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531
Khalid Al-Seghayer
The Role of Organizational Devices in ESL
Readers’ Construction of Mental
Representations of Hypertext Content
KHALID AL-SEGHAYER
Imam University
(English Department at Al-Kharj Community College)
ABSTRACT
The current electronic text format is inherent to the problem of text integration,
or, alternatively, cohesion deficit, which greatly affects reading comprehension.
The question remains as to whether well structured hypertext would enable L2
readers, particularly ESL readers, to overcome potential difficulties in integrating information and building a unified representation of text content delivered
by computer. This study examines the efficacy of embedding microstructural
devices (e.g., headings, reviews, and logical connectives statements) and macrostructural devices (a graphical overview map of text content) on the construction and organization of computer hypertext presentations. The study also investigates the interaction between the effect of L2 readers’ reading proficiency
and the degree of structure in hypertext (structured vs. less structured) on ESL
learners’ development of coherent mental representations of hypertext content.
The participants, 40 ESL students, were introduced to two hypertext reading
programs. The first was considered well structured hypertext because it included
organizational devices and explicitly showed its underlying hypertext structure.
The second was considered less structured because it included no organizational
devices and did not indicate the underlying structure of its hypertext. A repeated
measures design was used in this study. Forty participants were measured under
two conditions: well structured and less structured hypertexts. They were identified as intermediate ESL learners based on their TOEFL scores and were classified as proficient or less proficient readers based on their scores on the reading
section of the TOEFL. To assess the efficacy of each type of hypertext, multiple
choice and mapping main ideas and details tests were developed and administered to participants after they had read both hypertexts. Results of both tests
were analyzed using a paired-samples t-test to compare performance in the two
hypertext reading programs and a two-way (proficiency level by hypertext reading program) mixed model ANOVA. The investigation yielded findings showing
that well structured hypertext aided ESL readers in developing a more coherent
mental representation of the hypertext content, thereby increasing their reading comprehension. The results also indicated that well structured hypertext was
more helpful to less proficient readers than it was to more proficient readers.
These results offer theoretical, pedagogical, and technological implications for
L2 reading instructors and instructional designers.
CALICO Journal, 24 (3), p-p 531-559.
© 2007 CALICO Journal
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KEYWORDS
Hypertext, ESL Reading, ESL Proficiency, Text Structure, Microstructural and Macrostructural Devices
INTRODUCTION
Computer technology is becoming increasingly prevalent as a means of information presentation in education, particularly in second language (L2) education,
and thus has come to play an important role in the field of reading. Much attention
has been given in recent years to the ways in which the features of electronic reading environments promote the reading experience and change the nature of reading (Dee-Lucas, 1996; Dee-Lucas & Larkin, 1995; Foltz, 1992; Greenlee-Moore
& Smith, 1996; Hofman & van Oostendorp, 1999; Lacroix, 1999; Reinking, 1988,
1995; Reinking & Schreiner, 1985).
Electronic reading environments possess attributes that are unavailable in any
other medium of instruction as a result of their text format, or hypertext. In hypertext, information is divided into units that serve as hypertext nodes. Each unit is
displayed on an overview map or in an alphabetized list as a title that reflects its
content. Units are interconnected by links, words or icons that users can select to
move among units.
Because of these features, readers of hypertext are not tied to a predefined path
for reading but, rather, can read units in many possible sequences. Readers of
hypertext also have immediate access to a variety of representational modes, including sound, still pictures, dynamic video clips, and animation, as well as access
facilitators such as browsers, maps, and menus. Moreover, readers can interact
with the information presented, moving to different points in a text as needed and
reacting to multiple linked sources of information.
The hypertext environment allows more flexibility in reading, but it may also
lead to fragmented representation of the overall text if the units and links do not
give readers cues to the way information is structured. When a hypertext lacks
explicit cues to its structure, readers must try to reconstruct the relevant relationships on their own. Reading theory suggests that providing microstructural devices such as headings and logical connectives, as well as macrostructural devices
such as graphic representations of content, can help readers structure information
appropriately because such devices indicate the relationships among units, thus
helping readers to integrate information into a coherent whole.
Within the context of second language, in spite of hopes and claims about the
potential benefits of computer technology for L2 reading, few empirical studies
have examined its effectiveness. In fact, most of the issues and concerns associated with reading hypertext have been derived from studies conducted with first
language (L1) readers. Studies are needed to develop a solid understanding of
how computers can be used effectively in L2 reading and how L2 readers perceive
the experience of hypertext reading.
This study examines the effects of embedded microstructural devices (e.g.,
headings, reviews, and logical connective statements) and a macrostructural de-
Khalid Al-Seghayer
533
vice (a graphical overview map of hypertext content) on construction1 and organization2 in L2 readers’ processing of hypertext presentations. It also investigates
the relationship between L2 readers’ proficiency with reader- and author-defined
interactive visual and verbal organization devices and the effects of these devices
on coherent mental representation building of hypertext content.3
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
To establish a context, this review will cover L1 and L2 hypertext reading research
and L1 and L2 reading research in general. The review also includes studies on
printed text because traditional reading research can provide valuable perspectives on text processing.
Factors Influencing Construction and Organization of a Coherent Mental Representation of Hypertext Content
The specific task of developing a coherent mental representation and the general
task of comprehending a hypertext document are significantly influenced by (a)
explicit representation of the text’s underlying structure, (b) the overall coherence
of the information, and (c) the readers’ reading abilities.
a. Representation of Structure
Knowledge of structure enables readers to predict what material the text will include and how that material will be organized. The sequential presentation that
characterizes hypertext environments makes it difficult to get a complete picture
of the text unless the hypertext environment includes local (microstructural) features that help readers select the most important textual information, as well as
global (macrostructural) features to assist them in integrating the content into a
unified representation.
Local (microstructural) devices. Text-based techniques that may affect the construction and organization of a coherent mental representation are structural markers or discourse cues that clarify the structure of the passage. These cues provide
a conceptual framework for the reader to use in organizing the information into a
coherent overall representation. Three microstructural devices include headings,
logical connectives, and reviews.
Headings. Headings and subheadings are common typographical cues in traditional text. Electronic text uses two types of headings: local headings and global
headings. Local headings introduce the topic of each unit and identify important
information. They help readers remember important points from each passage and
summarize the information within units. Global headings identify the structure of
the document. They influence complex reading activities by helping readers plan
reading activities and by encouraging them to examine the important information
in each passage (Lacroix, 1999; Lorch, 1989). These functions have been empirically confirmed.
Lacroix (1999) conducted three experiments in which she examined the effects
of different textual organizations on macrostructural construction and organiza-
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tion. In her third experiment, she explored the effects of headings on macrostructural construction and organization. Eighty college students were instructed to
read small sets of documents presented in hypertext format under two different
conditions. Half of the subjects read selected texts that incorporated local and
global headings, and the other half read texts without headings. Both groups were
asked to write a summary and prepare a report outline. The results indicated that
subjects who read texts using global and local titles were more likely to include
important statements in their summaries and that the presence of both types of
headings helped readers remember the most important ideas in the texts they had
read. Dee-Lucas and Larkin (1995) obtained similar results when comparing college students reading traditional text, electronic text with a structured overview,
and electronic text with an unstructured overview. The results indicated that the
presence of unit titles on the overviews of electronic text led to a great deal of
recalled content. Dee-Lucas and Larkin proposed that unit titles served as recall
aids and, as a result, increased text content recall. They contended that readers
used their memories of the unit titles as recall aids for the text topic.
Logical connectives. Logical connectives reveal the logical relations among
ideas in a text (Mayer, 1984) and help readers construct a coherent mental representation because they explicitly indicate the relations between text units (Golding, Millis, & Hauselt, 1995; Kintsch, 1990).
Previews. Preview statements outline text content and purpose, preview sentences emphasize the structure of the passage and reveal the relationships between
superordinate and subordinate ideas. To date, no studies have examined the impact of including logical connectives and previews in a hypertext environment.
However, some studies have looked at their use in traditional texts.
Loman and Mayer (1983) examined the effect of using reviews, headings, and
logical connectives on 58 high school readers’ understanding of expository text.
Participants were divided into two groups. One group read the signaled version of
the selected text and the other group read the nonsignaled version. Both versions
were the same except that the signaled version had review sentences that stated
the purpose of the text and used headings and logical connectives. After reading
their texts, participants were required to take a recall test, a problem-solving test, a
fact retention test, and a verbatim retention test. Their results showed that students
who read a text containing these features recalled conceptual information and
generated higher quality problem solutions than students who read the same text
without the local devices.
Spyridakis and Standal (1987) also investigated the effect of headings, previews,
and logical connectives on reading comprehension in traditional texts. Three
hundred college students read one of four passages and then answered questions
examining information about details in the passages, superordinate information,
and implicit relationships. Their results showed that these features helped readers comprehend the text they read. Spyridakis and Standal suggested that these
techniques communicated the structure of the texts to readers and increased their
understanding.
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Global (macrostructural) devices. Recognition of macrostructure is a prerequisite for success in tasks involving global comprehension and meaningful learning.
Because multiple paths are possible when reading a hypertext, there is a greater
navigation load on the reader than with linear text. In order to simplify the reader’s task, therefore, global navigation features must be provided. One common
global device in hypertext is a graphic representation or map that can help readers
identify the structure of the text as a whole (Van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983).
Tang (1992) explored the effect of graphic representation on reading comprehension among 45 ESL students. Comparing students who completed a tree graphic
about a reading with students who did not, Tang found that graphic representation
of knowledge facilitated awareness of text structure, reading comprehension, and
immediate recall. The majority of participants agreed that using the graphic facilitated comprehension and recall. Tang suggested that graphics incorporated with
linguistic devices enable readers to reconstruct their knowledge after reading and
express it in a second language.
Dee-Lucas and Larkin (1995) found that displaying the underlying structure of
text through hierarchical overviews produced better memory for text topics and
better breadth of recall than a menu-like content listing and that hierarchical overviews were easier for readers to recall and use. Furthermore, they reported that
readers with overview lists had more difficulty determining what was important
in the text as a whole. They maintained that this difficulty was due to the lack of
explicit organizational information in the overview list.
Hofman and van Oostendorp (1999) conducted a study in which they sought
to examine whether a structural overview led to a deeper understanding of texts.
Forty first-year university students were assigned to read a text under one of two
presentation conditions, either a structural overview or a list. The students were
asked to answer text-based questions intended to measure their recognition and
inference questions designed to measure their situation model that they had constructed from the information they read. The results demonstrated that low- and
high-prior-knowledge participants scored equally well on the text-based questions,
whereas on the situation questions, low-prior-knowledge participants scored significantly lower on the overview condition than on the listed condition.
b. Overall Coherence of Text
Text coherence is a major factor in constructing a coherent mental representation
of hypertext content. Developing a coherent mental representation of text content entails integrating information into a unified model that identifies the central
ideas.
Foltz (1992) compared readers’ comprehension and strategies when reading a
printed text, an unembellished hypertext, and a coherent hypertext. Seventy-three
undergraduate students were assigned to study an introductory economics chapter
using a hierarchically designed hypertext system. After reading the text, the participants answered comprehension questions (five short-answer essays, and eight
multiple-choice questions) and wrote an essay on the chapter. Participants who
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read the hypertext scored better on questions that assessed their knowledge of the
structure of the text; also, the more coherently the text was read, the better the
reader’s summary essay. In addition, the results indicated that participants relied
heavily on the hypertext map for orientation. Foltz contended that readers had a
strong need for coherence when studying complex materials.
McNamara, E. Kintsch, Songer, and W. Kintsch (1996) conducted two experiments examining the role of text coherence in middle school students’ comprehension of science texts. Their findings from the first experiment indicated that
participants who read a more coherent version of a text recalled more of its content than participants who read a less coherent version. In a second experiment,
they found that readers who had little background knowledge on the subject matter benefited from a text that was maximally coherent at both the local and the
global level, while high-knowledge readers benefited from a minimally coherent
text.
c. Readers’ Abilities in Hypertext Environments
Another factor that is believed to have an impact on constructing a coherent mental representation and comprehending hypertext documents is readers’ readinglevel proficiencies. User characteristics have been the subject of investigation in
many studies of hypertext because readers’ approaches to hypertext systems vary
widely due to their reading styles and abilities.
Leidig (1992) investigated the relationship between cognitive style (learning
styles and spatial ability) and structural maps in hypertext. Participants completed
a spatial ability test and then were categorized into one of the following four
learning styles: (a) divergers, (b) assimilators, (c) convergers, and (d) accommodators. The 282 participants were assigned to one of four treatment groups: (a)
linear text only, (b) hypertext without a navigation map, (c) hypertext with a textual navigation map, and (d) hypertext with a spatial navigation map. After reading, participants responded to a questionnaire which was designed to measure the
amount of material they had learned and their levels of satisfaction with reading in
hypertext environments. The obtained results yielded findings that demonstrated a
significant interaction between learning styles and structural maps. Leidig found
that assimilators performed well with both textual and graphical maps of the hypertext structure, whereas convergers and accommodators were less effective in
similar conditions.
Balcytiene (1999) compared readers of printed text with readers of hypertext
to investigate the role of individual differences in using hypertext environments.
Based on the research results, participants were classified into self-regulated and
cue-dependent readers. Self-regulated readers seemed to benefit more from hypertext environments because (a) they were more capable of using their metacognitive skills, (b) they had less test anxiety, and (c) they were globally oriented,
retrieving information for initial construction of a mental model that they later
elaborated, whereas cue-dependent readers were locally oriented, reacting to the
topical demands of a particular guiding question.
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McNamara et al. (1996) found that a well developed structured reading environment improved the comprehension of readers with low prior knowledge and
impaired the comprehension of high-prior-knowledge readers. The authors proposed that a well developed structure reduced the amount of active processing that
skilled readers were allowed to do.
Conclusion to the Reviewed Related Literature
This survey of relevant literature pertaining to the processes of reading and comprehending hypertext documents and the factors that may affect the development
of a global coherent representation of hypertext content leads to some tentative
conclusions. It also suggests some implications and point to an area of research
that has not been thoroughly examined in L2 reading research.
The contribution of hypertext to reading in general, and to L2 reading in particular, adds a new, nonlinear dimension to the task of reading. It also makes
readers assume a different, more active role in the process of reading and introduces another element to the meaning-making process due to discontinuous text
divisions. Without the inclusion of some organizational devices, text progression
can be expected to be interrupted which can hamper the development of a unified
integrated text representation. These factors underscore the need for research in a
largely unexplored area within the field of L2 reading—the impact of providing a
visual and verbal conceptual orientation of the structure of hypertext at both the
local and global levels on L2 readers’ ability to construct a coherent mental representation. The importance of this issue hinges on the fact that the prerequisite to
understanding and acquiring knowledge from a hypertext document is L2 readers’
ability to develop a coherent representation or conceptualize a structural overview
of texts.
THE CURRENT STUDY
In the hope of developing L2 reading comprehension, some L2 reading specialists
have embraced computer technology because of its potential to support effective
reading environments. Available L2 reading programs seem to focus primarily on
the information presentation capabilities of the medium and pay less attention to
the cognitive processing issues involved in reading electronic texts.
In order to comprehend a hypertext, readers are expected to build a detailed
representation of the content at the local level as they build a more general representation of the global meaning of the text. The factors that influence building
a mental representation of electronic-text content have not been thoroughly explored. Little empirical research has examined the impact of providing visual and
verbal conceptual orientation to the structure of hypertext at both the local and
global levels on building a coherent mental representation.
Hence, this study sought to determine whether embedding organizational devices in hypertext would help L2 readers develop coherent representations of hypertext content, that is, whether depicting the representation of the underlying
structure of a text and displaying how it is organized could provide a conceptual
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framework for readers to use in organizing information into a coherent representation. Empirical evidence of the effectiveness of such devices could aid the design
of computer-based reading environments that would help readers organize information and integrate it into a coherent whole.
The study’s goal was outlined in two research questions.
1. Do organizational devices affect L2 readers’ processing of hypertext construction and organization and facilitate development of a coherent global
representation of content?
2. Do L2 readers’ reading proficiency and the degree of structuring produce
interaction effects that influence the development of mental representations
of hypertext content?
To answer these questions, the study tested two hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1: The presence of an organizational device would significantly
influence the two levels of macrostructural processing, that is,
construction and organization. This would foster development
of a globally coherent mental representation.
Hypothesis 2: L2 readers’ reading proficiency will affect their ability to
develop a coherent representation of hypertext content. The
construction of coherent mental representations by proficient
readers will remain the same under both treatment conditions,
whereas for less proficient readers it will be significantly better in the well structured hypertext environment than in the
less structured hypertext environment.
METHOD
Participants
The participants in the study were 40 ESL students from 10 different language
backgrounds enrolled in the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of
Pittsburgh (see Table 1). They ranged in age from 19 to 40; 27 were women, and
13 were men. At the time of the data collection, students were receiving 20 hours
of intensive English instruction each week. Their academic backgrounds reflected
a variety of majors, and all were planning to enroll in undergraduate or graduate
studies as soon as they passed the language requirement.
In order to qualify for the study, each participant had to have spent at least 2
semesters in the host environment and attained a TOEFL score between 450 and
530 (intermediate). In addition, each had to be placed in the intermediate level
based on their performance on the reading section of the Michigan Test. The participants’ instructors were asked to confirm each participant’s intermediate proficiency level in reading.
Since the study employed a mixed design approach, all participants were exposed to the same treatment conditions. Although the participants had different
language backgrounds, the use of a mixed study design meant that each participant served as his or her own control.
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Khalid Al-Seghayer
Table 1
Characteristics of Participants
Country
Bahrain
China
Japan
Italy
Lebanon
Male
Female
Total
1
2
3
2
Korea
2
Mexico
1
Morocco
Qatar
Peru
Sweden
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
Venezuela
Total
3
1
2
1
13
2
2
8
10
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
27
1
5
1
1
3
1
1
4
3
2
2
40
Intermediate-level ESL learners were chosen because they would be able to
deal with text from a more global perspective and would possess enough vocabulary and grammatical knowledge to understand the texts used in the study. In addition, a sample of intermediate-level learners would include both more proficient
and less proficient readers.
Based on their scores on the reading section of the TOEFL, participants were
divided into two categories: proficient (score of 35-45 on the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL) and less proficient (score of 15-20 on the reading
comprehension section of the TOEFL). The proficient group included 15 women
and 5 men with an age range of 19 to 40 years. The native languages of the students in this group included Arabic (2), Chinese (5), Japanese (4), Korean (4),
Spanish (2), Swedish (1), Thai (1), and Turkish (1). Sixteen were graduates, and
4 were undergraduates. The less proficient group included 12 women and 8 men
ranging in age from 20 to 33. The native languages represented in this group included Arabic (5), Chinese (2), Italian (1), Japanese (6), Korean (1), Spanish (2),
Thai (2), and Turkish (1). Fourteen were graduates, and 6 were undergraduates.
Setting
All the study’s sessions took place at the Robert Henderson Language Media Center at the University of Pittsburgh. The center contains 44 computers and is the
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lab that most students in the ELI use for school assignments and other related
computing needs.
Design
This was mixed design in which the participants served as their own controls. The
between-subjects factor was reading ability with two levels of proficiency (high
proficiency and low proficiency), and the within-subjects factor was the use of
organizational devices with two levels (presence or absence of the organizational
devices). Participants read two analogous hypertexts, one with an organizational
device and the other without, and then took two tests.
The independent variables, well organized and less organized hypertext reading programs, were experimentally manipulated by exposing participants to both
treatment conditions. The dependent variables, construction of mental representation of electronic texts at both the local and global levels, were measured by two
different reading tests (see Table 2).
Table 2
Study Design
Reading ability
Proficient readers
Less proficient readers
Procedure
Text with organizational
devices included
Text without organizational devices included
X
X
X
X
The experimental procedures consisted of different phases that were undertaken
over the course of four meetings. The first phase, which lasted 1 hour and 35
minutes, served as an introductory session in which the participants, either individually or in small groups, met with the researcher at the Language Media
Center. Each was informed about the purpose of the study and asked to fill out the
informational background questionnaire and take the TOEFL test.
The second phase, which lasted approximately 30 minutes, served as a practice
session in which participants received a brief introduction to the hypertext reading
programs and practiced reading texts similar to the experimental ones.
The final phase, which lasted a total of 2 hours, was conducted in two separate 1-hour meetings that served as the experimental sessions. In each meeting,
participants were asked to (a) read two analogous expository hypertexts on the
computer screen under two different conditions, one with organizational devices
included and one without (30 minutes for each) and (b) take the comprehension
tests (10-15 minutes for each). Participants completed all tasks within a 4-hour
block of time.
To avoid any potential order effect, the order of the passages was varied and
counterbalanced. The first 10 proficient readers read the less organized hypertext
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and took the multiple choice and the mapping tests associated with this text; the
other 10 read the well organized hypertext and took the test associated with it.
Then the order for this group was switched. On the other hand, the first 10 less
proficient readers read the very well organized hypertext and took the two tests
associated with it; the other 10 read the less organized hypertext and took the tests
associated with it. Then the order for this group was switched.
Instructional Materials
Reading Passages
Two passages were selected from Sociology: Experiencing Changing Societies
(Kammeyer, Ritzer, & Yetman, 1997), an undergraduate textbook. The two passages, “Human Interaction” (HI) and “Verbal Symbols and Language” (VSL),
were expository in nature and judged to be unfamiliar to most intermediate-level
students. The passages were selected according to seven specific criteria: the texts
(a) shared the same subject matter, (b) shared the same literary style, (c) shared
the same length, (d) shared the same degree of difficulty, (e) were authentic passages, (f) required minimal background knowledge, and (g) had logical, rhetorical
ordering of ideas. In this way, the practical effectiveness of organizational devices
(i.e., headings, logical connectives, previews, and graphical representation of text
structure in the form of overview maps) on readers’ ability to create a coherent
representation could be detected.
Consultation with Reading Teachers
Two ESL reading teachers assisted in the design of the organizational devices to
be included in the hypertext reading programs. The teachers were asked to suggest the best global and local titles for each unit, to write statements connecting
each text unit to the next, and to write a short preview for each unit. They also
performed idea-unit analyses on the reading texts, identifying one main idea and
two supporting ideas for each paragraph.
Converting the Selected Texts into Hypertext Documents
The two experimental passages were converted into hypertext documents. Each
of the eight paragraphs in each text served as a single unit, filling part of the screen
along with the associated local and global titles, a preview of the unit, an overview map (well organized program) and an alphabetized list of text content (less
organized program). Content, length, and syntactic structure of the paragraphs
remained in their original versions. Thus, there were eight units, each one able to
stand alone. Readers could move among them using links. In the case of the HI
text, readers were able to click on the overview map titles to display the content
of the selected unit on the screen, along with the included organizational devices.
In the VSL text, they were able to click on the alphabetical list of titles to display
the content of the selected unit on the screen.
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CALICO Journal, Vol. 24, No. 3
Software: Overview of Content and Organization
The investigator designed two hypertext reading programs (well structured and
less structured) with similar introductory sections and aesthetic features but different main sections. Program designs were based on the design principles proposed
by Leshin, Pollock, and Reigeluth (1992), Martin (1990), Nielsen (1990), and
Thorn (1995). Both hypertext reading programs along with their tests were developed with Flash MX software (Macromedia, 2002). The audio component was
recorded and processed with Digital Performer 3.02 software (MOTU, 2001).
Each program contained a tutorial, an introduction, and a main section. The
tutorial illustrated how to interact with the screen features and use the program
effectively. In addition, in the well structured program, the tutorial prompted students to use the structure of the hypertext to guide their reading. The introduction
previewed the hypertexts and explained that each was divided into units that were
displayed independently on the computer screen. The purpose of the tutorial and
introduction was to reduce the cognitive load imposed by the new instructional
environment and to ensure that participants who were less familiar with reading
hypertext were not disadvantaged.
Overview of the Well Structured Hypertext Reading Program. The well structured hypertext reading program contained the HI text. After the tutorial and introduction, users saw a static global overview of unit titles organized hierarchically
and displayed as interconnected semantic nodes along with an explanation of the
function and organization of the overview map. The window displaying the actual
text was divided into three frames: a title banner across the top, the overview map
on the left, and the actual text. The frame containing the actual text included the
local and global headings of each unit and two navigation buttons: Previous and
Review. The Previous button took users to the previously visited point; the Review button displayed a brief preview of unit content (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
Well Structured Hypertext Reading Program
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The actual text was divided into eight stand-alone units, each consisting of one
80-110 word paragraph from the original text. Readers could move among the
units using the links on the overview map. Instructions on how to interact with the
program features were placed at the bottom right of each page. Upon completing
the final unit, users had the opportunity to see all of the text presented in every
unit and then to return to the overview page. A message informed users that they
could select any of the units for review.
Overview of the Less Structured Hypertext Reading Program. After viewing
the brief introduction to the program, participants saw an unstructured, menu-like
list of the unit titles typical of what readers encounter in instructional hypertext
environments. The list overview, which filled the whole screen, presented the major topics and segments of the selected text without indicating the relationships
among them.
The second section contained the VSL text. This text was divided into smaller
paragraph units so that each could stand alone, and each unit had a title reflecting
its content. The window that displayed the text was divided into three frames. The
top frame held the title of the text, “Verbal Symbols and Language,” the left frame
displayed the list-like overview showing the main units comprising the text, and
the right frame displayed selected text units. The navigation buttons were located
at the bottom of the right frame. The button on the right took users to the next unit,
and the button on the left allowed users to return to the previous unit (see Figure
2).
Figure 2
Less Structured Hypertext Reading Program
Evaluation Measures
Evaluation measures were selected to (a) reflect the degree to which a text is
represented at the local and global levels, (b) test knowledge of text structure
(mapping main ideas and details), and (c) test how recognition of text information
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was affected by the experimental manipulations. In addition, they were designed
primarily to measure knowledge of conceptual relations rather than simple knowledge of facts or ideas. Production assessments such as free or cued written recall
were avoided because it was assumed that the writing ability of the participants
was not adequately developed for such measures.
Knowledge of underlying textual organization was tested in the form of multiple-choice test items. Each test contained 15 questions with 4 possible answers.
In order to produce an accurate measure of the amount of material learned, construction of the multiple-choice items took passage dependency into account and
were designed to control for (a) breadth of coverage of the test items themselves,
(b) cues in response, (c) plausibility of distractors, (d) careful wording in the test
items, and (e) randomization of test items.
After reading a hypertext, participants clicked on the “Begin Quiz” button,
which took them directly to the associated multiple-choice test. Introductory
instructions and instructions accompanying each question made test taking less
confusing, reduced the chance of error, and allowed for an accurate measure of
the time users spent on each question. Because the questions required readers to
integrate information or to infer something that was not stated in the text, participants were permitted to look at the hypertext while answering the questions.
After completing the multiple-choice test, participants went on to the mapping
of main ideas and details (MOMID) test which examined sensitivity to text structure. Instructions for this test were presented in an initial window. Each MOMID
test consisted of 24 sentences taken randomly from the hypertext, and participants
identified each sentence as either the main idea or a detail of a given unit and indicated its status on a map. Participants were given the opportunity to look at the
hypertext while answering the questions because the questions required readers to
infer or locate main idea and detail information that was not explicitly stated. The
MOMID test was constructed in consultation with ESL reading experts and was
subject to a number of considerations, including (a) limited alternatives, (b) test
items free of response cues, (c) plausibility of distractors, (d) careful wording of
test items, and (e) randomization of test items.
Delivery of the Multiple-choice and MOMID Tests
After completing the multiple-choice tests, participants were asked to continue
working on the MOMID tests. Once these were done, they submitted their answers by clicking on the Submit button. Their answers, along with their background information, were automatically sent to the investigator’s email account
and database management file. After completing the MOMID tests, participants
received a message which thanked them for their participation and indicated that
their data had been received.
Test Item Analysis
Item analysis of the multiple-choice tests revealed an index of difficulty ranging
from 0.55 to 0.92 for the test used in the well structured program and from 0.33 to
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0.80 for the test used in the less structured program. The index of discriminability
ranged from 0.20 to 0.55 for the test used in the well structured program and from
0.20 to 0.45 for the test used in the less structured program.
For the MOMID tests, the index of difficulty ranged from 0.52 to 0.71 for the
test used in the well structured program and from 0.36 to 0.60 for the test used
in the less structured program. The index of discriminability ranged from 0.18 to
0.50 for the test used in the well structured program and from 0.20 to 0.50 for the
test used in the less structured program.
An estimate of the reliability of the internal consistency of the tests was made
from a single administration of the tests by using the Kuder-Richardson formula.
The internal consistency reliability was 0.74 for the multiple-choice test used in
the well structured program and 0.72 for the one used in the less structured program. It was estimated as 0.70 for the MOMID test used in the well structured
program and 0.68 for the one used in the less structured program.
Scoring System
All of the tests were of the discrete-point type, so each was scored following similar procedures. For the multiple-choice tests, each correct answer received one
point and each incorrect answer received zero points. For the MOMID tests, full
credit was awarded for assigning all ideas correctly, and one point was deducted
for each mistake. The answers of the two tests were routed electronically to a
MySQL software database with the help of customized code written in the PHP
scripting language. This enabled the quiz and tracking results to be sent directly
to the researcher’s email address for evaluation.
Data Analysis Procedures
The collected data was first subjected to a statistical descriptive analysis. Inferential statistics were then used to predict characteristics of similar sets of data, thus
revealing how generalizable the results would be to the whole population of ESL
learners.
To answer the research question regarding the effect of organizational devices
on L2 readers’ processing of hypertext, a paired-sample t-test was performed on
participants’ scores on the questions that examined their ability to extract main
ideas and comprehend content. To answer the research question regarding possible interaction between reading proficiency and degree of structuring, a twoway mixed model ANOVA was conducted. The between-subjects factor in the
ANOVA was reading ability, with high proficiency and low proficiency levels.
The within-subjects factor was the use of organizational devices, with devicespresent and devices-absent levels. The ANOVA analysis tested for three effects.
1. The test for the main effect of reading proficiency evaluated whether ESL
learners with high reading proficiency developed more coherent mental
representations of text than ESL learners with low reading proficiency, regardless of whether organizational devices were present.
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2. The test for the main effect of an organizational device evaluated whether
the effects of text that included organizational devices differed from those
of text that did not include them.
3. The test for interaction between reading proficiency and use of an organizational device evaluated whether the differences between the effects of
the two types of text were the same for the two reading groups.
All statistical tests used an alpha level of .05 as the level of significance.
RESULTS
The first research question examined the effect of embedded organizational devices on developing a coherent mental representation of hypertext content. For the
purposes of this study, coherent mental representation of hypertext content was
defined as the ability to identify the central ideas of the text and measured by a set
of questions about overall main ideas.
To answer this research question, participants’ responses to questions about the
main point of each hypertext were examined.4 Table 3 presents the results of the
paired-samples t-test, which showed that participants performed significantly better on questions that probed the central ideas of hypertexts in the presence of organizational devices (t = 3.85, p < .0005). The mean score on questions that inquired
about the central ideas of the less structured hypertext was 1.12, compared to 1.68
for the well structured hypertext. For the less structured hypertext the standard
deviation was 0.82, and for the well structured hypertext it was 0.62.
Table 3
Results of Paired-samples t-test on Participants’ Scores on Questions Pertaining
to Overall Main Ideas (N = 40)
Test
Overall main
ideas questions
Without organizational devices
M
1.12
SD
0.82
With organizational
devices
M
1.68
SD
0.62
t
3.85
p
< .0005
The second research question investigated the interaction effects between reading ability and the presence or absence of organizational devices. To answer this
question, participants’ responses on the multiple-choice and MOMID tests were
examined.
Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations of participants’ scores on the
multiple-choice tests. As can be seen, the mean for proficient readers with the
less structured hypertext was 10.30 and 11.05 with the well structured hypertext.
The standard deviation was 2.22 with the less structured hypertext and 1.76 with
the well structured hypertext. By contrast, the less proficient readers’ mean for
less structured hypertext was 6.10, and 9.45 for well structured hypertext. Their
standard deviations were 1.44 with the less structured and 1.90 with the well
structured hypertext.
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Khalid Al-Seghayer
Table 5 presents the results of the two-way ANOVA. The effect of the interaction between proficiency level and use of organizational devices was highly significant, F (1, 38) = 21.35, p < .0005.
Table 4
Means and Standard Deviations of Multiple-choice Test Scores by Proficiency
Level and Device Use
Organizational device
Proficiency level
Proficient
(n = 20)
Less proficient
(n = 20)
M
LS
SD
M
WS
SD
Marginal
7.78
10.30
2.22
11.05
1.76
6.10
1.44
9.45
1.90
10.68
8.20
10.25
Marginal
LS: Less structured hypertext reading program
WS: Well structured hypertext reading program
Table 5
Results of Analysis of Variance on Multiple-choice Test Scores (N = 40)
Source
SS
df
MS
F
p
168.20
201.75
1
38
168.20
31.68
< .0005
Device
84.05
1
84.05
53.10
< .0005
Error
60.15
38
1.58
Between subjects
Proficiency
Error
Within subjects
Device X proficiency
33.80
1
5.18
33.80
21.35
< .0005
Because of the presence of a significant interaction, a graph of the interaction
was examined before the main effects were interpreted. As Figure 3 shows, the
interaction is ordinal. Therefore, it is still appropriate to interpret the main effects.
The main effect for the inclusion of the organizational devices was highly significant: F (1, 38) = 53.10, p < .0005. Regardless of proficiency level, students performed better when reading the well structured hypertext (M = 10.25) than when
reading the less structured hypertext (M = 8.20). However, as Figure 4 shows, the
structured hypertext had a stronger effect on the performance of less proficient
readers. The main effect for proficiency level was also significant, F (1, 38) =
31.68, p < .0005.
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Multiple-choice test scores
Figure 3
Interaction between Presence or Absence of Organizational Devices and Reading
Proficiency: Multiple-choice Test
12
12
11
11
10
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
Proficient
6
6
Less proficient
5
without
5
with
Organizational devices
Table 6 presents means and standard deviations of participants’ scores on the
MOMID test. It shows that the mean of proficient readers reading the less structured hypertext was 6.60 (SD = 1.88), which was close to the mean of 6.55 (SD
= 1.85) for their reading of the well structured hypertext. By contrast, the less
proficient readers’ mean when reading the less structured hypertext was 4.60 (SD
= 1.64) and 7.60 (SD = 1.79) when reading the well structured hypertext.
Table 6
Means and Standard Deviations of MOMID Test Scores by Proficiency Level and
Device Use
Organizational device
Proficiency level
M
LS
SD
M
WS
SD
Marginal
6.10
Proficient
6.60
1.88
6.55
1.85
Less proficient
4.60
1.64
7.60
1.79
Marginal
5.60
(n = 20)
(n = 20)
7.08
6.58
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Khalid Al-Seghayer
Table 7 presents the results of the two-way ANOVA. The effect of the interaction between reading proficiency level and use of the organizational devices was
highly significant F (1, 38) = 38.03, p < .0005. Because of the presence of a significant interaction, a graph of the interaction was examined before interpreting
the main effects (see Figure 4).
Table 7
Results of Analysis of Variance on MOMID Test Scores (N = 40)
Source
SS
df
MS
4.51
196.88
1
38
Device
43.51
Error
46.48
Between subjects
Proficiency
Error
Within subjects
Device X proficiency
46.51
F
p
4.51
0.87
.357
1
43.51
35.58
< .0005
38
1.22
1
5.18
46.51
38.03
< .0005
Mapping test scores
Figure 4
Interaction between Presence or Absence of Organizational Device and Reading
Proficiency: MOMID Test
8.0
8.0
7.5
7.5
7.0
7.0
6.5
6.5
6.0
6.0
5.5
5.5
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.0
without
4.0
with
Organizational devices
Proficient
Less proficient
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As can be seen in Figure 4, the interaction is disordinal. Therefore, interpretation of the main effects is not appropriate. Without the organizational devices, the
more proficient readers performed at a higher level than the less proficient readers. However, when using the organizational devices, the more proficient readers performed at a slightly lower level than the less proficient readers. Stated in
another way, the use of the organizational devices had virtually no effect on the
performance of the more proficient readers but had a strong beneficial effect on
the performance of the less proficient readers. When considering the results for
both the multiple choice and MOMID tests, it can be seen that the well structured
hypertext had a greater positive impact on the performance of the less proficient
readers.
DISCUSSION
It can be seen from the results presented above that the well structured hypertext
reading program enabled participants to develop a better and more coherent mental representation of the hypertext content and increased their reading comprehension. The results also revealed that less proficient readers benefited more from the
well structured hypertext program than did proficient readers. Overall, the results
confirmed the value of well organized hypertext on L2 reading, particularly for
less proficient ESL readers.
The results obtained are discussed in the light of the two research questions that
guided this study. In reviewing them, an attempt has been made to discuss the
findings in detail, determine whether they concur with those of previous studies,
and suggest theoretical explanations or justifications for the findings.
Global Coherent Mental Representation
Participants’ answers to the multiple-choice questions demonstrated that they
were able to recognize the central points of the hypertext far better with the well
structured hypertext. In other words, they were able to develop more coherent
mental representations of the well structured hypertext than of the less structured
hypertext. The effect sizes on developing global coherent mental representations of the well structured hypertext content showed that Cohen’s f was medium
(.608),5 suggesting that well structured hypertext made a difference in developing
a coherent mental representation. The presence of an overview map that outlined
the overall structure of the hypertext and organizational devices (e.g., local and
global titles, a preview option, and logical connective statements) seemed to increase ESL readers’ chances of discovering the gist of the hypertext and, as a
result, building a unified representation. The devices provided such assistance
because they clarified the form of the well structured hypertext, provided information about how the text units related to each other, and encouraged the readers to
learn the overall structure of the hypertext.
These results concur with those of Foltz (1992), who showed that the more
coherent or organized the hypertext was, the better the essays or the higher the
number of macropositions generated in the participants’ essays. The results also
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align with those of Dee-Lucas and Larkin (1995), who found that organizational
cues such as hierarchal overviews enabled their participants to form coherent representations of hypertext content as exhibited by the participants’ summaries.
Interaction Effects
The findings reported here provide evidence of the existence of interaction effects
between L2 readers’ reading proficiency and the level of structuring of hypertext
on developing a coherent mental representation. All of the effect sizes displayed
in Table 10 meet Cohen’s definition of a large effect with the exception of the
main effect of proficiency in the MOMID test.6
Table 10
Effect Sizes for Interaction Effects
Effect
Organizational device
Organizational device X proficiency
Proficiency
Effect size (Cohen’s ƒ)
Multiple choice
MOMID
.52
.84
.81
.63
.67
.11
For the multiple-choice test, the largest effect size was observed for the main
effect of the organizational device, whereas for the MOMID test, the largest effect size was observed for the interaction effect. Based on the observed effect
sizes for organizational devices, it is evident that the organizational devices had
a considerable effect on ESL students’ performance on both tests. Based on the
observed effect sizes for the interaction, it is also evident that the presence of
the organizational devices aided less proficient readers considerably more than it
aided proficient readers, especially with respect to the MOMID test.
The results indicated that the main effects of the inclusion of organizational devices were highly significant. Regardless of proficiency level, all participants performed better when reading the well structured hypertext than when reading the
less structured hypertext. However, the well structured hypertext had a stronger
effect on the performance of less proficient readers. An explanation for this finding could be that proficient readers can develop a coherent representation when
reading less structured hypertext documents, whereas less proficient readers are
less capable of doing so. That is, well structured hypertext compensates for less
proficient readers’ lower skills in determining and selecting important information
and bringing the selected information together as a whole.
In traditional print reading research and, in particular, L1 print research, the
commonly held view is that less proficient readers do not take advantage of text
signals or announced text structure (see Balajithy, 1990; Landow, 1990). The results of this study demonstrate the opposite. This seems to be due to the interactive nature and prominence of the organizational devices, which were highly
salient and placed in multiple locations in the hypertext document so that readers
encountered them throughout their reading experience.
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The results of the current study agree with those of McNamara et al. (1996),
who found that less proficient readers benefited more from well structured or coherent text than did proficient readers. The current findings also are in line with
Geva’s (1983) experiments in training less skilled readers to pay closer attention
to overall text structure. Geva’s results showed that less skilled readers benefited
from the instruction more than skilled readers. Geva proposed that skilled readers
might find the training redundant because they possessed sufficient knowledge of
text structure before the experiment.
IMPLICATIONS
The obtained results suggest theoretical, pedagogical, and technological implications for L2 reading and specifically L2 computerized reading.
Theoretical Implications
This study’s results support the mathemagenic model of text comprehension
(Jonassen, 1985; Winne, 1982), which states that an explicit display of text structure induces cognitive processes that produce comprehension and assumes that
learners are “better led to learning than allowed to determine the relevance or
meaning of material themselves” (Jonassen, 1985, p. 10). The instructional stimulus, the main focus of the mathemagenic model, “encourage[s] learners to cognitively operate on some information in a way that they would not under natural,
i.e., non-instructional, conditions” (Winne, 1982, p. 15).
It seems that ESL learners, especially less proficient readers, need mathemagenic aids that orient them, show them what is important and relevant, and overtly
display the overall structure of instructional hypertexts. These readers lack the
skills necessary to identify important textual information, organize this information into a coherent whole, and abstract a higher order structure of text. If these
readers must devote some of their mental resources to figuring out text structure,
they do so at the expense of the primary task of successfully comprehending information.
The results of this study also lend support to the concept of macrostructural
processing (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978). Building a coherent mental representation
of content involves two levels of macrostructural processing: construction, which
entails the selection and extraction of information presented in each individual
paragraph, and organization, which requires putting the selected information into
a unified representation. The results of the current study show that these two processing levels must occur if building of a coherent mental representation of hypertext content is to take place.
Pedagogical Implications
The results of this study demonstrate that L2 readers of hypertext benefit from
the support provided by organizational devices when reading hypertext. L2 reading instructors would therefore be well advised to explain the structure of hypertext documents and help students acquire specific strategies for knowing where
Khalid Al-Seghayer
553
they are and what to do next in a hypertext document, recognizing relationships
between hypertext units, and building a coherent representation of the overall
hypertext content. It is assumed, based on the experiences of participants in this
study, that informing potential readers beforehand of the best ways of using a
hypertext can make them familiar with both the characteristics of hypertexts and
the navigating techniques. Orienting readers in how to use a hypertext also reduces the expected cognitive load imposed on them due to the new computerized
instructional environment.
Another pedagogical implication is that L2 learners need to be taught selective
and organizational skills. The study’s results revealed that developing a coherent
mental representation of hypertext content requires selective attention and organization; therefore, before assigning hypertext reading, instructors should give
learners direct instruction in these areas.
The results of the study also showed that increasing the readers’ sensitivity
to hypertext structure enabled them to better form macrostructures. Instructors
can foster awareness of hypertext structure by asking learners to describe how
developers structure hypertext or to produce concrete representations of hypertext
structure and unit relationships in the form of outlines or diagrams. Learners also
need to be taught how to use organizational devices as a framework for reading
and, in particular, hypertext structure as a reading strategy.
The necessity of considering this approach (promoting reader use of the provided organizational devices) is based on the assumption that learners without
such instruction tend to move quickly through hypertext units without being careful to take advantage of well structured hypertext that includes organizational
devices. Another strategy that learners need to be taught to foster better hypertext
reading experiences and to enable them to derive the meaning from the hypertext
is how to incorporate use of its organizational devices. These two issues, using
the provided organizational devices as a framework for reading and incorporating
them in their reading of hypertext, entail utilizing instructional techniques and apprising readers precisely how best to use and benefit from elements of hypertext
structure.
This preparatory information could take the form of introductory sessions
wherein users are introduced to the hypertext reading program features and given
practice sessions on how to use these features effectively. Instructors could also
spend time training students in how to use the hypertext features most effectively.
Specifically, instructors need to help learners acquire particular strategies, such as
knowing where they are, deciding where to go next, learning to consider relationships between units, and building a cognitive representation of network structure.
The results of individual differences in terms of reading ability have a key pedagogical implication. Less proficient readers derived more benefit from the well
structured hypertext than did their proficient reader counterparts. Hence, instructors should be more concerned with providing and developing well organized
hypertext for less proficient readers. These types of readers would seem to be at a
disadvantage if they are assigned to read in a loosely or less structured hypertext
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environment. Second language reading instructors can be more specific in assessing the areas in which the less proficient readers need the most help, whether
that would be paying attention to or extracting the most important ideas of each
individual hypertext unit or integrating the extracted or selected information into
a mentally coherent representation.
Technological Implications
The present study suggests a number of technological implications. Second language reading instruction designers would be well advised to ensure that information flows coherently by embedding local and global organizational devices,
revealing the semantic relationships among units, sequencing related units so that
they can be browsed one after another, coding links so that readers are only allowed to jump to the next related unit, and recommending sequences for readers
to follow. Although these measures may impede free exploration of a hypertext
document, it is important to remember that instructional hypertext is read with the
intention of selecting and integrating information, and supporting less proficient
readers in this activity is an essential part of reading instruction.
Further technological implication springs from the observation that readers
need guidance in what to do and where to go next, so that they remain aware of
their location within the hypertext’s structure and use that structure to guide their
reading. Therefore, concise instructions for readers should appear in every screen,
always placed in the same position in an area where they do not interrupt the
reading process. In addition, nontextual hints can be used to complement the verbal instructions. For example, in this study, the currently visited unit was shaded
green on the miniature overview map, and units already read were shaded red.
An additional technological implication concerns the importance of signaling
thematic content at both the local and global levels. Because of the complexity
and segmentation of hypertext documents, designers need to include organizational devices that alert readers to important information locally and help them
identify relationships among hypertext units and organize those units into a coherent representation. Interactive organizational devices are preferable because they
attract readers’ attention and engage them.
CONCLUSION
The research reported here confirms the effectiveness of local and global devices
as aids to reading comprehension for L2 readers of hypertext. The research also
shows an interaction effect between readers’ proficiency and the usefulness of
such text features. In particular, the features play an important role in helping
less proficient readers construct appropriate mental representations of the text, as
reflected in their ability to identify main ideas and supporting details.
Computer technology is coming to play a significant role in the field of L2
reading and, thus, to make a difference in L2 learners’ development of reading
skills. As L2 reading specialists increasingly seek to use computer technology in
the expectation that it will have a positive impact on L2 reading comprehension,
Khalid Al-Seghayer
555
L2 reading researchers need to examine technology’s effects on reading ability
more closely. Specifically, researchers need to examine how effectively different
hypertext environments help L2 readers structure and integrate information into
unified representations in order to provide tangible evidence of the expected positive effects of embedding organizational devices into hypertext.
Information about the effects of organizational devices on coherent representation building during the reading of electronic text will show educators whether
and how such organizational devices make electronic text suitable for L2 reading
in general and as a potential facilitator of L2 reading comprehension in particular
and will also help language program designers develop electronic reading environments that are easy for students to use. Only through further research will
educators be able to take advantage of the potential of instructional hypertext to
promote acquisition of L2 reading skills.
Limitations of the Study
There were some limitations to this study. First, the study did not investigate the
potential impact of participants’ involvement in construction or the possibility
of participants contributing in some fashion to the organizational devices to be
included in the hypertext reading program. Second, it examined only the effect of
including certain organizational devices in hypertext; other aspects of electronic
texts were not taken into account. Third, it did not consider online analysis of individual performance data, such as the readers’ study paths, time spent on individual
units or text as a whole, and navigation strategies. Such an examination would
provide qualitative information about the cognitive process underlying the participants’ reading activity. Fourth, the study only investigated hypertexts and did not
consider other learning resources or multimedia enhancements. Fifth, the study
explored the impact of providing some organizational devices only in expository
text and did not investigate other types of texts. Finally, only two measures were
used: multiple-choice and MOMID tests leading to a limited definition of reading
comprehension. In the future, more than one assessment and a variety of formats
may produce different results.
Suggestions for Future Research
This study represents a preliminary effort to examine empirically the efficacy of
organizational devices in developing a coherent mental representation of hypertext content. The complexity of this study makes it difficult to address in depth
all related issues, thus further research is called for to fill in this gap, as well as to
confirm the findings of this study.
Investigation could pursue a number of related issues, including the value of
different organizational devices in developing a coherent mental representation,
the functions of organizational devices, the compatibility of specific organizational devices with certain types of hypertexts, and the effect of well structured
hypertext on a much longer hypertext selection and with different levels of difficulty.
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Further research is needed to explore the cognitive process and strategies involved in reading hypertexts. Of chief interest is to identify those processes and
subsequently examine to what extent they are affected by certain types of hypertext environments. This study undertook to examine the efficacy of well structured hypertext, taking into consideration readers’ reading abilities, the nature
of the assigned tasks, and different hypertext designs (well structured and less
structured). L2 computerized reading research would benefit from looking into
other variables in future studies.
It is also of interest to study the impact of the presence or absence of a well
defined learning goal or task in a well structured and less structured hypertext environment on the readers’ representation of the hypertext content. In other words,
a future study could well examine the interaction effects between specific learning
goals and integrating the hypertext units into a unified representation. The intent
of such a study should be to verify whether explicitly specifying learning goals
helps learners reading a hypertext to the extent that they are able to organize and
integrate hypertext units and to derive main ideas.
NOTES
Macrostructural construction is a process that involves selecting and extracting information presented in individual units.
1
The macrostructural organization process involves organizing the selected units into a
coherent structure by connecting the units with semantic links.
2
In a hypertext environment, coherent mental representation building is the result of extracting the information given in each hypertext node and then integrating the units or
organizing the main conceptual ideas into a coherent representation. This enables readers
to determine the central ideas of the text and, as a result, develop a coherent global text
representation which ultimately leads to text comprehension.
3
The following are samples of questions that inquired about the main ideas of the hypertext.
4
According to the authors, interaction is usually subject to influence by
A.Cultural beliefs, social order of a society, and parents’ beliefs.
B. How the two young people feel toward the importance of interacting with others.
C. The school system the two young people belong to.
D.How the two young people understand the process of interaction.
The author mainly argues that
A.The complexity of interaction makes a social phenomenon that is difficult to understand.
B. Two people can have their own way of interacting, but must follow their cultural
values.
C. Interaction is totally open to the creativity and inventiveness of the two people who
are interacting with each other.
D.It is not necessary for interaction to go with the context of cultural values and the
social norms of a society.
Khalid Al-Seghayer
557
Cohen (1977) stated that for the t test .2 is considered a small effect size, .5 a medium
effect size, and .8 a large effect size.
5
Cohen stated that for ANOVA, .1 is considered a small effect, .25 a medium effect, and
.4 a large effect.
6
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AUTHOR’S BIODATA
Khalid Al Seghayer earned his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics at the University of
Pittsburgh in 2003. His research interests include computer-assisted language
learning and second language reading. He has taught English in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia and the US. He has published in TESOL Quarterly, Language
Learning & Technology, CALL Journal, Internet TESL Journal, CALICO Journal, and CALL-EJ Online. He served as the chair-elect (2002-2003) of the EFL Interest Section in TESOL and the editor of the Newsletter in TESOL (2002-2004).
He also served as the Chair-Elect of the Non-Native English Speakers (NNEST)
in TESOL (2003-2004). Currently, he is the editor of CALL Media Software in
the Reading Matrix Journal and Chair of the English Department at Al-Kharj
Community College.
AUTHOR’S ADDRESS
Khalid Al-Seghayer
P.O. Box 55347
Riyadh, 11534
Saudia Arabia
Phone: +966505936868
Email: alseghayer@yahoo.com
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