martin Luthers theologischer
Weggefährte. München 2005
Günther R. Schmidt: Philippus Melanchthon (1497–1560). In: Henning Schröer, Dietrich Zilleßen
(Ed.): Klassiker der Religionspädagogik. Frankfurt/M. 1989
Heike Schmoll: Gelehrter und Lehrer. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th, 2010
Josef Dolch: Lehrplan des Abendlandes. Darmstadt 1982
Heinrich August Winkler: Geschichte des Westens. München 2009
www. Melanchthon.de/leben, March 21st, 2011
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther, March 22nd, 2011
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin, March 23rd, 2011
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28
GREAT BRITAIN: The Great Charter signed by King John in AD 1215: the
Foundation of British Democratic Rights
by David Taylor
Salisbury Cathedral, home of one of the four surviving copies of the
Magna Carta manuscript (source: http://someinterestingfacts.net/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/Salisbury-Cathedral-facts.jpg, [18.8.2013])
Salisbury cathedral’s Magna Carta (granted world heritage status; source:
http://someinterestingfacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/SalisburyCathedral-Magna-Carta.jpg, [18.8.2013])
The Magna Carta (the Great Charter) is a document of unique
importance and character. It contains a far-reaching agreement
between the King of England and various classes of his subjects
about the rights that should be enjoyed. It is not an example of a
fully-developed democracy at work, but it is often seen as a highly
significant step on the road to democracy. Magna Carta, also
called Magna Carta Libertatum or The Great Charter of
Liberties, is an English charter, originally issued in Latin in the
year 1215 and reissued later in the 13th century in modified
versions. The later versions excluded the most direct challenges to
the monarch's authority that had been present in the 1215 charter.
The charter first passed into law in 1225; the 1297 version still
remains on the statute books of England and Wales.
Magna Carta (source:
http://www.britishmonarchistsociety.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2012/03/magna-carta.jpg,
[18.8.2013])
The 1215 charter required King John of England to proclaim
certain liberties and accept that he could not act exactly as he
wished, in an arbitrary way. It accepted that no "freeman"1 could
be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is
still in existence today.
,
The period of the early Middle Ages, after the Norman Conquest
by William the Conqueror of Normandy in 1066, is referred to as
the ‘feudal system’. In feudal society, the king's barons held their lands 'in fee' (Latin ‘feudum’) from the
king, in exchange for an oath to service. They were also obliged to supply the king with some of their
knights for military service or give him a sum of money instead.
The Magna Carta was the first document that a group of the king’s subjects, the very powerful barons,
forced an English King to sign. They did this in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their own
privileges.
It has always been recognised as a very influential document, even though, by the second half of the 19th
century, very few of its clauses survived in their original form. Three clauses currently remain part of the
law of England and Wales, however, and it is generally considered part of the constitution, which has never
been formally written down, unlike the constitutions of many other countries. Lord Denning described it as
1
This meant all men (it did not apply to women) who were not ‘villeins’, or ‘serfs’. The villeins or serfs in the feudal
system were the peasants who occupied or cultivated the lord’s land. They were entirely subject to the lord, or attached
to a manor. In general use, a villain was a peasant, country labourer, or low-born rustic. They were therefore semislaves and could not change their master.
European Symbols
29
"the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against
the arbitrary authority of the despot". It was followed by other documents which set out people’s rights,
especially: the Habeas Corpus Act (1679), the Petition of Right (1628), the Bill of Rights (1689), and the
Act of Settlement (1701). By the time of these documents, all men were regarded as citizens, including
those who had been villeins, who were now free men. The rights of women followed a very much slower
course: women were not able to vote until the twentieth century.
The charter was part of the process that led to the rule of constitutional law in the English- speaking world.
Magna Carta was important in the setting up of American colonies, as England's legal system provided a
model for many of these colonies when they were developing their own legal systems. It inspired later
constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution.
Most of its clauses deal with specific grievances of
the barons and others, rather than with general
principles of law. These were often because of how
the feudal system was applied, and the great powers
the king had to make the barons and others do as he
wished. The extensive powers of the king gave him
huge scope for extortion and abuse. Abuses were
made worse by the difficulty of getting wrongs put
right. This is why in Magna Carta providing ways to
obtain a fair hearing of complaints, especially against
the king and his agents but also against lesser feudal
lords, is so important. It is interesting to note that the
Magna Carta, MS 710 (source:
very first clause is about granting the freedom of the
http://www.schoyencollection.com/law_files/ms710.jpg, [18.8.2013])
Church. This reflects the fact that King John had
been in dispute with the Pope over the election of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Magna Carta
This is the opening of the Charter, which shows the different classes in society to whom it is directed.
1
5
10
Johannes Dei gracia1 rex Anglie, Dominus Hibernie, dux
Normannie, Aquitannie et comes2 Andegavie,
archiepiscopis3, episcopis4, abbatibus5, comitibus,
baronibus6, justiciariis7, forestariis8, vicecomitibus9,
prepositis10, ministris11 et omnibus ballivis12 et
fidelibus13 suis salutem.
1. In primis concessisse14 Deo et hac presenti carta nostra
confirmasse, pro nobis et heredibus16 nostris in
perpetuum17 quod18 Anglicana ecclesia libera sit, et
habeat jura sua integra19, et libertates suas illesas20.
Concessimus14 eciam omnibus liberis hominibus regni
nostri, pro nobis et heredibus16 nostri in perpetuum17,
omnes libertates subscriptas21, habendas et tenendas22 eis
et heredibus suis, de nobis et heredibus nostris.
1. gracia,-ae f.: grace Anglia, -ae f.:
England (note that throughout the
document –e is written for –ae (for
example in genitive singular of first
declension nouns); 2. comes, -itis m.:
count 3. archiepiscopus, -i m.:
archbishop; 4. episcopus, -i m.:
bishop; 5. abbas, -atis m.: abbot; 6.
baronis, -is m.: baron; 7. justiciarius,
-i m.: justice (‘justiciar’); 8.
forestarius, -i m.: forester; 9.
vicecomes, -itis m.: sheriff; 10.
prepositus, -i m.: steward ; 11.
minister, -i m.: minister; 12. ballivus,
-i.: official; 13. fidelis, -is: loyal; 14.
concedo, -ere, -cessi, -cessus: grant;
15. carta, -ae f.: charter; 16. heres, edis m.: heir; 17. in perpetuum: for
ever; 18. quod: that; 19. integer 3:
guaranteed; 20. illesus 3: unharmed;
21. subscribe, -ere, -scripsi, scriptus: write below;
22. teneo, -ere, tenui, tentus: keep
Comments:
4 justiciar: a legal official, a judge presiding over, or belonging to, one of the king’s superior courts, or exercising
special judicial functions.
vicecomes: sheriff – In England before the Norman Conquest of 1066, the scíreréfa (also called scírman) was a
high officer, the representative of the royal authority in a shire, who presided in the shire-moot, and was responsible
for the administration of the royal demesne and the execution of the law. After the Conquest, the office of sheriff
was continued.
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30
5 ballivus or bellivus: a bailiff was a minor local official responsible to the sheriff of the county, but the word was
often used in a more general sense of a Royal official.
6 fideles: loyal subjects – those bound by an oath of loyalty, the freemen of the country. Freemen had rights that the
‘villeins’ did not.
In the following section a fundamental right is granted
1
5
39. Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur1, aut
disseisiatur2, aut utlagetur3, aut exuletur4, aut aliquo
modo destruatur5, nec super6 eum ibimus, nec super
eum mittemus, nisi per legale7 judicium parium8
suorum vel per legem terre9.
40. Nulli10 vendemus11, nulli negabimus, aut
differemus12 rectum aut justiciam.
1. imprisono, -are, -avi, -atus:
imprison; 2. disseisio, -ire, -ivi, itus:
strip someone (of rights or
possessions); 3. utlago, -are, -avi, atus: outlaw; 4. exulo, -ere, exului:
exile; 5. destruo, -ere, -strui, structus: deprive of rights; 6. super:
against (late Latin); 7. legalis 2: legal;
8. par, paris: equal; 9. terre = terrae
(gen. sing.); 10. nullus: no one; 11.
vendo, -ere, vendidi, venditus: sell;
12. differ, -ferre, -tuli, -latus: delay;
The following section deals with the rights of merchants and travellers.
1
5
10
15
20
41. Omnes mercatores habeant salvum1 et securum2
exire de Anglia, et venire in Angliam, et morari3, et ire
per Angliam, tam4 per terram quam4 per aquam, ad
emendum5 et vendendum, sine omnibus malis6 toltis6,
per7 antiquas et rectas consuetudines8, preterquam9 in
tempore gwerre10, et si sint de terra11 contra nos
gwerrina11; et si tales inveniantur in terra nostra in
principio12 gwerre10, attachientur13 sine dampno14
corporum et rerum15, donec16 sciatur17 a nobis vel
capitali18 justiciario nostro quomodo mercatores terre
nostre tractentur19, qui tunc invenientur in terra11 contra
nos gwerrina11; et si nostri salvi1 sint ibi, alii salvi1 sint
in terra nostra.
42. Liceat unicuique decetero20 exire de regno nostro, et
redire, salvo et secure, per terram et per aquam, salva
fide21 nostra21, nisi tempore gwerre10 per aliquod breve
tempus, propter communem utilitatem22 regni, exceptis
imprisonatis et utlagatis23 secundum24 legem regni, et
gente de terra contra nos gwerrina, et mercatoribus, de
quibus fiat sicut predictum25 est.
1. salvus 3: safe; 2. securus 3:
unharmed; 3. moror, -ari, moratus:
stay; 4. tam... quam: both... and; 5.
emo, -ere, emi, emptus: buy; 6.
malus toltus: bad levy, extortion; 7.
per: in accordance with; 8.
consuetudo, -inis f.: custom;
9. preterquam: except;
10. gwerra, -ae f: war (late Latin);
11. terra gwerrina: a land at war;
12. principium, -i n.: outbreak; 13.
attachio, -are, -avi, -atus: detain;
14. dampnum, -i n.: injury; 15. res,
rei, f.: possession; 16. donec: until;
17. scio, scire, scivi, scitus find out;
18. capitalis 2: chief;
19. tracto, -are, -avi,-atus treat;
20. decetero: for the future;
21. fides nostra: allegiance to us
(the king);
22. utilitas, -atis f.: benefit;
23. utlago, -are, -avi, -atus: outlaw;
24. secundum: according to;
25. predico, -ere, -dixi, -dictus state
above;
This section deals with the qualification of men in power.
1
45. Nos non faciemus justiciarios1, constabularios2,
vicecomites3, vel ballivos4, nisi de talibus qui sciant
legem regni et eam bene velint observare.
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1. justiciarius, -i m.: justice
(‘justiciar’); 2. constabularius, -i
m.: constable; 3. vicecomes, -itis m.:
sheriff; 4. ballivus, -i.: official;
31
Questions and Tasks:
1. Who, in contrast to our modern understanding, was meant by liberis hominibus (1,11) and liber homo
(39, 1) in the light of the feudal system?
2. What rights were granted to the Anglican Church in clause 1 of the Charter and what role did Stephen
Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury play?
3. What fundamental rights were granted to free men in clauses 39 and 40? Why were these two clauses
of particular importance to the barons?
4. What rights of merchants and travellers were provided for by the Charter and what were the conditions?
5. Which people were eligible to occupy a judicial post?
6. Read through the English translation of the whole of the Charter (http://www.constitution.org/
eng/magnacar.htm ). Who stood to gain most from the Charter and why?
7. Look at the parody of Magna Carta below, which comes from a comic history called ‘1066 and All
That’. See what jokes and deliberate mistakes you can find.
8. In this version, the writers make the point that the ‘common people’ (as well as the King) are the ones
who do not benefit from the new rights. Despite this, is it fair to say that Magna Carta is an important
step on the road to democracy in England?
9. What does the song by Pulp show about contemporary society? Could we ever have a classless society
and, if so, would that be good for everyone?
10. The year 2015 will be the 800th anniversary of the signing of Magna Carta. You have been asked to
present a bid to the committee which is overseeing the national celebrations of this important event.
a. Set out your proposals to the Committee
b. Think about the different kinds of event that could be held
c. Include ideas for educating people on the Magna Carta, and decide what products would
help to market the occasion
d. Make sure you include estimates of costs and proposals on how this will be funded.
Magna Charter
THERE also happened in this reign the memorable Charta,
known as Magna Charter on account of the Latin Magna
(great) and Charter (a Charter); this was the first of the
famous Chartas and Gartas of the Realm and was invented
by the Barons on a desert island in the Thames called
Ganymede. By congregating there, armed to the teeth, the
Barons compelled John to sign the Magna Charter, which
said:
1. That no one was to be put to death, save for some reason
- (except the Common People).
2. That everyone should be free - (except the Common
People).
3. That everything should be of the same weight and
measure throughout the Realm - (except the Common
People).
4. That the Courts should be stationary, instead of following
a very tiresome medieval official known as the King's
Person all over the country.
5. That 'no person should be fined to his utter ruin' - (except
the King's Person).
6. That the Barons should not be tried except by a special
jury of other Barons who would understand.
Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy
in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the
Common People).
(Extract from ‘1066 and All That’, by W. C. Sellar and R. J.
Yeatman, 1930)
Pulp, Common People (1995)
She came from Greece
She had a thirst for knowledge
She studied sculpture at Saint Martin's College
That's where I caught her eye
She told me that her dad was loaded
I said, "In that case I'll have rum and Coca-Cola"
She said, "Fine" And then in 30 seconds time, she said
“I want to live like common people
I want to do whatever common people do
I want to sleep with common people
I want to sleep with common people like you”
Well what else could I do?
I said, "I'll, I'll see what I can do"
I took her to a supermarket
I don't know why
But I had to start it somewhere
So it started there
I said, "Pretend you've got no money"
But she just laughed and said, "Oh, you're so funny"
I said, "Yeah, well I don't see anyone else smilin' in
here
Are you sure?
You wanna live like common people
You wanna see whatever common people see
Wanna sleep with common people
You wanna sleep with common people like me?"
But she didn't understand
And she just smiled and held my hand
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32
GREECE: The journey to Ithaca: Cavafy’s readings of the human soul
by A. Makrinos
Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop, it is difficult
and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue. But it is in the
difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful.
C. P. Cavafy on Ithaca.
Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29
April 1863 in Alexandria, a city with high numbers of Greek population
at the time. Cavafy’s parents originated from Constantinople (modern
Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855. Cavafy was the ninth and
last child. In 1870, his father died and two years later, Cavafy moved
together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt
excellent English. After five years in Liverpool and London, in 1878 he
returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek
college “Hermes”. In 1882, because of the explosive political condition
in Egypt, Cavafy’s family moved to Constantinople. However, three
years later they returned permanently to Alexandria.
The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to source:
Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901, 1903, 1905, 1932). In http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ec/Cavafy1900-portrait.jpg, PD,
1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in [31.7.2011]
the Egyptian Government’s Irrigation Office where he was employed for
more than 30 years.
His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely. Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on
he lived alone. In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall
he preferred loneliness and isolation. He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of
History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature. He spoke English, French
and Italian. His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London, Constantinople,
Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience. In the summer of 1932, he was diagnosed with
larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated; although he stayed in Greece for four
months, his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday, 29 April
1933.
Cavafy was an eccentric, strange and difficult character. Throughout his life he remained eclectic and
ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality. He frequently felt
tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and
a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions. Loneliness and isolation were
the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes
desperation in his poetry. Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the
moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death.
He is often characterised as the “poet of the old age” because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired
his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity. He was not born a poet, he became one.
He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in
a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing
them in a collection. The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total)
were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems; later on an
edition of his repudiated, hidden and unfinished poems has also been
prepared. Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the
anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life:
loneliness, isolation, sorrow, despair, danger, corruption, destruction of
love, vanity, old age and death. His poetry is centred on the human being.
His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but
preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage.
Whilst producing poetry, Cavafy wrote a lot but published little. Although
he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early
Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983)
poems), his writing is original and possesses classical quality. His verse is
source: http://cavafis.compupress.gr/
free, iambic without rhyming; his language is the demotic Greek of the
cavafy54.htm, [31.7.2011]
people of Alexandria with colloquialisms. His style is prose, with clarity of
expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech).
Other features of his poetry are his irony, his didactic and reflexive tone, the building of dramatic
1
European Symbols
33
atmosphere, the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings. Most of his themes are taken from the
Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and
Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality). His
protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafy’s poetic
imagination.
His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories; Cavafy usually takes from the “drawers” of his mind
an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea. He has divided his poems into
historical, allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional; most of the poems
belong to several of those categories.
Cavafy’s work was initially received in Greece with scepticism. There have been many reactions and strong
criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the
conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism.3 Cavafy became known in
Greece because of Gr. Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia. Since then,
modern Greek poets, musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafy’s poetry and refer to him
as their teacher. He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international
recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world.
Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata. The first version of
the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey. It belongs to the category of
mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homer’s Odyssey, Petronius’ Exhortatio
ad Ulissem, Dante’s Divine Comedy and Tennyson’s Ulysses. The central idea of the poem is that people
setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause.
ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) 1
Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη, νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος, γεμάτος περιπέτειες,3 γεμάτος γνώσεις.4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας, 5
τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι, τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς, ἄν μέν’ ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή, ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει. Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας, 10 τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις, ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου, ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου. Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος. Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι 15 ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση, μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σ’ ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά, 1. Ἰθάκη, ἡ: of uncertain etymology. Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word “Utica” (colony); another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus. A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the “island” whilst the second part is without explanation; 2. πηγαιμός, ὁ (gen. –ου): going somewhere, the route to a certain destination; 3. περιπέτεια, ἡ: a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek); adventure (modern Greek). The poet is aware of both meanings; 4. γνώσις, ἡ, (gen. –εως): (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge, wisdom; 5. σκέψις, ἡ, (gen. –
εως): (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses, consideration, reflexion, thought; 6. συγκίνησις, ἡ, (gen. –εως): (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion; 7. πνεῦμα, τὸ (gen. –ατος): spirit; 8. σῶμα, τὸ (gen. –ος): body; 9. ἄγριος,‐α, ‐ον: wild; 10. ψυχή, ἡ, (gen. –ης): the soul of a man; in Homer, only a departed soul, spirit, ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner;11. εὔχομαι: to pray; 12. λιμήν, ὁ (gen. –ένος): a harbour; 13. πρωτοειδωμένος, ‐η, ‐ον: participle from πρῶτα (first of all, in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω, to see); 14. ἐμπορεῖον, τὸ (gen. –ου): a trading place;
Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin, author and promoter of Demotic Greek. His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question. 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn. He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School. 3 Demoticism: a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state. 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist, journalist and author of theatrical plays. He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931.
1
European Symbols
34
καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 ν’ ἀποκτήσεις, σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια, κεχριμπάρια κ’ ἔβενους,16 20 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς, ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς, νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπ’ τοὺς σπουδασμένους. Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη. 25 Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶν’ ὁ προορισμός σου. Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου. Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ ν’ἀράξεις στὸ νησί, πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο, 30 μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη. Ἡ Ἰθάκη σ’ ἔδωσε τ’ ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι. Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο, Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά. Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς, ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε. 35 Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες, μὲ τόση πεῖρα, 15. πραγμάτεια (gen. –ας): a trade, ware;
16. ἔβενος, ὁ (gen. –ου): very hard black wood; 17. ἡδονικός,‐α, ‐ον: sensuous, delightful, pleasant (from the word ἡδονή, ἡ: pleasure, enjoyment, pleasure); 18. νὰ μάθεις – from the verb μανθάνω, to learn; 19. νοῦς, ὁ (gen. –νοός): mind; 20. φθάσιμον, τὸ: the arrival (from the verb φθάνω: to come before, to reach); 21. βιάζω: to force, to constrain, to carry by force (ancient Greek), to rush (modern Greek); 22. γέρος , ὁ (gen. –ου): an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων, ὁ (gen. –οντος); 23. πλούσιος, ‐α, ‐ον: rich, wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος, ὁ); see also next line; 24. χωρίς, (preposition): without. 25. πτωχικός, ‐ή, ‐όν: poor (from πτωχός, ‐ή, ‐όν); 26. σοφός, ‐ή, ‐όν: wise; 27. ἡ Ἰθάκες: Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the people’s minds but many. 28. σημαίνω: to signify, to mean; ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν.28
Comments:
1-3 Σὰ βγεῖς… γνώσεις: These verses have a central position in the poem. Ithaca symbolises our
personal journey of life. The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic.
Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War. This
return was full of adventures, full of knowledge. Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey:
Homer, the Odyssey 1.1-5
Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε,1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον,2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη,3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δ’ ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω,7 πολλὰ δ’ ὅ γ’ ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν,11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων.14 1.ἐννέπω: poetic form of ἐνέπω, to tell, to describe, to relate.
2. πολύτροπος, ‐η, ‐ον: much‐travelled, wandering, turning many ways, versatile, ingenious ( from πολύς, τρέπω); 3. πλάζομαι: to wander, to go astray; πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment; 4. πτολίεθρον, τὸ (gen. –ου): a city; diminutive of πτόλις, but used like πόλις; 5. πέρθω: to wage, to ravage, to sack, to destroy; 6. ἄστυ, τὸ (gen. –εος): a city, town. 7. γιγνώσκω: to know; ἔγνω is 3rd person singular, indicative, active, second aorist; 8. πόντος, ὁ (gen. –ου): the sea, esp. the open sea, the high sea; 9. πάσχω: to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment; 10. ἄλγος, τὸ: pain whether of body or mind, sorrow, grief, distress; 11. θυμός, ὁ (gen. –ου): the soul, the life, breath, heart (from the verb θύω); 12. ἄρνυμαι: to receive for oneself, gain, earn, carry off as a prize; defect. Dep. used only in present and imperfect, lengthened form of αἴρομαι; 13. νόστος, ὁ (gen. –ου): a return home or homeward, travel, journey (from the verb νέομαι); 14. ἑταίρος, ὁ (gen. –ου): epic and Ionic for ἕταρος, ὁ (ἕτης), a companion, comrade or companion in arms. These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future. 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας… Ποσειδῶνα: in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops
Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return
to Ithaca. Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father, Poseidon the god of the
sea. Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseus’ hope of return. In Ithaca the
European Symbols
35
Laestrygonians, the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into
universal symbols. They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving
our goals. Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10.
13 Νὰ εὔχεσαι…ὁ δρόμος: Repetition of line 2. With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth.
In Homer, Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafy’s advises us to pray for a long trip
which will offer knowledge and experience. For Cavafy’s Odysseus it is the journey that counts, so the poet
wishes that the journey is full of adventures. However, the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke from
Ithaca and then to die. Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles, Cavafy’s hero faces his own fears.
Homer, the Odyssey 1.55-59:
…δύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει,3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει,6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς, ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης, θανέειν ἱμείρεται…10
1. δύστηνος, ‐ος ‐ον: wretched, unhappy, unfortunate; 2. ὀδύρομαι: to bewail, mourn for, lament; 3. κατερύκω: to hold back, detain; 4. μαλακός, ‐η, ‐ον: soft, gentle, mild; 5. αἱμύλιος, ‐ος ‐ον: flattering, winning, wily (see also αἱμύλος); 6. θέλγω: to charm, enchant, spell‐bind; 7. ἐπιλανθάνω: to make to forget; 8. ἱέμενος: to send, send away, let go, dismiss (pres. part. passive of ἵημι); 9. ἀποθρῴσκω: to spring or leap off from, rise from; 10. ἱμείρω: to long for, yearn for or after, desire.
16: λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους: the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we
experience something in life. 17 σ’ ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά: the Phoenicians have developed a maritime, trading culture that spread
across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC. Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous
pleasures, the pleasures of the body. 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲς…ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά: the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the “precious
stones” and the “hedonistic perfumes” that we should experience in life; these verses are an invitation to us
and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible. 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς… σπουδασμένους: Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and
learning; Cavafy’s beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number
of books in combination to renowned researchers, who studied, discussed and commented on the ancient
authors (like Cavafy). The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of
knowledge. Egypt symbolises the world of the mind. 24-25 Πάντα…προορισμός σου: These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca, our
destination. Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep
our mind the reason of our trip. It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the
experience gained along the way. 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας …ταξεῖδι: Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore; the purpose of our life
seems empty after we have achieved it. There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however
reach the point of surrender. The true value of Ithaca was the “wondrous voyage”. For Odysseus it is the
purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafean hero it is the journey and the
experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living. 36 ἤδη…τὶ σημαίνουν: the implication is that Ithacas are the targets, the ambitions and the dreams we
have in life.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Read the passage from the Odyssey 1.1-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca. What are the
similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader)?
2. Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning.
3. Do you think that Cavafy’s message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why?
4. What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet?
5. Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem.
6. “Cavafy advises the reader through his symbols”. Discuss.
Sources:
- The edition used here is: C. P. Cavafy The Collected Poems, Oxford World’s Classics, Oxford 2008.
- The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies, photos, manuscripts, letters,
notes, etc. in Greek: http://www.cavafy.gr and in English http://www.cavafy.com
- Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy: http://cavafis.compupress.gr/public.htm
- Information about Giannis Smaragdis’ film Cavafy(1996): http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0115849/
- The Kavafis project: http://www.kavafis.eu/
European Symbols
36
ITALY: An Open-air Sculpture Gallery of Classics: The Loggia dei Lanzi,
Florence
By Serena Ferrando
source:
http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/559/flashcards/520559/jpg/scala_archiv
es_10399300371317256821179.jpg [22.7.2013]
The Loggia dei Lanzi, that is also known as
“the Loggia della Signoria”, is a very famous
building on a corner of Piazza della Signoria
in Florence, near the Uffizi Gallery. This
very beautiful loggia was built between 1376
and 1382 in order to contain the public
assemblies of the people of Florence and to
hold the important ceremonies of that time.
We can consider in fact this loggia as a
wonderful open-air sculpture gallery of
ancient and Renaissance art, because there is
a lot of beautiful sculptures of these periods.
It got its name during the reign of Grand
Duke Cosimo I, when it was used by his
military army of Landsknechts (in italian
"Lanzichenecchi", corrupted to Lanzi). When
the palace of Uffizi was built, the loggia was
modified, the roof becoming a beautiful
terrace from which the Medici could watch
public important ceremonies.
In the loggia we can admire Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus, a muchrestored Roman sculpture from the Flavian era, copied from a Hellenistic original.
This beautiful and pathetic group recalls the cycle of Troy, because the two heroes
are two of the most important heroes of Trojan war
The bronze statue of Perseus by Benvenuto Cellini is
perhaps the most famous in this Loggia. This mythical young
Greek hero has an enigmatic look in this fatal moment: he is
holding his sword in his right hand in front of the spectator
and holding up in his left the Medusa's head, while the blood
gushes from it. The fine decorated marble pedestal, also
carved by Cellini, shows four bronze statuettes of some Gods
or mythological figures: Jupiter, Mercury, Minerva and
Danaë. The bas-relief on the pedestal represents Perseus
Perseus, source:
freeing Andromeda. Perseus is the hero who killed the
http://www.melmothia.net/w
Gorgon Medusa. He was the son of Danaë,
prepresented on the marble pedestal. His
content/uploads/2012/05/cell
ini.jpeg ,[22.7.2013].
wife was Andromeda, whom he saved from
a terrible sea monster. From the couple were descended Hercules
and Penelope.
Menelaus and Patroclus,
source: Marie-Lan
Nguyen,
http://commons.wikimedia
.org/wiki/File:Pasquino_G
roup_Loggia_dei_Lanzi_2
005_09_13.jpg, CC-BY2.5, [22.7.2013].
On the far right there is the white marble group of Rape of the
Sabine Women by Jean de Boulogne, Giambologna, artist of the
Renaissance. Very notable is the spiral movement of this
monumental group. In fact, this group is the first sculpture in
Europe containing more than one figure with more than one
dominant viewpoints.
European Symbols
The Rape of the Sabine Women, source
https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10688
7629348780&set=pb.106887459348797.2207520000.1374400536.&type=3&theater,
[22.7.2013]
37
Eutropius, Breviarium Historia Romanae, I,1: The Rape of the Sabine Women
1
5
10
Condita civitate, quam ex nomine suo Romam vocavit,
haec fere egit. Multitudinem finitimorum in civitatem
recepit1, centum ex senioribus legit, quorum consilio
omnia ageret, quos senatores nominavit propter
senectutem . Tum, cum uxores ipse et populus suus non
haberent, invitavit ad spectaculum ludorum vicinas2 urbi
Romae nationes3 atque earum virgines rapuit. Commotis
bellis propter raptarum iniuriam Caeninenses vicit,
Antemnates, Crustuminos, Sabinos, Fidenates, Veientes .
Haec omnia oppida urbem cingunt. Et cum orta subito
tempestate non comparuisset4, anno regni tricesimo
septimo ad deos transisse creditus5 est5 et consecratus.
Deinde Romae per6 quinos dies6 senatores imperaverunt
et his regnantibus annus unus completus est.
1. recipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus: take;
2. vicinus 3: contiguous;
3. natio, -onis f.: tribe;
4. compareo, -ere, -parui: be visible,
appear;
5. creditus est: he was believed;
6. per quinos dies: by periods of five
days each;
Comments:
5: senectutem: This is the first mention of the Senate, from senex, “old man”.
8-9: Caeninenses, Antemnates, Crustumini, Sabini, Fidenates, Veientes: These are the tribes of
Etruscan origin all around ancient Rome, all.
Hercules and Nessus, source:
http://itphoto500x500.mnstatic.com/statuadi-ercole-e-il-centauro-nesso_230061.jpg,
[22.7.2013].
Here there is also Hercules beating the Centaur Nessus (1599).
Hercules and his wife Deianira had to cross a river and the centaur
Nessus was the only one who can help them. When the centaur picked
up Deianira, he tried to do violence to her. Then Hercules killed him, but
before he died the centaur told Deianira to preserve his blood, telling her
that it had magical properties to induce love. But it was a lie: instead it
was a potent and deadly poison. So when she soaked the tunica of
Hercules with this blood in order to preserve his love for her, the hero
died with terrible suffering.
The Rape of Polyxena is another
very famous group of statues in
this Loggia. Polyxena was the young and beautiful daughter of Priam
and Hecuba. This young girl is not present in homeric tradition, but
she was invented by tragedians in the classical period and was
imagined as a parallel to Iphigenia. Dante (Inf. V, 65-66) thinks that
Achilles was a victim of love because he died for the love of
Polyxena. He went in fact to the temple of Apollo in order to marry
her but here he was killed by the arrows of Paris. Neoptolemus, his
son, then sacrificed Polyxena to honour his dead father.
Questions and tasks
The Rape of Polyxena, source:
http://media.i.focus.it/2012/11/d9fc38b9-6ceb48f8-a110-13eb54cb4a13_590_590_0.JPG,
[22.7.2013]
1. Which myths are represented by the statues of the “Loggia dei Lanzi” in Florence?
2. Describe the statue of “The rape of the Sabine women” and compare it with the text of Eutropius.
3. Find other classical representations (statues, pictures, mosaics…) of the myth of Perseus and Medusa on
the Web and describe the difference between them and the statue of Benvenuto Cellini.
Dante Alighieri of Florence: civis illustris et immeritus exul
European Symbols
38
Dante Alighieri is perhaps the most important poet and writer of Italian
Literature. He was born in Florence in 1265 and in his first years of literary
activity he was involved in the group of ‘poeti del dolce stil novo’, with Guido
Cavalcanti and Guido Guinizzelli. Their poems were in fact only about love and
about the women they loved. As he matured, Dante began his political career and
became a very important representative of the Guelfi Bianchi, at this time in a
continous struggle with the Guelfi Neri. Political affairs were in the Medieval
Period the most important reason for ideological divisions. When therefore the
Guelfi Neri of Corso Donati, the personal enemies of Dante, became the most
important political party in the administration of the Comune of Florence, Dante
Dante,
source:
and others were exiled from the city. In the first years of his exile he was with his
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/friends, but after a while he chose to be by himself and had a very sad and difficult
qhVaY3HkrxQ/TXUbgRlife, because at this time it was very dangerous to help a person who had been
H8hI/AAAAAAAAADQ/hWF
nhmm2cYc/s1600/dante.jpg,
exiled. So, after some very difficult times, he enjoyed a better life thanks to the
[22.7.2013].
help of Moroello Malaspina in Lunigiana and Cangrande della Scala in Verona.
At the end of his life, Dante was the guest of Guido Novello da Polenta in Ravenna, where he died in 1321.
Among his most famous works are the Divina Commedia, where he imagines a fantastic journey through the
afterlife; De vulgari eloquentia, in favour of the sermo vulgaris instead of sermo latinus; the Convivio,
where he speaks about cultura and sapientia; De monarchia, where he explains his political theories about
imperator and pope, two ‘suns’ that have in his mind the same power, and are therefore distinct from one
another.
Fhilippi Villani Liber de civitatis Florentiae famosis civibus ex codice Mediceo Laurentiano nunc primum
editus et de Florentinorum litteratura principes fere synchroni scriptores cura et studio Gustavi Camilli
Galletti, Florentiae MDCCCXLVII, Joannes Mazzoni excudebat, p. 11.
Writing about the important personalities of Florence, Filippo Villani, an important chronicler of the
medieval age, speaks about the death of Dante.
1
5
10
15
20
Obiit poëta anno MCCCXXI idibus Septembris, quo die
Sanctae Crucis solemnitas1 celebratur, dierum2 vitae suae
anno sexto et quinquagesimo, et apud vestibulum
Fratrum3 Minorum3, eminenti conditus est sepulcro: non
equidem4 quo tantum decuerit5 virum, sed quale pro6
repentino7 interitu in tanto rerum turbine8 potuit ocius9
inveniri. Decreverat vir nobilis Guido Novellus ex
operoso10 marmore amplissimo sumptu11 erigere
monumentum, quo egregii poetae cineres conderentur12;
sed amici propositum13 infelix frustravit eventus14,
fortunis Guidonis in deterius15 commutatis. Quae tamen
interim potuit viri nobilis diligentia adimplevit16: curavit
siquidem17, ut per multos <amicos> pro6 cuiusque
arbitrio ponendi18 versus in sepulcro in poëtae laudem
dictarentur19; hos <versus> iussit in frontispicio20
sollemnis arculae21 insigniri22:
Theologus Dantes nullius dogmatis23 expers24,
quod foveat25 claro philosophia sinu26.
Gloria Musarum: vulgo gratissimus auctor,
hic iacet, et fama pulsat27 utrumque polum.
Qui loca defunctis28, gladiis regnumque gemellis29
European Symbols
1. sollemnitas, -tatis. f.: religious
service;
2. dies, diei. m.: time;
recipio, -ere, -cepi, -ceptus: take;
3. Fratres Minores: the friars of St.
Francis;
4. equidem: adv.: indeed; 5. deceo, ere, -ui: to become, to be becoming
(coni. potentialis); 6. pro: according
to, considering; 7. repentinus 3:
sudden; 8. turbo, -inis m.: confusion;
9. ocius: adv.: rather quickly; 10.
operosus 3: elaborate; 11. sumptus, us. m.: expense; 12. condo, -ere, didi, -ditus: bury; 13. propositum, -i
n.: scheme, plan; 14. eventus, -us m.:
happening; 15. in deterius: for the
worse; 16. adimpleo, -ere,-evi, -etus:
fulfil, provide completely;
17. siquidem: adv.: indeed;
18. pono, -ere, posui, positus: set;
19. dicto 1: get written down;
20. frontispicium, -i. n.: front
illustration (of the urn); 21. arcula, ae f.: small urn; 22. insignio 4: mark;
23. dogma, -atis n.: philosophical
tenet; 24. expers, -ertis (+ Gen.):
being without; 25. foveo, -ere, fovi,
fotus: cherish;
26. sinus, -us m.: lap;
27. pulso 1: strike, move, impress;
28. defuncti, - orum. m.: the dead;
29. gemellus 3: twin;
39
25
30
Distribuit30, laicis31 rhetoricisque modis31.
Pascua32 Pieriis33 demum34 resonabat35 avenis36,
Atropos heu laetum livida37 rupit38 opus.
Huic ingrata tulit tristem Florentia fructum39,
Exilium, nato patria cruda40 suo,
quem pia Guidonis gremio41 Ravenna Novelli
gaudet honorati continuisse42 ducis.
Mille trecentenis ter septem numinis annis,
ad sua septembris idibus astra redit.
30. distribuo, -ere, -bui, -butus:
assign; 31. laicis rhetoricisque
modis: in vernacular verses;
32. pascuum, -i n.: pasture land;
33. Pierius 3: from Mount Pierus,
Thessalian, sacred to the Muses;
34. demum: adv.: lastly;
35. resono 1: make resound
36. avena, -ae f.: shepherd’s pipe, pan
pipe; 37. lividus 3: envious
38. rumpo, -ere, rupi, ruptus:
interrupt, break off; 39. fructus, -us
m.: fruit, profit; 40. crudus 3: harsh;
41. gremium, -i n.: bosom; 42.
contineo, -ere, -ui, -tentus: keep;
Comments:
2 Sanctae Crucis: Santa Croce is the most important church in Florence where the most important personalities of
Italian culture are buried.
3-4 vestibulum Fratrum Minorum: Dante died in Ravenna, where he was the guest of Guido Novello da Polenta, a
very important authority in this city. The friars of St. Francis offered a place near their monastery in order to bury
him. Today the sepulcrum Dantis is still in Ravenna, in the same place, and visited and honoured by many people.
6 rerum turbine means that his death caught all his friends and parents by surprise. In fact, at this time Dante was
still exiled from Florence and the guest of Ravenna, after having been welcomed in Verona by Cangrande della
Scala, to whom he dedicated the Paradiso.
7 Guido Novellus: He was Dante’s host and friend in Ravenna.
10 infelix eventus: the poet’s death
19 auctor: The people of Italy loved Dante and he was beloved by the Musae, but, as he says with similar words in
Inf. II, he was “a friend of Beatrice and he was not a friend of destiny”, because he was infelix exul.
20 iacet…pulsat: If Dante lies,here his fama reaches all parts of the world: these two images (poëta iacet/fama pulsat)
are in strong antithesis.
21-22 loca…distribuit: Dante described the hereafter in his Divina Commedia, Hell, Purgatory and Paradise.
22 laicis rhetoricisque modis: this means that Dante composed his Divina Commedia in sermo vulgaris, not in Latin,
in which all theological works at his time were composed. Dante discussed the question of literary language also in
De vulgari eloquentia and Convivio. He composed also some important works in Latin, such as the same De
vulgari eloquentia and De monarchia, but was convinced that the new culture of his time had to be expressed in
sermo vulgaris, not in Latin. Dante also composed specific political or philosophical works, dedicated to the
community of docti et sapientes viri, such De monarchia, Eclogae and Quaestio de Aqua et Terris.
25 ingrata…Florentia: Florence is here patria ingrata, because Dante was exiled for political reasons from his city
for many years, from 1300 until his death.
26 nato…suo: very strong expression in order to indicate the poet Dante, son of Florence and produced by this urbs
ingrata. In Vergil, a very important poetic source for Dante, nati are the little offspring of animals in the Bucolica.
This image and these terms create a stronger contrast between Florentia as mater urbs ingrata and the loving cares
of the Vergilian world of animals.
27 gremio: This is another expression that recalls the maternal reference to the loving care of Ravenna to the body of
Dante after his death.
pia Ravenna: The town received the body of Dante after his death and offered hospitality to him in the last days of
his life, is here in strong contrast with the image of ingrata Florentia.
29 Mille…annis: In the year 1321, 1300 + 7x3.
30 ad sua…astra: Dante returned to “his stars” when he died. At the end of each Cantica of Divina Commedia, in
fact, the last verses contain the word “stars”. So Dante, an exile from Florence, returned after death not to his
mother-country, to which he never returned, but to his real mother-country, the sky with its beautiful stars.
Questions and tasks
1. Try to explain the relationship between Dante Alighieri and his city Florence in a few lines.
2. Find some parts in the text of Filippo Villani in which the difficult relationship between the poet and
his city Florence is expressed.
3. The poetic and celebratory text in honour of the poet Dante is rhetorically structured: Find some
rhetorical devices in the text and try to explain their function.
European Symbols
40
LITHUANIA: Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon
by Barbora Petronytė, Titas Vilkaitis, Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas
Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world, the Cathedral of Vilnius
is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture. The history of both these temples is similar: the
buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their region's
history. The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena, and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two
saints: St. Stanislovas and St. Vladislovas. In reality, the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names
and many well-known historical figures and, therefore, this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of
the Lithuanian nation.
The Cathedral of Vilnius
Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė
source: http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaizdas:Parthenon_
from_west.jpg, PD, [31.7.2011]
The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon – the Cathedral of Vilnius – dates back to the 13th
century. It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugas’ Cathedral, and then became a pagan
temple after Mindaugas’ death. Later, in 1419, the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke
Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral. The building caught fire many times – once in 1530 and
again in 1610. After each fire, the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch, but
the holy place remained the same. The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the
18th century, following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius, commissioned by the bishop of
Vilnius, I. J. Masalskis. L. Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new, classical style, imitating architectural
forms of the Antiquity. The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique
architecture – this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral, which resembles both the Greek
Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods, although
with some differences. Instead of towers, the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners. He put
twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four
columns. The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures: St. Stanislovas, St. Elena and St.
Kazimieras. The cathedral represents L. Gucevičius' architectural philosophy: the harmonic and moderate
approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L. Gucevičius followed.
The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers: in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke14 Žygimantas Augustas
was crowned in the Cathedral, and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here. Just
like the Greek Parthenon, the building has also served as a necropolis15 for famous people of Lithuania – the
temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife, his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis, Švitrigaila,
Žygimantas Kęstutaitis' son Mykolas, St. Kazimieras and his brother Alexander, the ruler of Lithuania and
Poland, and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza, the bishops and members of the chapter of
Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas: Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė. The latter
is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe.
Question:
How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon? How are they different?
14
Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries. Largest
country in Europe during the 15th century.
15
Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery
European Symbols
41
The Cathedral of Vilnius. Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė
source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acropolis-panorama-night.jpg,
CC BY-SA 3.0, [31.7.2011]
Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos, one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of
the 16th century. Widowed early, the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania,
Žygimantas Augustas. The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barbora's family
warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor, just so he could visit his
beloved one without anyone's interference. The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding.
Žygimantas' parents – Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza – did not even want to consider a public
wedding, as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood. Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the
lovers' union, as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family. However, love
knows no bounds – in 1548, when inheriting rule over Poland, Žygimantas Augustas announced his
wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland. Thus Žygimantas defeated all who
opposed him, even his mother Bona Sforza, and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned
the queen in Krakow, then capital of Poland. However, Barbora was already very ill. Ruling for a total of 5
months, she died in her husband's arms in May 5th, 1551 in Krakow. Her last wish was to be buried in the
Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish. The king was incredibly shaken by the
death of Barbora – he had the walls of his living quarters painted black, the entire palace was in mourning,
and during the procedure that carried Barbora's remains to Vilnius, Žygimantas followed on foot. The king,
although he married again later, as he wanted children, never forgot his love – Barbora Radvilaitė. And so,
Barbora, who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time, rests eternally
in the Cathedral of Vilnius.
Questions and tasks:
1. How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitė's love unconventional?
2. Find Greek myths, resembling the royal pair's love story.
Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court – the main proponent of Renaissance culture in
Lithuania. Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros,
poet and jurist of Spanish descent. Having received a typical „iuris utriusque doctoris“16 in the University
of Bologna. Pedro, invited by the queen Bona Sforza, ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas. Pedro
Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture: he participated
in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law, which became popular
in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century. Ruiz was a humanitarian, well
versed in both law and antique culture, but he participated in court life not only as a jurist, but also as a poet
who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs17.
16
Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law.
Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe), clever poetic work, usually of a satirical
nature, highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people. Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - „on a tomb“)
text on a tomb or a special plaque, usually rhymed, honouring the deceased.
17
European Symbols
42
Lucas Cranach the Elder. Barbora Radvilaitė
source: http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaizdas:
Barbradziwill1520.jpg, PD, [31.7.2011]
The Cathedral of Vilnius. Epitaph for Queen Barbora.
Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė
In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language, one of them dedicated to
Barbora Radvilaitė18. This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral, on a
plaque attached to the queen's coffin. As during the Antiquity, the epitaph is anonymous, although after
comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz, there is no second guessing the author.
Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz' epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora.
Barbara, quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto
Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat,
Commoda multa tulit multis, incommoda nulli
A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest.
Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5
Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros.
Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset,
Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem.
(epitaph, found in the Cathedral).
1. tego 3, texi, tectum: here: is guarded
(praesens indicativi passivi); 2. in the grave
(tumulus, ī m: grave); 3. altera – here: the
second;
Barbara, quae condor1 tumulo, regina, sub isto,
Augusti coniux altera regis eram,
Immatura cado, decima trieteride coepta
Regales fatis linquere iussa toros.
Vixi2 grata minus populo3, sed noxia nulli4;
Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo.
(Ruiz' epitaph)
1. condo 3, idī, itum: here: am buried
(praesens indicativi passivi)
4. immātūrus 3: immature, early; 5. decima
trieteride capta: taken, thirty years old
(trietēris, idis f: three years); 6. jubeo 2,
jussī, jussum: order (partcipium perfecti
passivi)
2. vivo 3, vīxī, vīctum: to live; 3. grata
minus populo: disliked by the people; 4.
noxia nulli : did not offend anyone (noxius
3); 5. laus est (verbum regens) me
placuisse (acc. cum infinitivo): deserved
glory for pleasing
18
Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė, although only one of them is publicized
in the Cathedral of Vilnius.
European Symbols
43
Questions and Tasks:
1. How is Ruiz' epitaph similar to antique epitaphs?
2. What facts does the epitaph reveal?
3. Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen?
All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century, so the writings dedicated to
Barbora is one of the earlier examples. Overall, epitaphs are valuable not only for their information, but also
for their artistic merit – epitaphs are, after all, a form of short literature. It should be noted that these
Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones. The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman
tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality), as they kept certain structural canons while
representing the individuality of the deceased. The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora, as per Roman
tradition, indicate her name and age, while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in
metaphors and litotes. Overall, nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz. Here are some other
texts:
Barbara, Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina, potenti
De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo.
Dat mortem3, quae sceptra dedit, Cracovia4; regis
Quae dederat thalamum, Vilna dedit tumulum5.
1. Sauromatum = Sarmatarum: Sarmatians.
Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity
is used to refer to the entire population of Poland
and Lithuania; 2. orior 4, ortus sum: to
come/originate from (partcipium perfecti
passivi); 3. mortem dare: to die; 4. Cracovia:
Krakow; 5. iteration: Roiz says what Krakow,
the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen;
Barbara, Sauromatum regina, hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est,
De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo.
Augusto nupsit9 regi, dulcissima coniunx10,
Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil.
Occubuit11 iuvenis; quae si longaeva12 fuisset
Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum.
6. hoc sepulcro: sg. Abl.: in the tomb; 7. claudo
3, clausī, clausum: to close, here: is buried;
8. of the Radvilos
9.nūbo 3, nūpsī, nūptum: to marry; 10.
coniunx = conjūx, jugis m, f: spouse, here:
Barbora;
11. occumbo 3, cubuī, cubitum: to die; 12.
longaevus 3: very old; 13. dēfungor 3, fūnctus
sum: to end, to die;
So, as it is required by the canon, the epitaphs describe Barbora's heritage and duties. In addition to that,
reading the epitaphs, like with Roman tomb writings, the places of birth and death of the deceased are
revealed. Overall, the epitaphs reveal their epoch's (in this case, the Renaissance's) worldview – the sense of
free will, confidence in one's own strength, dominance of emotions and justice. Although the genre,
according to antique tradition, is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of
sacralisation, Ruiz' epitaphs for Barbora are an exception, which was apparently based in the author's
streightfoward character and the dramatic, extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife
Barbora Radvilaitė. Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic – the actual situation was more
astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality.
Questions and tasks:
1. Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow – Greek or Roman? Why do you think so?
2. The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre: indicating the
name, age, duration of reign, origin and received royal duties. Confirm or deny using the text.
3. What new things about Barbora's personality did you learn from Ruiz' epitaphs?
4. The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity. How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the
worldview of the Renaissance?
5. In what aspect do Ruiz' epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs? Why?
European Symbols
44
REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA: Grigor Prlichev
by Sofija Bejkovska, Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski
Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX
post Christi natum. Habuit pueritiam duram, quia pater eius
defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo. In loco natali instructus est a
Demetrio Miladinov, viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto
carminum popularium, qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem
erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit. Postea profectus
est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam, non tam sua quam matris
voluntate. Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat,
se flagranter operi poetico tradens. Ad hoc accedebat, quod Prlichev
linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura
studiebat, praesertim verens carmina Homeri. Haec diligentia
fructum suavem peperit, non longum sed bene compositum ac
praeclarum poema O Armatolos, scriptum lingua Graeca expolita
nomine cathareuousa (i.e. expurgata). Cum hoc libello certamine
sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum
praemium consecutus est. Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae.
Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam,
quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare. Illo enim
tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum, subiectae regno
Turcarum, dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina
Macedonice defuerunt. Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare, i.e. linguam communem
omnibus populis Slavonicis, verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem. Sed hoc consilium
Gregorii Prlichev, quamvis benignus, non multum valuit, cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis,
imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis.
Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum.
Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum: O Armatolos ac
Scanderbegus19, unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia,
unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres, ac variorum carminum
atque articulorum diurnalium.
In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae,
protectoris populi Macedonici, cum latronibus Albanis, incursus crebros
in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus, depinxit.
In carmine epico secundo, longiore sed non expolitiore quam
primum, atque ipsum, ut O Armatolos, lingua cathareuousa scriptum,
titulo Scanderbegus, pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi
(i. e. Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit.
In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est
Prlichev stylum Homeri, abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque
utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens, ut illo certamine
poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit.
Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae
ipsius Prlichev, sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac
de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo, atque partim de
condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis.
Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere? Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir, magnus cultor ac
amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum, desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem
generare, atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum. Huius ultimi
exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis, in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum
continentia.
19
Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (-/-/-/-/-/-/-/-). Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek).
European Symbols
45
ΙΛΙΑΣ, 3. 328-38
αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ' ἀμφ' ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ
δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7.
8
9
330 κνημῖδας μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν ἔθηκε
καλάς, ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12·
δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν
οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονος· ἥρμοσε17 δ' αὐτῷ.
ἀμφὶ δ' ἄρ' ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20
χάλκεον21, αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε
24
25
26
27
335 κρατὶ δ' ἐπ' ἰφθίμῳ κυνέην εὔτυκτον ἔθηκεν
ἵππουριν28· δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32·
εἵλετο33 δ' ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35, ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37.
1.αὐτάρ, conj.: - but, at the same time,
however; 2. ὦμος, ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is
dat.); 3. δύ(ν)ω - make way into; sink,
set (a heavenly body); put on (clothes);
4. τεῦχος, τὸ - instrument, utensil,
useful; weapon, armament, armor; 5.
δῖος 3 - heavenly, divine; noble,
excellent; 6. πόσις, ὁ - husband, owner;
7. εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is
gen.); 8. κνημίς, -ῖδος, ἡ - greave,
legging; 9. κνήμη, ἡ - part between
knee and ankle, leg, shank; 10.
ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver; 11. ἐπισφύρια,
τά - leg-guards, ankle-pieces; 12.
ἀραρίσκω - join/fit together; furnish/fit
with…; 13. αὖ, conj. - again; further,
next; 14. θώραξ, -ακος, ὁ - corslet; 15.
στῆθος, τό - chest. οἷο = οὗ (gen. of rel.
pron.); 16. κασιγνήτος, ὁ - brother; 17.
ἁρμόττω - adapt; fit well…; 18. βάλετο
- no augment; 19. ξίφος, ὁ - sword; 20.
ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded; 21.
χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze, brazen;
22. σάκ(κ)ος, τό - shield; 23. στιβαρός
3 - strong, stout, sturdy; 24. κράς,
κρατός – head; 25. ἴφθιμος 3 - strong,
powerful; 26. κυνέη, ἡ - helmet; 27.
εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made, well-wrought;
28. ἱππούρις, -ιδος, ἡ - horse-tail (here
as adj.); 29. δεινός 3 - fearful, terrible
(here as adv.); 30. λόφος, ὁ - back of
the neck; crest (of a hill, ridge, helmet);
31. καθύπερθεν, adv. - from above; 32.
νεύω - incline, nod; 33. αἱρέω - take,
grasp; 34. ἄλκιμος 2, 3 - stout, brave;
35. ἔγχος, τό - spear; 36. παλάμη, ἡ palm of the hand (-φι is a gen.&dat.
sg.&pl. suff. to nouns); 37. ἀρήρει
(ἀραρίσκω) - plpf. with impf. meaning.
Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)
Poster for the film "Troy" (Orlando Bloom as Paris)
* Sources: Прличев, Григор. Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д. Петрушевски). Скопје:
Македонска книга, 1974. and Митевски, Витомир. Хомер и Прличев: влијанието на хомерската епска поезија
на „Арматолос“ и „Скендербеј“ од Григор С. Прличев. Скопје: Ѓурѓа, 1995.
European Symbols
46
ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ, 2361-2401
2365
2370
2375
2380
2385
2390
2395
2400
Ὁ δ' ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του,
λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2·
χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον,
ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα,
ὅλον δ' ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός· ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος
πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6, τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν,
ἔνθ' ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία,
χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν,
ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος,
Πῖος, ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11,
Πῖος ὁ μέγας, ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης,
ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16
ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα,
ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας,
ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ' ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει,
καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου·
ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24,
ἔγχρυσον, ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26, ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28·
περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου,
σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην,
ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν, κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων,
ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα·
περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον,
ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη,
ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36,
καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37·
κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του
σκυτίνην, σιδηρόφρακτον39, σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον,
ἥν ποτ' ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος,
οὐ μόνην, ἀλλὰ μετ' αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα,
καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις·
Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην,
ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ' οἱ ἔγγονοί του,
ὅθ' ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι
τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας,
οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος,
νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ,
κ' ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον·
ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του,
ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον,
ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου.
1. περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling; subs.
covering, garment;
2. ἄνασσα, ἡ - queen, lady;
3. κόμβος, ὁ - knot, fastening, button;
4. ἱστός, ὁ - beam of a loom; warp fixed
to the beam; the web;
5. εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name; fortunate;
euphem. left; 6. μαζός, ὁ - breast; 7. ἰδίως,
adv. – peculiarly; 8. δονέω – shake;
9. στηλόω - set (up); 10. διαπρεπής, -ές –
distinguished;
11. εὐθυῤῥήμων, -ον (gen. -ονος) - plainspoken;
12. ὕπατος 3, 2 - highest; supreme; 13.
ἀρχιερεύς, -έως, ὁ -chief-priest; pontiff,
pope; 14. εὐαγής, -ές - free from
pollution, pure; guiltless; 15. λατρεύω –
serve; 16. θοῦρος 2 - rushing, impetuous,
furious; 17. εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body;
18. ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of;
19. πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing; 20. ἕλκω
- draw, drag; 21. ἀμύνω - keep off, ward
off; 22. ὄλεθρος, ὁ - ruin, death; 23.
ἀναξυρίδες, -ίδων, αἱ (pl. tant.) – trousers;
24. σκέλος, τό - leg from the hip
downwards; 25. ἔνερθεν, adv. - from
beneath; beneath, below; 26. στενός 3 –
narrow; 27. ὕπερθεν, adv. - from above;
above; 28. εὐρύς, εὐρεῖα, εὐρύ - wide,
broad; 29. πέδιλον, τό - any covering for
the foot; 30. σκύτινος 3 - made of leather;
31. ὀσφύς, -ύος, ἡ - loin(s), lower part of
the back; 32. ἀλεξητήριον, τό - remedy,
medicine; protection; 33. ῥομφαία, ἡ large, broad sword; 34. ὑψήλιος 3 - that is
under the sun; 35. πτοέω -terrify, scare;
36. μείγνυμι - join, bring together, mix up;
37. κευθμῶν, -ῶνος, ὁ - hiding place,
hole; 38. κόρυς, -υθος, ἡ - helmet;
39. σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with
iron;
40. λαοπληθής , -ές - full of people,
crowded; 41. εὐρυάγυια, Hom. fem. adj. with wide streets;
42. νέμω - distribute; med. distribute
among themselves and have as one's
portion; 43. ὑπερπόντιος 2, 3 - over the
sea; from beyond the sea; 44. ἐξωθέω force out; expel; drive out; 45. συνετός 3 intelligent, wise; 46. ἀείρω - lift, raise up;
med. carry of, win (part. of aor.);
47. στηρίζω - support, confirm; 48.
κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in
confusion; pass. be harassed, shaken;
49. ἐρῳδιός, ὁ - heron.
Comment:
Using the theme of armament, Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer. The way Prlichev
creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background. The description of the armament of
Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad, so it is easy to witness the six
European Symbols
47
constructive elements. Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the
armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichev’s Skenderbei.
If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad
with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that
they are composed of the six constructive elements1, but also
that they have the same sequence of relation2, which represents
a kind of ritual sequence in the formula, depending on the
tradition of typical battle scenes. This is the most discussed
theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a
typical theme of epic poetry.
If we take a closer look at the whole composition, we will
surely find three parts that every armament consists of: preface,
Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje
light-motif and free standard form. The preface in the case of
Alexander is contained in the first two verses, where his armament is announced (328/9); the lightmotif is found in the next three verses, in which Alexander puts on his body protection (330/2); and
the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements. In the case of Skenderbei, we
recognize the preface in verses 2361/2 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 2379/80. The rest,
resembling Homer’s epics, contains free form of expression.
Consisting of the main elements, the typical theme is rather simple
and sometimes boring, which explains why every epic poet has to put
something individual in it. Even in the simple form of the armament of
Alexander, there are some specific details and descriptions making the
theme look more interesting and individual. Trying to escape the typical,
Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament –
the cross. Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains
with just one specific detail the idea of battle, the time when the battle
occurs and the revolt of the hero. In that manner the theme obtains a
function of real and psychological preparation for battle. That is the Scanderbegus (1444)
introduction of a new thematic complex – the manifestation of heroism.
Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings, we can also say
that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher, had deep sensations in poetry and did
something that only few had done before – a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal
language.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Who is Grigor Prlichev, where did he live
and in what century did he write?
2. Number some of his famous writings.
3. What else can we learn from his
Autobiography beside his life?
4. Who can Prlichev be compared with?
5. What is the main theme of Skenderbei?
6. Why is the part of armament important in
epic poetry?
The Church of Sts. Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed)
7. How many constructive elements are there
on Plaoshnik
in both descriptions of armament (Alexander
– Iliad, Skenderbei – Skenderbei)?
Enumerate them.
8. How many parts can we separate from the
whole composition of armament?
9. According to your opinion, why is the cross
so important in the armament of
Skenderbei?
10. Learn four verses by heart and try to recite
them in meter.
Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos
1
The six constructive elements are: clothes for the upper part of the body, clothes for the lower part of the body, protection
for the body and chest, offensive arm and protection for the head.
2
It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence. Firstly the clothes, then the shield,.. etc.
European Symbols
48
THE NETHERLANDS: Erasmus’ Praise of Folly
by Egge Tysseling/The Netherlands
The greatest of the northern humanists was
Desiderius
Erasmus
(Rotterdam,
the
Netherlands, 1466-1536). Both his parents died
before he was twenty, and this, it seems,
prevented him from going straight on to a
university. His guardians sent him to a monastic
school instead, and in due course he joined an
Augustinian monastery. The result of these early
experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred
for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism
that had been inflicted on him.
At the end of 1499, he went for a short visit to
England, where he met Thomas More. Upon his
return to the continent he took up Greek to good
effect. When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his
doctorate at Turin, but found no one to excel him
in Greek. In 1516 he publishes the first edition of
the New Testament in Greek to appear in print.
Of his books, the best remembered is “The
Praise of Folly”, a satire composed at More’s
house in London, in 1511. The Greek title is a
pun on More’s name.
Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)
Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to
his host. Instantly it made him famous all over the
world: 40 editions saw the light in Erasmus’ lifetime.
In this work Folly itself is speaking, personified as a woman. To this Lady all human beings
are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism: popes, knights, bishops, merchants.
All people’s degree of folly is tested. This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits,
and power into impotence. Behind this satire the contents are moralizing. For instance: the
real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble
person, which the world thinks is a folly. Still, Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do
without material matters, but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make
people sensible. Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to selfknowledge.
In “The Praise of Folly” Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious
institutions and their ministers. In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not, when the time
came, declare openly for the Reformation. He held the essentially Protestant view that man
stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous. But at the same time he
would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation
movement. He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing, and felt in any
case that the schism was unfortunate.
While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance, these
issues could not be ignored. In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism, but at the same time
became less important. The stage was held by men of stronger mettle.
It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression. The
humanist learning which, until recently, was the core of secondary education wherever
Western European views prevailed, owes much to his literary and teaching activities. In his
work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of
texts. He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists. At the same time
European Symbols
49
he did not write in the vulgar tongue. He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the
position of Latin.
Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly), chapter 20: No marriages without Folly.
1
Porro quod de amicitia dictum est, id multo magis de
coniugio1 sentiendum2, quod quidem nihil est aliud,
quam individua3 vitae coniunctio. Deum immortalem,
quae non divortia4, aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim
5
acciderent, nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6,
per adulationem7, per iocum, per facilitatem8, errorem9,
dissimulationem10, meum utique11 satellitium12, fulciretur13 alereturque? Papae14, quam pauca coirent15
matrimonia, si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos
10 lusus17 delicata18 illa, sicuti videtur, ac pudens virguncula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit?
Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22, nisi plurima
uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23
laterent24?
Atque
haec
quidem
merito
stultitiae
15 tribuuntur,verum ea25 interim praestat26, ut marito
iucunda sit uxor, uxori iucundus maritus, ut tranquilla
domus27, ut maneat affinitas28. Ridetur29, cuculus30,
curruca31 et quid non vocatur, cum moechae32 lacrimas
labellis33 exorbet34.
20 At quanto felicius35 sic errare, quam zelotypiae36 diligentia cum sese conficere, tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38?
1. coniugium, -i n.: marriage; 2. sentio
4: to consider; 3. individuus 3:
unbreakable; 4. divortium, -i n.:
divorce; 5. deterior, -oris: worse; 6.
consuetude, -inis f.: intercourse; 7.
adulatio, -onis f.: flattery; 8. facilitas, atis f.: indulgence; 9. error, -oris m.:
error, mistake; 10. dissimulatio, -onis f.:
pretence; 11. utique: in short; 12.
satellitium, -ii n.: followers; 13. fulcio
4: to support; 14. Papae: (my)
goodness; 15. coeo, -is, -ire, -ii, -itum:
to be contracted; 16. sponsus, -i m.:
bridegroom; 17. lusus, -us m.: game;
18. delicatus 3: sweet, tender; 19.
virguncula, -ae f.: little bride; 20.
nuptiae, -arum f.: wedding; 21.
cohaereo, -es, -ere, -haesi: to last; 22.
inita: sc. matrimonia; 23. stupor, -oris
m.: stupidity; 24. lateo, -es, -ere, -ui: to
be concealed; 25. ea: sc. stultitia; 26.
praesto, -as, -are, -stiti, -stitus: to
achieve that; 27. domus, -us f.: house;
28. affinitas, -atis f.: love; 29. rideo, es, -ere, risi, risum: to laugh at; 30.
cuculus, -i m.: mug; fool; 31. curruca,
-ae f.: donkey; 32. moecha, -ae f.:
unfaithful wife; 33. labellum, -i n.: lip;
34. ex(s)orbeo, -es, -ere, -ui: to absorb;
35. quanto felicius: sc. est; 36.
zelotypia, -ae f.: jealousy; 37. cum …
tum: not just, but also; 38. miscere
tragoediis: to turn into a tragedy
Questions and Tasks:
1. Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not? Explain
your answer.
2. What is Erasmus’ thought about a woman before her
wedding?
3. Is the husband, in Erasmus’ view, smarter or more stupid
than his wife? Explain.
4. Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with
respect to marriage.
5. What is the error in the last 2 lines?
part of the text
European Symbols
50
Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly), chapter 49: Those unfortunate teachers
Adeo sibi placent1, dum pavidam turbam minaci2
1
vultu voceque territant, dum ferulis3, virgis4 lorisque5
conscindunt6 miseros, dumque modis omnibus suo
arbitratu7
saeviunt,
asinum8
illum
Cumanum
imitantes.
5
Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur,
paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14, miserrima illa servitus15
regnum esse putatur, adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint
cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18.
Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam
10 doctrinae20 persuasione21. Siquidem22 cum mera
deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24, tamen, dii boni,
quem non illi Palaemonem24, quem non Donatum25
prae26 sese contemnunt?
Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt, ut
15 stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur,
quales ipsi se faciunt.
1. adeo sibi placent: they are so
pleased with themselves; 2. minax, cis: grim; 3. ferula, -ae f.: rod; 4.
virga, -ae f.: twig; 5. lorum, -i n.:
whip; 6. conscindo, -is –ere, -scidi, scissus: to flog; 7. suo arbitratu: at
random; 8. asinus, -i m.: donkey;
9. sordes, -ium (f. pl.): dirt; 10.
merus 3: pure, mere; 11. munditiae,
-arum (f. pl.): neatness; 12. paedor, oris m.: filth; 13. amaricinus, -i m.:
marjoram; 14. oleo, -es, -ere, -ui (+
acc.): to smell like; 15. servitus, -utis
f.: slavery; 16. Phalaris, -idis m.: a
tyrant; 17. Dionysius, -ii m.: a tyrant;
18. commuto 1: to exchange; 19.
novus 3: unknown; 20. doctrina, -ae
f.: erudition; 21. persuasio, -onis f.:
conviction; 22. siquidem: for; 23.
deliramentum, -i n.: nonsense; 24.
inculco 1: to drum into; 24.
Palaemon, -onis m.: famous linguist;
25. Donatus, -i m.: famous linguist;
26. prae: compared to; 27.
praestigiumm -i n.: trick, magic
means; 28. idiotus 3: simple, stupid
Comments:
4.: asinus Cumanus:
according to a story this donkey, dressed in a lion’s skin, terrified people
Questions and Tasks:
1. How do the teachers feel about the way
they treat their pupils?
2. Write down the other 3 words that
Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers.
3. Why don’t the teachers consider
themselves as tyrants (10-14)?
4. What is the reason for Erasmus’
astonishment (15-17)?
schoolmaster
European Symbols
51
European Symbols
52
PORTUGAL: Coimbra, University City
by Susana Marques/Francisco de Oliveira
Coimbra, sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time
(i.e. Luís de Camões, António de Cabedo, Manuel Alegre), finds in
its University an inescapable ex libris (cf. images 1, 5, 6, 7). Close
to the town, it has been founded by the King D. Dinis in the end of
the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe,
having since always received students of several origins, among
whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as
Literature, Law, Medicine or Politics.
A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive
centuries, Coimbra is suggestively designated as the ‘lusa Atenas’
(‘the Portuguese Athens’), both because it is
situated on a hill, and also because it has
become a reference of knowledge (cf. image
2, the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in
the University logo). The Greek-Roman
matrix is therefore well present in Image 1 – University Tower
Coimbra’s architectural patrimony, namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of
Aeminium1 — the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and
later to the current name of ‘Coimbra’ —, in the Minerva Stairs, in the ceilings
with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf. image 4), in the statues in
Image 2
front of the Faculty of Letters (cf. image 3), sculpted by the Portuguese artist
Barata Feyo: Demosthenes, Aristotle, Herodotus and Sappho, representative figures of Eloquence,
Philosophy, History and Poetry, respectively.
Image 3 – Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo
Image 4 – Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library
Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the
‘lusa Atenas’ in their poems, recurring to rhythms used by the
Classical Antiquity.
The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the
Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of
the Arts School of Coimbra (Colégio das Artes), created by
D. João III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the
pre-university studies.
Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included
the study of Greek and Latin, considered important for all
those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty.
1
The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum.
European Symbols
53
1
Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes
ante alias urbes exserat una caput?
Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma,
Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit.
Hic Academiae, hic sunt loca nota Lycaei,
5
hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus.
Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus:
interea docta laurea fronde uiret.
Adsit Aristoteles, doctas miretur Athenas,
et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet.
10
Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla,
plena Deo uates ore futura canat:
donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas,
stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus.
Comments:
1uetus regum sedes: Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the
residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries).
4 Aonides: the Muses, named Aonides because the Mount Helicon, in the Boeotia or Aonia, had been
consecrated to them.
5 Academiae, Lycaei: names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf. A. C.
Ramalho 1994: 209).
6 constructis porticibus: allusion to the Arts School (Colégio das Artes), with an architecture of classical
inspiration.
8 laurea: Bay, symbol of Apollo and of knowledge, is also the symbol of the Arts School’s students.
9 Aristoteles: the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a
particularly common procedure in the Renaissance.
13 Monda: the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river, entirely Portuguese, the Mondego, in
Latin Munda or Monda; maris uicini excurret in undas: the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra.
14 Ioannis Regis: D. João III, founder of the Arts School.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus, doctus, nobilis.
2. Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam, deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3.
3. Describe the Arts School’s young students according to Diogo Pires’s verses.
4. Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic).
5. Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibyl’s speech.
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Also the Humanist Inácio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular
moment of Coimbra’s academic life, the Doctorate degree’s insignia imposition (cf. image 8):
1
Adde, quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis
exhilarat, crebro quos celebrare solet.
Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit,
et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput:
antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus,
5
pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas.
Incedit rector, comitatus fascibus aureis.
Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum.
Turba it doctorum, redimitaque tempora sertis,
textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt.
10
Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi,
et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono.
Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem,
argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos.
Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent
15
uultibus,et lepidos ore referre iocos.
Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum,
atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos:
laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus,
et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat.
20
Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo,
donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea.
Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum:
ordo sedet patrum, Palladiusque chorus.
Comments:
1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition, which included
music as well as an entourage.
15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century, which was compulsory in certain
academic acts such as the degree’s ceremonies.
23 spatiosum theatrum: the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos), stage of several academic ceremonies.
24 ordo patrum: members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies, including the Professors of the area;
Palladiusque chorus: probable reference to an academic Choir; currently, the musical element is under the
charge of the Charamela, a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain
solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos).
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55
Questions and Tasks:
1. Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations.
2. Identify words/phrases that suggest different sensations.
3. Justify the use of uidendi, in verse 11.
4. Clarify the reason of the alliteration, particularly of the occlusives, nasals, vibrant and sibilant in the
verses 13-14.
5. Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22.
Image 6 - Porta Férrea
Image 7 - Via Latina
Image 8 – Doctorate insignia imposition’s entourage
Sources:
-
(2002), Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao
Doutoramento). Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias).
Porto.
-
Ramalho, A. C. (1998), Para a História do Humanismo em Portugal I. Lisboa.
Ramalho, A. C., ed. (21994), Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia). Coimbra.
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ROMANIA: Dimitrie Cantemir, a Humanist and a Latinist
by Gabriela Creţia
DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723). HIS LIFE AND WORKS
Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of
Romania) and later a ruler in his own right, Dimitrie was
sent as a young boy to Constantinople, as a guarantee of
his father’s good faith towards the Sublime Porte. He
studied at the school of the Patriarchy, where, in
accordance with the curriculum of the famous
University of Padova, the following subjects were
taught: Greek, Latin, History, Geography, Literature,
Philosophy, but also the Art of Governance. Thus, the
young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated
humanist, formed in the spirit of the Western values, but
who was, nevertheless, attracted at the same time by the
peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he
lived (he has learned Arabic, Persian and Turkish, has
studied and written about the Muslim faith and the
Turkish music).
Due to his learned works on history, philosophy and
politics, written in Latin, Romanian, Turkish and
Russian, he has acquired great fame in the scholarly
circles, being elected a member of the Berlin Academy
(1714). At the same time, he had close relations with the
most important diplomats of the age, becoming intimate
with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day – The High Porte, France,
Austria and Russia.
He has understood, as a consequence of this, that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take
Vienna (Kahlenberg, 1683), the balance of forces shifted to their detriment. Thus begun a process of
decline that, Cantemir hoped, would free his own country from their domination. Indeed, as soon as he
was elected ruler of Moldova (1710), he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great, which guaranteed the
independence of his principality. However, adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek
refuge in Russia (1713), where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great. It was there
that he died, in 1723.
“An enlightened voivode, a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar, Berlin academician and
Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler, he reminds one of Lorenzo de’ Medici”,
commented George Călinescu, a famous literary critic. Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of
Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile,
much like other great creators (Ovid, Dante or Petrarca), Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal
personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West.
His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae, metaphysica (Latin), The system of the Islamic faith
(Russian), Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin), Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian)
and Descriptio Moldaviae.
The last title is a work of maturity, written during his exile in Russia, at the behest of the Berlin
Academy. Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph, reminding one of Tacitus’ Germania. Its
content, including elements of geography, history, politics, military arrangements, as well as
ethnography, delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region, which had started to arouse
the interest of Europe. The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact, within the limits of
the knowledge of his days. However, one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt
for his native land, which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven. Nevertheless,
his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less
commendable, such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities.
Upon the author’s death, the manuscript was lost, only to reemerge, almost miraculously, a century
later. We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text, as you can judge for yourselves from
the following fragments.
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ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS, Descriptio Moldaviae, II. 15.
Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse, quos
Traianus, postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2, totumque
Dacicum regnum subvertisset3, in Daciam ceu4 novas
colonias5 deduxerat6. Mortuo Traiano, Hadrianus […]
5 Moldaviam retinuit7, ne millia Romanorum civium, qui
ibi erant, perderet.
Per tot saecula, quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8,
Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9
conservatum10que fuit; unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12
10 argumentum13: dialectum14 Moldavicam, quae propius15
ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit, evidenter
[…] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18.
1
1. nego 1: to deny; 2. postquam [...]
devicisset: after having defeated; 3.
subvertisset: having destroyed; 4.ceu:
as, in the form of; 5. colonia , -ae f:
colony, colonist;
6. deduco 3, –duxi, -ductum: to send;
7. retineo 2, -tinui, -tentus: to keep; 8.
intercedo 3, -cessi, -cessum: to
separate;
9. propago 1: to expand; 10. conservo
1: to maintain; 11. dubitaturi, m.
(future participle < dubito 1): those who
would doubt; 12. obiicio 3, -ieci, iectum: to offer; 13. argumentum, -i
n.: evidence; 14. dialectus, -i f.:
language; 15. propius: closer; 16.ullā
aliā: than any other; 17. conditor ,-oris
m.: founder;18. arguo 3, -ui, -utum: to
demonstrate;
Comments:
2 Traianus, the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction
(Hispania), reigned between AD 98 and 117. Exceptional soldier
and administrator – he was given the title optimus princeps – he
succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their
maximum extension: 3,300,000 km2.
Decebalus, king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of
Dacia (nowadays part of Romania)
5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138), Trajan’s successor, a prudent and
highly sophisticated emperor. He was forced to abandon some
Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy.
For political reasons, some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of
Romanians, as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube. The
words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument, which is
answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows.
Questions and Tasks:
1. The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102
and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and
marked the beginning of the Romanisation process. The
attached images represent the two “chronicles in stone” of
these wars. Can you identify and place them on the map?
2. The first monument, 138 metres tall, used to be crowned with
Trajan’s statue in gilded bronze. Degraded by the passage of
time, it was restored in 1587, on the initiative of Pope Sixtus
V and has, ever since, supported the statue of another. Do
you know who that was and why this has happened?
3. Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the
region.
4. What other Romanic languages could you name?
OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM, Descriptio Moldaviae, I. 5-6.
Ab occasu, ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est,
Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus;
reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5.
Montes arboribus frugiferis6 […] naturā consiti sunt7, quibus
European Symbols
1. conterminus 3: neighbouring;
2. undique: on all sides;
3. cingo 3, cinxi, cinctum: to surround;
4. orientem versus: towards the East; 5.
pateo 2, -ui: to stretch;
6. frugifer 3: bearing fruits;
58
interpositi8, subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo
sussuro ruentes11, limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13
amoenissimi loci conciliant14 […]
At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia
vineta16, maximā fecunditate. Generosissimum vinum
nascitur Cotnari […] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis, nec
ipso Tocaiensi excepto17, praestantius18 et nobilius esse
affirmare ausim19. […] Colorem habet singularem20, viridem
nimirum21.
7. consero 3, -sevi, -situm: to plant;
8. interpono 3, -posui, -positum: to
place between; 9.subinde: often; 10.
culmen, -inis n.: mountaintop; 11. ruo
3, rui, rutum: to rush down; 12.
rivulus, i m.: small river; 13. species, ei f.: sight; 14. concilio 1: to offer; 15.
dos, -tis, f: dowry; 16. vinetum, -i n.:
vineyard; 17. nec […] excepto:
“making no exception, not even for the
wine of Tokaji”; 18. praestans, -tis :
distinguished; 19. ausim: I would dare;
20. singularis, -e: peculiar; 21.
nimirum: namely Comments:
Looking at the map, one may notice that the author simplifies
the geographic relations between the three provinces. Walachia,
currently known as Muntenia, lies, in fact, to Moldova’s SouthWest. The three regions now form Romania, but in Cantemir’s
days, they were independent: Moldova and Muntenia under
Ottoman influence, while Transylvania was under the rule of the
Hapsburg Empire.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Cantemir, who had been exiled from his country for many
years, obviously misses the landscape of his native land.
However, this description of a grove with trees and rivers as
an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a
topos, the locus amoenus. Compare with Theocritus
XXII.36, Lucretius II.29, Vergil, Georg., II.467.
2. Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine? Could
you name other famous European wines?
ANIMALIA MIRABILIA, Descriptio Moldaviae, I. 7.
Longe ab <domesticis ovibus> diversae sunt oves
silvaticae1, quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram
protensum3 habent, et hanc ob causam, cum pascunt4,
retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur. In collo nullae
vertebrae, neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput
deflectere possunt. [...]
In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal, quod proprium
esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7. Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur,
magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8, caput tamen minus
et oblongum, collum et ventrem graciliorem, pedes altiores,
cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet. Animal est ferox11 et
velox. Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est.
1. silvaticus 3: wild; 2. superior, ius (comparative): upper;
3. protendo 3, -tendi, -tensum: to
hang; 4. pasco 3, pavi, pastum: to
graze; 5. retrocedo 3, -cessi, cessum: to walk backwards; 6.
victus, -us m.: food;
7. ausim: I would dare;
8. aequo 1: to be equal to;
9. tenuis, -e: slim;
10. erectus 3: straight; 11. ferox , ocis: savage, violent;
Comments:
Caesar, in his Bellum Gallicum, VI. 25-28, while describing the
fauna of the Hercynian Forest, takes time to describe a large bull,
the urus (bos primigenius). The Germanic populations called this
animal aurochs. Still prosperous in the Middle Ages – it was
Charlemagne’s favourite hunt – the species is nowadays extinct.
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59
So is the bour named by Cantemir, whose relative, the wisent, may be found today only in
reservations, as an endangered species. Animals of extreme force, ferocity and majesty, these wild
bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms.
Questions and Tasks:
1. In the chapters of Caesar’s Commentariesmentioned before, besides some correct information,
there are also elements of fantasy, as there are in Cantemir’s narrative. Which are these and what
purpose could they serve for either of the two authors?
2. In the medieval bestiary, a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal, endowed with an
aura of purity and kindness. One of its most famous representations may be found today on a
tapestry in the Cluny Museum, in Paris. Do you know the name of this animal?
3. If you are interested in stamps, you may find out what the current price would be for the first
stamp ever to be printed in Moldova, Cap de bour.
4. Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgil’s Georg., III. 50-59 (the fertile
cow)?
DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS, Descriptio Moldaviae, II. 17.
Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2, cor non longe ab ore remotum3
habent, sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5, ita etiam
neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam.
Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9
convivia10, [...] sed tantum diebus festis, aut hibernis
tempestatibus11, cum frigus incolas intra parietes12
concludit.
Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13.
Etenim14, licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint,
tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti, et
ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt.
Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19, tamquam fratrem aut
consanguineum
1. iocosus 3: fond of jokes; 2. hilaris, -e:
jolly; 3. removeo 2, -movi, -motum:
separate; 4. ut ... ita: as ... so;
5. obliviscor 3, oblitus sum (+ Genitive):
to forget; 6. conservo 1: to preserve;
7. nonnumquam: sometimes;
8. diluculum, -i n.: dawn; 9. protraho 3, traxi, -tractum: to prolong;
10. convivium, -i, n.: banquet;
11. tempestas: (here) = tempus;
12. paries, -tis m.: wall;
13. peregrinus, -i m.: stranger;
14. etenim: truly; 15. vicinitas, -tatis, f.:
vicinity;
16. hospitium, -i, n.: hospitable reception;
17. triduum, -ui, n.: space of three days;
18. praemium, -i, n.: reward, price;
19. excipio 3, -cepi; -ceptum: to receive;
Comments:
Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary, the jolliness
and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in
the Romanian oral literature: Păcală, whose name has been created from the
verb “a păcăli”, meaning “to trick” or “to cheat”. Cunning and amusing, he
meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel.
In the 17th and 18th century, attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the
East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence. Their lightning-fast and
unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner. A
farmer’s work and even family were thus in jeopardy. Not only Moldova, but
also Transylvania, Wallachia, Poland and the countries around the Baltic
have fallen prey to their incursions. Nevertheless, the hospitality shown by
the people of Moldova remains proverbial, even today.
Questions and Tasks:
1. How could one synthesize, in just a few adjectives, the remarks in the text above? Do they name
just qualities?
2. What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression “cor non longe ab ore remotum habent” (their
heart is not far removed from their lips)?
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60
SPAIN: The Roman Theater of Merida
by Miguel Angel Navarro
The last part of Hispania to be conquered by
the Roman Empire was that of the Cantabri
(currently the provinces of Cantabria and
Asturias). Actually, the emperor Caesar
Ausustus himself travelled to the battlefront to
take part in the so-called Bellum Cantabricum
et Asturicum, the Cantabrian Wars, which took
place between 29 and 19 B.C.
By the year 25 B.C. emperor Octavius
Augustus ordered the legate Publius Casirius to
found a city in the south west of the province
for the Roman soldiers of the V Alaudae, and X
Gemina legions, which fought in the
Cantabrian Wars. This was the origin of the
Colonia Iulia Augusta Emerita, a place of
retirement for the Emeriti, the
veterans. Mérida (current name of
Augusta Emerita) became the capital
city of Lusitania and a very important
economic, military and cultural
centre of the Roman Empire. The
poet Decimus Magnus Ausonius
considered Augusta Emerita the ninth
city of the Empire in importance,
even ahead of Athens.
The city developed quickly, it
reached the population of 50000
inhabitants, and public buildings such
as the theatre were continuously
renovated.
M. Agrippa L.F. cos III. trib. pot. III
(M[arcus] Agrippa L[uci] f[ilius] co[n]s[ul] III trib[unicia] pot[estate] III)
According to this inscription over the
doorways of the Augusta Emerita theatre,
the monument was promoted by consul
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and finished
about 16–15 B.C. Up to 6000 spectators
could be accomodated in a cavea divided in
three areas: the ima cavea (lower 22 rows),
the media cavea (central six rows) and the
summa cavea (upper five rows). People
could enter the building through thirteen
doors and occupied their rows according to
their social status. In the central lower part
was the orchestra, a 30 metres semicircular
space with the first three rows, the proedria,
separated by a low wall (balteus) which was
reserved for the high society. The orchestra
was originally covered with marble and in
front of it were the frons pulpiti and the
pulpitum, covered with wood under which
all the materials and tools for the scenery
and the stage were kept.
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The frons scaenae, the spectacular stage façade, is the most famous part of the Augusta
Emerita theatre. It was built in 105 AD during the reign of the Spanish emperor Trajan, and renovated
in 333. Over a 2.5 metres high podium of red natural stone covered with marble, stand two tiers of
Corinthian columns 30 metres high made of bluish marble, with capitals and bases in white. Between
the columns there were statues of deified emperors, gods and classical figures, and the three main
doorways to the stage: valva regia (central entrance) and valvae hospitalarium (side entrances).
Behind the frons scaenae there are rooms for the actors and other theatre staff. Originally, there was
also an arcaded garden behind this façade with a small chamber dedicated to the imperial cult. The
east side leads to a house with a peristyle and beautiful mosaics.
Also during emperor Trajan’s reign, a sanctuary for the imperial cult was built in the central
stands (the ima cavea).
When Christianity became the sole religion in the Roman Empire, theatrical performances
were considered immoral and the theatre was abandoned and most of it was covered with earth. Only
the upper stands, the summa cavea, were left uncovered and lately called “The seven chairs” by the
Spanish tradition. It is said that in this place some Moorish kings held court to decide Augusta
Emerita’s fate.
The
Archaeological Ensemble
of Mérida is one of the
most
important
archaeological sites in
Spain and it was declared a
World Heritage Site by the
UNESCO in 1993. Once
restored in the 20. century,
the theatre was reopened
for theatrical performances.
Since 1933 it has held the
Merida’s
Festival
of
Classical Theatre, the
oldest and most important
festival of classical theatre
in Spain. The performances
in this festival take place
annually during July and August.
PLAUTUS, AULULARIA (THE POT OF GOLD)
Euclio has been keeping a pot of gold jealously for a long time. He is quite a miserly character,
capable of living miserably in order not to spend his own money. This scene (act IV, scene ix) is
Euclio’s lament after finding out that his pot of gold has been stolen. He enters the scene absolutely in
despair and unaware of who may have stolen his fortune. Suddenly he addresses the audience,
searching for a clue about the thief and speaking suspiciously to the people sitting in the cavea.
In Roman comedy, these words to the audience are an important source of information about
the society in Roman times. In this fragment we can see an open criticism of high society, seen as
“thieves” hidden under their “dapper clothes”. This relationship between the characters and the
audience was maybe inspired by the architecture of the theatre itself. In Emerita Augusta we can see
that in Roman theatres actors and spectators are very close to each other (in comparison to Greek
theatres), so it is easy to talk to them directly. This kind of speeches also provides information about
the cultural level of the audience in Roman theatres (writers often complain about the noise in the
cavea during the performance).
The theatre of Emerita Augusta, still in use, has been celebrating a summer theatre festival for
57 years held by professionals. A spring theatre festival held by students from all over Spain has also
been celebrated for 15 years. In these festivals we can check the proximity between actors and
spectators.
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62
Plaut. Aul. 4, 9:
EVCLIO Perii interii occidi1. quo curram2? quo non curram?
tene, tene. quem? quis? necio, nil video, caecus3 eo atque
equidem quo eam aut ubi sim aut qui sim
715
nequeo4 cum animo certum investigare. obsecro5 vos ego,
mi auxilio,
oro obtestor6, sitis et hominem demonstretis7, quis eam
1. occido 3, -cidi, -cisum: to
kill, to wound; 2. curro 3,
cucurri, cursum: to run.
3. caecus 3: blind;
4. nequeo, –ire, -ii, -tus: not
to be able to; 5. obsecro 1: to
beg.
qui vestitu13 et creta occultant sese atque sedent quasi sint
6. obtestor 1: to implore;
7. demonstro 1: to show;
8. aufero, abstuli, ablatum: to
take away; 9. rideo 2, risi,
risum: to laugh; 10. nosco 3,
novi, notum: to know;
11. fur, furis m./f.: thief;
12. complures, -plura: a lot
of; 13. vestitus, -us m.: dress;
frugi14.
14. frugi: honest;
abstulerit8.
quid est? quid ridetis9? novi10 omnes, scio fures11 esse hic
complures12,
quid ais tu? tibi credere certum est, nam esse bonum ex
voltu15 cognosco.
720
15. vultus, -us m.: face;
hem, nemo habet horum? occidisti. dic igitur, quis habet?
nescis?
heu me miserum, misere perii16,
16. pereo, -ii, -itum: to
perish;
17. ornatus 3: equipped;
18. gemitus, -us m.: moan;
19. maestitia, -ae f.: sorrow;
20. offero, obtuli, oblatum,
offerre: to present, to offer;
21. fames, -is f.: hunger;
male perditus, pessime ornatus17 eo:
tantum gemiti18 et mali maestitiaeque19
hic dies mi optulit20, famem21 et pauperiem.
perditissimus ego sum omnium in terra;
nam quid mi opust22 vita, qui tantum auri
perdidi, quod concustodivi
23
sedulo24? egomet me defraudavi25
725
animumque meum geniumque meum;
725
nunc eo alii laetificantur26
27
meo malo et damno. pati nequeo.
22. opus est: to need;
23. concustodio 4: to watch
over, to protect;
24. sedulo: jealously;
25. defraudo 1: to disappoint;
26. laetifico 1: to rejoice;
27. patior, pati, passus sum:
to put up with, to bear;
Questions and Tasks:
1. What is the relationship between the character and the audience shown in this fragment? What
were the possible reasons that motivated it?
2. How does Plautus refer to the high society? Do you see any similarity with the modern point
of view?
3. What is Plautus trying to tell us about avarice? Do you know any modern proverb about the
consequences of being avaricious?
4. This play influenced one of Moliere’s plays. Which one? Why did Moliere use the same
argument some centuries later than Plautus?
5. Do you think avarice is still present in modern society? Why?
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64
RUSSIA: Sigismund von Herberstein, Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii,
Vienna, 1549
by Elena Ermolaeva, Eugeneja Eliseeva, Appolinaria Martynenko
Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein,
(or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486–1566)
was a famous Austrian diplomat, writer, historian and
member of the Holy Roman Empire. He is most
known for his extensive writings on the geography,
history and customs of Russia, which were the first
source of knowledge about Russia for the Western
audience.
Herberstein was born in August 23, 1486 in
Vipava, in Western Slovenia, to Leonhard von
Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg, members of a
prominent German-speaking family, which had
resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years.
Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that
he learned some Slovene, the Slavic language spoken
in the region. This knowledge played a significant role
later in his life. In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy
and law in the University of Vienna, University of
Vienna, where he also belonged to the circle of the
outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis. In 1506
he entered the army as an officer and served in a
number of campaigns. In 1508 he was knighted by the
The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G. Ponozky
Maximilian I of Habsburg. In 1515 Herberstein began
a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial
council, or Parliament. Between 1515 and 1553, he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad,
travelling throughout much of Europe, including
Turkey.
The title page of “Rerum Moscovinicarum
Commentarii “ (Italian translation)
He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian
ambassador, in 1517 to negotiate a truce between
Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty
between the two, which had been signed in 1522. These
visits provided him with the opportunity to study a
hitherto largely unknown Russian society. Herberstein's
knowledge of Slovene, acquired in his youth, allowed
him to communicate freely with Russians, as Slovene
and Russian languages are related. He probably wrote
his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527, but
no copy of this account survives. In 1526 he was asked
to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia,
but this report remained in the archives until he was
able to revise and expand it, which he pprobably did in
the 1530s. The result was his major work written in
Latin
and
entitled
Rerum
Moscoviticarum
Commentarii, firstly published in 1549 in Vienna. This
work became the main source of knowledge on Russia
in Western Europe. Sigismund Herberstein died in
Vienna at the age of eighty, in full glory. His
Commentarii were translated into many European
languages and published many times all over the world.
The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds
one of the most rare Latin copies, that of the Basel
edition of 1571.
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65
1. Etymologia nominis Russia
1
Russia
unde
nomen
habeat,
variae1
extant2
1. varius, -a, -um: different; 2.
extant: exstant;
opiniones. Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo, fratre
seu nepote Lech3, principe Polonorum4, perinde ac si
ipse
5
Rhutenorum5
princeps
fuisset,
nomen
accepisse6 volunt. Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7
oppido, Russo dicto, non longe a Novuogardia
magna. Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore.
Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam
cognominatam9 esse putant. Verum eorum qui hasce
10 afferunt opiniones, tanquam vero haud consonas,
Mosci refutant, afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10
appellatam,
quasi
dispersam11,
gentem
seu
disseminatam12: id quod nomen ipsum indicat.
Rosseia etenim, Rhutenorum lingua, disseminatio13,
15 seu dispersio13 interpretatur. Quod verum esse varii
populi incolis etiamnum
provinciae
interiacentes
Russiae
3. Lech: the ancestor of the Poles;
4. Polonii, -orum m.: the Poles;
5. Rutheni, -orum m.: the
Russians;
6. accipio 3M accepi: to obtain
(eam accepisse – ACI); 7.
vetustissimus: very old (gradus
elativus);
8. fuscus, -a, -um: here means
light-brown, there is a popular
etymology for Russus as a
consonant to Russian word rusyj –
with light brown hair;
9. cognomino 1: to give the name;
10. antiqitus, adv.: ab antiquitate;
11. dispersus, -a, -um: scattered;
12. disseminatus, -a, -um:
scattered;
13. disseminatio, -onis, f. =
dispersio, -onis, f.: the scattering
(populi vel exercitus);
permixti et diversae
passim
intermixtae
ac
aperte testantur. Notum est autem
historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo
20 etiam Prophetas uti, cum de dispersione populorum
loquuntur. Nec tamen desunt, qui Russorum nomen ex
Graeca, atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine, non
multum dissimili ratione trahant. A fluxu14 nimirum15,
qui Graecis est ·oàj [rus]
14. fluxus, -us, m. (Ancient Greek,
·oàj (·Òoj)) – stream, spray.
15. nimirum – certe.
Comments :
1 Russia – Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses: as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of
the Old Russian state, and as the Russian state of the late 15th – early 17th centuries.
6 Russo dicto – Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) – city near Lake Ilmen. It is one of the oldest Russian
settlements, first appearing in records from 1167; Novuogardia magna – a Latin transliteration of the
Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum; compare to: Neapolis, Neuchâtel, Nijmegen). It
was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals — the Russian Primary Chronicle.
7 fuscus, -a, -um –light-brown, there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian
word rusyj – with light brown hair.
8 Roxolania, Roxolanes – the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived
in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c. AD).
11 Mosci – in Herberstein’s Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian
people; Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj, rosseiannyj] which means dispersed
(dispersus, lat.).
20 Propheta (Ancient Greek, prof»thj from prÒfhmi) – sc. biblical prophet (in auctoribus
Ecclesiasticis).
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66
22 Chaldaicus, -a, -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδα‹οι) – the name of people that
lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore
of the Persian Gulf.
Questions and Tasks:
1. Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall?
2. Which form is fuisset and why it is used here?
3. What variants of the words extant, ex Graeca, ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the
Classical Latin texts?
4. Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta, -ae, m do you know?
5. How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage?
2. Novuogardenses: domini et servi
1
Accidit praeterea, ut Annales eorum referunt, dum
Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad
1.civitas, -atis, f. = urbs;
septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent,
5
interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2, tum etiam de
2. pertaesus, -a, -um: feeling disgust;
salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes, servis
3. ac: atque;
nuberent. Expugnata tandem civitate, quum4 victores
4. quum = cum;
mariti ex bello reversi, aereas portas superatae urbis
ac magnam quandam campanam, quam ipsi in
cathedrali
10 attulissent:
eorum
servique
Ecclesia
dominos,
vidimus,
secum
quorum
uxores
duxerant, vi repellere conarentur: domini indignitate
rei
commoti, depositis, cuiusdam consilio, armis,
lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent: quibus
servi territi, inque fugam conversi, loco quodam qui
5. lorum, -i, n.: lash; 11. fustis, -is,
m.: stick;
12. convertere fugam: to put to flight;
15 etiamnum Chloppigrod, hoc est Servorum castrum
dicitur, se reciperent defenderentque. Verum victi
meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere.
Comments:
1 Annales, -um, m. – records year by year of the events in a city, a region or a country; Herberstein
had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book.
2 Novuogardia – Novum oppidum, today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod); one
of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia; Corsun – its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος);
an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the
southwestern part of Crimea, which was then known as Taurica. Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών;
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67
Old East Slavic one is Corsun.Today Sevastopol. The grand prince
of the Ancient Russia, Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun
in the 10th c.
7 aereas portas – one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in
Cathedral of Saint Sophia.
9 cathedralus Ecclesia – main orthodox cathedral.
15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a
small town-fortress built about the 10th c. by fugitive slaves;
Choloppus vel chlopus means servus, grod – oppidum-castrum. In
fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales,
Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotus’
“Historia”, IV, 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories
about the “Slaves war” in Novgorod. Herberstein could also use
Marcus Junianus Justinus’ “Epitome of the Philippic History of
Pompeius Trogus”, II, 5.
Questions and Tasks:
Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving
by A.Khirshfogely)
1. Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus.
“Historia”, IV, 3-4) and compare it to this passage. What is common and different?
2. What does Chloppigrod mean?
3. Why did “domini Novuogardenses” take only lashes?
4. What variant for fuere do you find more frequently?
Map of Moscovia (source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Herberstein-Moscovia.jpg, PD-Art [23.7.2010]
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SWEDEN: The royal warship Wasa
by Eva Schough Tarandi, Sweden
As the 17-year-old king
Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II
Adolf) succeeded his father Karl
the IX to the Swedish throne
1611, Sweden was at war
against Denmark, Russia and
Poland. “Even if there was a
peace treaty in 1617, the war
with
Poland
continued
throughout the whole reign of
Gustav II Adolf. He had a
heavy program for expanding
Swedish territory. His policy
was to make the Baltic Sea his
“mare nostrum”. He was
initiating
the
Swedish
intervention in the thirty years’
war, protecting his interests in
ports and commerce in northern
The Wasa (photo: Andreas Thiel)
Germany but also facing the
catholic threat, the expansion of
the Habsburg and the Emperor. In Germany there was a prophecy of “der Löwe aus der Mitternacht,
since the 14th century, connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about God’s
punishment of Roman Babylon. To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav
II Adolf, as the representative of the protestant North, was “the Lion from the North”, the protector of
the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church. He was aware of this and used it in his
propaganda, posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany, fighting the catholic
opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra. The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and
Glory; the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family, lions, a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules,
king David, king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath. It also consists of grotesque heads, Tritons and
Nereids, innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty
Roman emperors starting with Tiberius. The reason for not including Augustus is simple. By creating
an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the
17th century Swedish king, Gustavus.
Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet.
In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and
his brother, who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in
Stockholm. The ships were to be built within four years. The two larger ships were Wasa and Three
Crowns. Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like “the Apple”, “the Sword” etc.
The “vase” is a corn sheaf, the symbol of the Vasa family, their coat-of-arms. The keel was laid in
spring 1626, 38 meters long. The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head. The total height
was 52 meters. The ship was a “double decker “, i.e. it had two gun decks, probably the first of its kind
in Sweden. Unfortunately, this novel invention proved disastrous. On the 10th of August 1628, when
the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip, she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the
bottom just outside Stockholm harbour.
At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel.
For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures, and some bronze cannons were actually
rescued. Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten. In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about
the fate of the flagship, e.g. letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the
archives, and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers, Svenska Dagbladet. He had
theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzén, probably
inspired by the article, who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation
with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy.
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1. Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens, Venceslaus, Gustavis, Bohemia, 1589-1636.
At LEO nunc veniat! Veniet LEO tempore fixo.
Vae tibi! Vae BABYLON1 scelerata, tuisque Cynaedis2!
Vae tibi! Vae Meretrix3!
( Gustavis 2, p.32)
Imprimisque videt, quam sit labor arduus Hydram
vincere , ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem.
( Gustavis 5, p.81)
…Arctous6 hic ille est
Alcides7, felix et fortunatus in hostes.
( Gustavis 1, p.1)
…clava est opus Herculis, hamo8
non capitur: clava9 contunditur10 Hercules, ille
( Gustavis 2, p.30)
deplumet11 captam…..
….validis qui fulminat armis
Barbariem contra, Latios et comprimit Angues12…
( Gustavis p.120)
1. Babylon: ” the great whore of the
Revelation”; 2. Cynaedus, -i m. (
cinaedus-a-um): unchaste, impudent,
shameless, pervert; 3. meretrix, -icis
f.: whore, prostitute;
4. Ausonius-a-um: poet.Italian, Latin,
Roman; 5. ructo 1: belch;
6. Arctous-a-um: northern;
7. Alcides, -is m.: the son of Alceus,
Hercules;
8. hamus, -i m.: hook;
9. clava,–ae f.: cudgel;
10. contundo3: beat, break to pieces;
11. deplumo 3: pluck the feathers of;
12. anguis,-is m.: snake ( here of the
pope and catholic priests)
Questions and Tasks:
1. What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolf’s claims to power
and conquests for Sweden?
2. Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create
a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side?
2. Ovidius, Metamorphoses, 11, 236- 265: The Myth of Peleus and Thetis
The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with
a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation. “Ovide moralisé”, a French edition of the texts, was
very popular and much read, with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to
sum up. In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met. XI, 221-265) it was “Labor omnia vincit improbus”
“Incessant work conquers all”, since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis. In another
myth (Met. XI, 749-795) the noble Aesacus, son of Priamos of Troy, loves the nymph Hesperia. She
tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead. Aesacus in his despair throws himself
into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon, spending the rest of his life swimming in
the sea. The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for, the fight, the tenacity and
perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power.
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70
The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze
(photos: Andreas Thiel)
The ship’s beak (source:
http://hem.bredband.net/johava/foreship2.JPG )
The original
Peleus pursuing Thetis
The original
Aesacus as a loon
The original
...............................quo saepe venire
frenato1 delphine sedens, Theti2, nuda solebas.
illic te Peleus, ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas,
occupat5, et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8,
vim parat9, innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11;
quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris
ad solitas12 artes13, auso foret ille potitus14;
sed modo tu volucris15: volucrem tamen ille tenebat;
1. frenatus-a-um reined; 2. Theti:
vocative; 3. ut: with indicative as soon
as; 4. vincta (ppp vinco3) somno
abl.causae; 5. occupo1: here: seize; 6.
preces, -um f. pl.: pleas, requests; 7.
temptatus-a-um: besetted, strived for;
8. repugno1 alicui rei: resist;
9. vim paro1: use violence, take
measure; 10. innecto3: snare, entangle;
11. lacertus, -i m. : arm;
12. solitus-a-um usual, ordinary;
13. ars, artis f. : here: method, way,
trick; 14. potior potitus sum 4: to get
hold of; 15. volucris –is f.: bird;
nunc gravis arbor eras: haerebat in arbore Peleus;
tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17: illa
16. maculosus-a-um stained, with
spots; 17. tigridis-e of a tiger;
territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit.
inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19
et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23,
donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27
European Symbols
18. pelagus-i: sea; 19. fundo fudi
fusum 3: pour; 20. fibra-ae f.:
intestine; 21. fumus-i m.:smoke; 22.
tus- turis n.: incense; 23. adoro1: pray,
entreat; 24. donec: until;
25. Carpathius –a-um: of the Aegian
71
'Aeacide,' dixit 'thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30,
tu modo, cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro,
ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36.
nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39,
sed preme40, quicquid erit, dum, quod fuit ante, reformet41.'
dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum
admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45.
Now Titan was low in the sky, and, his chariot pointed
downwards,
was close to the western ocean, when the lovely Nereid left
the waves,and came to her accustomed bed. Peleus had
scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body, when she took
on new forms, until she realised her limbs were tightly
bound, and her arms spread wide apart.
tum demum46 ingemuit47, 'ne' que ait 'sine numine vincis'
exhibita48 estque Thetis: confessam49 amplectitur50 heros
et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille.
sea; 26. gurges gurgitis m.: gulf;
27. vates- is m.: seer, Carpathius vates
= Proteus; 28. thalamus, -i m.:
matrimonial bed, matrimony;
29. potiere = potieris; 30. peto petivi
petitum 3: ask for; 31. sopitus-a-um:
slumbering; 32. ignarus-a-um: not
familiar, not knowing; 33. laqueus, -i
m.: snare, fetter; 34. vinclum, -i n.:
band, fetter; 35. innecto3: tie;
36. tenax –cis: gripping,holding fast;
37. decipio 3: fool, betray; 38. mentior
mentitus sum 3: lie; 39. figura, –ae f.:
form, shape; 40. premo3: press;
41. reformo1: change shape; 42. condo
condidi conditum 3: hide; 43. admitto,
admisi admissum3: let go, admit;
44. novus -a-um: here: last; 45. fluctus
–us m.: flow;
46. tum demum: then at last;
47. ingemesco- ui- itum 3: sigh;
48. exhibitus-a-um: shown, revealed;
49. amplector 3: embrace;
50. confessus-a-um: acknowledge,
admit
Questions and Tasks:
Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the
Wasa?
Roman Emperors on the Wasa’s beakhead
(photos: Andreas Thiel)
Sources:
-
Hans Soop: The Power and the Glory. The sculptures of the Warship Wasa. 1986
-
Latin text : Peleus et Thetis: http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante01/Ovidius/ovi_me
11.html#05
Hans Soop: Flytande palats. 2007
Gustavis , Veneslaus Clemens :Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk
“The Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN “at the meeting of the
Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008
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SWITZERLAND: William Tell
by M.-Christine Haller Aellig, Switzerland
Brutus erat nobis, Uro in arvo,
Assertor patriae, vindex ultorque tyrannum.
Henricus Glareanus, Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)
Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden –the Waldstaetten – are
the cradle of the Swiss Confederation. At the end of
the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are
supposed to have pronounced the Rütli23 Oath. Their
alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact,
traditionally dated August 1st, 1291.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the
ensuing disorders, the territories which would later
form German Swiss cantons went through many
vicissitudes before being subordinated to the
Habsburgs, a house native from Aargau (northern
part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time
in the Holy Roman Empire. In the last quarter of the
13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence
to the south-eastern part of the Empire: Austria.
The Rütli Meadow (photo: F. Rytz)
When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship,
the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed.
Up to that time the “Swiss” who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the
Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the
opening of the alpine passes to traffic. More particularly in that case, the military and trade route over St.
Gotthard. Governors (Vögte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions. Some of them
soon handled the population tyrannically. Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up24.
In this context appears William25 Tell, the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with
Brutus, the liberator and avenger of the tyrants. If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland,
usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation. No document of that time mentions
his name or existence. Doubtless he never existed as such, but his character crystallized because of the
successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria.
Transmitted orally at the beginning, the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the
Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some
years later (first known performance in 1512). Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das
Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell; his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by
Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later. All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the
country (German). Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin; either they write
immediately in Latin, or they translate German texts into Latin.
The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time. The central part – the shooting of
the apple off Tell’s son’s head – sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact. Actually several
Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic
conditions. The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be
found in the Gesta Danorum, a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus. Very seemingly
travellers from the North, resting for a while at the bottom of the St. Gotthard before crossing the Alps to
Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered.
23
Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German). Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332.
Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the
Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell.
25
Wilhelm in German, Guillaume in French, Guglielmo in Italian, and Guglielm in Romansh, our four
languages.
24
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73
So much for the myth. The two other parts of the text and the story itself, William Tell personifying the
struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant, have been successful for a long time. After the fights and
the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century, William Tell was again up to date in the 18th
century26. He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures,
fighters for human rights, representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France,
where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other
Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon.
At the very end of the 18th century, during the struggles for independence
in America, a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia!
Soon after, in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell
the hero of the eponymous drama: a man close to nature, active, loving
liberty but bound with his compatriots in
their fight against tyranny27. That inspired
Gioacchino Rossini’s opera Guillaume Tell
created in Paris in 1829.
In Switzerland the Tell iconography from
the Middle Ages up to now is very rich. Let
us mention only two among the most
famous Tells: the Tell monument by Richard
The Tell Monument by R. Kissling
Kissling (1895) in Altdorf, the capital of
(photo: F. Rytz)
canton Uri and Tell’s homeland, and the
5 franc coin (source: en.ucoin.net)
painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897) which
is very popular and represented everywhere in every context. In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still
adorned with the effigy of William Tell!
Josias Simler28 (Simlerus, 1530 – 1576), De Republica Helvetiorum, 58 sqq.
Tellii historia
Caeterum <Grislerus1> cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a
se alienatos3 esse cerneret, metuens occultam aliquam
conspirationem, ut eam investigare4 posset, hoc consilio usus
est. Altorffi5 in foro, quo maxima hominum totius regionis
frequentia convenire solet, pileum6 praelongae perticae7
1. Grislerus, -i, m.: name of the
Austrian governor (praefectus, -i, m./
German: Vogt), today known as
Gessler 2. exasperare: to irritate 3.
alienare: to alienate
4. investigare: to find
5. Altorffum, -i, n.: Altdorf (name of
a place in Uri)
6. pileus, -i, m.: hat 7. pertica,
-ae, f.: perch, pole
imponit ac omnes iubet, nudato capite flexisque genubus,
honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8
consuevissent: existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi
8. aliquem honore afficere: to pay
one’s respect to, to honour
9. prae ceteris: more than the others
infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem
pileo exhibeant, praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis
quibuscum convenerint; hac autem occasione posse se
honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad
exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere.
10. titulus, -i, m.: pretext
11. Urii, -orum, m.: people of Uri
12. confoederatus, -i, m.:
confederate (some people of the
region were joined in a league in
order to resist the tyranny of Gessler
26
– and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now.
Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the
Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists.
28
Simler (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and
translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle
of Johannes Stumpf: Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten, Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger
thaaten Beschreybung (1548). Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment.
27
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(…) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius,
confoederatorum12 unus, aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13
impositum praeteriret, nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo
exhibito. Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus, suam
and to get their independence) 13.
stipiti cf. perticae
14. reverentia, -ae, f.: respect 15.
praefecto i.e. Gessler
16. suam rusticitatem excusare: to
plead as an excuse for his peasant
habits
rusticitatem excusabat16, qui non existimasset ullius hoc
17. momentum, -i, n.: importance
momenti17 esse. Sed praefectus, qui hominem suspectum
18. aliquem suspectum habere: to
suspect someone 19. charum =
carum
20. vertice = capite 21. pomum,
-i, n.: apple
haberet18, e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et
in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat
enim Tellius optimus sagittarius), ni illud deiiciat, capite
poenas daturum. Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22
dicere, seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte
22. <esse> inauditi exempli: to be of
unheard severity
23. ferire: to strike
23
aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat . Cui praefectus: “Ni
ieceris, tibi una cum filiolo pereundum erit.” Quare cum
sumpto, Tellius, Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante, pomum e
24. Traditionally Tell who was not a
soldier but a huntsman used a
crossbow. At that time that kind of
weapon was extremely precise from a
distance of 30 to 80 meters.
vertice filii deiicit. Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus,
25. satiari: to be sated
24
nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset, arcu
unus praefectus satiari
25
hac poena non potuit; verum cum
26
27
sagittam alteram thoraci Tellii insertam cerneret, quaerit in
quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29. Cui ille,
id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum, ut
geminas sagittas depromant. Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat,
itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem, vitae impunitate31 illi
32
26. thorax, -cis, m.: waistcoat 27.
insero, -is, -ere, -ui, -tum: to put in
28. pharetra, -ae, f.: quiver
29. depromo, -is, -ere, -psi, -ptum:
to draw out
30. suspectus, -a, -um: suspicious
31. vitae impunitas, -atis, f.:
immunity
32. elicio, -is, -ere: to coax
proposita, verum elicit : eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse
alteram sagittam, ut si priore filium feriisset, secunda
33. uti = ut
praefectum peteret. Tum vero praefectus se quidem, uti33
promiserit, vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit, caeterum
coniecturum in perpetuos carceres, ubi omni hominum
34
alloquio
ac lucis usu privatus, miseram in tenebris vitam
35
degat ; simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet, ut eum ex
36
Uriorum regione Cussenacum abducat.
Iamque medio lacu navigabant, cum subito gravis tempestas
37
38
navim concutere et fluctibus paene obruere coepit. Ibi cum
in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40, quidam e
servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem
34. alloquium, -i, n.: talk
35. degat = agat
36. Cussenacum, -i, n.: Küssnacht, a
place where Gessler had his castle
37. concutere: to agitate violently
38. obruere: to overwhelm, to ruin
39. discrimen, -inis, n.: danger
40. versarentur = essent
41. servus, -i, m.: servant, assistant
42. gubernaculum, -i, n.: helm
superesse, si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42
adhibeatur : hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul
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43. pollere: to be strong
75
quoque robore corporis multum pollere43. Necessitate urgente
omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt. Ille vero,
gubernaculo sumpto, vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et
44
eam adversus Suitiorum terram dirigit, quo loco non multum
a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum
44. Suitii, -orum, m.: people of
Schwyz
45. emineo, -es, -ere: to stand out
46. nuncupant = vocant
46
hodie nuncupant ). Huic cum appropinquasset, arrepto arcu
suo (forte pone
47
ipsum in puppi iacebat), in saxum hoc
48
49
desilit et simul, quanto maximo potest nisu , navim pedibus
in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes
proripit50. Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti
portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53. Inde
cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et
Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset,
Tellius locorum peritus, ea commoditate56 captata, illuc se
abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta
conficit. Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo
praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi
47. pone + acc.: behind
48. desilire: to jump 49. nisus,
-us, m.: effort
50. se proripere: to rush forth
51. fluctuans, -tis: being agitated in
the waves 52. Brunna, -ae, f.:
Brunnen, a lakeside place (in German
Brunnen means fons) 53. appello, -is,
-ere: to put ashore
54. Arta, -ae, f.: Arth, a place at the
southern end of Lake Zug 55. via
quadam profunda: this very deep
and narrow path where they had to
pass was and is still called die Hohle
Gasse in German 56. commoditas,
-atis, f.: advantage 57. frutetum,
-i, n.: bush 58. extare: to exist 59.
sacellum, -i, n.: chapel
desilit, perpetua rei gestae monumenta.
Questions and Tasks :
1. Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth:
a. Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b. Cantons Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden (=
Obwalden + Nidwalden) c. The St. Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake, and
follow over the Alps as far as Airolo. d. Altdorf and Tell’s Monument e. Bürglen and Tell’s House f.
Tell’s Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g. The Rütli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h. The port of
Brunnen i. Küssnacht and Gessler’s castle j. Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Küssnacht and
Arth.
2. Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticus’ Gesta Danorum (10, 7, 2-3) from
http://www2.kb.dk/elib/lit//dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/10/7/index.htm. The bold archer Toko, hero of the story,
was compelled by his lord, King Harald, to shoot an apple off his son’s head (10, 7, 1).
Then answer the following questions:
a. Saxo writes the history of the Danes, and Simler that of the Swiss. Is their manner the same in this
passage? b. Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal. Who is more careful?
Explain. c. Is there any difference in the archers’ material? d. Compare both boys and both fathers. How
old do you think they are? Justify your answer. e. What do we know precisely of the boys’ sentiments
and qualities at the moment? f. Now consider Saxo’s opinion, expressed in a very balanced way, and
find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son. Which term sums up the boy’s
attitude? What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son?
3. Grammar: a. Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses: 1. sed praefectus, qui
hominem suspectum haberet, e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit. 2. praefectus quaerit in
quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b. Explain the use of the infinitive in the following
cases: 1. Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent. 2. Tellius
vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere. 3. Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem
superesse, si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur : hunc enim navigandi peritissimum
esse. c. Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases: 1. … et tormentis ad
exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere. 2. … hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse. 3. Illi inter Artam
et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset.
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