Spoor eGovernment - Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie

Transcription

K.U.LEUVEN
Universiteitsplein 1
B-2610 Wilrijk
Prof.dr Ria Janvier
Tel: 0032 3 820 28 72
Fax: 0032 3 820 28 82
E-mail: ria.janvier@ua.ac.be
Website: www.ua.ac.be/psw
E. Van Evenstraat 2A
B-3000 Leuven
Prof.dr Annie Hondeghem
Algemeen coördinator:
Prof.dr Geert Bouckaert
Tel: 0032 16 32 32 70
Fax: 0032 16 32 32 67
E-mail: io@soc.kuleuven.ac.be
Website: www.instituutvoordeoverheid.be
Voskenslaan 270
B-9000 Gent
Prof. dr Filip De Rynck
Tel: 0032 9 242 42 07
Fax: 0032 9 243 87 96
E-mail: filip.derynck@hogent.be
Website : habe.hogent.be
Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 25
B-9000 Gent
Prof. dr Hans Waege
Tel: 0032 9 264 31 11
Fax: 0032 9 264 69 85
E-mail: hans.waege@rug.ac.be
Website: www.psw.rug.ac.be/popmeth
Algemeen secretariaat
Steunpunt beleidsrelevant onderzoek
BESTUURLIJKE ORGANISATIE VLAANDEREN
E. Van Evenstraat 2 C - B-3000 Leuven - BELGIE
Tel: 0032 16 32 36 10 - Fax: 0032 16 32 36 11
E-mail: sbov@soc.kuleuven.ac.be
www.steunpuntbov.be
D/2004/10106/022
 Steunpunt beleidsrelevant onderzoek - Bestuurlijke organisatie Vlaanderen
Niets uit deze uitgave mag, zelfs gedeeltelijk, openbaar gemaakt worden, gereproduceerd, vertaald of aangepast,
onder enige vorm ook, hierin begrepen fotokopie, microfilm, bandopname behoudens uitdrukkelijke en
voorafgaande toestemming van de uitgever.
Spoor Financieel Management
INTERNATIONALE TRENDS IN DE MODERNISERING VAN DE
OVERHEIDSBOEKHOUDING
Bram Scheers
Prof. dr Geert Bouckaert
Rapport
D/2004/10106/022
2003
TEL: 0032 16 32 36 10
Algemeen secretariaat - Steunpunt Beleidsrelevant onderzoek
E. VAN EVENSTRAAT 2 C - B-3000 LEUVEN – BELGIE
FAX: 0032 16 32 36 11
www.steunpuntbov.be
Internationale trends in de modernisering van de overheidsboekhouding
ABSTRACT
In heel wat OESO-landen is er een evolutie merkbaar met betrekking tot de boekhouding. Het
kas- en verplichtingenstelsel voldoet niet meer aan de hedendaagse realiteit waarin
resultaatgericht management een grote rol speelt. Er is dan ook een evolutie merkbaar naar
boekhoudsystemen die niet enkel de kasstromen en de verplichtingen registreren, maar ook de
opbrengsten en de kosten.
De doelstelling van dit rapport is een stand van zaken te geven van de hervormingen inzake
het overheidsboekhouden in een selectie van OESO-landen (Australië, Canada, Nederland,
het Verenigd Koninkrijk, de Verenigde Staten en Zweden). Hierbij wordt zowel gefocust op
de boekhoudhervormingen zelf (boekhoudfuncties, -procedures en –formattering) als op de
implementatiestrategie die werd of wordt gevolgd bij het invoeren ervan. Uit deze
gedetailleerde landeninformatie worden dan algemene trends opgemaakt om aldus Vlaanderen
te kunnen positioneren in de internationale context. De bepalingen in verband met de
boekhouding in het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet sluiten nauw aan bij deze die we
internationaal waarnemen. Er kunnen dan ook lessen worden getrokken uit de buitenlandse
cases om de implementatie ervan zo efficiënt en effectief mogelijk te laten verlopen.
Bram Scheers
I
INHOUDSTAFEL
HOOFDSTUK 1
INLEIDING _______________________________________________ 1
1.1.
ONDERZOEKSVRAGEN ___________________________________________ 1
1.2.
METHODOLOGIE ________________________________________________ 2
1.3.
ANALYTISCH RAAMWERK _______________________________________ 2
1.4.
STRUCTUUR VAN HET RAPPORT__________________________________ 4
BRONNEN EN VERWIJZINGEN __________________________________________ 4
HOOFDSTUK 2
AUSTRALIA_______________________________________________ 7
2.1.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOUNTING REFORMS ___________________ 7
2.1.1.
Accounting functions ____________________________________________ 7
2.1.1.1.
Historical overview of the reforms ______________________________ 7
2.1.1.2.
Actors involved in the reforms _________________________________ 8
2.1.1.3.
Pretext of the reforms ________________________________________ 9
2.1.1.4.
Objectives of the reforms _____________________________________ 9
2.1.1.5.
Conclusion: functions of the reforms ____________________________ 9
2.1.2.
Accounting procedures __________________________________________ 10
2.1.2.1.
Accounting legislation and standards ___________________________ 10
2.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 11
2.1.2.3.
Most important actors _______________________________________ 11
2.1.2.4.
Required reports ___________________________________________ 11
2.1.3.
Accounting format______________________________________________ 12
2.1.3.1.
Cash or accrual accounting? __________________________________ 12
2.1.3.2.
Format of the annual report___________________________________ 12
2.1.3.3.
Format of the financial statements _____________________________ 13
2.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 14
2.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 14
2.2.
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY OF THE REFORMS________________ 15
2.2.1.
General ______________________________________________________ 15
2.2.2.
Critical success and failure factors _________________________________ 15
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 16
APPPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM ILLUSTRATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
_______________________________________________________________________ 17
HOOFDSTUK 3
CANADA ________________________________________________ 25
3.1.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOUNTING REFORMS __________________ 25
3.1.1.
Accounting functions ___________________________________________ 25
3.1.1.1.
Historical overview of the reforms _____________________________ 25
3.1.1.2.
Actors involved in the reforms ________________________________ 26
3.1.1.3.
Pretext of the reforms _______________________________________ 27
3.1.1.4.
Objectives of the reforms ____________________________________ 27
3.1.1.5.
Conclusion: functions of the reforms ___________________________ 27
3.1.2.
3.1.2.1.
3.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 28
Bram Scheers
III
Steunpunt beleidsrelevant onderzoek – bestuurlijke organisatie Vlaanderen
3.1.2.3.
3.1.2.4.
3.1.3.
3.1.3.1.
3.1.3.2.
3.1.3.3.
3.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 31
3.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 31
3.2.
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 33
APPENDIX: TEMPLATES OF THE MANDATORY FINANCIAL TABLES_____ 34
HOOFDSTUK 4
THE NETHERLANDS _____________________________________ 39
4.1.
4.1.1.
4.1.1.1.
4.1.1.2.
4.1.1.3.
4.1.1.4.
4.1.1.5.
4.1.2.
4.1.2.1.
4.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 43
4.1.2.3.
4.1.2.4.
4.1.3.
4.1.3.1.
4.1.3.2.
4.1.3.3.
4.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 45
4.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 45
4.2.
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 47
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 2002 OF THE
MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC AFFAIRS ____________________________________ 49
HOOFDSTUK 5
SWEDEN ________________________________________________ 51
5.1.
5.1.1.
5.1.1.1.
5.1.1.2.
5.1.1.3.
5.1.1.4.
5.1.1.5.
5.1.2.
5.1.2.1.
5.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 54
5.1.2.3.
Spoor financieel management
IV
5.1.2.4.
5.1.3.
5.1.3.1.
5.1.3.2.
5.1.3.3.
5.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 57
5.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 57
5.2.
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 58
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM THE ESV 2002 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS __ 60
HOOFDSTUK 6
UNITED KINGDOM _______________________________________ 63
6.1.
6.1.1.
6.1.1.1.
6.1.1.2.
6.1.1.3.
6.1.1.4.
6.1.1.5.
6.1.2.
6.1.2.1.
6.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 67
6.1.2.3.
6.1.2.4.
6.1.3.
6.1.3.1.
6.1.3.2.
Format of the annual report and accounts of departments ___________ 70
6.1.3.3.
Format of the department financial statements ____________________ 70
6.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 71
6.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 71
6.2.
6.2.1.
General ______________________________________________________ 72
6.2.2.
Critical success and failure factors _________________________________ 73
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 75
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, MEDIA AND SPORT _______________________ 76
HOOFDSTUK 7
UNITED STATES _________________________________________ 79
7.1.
7.1.1.
Accounting Functions ___________________________________________ 79
7.1.1.1.
7.1.1.2.
7.1.1.3.
7.1.1.4.
7.1.1.5.
7.1.2.
7.1.2.1.
7.1.2.2.
Valuation rules ____________________________________________ 84
Bram Scheers
V
7.1.2.3.
7.1.2.4.
7.1.3.
7.1.3.1.
7.1.3.2.
7.1.3.3.
7.1.3.4.
Time horizon ______________________________________________ 87
7.1.3.5.
Consolidation _____________________________________________ 87
7.2.
REFERENCE LIST _____________________________________________________ 89
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM ILLUSTRATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 91
HOOFDSTUK 8 CONCLUSIE: SITUERING VLAANDEREN IN EEN
INTERNATIONALE CONTEXT _____________________________________________ 97
8.1.
BOEKHOUDFUNCTIES ___________________________________________ 97
8.1.1.
Historiek van de hervormingen ____________________________________ 98
8.1.2.
Actoren _____________________________________________________ 100
8.1.3.
Aanleiding voor de boekhoudhervormingen_________________________ 101
8.1.4.
Doelstellingen van de boekhoudhervormingen_______________________ 101
8.2.
BOEKHOUDPROCEDURES ______________________________________ 101
8.2.1.
Regelgeving en boekhoudnormen_________________________________ 103
8.2.2.
Waarderingsregels_____________________________________________ 104
8.2.3.
Belangrijkste actoren in het boekhoudproces ________________________ 104
8.2.4.
Vereiste rapporten _____________________________________________ 105
8.3.
FORMATTERING VAN DE BOEKHOUDING _______________________ 106
8.3.1.
Kas of accrual boekhouding? ____________________________________ 107
8.3.2.
Inhoud van het jaarrapport ______________________________________ 108
8.3.3.
Formattering van de financiële rekeningen__________________________ 108
8.3.4.
Tijdshorizon _________________________________________________ 109
8.3.5.
Consolidatie__________________________________________________ 109
8.4.
IMPLEMENTATIESTRATEGIE VAN DE HERVORMINGEN _________ 110
8.5.
VERBAND BOEKHOUDSYSTEMEN EN PRESTATIEMEETSYSTEMEN
112
8.5.1.
Functies _____________________________________________________ 112
8.5.2.
Procedures ___________________________________________________ 113
8.5.3.
Formattering _________________________________________________ 115
VI
Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding
HOOFDSTUK 1 INLEIDING
1.1.
ONDERZOEKSVRAGEN
Dit rapport behandelt het tweede component van de financiële cyclus, namelijk de
boekhouding. Na de beschrijving van de begrotingshervormingen in het eerste
onderzoeksjaar, stonden de boekhoudhervormingen op de agenda van 2003. Ter
verduidelijking van het onderzoeksopzet worden de verschillende dimensies van het
beschrijvend luik van het onderzoek binnen het spoor financieel management hier nogmaals
schematisch geïllustreerd (Scheers, Sterck, Van Reeth, and Bouckaert, 2002 pp.12):
planning
begroting
F
2002
I
I
2003
F
P
III
I
F
P
audit
2004
F
I
P
financiële cyclus
P
monitoring
boekhouding
F
I
I
II
P
evaluatie
F
I
P
beleids- en
beheerscyclus
Figuur 1.1 - De onderzoeksdimensies van het beschrijvend luik.
De onderzoeksvraag die in dit rapport wordt behandeld betreft de interne consistentie van de
boekhoudsystemen (nummer I in de figuur):
- wat zijn de dominante boekhoudfuncties (symbool F)?
- volgens welke procedures verloopt het boekhoudproces (symbool P)?
- wat is de informatie-inhoud of formattering van de rapporteringsdocumenten (symbool I)?
- in welke mate zijn de boekhoudfuncties (F), de boekhoudprocedures (P) en de
formattering (I) van de rapporten op mekaar afgestemd?
De focus van dit rapport is enkel gericht op de boekhouding. Facetten als interne controle,
interne audit en externe controle komen volgend jaar aan bod. Deze facetten worden immers
beschouwd als componenten van de controlecyclus of het auditproces. Het betreft dus het
Bram Scheers
1
boekhoudproces in enge zin. Het component monitoring (nummer II in de figuur) van de
beleids- en beheerscyclus wordt behandeld in een verwant onderzoeksrapport (Sterck and
Bouckaert, 2003). De samenhang tussen de boekhouding en monitoring (nummer III) komt
onder andere oppervlakkig aan bod bij de bespreking van de variabele ‘inhoud van het
jaarrapport’ (zie verder). Daarin wordt kort geschetst hoe de niet-financiële en de financiële
informatie al dan niet met elkaar zijn geïntegreerd. Bovendien wordt er ter afsluiting van dit
rapport een overzicht gegeven van het verband, de gemeenschappelijke punten en de
verschilpunten tussen de boekhouden prestatiemeetsystemen.
Een bijkomende onderzoeksvraag die wordt bekeken, slaat op de strategie die wordt gevolgd
bij de implementatie van de hervormingen. Hoe en door wie worden de hervormingen
aangestuurd? Worden er organisatorische, budgettaire of wetgevingsaanpassingen
gerealiseerd voor de invoering van het nieuwe systeem? …
Deze onderzoeksvragen kunnen het huidige veranderingsproces in de Vlaamse overheid
ondersteunen. De toekomstige Vlaamse comptabiliteit is momenteel uitgetekend in het
voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet. Er dienen echter nog heel wat concrete vragen te
worden beantwoord:
- welk financieel systeem is betrouwbaar en in staat de vereiste informatie te leveren?
- hoe zullen het rekeningenstelsel en boekhoudplan er concreet uitzien?
- volgens welk model zal de analytische boekhouding worden uitgebouwd?
- welke analytische informatie dient ter beschikking te zijn?
- hoe kan de mindsetting van de mensen die er mee werken worden veranderd?
- hoe kan de implementatie zo efficiënt en effectief mogelijk gebeuren?
Deze implementatievragen voor Vlaanderen kunnen worden verbonden met de
onderzoeksvragen uit het internationaal vergelijkend onderzoek. Op die manier kunnen de
bevindingen en resultaten van het onderzoek een set van mogelijke antwoorden op de vragen
vormen, op basis waarvan aanbevelingen voor de implementatie van de hervormingen in
Vlaanderen geformuleerd kunnen worden.
1.2.
METHODOLOGIE
Net zoals bij het onderzoek omtrent de begroting en planning betreft het onderzoek naar de
boekhouding een internationale vergelijking van de hervormingen in een aantal pilootlanden
van de OESO. De landen zijn Australië, Canada, Nederland, het Verenigd Koninkrijk, de
Verenigde Staten en Zweden. De bevindingen van deze beschrijvende fase van het onderzoek
werden voornamelijk gebaseerd op de analyse van secundaire bronnen. Op basis daarvan
worden een aantal landen geselecteerd voor dewelke in een volgende fase een verklarend
onderzoek naar de oorzaken van de vastgestelde bevindingen zal worden opgestart.
1.3.
ANALYTISCH RAAMWERK
Net zoals bij de begroting worden de boekhoudhervormingen beschreven aan de hand van de
parameters functies, procedures en formattering. De modernisering van financiële systemen
beïnvloedt immers zowel de functies van de financiële systemen, hun informatie-inhoud en
formattering van de documenten, als de procedures waarmee sturings- en
verantwoordingsrelaties worden gedefinieerd (Van Reeth and Bouckaert, 1997).
2
We beschouwen het boekhoudsysteem als een multifunctioneel systeem met verschillende,
soms conflicterende gebruikswijzen. De boekhouding kan onder andere financiële informatie
genereren voor:
- het opvolgen van de begroting,
- het ondersteunen van het beheer,
- het ondersteunen van het beleid,
- het ondersteunen van het macro-economische beleid,
- het informeren van de allocatiebeslissingen,
- het afleggen van verantwoording.
De doelstelling van het boekhouden in se is het genereren van financiële informatie voor de
gebruikers, waartoe onder andere de instelling zelf, de toezichthoudende overheid, het
Parlement, de burger en de supranationale overheid behoren (Bouckaert and Van Nuffel,
2000). De financiële rapportage moet dus aan uiteenlopende eisen voldoen en zal naargelang
de invalshoek een verschillende functie vervullen. Teneinde aan deze verschillende eisen
tegemoet te komen, dient de boekhouding verschillende informatie te kunnen genereren.
Welke boekhoudfuncties zijn permanent en welke functies worden hieraan toegevoegd? Aan
de hand van de beschrijving van de historiek van de boekhoudinitiatieven, de rol van de
initiatiefnemers, de aanleiding en de doelstellingen van de hervormingen wordt onderscheiden
welke de evolutie is van de boekhoudfuncties en welke functies dominant zijn.
Bij de beschrijving van de boekhoudprocedures wordt nagegaan in welke mate de
hervormingen leiden tot een aanpassing in de boekhoudsystemen en tot wijzigingen in de
rolverdeling van de betrokken actoren. Hiertoe worden volgende variabelen onderzocht:
- de regelgeving en boekhoudnormen,
- de waarderingsregels,
- de belangrijkste actoren in het boekhoudproces,
- de vereiste rapporten.
De variabele ‘vereiste rapporten’ gaat na welke rapporten volgens de boekhoudprocedure
moeten worden afgeleverd en op welk tijdstip. Er wordt echter niet ingegaan op de
formattering van de rapporten. Dit komt aan bod bij de derde parameter: formattering van de
boekhouding. Bij de internationale vergelijking van de boekhoudformatteringen worden de
volgende variabelen gebruikt:
- kas of accrual boekhouding,
- inhoud van het jaarrapport,
- formattering van de financiële rekeningen,
- tijdshorizon,
- consolidatie.
De variabele ‘kas of accrual boekhouding’ slaat op het feit dat kas en accrual twee uitersten
van een reeks mogelijke aanrekeningsbasissen voor een boekhouding zijn (Blöndal, 2003
pp.44). Een kasboekhouding is een boekhouding die enkel de kasstromen die in het boekjaar
plaats vinden gaat registreren. Een accrual of bedrijfseconomische boekhouding gaat, analoog
met wat in de private sector gebruikelijk is, boeken op transactiebasis en niet op kasbasis.
Kosten, opbrengsten, schulden en vorderingen worden geboekt volgens het accrual
accounting principe. Dit geeft een zo getrouw mogelijke weerspiegeling van de prestaties van
de organisatie. Het kas- en verplichtingenstelsel is een tussenvorm die naast de zuivere
kasstromen ook de verplichtingen gaat opvolgen. Ondanks het feit dat het ook een procedure-
Bram Scheers
3
element is, wordt deze variabele bij de parameter formattering opgenomen omdat deze keuze
de opmaak van de rekeningen visueel grondig verandert. Aan de hand van de rekeningen kan
onmiddellijk worden gezien of ze opgemaakt zijn op basis van een kasboekhouding of op
basis van een economische boekhouding. Zo is het belangrijkste financiële rapport van een
kasboekhouding het overzicht van de kasstromen. Een accrual boekhouding daarentegen
maakt het opmaken van een balans en resultatenrekening mogelijk.
Het is ook belangrijk een onderscheid te maken tussen landen die het accrual stelsel enkel
toepassen voor verslaggeving door individuele agentschappen en departementen en landen die
het accrual stelsel eveneens gebruiken voor hun globale geconsolideerde
overheidsboekhouding. Dit wordt bekeken onder de variabele ‘consolidatie’.
Naast deze drie parameters ter beschrijving van de boekhoudhervormingen, wordt er ook
telkens aandacht besteed aan de gevolgde implementatiestrategie. Net zoals bij de
begrotingshervormingen wordt er onder andere gekeken naar de volgende variabelen:
- aansturing van de hervorming: top-down of bottom-up,
- organisatorische en financiële ondersteuning,
- organisatorische dekkingsgraad: allomvattend of partieel,
- uniformiteit van de hervormingsstrategie: systematisch of ad hoc,
- ritme van de hervormingen: incrementeel of ‘big bang’,
- wettelijke verankering van de hervorming: de jure of de facto.
Voor de context van de hervormingen wordt verwezen naar het rapport over de begrotings- en
planningshervormingen (Scheers et al., 2002).
1.4.
STRUCTUUR VAN HET RAPPORT
In dit rapport wordt een vergelijking gemaakt van de boekhoudsystemen en –hervormingen in
Australië, Canada, Nederland, het Verenigd Koninkrijk, de Verenigde Staten en Zweden.
Iedere landenstudie beslaat een hoofdstuk. Per landenstudie worden de parameters functies,
procedures en formattering en de implementatiestrategie beschreven. De parameters worden
verder opgedeeld in de hierboven beschreven variabelen. Dit zorgt voor een betere
vergelijkbaarheid van de systemen en hervormingen over de landen heen. In het concluderend
hoofdstuk worden de bevindingen van de landenstudies samengebracht om algemene trends te
definiëren. Hierbij wordt Vlaanderen gepositioneerd ten opzichte van de geïdentificeerde
internationale trends. Er wordt zowel rekening gehouden met de huidige Vlaamse situatie als
met de toekomstige zoals uitgeschreven in het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet. Ook
wordt het verband tussen de boekhoudsystemen en de prestatiemeetsystemen verduidelijkt.
BRONNEN EN VERWIJZINGEN
Blöndal, J. R. (2003). Accrual accounting and budgeting: key issues and recent developments.
OECD Journal on Budgeting, 3 (1): 43-59.
Bouckaert, G. & Van Nuffel, L. (2000). Financieel overheidsmanagement: internationale
tendensen van begroting, boekhouding en audit. Brugge: Die Keure
4
Scheers, B., Sterck, M., Van Reeth, W. & Bouckaert, G. (2002). Internationaal vergelijkend
onderzoek naar de modernisering van de financiële cyclus en de beleids- en
beheerscyclus: Begroting en planning. Leuven: Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie
Vlaanderen , pp. 365.
Sterck, M. & Bouckaert, G. (2003). Internationale trends in prestatiemeting bij de overheid.
Leuven: Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie Vlaanderen, pp. 138.
Van Reeth, W. & Bouckaert, G. (1997). Een financieel systeem voor de overheid: over
stekkers en stopcontacten. Vlaams Tijdschrift voor Overheidsmanagement, 2 (4): 412.
Bram Scheers
5
Hoofdstuk 2: Australia
HOOFDSTUK 2 AUSTRALIA
2.1.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOUNTING REFORMS
2.1.1. Accounting functions
2.1.1.1.
Historical overview of the reforms
Initiative
Period
Objectives
Financial Management
Improvement Program
(FMIP)
1983-1984
Accrual reporting for
departments
-
1995
(decision)
1998
(implemented)
1997
-
De Commonwealth
Authorities and
Companies Act (CAC
Act)
De Financial
Management and
Accountability Act
(FMA Act)
De Auditor-General Act
(AG Act)
Charter of Budget
Honesty Act
1997
-
1997
-
1998
-
The establishment of the
Department of Finance
and Administration
Accrual-based Outcomes
& Outputs Budgeting and
Reporting Framework
1998
-
1996
(decision)
1999-2000
(implemented)
-
The Australian Securities 2001
and Investments
Commission Act
-
Devolution of responsibility,
Running cost,
Program management and budgeting,
User charging,
Contracting out,
Corporate planning,
Commercialisation.
To obtain more informative, complete and
accurate financial information
To establish a single set of core requirements with
respect to the financial, audit, corporate
governance and accountability arrangements
To draw up the regulatory, accounting and
accountability framework for dealing with and
managing the money and property of the
Commonwealth
To improve Commonwealth public sector
administration and accountability
To disclose any issues that might influence the
actual budget outcome in future years in a
Statement of Risks in each Economic and Fiscal
Outlook Report,
To increase the transparency of the fiscal
projections.
To integrate the authorities of finance and public
management in one department
To move to accrual-based accounting, budgeting
and reporting,
Delegation of the financial, performance and risk
management towards the agencies,
To increase the transparency of the government
expenses by giving information about costs and
results.
To establish new institutional arrangements for
setting Australian accounting standards
Table 2.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in the Commonwealth of Australia.
Bram Scheers
7
The requirement to include accrual information in annual reports has existed for an extended
period. Since 1983, all Commonwealth companies and statutory authorities have been
required to prepare accounts on an accrual basis. Similarly, department business undertakings
were expected to operate on the same basis. However, it was not until late 1992 than an
announcement was made that all departments were to produce Accrual Financial Reporting
(AFR). The policy instrument was by the introduction of three new pieces of legislation to
replace the Audit Act 1901 (Guthrie, 1998 pp.8). Currently, the applicable legislation is thus
the CAC Act, the FMA Act and the AG Act.
2.1.1.2.
Actors involved in the reforms
The following table gives an overview of the actors who play an important role in the
achievement of the accounting reforms:
Actor
Role
Australian Accounting Research Foundation
(AARF)
-
Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB)
-
Public Sector Accounting Standards Board
(PSASB)
Financial Reporting Council (FRC)
-
CPA Australia, Public Sector Centre of
Excellence
-
-
-
Department of Finance and Administration
(DOFA)
-
Joint Committee of Public Accounts and Audit
(JCPAA)
-
To improve the quality of auditing and
assurance services through the development of
auditing and assurance standards and guidance
To develop a conceptual framework,
To make accounting standards,
To participate in and contribute to the
development of a single set of accounting
standards for world-wide use.
To review public sector practice and
recommend changes
To provide broad oversight of the process for
setting accounting standards in Australia and
to give the Minister reports and advice on that
process
To provide members and the community with
advice on public sector financial management
issues,
To identify and report on emerging policy and
compliance issues relating to public sector
financial management,
To provide a network which facilitates the
development, exchange and distribution of
valuable knowledge on key public sector
financial management issues.
To provide accounting policy advice,
To improve government operations through
the delivery of an efficient and effective
financial framework (the accrual-based
outcomes and outputs budgeting and reporting
framework).
To express a parliamentary desire to move to
accrual-based accounting, budgeting and
reporting,
To publish reports on the progress of and
recommendations concerning the accrual
framework.
8
Australian National Audit Office (ANAO)
-
To encourage improved accounting and
financial management practices that contribute
to the efficient administrative processes,
functioning and transparency of the public
sector
Table 2.2 - Actors involved in the accounting reforms in the Commonwealth of Australia.
Different actors were involved in the accounting reforms. During the 1980s, AARF and
associated standard settings boards, the AASB and PSASB, were promoting the idea of
accrual-based General Purpose Financial Statements (GPFS) for both the public and the
private sector. Thus, in Australia the accounting concepts were developed jointly by the
public and private sector boards, with the clear aim that there should be no major divergences
between the standards of the two sectors. PSASB was established by professional bodies and
governments to review public sector practice and recommend changes. This body began to
push for more complete financial statements by government entities (including operating or
profit and loss statements, cash statements, and balance sheets with full disclosure of assets
and liabilities). Along with Treasury departments the board was active in pursuing problems
in public sector accounting such as asset valuation of public entities, provision for asset
replacement, depreciation, and identification of liabilities. Various commissions of audit
undertaken within Australian jurisdictions were also instrumental in promoting more
business-like forms of accrual accounting (O'Faircheallaigh, Wanna, and Weller, 1999
pp.137). From 1 January 2001, PSASB and AASB have been put together in the reconstituted
AASB by means of the legislation that established the new institutional arrangements for
setting Australian accounting standards, the Australian Securities and Investments
Commission Act 2001. Thus, the new AASB has responsibility for both private and public
sector.
2.1.1.3.
Pretext of the reforms
The pretext of the accounting reforms is among other things the changed philosophy of
government management. Governments operate in a more competitive environment,
producing their goods and services in a contestable market. Areas of government that are not
operating efficiently and effectively are subject to outsourcing or privatisation. In a
contestable market, managers need to know the full cost and the full implications of their
decisions for the bottom line, so the move to accrual accounting was essential (Miley, 1999).
2.1.1.4.
Objectives of the reforms
The introduction of accrual accounting had several objectives. It has been asserted that the
adoption of accrual accounting will result in improved accountability by governments to their
constituents, better financial management by public service managers and greater
comparability of management performance between jurisdictions.
2.1.1.5.
Conclusion: functions of the reforms
In the Commonwealth of Australia, there is a long tradition concerning the use of accrual
financial reporting. In order to make departments produce AFR three new pieces of legislation
were introduced. The focus of the accounting reforms was the improvement of financial
management by public service managers. The management function was and is thus a very
important issue in the reforms. This is also why in Australia there is now one professional
Bram Scheers
9
accounting standard-setter for both the public and the private sector and why the government
follows the decisions of this independent standard-setter (Blöndal, 2003 pp.51). It was also
the intention to increase the accountability, but the question is whether this is the case as most
politicians do not understand the accrual-based reports.
2.1.2. Accounting procedures
2.1.2.1.
Accounting legislation and standards
The reporting requirements for the agencies are the following (Guthrie, 1998 pp.10):
- Finance Minister’s Orders (FMOs),
- Department of Finance Guidance Releases,
- Australian Accounting Standards,
- Statements of Accounting Concepts (SACs).
The fact that the financial reporting requirements for Commonwealth agencies and authorities
are contained in the FMOs is based on Schedule 1 under section 49 of the FMA Act and
Schedule 1 under section 48 of the CAC Act. In Australia, it was the objective to have no
major divergences between the private and the public sector. There are of course standards in
the Australian suite that relate only to the public sector: AAS27 on Local Government,
AAS29 on Departmental Accounting and AAS31 on the Whole of Government. They were
written to deal with the transition from cash accounting to accrual accounting. AAS29
“Financial Reporting by Government Departments” was first issued in October 1996. For the
first time, an accounting standard prescribed the form and content of general purposes
financial reports of government departments. For departments this meant moving from cash to
accrual accounting. However, the question arises as to whether there is a need at all for
separate standards like these. There are now some inconsistencies and duplications between
these standards and other standards and SACs. Furthermore there may be a requirement to
provide additional guidance on some issues resulting from the recent introduction of Accrual
Output Management in many jurisdictions. Therefore, AASB is currently reviewing the
accounting standards which relate specifically to the public sector (Larsen, 2002).
In addition to the FMOs, where necessary, additional guidance on the particular requirements
of budget preparation, monthly or annual financial reporting have been provided under other
guidance notes. A series of Finance Briefs is issued by the Accounting Centre of Excellence
(ACE), which is a part of DOFA, to clarify issues not covered either by Accounting Standards
or FMOs.
AASB ensures that compliance with Australian accounting standards results in compliance
with International Accounting Standards (IASs). In order to lead to the establishment of a
set of high quality global accounting standards supported by national standard-setting bodies
around the world, in 2001 the former International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC)
was reconstituted as the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). IASB does not
have a role to set Public Sector specific standards. However, AASB wanted by means of
Exposure Draft ED 102 “International Convergence and Harmonisation Policy” to be evenhanded concerning Private and Public Sector standard-setting. Hence ED 102 gives equal
recognition to the need to harmonise AASB standards with not only IASB standards but also
the IFAC Public Sector Committee (PSC) standards. The International Federation of
Accountants (IFAC) is the international professional body of the accountancy profession. The
PSC Standards Project, actioned in late 1996, is directed at developing International Public
10
Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) for financial reporting by public sector entities.
These standards are based on the IASs promulgated by the IASC. AASB believes that the
next phase of the PSC standard work program is of greater relevance. The PSC has identified
a number of Public Sector issues not addressed or not adequately addressed by the IASs. It is
recognized that there is a need to develop a framework for financial reporting by Public
Sector entities to explicitly identify the underlying concepts adopted in the standard-setting
process (Alfredson, 2001). The low level of Finance Ministry involvement in PSC does raise
serious questions regarding the promulgation of the standards and their acceptance and
credibility in OECD member countries. As a response, the Committee has formed various
study groups on specific issues and has invited representatives from the Finance Ministries of
member countries to be members of them (Blöndal, 2003 pp.51).
2.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
In the Commonwealth of Australia the used valuation rules are based on the fair value
principle or the replacement cost. This is prescribed by DOFA and it is brought in
progressively until 2005.
2.1.2.3.
Most important actors
In practice, accrual accounting results in changes to power relations within agencies and
between agencies, generally in favour of financial managers, in part because it has increased
the influence of accountants in government decision making (O'Faircheallaigh et al., 1999
pp.137). Thus the reform has, in part, led to a concentration of knowledge, technologies and
skills in the hands of those trained in accounting. In the past five years, there has been an
increase in the numbers of qualified accountants working within government agencies and an
increasing recognition given to the role of the Chief Financial Officer at the same time.
Although the latter was not even mentioned in the FMA Act of 1997, it has now become a
senior management function and reports directly to the Secretary.
DOFA maintains the central accounting and budget estimates system and produces monthly
general government sector financial statements and the annual consolidated whole of
government financial statements.
ANAO publishes the “AMODEL Better Practice Guide” to assist Commonwealth entities in
the preparation of their financial statements. The Guides provide examples of better practice
in Commonwealth public sector financial reporting and disclosure. The disclosures indicated
cover both mandatory requirements and better practice recommendations (Australian National
Audit Office, 2003a).
2.1.2.4.
Required reports
Monthly reporting and annual reporting are integral to the Commonwealth’s accrual
budgeting and reporting framework. Delivery of monthly financial statements, the final
budget outcome and the consolidated financial statements (CFS) is required by legislation.
The departments are thus obliged to prepare annual financial statements and reports based on
accrual information. Section 49(1) of the FMA Act requires each agency Chief Executive to
give to the Auditor-General the annual financial statements required by the Finance Minister’s
Orders. Under section 55 of the FMA Act the minister of finance and administration is
Bram Scheers
11
required to publish the CFS in a form consistent with the budget estimates of the financial
year.
A copy of each set of financial statements given to the Auditor-General and the AuditorGeneral’s report on them must be included in the agency’s annual report that is tabled in
Parliament. All agencies within the general government sector operating under the FMA Act
(1997) are required to produce an annual report by the Public Service Act (1999) (Australian
National Audit Office, 2002 pp.42). The annual report must be given to the Minister
responsible for the agency as soon as practicable after 30 June each year and, in any event, not
later than six months after the reporting date. Annual reports are prepared in accordance with
the “Requirements for Annual Reports” which are issued by the Department of the Prime
Minister and Cabinet (PM&C) and approved on behalf of the Parliament by the Joint
Committee of Public Accounts and Audit.
2.1.3. Accounting format
2.1.3.1.
Cash or accrual accounting?
In Australia, the departments use an accounting system which is accrual-based. The accrual
systems have replaced cash-based accounting systems and they allow departments to know
their total costs and better plan their financial needs over time periods of greater than one
year. It is stated as follows in AAS 29 (Australian Accounting Research Foundation (AARF),
1998 pp.6):
“The Standard requires the accrual basis of accounting to be adopted in the
preparation of the general purpose financial reports of a government department.
Accordingly, the assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses of a government
department are required to be recognized in the reporting periods to which they
relate regardless of when cash is received or paid.”
2.1.3.2.
Format of the annual report
Agency annual reports are the primary vehicle for reporting program performance,
particularly effectiveness, to the Parliament and the public (Australian National Audit Office,
2002). A mandatory requirement is that annual reports include information on the outcome
effectiveness and output price, quantity and quality performance information. As well, the
performance information must relate to the outcome and output structure established in the
relevant Portfolio Budget Statement (PBS). This performance information is, however, not
audited. Moreover, the indicators are not very stable over time and there is often a
disconnection between the performance information and the outcomes to achieve1. PM&C
advised agencies that the annual report must include (Department of the Prime Minister and
Cabinet, 2003 pp.6):
- the reporting of actual results against outcomes and outputs and the specific performance
information set out in the PBS / Portfolio Additional Estimate Statements (PAES),
- performance information relevant to funds provided for purchaser/provider arrangements,
- a concise narrative discussion and analysis of the detailed performance information at an
appropriate level of reporting.
1
Based on interviews during our research visit to Australia. For more information about this visit see section
“implementation strategy”.
12
As mentioned before, a copy of each set of financial statements given to the Auditor-General
and the Auditor-General’s report on them must also be included in the agency’s annual report
that is tabled in the Parliament.
2.1.3.3.
Format of the financial statements
The government department reporting entity is defined as follows (Australian Accounting
Research Foundation (AARF), 1998 pp.6):
“The standard requires government departments to prepare consolidated financial
reports in accordance with Australian Accounting Standard AAS 24. This will
enable users to obtain an overview of the performance, financial position and
financing and investing activities of government departments.
The standard also allows disaggregated reporting by government departments and
recognizes that some individual entities that are included in the government
department reporting entity may be reporting entities in their own right. In
addition, the standard requires disclosure of items administered, but not
controlled, by government departments since information about these items may
be useful for assessing performance and accountability.”
It is required that financial statements be prepared for:
- the agency,
- the economic entity, comprising the agency and its subsidiaries (if applicable),
- each activity of an agency that is a ‘business operation’.
At the Commonwealth of Australia, the accrual-based financial statements comprise the
following (Australian National Audit Office, 2003a):
-
Statement by the chief executive and chief financial officer,
Statement of financial performance,
Statement of financial position,
Statement of cash flows,
Schedule of commitments,
Schedule of contingencies,
Schedule of administered items,
Notes to and forming part of the financial statements.
Table 2.3 – Content of the financial statements.
Agencies and authorities must disclose in the notes the following tables relating to outcomes
(as specified in the Appropriation Acts relevant to the entity) and outputs:
- table A: total cost/contribution of outcomes (whole of government),
- table B: major departmental revenues and expenses by output (output group),
- table C: major classes of departmental assets and liabilities by output (or output group),
- table D: major classes of administered revenues and expenses by outcome,
- table E: major classes of administered assets and liabilities by outcome.
Some extracts from the “AMODEL Better Practice Guide” of ANAO are given in the
appendix to illustrate these statements and schedules.
Bram Scheers
13
2.1.3.4.
Time horizon
The financial statements place the results of the reported year next to these of the previous
year. There is thus a two year time horizon.
2.1.3.5.
Consolidation
Section 55 of the FMA Act 1997 requires the Finance Minister to prepare annual financial
statements for the Commonwealth Government of Australia (Australian National Audit
Office, 2003b pp.199). Whole of Government Reporting (WGR) refers to a view of the
overall financial position of the government and is prepared via the consolidation of the
financial statements and transactions of all entities controlled by the Australian government.
WGR were produced by the Commonwealth Government on a trial only basis in 1994/95.
Since that time, the quality and timeliness of preparation of the financial statements have
continually improved.
There has been a changeover period when the government moved from cash-based to accrualbased accounting. Thus, the “Government of Australia Consolidated Financial Statements”
are now accrual-based.
AASB 1034 states that the aggregate amounts of the following items must be disclosed in the
balance sheet (Miley, 1999 pp.13):
- current assets,
- non-current assets,
- total assets,
- current liabilities,
- non-current liabilities,
- total liabilities,
- net assets,
- total equity.
AASB 1034 also states sub-headings for the Statement of Financial Position that should be
used as a minimum. The Commonwealth of Australia, however, uses often different headings.
There are also a lot of differences in the accounting treatments used by the various
governments.
The operating statement items that must be disclosed separately in the Operating Statement
are also listed in AASB 1034. The whole of government reports present Statements of Cash
Flows that are generally in accordance with AASB 1026. The Statement of Cash Flows is
divided into cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities.
Also the Government Finance Statistics (GFS) have adopted the accrual basis. The new
conceptual framework is in the form of an integrated statement of stocks and flows which is
derived from the System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA93). A number of items are treated
differently under GFS, Australian System of National Accounts (ASNA) and AAS 31. GFS
and ASNA are frameworks designed to facilitate macro-economic analysis, while the public
sector accounting standards are aimed at producing general purpose financial statements on a
similar basis to private sector entities to provide an overview of government performance,
financial position, and financing and investing activities (Skinner, 2000). ANAO considers
14
this issue to have an impact in the future on financial practices of the Australian Public
Sector:
“The public sector will also need to resolve the differences relating to the
harmonisation of the GFS framework and Australian Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles (GAAP). The aim of this work is the development of an
AAS for a single set of government financial reports to reduce current levels of
confusion, and to aid transparency (Australian National Audit Office, 2003b
pp.30).”
2.2.
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY OF THE REFORMS
2.2.1. General
The accounting reforms have been coordinated from the top. The federal government has
implemented an accrual-based, outcome and output focused resource management framework
for the Commonwealth. The institutional support is given by DOFA whose major goal is to
provide communication and information on policy and implementation issues to facilitate
skills development across the Commonwealth. In 1998 Finance developed a suite of eleven
training courses on the then new accruals framework. It has also developed guidance on
accounting policies. Also a central accrual accounting system, Accrual Information
Management System (AIMS), has coordinated the replacing of the central cash accounting
system (FIRM) with individual accrual accounting systems of agencies and authorities. There
is still included a Cash and Appropriation Management Module (CAMM).
The reforms have been legally anchored since the trilogy of modern financial management
legislation (FMA Act, CAC Act and Auditor-General Act) provides the financial regulatory,
accountability and accounting framework for Commonwealth bodies.
2.2.2. Critical success and failure factors
The research visit2 to the Commonwealth of Australia from August 15 until August 20 2003
enabled us to deepen our knowledge about the financial reforms and showed some critical
factors for success or failure.
Some of the factors critical for success are the following:
- the accounting reform has become more or less part of the culture:
o the political level (mainly the JCPAA) shows interest in the cost information,
o the Chief Financial Officer function has become a senior manager function.
- the necessity of cash reporting is acknowledged,
- the Commonwealth and the states agree on the movement towards accrual accounting,
- the reforms are reviewed periodically and if necessary corrective measures are taken,
- the acknowledgement that the reform involves extra investments in systems and human
capital,
- a delegation of responsibilities to the line management and a middle position for DOFA,
- the cooperation between the central actors like DOFA and ANAO.
2
During the research visit, we visited DOFA, ANAO, JCPAA, the University of Canberra and two departments
(the department of family and community services and the department of education, science and training)
Bram Scheers
15
We also identified some critical failure factors:
- most politicians do not understand the accrual-based reports,
- there are a lot of problems with the central accrual accounting system AIMS,
- different accounting standards for different purposes: AAS versus GFS,
- the lack of accounting expertise within the departments,
- the lack of support from some central actors like the Treasury and the Prime Minister and
Cabinet,
- the guidelines of DOFA and ANAO are very valuable for top management, but must often
be rewritten for line or program managers.
REFERENCE LIST
Alfredson, K. (2001). International harmonisation of accounting standards. Canberra: CPA
Ausralia, Public Sector Centre of Excellence, pp. 13.
Australian Accounting Research Foundation (AARF) (1998). AAS 29: Financial reporting by
government departments. AARF, pp. 84.
Australian National Audit Office (2002). Performance information in portfolio budget
statements. Better Practice Guide. Canberra: ANAO, pp. 42.
Australian National Audit Office (2003a). AMODEL agency: illustrative financial statements
for the year ended 30 june 2003. Canberra: ANAO, pp. 157.
Australian National Audit Office (2003b). Control structures as part of the audit of financial
statements of major Commonwealth entities for the year ending 30 June 2003.
Canberra: ANAO, pp. 208.
Blöndal, J. R. (2003). Accrual accounting and budgeting: key issues and recent developments.
OECD Journal on Budgeting, 3 (1): 43-59.
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2003). Requirements for annual reports. For
Departments, Executive Agencies and FMA Act Bodies. Canberra ACT: Department
of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, pp. 30.
Guthrie, J. (1998). Application of accrual accounting in the Australian public sector rhetoric or reality? Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, pp. 19.
Larsen, G. (2002). CPA Australia position paper on AAS27, AAS 29 and AAS 31 .
Melbourne: CPA Australia, pp. 12.
Miley, F. (1999). An examination of whole of government financial reporting. Melbourne:
CPA Australia, pp. 57.
O'Faircheallaigh, C., Wanna, J. & Weller, P. (1999). Public sector management in Australia:
new challenges, new directions. Brisbane: Macmillan Education Australia, pp. 327 .
Skinner, T. J. (2000). Information paper: accruals-based government finance statistics.
Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, pp. 47.
16
APPPENDIX:
EXTRACTS
STATEMENTS
FROM
ILLUSTRATIVE
FINANCIAL
AMODEL AGENCY
STATEMENT BY THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE AND CHIEF FINANCE
OFFICER
Reference
FMA Act 49(4)
1 Sch 1C.2(a)
1 Sch 1C.2(c)
In our opinion, the attached financial statements for the year ended 30 June
2003 give a true and fair view of the matters required by the Finance Minister’s
Orders made under the Financial Management and Accountability Act 1997.
1 Sch 1C.2(c)(iii)
Signed........................
Signed........................
J N Smith
Chief Executive
B R Hatfield
Chief Finance Officer
1 August 2003
1 August 2003
1 Sch 1C.2(c)(ii)
Commentary
1 Sch 1B.3(a)
This statement must be attached to the front of the financial statements.
The role of the CFO – Guidance for Commonwealth Agencies, issued by Finance in
April 2003, recommends that the CFO should also sign the statement.
Bram Scheers
17
AMODEL AGENCY
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
for the year ended 30 June 2003
Reference
1 Sch App A
AAS 29(6.1)(a)
AAS 29(10.1)
AAS 29(10.5)(a)
AAS 29(12.2)(a)
AASB 1018(4.1)(a)(i)
AAS 29(10.2)
AASB 1018(4.1)(a)(ii)
Notes
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
Revenues from ordinary activities
Revenues from Government
Sales of goods and services
Interest
Revenue from sale of assets
Reversals of previous asset write-downs
Other
Revenues from ordinary activities
3A
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
105,424
166,156
93
4,450
422
276,545
77,286
159,098
154
11,100
432
248,070
Expenses from ordinary activities (excluding
borrowing costs expense)
Employees
Suppliers
Depreciation and amortisation
Write-down of assets
Value of assets sold
Expenses from ordinary activities (excluding
borrowing costs expense)
4A
4B
4C
4D
3D
90,006
164,064
15,009
232
3,695
86,343
161,955
12,085
319
10,120
273,006
270,822
79
57
3,460
(22,809)
841
6,200
(533)
-
308
6,200
3,768
(16,609)
AASB 1018(4.1)(a)(iii)
Borrowing costs expense
AASB 1018(4.1)(b)(v)
Net surplus / (deficit)
5
AASB 1018(4.3)
AASB 1018(4.1)(c)(i)
AASB 1018(4.1)(c)(iii)
AASB 1041(8.4)(c)
AASB 1018(8.5)(b)
AASB 1018(4.1)(d)(i)
AASB 1018(4.1)(d)(ii)
Net credit to asset revaluation reserve
Decrease in accumulated results on initial
application of fair value under accounting
standard AASB 1041 Revaluation of Noncurrent Assets
Total revenues, expenses and valuation
adjustments attributable to the Commonwealth
Government and recognised directly in equity
Total changes in equity other than those
resulting from transactions with owners as
owners
12
The above statement should be read in conjunction with the accompanying notes.
18
AMODEL AGENCY
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION
as at 30 June 2003
Reference
1 Sch App A
AAS 36(4.2)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(i)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(ii)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(v)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(vi)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(vi)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(iii)
AAS 36(7.1)(a)(viii)
AAS 36 (7.4)(a)
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
7A
7B
7C
10,557
10,921
21,478
5,830
16,498
800
23,128
8A,D
8B,D
8E
8C,D
8F
174,802
31,315
1,903
386
1,764
210,170
173,184
38,154
3,814
500
3,268
218,920
231,648
242,048
9A
9B
9C
4,592
10,205
2,363
17,160
4,592
13,218
2,952
20,762
10A
10B
54,647
54,647
1,288
64,708
65,996
11A
11B
32,268
2,810
35,078
36,551
2,131
38,682
Notes
ASSETS
Financial assets
Cash
Receivables
Other investments
Total financial assets
Non-financial assets
Land and buildings
Infrastructure, plant and equipment
Inventories
Intangibles
Other
Total non-financial assets
TOTAL ASSETS
AAS 36(7.1)(b)(i)
LIABILITIES
Interest bearing liabilities
Loans
Leases
Other
Total interest bearing liabilities
Provisions
Capital use charge
Employees
Total provisions
Payables
Suppliers
Other
Total payables
AAS 36 (7.4)(b)
TOTAL LIABILITIES
106,885
125,440
NET ASSETS
124,763
116,608
12A
12A
12A
59,583
104,529
(39,349)
41,953
103,688
(29,033)
12A
124,763
116,608
AAS 36(7.1)(b)(ii)
AAS 36 (7.1)(b)(iv)
EQUITY
AAS 36(7.1)(c)(i)
AAS 36(7.1)(c)(ii)
AAS 36(7.1)(c)(iii)
AAS 36(7.4)(d)
Bram Scheers
Contributed equity
Reserves
(Accumulated deficits)
TOTAL EQUITY
19
Current assets
Non-current assets
Current liabilities
Non-current liabilities
25,145
206,503
52,339
54,546
30,210
211,838
59,076
66,364
AMODEL AGENCY
STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS
Reference
1 Sch App A
AAS 28(4.1)
AAS 28(5.1)
AAS 28(6.1)
AAS 28(7.1)(a)
AAS 28(4.2)
AAS 28(6.1)
AAS 28(7.1)(c)
AAS 28(4.2)
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
OPERATING ACTIVITIES
Cash received
Goods and services
Appropriations
Interest
GST received from ATO
Total cash received
189,540
105,000
80
1,675
296,295
174,380
77,000
154
251,534
Cash used
Employees
Suppliers
Borrowing costs
GST paid to ATO
Total cash used
100,067
182,909
129
283,105
82,093
175,646
57
1,262
259,058
13,190
(7,524)
4,450
800
5,250
11,100
1,300
12,400
Notes
Net cash from / (used by) operating activities
AAS 28(5.1)
13
AAS 28(4.2)
INVESTING ACTIVITIES
Cash received
Proceeds from sales of property, plant and equipment
Proceeds from sale of financial instruments
Total cash received
AAS 28(4.2)
Cash used
Purchase of property, plant and equipment
Purchase of financial instruments
Purchase of intangibles
Total cash used
13,210
13,210
18,045
2,100
300
20,445
Net cash (used by) investing activities
(7,960)
(8,045)
FINANCING ACTIVITIES
Cash received
Appropriations – contributed equity
Total cash received
18,430
18,430
9,650
9,650
Cash used
Repayment of debt
Capital use charge paid
3,602
14,531
972
26,039
AAS 28(5.1)
AAS 28(4.2)
20
AAS 28(7.1)(d)
AAS 28(4.2)
Return of contributed equity
Total cash used
Net cash (used by) financing activities
Net increase / (decrease) in cash held
Cash at the beginning of the reporting period
Cash at the end of the reporting period
AAS 28(4.3)
AAS 28(4.3)
7A
800
18,933
27,011
(503)
(17,361)
4,727
5,830
10,557
(32,930)
38,760
5,830
AMODEL AGENCY
SCHEDULE OF COMMITMENTS
as at 30 June 2003
Reference
1 Sch App A
1 Sch 4.B
AAS 36(8.3)(d)
AAS 36(8.3)(d)
AAS 17(11.2)(c)
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
2,000
3,500
5,500
5,300
2,291
7,591
Other Commitments
Operating leases 3
Total other commitments
123,847
123,847
127,847
127,847
Commitments receivable
Net commitments
129,347
(742)
134,696
1,500
4,000
-
2,000
3,561
2,030
13,255
65,400
45,192
129,347
12,413
67,628
47,806
134,696
BY TYPE
Capital commitments
Land and buildings 1
Infrastructure, plant and equipment 2
Total capital commitments
BY MATURITY
1 Sch App A
AAS 17(11.2)(c)
Capital commitments
One year or less
From one to five years
Over five years
Operating lease commitments
One year or less
From one to five years
Over five years
Net commitments by maturity
NB: Commitments are GST inclusive where relevant.
Outstanding contractual payments for building under construction.
2
Plant and equipment commitments are primarily contracts for purchases of
furniture and fittings for new building.
3
Operating leases included are effectively non-cancellable and comprise:
1
AAS 17(11.2)(d)
Bram Scheers
Nature of lease
General description of leasing arrangement
Leases for office
accommodation
Lease payments are subject to annual increase in accordance with
upwards movements in the Consumer Price Index. The initial
periods of office accommodation leases are still current and each
may be renewed for up to five years at the Agency’s option,
21
AAS 17(11.2)(d)
AAS 17(11.2)(d)
Agreements for the
provision of motor
vehicles to senior
executive officers
A lease in relation
to computer
equipment held as at
30 June 2001 which
was sold and leased
back on 1 July 2001
following a once-off adjustment of rentals to current market
levels.
No contingent rentals exist. There are no renewal or purchase
options available to the Agency.
The lessor provides all computer equipment and software
designated as necessary in the supply contract for five years plus
for a further two years at the Agency’s option on the same terms
and conditions. The initial equipment has on average a useful life
of two years from the commencement of the contract. The
Agency may vary its originally designated requirement, subject to
giving three months notice, at no penalty.
The above schedule should be read in conjunction with the accompanying notes.
AMODEL AGENCY
SCHEDULE OF CONTINGENCIES
as at 30 June 2003
Reference
1 Sch App A
1 Sch 4A
AASB 1044(14.6)(a)
AASB 1044(14.6)(c)
1 Sch 4A.4
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
Contingent liabilities
Claims for damages/costs
115
150
Contingent assets
Claims for damages/costs
Net contingent liabilities
13
102
13
137
Details of each class of contingent liabilities and assets, including those not
included above because they cannot be quantified or considered remote, are
disclosed in Fout! Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden..
The above schedule should be read in conjunction with the accompanying notes.
1 Sch App A
AMODEL AGENCY
SCHEDULE OF ADMINISTERED ITEMS
Reference
AAS 29(6.3.11)
AAS 29(12.9)(a)
Notes
2003
$’000
2002
$’000
188,199
231
1,600
-
206,398
202
1,500
415
Revenues Administered on Behalf of Government
Non-taxation revenue
Goods and services
Interest
Dividends
Other
20
20
20
20
22
Total Revenues Administered on Behalf of Government
AAS 29(12.9)(b)
190,030
208,515
119,224
21,124
20,200
3,511
150
130
164,339
125,166
16,758
25,264
5,601
201
121
173,111
Expenses Administered on Behalf of Government
Grants
Subsidies
Personal benefits
Suppliers
Write-down and impairment of assets
Other
Total Expenses Administered on Behalf of Government
21
21
21
21
21
21
This schedule should be read in conjunction with the accompanying notes
AMODEL AGENCY
NOTES TO AND FORMING PART OF THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Note 1:
Note 2:
Note 3:
Note 4:
Note 5:
Note 6:
Note 7:
Note 8:
Note 9:
Note 10:
Note 11:
Note 12:
Note 13:
Note 14:
Note 15:
Note 16:
Note 17:
Note 18:
Note 19:
Note 20:
Note 21:
Note 22:
Note 23:
Note 24:
Note 25:
Note 26:
Note 27:
Note 28:
Bram Scheers
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies
Events Occurring after Reporting Date
Operating Revenues
Operating Expenses
Borrowing Costs Expense
Business Operations
Financial Assets
Non-Financial Assets
Interest Bearing Liabilities
Provisions
Payables
Equity
Cash Flow Reconciliation
Contingent Liabilities and Assets
Executive Remuneration
Remuneration of Auditors
Average Staffing Levels
Act of Grace Payments, Waivers and Defective Administration Scheme
Financial Instruments
Revenues Administered on Behalf of Government
Expenses Administered on Behalf of Government
Assets Administered on Behalf of Government
Liabilities Administered on Behalf of Government
Administered Reconciliation Table
Administered Contingent Liabilities and Assets
Administered Investments
Restructuring
Administered Financial Instruments
23
Note 29:
Note 30:
Note 31:
Appropriations
Assets Held in Trust
Reporting of Outcomes
24
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HOOFDSTUK 3 CANADA
3.1.
3.1.1.1.
Initiative
Period
Objectives
Financial Information
Strategy (FIS)
1989
(decision)
1995
(update)
2001
(full
implementation)
1995
-
Improved Reporting to
Parliament Project
(IRPP)
Modern Comptrollership 1997
(start up)
2001 (start of
governmentwide
implementation)
Results for Canadians: a
management framework
for the government of
Canada
2000
-
-
-
To change the type of information provided to
decision makers,
To improve the financial management
instruments,
To move to full accrual accounting by 2001.
To improve departmental expenditure information,
principally by augmenting financial information
with performance information,
To introduce performance reports.
To strengthen management capabilities in
departments and agencies,
To strengthen the foundations of modern
management,
To ensure that managers are effectively supported
by their organizations in terms of timely, relevant
and integrated financial and non-financial
information.
To set out a clear management framework and an
agenda for change in order to for example improve
reporting and accountability to Parliament and to
Canadians
Table 3.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in Canada.
Canada was one of the first countries in the world to move away from cash accounting
standards. By the late 1980s, Canada had adopted modified accruals as its basis of accounting
for departments and agencies.
Financial Information Strategy (FIS) was formally approved in July 1989. The focus of the
FIS initiative was on the information required by the central agencies to manage government
overall. Departments were seen as providers of the summary information required by the
central agencies. FIS was revitalized in 1995 as the Minister of Finance stated in his Budget
that the government would move to full accrual accounting starting with fiscal year 20012002. In November 1995, the Treasury Board endorsed FIS as a government priority and
approved the updated FIS objectives, scope and implementation approach. The scope of FIS
was broadened as FIS was now seen as providing the basis for improvements in management
Bram Scheers
25
accounting and accountability in departments and agencies, as well as improvements in
government-wide financial reporting.
As of 1 April 2001, all departments and agencies have successfully implemented new
financial systems capable of handling accrual financial information and submitting that
information to the government’s central systems for preparation of the summary financial
statements (Auditor General of Canada, 2002 pp.1).
FIS is a prerequisite to the success of two other federal initiatives: results for Canadians and
modern comptrollership as it supports three of the four key elements of modern
comptrollership. FIS is now a part of modern comptrollership which is aimed at strengthening
management capabilities in departments and agencies. The initiative is an effort to develop
standards and practices for integrating financial and non-financial performance information
into a meaningful whole and to communicate that information to those who need it.
These initiatives did not lead up to a new legislation. It is thus still the (adapted) Financial
Administration Act (FAA) of 1985 which is the applicable legislation.
3.1.1.2.
Actor
Role
Treasury Board
-
Treasury Board Secretariat (TBS)
(the administrative arm of the Treasury Board)
-
-
To provide the policy framework in areas as
accounting, audit and evaluation, financial
management and information technology
To help Government of Canada manage its
financial, information and technology
resources prudently and in a manner that best
supports the government objectives and
priorities,
To provide leadership to departments through
policies, frameworks of accountability,
standards and the promotion of best
management practices in the use of
technology and information management and
sound financial management,
To lead the initiative to modernize
comptrollership.
To issue guidance on accounting matters,
To recommend the reporting model.
-
To review the comptrollership function,
To recommend changes for modernisation.
To demonstrate strong support for FIS
-
Public Sector Accounting Board (PSAB) of the
Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants
(CICA)
The Independent Review Panel on Modernisation
of Comptrollership in the Government of Canada
Standing Committee on Public Accounts
26
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
Office of the Auditor General (OAG)
-
To lead the change in the way financial
information is used,
To ensure that financial management and
control is an integral part of government
operations and decision making.
Table 3.2 - Actors involved in the accounting reforms in Canada.
Under the Financial Administration Act, the Treasury Board is responsible for all matters
related to financial management. The administrative arm of the Treasury Board, the Treasury
Board Secretariat (TBS), issues guidance to departments on the financial and non-financial
performance information to be provided to Parliament.
The Public Sector Accounting Board (PSAB) is authorized by the Board of Directors of the
Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA) to issue recommendations and guidance
with respect to matters of accounting for federal, provincial, territorial and local governments.
The PSAB issues such recommendations and guidance to serve the public interest by
strengthening accountability in the public sector through developing, recommending and
gaining acceptance of accounting and financial reporting standards of good practice. Officials
from the Office of the Auditor General (OAG) and TBS have the opportunity to participate in
the development of accounting standards since it is the people who prepare, audit and use
government financial statements and reports that develop the PSAB’s standards.
3.1.1.3.
There was an urgent need by the central agencies, primarily the Department of Finance and
TBS, for more timely and accessible financial information to assist in the overall
management of government. The government also recognized that the then present Central
Accounting System, a 20-year-old computer system, had reached the end of its economic life
and needed to be replaced. This was a unique opportunity to start building a modern
information infrastructure.
3.1.1.4.
FIS should help the government strengthen significantly its management of business lines and
its accountability to Parliament. One of the objectives of FIS is to provide officials with more
complete information on costs to compare with results achieved when making key decisions.
The information provided in the financial statements was extended so that the statements
communicate departmental financial information that is useful to departmental management,
central agencies, parliamentarians and the general public in judgements on resource allocation
decisions. Moreover, they demonstrate the accountability of the department for the financial
affairs and resources entrusted to it and assess management and stewardship.
3.1.1.5.
Both FIS and the Modern Comptrollership Initiative are about modernizing management and
providing managers with the necessary tools to make well-informed decisions. The focus is
thus on the management function of the accounting system. The introduction of full accrual
Bram Scheers
27
accounting in combination with the departmental performance reports, however, also has the
objective to improve transparency and accountability.
3.1.2.1.
Under the authority of the Financial Administration Act (FAA) section 9 (, 1985), TBS has
issued some Treasury Board Accounting Standards3 or TBASs. TBAS 1.1 deals with the
policy and principles (Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada, 1999):
“Departments will follow generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) as
defined in the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants Public Sector
Accounting (PSA) Handbook. Specifically, departments will use the "expense
basis" of accounting as referred to in the handbook (PS Section 1500.93). Subject
to modifications or interpretations by the Treasury Board, the PSA Handbook will
be the authoritative reference manual. In situations where a specific item is not
covered in the PSA Handbook, then the Canadian Institute of Chartered
Accountants (CICA) Handbook will be used.”
Except to ensure an appropriate level of consistency for government financial reporting,
departments will establish accounting policies specific to their needs subject to the
recommendations contained in the PSA and CICA handbooks.
This policy became effective on 1 April 2001.
There is also a financial information strategy accounting manual4 (FIS accounting manual)
which:
- defines differences between accrual accounting, authorities accounting and reporting by
objects,
- describes a variety of accounting transactions and indicates how to code them with
supporting rationale in the three scenario’s indicated above,
- outlines reporting and presentation requirements for departmental financial statements.
3.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
Generally, under existing GAAP, transactions and events are recognized in financial
statements at the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or received or the fair value
ascribed to them when they took place: i.e. historical cost. By using historical cost as the basis
for record-keeping, financial statements will contain objective and verifiable information.
Historical cost provides financial statement users with a stable and consistent benchmark that
they can rely on to establish historical trends (Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada, 2001).
Thus, all assets treated as capital assets under Public Sector Accounting Board
recommendations plus leasehold improvements are recorded at their acquisition cost. The
3
4
See http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/pubs_pol/dcgpubs/accstd/siglist_e.asp
See http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/pubs_pol/dcgpubs/accstd/fisam-mcssif-0701_e.asp
28
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
capitalization of software and leasehold improvements has been done on a prospective basis
from April 1, 2001.
3.1.2.3.
Under FIS, departments are responsible for identifying all the financial reporting accounts that
pertain to their department and for maintaining those accounts in their departmental systems.
At each month-end, departments are to forward a summary of their data by Financial
Reporting Accounts (FRAs), prescribed by the Treasury Board, to the Receiver General so it
can be input monthly to the Central Financial Management and Reporting System (CFMRS)
as part of the year-to-date departmental trial balance. Government organizations do not hold
cash accounts. Treasury holds cash for the entire government.
The Department of Finance produces the Fiscal Monitor, a monthly newsletter, which
highlights the financial results of the Government together with the reasons underlying major
variances. Since 1994, it also publishes an annual financial report which provides an overview
of revenues the government has collected and what it has spent.
3.1.2.4.
Required reports
Federal departments and agencies submit a performance report to Parliament every fall
outlining what they have accomplished.
According to TBAS 1.1 each department, as defined by section 2 of the FAA, will produce
annually a full set of financial statements as at March 31 that can withstand the test of audit.
The financial statements, accompanied by a statement of management responsibility and an
auditor’s report, must be available to the Receiver General for Canada by June 15th of each
year. Furthermore, departments will publish the financial statement package in their
departmental performance report.
All the financial information required on a government-wide basis will continue to be
included in the Public Accounts.
3.1.3.1.
The financial statements are prepared on an accrual basis of accounting in accordance with
TBASs. These standards are based on generally accepted accounting principles in Canada (see
section accounting legislation and standards).
3.1.3.2.
Departmental performance reports5 play a key role in the cycle of planning, monitoring,
evaluating and reporting through ministers to Parliament and citizens. The departmental
5
87 performance reports for the period ending March 31, 2003 are posted at: http://www.tbssct.gc.ca/rma/dpr/02-03/0203dpr-rmr_e.asp
Bram Scheers
29
performance report provides a focus on results-based accountability by reporting on
accomplishments achieved against the performance expectations and results commitments as
set out in the spring report on plans and priorities. It focuses on outcomes and describes the
contribution the organization has made towards those outcomes. Supporting the need for
responsible spending, it links resources to results.
The report may be structured in the way that is most suitable for telling the performance story
of the department. Nonetheless, some consistency is needed across government. Therefore,
departments should use three general sections (minister’s message, context and performance
discussion) and annexes. The discussion of performance should be aligned to the strategic
outcomes that the department seeks to provide to Canadians. In order to facilitate the
provision of the information asked, TBS also provides several templates in its guidance for
the departmental performance reports6.
3.1.3.3.
The financial tables of the departmental performance report provide a link to, and closure on,
the financial appropriations that were given to the department and as such, are an essential
component of being accountable to Parliament. For each table, a brief narrative at the
beginning should be provided to set the context for the information provided, such as purpose
of the initiative, partners (if applicable) and resources. Significant changes that have occurred
to the planned spending must also be explained.
According to TBS guidance on the departmental performance reports 2002-2003, the financial
tables are the following (Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada, 2003):
- summary of voted appropriations,
- comparison of total planned spending to actual spending,
- historical comparison to total planned spending to actual spending,
- crosswalk between strategic outcomes and business lines,
- revenues: respendable and non-respendable,
- statutory payments,
- transfer payments (grants and contributions),
- resource requirements by organization and business line,
- projects (note: formerly capital projects),
- status summary of major crown projects,
- loans, investments and advances,
- revolving fund financial summaries,
- contingent liabilities.
The first three financial tables are required for every organization. The other financial tables
are required if applicable to the department or agency and should be included in their
departmental performance report. The templates of the first three financial tables are given in
the appendix.
Apart from these financial tables, there are also the financial statements. According to TBAS
1.1 the financial statements will consist of a statement of financial position, a statement of
6
The guidance for the departmental performance reports 2002-2003 can be found at: http://www.tbssct.gc.ca/rma/dpr/02-03/guidance/gl-ld_e.asp
30
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
operations, a statement of cash requirements and a statement of expenditure authorities used,
together with required notes and schedules. The reporting entity for the financial statements is
the department or agency and, if applicable, comprises the following sub-entities: revolving
funds, special operating agencies, consolidated specified purpose accounts etc.
The intention is that the departments will publish these financial statements in their
performance reports. Departments were asked to produce the financial statements starting
with 2001-2002. The government’s model, however, does not require them to record
significant liabilities and costs. OAG means that without these items the financial statements
do not provide reliable information on departments’ program costs and financial positions.
TBS plans to address these items once the initial phase of FIS is stable and an appropriate
management control framework is in place. As a consequence, TBS decided that it would not
require departments to include their financial statements in their 2001-2002 performance
reports. However, where adequate control framework exists, TBS has approved some
inclusions (Auditor General of Canada, 2001 pp.10). Still, the financial statements are
generally not included in the departmental performance reports of 2002-2003.
3.1.3.4.
Time horizon
According to TBAS 1.2 financial statements should provide a comparison of current period
amounts with those of the immediate prior period as well as a comparison to the financial plan
as expressed in departmental pro-forma financial statements which would be prepared on the
same basis used to report the results.
3.1.3.5.
Consolidation
Departmental financial reporting or equivalent codes must be related to the Financial
Reporting Accounts (FRAs) in the government-wide list of FRAs prescribed by the Treasury
Board. The FRAs provide a standardised repository of government-wide information, which
can be used for preparing financial statements at the central or departmental level. As the
basis for the FRA classification is accrual accounting.
Monthly government-wide financial statements are included in the Monthly Statement of
Financial Operations, which is used by the Department of Finance to produce the results
issued in the Monthly Fiscal Monitor. The government’s annual financial statements are
audited by the Auditor General and are included in the Public Accounts of Canada that are
tabled each fall in Parliament. The Public Accounts of Canada is the report of the government
of Canada prepared each fiscal year by the Receiver General as required by section 64 of the
Financial Administration Act. It is the centralized record of the Government’s financial
transactions maintained by the Receiver General in which the transactions of all departments
and agencies are summarized. The 2002-2003 Summary Financial Statements of the
Government of Canada are the first it has prepared on the full accrual basis of accounting
(Auditor General of Canada, 2003b).
The Auditor General also expresses an opinion on the Annual Financial Report of the
Government of Canada, which is published by the Department of Finance in the fall. This
document provides:
Bram Scheers
31
-
timely access to understandable and relevant information on the government’s financial
activity,
includes a full set of condensed financial statements that are based on the audited results,
which appear in the Public Accounts of Canada.
3.2.
The accounting reforms were mostly top-down initiatives. As a consequence, there was a
significant institutional support from the central departments. The Treasury Board and TBS
gave and still give extensive guidance to departments and agencies in preparing the reports
and outlining what they should contain. Also the Auditor General has been extensively
consulted in the development of these new reports and the design and criteria for their
assessment (Blöndal, 2001). This central support was complemented with the involvement of
the line departments. The FIS accounting manual for example reflects the collaborative efforts
of over 45 people representing some 24 departments within the federal government.
To help departments upgrade their systems in a cost-effective manner, the government
initiated the Shared Systems Initiative for financial management systems. Departments were
to select one of seven approved financial systems, and, through the use of “cluster groups”,
would share the costs of development of core system requirements, training and related
maintenance.
The accounting reforms are comprehensive and thus applicable in all the departments and
agencies. No big bang approach was followed to introduce them. FIS began at the end of the
eighties. Progress in the early years was slow, but at the end of the nineties the tempo of work
had picked up. FIS then focussed on implementing new departmental financial systems that
were year 2000-compliant and on ensuring that departmental and central systems would
provide appropriate information to include in the government’s annual financial statement
(Auditor General of Canada, 1998 pp.5). Thereafter, the attention shifted towards the
implementation of accrual accounting. Canada thus adopted a rather gradual approach to
reform whereby it pilot tests a number of reform models for extended time periods.
The accrual accounting system is not legally anchored in FAA, but it was the Minister of
Finance who announced in his Budget 1995 that the government would move to full accrual
accounting.
As part of its FIS, the government has invested over $600 million in new financial systems,
policies and training (Auditor General of Canada, 2003a pp.1). Over the course of the Modern
Comptrollership Initiative (1997-2004) the Treasury Board will have allocated a total of $45
million to support government-wide implementation.
After the successful implementation of FIS, TBS continues to support the FIS implementation
through its ongoing review and introduction of accounting policies, training and review of the
quality of financial data. The change in management practices required to realize the full
benefits of FIS is now part of the longer-term process of Modern Comptrollership
implementation.
32
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
REFERENCE LIST
Financial administration Act.
Auditor General of Canada (1998). Chapter 18. The financial information strategy: a key
ingredient in getting government right. Ottawa, ON: Office of the Auditor General of
Canada, pp. 27.
Auditor General of Canada (2001). Financial Information Strategy. Infrastructure
Readiness. Ottawa, ON: Office of the Auditor General of Canada, pp. 22.
Auditor General of Canada (2002). Financial management and control in the government of
Canada. Ottawa, ON: Office of the Auditor General of Canada, pp. 25.
Auditor General of Canada (2003a). Managing the quality of financial information. Ottawa,
ON: Office of the Auditor General of Canada, pp. 27.
Auditor General of Canada (2003b). Supplementary information observations of the Auditor
General on the financial statements of the government of Canada for the year ended
March 31, 2003. Ottawa, ON: Office of the Auditor General of Canada, pp. 11.
Blöndal, J. R. (2001). La procédure budgétaire au Canada. OECD Journal on Budgeting, 1
(2): 43-91.
Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada (1999). Accounting standards - policies and
publications. Ottawa, ON: Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada
Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada (2001). Financial information strategy accounting
manual. Ottawa, ON: Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada
Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada (2003). Guidance departmental performance reports
2002-2003. Ottawa, ON: Treasury Board Secretariat of Canada
Bram Scheers
33
APPENDIX: TEMPLATES OF THE MANDATORY FINANCIAL TABLES
Table 1 - Summary of Voted Appropriations
Purpose of this table: This table explains the way Parliament votes resources to the
department in a standardized fashion.
Who must include
this table:
All departments and agencies.
Financial Requirements by Authority ($ millions)
2002-2003
Vote
Total Planned
Spending
Total
Authorities
Total Actual
Spending
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
XX Capital expenditures
xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
XX Grants and Contributions
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
(S) Minister of XXX – Salary and
motor car allowance
xx.x
xx.x
xx.x
(S)
xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
Program Name
XX Operating expenditures
as required
Total Department
Table 2 - Comparison of Total Planned to Actual Spending
Purpose of this
table:
To explain the way resources are used by the department in a standardized
fashion.
Who must
include this
table:
All multiple business lines departments and agencies. (Single business line
organisations - click here to access the example.)
What to
include:
A brief explanation of the nature and sources of revenues, particularly, if
they relate to user fees or cost recovery policies.
34
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
Personnel input
factor:
Contributions to Employee Benefit Planning is 19.5% and Public Service
insurance plans i.e. health and dental plans is 7.5%.
Cost associated with employee compensation payments provided by Human
Resources Development Canada, can be obtained from the responsible
contact - click here to access Inquiry list.
Salary and associated costs of legal services provided by Justice Canada can
also be obtained from the responsible official indicated on the Inquiry list.
For multiple business line organizations
Departmental Planned versus Actual Spending by Business Line (millions of dollars)
Less:
Grants &
Total Gross Respendable Total Net
Business Lines FTEs Operating Capital Contributions Expenditures Revenues* Expenditures
Business Line 1
(planned
spending)
xxx
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
(total
authorities)
xxx
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
(Total Actual
Spending)
xxx
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
xxx.x
-
xxx.x
Business Line 2
(planned
x,xxx
spending)
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
-
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
(total
authorities)
x,xxx
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
-
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
xxx
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
-
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
Total (planned
spending)
x,xxx
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x1
(total
authorities)
x,xxx
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x2
(Total Actual
Spending)
x,xxx
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x3
(Total
ActualSpending)
Bram Scheers
35
Other Revenues and Expenditures
Non-respendable Revenues**
(xx.x)
(total authorities)
(xx.x)
(Actuals)
(xx.x)
Cost of services provided by other departments
xxx.x
(total authorities)
xxx.x
(Actuals)
xxx.x
Net Cost of the Program
x,xxx.x
(total authorities)
x,xxx.x
(Actuals)
x,xxx.x
Note: Due to rounding, figures may not add to totals shown.
1
This figure should match your 2002-2003 RPP
2
This figure should match your total authorities
3
This figure represents your total actual spending
*
Formerly "Revenues Credited to the Vote". In some cases, respendable revenues can also
include the statutory item "Expenditures pursuant to Section 29.1 (1) of the FAA."
**
Formerly "Revenues Credited to the General Government Revenues" (GGR)
For single business line organizations
Departmental Planned versus Actual Spending
2002-2003
Business Line
Total Planned
Spending
Total
Authorities
Total Actual
Spending
FTEs
xxx
-
xxx.x
Operating
xxx
-
xxx.x
Capital
xxx
-
xxx.x
Grants & Contributions
x,xxx
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
Total Gross Expenditures
x,xxx
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
36
Hoofdstuk 3: Canada
Less:
Respendable Revenues*
x,xxx
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
Total Net Expenditures
x,xxx
(xx.x)
x,xxx.x
(xxx.x)
(xxx.x)
(xxx.x)
xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
Other Revenues and Expenditures
Non-respendable Revenues**
Cost of services provided by other
departments
Net Cost of the Program
*
Formerly "Revenues Credited to the Vote". In some cases, respendable revenues can also
include the statutory item "Expenditures pursuant to Section 29.1 (1) of the FAA."
**
Formerly "Revenues Credited to the General Government Revenues" (GGR)
Table 3 - Historical Comparison of Total Planned Spending to Actual Spending
Purpose of this
table:
To provide an historical perspective on how resources are used by the
department in a standardized fashion.
Who must include
this table:
All departments and agencies.
Multiple Business Lines Organizations
Historical Comparison of Departmental Planned versus Actual Spending by Business
Line ($ millions)
2002-2003
Business Lines
Business Line 1
Actual
20002001
Total Planned
Spending
Total Authorities
Total Actual
Spending
xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
xxx.x
Business Line 2
x,xxx.x x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
Business Line 3
x,xxx.x x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
xx.x
xx.x
xx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
Business Line 4
Total
Bram Scheers
xxx.x
Actual
20012002
xx.x
37
Single Business Line Organizations
Historical Comparison of Departmental Planned versus Actual Spending ($ millions)
2002-2003
Business Line
Name of
Department or
Agency
Total
Actual Actual
2000- 20012001 2002
Total Planned
Spending
Total Authorities
Total Actual
Spending
x,xxx.x x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
xxx.x
x,xxx.x x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
x,xxx.x
38
Hoofdstuk 4: The Netherlands
HOOFDSTUK 4 THE NETHERLANDS
4.1.
4.1.1.1.
Initiative
Period
Objectives
Government Accounting
Reform Operation
Late 1980s
-
Cash and commitment
accounting system
1989
(decided)
1992
(implemented)
1991
-
Discussion document
“Kapitaaldienst” of the
Minister of Finance
Agency model
Accrual accounting for
agencies
Policy document “From
expenditure to costs”
From Policy Budget to
Policy Accountability
(VBTB)
central government
departments
Governments Accounts
Act 2001
1991
-
1995
-
1997
-
1999
(decided)
2002
(implemented)
2000
(decided)
2002
-
To improve the financial information (budget
information and accounting information) and
financial management at the ministries
To also record the commitments next to cash
recording
To discuss the reintroduction of the distinction
between the current account and the capital
account
To introduce a result-oriented management model,
To accomplish greater efficiency than otherwise
possible by assigning the status of agency to
government bodies.
To introduce accrual accounting for agencies
To weigh the advantages and disadvantages of an
accrual accounting system
To make departmental budgets and accounting
more transparent and more closely related to
policy goals, by linking objectives, performance
and resources to one another
To introduce accrual accounting for central
government by 2006
To translate the more results-oriented financial
management into the Governments Accounts Act
Table 4.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in the Netherlands.
The application of accrual accounting in government accounting has a very long history in the
Netherlands (the first time as long as ago as 1916). However, until 1989 cash accounting was
used in central government despite some attempts to introduce a distinction between the
current account and the capital account during the intermediate period between 1927 and
1976. In 1989, the cash accounting system was adapted by the introduction of the recording of
commitments (Bac, 2002 pp.278).
In 1991, the Minister of Finance sent a discussion document “Kapitaaldienst” on the capital
account to Parliament. It treated both the issues of full accrual accounting and budgeting. On
the basis of this document Parliament decided that the capital account would not be re-
Bram Scheers
39
introduced in central government and that full accrual accounting and budgeting would be
limited to government agencies.
Up to 1995, accrual accounting was used only in state-owned enterprises. On January 1, 1995
the accrual system also became obligatory for the agencies (independent ministerial service
units) which were introduced as a consequence of the agency model. The first four agencies
started in 1994 and by 2001 there were 23 of them7. The number of agencies was expected to
double within four to five years. Meanwhile, discussions on the accrual system for central
government continued in the Netherlands. In 1997, the policy document “From expenditure to
costs” concluded that is was not yet appropriate to shift comprehensively to the accrual
accounting system. The Minister of Finance suggested that other services be allowed to use an
accrual system under certain conditions. The rise in the number of agencies and the prospect
of other services using the system created a situation in which accrual-based accounting was
steadily gaining credibility and would soon be applied by many government bodies
(Havermans, 2001 pp.5). In September 2000 the Minister of Finance announced that further
steps towards accrual accounting for central government would be taken. As a consequence,
the Budget for 2001 announced the comprehensive introduction of the accrual accounting
system in central government (Hogendoorn, Kok, and van Oosterroom, 2001). The objective
is that by 2006 central government will complete the change over to accrual accounting. To
translate these more results-oriented financial management initiatives into law, the currently
applicable Governments Accounts Act 2001 was introduced.
4.1.1.2.
Actor
Role
Ministry of Finance
-
The Netherlands Court of Audit
-
The Lower House
- The Public Expenditure Committee
-
To lead the discussion about the accounting
system,
To introduce the VBTB project,
To participate in working parties on quality
improvement of the annual reports.
To participate in the working parties that
develop the proposals,
To follow up and monitor the implementation
of the accounting reforms.
To pass a motion in order to handle the
unacceptable delay in the delivery of financial
statements,
To ask the publication of the accounts of the
previous year by May 15 instead of September
1 and the improvement of the quality of the
financial statements.
Table 4.2 - Actors involved in the accounting reforms in the Netherlands.
7
The share of agencies in the national budget is normally measured using two criteria: staff numbers in the fte’s
and the volume of expenditure. The two criteria give completely different results. The annual financial report of
the central government for 1999 states that the 22 agencies existing at that time accounted for 28% of the fte’s
and 4% of the total expenditure covered by the national budget (Hogendoorn et al., 2001 pp.9).
40
It is mainly the Ministry of Finance that leads the accounting reforms in central government.
Though, one role that the Ministry of Finance has fulfilled much more emphatically over the
last couple of years is that of knowledge broker. For example, it has issued several manuals
for agencies that are useful to applicant agencies during their process of change (Van
Oosteroom, 2002 pp.106).
The Netherlands Court of Audit participates in the draw up of the reforms and monitors the
implementation of these. Also Parliament plays a role in the accounting reforms. To enhance
its control function, the Lower House itself (in the form of the Public Expenditure
Committee) took the initiative to bring forward the publication of the accounts of the previous
year from September 1 to May 15 as well as to improve the quality of the financial statements
(Havermans, 2001 pp.4) .
4.1.1.3.
The Netherlands has a long tradition of discussing whether some sort of accrual system
should be applied by central government as a whole (see the historical overview section).
The advocates of such an evolution use different arguments. It is argued that the absence of a
distinction between treatment of current and capital expenditure has made capital expenditure
relatively vulnerable to cuts in periods of fiscal stress. Investment expenditure would be
crowded out of the budget by non-investment expenditure because while the former has to
compete for the full amount with other types of expenditure in any year, the benefits of it are
spread over many years ahead (Korte, 2001 pp.11). Other arguments in favour were that it
would enable the cost and utility of government action to be compared and that it would
provide the clearest possible picture of changes in the net asset position of central
government.
Although accrual accounting was not yet introduced in central government, the status of an
agency was assigned to government bodies to accomplish greater efficiency than otherwise
possible. In order to achieve this improved efficiency, agencies have been allowed to use
accrual accounting and budgeting and some other specific rules.
However, critical remarks have been made on maintaining two systems next to each other in
central government. This cannot contribute to greater transparency in the information
submitted to the States General. Moreover, the co-existence of two systems does not make
the business operations or the auditing more effective. Also the fact that gradually some
OECD countries introduce the accrual system is a source for discussion in the Netherlands.
The VBTB project which introduced the concepts of policy-based budgets and policy
accounting was an important preparatory step for the decision to introduce a comprehensive
accrual accounting system in central government. Such a system will support the
implementation of the policy budget and together, they will stimulate a result-oriented
approach in central government.
Other developments that made the comprehensive introduction logically timely were
(Hogendoorn et al., 2001 pp.6):
- the growth in the number of government agencies,
Bram Scheers
41
-
comparisons between the market and government,
the state of government finance (EMU deficit was running at about +1% of GDP).
4.1.1.4.
The recent developments (“From Policy Budget to Policy Accountability” or VBTB) which
are introduced in 2002 are expected to lead to the improvement of budgeting and accounting
for enhanced accountability. The complete implementation of accrual accounting, expected to
last until 2006, will complement this by making the central government’s accounting system
more suitable to integrated financial accounting and management accounting.
The arguments in favour of the accrual system are also presented from the perspective of
internal management: a service can be made more effective by introducing transparency into
the expenditure (result-oriented management).
4.1.1.5.
The support the accrual accounting system can give to result-oriented management is an
important factor for the introduction of the system. The micro-perspective of the reform or
the management function thus plays a dominant role. But also at the macro level, the new
system realizes some benefits. It will produce more transparency and thus increase
accountability as the parallel systems where the ministries use cash and liabilities and the
agencies use accrual accounting will disappear. It should also produce a more even and
efficient balance between current and capital expenditures. This improves the allocation
function.
4.1.2.1.
The central government accounting regulation used to be laid down in the Accounts Act of
1976. This act replaced the Accounts Act of 1926. In the course of the years the Accounts Act
of 1976 was adapted several times, of which the sixth adaptation took place on July 10, 1995.
In 2002, the new Governments Accounts Act 2001 was published in the law gazette. A new
Accounts Act was produced because government wanted to introduce a more results-oriented
financial management (the VBTB project). The regulation of the management of cash and
non-monetary assets; bookkeeping and auditing; and the recording of commitments,
expenditures and receipts are tackled in this Act (, 2002). In addition, the Accounts Act
comprises the regulation of agencies, such as the agency budget, accounting system and
financial statements. So the Netherlands has a legal framework for the central government
accounting that comprises the regulations which are required for organizing, managing and
controlling the budget process; determining the role and the task of the Minister and the
ministries within central government; and discharging the accountability for the resources
which are entrusted to them (Ouda, 2001 pp.72). The new Act was applied for the first time
on the fiscal year 2002.
42
4.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
The current Dutch central government accounting system does not enable to draw up the
balance sheet, so no valuation rules are used. The agencies, however, work with an accrual
system and use the current value principle. If this principle is not feasible, the indexed
historical cost is used.
4.1.2.3.
The Accounts Act of 1976 elaborated further the supervisory function of the Minister of
Finance. The Minister of Finance determines the information to be supplied to him for the
purposes of the supervisory function in respect of budget implementation. Moreover, he
exercises a supervisory function in respect of the structure of the financial records and the
audit process involved in the budget implementation (, 2001). The Minister of Finance also
draws up the financial statement of central government as a whole and forwards it together
with the financial statements of the ministries to the Court of Audit.
The accounting system of the central government is formed by the whole of the central head
bookkeeping (“rijkshoofboekhouding”), which is kept at the Ministry of Finance, to which are
attached the decentral receipts and expenditures bookkeeping that are kept at every
department. The department receipts and expenditures bookkeeping are connected to the
central head bookkeeping by current accounts, which are included in every bookkeeping and
the central head bookkeeping. In connection with this accounting system, a number of extraaccounts are kept to record the financial assets and liabilities (debtors, creditors, …) that are
not comprised in the accounting system.
Each department has a central direction “Financial Economic Affairs”. This is required by
section 27 of the Accounts Act 2001. The tasks are described in the decree “Task central
direction Financial Economic Affairs”. The direction is closely involved with all the financial
transactions within the department. It also coordinates the (often monthly) overviews for the
Ministry of Finance and the draw up of the annual report. As no financial affair happens
without consciousness of the direction, it has a powerful position within the departments
(Bestebreur, Kraak, and van der Burg, 2001).
Although the agencies remain part of a ministry, the agencies and the ministries have their
own accounting system. As the agencies use an accrual system and the departments use a cash
and commitment system, the question could be how this dual system can work in practice. An
important clue to the answer is that each agency has a budget of its own and that money
transfers from ministries to agencies are recorded as cash payments in the budgets of the
ministries and as income in the budgets of the agencies, and vice versa (Korte, 2001 pp.10).
Agencies are allowed to use a deposit and loan facility that is provided by the Ministry of
Finance on quasi-commercial conditions. The Ministry of Finance thus operates more or less
as a commercial bank for the agencies.
4.1.2.4.
Required reports
Article 51 of the Accounts Act 2001 requires the Ministers to demonstrate their accountability
for the implemented policy and management by means of a departmental annual report. The
Bram Scheers
43
annual reports must be sent to the Minister of Finance in March at the latest. The Minister of
Finance draws up the financial statement of central government as a whole and forwards it,
like the financial statements of the ministries, to the Court of Audit by April 21 at the latest.
On the third Wednesday in May, the Minister of Finance has to hand over the annual reports
to Parliament. In this way a substantial acceleration in comparison to actual practice is
achieved.
4.1.3.1.
In the Netherlands, the departments are not yet applying accrual accounting. Instead, they use
cash and commitments accounting which is a type of modified cash accounting. This means
that the central government accounting system is organized to measure the flow of current
financial resources. It measures cash and obligations by recognizing transactions and events
which have occurred by year-end and are normally expected to result in a cash receipt and/or
disbursement within a specific period after year-end. Central government does not
differentiate between current expenses and capital expenses. The objective is that by 2006
central government will complete the change over to accrual accounting.
The agencies, however, use an accrual accounting system. The financial statements are thus
based on an accrual basis and the characteristics of the accounting system of the agency are
largely coinciding with those of the commercial accounting system.
4.1.3.2.
As a result of the project “From Policy Budget to Policy Accountability” (for more
information see (Scheers, Sterck, Van Reeth, and Bouckaert, 2002)), the budget and the
financial reports must be more in-line with the general policy of government from fiscal year
2002 onward. This means that a relationship must be drawn between policy, performance and
resources, both proposed and realised. The departmental annual report is a mirror of the
budget and, after the end of the year, logically looks back on the extent of goal-realisation of
the policy priorities as well as on the financial outcome. It gives an answer on the following
three questions: have we achieved our goal?; have we done what we were going to?; has it
cost what it was allowed to cost? It therefore contains a policy report and the annual
accounts8. The policy report deals with the performed policy and thus holds non-financial
information. It is structured by policy priorities, policy items, non-policy items and a
statement on business management. The annual accounts then justify the financial
consequences of the performed policy. Relevant information on agencies is presented in the
“agency paragraph” of the budget and financial report.
4.1.3.3.
The Accounts Act deals with the regulation of the central government financial statements.
According to the Dutch government accounting system, the latter must be seen in connection
8
An example is the annual report of the Ministry of Economic Affairs which can be found at:
http://www.minez.nl/publicaties/pdfs/03DC02.pdf
44
with the budget. The financial statements are budget execution statements. That is why the
accounting system is called budget bookkeeping (Ouda, 2001 pp.73).
The financial statements are important means by which each Minister demonstrates his
accountability for the management of financial affairs and the use of financial resources
entrusted to him. According to the Accounts Act the Ministers, each in respect of the budget
which he manages, should draw up the following financial statements:
- the accounts of the commitments, expenditures and receipts, accompanied by explanatory
notes,
- the trial balance as at December 31 relating to these accounts, accompanied by
explanatory notes.
The accounts of the commitments, expenditures and receipts are given for each policy item of
the budget. The above-mentioned accounts and trial balance should be accompanied by an
auditor’s report before being submitted to the Minister of Finance. The accounts and the trial
balance are illustrated in the appendix by extracts from the financial statements 2002 of the
Ministry of Economic Affairs (Ministerie van economische zaken, 2003).
As mentioned before, the budget and the financial statements of the agencies are accrualbased. The characteristics of the accounting system of the agency are largely coinciding with
those of the commercial accounting system. As a consequence, the financial statements are
consisting of the profit and loss account and the balance sheet on which all assets and
liabilities are mentioned. These statements of the agencies are included in the annual report of
their mother ministry by a distinct record and clarification. The financial statements of the
departments thus contain for every agency a distinct financial account.
4.1.3.4.
Time horizon
The accounts of commitments, expenditures and receipts indicate for each policy item besides
the actual amount also the original estimates and the various changes to the estimates made by
Act of Parliament. The time horizon is thus only the reporting budget year. However, section
54 of the Accounts Act 2001 states that the explanatory notes should include the years t-4 up
to the reporting year t.
4.1.3.5.
Consolidation
By March 1 of each year, the Minister of Finance submits to the States General the
provisional accounts for the preceding year (section 50 of the Accounts Act 2001). These
accounts give a survey about realized amounts of expenditures and receipts.
Since 1999, there is a new document in which all the information for accountability on the
central government level is collected: the financial statement of the central government as a
whole. After the Minister of Finance has received the financial statements from all Ministers,
he draws up the financial statement of the central government as a whole. All these
statements are handed over to Parliament on the third Wednesday of May.
Bram Scheers
45
“Government-wide accounts, known as the State Annual Report, will be prepared,
enabling the government as a whole to report at national level on policy,
operations and financial resources. This report will form the basis for an annual
plenary debate in the Lower House on or immediately after the third Wednesday
in May.” (Havermans, 2001 pp.5)
The structure of the central government statement is as follows (Bestebreur et al., 2001
pp.164):
- request for discharge,
- the outlines of the budget policy,
- the outlines of financial management,
- appendix 1: the expenditures and non-tax receipts,
- appendix 2: the EMU-balance, EMU-debt, social funds and financing needs,
- appendix 3: the vertical clarification,
- appendix 4: the State balance sheet (Staatsbalans).
Notwithstanding the Dutch central government accounting system does not enable to draw up
the balance sheet, the State balance sheet (Staatsbalans) is prepared. This takes place
according to the European system of national and regional accounts (ESR-95). The annual
preparation of the State balance has the purpose of giving insight into the composition and
size of the net worth of central government, the change in it and the causes of increasing and
decreasing the net worth balance. This balance sheet is prepared at the end of the fiscal year
using the trial balance of central government and the statements of ministries regarding the
goods under their control (Ouda, 2001 pp.76).
4.2.
The decision to introduce a comprehensive accrual accounting system for central government
has been taken from the top. It are the Minister of Finance and his Ministry which are the
pioneers. However, the accounting reforms are not fully coordinated from the top. The
Cabinet established a policy group to work out a policy design showing what a
comprehensive accrual accounting system for the central government could look like. The
group has an inter-departmental membership and includes members from trade and industry
and local government (Hogendoorn et al., 2001 pp.12). The Ministry of Finance often
prepares an innovative initiative in co-operation with the specialist ministries in
interdepartmental working parties. The Ministry of Finance coordinates the implementation,
inter alia, by means of progress reports for the Parliament. Also the Court of Audit actively
participates in these working parties and monitors the implementation of the accounting
reforms. There is thus a well developed institutional support for the reforms.
The implementation of the reforms generally takes several years because of the
comprehensiveness of the change and the differences in the starting positions of the various
specialist ministries. No “Big Bang” transition to the accrual system was considered. Instead,
government announced measures to propagate the use of the more result-oriented
management model supported by full accrual accounting and budgeting for individual
government bodies wherever possible.
46
An accrual accounting system for the central government is not legally anchored in the
Accounts Act. However, the comprehensive introduction of the accrual accounting system in
central government was announced in the Budget for 2001.
REFERENCE LIST
Wet van 8 december 1976, houdende regeling van het beheer van 's Rijks financiën (2001).
Comptabiliteitswet. pp. 23.
Wet van 13 juli 2002 tot vaststelling van de Wet inzake het beheer van de financiën van het
Rijk (Comptabiliteitswet 2001) (2002). pp. 33.
Bac, A. (2002). Government budgeting and accounting reform in the Netherlands. OECD
Journal on budgeting, 2 (supplement 1): 265-284.
Bestebreur, A., Kraak, A. D. & van der Burg, C. (2001). Modern financieel management bij
het Rijk. De Rijksbegroting belicht. Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers, pp. 275.
Havermans, A. J. E. (2001). Dutch government accounting from the perspective of the
supreme auditing institution. In: Bac, A. International comparative issues in
government accounting. The similarities and differences between central government
accounting and local government accounting within or between countries., Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 1-7
Hogendoorn, C., Kok, L. & van Oosterroom, R. (2001). The die is cast: a comprehensive
accrual accounting system for the central government of the Netherlands. Den Haag:
Ministerie van Financiën, pp. 15.
Korte, H. W. O. L. M. (2001). Dutch central government budgeting and accounting system.
In: Bac, A. International comparative issues in government accounting. The
similarities and differences between central government accounting and local
government accounting within or between countries., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers, pp. 9-18.
Ministerie van economische zaken (2003). Jaarverslag ministerie van economische zaken
2002. Den Haag: EZ , pp. 226.
Ouda, H. A. G. (2001). Central governmental accounting of Egypt and the Netherlands:
similarities and differences. In: Bac, A. International comparative issues in
government accounting. The similarities and differences between central government
accounting and local government accounting within or between countries., Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 71-90.
beheerscyclus: Begroting en planning.
Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie
Bram Scheers
47
Van Oosteroom, R. (2002). The quality of public expenditure - challenges and solutions in
results focussed management in the public sector. Netherlands. Parijs: OECDPUMA, pp. 104-116.
48
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 2002 OF
THE MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC AFFAIRS
1.1. The accounts of the commitments, expenditures and receipts, accompanied by
explanatory notes
Bram Scheers
49
1.2. The trial balance, accompanied by explanatory notes
50
Hoofdstuk 5: Sweden
HOOFDSTUK 5 SWEDEN
5.1.
5.1.1.1.
Initiative
Period
Objectives
Performance
management
1988
-
Accrual accounting
Late 1980s
(start up)
1993
(implementation)
1997
(start up)
2000
(publication
White Book)
VESTA or the
Performance Budgeting
Project
-
To introduce flexibility in the use of resources,
To introduce flexibility in spending over fiscal
years,
To shift the focus from resources to performance.
To introduce an accrual accounting system in
central government,
To facilitate the implementation of management
by results.
To use the same scope, principles and presentation
format in budgeting and in the financial accounts
by moving towards an accrual-based budget,
To install a structure for performance management
and control.
Table 5.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in Sweden.
Flexibility and the focus on performance were key words in the performance management
reform at the end of the eighties. These were linked to an increase in accountability for
financial and operating results. The annual report is a very important tool in this respect. From
1993, all government agencies have had to submit their annual financial and performance
statements on an accrual basis (Lundqvist, 2002 pp.158).
Since 1997, the task of developing improved financial management systems has mainly been
carried out by the VESTA project (Regeringskansliet, 2000a pp.4). The White Book which
was presented as a result of the VESTA project proposed a structure for performance
management and control that is two-dimensional: an activity dimension and an institutional
dimension consisting of the agencies. This means that both the budgeting and the follow-up
will be done in both dimensions. The overall aim is to make possible a clearer linkage
between objectives, outcomes and costs. Thereby, the co-ordination between management by
results and general financial management is supposed to increase.
The currently applicable accounting legislation is the Budget Act of 1988 (see section
accounting legislation and standards).
5.1.1.2.
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Actor
Role
Swedish National Financial Management
Authority or Ekonomistyrningsverket (ESV)
-
Ministry of Finance or Regeringskansliet
-
Swedish National Audit Office or
Riksrevisionverket
-
To be the government agency for financial
management in Sweden,
To participate in developing and improving
the methods for performance and financial
management for both the agencies and central
government,
To develop generally accepted accounting
principles (GAAP) for the central government,
To issue the main accounting regulations,
To consolidate the accounting information,
To develop statistics on the central
government economy.
To work on the improvement of the
instruments and tools for budgeting and
management introduced during the 1990s,
To implement the issues of the VESTA
project,
To propose changes to the ordinance on the
annual reports and budget documentation.
To issue guidance on the annual report,
To discuss accounting issues.
Table 5.2 - Actors involved in the accounting reforms in Sweden.
ESV is the government agency for financial management in Sweden. Its objective is high
quality financial management. As regards accounting, ESV develops GAAP and
supplementary regulations for the central government. ESV has an advisory board to discuss
accounting issues. The board has representatives from the private sector, the local government
and central government agencies including the National Audit Office. Somebody with
experience from accounting research is also to be presented. The number of meetings are
approximately five a year.
The Ministry of Finance is responsible for proposing changes to the ordinances decided by
Government Cabinet. These proposals are often based on reports from ESV. In order to get
support from the other ministries ahead of the decision there is a formalised process for the
Ministry of Finance to follow.
In 1998, the National Audit Office issued guidance on the annual report. The guidance
presents good example and includes guidance on how information can be presented in the
annual report. Since then, it has not issued any guidance on accounting. The National Audit
Office has a rather close cooperation with ESV on accounting issues. It has a representative in
the advisory board on accounting issues and an official of ESV participates in meetings on
accounting issues regularly held by a group of auditors. On July 1, 2003 a new State Audit
Institution, called Riksrevisionen, was created in Sweden. The new organization replaces
Riksrevisionsverket and the Parliamentary Auditors, which both ceased to exist. The future
will show what role the new National Audit Office will play concerning the accounting
issues.
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Hoofdstuk 5: Sweden
5.1.1.3.
At the end of the eighties, the performance management initiative was launched in Sweden.
The delegation and decentralisation of power to management required a greater focus on
accounting and analysis. As a consequence, one of the preconditions for the success of this
initiative was the introduction of accrual accounting. The main reason for introducing accrual
accounting in the Swedish central government in 1993 was thus to facilitate the
implementation of performance management (The Swedish National Financial Management
Authority (ESV), 2003b pp.5). Accrual accounting was considered essential as managers
enjoy total flexibility in their choice of inputs and therefore require information on the full
cost of each input to be able to manage effectively.
5.1.1.4.
Accrual accounting, next to framework appropriations, was seen as a precondition for the
performance management project. A new accounting model was introduced which makes it
possible to monitor performance, for example total costs of government programmes and
activities. It also facilitates the analysis of more specific information such as cost per output.
Complete cost and management accounting were thus made possible.
Together, these initiatives should lead to a more efficient administration and also to the
strengthening of the possibilities available to the Government and Parliament to manage and
control the administration.
5.1.1.5.
The direct goal of the implementation of accrual accounting was to facilitate results
management. By introducing accrual accounting, appropriate conditions were created for high
levels of productivity and efficiency in the use of government resources. The attention was on
the management function. However, it was also the intention to achieve greater transparency,
better financial control and better financial awareness in general.
5.1.2.1.
The Budget Act of 1988 regulates the relationship between the Parliament and the
Government in the area of financial and performance management. The agencies’ accounting
is to follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, slightly adapted to the specific
needs of the public sector. The Government Cabinet and ESV issue the main accounting
regulations (Lundqvist, 2002 pp.161). The Government Cabinet issues ordinances as e.g. the
bookkeeping ordinance and the ordinance on the annual reports and budget documentation.
The latter ends with an authorisation to ESV to issue supplementary regulations that include
more detailed rules and clarifications. There are two types of supplementary regulations: rules
and recommendations. The former are mandatory, but also the latter can be regarded as
mandatory as they are seen as good accounting practice and as the agencies need to explain all
deviations. Additions and changes to the supplementary regulations are normally made once a
year. All regulations concerning central government accounting and financial management are
Bram Scheers
53
gathered in a book which is issued each year in a new edition. The whole book (in Swedish) is
available on the website of ESV9.
The accounting regulations in central government follow very closely the laws (the Annual
Accounts Act and the Bookkeeping Act) and standards in the private sector. This means that
the Swedish regulations are quite similar to the standards of the former International
Accounting Standards Committee (reconstituted in 2001 as the International Accounting
Standards Board) in the private sector. Of course, special characteristics of the public sector
have to be considered. During the last couple of years, there has been a larger focus on the
standards issued by the IFAC Public Sector Committee. The central government
regulations are thus similar to the Swedish private sector requirements as well as the IFACPSC standards. However, they are somewhat less comprehensive and less detailed than the
other two areas (Lundqvist, 2003 pp.39).
ESV also publishes manuals to give in-depth information on specific accounting issues.
These manual are not mandatory even though they are relied on to quite large degree. In 1998,
ESV decided to develop a conceptual framework for the preparation and presentation of
financial statements in central government and a preliminary version was finished in 2000.
The framework describes underlying assumptions and principles for accounting, such as the
elements of various reports and qualitative characteristics. The framework has primarily been
produced to provide guidance for the formulation of standards, i.e. an ESV internal document,
and thereby to create uniformity in the government regulations concerning financial
accounting in Sweden (The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV), 2002).
Finally, Sweden also has to consider the requirements of the international standard System of
National Accounts and the IMF’s Government Finance Statistics (GFS).
5.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
Assets are normally valued at acquisition value (less depreciation, if applicable) (Lundqvist,
2002 pp.162). The acquisition value or historical cost is regarded as the resources sacrificed
for the acquisition of the asset, which should be distributed over the economic life of the
asset. This valuation rule is also used by the private companies in Sweden.
A fixed asset that is received free of charge shall be recognised as its market value. Current
assets are recognised either at acquisition value or at fair value if the latter is lower.
5.1.2.3.
The most important actors in the accounting process are the agencies and ESV. There are
approximately 300 agencies or authorities in Sweden. Their size, structure and types of
operations vary considerably. Each agency is responsible for its own accounting and reports.
The accounting methods are designed as if the agencies are completely independent units,
even though they are part of central government and therefore not independent legal entities.
Each agency decides e.g. on its own depreciation periods. The chart of accounts and the chart
of object codes form the agency’s accounting plan. ESV has developed a standard chart of
9
http://www.esv.se/index.html
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Hoofdstuk 5: Sweden
accounts (including nine account classes) that can be used by the agencies but it is not
compulsory. As regards the detailed accounts, it is common that the agencies make
modifications and add new accounts so the chart better suits their specific needs. The plan of
reporting codes, which is compulsory, is based on the plan of accounts. There is no structure
of the chart of object codes that is compulsory. The chart is necessary for performance
reporting and to monitor the cost of different activities in an agency as well as the cost of
products and different kinds of services. It is also used for management accounting (The
Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV), 2001 pp.23).
Each accounting entity or agency is obliged to make a report each month on the financial
outcome and to send it electronically to the government accounting system (a database at
ESV). The information is structured according to the plan of reporting codes. With the aid of
the agencies’ reports on revenue and expenditure, ESV publishes the monthly outcome of the
central government budget during the course of the budget year.
Finance statistics are reported by the agencies once a quarter. ESV compiles this information
and then transfers it to Statistics Sweden. A semi-annual report is submitted by the 15th of
August.
Each agency pays its own bills and expenses, and thus there is no central government function
for this purpose. Each agency has its own bank account, but these bank accounts are all
connected to the government central current account.
Each agency normally has its own accounting system. ESV distributes and supports a
commercial accounting system, called Agresso, which the agencies are recommended to use.
However, if an agency wants to use another system, it can usually buy any system that is
offered on the open market (The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV),
2001 pp.9).
ESV and the Ministry of Finance prepare the consolidated (whole-of-government) annual
report. ESV has to provide accurate, reliable and relevant information on central government
finances. Therefore, the agency collects information from the agencies and arranges all this
information in a structured way. Co-operation with the agencies and ministries is crucial in
order to guarantee the quality of the data ESV receives from the agencies. In mid-April the
Government submits a written communication to Parliament containing an annual report for
the central government sector showing the actual levels of central government income and
expenditure in the previous fiscal year.
5.1.2.4.
Required reports
Once a year, all agencies have to submit an annual report including financial statements and a
performance report. The Government is regarded as the main receiver as the agencies do not
have to present their annual report to Parliament. Since 1996 it is also stipulated in the
Swedish budget law that government shall submit an annual report to Parliament each year.
Under the heading “follow-up, forecasts and outcome” it is stated that as soon as possible, but
no later than nine months after the concluded fiscal year, the Government shall have an
annual report presented to Parliament (Lundqvist, 2003 pp.36).
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55
5.1.3.1.
From July 1993, all agencies have had to use accrual accounting as the general accounting
principle. The general accounting comprises total operations irrespective of financing.
The accounting model integrates external and management accounting through the chart of
accounts and the chart of object codes. The accounting model also comprises general
accounting and state budget accounting including appropriations and general income, such as
taxes. As the general accounting is on an accrual basis and the state budget accounting is still
partly on a cash basis and partly on a modified accrual basis, the accounting model needs to
take this into consideration. For example, special accounts are used for cut-off items, such as
accrued expense or deferred expenditure. These accounts are either included or excluded,
depending on the report produced or the type of analysis required (The Swedish National
Financial Management Authority (ESV), 2001 pp.10).
5.1.3.2.
Annual reports are submitted by the agencies to the Government Cabinet and the National
Audit Office no later than February 22 the following year. The reports constitute an important
input to the preparatory work on the state budget in the Government (The Swedish National
Financial Management Authority (ESV), 2003b pp.7). The annual reports contain both
financial data (the financial statements) and information on activities (the performance
report). The ordinance for the annual reports of government agencies states the following
(The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV), 2003b pp.8):
“The agency shall report and comment on the results of its operations in
accordance with the objectives and the demands for information stated by the
Government in the annual directives or in any other decision. In cases where the
Government has decided not to specify what information the agency should report
back to the Government, the agency shall report and comment on changes in
output with respect to volume, cost and quality.”
In Sweden, there is no annual report for each department. Instead, there is one annual report
for the Government Office including all the departments. This annual report, however, is
regarded as equivalent to an agency’s annual report (Lundqvist, 2003 pp.19).
5.1.3.3.
The financial statements are, as mentioned above, included in the annual report. They
comprise the following:
- the statement of financial position,
- the statement of financial performance,
- the cash flow statement,
- the appropriation report (on cash basis),
- notes and supplementary schedules to the financial statements.
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Hoofdstuk 5: Sweden
In the appendix, the ESV statement of financial position and the statement of financial
performance for the year 2002 are given (The Swedish National Financial Management
Authority (ESV), 2003a). No English illustrations were found for the other statements and
reports. In the appropriation report the agency reports on the outcome of the appropriations
that the agency has at its disposal and on the income headings in accordance with the
breakdown made in the Government approval document.
5.1.3.4.
Time horizon
Section 44 of the ESV conceptual framework states (The Swedish National Financial
Management Authority (ESV), 2002 pp.16):
“Users must be able to form an opinion on trends in respect of the financial
position of the entity and changes in this position, and on trends in respect of
revenues and expenses by being able to make comparisons between financial
statements over a period of time.”
In practice, the statements give information about the reported year and the preceding year
(see e.g. the statements of ESV in the appendix). There is thus a two years time horizon.
5.1.3.5.
Consolidation
The central government annual report and consolidated financial statements include the
operations of all agencies and departments, and are thus based on the agencies’ annual
accounts. Internal transactions between different agencies are eliminated. The first
consolidated annual report for the whole central government was produced for the fiscal year
1994-1995. Up till now this report has mainly included financial information (an operational
statement, a balance sheet, a cash flow statement and a report on the outcome of the
government budget). The agency performance report thus has no direct counterpart in central
government as a whole. However, it is discussed that the report should also include
performance information.
Initially, the submission of a consolidated annual report was not required. The consolidated
financial statements have, however, gained in importance and the submission is now
stipulated in the Swedish budget law. The consolidated accounts are presented on an accrual
basis (Lundqvist, 2002 pp.159). With the evolution towards a budget on accrual basis, the
consolidated whole-of-government accounts may play a much more central role than today
(Regeringskansliet, 2000b pp.14).
5.2.
The Ministry of Finance provides a limited amount of advisory services to the other ministries
on accounting issues. Advisory services or education to the preparers of accounts and annual
reports, i.e. agencies, are normally not provided. However, ESV provides a wide range of
information materials, advisory services, seminars, education and training. In 1998, also the
National Audit Office issued guidance on the annual report. Since then, it has not issued any
guidance on accounting. In their daily work the auditors often discuss accounting issues with
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57
the preparers of accounts. However, advisory services do not seem to be highly prioritised. It
is thus mainly ESV which is the institutional support for the accounting reforms.
Education, training and information activities were held before the launching of the accrual
accounting model. Written material was produced to give an overview of the reform and to
explain some of the reasoning behind the model. Training, mainly through seminars, was an
important way of spreading information.
The accounting reforms are comprehensive as all agencies have to use accrual accounting and
must prepare an annual report.
The introduction of accrual accounting appears to have proceeded smoothly as the quality of
the previous accounting system was very high (Blöndal, 2001 pp.47). Also, the
implementation of accrual accounting was incremental: the Swedish government has
introduced accrual accounting by taking one step at a time (Lundqvist, 2002 pp.159). The first
step was taken at the agency level. After gradual implementation over a period of two years,
accrual accounting was fully implemented in the Swedish central government from July 1,
1993. A new commercial accounting system, called Agresso, which is used by many private
companies worldwide was introduced. Through this it was possible to move from
centralisation towards decentralisation. The second step was taken when consolidated
accounts were presented on an accrual basis. This was the case from the financial year 19941995. However, this was not the aim of the reform, but rather a possibility provided. Now, it
is stipulated in the budget law. Another reason for the smooth implementation was that the
budget principles were not changed. However, this has lead to a dual system that, in the long
run, has become a problem. It has complicated the accounting model and the accrual-based
financial statements have not received the attention that they should have received. That is
why the Swedish government now wants to implement an accrual-based budget. This is seen
as the next step in the accrual evolution and is dealt with in the VESTA project.
Finally, the reforms are legally anchored in the law and ordinances. For example, the
submission of a whole of central government annual report is, since 1996, stipulated in law.
REFERENCE LIST
Blöndal, J. R. (2001). Budgeting in Sweden. OECD Journal on Budgeting, 1 (1): 27-57.
Lundqvist, K. (2002). Current state and latest developments of governmental accounting in
Sweden. In: Montesinos, V. & Vela, J. M. Innovations in governmental accounting,
Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 157-65.
Lundqvist, K. (2003). Accrual accounting regulation in central governments - a comparative
study of Australia, Sweden and the United Kingdom . Stockholm: ESV, pp. 70.
Regeringskansliet (2000a). Financial management for effectiveness and transparency.
Stockholm: Regeringskansliet, Ministry of Finance, pp. 14.
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Regeringskansliet (2000b). Performance budgeting in Sweden - outline of a reform
programme. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet, Ministry of Finance, pp. 18.
The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV) (2001). Accrual accounting
in Swedish central government. Stockholm: ESV, pp. 46.
The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV) (2002). Conceptual
framework for the preparation and presentation of financial statements in central
government. Version 1.0. Stockholm: ESV, pp. 26.
The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV) (2003a). Annual report 2002.
Stockholm: ESV, pp. 52.
The Swedish National Financial Management Authority (ESV) (2003b). Performance
management in Swedish central government. Stockholm: ESV, pp. 21.
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APPENDIX: EXTRACTS
STATEMENTS
FROM
THE
ESV
2002
FINANCIAL
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Hoofdstuk 5: Sweden
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61
Hoofdstuk 6: United Kingdom
HOOFDSTUK 6 UNITED KINGDOM
6.1.
6.1.1.1.
The following table gives an overview of the most important accounting reforms in the United
Kingdom:
Initiative
Period
Initiative
1982
Next Steps Programme
1988
Objectives
-
White Paper Resource
1995
Accounting and Budgeting
(RAB) in Government
-
Government Resources
and Accounts Act
(GRAA)
-
2000
-
To formulate objectives and output measures,
To delegate responsibilities concerning finance and
personnel towards line management,
To improve the information flows.
To introduce an organisational split concerning the
policy preparation and the policy execution
To propose the implementation of accrual accounting
and budgeting
To introduce an integrated planning and reporting
cycle in which the governmentwide priorities are
translated in departmental budgets and strategies, and
parliamentary reporting on efficiency and
effectiveness is done in the resource accounts,
To draw up an accrual-based budget,
To draw up resource accounts by means of accrual
accounting rules.
Table 6.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in the United Kingdom.
Accrual accounting has already been introduced in the seventies in certain government
organisations, especially in the Non-Departmental Public Bodies10 (NDPBs). As a
consequence of the Next Steps Programme initiative of 1988, all agencies started working
with an accrual accounting system. So, only the departments continued working with a cashbased accounting system. The purpose of the RAB initiative was to change that. It led to the
introduction of the currently applicable Government Resources and Accounts Act 2000
(GRAA).
6.1.1.2.
Many actors are involved with the modernisation of the accounting system in the United
Kingdom. The following table gives an overview of the most important ones:
10
A non-departmental public body is a body which has a role in the processes of national government but is not
a government department or part of one.
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63
Actor
Role
HM Treasury
- Budget and Public Finance,
- Financial Management Reporting and Audit,
- Steering Committee on Resource Accounts
and Budgets.
The Financial Reporting Advisory Board to the
Treasury (FRAB)
-
To develop and implement the Resource
Accounting and Budgeting initiative
-
To advise the Treasury on the application of
the financial reporting requirements and
standards of the Resource Accounting
Manual, which is used as the basis for the
departmental resource accounts
The Public Accounts Committee (PAC)
-
To thoroughly examine the proposed
introduction of resource accounting and
budgeting
National Audit Office (NAO)
-
To examine the modernisation initiatives,
To follow up whether the timetable is
respected.
Table 6.2 – Actors involved in the accounting reforms in the United Kingdom.
HM Treasury, FRAB, PAC and NAO play a significant role in the accounting reforms in the
United Kingdom. Their role is now described in more detail.
HM Treasury was a very important actor for the introduction of Resource Accounting and
Budgeting (RAB). HM Treasury was responsible for the development of the new system as
well as for the follow up of the implementation. There was thus a strong and respected central
agency in support of the reform.
FRAB was established in 1996 with the aim of ensuring that resource accounts meet the best
possible standards of financial reporting by following the United Kingdom Generally
Accepted Accounting Practice (United Kingdom GAAP) as far as possible. The Board is
chaired by an of the Treasury independent person. The members include representatives from
the staff of the Comptroller and Auditor General (the external auditor of government and head
of the National Audit Office), the Audit Commission (which audits local government and
health organisations), the Accounting Standards Board (which sets the accounting standards
for the private sector), government departments and other public bodies, the Treasury, the
Office for National Statistics, the industry and the academic sector. The Treasury sets out the
reporting standards to be adopted and publishes them to departments in the Resource
Accounting Manual (RAM). The purpose of FRAB is to introduce an independent element
into this process. As a consequence, the Board has to be consulted on all additions and
changes, including proposals not to follow standard practice (Hepworth, 2002 pp.128).
The powerful PAC is chaired by a senior member of the opposition and supported by the
work of the Comptroller and Auditor General. The committee addressed some specific
questions concerning RAB to the government on which Treasury had to produce an answer
(Hepworth, 2002 pp.134). In the end PAC supported the switch to resource accounting which
it believed would improve the clarity and quality of financial information available to
Parliament. However, it took the view that the resource accounting system should not be
64
dispended with until Parliament was satisfied that the resource accounting system provided
the same levels of accountability and assurance as the cash-based system.
Also the role of NAO in the RAB initiative should not be underestimated. The responsibility
of NAO can, according to Hepworth, be summarised as follows (Hepworth, 2002 pp.140):
- “to comment on the proposals for the application of United Kingdom GAAP by
the Treasury,
- to advise Parliament (the Public Accounts Committee) on the implications of the
adoption of resource accounting and budgeting for parliamentary control,
- to develop audit arrangements so that the auditor would be able to issue a “true
and fair view” audit opinion,
- to carry out audits of the “shadow” resource accounts during the implementation
process,
- to advise on the risks during the process of change and to monitor the program of
change, reporting to the Public Accounts Committee as appropriate.”
6.1.1.3.
The pretext of the RAB initiative was rather micro-economic and combined with the
management of the institutions. The system for authorising, controlling and accounting for
public money had changed little since the middle of the nineteenth century. This system,
based almost solely on cash, gave a distorted picture of the cost of providing services,
building in perverse incentives and in particular a bias against essential long-term investment
(HM Treasury, 2001a pp.1). The managers of the organisations thus had a lack of instruments
in support of the management.
6.1.1.4.
The implementation of the new financial system was aimed at introducing the best practice
from commercial accounting in central government. This would enable the managers to work
efficiently and effectively and to contribute to the realisation of high quality government
services.
“This major reform of public finance brings to central government the highest
standards of financial management and reporting used in the rest of the economy,
providing better information for managers and better incentives to reward good
management.” (HM Treasury, 2002b pp.2)
6.1.1.5.
Since the introduction of the Government Resources and Accounts Act in 2000 the
accounting system is mainly seen as an instrument in support of policy and management. An
accrual-based accounting system offers a lot of advantages in comparison with a cash and
commitment accounting system. The RAB system also means a strengthening of the
accountability function. The five schedules and the notes to the accounts (see section
accounting format) together with the audit report form an extensive source of detailed
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65
information about the department. The whole-of-government accounts, to be produced in the
future, will support the macro-economic policy.
6.1.2.1.
The framework of the accounting principles and conventions for resource accounting in the
departments is based on the United Kingdom Generally Accepted Accounting Practice
(United Kingdom GAAP) (which is on its turn mainly based on the accounting and reporting
requirements of the Companies Act 1985 which applies to private sector companies) and
accounting standards, adapted to meet the particular requirements of central government and
parliamentary control. The aim was to ensure broad consistency with accounting practice in
the rest of the public sector and the private sector (Hepworth, 2002 pp.122).
There is a general consensus that GAAP is founded upon:
a. the accounting and disclosure requirements of the Companies Act 1985 (as amended by the
Companies Act 1989);
b. pronouncements by the Accounting Standards Board, principally comprising accounting standards
- Statements of Standard Accounting Practice (SSAPs) and Financial Reporting Standards (FRSs)
- and Urgent Issues Task Force abstracts;
c. the body of accumulated knowledge built up over time and promulgated in (for example)
textbooks, technical journals and research papers.
Table 6.3 - The United Kingdom Generally Accepted Accounting Practice (HM Treasury,
2003a pp.13).
After all, the Government Resources and Accounts Act 2000 (GRAA) requires that
government follows, as far as is practicable, the accounting standards used in the private
sector as required by the Companies Act. The requirement to consult FRAB was placed on a
statutory footing in GRAA (HM Treasury, 2001a pp.16). FRAB reviews changes proposed to
RAM, which the departments are required to follow in preparing their resource accounts.
GRAA also requires the Treasury to appoint an Accounting Officer for each department. The
Accounting Officer has to prepare the departmental resource accounts and to hand these over
to the Comptroller and Auditor General.
Treasury publishes two documents in which the guidelines of the accounting system are
worked out: Government Accounting11 and the Resource Accounting Manual12. The latter is
the technical accounting guide that complements the former. The different entities then can
draw up specific guidelines which are sufficiently detailed to satisfy their unique
circumstances.
The European System of Accounts sets particular requirements on the reporting of fixed
assets. These have to be taken into account when the whole-of-government accounts are
11
The Government Accounting 2000 can be found at http://www.governmentaccounting.gov.uk/current/frames.htm
12
The Resource Accounting Manual, 2002-2003 Edition published in February 2003 is available at the following
website: http://www.resource-accounting.gov.uk/current/frames.htm
66
drawn up. The compatibility of the resource accounts with the national accounts balance sheet
data should be improved.
6.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
The valuation rules are based on the debatable modified historical cost accounting principle
(= the current/fair value principle), by which fixed assets, investments in current assets and
stocks are valued at current values:
“There was some disagreement with the proposal to apply the modified historic
cost methodology for valuation of assets, which does not reflect current practice
within the private sector.” (Hepworth, 2002 pp.132)
6.1.2.3.
Actor
Role
Department
-
The Accounting Officer
-
HM Treasury
-
The departments have considerable
operational responsibilities without the need
to defer to central decisions,
Each department has to prepare a consolidated
set of resource accounts.
To be responsible for both operational and
service management, and for all aspects of
finance and accounting that is relevant to the
management of the service
To collect the departmental accounts in order
to publish consolidated statements
Table 6.4 -Actors involved in the accounting procedure.
Departments have considerable responsibilities. The resource accounting rules for example
specify that assets have to be valued and depreciated, but the way in which valuations are
done in practice and the periods for depreciations are left to the judgement of the departments.
The United Kingdom operates a unified system of management which is embodied by the
Accounting Officer (Hepworth, 2002 pp.116). HM Treasury is required to appoint a principal
accounting officer for each department. It is argued that an essential requirement of good
public management is that the manager has a comprehensive responsibility. If this is not the
case, the optimal incentive to ensure that the accounting system produces the necessary
information will not be available. This system is unlike some European countries where there
can be separate management and financial control hierarchies. The implementation of RAB
has not essentially changed the role of the Accounting Officer. However, a number of
different types of Accounting Officer have emerged from the focus on the department as a
defined reporting entity and as a result of the requirements of the GRAA: principal accounting
officers, additional accounting officers and agency accounting officers. The Accounting
Officer is now also required to produce a Statement of Internal Control (SIC) alongside the
accounts.
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Resource accounting has changed the role of the accountants in government. Their influence
and responsibilities have increased significantly. An evolution from a lower management
position towards a central position with key responsibilities has taken place. There exists a
Head of Government Accountancy Service. This appointment used to take place in a small
department, but now forms a key position within Treasury. In order to enable a successful
implementation, the number of accountants has also increased (see figure below). The reform
thus has consequences for the official administrative power structures because of the growth
in unaccustomed influence of accountancy.
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Junior Manager
Middle Manager
Senior Manager
03
20
02
20
00
2
20
91
-
89
19
19
19
82
19
19
83
Senior Civil Manager
73
Amount
Qualified Accountants
Period
Figure 6.1 - Evolution qualified accountants in the departments and executive agencies
(HM Treasury).
6.1.2.4.
Required reports
The resource accounting and budgeting system requires the production of financial statements
for both departments (the Department Financial Statements) and the central government as a
whole (the Whole-of-Government Accounts) (Hepworth, 2002 pp.125). The Department
Financial Statements are audited annually by NAO which reports the findings to Parliament.
The target was to produce Whole-of-Government Accounts (WGA) for the financial year
2005-2006. Because of different reforms in local government, which influence the local
statements, the target has been moved to the financial year 2006-2007. The WGA will
underpin the application of the golden rule13. The draw up of the WGA will make sure that
the commitment, which was taken in the Code for Fiscal Stability, to produce consolidated
statements will be kept.
The Resource Accounting & Budgeting Framework consists of the following financial and
non-financial documents.
13
“Over the economic cycle the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending”
68
Figure 6.2 - Resource Accounting and Budgeting Framework (RAB) (HM Treasury, 2001b
pp.5).
The grouping Planning, Budgeting and Parliamentary Authority was dealt with in a previous
report in which the budget and planning components were described (Scheers, Sterck, Van
Reeth, and Bouckaert, 2002). The grouping Reporting is described in this report.
6.1.3.1.
The United Kingdom has chosen to work with an accrual accounting system. Resource
accounts are prepared annually and summarise the financial results of the department for the
relevant financial year. The resource accounts are based on the principles of accrual
accounting and UK GAAP and in accordance with the Resource Accounting Manual. The
Treasury defines resource accounting or accrual accounting as follows:
Accruals accounting is a method of recording expenditure as it is incurred, and income as it is
earned, during an accounting period.
Table 6.5 - Definition of accruals accounting (HM Treasury, 2001b pp.13).
Bram Scheers
69
The objective of RAB is to handle the limitations of a cash-based system and as a
consequence to create a better management of the public capital. By providing resource
accounting information, i.e. information on accrual basis, data about the long term
consequences of the actions are given.
The resource accounts consist of a number of reports and schedules which are discussed
below.
6.1.3.2.
Format of the annual report and accounts of departments
The 2002-2003 edition of the RAM states that the annual report and accounts of the
departments have to contain the following (HM Treasury, 2003b):
The annual report and accounts of departments will include:
a. an annual report
b. a statement of the Accounting Officer’s responsibilities
c. a statement on internal control
d. the primary statements and notes to the accounts
e. the audit opinions and report
Table 6.6 – Format of the annual departmental reports.
6.1.3.3.
Format of the department financial statements
The financial statements of the resource accounts differ somewhat from the statements
produced in the private sector in order to take into account the context and the nature of
central government. Moreover, changes were necessary to make the financial information in
the resource accounts comparable with the departmental resource-based estimates. Formerly,
expenditure was reported against the cash votes within the departments. Nowadays, resource
accounts are reported against a whole department. The reporting entity has thus changed.
Departments now prepare an annual report and consolidated resource accounts covering all
entities within their departmental boundary.
The departmental boundary includes the following entities:
a. supply-financed agencies,
b. non-agency parts of both the department accounted for through the supply process and
other bodies whose expenditure is accounted for through the supply process, including nonexecutive non-departmental public bodies (NDPBs), such as Advisory NDPBs and Tribunal
NDPBs,
c.exceptionnaly, executive NDPBs or other public bodies not accounted for through the
supply process where there are good control reasons for consolidation,
d. National Health Service (NHS) health authorities and primary care trusts.
Table 6.7 - The departmental boundary (HM Treasury, 2003b).
Consolidated departmental resource accounts are produced by adapting and connecting
financial information from the financial statements of the individual entities within the
departmental group. The result of the changed reporting entity is that an Accounting Officer
70
(the Principal Accounting Officer) may now sign a resource account which includes elements
which were previously accounted for by another Accounting Officer responsible for a
separate appropriation account. Certain Accounting Officers (the Additional Accounting
Officers) thus no longer have an account to sign because their activities are accounted for as
part of the overall departmental operation (HM Treasury, 2002a pp.2).
The following table gives an overview of the content of the required financial statements
(Hepworth, 2002 pp.126):
The financial statements to be published comprise the following:
- Schedule 1: Summary of Resource Outturn: the parliamentary control schedule comparing
outturn with estimate for both resource expenditure and the overall cash requirement;
- Schedule 2: i) Operating Cost Statement: showing resources consumed during the year in support
of both the department’s own administration expenditure and its program expenditure, net of
departmental income; ii) Statement of Recognised Gains and Losses;
- Schedule 3: Balance Sheet: showing the assets and liabilities at the year end, which are
represented by taxpayers’ equity;
- Schedule 4: Cash Flow Statement: analysing the net cash flow by headings, including operating
activities, capital expenditure and financing;
- Schedule 5: Resources by Departmental Aim and Objectives: analysed by aim and objectives; and
- Notes to the accounts: explaining and amplifying the information in the previous schedules.
Table 6.8 - Format of the department financial statements.
Schedules 2, 3 and 4 correspond with the schedules used by the private sector. In the report
“Managing Resources: Full Implementation of Resource Accounting and Budgeting”, the
Treasury illustrates these five schedules by means of the main headings using the 1999-2000
accounts of the Department of Culture, Media and Sport. The illustrations are given in the
appendix. A more detailed explanation of the format of the different schedules is given in the
RAM.
6.1.3.4.
Time horizon
The resource accounts give information about the relevant financial year, as well as figures on
the preceding year. Thus, the outturn for 2001-2002 is placed next to the outturn of 20002001 in the resource accounts 2001-2002.
6.1.3.5.
Consolidation
GRAA requires the publication of a set of Whole-of-Government Accounts (WGA).
Government covers the whole of the public sector, although no final decisions have yet been
taken on what will fall within the WGA. The same accounting principles as underlie resource
accounting will be used. Until then, the consolidated financial statements will be based on a
cash basis. The objective of the WGA is on the one hand to provide better data to support the
golden rule, and on the other hand to allow the governmentwide balance sheet to be used in
fiscal management (Hepworth, 2002 pp.126).
Bram Scheers
71
Figure 6.3 - Whole-of-Government Accounts (HM Treasury, 2001b pp.18).
As the whole public sector has introduced accrual accounting on broadly the same basis, the
development of WGA should be facilitated. The main practical difficulty is perceived to be
the elimination of intra public sector transactions and balances.
6.2.
6.2.1. General
The introduction of resource accounting is a dynamic process. To ensure the process is
sufficiently documented and understood, annual editions of RAM are published. The list of
issues in the latest edition indicates a continuous process of development.
The announced timetable for consultation and implementation of resource accounting and
budgeting was the following:
-
to implement resource accounting in the majority of departments by 1 April 1997 and in all
departments by 1 April 1998,
the first year in which resource accounts were to be published and laid before Parliament would be
1999-2000,
the introduction of resource budgeting across government,
to consult on how a resource-based Public Expenditure Survey would work in practice,
partial resource-based Spending Review in 2000, dependent on the achievement of the above
mentioned target data and the results of further consultation,
to consult Parliament and others on how expenditure might be controlled on a resource basis and
on the consequent reporting arrangements,
the consultation period would last until 31 January 1995. Government would then publish as soon
as possible its detailed proposals for resource budgeting and the implications for Parliament.
Table 6.9 – The announced timetable of the implementation of RAB.
This timetable has been followed quite strictly as we can derive from the following citation of
Hepworth (Hepworth, 2002 pp.131):
72
“The experience in the United Kingdom is that frequently the timetables for such
innovative reforms tend to slip. However, in the event, this has not occurred.”
To demonstrate that the implementation program was in accordance with this timetable, four
trigger points were identified (HM Treasury, 2001c pp.6):
- “stage 1 approval” (April-December 1998) involving the Treasury receiving from
individual departments confirmation that they had accounting policies and systems in
place which would enable them to produce meaningful resource accounts,
- an assessment of departments’ opening balance sheet for 1999-2000 (April-June 1999),
- “stage 2 approval” including an audit by NAO of departments’ dry run resource accounts
for 1998-1999,
- departments make their “shadow” resource-based Estimates for 2000-2001 available to
their select committees.
Treasury and NAO then accurately monitored the departments’ performances against these
trigger points. However, the trigger points were not the only monitoring instrument. Treasury
as well as NAO had in place a continuing monitoring process to measure individual
departments’ progress.
It was foreseen that the RAB project would extend over eight years. It was also planned to
work with “double-running” accounting systems or two sets of accounts during three years,
namely from 1998 to 2001. In the first year, the resource accounts were drawn, but not
published. In the second year they were also published and in the third year, they were voted
on. The parallel accounting systems are now abolished and replaced by one accounting
system. The fact that the announced timetable exceeded the lifetime of one Parliament
indicates the broad political support for the initiative. This was confirmed when the Labour
party replaced the conservative government in 1997. The proposals were not changed
fundamentally; on the contrary, they have even been reinforced.
It can be stated that the steering of the reforms is top-down and that there is a lot of
institutional support by the Treasury and NAO. The development as well as the practical
guidance has been led by HM Treasury. The reforms are comprehensive as they apply to all
departments. The accounting reforms may also be described as rather incremental and
systematic. A clear timetable was announced to introduce the reform step by step and with a
clear systematic. RAB can be legally enforced as the reform is legally anchored in the
Government Resources and Accounts Act 200014.
6.2.2. Critical success and failure factors
During our research visit to the United Kingdom from 13 October 2003 until 17 October
2003, interviews were taken at HM Treasury, NAO, the Public Accounts Committee, Cabinet
Office, 2 departments (the Department of Culture, Media & Sports and the Department for
International Development) and 2 executive entities (Jobcentre Plus and Victoria & Albert
Museum). These interviews showed some critical success and failure factors concerning the
implementation of resource accounting.
14
The law can be found at the following website: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000020.htm
Bram Scheers
73
The critical success factors are the following:
- there was a broad political support for the initiative as PAC was strongly involved with
the implementation of RAB,
- the head of the Treasury was also a strong supporter of the reform,
- sufficient time was provided to implement the reform (the White Paper appeared in 1995
and RAB was fully implemented for the financial year 2001-2002),
- the use of trigger points to follow up the implementation,
- the departments may choose which software to use in order to support the RAB
framework,
- the set up of WGA is first tested or run on an experimental basis so that a lot of
difficulties can be identified beforehand.
The following may be mentioned as critical failure factors:
- in general it is stated that the politicians do not understand the resource-based documents.
As a consequence there is a limited parliamentary use and the perception that
parliamentary accountability has decreased. In order to handle this, HM Treasury plans to
review and simplify these documents as far as possible,
- it is difficult to make the public servants think in accrual terms (cultural shift),
- the analytical accounting system has not well been elaborated and it is rather used
retrospective,
- there was/is insufficient appropriate personnel (accountants) available within the
departments. In order to set up the opening balance many departments hired accountants,
- the practical value (contrary to the theoretical) and the importance of schedule 5 is not that
big because it is currently too subjective. NAO spends little time auditing schedule 5. The
emphasis is on the first four schedules. As a consequence, schedule 5 is currently under
review,
- the integration of the commercial accounting standards with the parliamentary
authorisation is a difficult issue. There is a lot of discussion about schedule 1, a schedule
which deviates from these of the private sector in order to be consistent with the budget,
- the departments consider the requirements of the central departments as very demanding,
- the local and central accounts must be tuned to each other in order to draw up the WGA,
- the publication of the WGA does not imply an incentive for the different actors because it
is in favour of the community and not in favour of individual interests.
Also a recent NAO report shows that departments and agencies still have a long way to go in
order to realise the full benefits of the RAB reform. NAO assessed 46 departments’ and
agencies’ progress in realising the full potential of accrual accounting to improve resource
management. Some 28 per cent have made good progress implementing accrual-based
accounting. They belong to the group in which monthly accrual-based management
information and annual financial statements are produced by the same process. The focus of
control is shifting to accrual-based targets and there is good use of financial and performance
data in decision-making. Around 37 per cent of the departments are progressing towards
accrual reporting, but management information on this basis is produced only periodically and
budgetary control is based on a hybrid of cash and accruals. Approximately 35 per cent (16
departments), however, still rely mainly on cash-based budgets and management information
and the preparation of accrual-based financial statements is a separate one-off exercise at the
year end to meet external reporting and accounting requirements. As such, these departments
74
have so far derived no or limited benefits from the new information. This slower progress was
attributed to insufficient financial expertise; operational staffs’ lack of understanding and
financial awareness; and older or incompatible IT systems (National Audit Office (NAO),
2003 pp.29).
REFERENCE LIST
Hepworth, N. (2002). Government budgeting and accounting reform in the United Kingdom.
OECD Journal on budgeting, 2 (supplement 1): 115-161.
HM Treasury (2001a). Better management of public services: resource budgeting and the
2002 spending review. Londen: HM Treasury, pp. 43.
HM Treasury (2001b). Managing resources: full implementation of resource accounting and
budgeting. Londen: HM Treasury, pp. 22.
HM Treasury (2001c). Managing resources: how the resource accounting and budgeting
project was managed. Londen: HM Treasury, pp. 19.
HM Treasury (2002a). Managing resources: accountability. Londen: HM Treasury, pp. 7.
HM Treasury (2002b). Managing resources: better decision taking in departments. Londen:
HM Treasury, pp. 17.
HM Treasury (2003a). Executive non-departmental public bodies: annual reports and
accounts guidance. Londen: HM Treasury, pp. 137.
HM Treasury (2003b). The resource accounting manual. 2002-2003 , Londen: HM Treasury
National Audit Office (NAO) (2003). Managing resources to deliver better public services.
Londen: NAO, pp. 51.
beheerscyclus: Begroting en planning.
Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie
Bram Scheers
75
APPENDIX: EXTRACTS FROM THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE, MEDIA AND SPORT
76
Bram Scheers
77
78
Hoofdstuk 7: United States
HOOFDSTUK 7 UNITED STATES
7.1.
7.1.1. Accounting Functions
7.1.1.1.
Initiative
Period
Objectives
Chief Financial Officers
(CFO) Act
1990
-
Government
1993
Performance and Results
Act (GPRA)
Government
1994
Management Reform Act
(GMRA)
-
1996
-
Federal Financial
Management
Improvement Act
(FFMIA)
-
-
Reports Consolidation
Act
2000
-
Joint Financial
Management
Improvement Program
(JFMIP) Principals’
Initiative
President’s Management
Agenda (PMA)
2001
-
Bram Scheers
2001
-
To require the preparation of annual audited
financial statements in conformity with applicable
accrual standards,
To create Chief Financial Officers (CFO)
positions,
To require that agency CFOs develop and
maintain integrated agency accounting and
financial management systems.
To require agencies to submit strategic plans,
performance plans and performance reports
To require the audit of agency-wide financial
statements,
To require the preparation and audit of financial
statement for the entire US Government.
To direct auditors to report on whether CFO Act
agencies are following systems requirements,
accounting standards and the Standard General
Ledger,
To emphasize the need for the CFO Act agencies
to have financial management systems that can
generate timely, accurate, and useful information
with which to make informed decisions and to
ensure accountability on an ongoing basis.
To allow an agency to combine its audited
financial statements and its performance report
into one annual report to provide a more
comprehensive and useful picture of the services
provided
To make substantive deliberations and agreements
focused on key financial management success,
To significantly accelerate financial statement
reporting.
To improve financial management performance by
ensuring that federal financial systems produce
accurate and timely information to support
operating, budget and policy decisions
79
Accountability of Tax
Dollar Act
2002
-
To require annual audited financial statements
from most executive branch entities not previously
required to prepare and submit such reports
Table 7.1 – Historical overview of the accounting reforms in the United States.
Federal accounting reforms should be viewed in the context of cyclical waves of government
management improvement reform. The results in the 1990s were made possible by activities
in the previous two decades (Chan, 2002 pp.207). The US rapidly introduced a full accrual
basis for its financial reporting. The enactment of the CFO Act in 1990 spearheaded this
development. It required that agencies’ trust funds, revolving funds and substantial
commercial activities be covered by accrual financial statements (Blöndal, Kraan, and
Ruffner, 2003 pp.45). The management side of OMB was strengthened by the CFO Act. The
legislation designated a deputy director of OMB as the CFO for the entire US Government
and created similar CFO positions in the 2415 major executive departments and agencies
which account for 99% of the US federal budget. The CFO Act is considered as the latest
round of financial management reform. It laid the basics of financial management. Soon
thereafter, the focus on finance was broadened to management by a series of legislation
(GPRA, GMRA and FFMIA). These laws cemented a closer relationship between finance and
management in general. GMRA extended the requirements for accrual financial statements to
all of the activities of the agencies covered by the CFO Act and required that an annual
government-wide financial statement be prepared on an accrual basis. There is thus a mix of
accounting legislation which is currently applicable as for example the CFO Act, GMRA,
FFMIA and the Reports Consolidation Act.
Recently, there has been an increasing emphasis on improving financial management from the
highest levels of government. This is illustrated by the JFMIP Principals’ Initiative and the
President’s Management Agenda.
7.1.1.2.
Actor
Role
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board
(FASAB)
-
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
- Office of Federal Financial Management
-
General Accounting Office (GAO)
-
15
To promulgate applicable accounting and
reporting standards for federal government,
To improve the usefulness of federal financial
reports.
To issue circulars and guidance on financial
management issues,
To determine the form and content of the
financial statements of federal agencies.
To make recommendations looking to greater
economy or efficiency in public expenditures,
To follow up the implementation of the
reforms,
To set accounting standards for the federal
All 14 Cabinet departments and 10 major agencies are subject to the CFO Act.
80
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
-
Senate Governmental Affairs Committee
House Committee on Government Operations
CFO Council
-
American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants (AICPA)
-
Joint Financial Management Improvement
Program (JFMIP) Steering Committee
-
government,
To prescribe standards of internal accounting
and administrative control.
To participate in FASAB in order to offer
insight regarding Congressional information
needs
To initiate the CFO Act
To initiate the CFO Act
To co-ordinate actions to improve financial
management throughout the government
To recognize FASAB as the GAAP standard
setter for federal entities,
To execute five-year reviews of FASAB.
To promote strategies and to guide financial
management improvement across government,
To review and coordinate central agencies’
activities and policy promulgations,
To act as catalyst and clearinghouse for
sharing and disseminating information about
good financial management practices.
Table 7.2 - Actors involved in the accounting reforms in the United States.
American presidents since Franklin Roosevelt have regarded financial management, including
accounting, to be an executive function that should be under the administration’s control.
However, Congress considered accounting policy to be an extension of its budget authority
and oversight function. This was used as justification for the legislative branch’s involvement
in making federal accounting policy. Specifically, the 1950 Budget and Accounting
Procedures Act directed GAO, in consultation with OMB and Treasury, to prescribe
accounting rules and procedures to be followed by executive departments and agencies,
whose accounting systems also had to be approved by GAO (Chan, 2002 pp.204).
The 1990 CFO Act, a legislative initiative from the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee
and the House Committee on Government Operations (the two congressional committees with
jurisdiction over managerial oversight), did not alter GAO’s status of the government’s
auditor, but added a complication to the already complex jurisdictional issue of who should
set federal accounting standards. It authorised OMB to determine the “form and content” of
financial statements of federal agencies, but did not change the GAO’s long-standing role in
prescribing accounting standards. To ensure the relevancy of federal accounting standards, the
secretary of the Treasury, the director of OMB, and the Comptroller General of GAO by 1990
reached an agreement to a cooperative approach to the standard-setting process by
establishing the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB). The membership of
FASAB was carefully calibrated to reflect the interests of all concerned: three from the
sponsors, two from the federal agencies, one from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO),
and three public (i.e. non-federal) members. Over the next decade, FASAB would recommend
these officials to issue numerous accounting and reporting standards. The FASAB acquired
greater stature and independence when its standards were recognised as Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles (GAAP) by the AICPA in late 1999 (Chan, 2002 pp.205). AICPA
recently appointed a panel to review FASAB’s continuing authority to set GAAP for the
federal government under rule 203 of the AICPA Code of Conduct.
Bram Scheers
81
Federal accounting rules are thus promulgated by an advisory board sponsored by the
principal federal fiscal officers and recognised by the auditing profession. An accounting
standard is typically formulated initially as a proposal after considering the financial and
budgetary information needs of citizens, congressional oversight groups, executive agencies
and the needs for other users of federal financial information. The proposed standard is
published in an Exposure Draft for public comment. The Board considers comments and
decides whether to adopt the proposed standard, with of without modification. After review
by the three officials who sponsor FASAB, the Board publishes the adopted standards.
The CFO for the entire US Government and the CFOs of the executive departments and
agencies form a CFO council. Other members are the OMB’s Controller and Treasury’s
Fiscal Assistant Secretary. They are looking amongst other things at ways to develop and
maintain integrated accounting and financial management systems. They are to advise
agencies and coordinate their activities on financial management matters.
The JFMIP Steering Committee is responsible for the general direction of the Program.
Leadership and program guidance are provided by the four Principals of the JFMIP: the
Secretary of the Treasury, the Directors of OMB and the Office of Personnel Management,
and the Comptroller General of the United States.
7.1.1.3.
Persistent and record levels of federal deficits, reaching close to $300 billion in fiscal year
1992, created a perception that the federal government’s financial house was not in order. A
sense of urgency emerged that more concrete actions were necessary. In the 1980s, financial
management, a routine bureaucratic function, became politically visible when frauds, waste
and abuse were attributed to financial management. When investigations were conducted, a
frequent finding was that the financial information from agency accounting systems was
unreliable and inconsistent. This gave rise to the need for better federal accounting as part of
improvements to federal financial management during the past decade (Chan, 2002 pp.204).
7.1.1.4.
The purposes of the CFO Act were to ensure improvement in agency systems of accounting,
financial management and internal control; to assure the issuance of reliable financial
information; and to deter fraud, waste and abuse of government resources (Federal
Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), 2003a pp.19). The CFOs were introduced
in order to bring cohesion and effectiveness to the financial function.
The new federal accounting standards are aimed to improve the fulfilment of the
government’s duty to be publicly accountable. They can be used to assess (1) the
government’s accountability and its efficiency and effectiveness; and (2) the economic,
political and social consequences of the allocation and various uses of federal resources.
More recent legislation focuses on the modernization of the financial systems to generate
reliable, useful and timely financial information throughout the year and at year-end so that
informed decisions can be made.
82
7.1.1.5.
The accounting used to focus on monitoring budget execution. Today there is increased
realisation that managing the government entails more than strict budgetary control.
Competent public officials and financial managers make decisions and carry out transactions
and activities to accomplish agency missions. Therefore, the accounting systems must
support the management function so that information for decision making and monitoring the
transactions and activities is provided. Another function is to provide data for the fair
presentation of the government’s financial position and operations to external users. Under
the influence of this internal and external orientation, government accounting and financial
reporting has become more autonomous from budgeting.
7.1.2.1.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 is one of the foundations of the contemporary
organizational and legal framework for the federal financial management. The Budget and
Accounting Procedures Act of 1950 further realigned and defined financial management
responsibilities. Amongst other things, this law gave GAO authority to set accounting
standards for the federal government. The law requires the head of each agency to establish
and maintain systems of accounting and internal control designed to provide, amongst other
things, effective control over and accountability for all funds, property and other assets
(Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), 2003a pp.18).
The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 requires federal agencies to prepare, and submit
for audit, financial statements for the entire organization in conformity with applicable
standards. Under this Act, this requirement applied to trust funds, revolving funds,
commercial type activities and 10 pilot agencies. The Government Management Reform
Act of 1994 required all the CFO Act agencies to have annual audited financial statements
covering the entire agency. The Reports Consolidation Act of 2000 builds on this 1994 Act.
FASAB standards have affirmed the important role of accounting and financial reports in
monitoring budget execution and in ensuring compliance and deterring fraud, waste and
abuse. The board also believes that federal financial reports should assist their users in
evaluating the operating performance of federal agencies, and in assessing the impact of the
federal government’s operations and investments on the financial condition of the nation.
These objectives led FASAB to recommend cost accounting standards in addition to financial
accounting and reporting standards (Chan, 2002 pp.206). The FASAB standards are
recognized as GAAP for the federal government.
The Board publishes the adopted standards in a Statement of Federal Financial Accounting
Standards (SFFAS). It also publishes Statements of Federal Financial Accounting
Concepts (SFFAC), which guide the Board in developing accounting standards and
formulating the framework for Federal accounting and reporting. FASAB is currently
working on the concepts project to ensure that the Federal Financial Accounting Standards are
Bram Scheers
83
based on a sound framework of objectives and fundamental concepts regarding the nature of
accounting, financial statements and other communications methods.
Also OMB issues some OMB Circulars, Bulletins and Memoranda. OMB Bulletin 01-0916
for example requires agencies to consolidate their audited financial statements and other
financial and performance reports into combined Performance and Accountability Reports
and accelerates the deadline for submission (Office of Management and Budget (OMB),
2001).
There are also six Title 2 accounting standards of the GAO Policy and Procedures Manual
for Guidance of Federal Agencies which are still not superseded by FASAB issuances.
7.1.2.2.
Valuation rules
All assets should be recorded at historical cost. If not possible, the cost should be estimated
fair value at the time acquired by the government. The fact that full accrual, rather than
modified accrual, was recommended by FASAB meant that the federal government’s balance
sheets would include present capital assets and long-term liabilities. Federal resources not
recognisable as assets (e.g. national monuments) and federal responsibilities not recognisable
as liabilities (e.g. social insurance benefits) are reported separately in a “Stewardship Report”.
This approach acknowledges their importance and intractable conceptual and measurement
problems.
7.1.2.3.
Since accountants and auditors have a professional image of financial discipline and
conservatism, their profile was raised in the latest round of financial management reform
launched by the 1990 CFO Act. Before, the financial managers, including accountants, were
relegated to secondary roles and dominated by the budget offices. The CFO now holds one of
the most important jobs in a department or agency and reports directly to the Secretary. The
CFOs are charged with overseeing all aspects of financial management, especially the
development and maintenance of integrated systems and the production of reliable financial
information. The information is used in part to prepare audited agency financial statements
which meet applicable accounting standards.
The Treasury Department is the federal government’s cash manager and bookkeeper. There is
no system of departments and agencies having accounts in commercial banks. Amongst other
things, the Treasury performs central accounting functions. The Treasury is also required to
provide periodic financial reports and the annual report to Congress.
Thus, the most important actors are the CFOs and the Treasury as each agency and
department prepares financial statements on a full accrual basis, and the Treasury Department
consolidates these into the government-wide financial statements.
16
For the Bulletin see: http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/bulletins/b01-09.pdf
84
7.1.2.4.
Required reports
According to OMB Bulletin 01-09, agencies were required to submit semi-annual interim
financial statements in fiscal year 2002 and are to submit quarterly statements from fiscal year
2003 onwards (Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 2001 pp.14).
Federal agencies are also required to submit annual financial or accountability reports (by the
CFO Act) and performance reports (by GPRA) to OMB and Congress. To improve efficiency,
the Reports Consolidation Act of 2000 allows agencies to combine financial data and
performance data into one report and submit it to Congress and OMB within 150 days of the
end of the fiscal year. OMB had urged agencies to submit the consolidated accountability
reports since 1997 and in October 2002 instructed all agencies covered under the 1990 CFO
Act to submit combined performance and financial reports. Thus, beginning with the FY 2002
reporting cycle, performance and accountability reports that present both performance and
financial reports are required.
It is also required that the Treasury provides periodic financial reports and the annual report to
Congress. The JFMIP Principals have agreed to significantly accelerate financial statement
reporting. From fiscal year 2004 onwards, audited agency financial statements are to be issued
no later than November 15, just 45 days after the fiscal year ends. The US government’s
audited consolidated financial statements become due by December 15 (Everson, 2001).
7.1.3.1.
The US federal government has long had a functioning budgetary accounting system that
keeps track of the spending of budgetary resources in terms of obligations and outlays. Today
there is increased realisation that managing the government entails more than strict budgetary
control. As a consequence, accrual accounting is now a requirement for the federal
government. The FASAB’s endorsement of the accrual basis has several new aspects. First,
accruals apply to the entire federal financial reporting model. Second, full accrual rather than
modified accrual was recommended.
However, FASAB also requires the reconciliation of actual and budgeted financial results. As
it lacks the authority to set budgeting standards, it accepts budgeting rules as the basis for
making the comparison.
The basis of accounting used is defined as accrual basis. However, considering that some
federal government assets are not reported in the balance sheet the basis of accounting could
be properly defined as a modified accrual basis (but very close to the accrual) (Cortes, 2001
pp.236).
7.1.3.2.
The CFO Act requires agency CFOs to prepare and transmit an annual report to the agency
head and the Director of OMB including a summary of the reports on internal accounting and
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administrative control systems submitted to the President under the Federal Managers’
Financial Integrity Act.
GPRA has led to performance reporting on a comprehensive basis. The Reports Consolidation
Act of 2000 allows an agency to combine its performance report, as required by GPRA, with
the audited financial statements, as required by the CFO Act, to provide a more
comprehensive and useful picture of the services provided. OMB Bulletin 01-09 now requires
agencies to consolidate their audited financial statements and other financial and performance
reports into combined Performance and Accountability Reports (Federal Accounting
Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), 2003a pp.9).
The annual report or the “annual financial statement” of a reporting entity should consist of
(Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 2001 pp.4):
- a management’s discussion and analysis,
- basic statements and related notes,
- required supplementary stewardship information,
- required supplementary information.
In addition, the report may include “other accompanying information”. Each consolidated
report must also include an assessment from the agency head verifying the reliability of the
agency’s performance data and a summary from the inspector general addressing the agency’s
management challenges.
7.1.3.3.
The financial statements are included in the annual report under the topic “basic statements”
(see above). The CFO Act requires that the financial statements include the following (Chan,
2002 pp.206):
- a balance sheet,
- a statement of net costs,
- a statement of changes in net position,
- a statement of budgetary resources,
- a statement of financing,
- a statement of custodial activities, when applicable.
The body of the basic statements should contain summary information and the detail should
be reported in notes to the statements. The illustrative format displays, from the OMB
Bulletin 01-09, for these statements are given in the appendix. Agencies may modify the
displays to best present the information for their programs.
SFFAC 2 refers to a statement of program performance measures. However, footnote 9 of
SFFAC 2 says: “The Board does not consider the Statement of Program Performance
Measures to be a basic financial statement” (Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board
(FASAB), 2002 pp.3). Fund accounting is also required for federal agencies to demonstrate
compliance with requirements of legislation.
The fact that a lot of agencies still face problems in producing these basic statements is shown
by the following quote (Walker, 2002 pp.3):
86
“Many agencies have been able to obtain unqualified audit opinions only by
expending significant resources on extensive ad hoc procedures and making
billions of dollars in adjustments to derive financial statements months after the
end of a fiscal year.”
In response to a parliamentary question, GAO produced a letter to identify the core financial
systems used at each of the CFO Act agencies as of September 30, 2002, and the status of any
agency plans to update core financial systems (General Accounting Office (GAO), 2003b).
GAO states in different reports that the successful implementation of financial management
systems is key for improved financial reporting (General Accounting Office (GAO), 2003a)
(Thompson, 2003).
While integrated cost accounting systems still are largely under development, some agencies
have been using one form of cost accounting, activity-based costing, to glean more accurate
information about discrete operations. Tying financial data to performance is a challenge for
virtually every agency.
7.1.3.4.
Time horizon
The six basic statements identified above, and the related footnotes, should present balances
and amounts for the current year and the prior year (Office of Management and Budget
(OMB), 2001 pp.5). There is thus a two-year time horizon.
7.1.3.5.
Consolidation
Collectively the FASAB standards require the preparation and issuance of consolidated
financial statements for the US Government and its constituent component units under the full
accrual basis of accounting. The experience at the agency level built the foundation for the
release for the first time of audited government-wide financial statements for the fiscal year
1996.
The consolidated financial statements of the United States Government consist of (Cortes,
2001 pp.236):
- a management’s discussion and analysis (MD&A),
- a balance sheet,
- a statement of net cost,
- a statement of changes in net position,
- notes to the financial statements,
- supplementary information, which includes a Stewardship section.
SFFAS 24 states for the first time that all SFFASs apply to all federal entities (including the
consolidated government wide entity) unless a standard specifically provides otherwise. In
addition, it clarifies that the statement of budgetary resources and the statement of financing,
while relevant for agencies executing the budget, are not required for the government-wide
Consolidated Financial Report (CFR). However, SFFAS 24 requires new statements for the
CFR, but not for agencies or departments. The new statements provide information on net
operating revenue (or cost), budget surplus (or deficit) and cash. The new statements are
Bram Scheers
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principal CFR financial statements and are to be presented on a comparative basis (Federal
Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), 2003b).
Testimonies of the Comptroller General on the government financial statements show there
are still a lot of problems with the consolidated financial statements. Progress is being made
in addressing impediments to an unqualified opinion, but many of the pervasive and generally
long-standing material weaknesses they have reported on still have not been fully resolved
(Walker, 2002) (Walker, 2003).
7.2.
The CFO Act was a legislative initiative from the two congressional committees with
jurisdiction over managerial oversight. OMB, GAO and the Treasury played an important role
in the drafting of the legislation. OMB provided most of the guidance on the form and content
of the financial statements through the bulletins it issued. The accounting reforms were and
still are top-down initiatives.
Strong centralized leadership is seen as a key to solve the government’s long-standing
financial management problems. The CFO Act provided for such leadership by giving OMB
broad, new authority and responsibility for directing federal financial management. The Act
created a new position (the Deputy Director for Management) and a new Office of Federal
Financial Management, headed by the Controller (not to be confused with the US Comptroller
General, who is head of the legislative audit office), to spearhead the implementation of the
CFO Act.
In the United States, there was also the belief that influential financial management leadership
is as important at the agency level as it is at central level. For this reason, it was decided that
an agency CFO had to be a key figure in an agency’s top management team. Follow-up
reports of GAO further ensure the attention for the implementation of the reforms. FFMIA
e.g. requires GAO to report annually on the implementation of the act. OMB’s agency
management scorecard is also an instrument to follow up and rate the progress agencies made
towards the fulfilment of an improved financial performance. This has been strengthened by
the “proud to be” exercise. This new initiative, outlined in a memorandum (Johnson, 2003),
has set a deadline of July 1, 2004, for agencies to meet new performance targets under the
administration’s five-point management agenda, of which financial management is one of it.
Also FASAB has authorized its staff to prepare FASAB technical bulletins to provide
guidance on certain financial accounting and reporting problems. Thus, there was and still is a
lot of institutional support foreseen as well as from the top as in the departments and agencies.
The accounting reforms can be described as comprehensive as the CFO Act departments and
agencies account for 99% of the budget. However, the accounting reform process has been a
long series of trial-and-error experiments. It took almost 60 years (between 1930 to 1990) to
satisfactorily resolve the issue of who should set federal accounting standards. Once this was
settled, it took another 10 years to come up with a fairly complete set of standards. The
implementation was incremental. The CFO Act was firs applied in 10 pilot agencies. Thus,
public accounting can be seen as a continuous series of experiments.
88
Finally, the US has chosen to anchor the accounting reforms in a lot of legislation and
accounting standards.
REFERENCE LIST
Blöndal, J. R., Kraan, D.-J. & Ruffner, M. (2003). Budgeting in the United States. OECD
Journal on budgeting, 3 (2): 7-53.
Chan, J. L. (2002). Government budget and accounting reforms in the United States. OECD
Journal on budgeting, 2 (supplement 1): 187-223.
Cortes, J. L. (2001). Accounting for capital assets in the public sector: difference between
accounting standards boards in the United States. In: Bac, A. International
comparative issues in government accounting. The similarities and differences
between central government accounting and local government accounting within or
between countries., Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 223-50.
Everson, M. W. (2001). Future external reporting changes. Washington, D. C.: OMB, pp.
3.
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) (2002). Potential projects - fall
2002. Washington, D. C.: FASAB, pp. 11.
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) (2003a).
concepts. Washington, D. C.: FASAB, pp. 45.
Briefing materials -
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) (2003b). Selected standards for the
consolidated financial report of the United States government. Washington, D. C.:
FASAB, pp. 28.
General Accounting Office (GAO) (2003a). Financial management. Sustained efforts needed
to achieve FFMIA accountability. Washington, D. C.: GAO, pp. 70.
General Accounting Office (GAO) (2003b). Financial management systems: core financial
systems at the 24 chief financial officers act agencies. Washington, D. C.: GAO, pp.
26.
Johnson, C. (2003). Clay Johnson's "where we'd be proud to be" memo.
Executive Magazine: 2.
Government
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) (2001). OMB bulletin no. 01-09. Form and
content of agency financial statements. Washington, D. C.: OMB, pp. 119.
Thompson, S. E. (2003). Financial management. Recurring financial systems problems
hinder FFMIA compliance. Washington, D. C.: GAO, pp. 29.
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89
Walker, D. M. (2002). US government financial statements. FY 2001 results highlight the
continuing need to accelerate federal financial management reform. Washington, D.
C.: GAO, pp. 43.
Walker, D. M. (2003). Fiscal year 2002 U.S. government financial statements. Sustained
leadership and oversight needed for effective implementation of financial management
reform. Washington, D. C.: GAO, pp. 43.
90
APPENDIX:
EXTRACTS
STATEMENTS
Bram Scheers
FROM
ILLUSTRATIVE
FINANCIAL
91
92
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94
Bram Scheers
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96
Hoofdstuk 8: Conclusie: situering Vlaanderen in een internationale context
HOOFDSTUK 8 CONCLUSIE: SITUERING VLAANDEREN IN EEN
INTERNATIONALE CONTEXT
In dit laatste hoofdstuk worden de bevindingen van de landenstudies samengebracht. Het is de
bedoeling om uit de eerder gedetailleerde landeninformatie meer algemene trends op te
maken. Vlaanderen wordt dan telkens ten opzichte van deze internationale trends
gepositioneerd. Dit gebeurt zowel voor de huidige Vlaamse situatie als voor de toekomstige
zoals beschreven in het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet.
Het hoofdstuk vat aan met de belangrijkste algemene bevindingen in verband met de
boekhoudfuncties. De historiek van de hervormingen, de actoren betrokken bij het tot stand
komen van de nieuwe boekhoudinitiatieven, de aanleiding en de doelstellingen van die
initiatieven worden hierbij besproken.
Ten tweede komen de boekhoudprocedures aan bod. De bevindingen met betrekking tot de
regelgeving en boekhoudnormen, de gehanteerde waarderingsregels, de belangrijkste actoren
en de af te leveren rapporten worden hier weergegeven.
Daarna is er aandacht voor de formattering van de boekhouding. Aan de hand van het soort
boekhouding (kas of accrual), de inhoud van de jaarrapporten, de formattering van de
financiële rekeningen, de tijdshorizon en de consolidatie worden de internationale trends
gedefinieerd.
Vervolgens komen de algemene bevindingen van de gevolgde implementatiestrategieën aan
bod. Deze bieden inzicht in hoe de Vlaamse regering de implementatie van het voorontwerp
van comptabiliteitsdecreet het best kan aanpakken.
Het hoofdstuk wordt tenslotte afgesloten met een vergelijking tussen de boekhoudsystemen en
de prestatiemeetsystemen.
8.1.
BOEKHOUDFUNCTIES
De volgende tabel geeft een overzicht van de belangrijkste boekhoudinitiatieven, de
belangrijkste actoren, de aanleiding voor en de doelstellingen van de boekhoudhervormingen
in de verschillende onderzochte landen. Deze worden hierna toegelicht.
Historiek
-
Bram Scheers
Australië
Improvement Program
(1983-84)
Accrual reporting for
departments (1995-1998)
Commonwealth
Authorities and
Companies Act (1997)
and Accountability Act
(1997)
Auditor-General Act
(1997)
Accrual-based outcomes
-
Canada
Strategy (1989-19952001)
Improved Reporting to
Parliament (1995)
Modern Comptrollership
(1997)
Results for Canadians
(2000)
-
Nederland
Cash and commitment
accounting system (19891992)
agencies (1995)
VBTB (1999-2002)
central government
departments (2000-2006)
Governments Accounts
Act (2002)
97
Actoren
-
Aanleiding
-
Doelstellingen
-
Historiek
-
& outputs budgeting and
reporting framework
(1999-2000)
Standard setting boards
and Administration
Joint Committee of
Public Accounts and
Audit
Australian National
Audit Office
Voornamelijk
ondersteuning
management
Betere verantwoording
Beter financieel
management
Zweden
Performance
management (1988)
Accrual accounting (late
1980s-1993)
VESTA (1997-2000)
-
Public Sector Accounting
Board
Treasury Board
Secreteriat
Standing Committee on
Public Accounts
Office of the Auditor
General
Voornamelijk
ondersteuning
management
Meer transparantie en
betere verantwoording
Beter management
Verenigd Koninkrijk
Initiative (1982)
Next Steps Programme
(1988)
White paper Resource
Accounting and
Budgeting (1995)
and Accounts Act (2000)
-
-
Voornamelijk meer
efficiëntie realiseren
-
Integratie financieel en
management accounting
Verenigde Staten
Act (1990)
Government
Management Reform Act
(1994)
Federal Financial
Improvement Act (1996)
Act (2000)
Joint Financial
Management
Improvement Program
Principals’ Initiative
(2001)
President’s Management
Agenda (2001)
Federal Accounting
Standards Advisory
Board
Office of Management
and Budget
General Accounting
Office
Verouderd financieel
management
-
Actoren
-
Aanleiding
-
Doelstellingen
-
Ministry of Finance
Swedish National
Authority (ESV)
Swedish National Audit
Office
-
De delegatie en
decentralisatie naar het
management
Het opvolgen van
prestaties mogelijk
maken
Kost en management
accounting
-
-
-
HM Treasury
Financial Reporting
Advisory Board
Public Accounts
Committee
National Audit Office
Ministry of Finance
The Public Expenditure
Committee
The Netherlands Court of
Audit
-
Voornamelijk
ondersteuning
management
Efficiëntie en effectiviteit doen toenemen
Verbetering van de
verantwoording
Beter financieel
management
Tabel 8.1 – Landenoverzicht boekhoudfuncties.
8.1.1. Historiek van de hervormingen
Internationaal: een lange traditie in boekhoudhervormingen
Het is opvallend dat de onderzochte landen reeds lange tijd actief zijn op het vlak van
boekhoudhervormingen. De beslissing om met een bedrijfseconomische boekhouding te
werken in de volledige centrale overheidssector werd in de meeste landen al in het begin van
98
de jaren 90 genomen. Zo werd in Australië al in 1992 aangekondigd dat al de departementen
accrual rapporten zouden moeten opmaken. In Zweden werd het project accrual accounting
zelfs al op het einde van de jaren 80 opgestart. Het Canadese Financial Information Strategy
initiatief dateert eveneens van eind de jaren 80, maar het was in feite in 1995 dat de beslissing
tot invoering van een acrrual boekhouding werd genomen. De Chief Financial Officers Act
van 1990 zorgde voor de snelle introductie van accrual boekhouden in de Verenigde Staten.
Als gevolg van het Next Steps Programme van 1988 begonnen alle agentschappen in het
Verenigd Koninkrijk te werken met een accrual boekhoudsysteem. Het RAB initiatief van
1995 wou dit ook invoeren voor de departementen. Nederland vormt hier een uitzondering
aangezien deze beslissing in 2000 werd genomen.
Er kan min of meer worden gesteld dat de accrual boekhouding via initieel gebruik in de
overheidsbedrijven verder werd verspreid naar de agentschappen toe om tenslotte ook in de
departementen te worden geïmplementeerd. Deze invoering verliep niet altijd van een leien
dak en vereiste veelal meerdere pogingen of initiatieven. Al de bestudeerde landen, met
uitzondering van Nederland, hebben intussen ook een accrual boekhouding ingevoerd in de
departementen. In Nederland werd de beslissing om een accrual boekhouding in te voeren
voor de departementen pas in 2000 genomen terwijl deze al sinds 1995 wordt gebruikt in de
opgerichte agentschappen. De voltooiing van de laatste stap, een accrual boekhouding in de
departementen, is voorzien in 2006.
Vlaanderen: beperkte traditie in boekhoudhervormingen
Vlaanderen kent geen zo een uitgebreide historiek van boekhoudhervormingen. Dit is
voornamelijk te wijten aan het feit dat Vlaanderen niet bevoegd was om haar eigen
comptabiliteit te regelen. Door de bijzondere wet van 16 januari 1989 betreffende de
financiering van de gemeenschappen en de gewesten werd voor de deelgebieden een eigen
regeling in het vooruitzicht gesteld betreffende de begroting, de boekhouding en de controle.
Pas op 16 mei 2003 werd de federale wet die het kader moest scheppen waarbinnen de
decreetgever kan opereren goedgekeurd en bekrachtigd. Vlaanderen kan nu bijgevolg zelf
haar comptabiliteit regelen. Er wordt daar momenteel volop aan gewerkt en dit heeft
voorlopig geresulteerd in het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet. In dit voorontwerp
wordt er gesteld dat de Vlaamse overheid een economische boekhouding met een analytisch
component zal voeren. Vlaanderen volgt hiermee de internationale trend naar een accrual
boekhouding.
Ondanks het feit dat Vlaanderen nu pas haar eigen comptabiliteit kan regelen, betekent dit niet
dat er tot nu toe enkel gewerkt werd met een kas- en verplichtingenstelsel. Op basis van
artikel 9 van de bijzondere wet van 8 augustus 1980 tot hervorming der instellingen kan de
decreetgever immers in een specifieke regeling voorzien voor de instellingen van openbaar
nut die door de gemeenschappen en gewesten worden opgericht. De Vlaamse Gemeenschap
heeft dit inmiddels reeds gedaan voor een aantal instellingen. Het besluit van 21 mei 1997
verplichtte de Vlaamse Openbare Instellingen (VOIs) een geïntegreerde economische
boekhouding en budgettaire rapportering te voeren. Ook binnen het Vlaams Ministerie werd
er kennis opgebouwd in verband met een economische boekhouding. In 1999 werd er gestart
met het opzetten van een nieuw financieel systeem waardoor het voeren van een economische
boekhouding, naast een budgettaire boekhouding, mogelijk werd.
Bram Scheers
99
8.1.2. Actoren
Internationaal: sterke centrale aansturing
Er zijn heel wat actoren betrokken bij de boekhoudhervormingen. Een eerste belangrijke actor
die in al de onderzochte landen voorkomt, is het Ministerie van Financiën. Deze actor richt
zich vooral op het uitstippelen en aansturen van de boekhoudhervormingen en omvat meestal
een sterke managementafdeling (bvb. het Amerikaanse Office of Federal Financial
Management van het Office of Management and Budget of de Swedish National Financial
Management Authority, een agentschap van het Zweedse Ministerie van Financiën). Een
tweede actor die in alle landen een rol speelt is het equivalent van het Belgische Rekenhof.
Dit gebeurt via het deelnemen in werkgroepen omtrent de hervormingsinitiatieven, het
opvolgen van de implementatie en het verspreiden van beste praktijken en richtlijnen. Ook de
wetgevende macht (via de commissie van financiën) speelt in verschillende landen een
invloedrijke rol bij het invoeren van boekhoudhervormingen. Het Australische Joint
Committee of Public Accounts and Audit bijvoorbeeld uitte het verlangen om te evolueren
naar een accrual-gebaseerde begroting, boekhouding en rapportering. Het Canadese Standing
Committee on Public Accounts was een sterke ondersteunder van het FIS initiatief en in het
Verenigd Koninkrijk was het Public Accounts Committee dan weer actief bij de uitwerking
van het Resource Accounting and Budgeting initiatief.
Naast deze centrale actoren zijn er ook organisaties die de boekhoudstandaarden voor de
overheidssector bepalen of beïnvloeden. Er bestaat een grote diversiteit in deze organisaties.
In sommige landen (Australië en Canada) worden de standaarden vastgelegd door eerder
onafhankelijke instellingen terwijl ze in andere landen (Nederland, Zweden, de Verenigde
Staten en het Verenigd Koninkrijk) worden vastgelegd door organen die zich binnen de
overheid situeren.
Vlaanderen: centrale aansturing
In Vlaanderen speelt de afdeling Accounting van ABAFIM binnen het departement Algemene
Zaken en Financiën van het MVG een belangrijke rol in de boekhoudhervormingen. De
afdeling heeft zich ingezet voor de conceptuele voorbereiding en de interdepartementale
coördinatie met betrekking tot de overschakeling van de kas- en verplichtingenboekhouding
naar een economische boekhouding en ze stuurt de modernisering en actualisering aan van de
Vlaamse comptabiliteit aan de hand van het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet.
Alhoewel het Rekenhof een federale instelling is, is het toch bevoegd voor de financiële
gemeenschaps- en gewestmateries. Het Rekenhof speelt een rol in de ontwikkeling van het
Vlaams comptabiliteitsdecreet via het actief deelnemen in werkgroepen. In tegenstelling tot
bepaalde equivalenten in de onderzochte landen is het Rekenhof niet pro-actief in het
verspreiden van beste praktijken of richtlijnen. De commissie voor algemeen beleid, financiën
en begroting van het Vlaams Parlement speelt een minder sturende rol in Vlaanderen met
betrekking tot de boekhoudhervormingen in vergelijking met een aantal bestudeerde landen.
De ministers van Financiën en Begroting van de federale overheid hebben op 20 april 1993 de
uitwerking van een algemeen boekhoudplan en de aanpassing van de bestaande wettelijke en
reglementaire bepalingen toevertrouwd aan de Commissie voor de Normalisatie van de
Openbare Comptabiliteit (CNOC). De CNOC heeft leden uit het academisch milieu,
vertegenwoordigers van het Rekenhof, het Ministerie van Financiën van de federale overheid
100
en van de gemeenschappen en de gewesten. De CNOC is het boekhoudplan nog aan het
afronden. Het Instituut van de Accountants en de Belastingconsulenten (IAB), de
publiekrechtelijke beroepsorganisatie voor de accountants in België, werd tot nu toe zelden
als officiële gesprekspartner betrokken bij de opmaak van boekhoudnormen voor de overheid.
8.1.3. Aanleiding voor de boekhoudhervormingen
Zowel internationaal als in Vlaanderen: voornamelijk betere ondersteuning management
Een immer terugkerende factor is dat de overheden nu in een meer competitieve omgeving
functioneren waardoor het management nood heeft aan kostengegevens om hun beslissingen
te kunnen onderbouwen. De managers hebben met een kas- en verplichtingenboekhouding
onvoldoende instrumenten ter ondersteuning van het beheer. Een accrual boekhouding
vergemakkelijkt de implementatie van resultaatgericht management.
Ook in Vlaanderen is de aanleiding voor een economische boekhouding vooral management
gerelateerd. De nadruk die in het kader van beter bestuurlijk beleid gelegd wordt op
deugdelijk bestuur, in het bijzonder zuinigheid, effectiviteit en efficiëntie, vereist dat een
beeld kan verkregen worden over de opbrengsten en de kosten van overheidsoptreden.
8.1.4. Doelstellingen van de boekhoudhervormingen
Zowel internationaal als in Vlaanderen: deugdelijk bestuur gekoppeld aan voldoende
verantwoording
De internationale modernisering van de boekhouding heeft meerdere doestellingen. Een beter
financieel management (meer efficiëntie en effectiviteit) mogelijk maken, de verantwoording
van de overheid naar de burgers toe vergroten, de vergelijkbaarheid van resultaten tussen
entiteiten doen toenemen, …
Een belangrijk basisprincipe van de bestuurlijke vernieuwing in Vlaanderen is een deugdelijk
bestuur. Het is de bedoeling dat de leidinggevenden de gelegenheid krijgen doelmatig en
efficiënt om te gaan met de beschikbaar gestelde middelen en tegelijkertijd dat ze verplicht
worden zich hierover te verantwoorden. De doelstellingen zijn dus gelijkaardig aan deze die
we internationaal terugvinden.
Deze sectie kan geconcludeerd worden met te stellen dat de beheersfunctie de belangrijkste
boekhoudfunctie is geworden. De opvolging van de begroting blijft uiteraard gegarandeerd in
het boekhoudproces. Daarnaast is ook de verantwoordingsfunctie belangrijk. In ruil voor de
toegenomen managementvrijheid dient de verantwoording voor de resultaten immers ook toe
te nemen. De financiële rekeningen verschaffen nu informatie over de departementen en
agentschappen die vroeger niet beschikbaar was.
8.2.
BOEKHOUDPROCEDURES
De volgende tabel geeft per land een overzicht van de belangrijkste regelgeving en
boekhoudnormen, de gehanteerde waarderingsregels, de belangrijkste actoren in het
boekhoudproces en de vereiste rapporten. De belangrijkste bevindingen worden dan hierna
besproken.
Bram Scheers
101
Regelgeving
en boekhoudnormen
Waarderingsregels
Belangrijkste
actoren in het
boekhoudproces
-
Vereiste
rapporten
-
Australië
and Accountability Act
Commonwealth
Authorities and
Companies Act
Auditor-General Act
Finance Minister’s Orders
Guidance Releases
Australian Accounting
Standards
Statements of Accounting
Concepts
International Accounting
Standards
Fair value or replacement
cost
Chief Financial Officer
Accountants
and Administration
Australian National Audit
Office
Maandelijkse financiële
rapporten
Jaarrapporten
Regeringswijd rapport
-
Historical cost
-
-
The departments
-
-
rapporten
Jaarlijkse financiële
rekeningen
Jaarlijkse performance
rapporten
Verenigd Koninkrijk
and Accounts Act
UK Generally Accepted
Accounting Practice
Government Accounting
Resource Accounting
Manual
European System of
Accounts
-
-
Regelgeving
en boekhoudnormen
-
-
-
Zweden
Budget Act
Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles
Ordinances
Supplementary
regulations
International Accounting
Standards
Manuals
Canada
Financial Administration
Act
Treasury Board
Accounting Standards
Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles
Strategy Accounting
Manual
-
-
-
Swedish National
Authority (ESV)
The agencies
Ministry of Finance
rapportering
Jaarrapporten
-
Periodieke (vaak
maandelijkse) financiële
overzichten
Jaarrapporten
Current / fair value
principle
The departments
Accounting Officer
Accountants
HM Treasury
-
Chief Financial Officer
Accountants
Treasury Department
Departementale
jaarrapporten
-
Financiële rekeningen op
kwartaalbasis
Jaarrapporten
-
Historical cost
Current value (voor de
agentschappen)
Minister of Finance
The division Financial
Economic Affairs within
the departments
Verenigde Staten
Budget and Accounting
Act
Budget and Accounting
Procedures Act
Act
Government Management
Reform Act
Act
FASAB Standards
OMB Circulars, Bulletins
and Memoranda
GAO Accounting
Standards
Historical cost
-
-
Waarderings- regels
Belangrijkste actoren in het
boekhoudproces
Vereiste
rapporten
-
Nederland
Government Accounts
Act
-
Tabel 8.2 – Landenoverzicht boekhoudprocedures.
102
8.2.1. Regelgeving en boekhoudnormen
Internationaal: kaderregelgeving en nationale en internationale normen
In de meeste landen (Australië, Nederland, het Verenigd Koninkrijk en de Verenigde Staten)
wordt de implementatie van de boekhoudhervormingen ondersteund door de invoering van
een nieuwe kaderregelgeving die geregeld aan evaluatie onderworpen wordt en bijgestuurd
wordt. Deze kaderwetgeving wordt dan verder in Orders, Regulations, Manuals, Circulars,
instructies, … gedetailleerd. Er worden ook boekhoudnormen of -standaarden voor de
overheid geformuleerd. In Australië bijvoorbeeld werden in 1997 drie nieuwe wetten
geïntroduceerd om de boekhoudhervormingen wettelijk te verankeren. Meer gedetailleerde
vereisten voor de rapportering zijn dan terug te vinden in de Finance Minister’s Orders,
Department of Finance Guidance Releases, Statements of Accounting Concepts en Australian
Accounting Standards. In Canada en Zweden werd er geen nieuwe kaderwetgeving
geïntroduceerd, maar werden de boekhoudhervormingen mogelijk gemaakt via aanpassingen
aan de bestaande wetgeving en gerelateerde documenten en standaarden. De Canadese
Financial Administration Act van 1985 en de Zweedse Budget Act van 1988 vormen dus nog
altijd de basis van de regelgeving met betrekking tot de overheidsboekhouding.
Als gevolg van de verschillen in nationale regelgeving en boekhoudnormen is het moeilijk
uniforme Generally Accepted Accounting Practices (GAAP) te vinden die in dezelfde mate in
de verschillende landen kunnen worden toegepast. Naast de boekhoudstandaarden die door
nationale organen worden bepaald, zijn er ook internationale standaarden die de rapportering
van overheidsorganisaties proberen uniform te maken. Zo zijn er bijvoorbeeld International
Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSASs) gericht op de rapportering door
overheidsinstellingen. Deze internationale standaarden komen niet altijd overeen met de
nationale standaarden wat tot problemen kan leiden. De Euro-12, de twaalf landen die
deelnemen aan de Euro, dienen daarenboven te voldoen aan de specifieke Europese ESRrapportering.
Vlaanderen: kaderregelgeving en regionale, nationale en internationale normen
De regelgeving die van toepassing is op de boekhouding in Vlaanderen had voornamelijk te
maken met de regionalisering van België en de consequenties voor de financiering van de
gewesten en de gemeenschappen zoals bijvoorbeeld de zogenaamde financieringswet van 16
januari 1989. Deze bijzondere wet stelde een eigen regeling betreffende de begroting, de
boekhouding en de controle voor de deelgebieden in het vooruitzicht. Wel kunnen de
deelgebieden geen volledige vrijheid verwerven voor wat betreft de manier waarop ze hun
begroting, boekhouding en controles organiseren. Hun autonomie wordt begrensd door
algemene bepalingen die door de federale wetgever worden opgelegd en die moeten nageleefd
worden door alle gemeenschappen en gewesten. Deze federale algemene bepalingenwet is in
2003 goedgekeurd. Het is binnen dit federaal kader dat het Vlaams comptabiliteitsdecreet
wordt uitgeschreven. Het is de bedoeling dit decreet zo snel mogelijk te laten stemmen in het
Vlaams Parlement zodat het uiterlijk op 1 januari 2007 in werking kan treden.
Net zoals in de door ons onderzochte landen bevat het comptabiliteitsdecreet eerder algemene
zaken en zullen die meer gedetailleerd worden in de uitvoeringsbesluiten en circulaires. De
CNOC werkt momenteel aan de uitwerking van een uniforme set van boekhoudnormen voor
de overheden in het KB-Boekhoudplan. Naast deze regionale en federale bepalingen, moet
Vlaanderen ook voldoen aan de Europese ESR-rapportering.
Bram Scheers
103
8.2.2. Waarderingsregels
Diversiteit
Diverse waarderingsregels worden gebruikt. Canada, Zweden en de Verenigde Staten hebben
gekozen voor het gebruik van het historische kost principe. In Australië en het Verenigd
Koninkrijk werd er geopteerd voor het fair value principe. In Nederland passen de
agentschappen het current value principe toe. Wanneer de full accrual basis voor het eerst
wordt ingevoerd, kan het gebeuren dat omwille van pragmatische redenen of omwille van
waarderingscriteria die niet gehaald worden bepaalde significante activa niet op de balans
worden opgenomen. Deze kunnen dan geleidelijk aan worden ingevoerd.
In het Vlaams voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet zijn geen gegevens omtrent de te
hanteren waarderingsregels opgenomen. Die zullen worden vastgelegd in aan het decreet
gerelateerde documenten.
8.2.3. Belangrijkste actoren in het boekhoudproces
Internationaal: delegatie en toenemend belang accountant functie
In de onderzochte landen zijn een mix van actoren betrokken in het boekhoudproces. Accrual
accounting resulteert in alle landen in machtsverschuivingen zowel tussen als binnen
departementen en agentschappen. De departementen en agentschappen krijgen meer
verantwoordelijkheden dan vroeger het geval was. Er is een duidelijke delegatie van centrale
verantwoordelijkheden merkbaar. Binnen de departementen en agentschappen is het belang
van de accountant functie gegroeid omdat hun invloed in het beslissingsproces is toegenomen.
De functie van financieel directeur is een van de belangrijkste geworden in de organisatie. Zo
is de Chief Financial Officer functie in Australië en de Verenigde Staten nu een centrale
functie met sleutelverantwoordelijkheden. De hervormingen leiden dus gedeeltelijk tot een
concentratie van kennis en vaardigheden bij diegenen die getraind zijn in boekhouden. In
Nederland is dit in de departementale Diensten Financieel-Economische Zaken.
Het Ministerie van Financiën (in Australië, Canada, Nederland en Zweden) of de Treasury (in
het Verenigd Koninkrijk en de Verenigde Staten) staat in voor het periodiek verzamelen van
de financiële gegevens van de departementen en agentschappen om op basis daarvan
periodieke rapporten te produceren. Ook worden de gegevens op het einde van het jaar
geconsolideerd in een rapport voor de gehele centrale overheid.
In Australië speelt ook het “Rekenhof” een rol in het boekhoudproces. Zo publiceert het
Australische ANAO tijdens het boekjaar beste praktijk gidsen om de organisaties te helpen bij
het opmaken van hun financiële rekeningen.
Vlaanderen: delegatie en een te verwachten groeiend belang van de accountant functie
In Vlaanderen verspreidt de afdeling Accounting binnen ABAFIM maandelijks kerncijfers en
krediettoestanden naar het lijnmanagement, naar de departementale boekhoudcellen en naar
de Vlaamse ministers. De afdeling maakt ook jaarlijks de algemene rekening van de Vlaamse
Gemeenschap op en verzorgt de consolidatie en de ESR-rapportering naar de federale
104
overheid. Op dit ogenblik is het alleen mogelijk voor de diensten met afzonderlijk beheer een
(deel)rekening op te stellen en niet voor elke departement afzonderlijk.
Volgens het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet worden er rekeningen voorzien per
departement, IVA (voor de IVAs zonder rechtspersoonlijkheid betreft het in feite
deelrekeningen die niet afzonderlijk worden goedgekeurd door het Parlement) en EVA.
Periodieke tussentijdse rapporteringen op het einde van de kwartalen worden voorzien. De
departementen en IVAs bezorgen hun rekeningen voor 1 maart volgend op het boekjaar
waarop ze betrekking hebben aan de diensten van het Vlaams ministerie bevoegd voor het
financieel en budgettair beleid, aangezien die belast zijn met de opmaak en consolidatie van
de algemene rekeningen. De algemene rekening van een publiekrechtelijk vormgegeven EVA
wordt opgesteld door de raad van bestuur van dat EVA voor 1 maart en bezorgd aan de
Vlaamse Regering.
Er valt te verwachten dat de invloed van de accountants naar aanleiding van het nieuwe
comptabiliteitsdecreet ook in de Vlaamse overheid zal toenemen. De nadruk komt nu immers
te liggen op de economische boekhouding en niet langer op de budgettaire boekhouding. Er
moet dan ook worden voorzien in voldoende gekwalificeerd personeel zodat de verschillende
entiteiten aan de vereisten van het comptabiliteitsdecreet kunnen voldoen.
8.2.4. Vereiste rapporten
Internationaal: periodieke, jaarlijkse en geconsolideerde rapporteringen verplicht
In alle landen worden er, naast het afleggen van de jaarrekeningen ter afsluiting van het
boekjaar, periodieke rapporteringsmomenten voorzien in de wetgeving. Dit is de
verantwoordelijkheid van de departementen en agentschappen. De periodiciteit van de
rapportering kan wel verschillen van land tot land. Zo wordt er bijvoorbeeld maandelijks
gerapporteerd in Australië, Canada en Zweden, terwijl er sinds het fiscaal jaar 2003 op
kwartaalbasis wordt gerapporteerd in de Verenigde Staten.
Ook worden er telkens geconsolideerde financiële rekeningen vereist naast de jaarrekeningen.
Deze worden opgemaakt door het Ministerie van Financiën of de Treasury. Er worden dus
jaarlijks financiële rekeningen vereist zowel per departement en agentschap als voor de
overheid in haar geheel.
De jaarrekeningen worden eerst aan het Rekenhof overhandigd vooraleer ze aan het
Parlement worden voorgelegd. Er is ook een trend merkbaar naar het versnellen van de
rapporteringscyclus zodat de inhoud van de rapporten het begrotingsproces meer kan
beïnvloeden. Dit werd in Canada onder andere nagestreefd aan de hand van het Improved
Reporting to Parliament initiatief. In de Verenigde Staten is het de doelstelling dat de
departementale financiële rekeningen tegen 15 november, 45 dagen na het einde van het
fiscaal jaar, worden gepubliceerd. De Nederlandse Commissie voor de Rijksuitgaven nam het
initiatief om het indienen van de financiële rekeningen te vervroegen naar 15 mei in plaats
van 1 september.
Vlaanderen: periodieke, jaarlijkse en geconsolideerde rapporteringen verplicht
Het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet voorziet dat de Vlaamse Regering (voor de
Vlaamse Gemeenschap en de IVA met rechtspersoonlijkheid) en de raad van bestuur (voor
Bram Scheers
105
een publiekrechtelijk vormgegeven EVA) jaarlijks rapporteren aan het Vlaams Parlement en
aan het Rekenhof over de stand van uitvoering van de begroting en over het resultaat en de
vermogensbestanddelen. Er wordt ook voorzien in periodieke tussentijdse rapporteringen. Zo
wordt er op trimesteriële basis een resultatenrekening voorzien. Wat betreft de
begrotingsuitvoering wordt eveneens per kwartaal een rapportering gevraagd, behalve voor
het eerste kwartaal. Een economische balans wordt slechts semestrieel gevraagd.
De algemene rekeningen van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, opgesteld op basis van de
rekeningen van elk departement en van de IVA zonder rechtspersoonlijkheid, en de algemene
rekeningen van de IVA met rechtspersoonlijkheid, opgesteld door de Vlaamse Regering, en
van de publiekrechtelijk vormgegeven EVA, opgesteld door de raad van bestuur, worden
uiterlijk op 31 maart volgend op het boekjaar door de Vlaamse Regering toegestuurd aan het
Rekenhof. Het Rekenhof bezorgt dan de algemene rekeningen met zijn opmerkingen voor 31
mei aan het Vlaams Parlement. De geconsolideerde rekening wordt ter kennisgeving als
bijlage bij het voorontwerp van decreet van algemene rekeningen aan het Vlaams Parlement
gevoegd.
8.3.
FORMATTERING VAN DE BOEKHOUDING
De volgende tabel geeft voor de onderzochte landen een beeld van de variabelen kas of
accrual boekhouding, inhoud van het jaarrapport, formattering van de financiële rekeningen,
tijdshorizon en consolidatie. Deze worden dan opnieuw verder toegelicht in wat volgt.
Kas of
accrual
boekhouding
-
Australië
Accrual boekhouding
-
Canada
Accrual boekhouding
-
Inhoud van
het
jaarrapport
-
Formattering van de
financiële
rekeningen
-
Tijdshorizon
Consolidatie
-
Prestatie-informatie
(outcomes and outputs)
De financiële rekeningen
-
Statement by the chief
executive and chief
financial officer
Statement of financial
performance, of financial
position and of cash flows
Schedule of
commitments, of
contingencies and of
administered items
Notes
Tweejaarlijkse
tijdshorizon
Voor de Commonwealth
Accrual-gebaseerd
-
-
-
-
Nederland
Kas- en verplichtingenboekhouding voor de
departementen
Accrual boekhouding
voor de agentschappen
Een beleidsrapport (met
niet-financiële informatie)
Financiële informatie
Prestatie-informatie
(outcomes)
De financiële tabellen
(in de toekomst)
position, of operations, of
cash requirements and of
expenditure authorities
used
Notes and Schedules
-
Tweejaarlijkse
tijdshorizon
Regeringswijd
Accrual-gebaseerd
-
Het rapporteringsjaar
-
Regeringswijd
Volgens kas- en
verplichtingenstelsel
-
-
Opvolgingsrekeningen
van de begroting:
verplichtingen, uitgaven
en ontvangsten
De saldibalans met
toelichting
106
Kas of
accrual
boekhouding
Inhoud van
het
jaarrapport
Formattering
van de
financiële
rekeningen
-
Zweden
Accrual boekhouding
-
Performance rapport
-
position, of financial
performance, of cash
flows
Appropriation report
Notes and supplementary
schedules
-
-
-
Tijdshorizon
-
Consolidatie
-
Tweejaarlijkse
tijdshorizon
Voor de centrale overheid Accrual-gebaseerd
-
Verenigd Koninkrijk
Accrual boekhouding
Verantwoording over de
resultaten (outputs)
Schedule 1: Summary of
resource outturn
Schedule 2: operating cost
statement and statement
of recognised gains and
losses
Schedule 3: balance sheet
Schedule 4: cash flow
statement
Schedule 5: resources by
aims and objectives
Notes
Tweejaarlijkse
tijdshorizon
De hele publieke sector
(inclusief het lokale
bestuur)
Kasbasis
Accrual in de toekomst
-
Verenigde Staten
Accrual boekhouding
-
Performance rapport
-
A balance sheet
Statement of net costs, of
changes in net position, of
budgetary resources, of
financing and of custodial
activities
Notes
-
-
Tweejaarlijkse
tijdshorizon
Regeringswijd
Accrual-gebaseerd
Tabel 8.3 – Landenoverzicht boekhoudformattering.
8.3.1. Kas of accrual boekhouding?
Internationaal: accrual boekhouding geïmplementeerd
In al de onderzochte landen wordt er reeds gewerkt met een accrual boekhouding. Wel is het
zo dat in Nederland voorlopig enkel de agentschappen een economische boekhouding hebben
geïmplementeerd. De invoering voor de departementen, die werken met een kas- en
verplichtingenboekhouding, is voorzien tegen 2006. Australië en Zweden behoren tot de
koplopers van landen die een accrual boekhouding voor zowel de agentschappen als de
departementen hebben ingevoerd.
Vlaanderen: accrual boekhouding tegen 2007
Ook binnen Vlaanderen wordt er al gedeeltelijk gewerkt met een accrual boekhouding. Zo
werken de VOIs met een geïntegreerde economische boekhouding en budgettaire rapportering
sinds het Besluit van 21 mei 1997. Ook binnen het Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap
kan er een economische boekhouding worden gevoerd sinds de implementatie van een nieuw
financieel systeem.
Deze praktijk wordt nu decretaal verankerd in het comptabiliteitsdecreet. Er wordt immers
gesteld dat de Vlaamse overheid een economische boekhouding zal voeren met een analytisch
component, op basis waarvan de begrotingsopvolging en –rapportering permanent kan
worden verzekerd. Elke verrichting zal worden gehecht aan het boekjaar waarin ze zich
voordoet en zal zonder uitstel, getrouw, volledig en naar tijdsorde worden geboekt. De
implementatie dient ten laatst tegen 1 januari 2007 te zijn voltooid.
Bram Scheers
107
8.3.2. Inhoud van het jaarrapport
Internationaal: prestatie-informatie en financiële informatie
De jaarrapporten zijn het middel bij uitstek om de efficiëntie en effectiviteit van de
programma’s mee te delen aan het Parlement en de burger. In alle landen bevatten de
jaarrapporten van de departementen en agentschappen dan ook zowel niet-financiële als
financiële gegevens. In het performance deel wordt de niet-financiële informatie
weergegeven. Er wordt gerapporteerd over de vooruitgang in het bereiken van de
vooropgestelde effecten en outputs en er worden indicatoren in vermeld. De financiële
gegevens worden teruggevonden in de financiële rekeningen (Australië, Zweden, het
Verenigd Koninkrijk en de Verenigde Staten) of tabellen (Canada en Nederland) die zijn
opgenomen in het jaarrapport. Via het jaarrapport wordt er dus meer en meer getracht de
financiële informatie met de prestatie-informatie te integreren en te consolideren.
Vlaanderen: jaarrapport betreffende de uitvoering van de beheersovereenkomst en een
beleidseffectenrapport
Het Kaderdecreet Bestuurlijk Beleid stelt dat alle IVAs en publiekrechtelijk vormgegeven
EVAs aan de Vlaamse regering dienen te rapporteren op basis van beleids- en
beheersrelevante indicatoren en kengetallen. In maart dienen deze agentschappen te
rapporteren over de uitvoering van de beheersovereenkomst gedurende het afgelopen
kalenderjaar aan de hand van een jaarlijks rapport. De Vlaamse regering brengt dan jaarlijks
verslag uit aan het Vlaams Parlement over de uitvoering van de beheersovereenkomsten.
Daarnaast stelt het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet dat de Vlaamse Regering op
uiterlijk 31 mei een beleidseffectenrapport overhandigt aan het Vlaams Parlement waarin de
realisaties van de beleidsopties gedurende het vorige begrotingsjaar geëvalueerd worden aan
de hand van indicatoren en kengetallen.
8.3.3. Formattering van de financiële rekeningen
Internationaal: balans, resultatenrekening en landspecifieke schema’s
In het algemeen bevatten de financiële rekeningen een balans, een resultatenrekening en een
toelichting bij de verschillende rekeningen. Daarnaast kunnen er nog rekeningen of schema’s
vereist zijn die specifiek zijn voor het land in kwestie. Bij landen die werken met een accrualgebaseerde begroting (Australië en het Verenigd Koninkrijk) wordt er ook een overzicht van
de kasstromen toegevoegd. De andere landen (Canada, Zweden en de Verenigde Staten) gaan
daarenboven ook rekeningen die de uitvoering van de machtigende begroting opvolgen
opmaken. De financiële rekeningen verschillen wat van de afgeleverde rekeningen door
private ondernemingen om rekening te houden met de context en de aard van de centrale
overheid.
Aangezien de Nederlandse departementen nog werken met een kas- en
verplichtingenboekhouding bevatten de financiële verantwoordingsstaten van de
departementen voorlopig nog enkel de verplichtingen, uitgaven, ontvangsten en een
saldibalans. Dit zal veranderen met de invoering van de accrual boekhouding.
108
Vlaanderen: een balans, resultatenrekening en uitvoering van de begroting worden verplicht
voor alle entiteiten
In Vlaanderen bereiden de VOIs momenteel jaarrekeningen voor in uitvoering van het Besluit
van 21 mei 1997. Naast een balans, resultatenrekening en toelichting wordt ook de uitvoering
van de begroting en bijhorende toelichting afgeleverd. Voor de invoering van het nieuw
financieel systeem genereerde de boekhouding van het MVG enkel een overzicht van de
binnenkomende en de uitgaande kasstromen.
Artikel 31 van het voorontwerp comptabiliteitsdecreet stelt dat de verschillende entiteiten
jaarlijks rapporteren over de stand van uitvoering van de begroting en over het resultaat en de
vermogensbestanddelen, vastgesteld op basis van de economische boekhouding.
Volgens artikel 37 moeten de algemene rekeningen bestaan uit:
- een jaarrekening die een balans en resultatenrekening bevat,
- de rapportering over de uitvoering van de jaarlijks machtigende begroting,
- een toelichting bij het voorgaande en bij de realisatie van de ramingstaten bij de begroting,
waarin een aansluiting tussen de budgettaire en bedrijfseconomische rapportering is
opgenomen.
8.3.4. Tijdshorizon
Internationaal: huidige en voorgaande boekjaar
In alle landen, behalve Nederland, worden de resultaten van het gerapporteerde boekjaar
geplaatst naast deze van het jaar voordien. De departementale rapportering over de uitvoering
van de begroting in Nederland slaat enkel op het desbetreffende begrotingsjaar.
In het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet wordt er niks vermeld over de tijdshorizon van
de financiële rekeningen.
8.3.5. Consolidatie
Internationaal: regeringswijde accrual-gebaseerde consolidatie
In al de onderzochte landen moeten er regeringswijde of geconsolideerde rekeningen worden
opgemaakt. Dit gebeurt door het Ministerie van Financiën (in Australië, Canada, Nederland
en Zweden) of door de Treasury (in het Verenigd Koninkrijk en de Verenigde Staten).
Dergelijke rekeningen geven een beeld van de financiële positie van de overheid in haar
geheel en worden opgemaakt op basis van de individuele rekeningen van de departementen en
agentschappen. Als gevolg daarvan zijn de geconsolideerde rekeningen ook accrualgebaseerd (Australië, Canada, Zweden en de Verenigde Staten) of zullen ze dit in de toekomst
worden (Nederland en het Verenigd Koninkrijk). De grootste moeilijkheid om dergelijke
rekeningen op te maken is het elimineren van balansen en transacties tussen de verschillende
entiteiten van de overheid. De inhoud van de geconsolideerde rekeningen kan verschillen van
land tot land. Zo wordt er in Australië en Zweden naast de balans ook een resultatenrekening
en een overzicht van de kasstromen gegeven. In het Verenigd Koninkrijk is het de bedoeling
dat de geconsolideerde rekeningen ruim worden opgevat en de hele publiek overheid
omvatten, inclusief het lokale bestuur.
Bram Scheers
109
Vlaanderen: consolidatie op het niveau van de Vlaamse overheid
Het voorontwerp van comptabiliteitsdecreet stelt dat de geconsolideerde rekening, ter
kennisgeving aan het Vlaams Parlement, als bijlage bij het ontwerp van decreet van algemene
rekeningen wordt gevoegd. De rekeningen zullen door de diensten van het Vlaams Ministerie
die bevoegd zijn voor het financieel en budgettair beleid geaggregeerd en geconsolideerd
worden om aan het Vlaams Parlement en het Rekenhof over te maken. Ook wordt op het
einde van elk jaar voor de geconsolideerde Vlaamse overheid een rekening opgesteld
overeenkomstig het Europees systeem van nationale en regionale rekeningen in de
Gemeenschap.
De Vlaamse regering bepaalt de wijze van consolidatie van de rekeningen. Deze
uitvoeringsmaatregelen kunnen zowel betrekking hebben op de (begrotings)consolidaties die
moeten gebeuren voor rapportering aan de federale of Europese overheid, als op
bedrijfseconomische consolidaties per beleidsveld en per beleidsdomein.
8.4.
IMPLEMENTATIESTRATEGIE VAN DE HERVORMINGEN
Internationaal: een degelijke ondersteuning van de boekhoudhervormingen
Er kan worden gesteld dat de boekhoudhervormingen top-down worden geïntroduceerd door
de Minister van Financiën en zijn ministerie (in Zweden betreft het ESV, een agentschap van
het Ministerie van Financiën). In Australië, Canada en het Verenigd Koninkrijk is er ook een
sterke politieke ondersteuning via een parlementaire commissie die de problematiek
bestudeert, stuurt en opvolgt. Er is een sterke betrokkenheid van de centrale actoren bij de
implementatie van de boekhoudhervormingen. Steeds terugkerende bepalende actoren zijn de
equivalenten van het Ministerie van Financiën en van het Rekenhof. Zij staan in voor de
communicatie en opleiding omtrent de hervormingen en gaan de vooruitgang van de
implementatie nauwgezet opvolgen. Daarvoor worden richtlijnen en beste praktijken
gepubliceerd. Deze centrale ondersteuning wordt in de verschillende landen
gecomplementeerd aan de hand van de betrokkenheid van agentschappen en
lijndepartementen bij de ontwikkeling van deze documenten. Dit gebeurt meestal via
permanente organen waarin de betrokken partijen op periodieke basis samenkomen om
boekhoudkundige zaken te bespreken. Hierin worden ook bevindingen en praktijken
uitgewisseld. Dit stimuleert de betrokkenheid van de uitvoerders ervan.
Er werden in de landen voldoende financiële middelen ter beschikking gesteld om de
implementatie tot een goed einde te brengen. In Canada bijvoorbeeld werd er $600 miljoen
geïnvesteerd in nieuwe financiële systemen en training. Meestal was er op voorhand ook het
besef dat de hervorming vele jaren in beslag zou nemen. In het Verenigd Koninkrijk was er
bijvoorbeeld voorzien dat het resource accounting and budgeting project acht jaar zou duren.
Er werd een duidelijke tijdstabel opgemaakt om de hervorming te implementeren. Deze werd
redelijk strikt nageleefd omdat de Treasury en NAO de departementen nauw opvolgden.
De recente boekhoudhervormingen zijn in alle landen, behalve Nederland, alomvattend
aangezien ze van toepassing zijn op elk departement en agentschap. In Nederland is de
accrual boekhouding momenteel enkel van toepassing op de agentschappen. De
hervormingen worden wel incrementeel ingevoerd. Ook is het zo dat eerst de agentschappen
en departementen accrual-gebaseerde rekeningen moeten afleggen vooraleer de stap naar
accrual-gebaseerde regeringswijde rekeningen wordt gezet.
110
De boekhoudhervormingen zijn via nieuwe kaderwetgeving (Australië, Nederland, het
Verenigd Koninkrijk en de Verenigde Staten) of via aanpassingen van de bestaande
wetgeving (Canada en Zweden) wettelijk verankerd. Bovendien worden ze gelegitimeerd aan
de hand van de boekhoudnormen en –standaarden.
Vlaanderen: aandachtspunten bij de implementatie
Het is voor de implementatie van het nieuwe comptabiliteitsdecreet belangrijk dat er
voldoende steun is van bovenaf. Ook het politieke niveau dient dus actief bij de hervorming te
worden betrokken. Deze betrokkenheid kan worden gestimuleerd via het voeren van een
actieve promotiepolitiek in verband met de hervorming. Aan de hand van documenten kan er
worden gewezen op het potentieel van de accrual-gebaseerde informatie. De promotiepolitiek
dient te vermijden dat de politici de accrual-gebaseerde rekeningen niet begrijpen en
bijgevolg enkel teruggrijpen naar de uitvoeringsrekeningen van de begroting.
Uit de buitenlandse ervaringen blijkt dat een invloedrijk financieel leiderschap in de
departementen en agentschappen even belangrijk is als dit op het centrale niveau. Het belang
van een soortgelijke Chief Financial Officer functie zal dan ook sterk dienen toe te nemen.
Indien dit niet gebeurt, is er een groot risico dat het potentieel van de bedrijfseconomische
informatie onvoldoende wordt benut.
De diensten van het Vlaams Ministerie die bevoegd zijn voor het financieel en budgettair
beleid en het Rekenhof hebben een belangrijke rol te spelen in de implementatie van het
nieuwe comptabiliteitsdecreet. Een goede samenwerking en afstemming van de activiteiten is
dan ook aan te raden. Daarbij kan een duidelijke tijdstabel, met specifieke tussentijdse
resultaten die moeten worden behaald, worden opgemaakt. Opdat die tijdstabel goed wordt
nageleefd, is een goed opvolgingssysteem noodzakelijk. Dit bleek nuttig in het buitenland om
de implementatie van de boekhoudhervormingen, die soms over een lange tijdspanne werden
ingevoerd en waarvoor soms verschillende pogingen noodzakelijk waren, te
vergemakkelijken. Het is wel zo dat Vlaanderen niet van nul dient te vertrekken aangezien
zowel de VOIs als het MVG al ervaring hebben met een accrual boekhouding. Bij de start
van de implementatie is het wel noodzakelijk dat alle onduidelijkheden zijn opgeklaard
waardoor de invoering vlekkeloos en volgens plan kan verlopen.
Om een meer efficiënte en effectieve implementatie te verzekeren is een breed draagvlak voor
de hervorming noodzakelijk. Daarvoor is het aan te raden dat onder andere de VOIs en
lijndepartementen bij de hervorming worden betrokken. Dit is ook zo gebeurd wat betreft de
tot standkoming van het comptabiliteitsdecreet. Dit is ook aan te raden in de toekomst
wanneer de uitvoeringsbesluiten worden geschreven. Er kan daarbij ook worden nagedacht
over het creëren van een overlegorgaan zoals we dat internationaal vaak terugvinden. Daarin
kunnen de verschillende partijen op regelmatige basis samenkomen om de boekhoudkundige
aspecten te bespreken. De boekhoudkundige normen en standaarden blijven immers evolueren
en deze evolutie kan dan besproken worden in dergelijk orgaan.
Aangezien de baten van de invoering van een nieuw financieel instrumentarium in het
algemeen maar op middellange tot lange termijn zichtbaar worden, maar de kosten op korte
termijn worden opgelopen, is het uiteraard belangrijk dat er ook voldoende financiële
middelen worden gereserveerd voor deze implementatie. Onderfinanciering moet ten zeerste
worden vermeden omdat dit kan leiden tot suboptimale uitkomsten die op lange termijn
Bram Scheers
111
schadelijk zijn voor de Vlaamse overheid. Opleiding en training dienen voldoende aandacht te
krijgen zodat de competenties van het personeel worden afgestemd op de ondersteuning van
de invoering van het nieuwe financiële instrumentarium. Ook de aanwerving van nieuwe
personeelsleden om het kennisdeficit op te vangen, kan hierbij een uitweg bieden.
Tenslotte wordt verwezen naar een van de succesfactoren in Australië. Daar worden de
hervormingen periodiek geëvalueerd en indien nodig aangepast. Dit is eveneens aan te raden
voor Vlaanderen.
8.5.
VERBAND BOEKHOUDSYSTEMEN EN PRESTATIEMEETSYSTEMEN
Zoals vermeld in de inleiding wordt naast de boekhouding in dit rapport ook de
prestatiemeting behandeld in een ander onderzoeksrapport. De opsplitsing in twee rapporten
heeft als voordeel dat beide systemen gedetailleerder kunnen worden behandeld en de
vergelijkbaarheid per systeem over de onderzochte landen toeneemt. Het nadeel van de
opsplitsing is wel dat het zicht op de samenhang tussen boekhouding en monitoring (nummer
III in figuur 1.1) voor een groot deel verloren gaat. Om dit op te vangen worden, ter afsluiting
van het rapport, het verband, de gelijkenissen en de verschillen die we uit de twee rapporten
kunnen opmaken hier kort besproken. Dit gebeurt aan de hand van de parameters functies,
procedures en formattering. Eerst worden de gemeenschappelijke punten en de verschilpunten
weergegeven in een tabel. Daarna worden die verder toegelicht.
-
Gemeenschappelijke punten
Een lange hervormingstraditie
Beide systemen kennen meerdere gebruikswijzen
en vervullen dus meerdere functies
Centrale aansturing van de hervormingen
Periodieke en jaarlijkse rapportering van de data
De rapportering van de financiële en niet- financiële gegevens in gezamenlijke jaarlijkse
rapporten
-
Verschilpunten
De interne productie van boekhoudgegevens
versus de soms externe dataverzameling bij
prestatiemeting
De focus en de graad van ontwikkeling en
standaardisering van de wetgeving en normering
De
gestandaardiseerde
boekhoudstandaarden
versus de nog niet gestandaardiseerde standaarden
voor prestatiemeting
De prestatiegegevens worden niet geconsolideerd
Verschillende filosofie en woordenschat van de
kwaliteitscontrole
De niet-financiële informatie wordt meestal niet
ge-audit
De focus van de systemen
Tabel 8.4 – Vergelijking boekhoudsystemen met prestatiemeetsystemen.
8.5.1. Functies
Initiatieven
De door ons onderzochte landen kennen duidelijk een lange traditie in zowel
boekhoudhervormingen als prestatiemeting. De initiatieven rond prestatiemeting en de
boekhoudinitiatieven worden meestal apart ontwikkeld in specifieke hervormingen, maar in
sommige gevallen is de link tussen beide systemen heel duidelijk. Zo wordt een accrual
boekhouding vaak als noodzakelijk gezien ter ondersteuning van het resultaatgericht
financieel management. Voor de uitbouw van een degelijk prestatiemeetsysteem is het
belangrijk dat er een zicht is op de kosten en opbrengsten. De invoering van een
bedrijfseconomische boekhouding is dus vereist. Gezien de nauwe link tussen de twee
systemen is het niet verwonderlijk dat hervormingen met betrekking tot de boekhouding en
monitoring binnen éénzelfde initiatief worden opgenomen.
112
Gebruik
Zowel het boekhoudsysteem als de prestatiegegevens worden gebruikt voor verschillende
doeleinden en vervullen dus meerdere functies. Ten eerste kunnen financiële en nietfinanciële gegevens een bron van informatie vormen in de ontwikkeling van beleid en de
politieke besluitvorming. Beide zijn ten tweede een belangrijk instrument voor de uitvoerende
macht om verantwoording af te leggen aan het parlement en de burgers. De boekhouding richt
zich op de financiële verantwoording terwijl monitoring zich toelegt op de verantwoording
over outputs en outcomes. Beide systemen ondersteunen tevens het intern management van de
departementen en agentschappen. Zo is het belangrijk voor de beheersfunctie dat er
kostengegevens aan outputs en activiteiten kunnen worden gelinkt. Financiële en nietfinanciële rapportering is tenslotte ook een belangrijk instrument in de aansturing en
opvolging van verzelfstandigde organisaties.
De vraag stelt zich hier wel in welke mate de geproduceerde prestatiegegevens daadwerkelijk
worden gebruikt door de betrokken actoren. Wordt er met andere woorden voldaan aan de
verschillende functies? Een goed prestatiemeetsysteem kenmerkt zich door functionaliteit,
legitimiteit en validiteit. De mate waarin prestatiegegevens daadwerkelijk gebruikt worden,
hangt af van een aantal factoren: de afstemming van de vraag en het aanbod naar
prestatiegegevens, de nodige expertise en know-how bij de gebruikers om de gegevens te
begrijpen en te kunnen interpreteren, incentives om de prestatiegegevens te gebruiken,
waarheidsgetrouwe rapportering en doorstroming van informatie, betrouwbaarheid en
geldigheid van de informatie en de tijdigheid van de rapportering. Er wordt steeds meer
belang gehecht aan de kwaliteit van prestatiegegevens.
Ook met betrekking tot de boekhoudgegevens kan men zich de vraag stellen in welke mate
deze een impact hebben op de parlementaire controle, het intern management, de
besluitvorming en de aansturing van verzelfstandigde organisaties. Parlementsleden
beschikken niet altijd over voldoende expertise en know-how om de bedrijfseconomische
rekeningen te gebruiken in de parlementaire controle en grijpen daarom vaak terug naar de
uitvoeringsrekeningen van de begroting. Om de financiële gegevens te kunnen gebruiken voor
het intern management is een goed uitgebouwd financieel informatiesysteem en de
aanwezigheid van financiële expertise bij het management noodzakelijk.
8.5.2. Procedures
Actoren
Zowel voor het uitstippelen van de boekhoudhervormingen als voor het beleid rond
prestatiemeting is er een centrale aansturing. Zo speelt het Ministerie van Financiën een
belangrijke rol voor beide systemen. De centrale aansturing van het beleid rond
prestatiemeting lijkt minder sterk en meer versnipperd te zijn dan de coördinatie van het
beleid rond boekhouding. Er lijken ook meer bottom-up initiatieven te ontstaan vanuit de
departementen en agentschappen. De verantwoordelijkheid voor beide hervormingen is wel
gesitueerd in een speciale afdeling binnen het Ministerie van Financiën. Zo is de
verantwoordelijkheid voor prestatiemeting meestal gesitueerd in een speciale
managementafdeling. Daarnaast zijn er nog andere actoren betrokken bij het beleid rond
prestatiemeting zoals de “cabinet offices” en de nationale statistiekinstellingen. Het Ministerie
van Financiën is in een aantal landen zowel verantwoordelijk voor het periodiek verzamelen
Bram Scheers
113
en rapporteren van regeringswijde financiële gegevens als voor het verzamelen en rapporteren
van regeringswijde prestatiegegevens.
Naast het Ministerie van Financiën spelen ook de rekenkamers een actieve rol bij de
boekhoudhervormingen en de prestatiemeting. Dit gebeurt onder andere aan de hand van
publicaties van handleidingen, beste praktijken en adviezen. Ook de beroepsgroepen zijn
actief betrokken bij de hervormingen in de boekhouden prestatiemeetsystemen. Met
betrekking tot het boekhoudsysteem zijn het uiteraard de accountants die een leidende rol
spelen. Bij prestatiemeetsystemen is de leidende beroepsgroep nog niet helemaal duidelijk en
wordt er hieromtrent nog volop gestreden. De accountants willen deze markt inpalmen, maar
ook sociale wetenschappers en beleidsexperten eisen hun rol op. De organisatiegraad van deze
beroepsgroepen verschilt nogal sterk en zal misschien bepalend zijn voor de uitkomst.
Wat betreft de uitvoering van de hervormingen spelen in beide gevallen de departementen en
agentschappen een cruciale rol. Wel is het zo dat de organisaties met betrekking tot
monitoringinitiatieven meer vrijheidsgraden hebben in vergelijking met de
boekhoudhervormingen. De wetgeving, regelgeving en richtlijnen in verband met
prestatiemeting zijn immers nog niet zo ontwikkeld en gestandaardiseerd zoals dit bij de
boekhouding het geval is. Dit komt uitgebreider aan bod in de volgende sectie. Een ander
verschilpunt is dat de boekhoudgegevens steeds intern door de departementen en
agentschappen worden gegenereerd, terwijl er voor de prestatiemeting ook een beroep wordt
gedaan op externe bronnen zoals nationale statistiekinstellingen.
Wetgeving en normen
Wat de wetgeving betreft, kan er gesteld worden dat er voor de boekhouding altijd een
wettelijk kader bestaat, terwijl dat voor prestatiemeting niet altijd het geval is. Indien het
principe van prestatiemeting wettelijk verankerd is, dan gaat het meestal slechts over de
algemene vereisten van prestatiemeting. De meer specifiek richtlijnen worden opgenomen in
regelgeving en handleidingen. Naast de wetgeving zijn er zowel voor de boekhouding als
voor de prestatiemeting meer specifieke regels en normen voorzien. De focus van de
wetgeving en normering is verschillend voor de boekhoudsystemen en de
prestatiemeetsystemen. De wetgeving en normering van financiële informatie heeft vooral
betrekking op het boekhoudsysteem (rekeningstelsel, waarderingsregels, aanrekeningsregels,
…) en niet zozeer op de financiële indicatoren die berekend worden op basis van dit
boekhoudsysteem. De normering bij prestatiemeetsystemen daarentegen, heeft vooral
betrekking op de indicatoren en niet zozeer op de prestatieboekhouding.
Een belangrijk verschil tussen de boekhouding en de prestatiemeting is dat er bij de
boekhouding redelijk gestandaardiseerde normen zijn die algemeen worden aanvaard en
erkend (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles), terwijl dit bij prestatiemeting nog niet
het geval is. De GAAP zijn over de jaren heen ontwikkeld om de financiële rekeningen van de
organisaties te standaardiseren. Het volstaat om zich aan deze standaarden te houden opdat de
financiële rekeningen van verschillende organisaties kunnen worden vergeleken. Op basis van
de financiële rekeningen worden immers de financiële analyses of “ratio-analyses” (het
berekenen van indicatoren zoals rendabiliteit, solvabiliteit, liquiditeit, voorraadrotatie, …)
uitgevoerd. Er bestaat wel variatie tussen boekhoudstandaarden van verschillende landen,
maar de inhoud is dezelfde en er is bovendien een trend naar steeds grotere internationale
harmonisatie aan de hand van International Accounting Standards. Zo een proces heeft nog
niet plaats gevonden met betrekking tot de rapportering van prestatiegegevens. Er wordt
114
echter wel gewerkt aan principes en standaarden voor prestatiemeting door een
verscheidenheid aan professionele en gerelateerde organisaties. Zo wordt er in Canada hard
gewerkt aan de ontwikkeling van een algemeen aanvaarde set voor de rapportering van
prestaties.
Consolidatie
Het belangrijke verschilpunt tussen de boekhouding en de prestatiemeting is het feit dat
prestatiegegevens niet op een kwantitatieve manier kunnen worden geconsolideerd zoals dit
bij financiële gegevens het geval is. De rapportering van prestatiegegevens bevindt zich dan
ook meestal op organisatieniveau. Indien er een regeringswijde rapportering is van
prestatiegegevens, dan gaat het over gegevens die op regeringswijd niveau verzameld zijn en
dus niet om een consolidatie van prestatiegegevens op consolidatieniveau. De
consolidatieproblematiek is een belangrijke uitdaging voor organisaties met zeer veel
uitvoeringsorganisaties zoals bijvoorbeeld werkgelegenheidsagentschappen.
Audit en kwaliteitscontrole
Bij boekhoudsystemen is het de interne controle die moet waarborgen dat de financiële
rapportering betrouwbaar is. Een van de meest gekende modellen voor interne controle is het
COSO model. De filosofie en de woordenschat die in dergelijke modellen wordt gehanteerd is
dikwijls zeer verschillend van de kwaliteitscontrole bij prestatiemeetsystemen. Zo sluit de
terminologie van de kwaliteitscontrole bij prestatiemeetsystemen veel sterker aan bij een
sociaal-wetenschappelijk referentiekader.
Op de financiële data wordt er ook een audit uitgevoerd die de betrouwbaarheid van de
gegevens garandeert. Een audit van de prestatiegegevens gebeurt echter slechts in een beperkt
aantal landen (bvb Zweden en Canada) en meestal voor specifieke gevallen en op ad hoc
basis. Er dient echter verzekerd te worden dat de gegevens, of het nu financiële of nietfinanciële zijn, kunnen worden vertrouwd en vergeleken. De audit van prestatiegegevens kent
nog heel wat uitdagingen en discussiepunten. Zo wordt er gediscussieerd over de
toepasbaarheid van de methodologie van de financiële audit. Eveneens stelt zich de vraag hoe
ver men kan en moet gaan met het auditen van prestatiegegevens opdat het nog haalbaar
blijft?
8.5.3. Formattering
Rapportering
De boekhoudsystemen van de departementen en agentschappen produceren periodiek en
jaarlijks financiële gegevens. Daarnaast worden er ook jaarlijks regeringswijde financiële
rekeningen opgemaakt. De rapportering van prestatiegegevens situeert zich eveneens op
organisatieniveau en in bepaalde gevallen (Zweden en Canada17) op regeringswijd niveau.
De boekhoudformatteringen zijn meer gestandaardiseerd en minder afhankelijk van de
strategie van een organisatie in vergelijking met prestatiemeetsystemen waarbij de
formattering sterker is afgestemd op het proces van strategische planning binnen een
organisatie. In het proces van strategische planning worden de normen geformuleerd waarmee
17
“Annual Consolidated Report for the Central Government” en TBS “Annual Report on Government’s
Performance”
Bram Scheers
115
de prestatie-informatie wordt vergeleken om te komen tot een beeld van de implementatie en
de resultaten van de strategie en om indien nodig bij te sturen. Wel is het zo dat het analytisch
luik van de boekhouding of de kostprijsboekhouding eveneens minder gestandaardiseerd is en
meer afhankelijk is van de strategie van de organisatie.
De departementen en agentschappen publiceren hun prestatiegegevens in jaarlijkse rapporten
of annual reports. Deze rapporten bevatten tevens financiële informatie. De financiële en
niet-financiële informatie worden dus samen opgenomen in één rapport. Er wordt steeds meer
getracht de informatie te integreren en te consolideren.
Focus
De boekhouding is in alle landen, op uitzondering van Nederland, een accrual boekhouding
geworden en focust zich nu dus op de kosten en opbrengsten en niet langer enkel en alleen op
de kasstromen. De focus van de prestatiemeting (effecten, prestaties, activiteiten) is minder
duidelijk en niet altijd evenwichtig. Het blijkt makkelijker te zijn prestatiegegevens te
verzamelen over activiteiten en outputs dan over outcomes. Met betrekking tot de samenhang
kan de vraag gesteld worden op welk niveau de link tussen de meetsystemen en de
boekhoudsystemen dient plaats te vinden? Is het wenselijk en haalbaar effecten en kosten te
verbinden of moet men eerder kiezen voor een pragmatisch scenario waarbij outputs en
activiteiten gelinkt worden aan kosten? Het feit dat niet alle prestaties en effecten van de
overheid meetbaar zijn en dat er niet altijd een causaal verband is tussen activiteiten,
prestaties en effecten vormt hierbij een grote uitdaging.
116
Het steunpunt beleidsrelevant onderzoek – Bestuurlijke organisatie Vlaanderen heeft als
missie om via wetenschappelijk onderzoek de kwaliteit van het management, bestuur en
beleid van de Vlaamse Openbare besturen te verbeteren. Hiertoe worden volgende
onderzoeksdomeinen verder uitgebouwd:
- Bestuurlijke relaties,
- Beleid,
- Human resource management,
- Financieel overheidsmanagement,
- E-government,
- Veranderingsmanagement,
- Indicatoren en monitoring,
- Fiscaliteit.
Het steunpunt 'bestuurlijke organisatie Vlaanderen' is een consortium van het Instituut voor de
Overheid (K.U.Leuven), de Universiteit Antwerpen, de Universiteit Gent en de Hogeschool
Gent. Het wordt gecoördineerd door prof. dr. Geert Bouckaert (Instituut voor de Overheid).
K.U.LEUVEN
Universiteitsplein 1
B-2610 Wilrijk
Prof.dr Ria Janvier
Tel: 0032 3 820 28 72
Fax: 0032 3 820 28 82
E-mail: ria.janvier@ua.ac.be
Website: www.uia.ac.be/psw
E. Van Evenstraat 2A
B-3000 Leuven
Prof.dr Annie Hondeghem
Algemeen coördinator:
Prof.dr Geert Bouckaert
Tel: 0032 16 32 32 70
Fax: 0032 16 32 32 67
E-mail: io@soc.kuleuven.ac.be
Website: www.kuleuven.ac.be/io
Voskenslaan 270
B-9000 Gent
Prof. dr Filip De Rynck
Tel: 0032 9 242 42 07
Fax: 0032 9 243 87 96
E-mail: filip.derynck@hogent.be
Website : habe.hogent.be
Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 25
B-9000 Gent
Prof. dr Hans Waege
Tel: 0032 9 264 31 11
Fax: 0032 9 264 69 85
E-mail: hans.waege@rug.ac.be
Website: www.psw.rug.ac.be/popmeth
Algemeen secretariaat
Steunpunt beleidsrelevant onderzoek
E. Van Evenstraat 2 C - B-3000 Leuven - BELGIE
Tel: 0032 16 32 36 10 - Fax: 0032 16 32 36 11
www.steunpuntbov.be

Spoor eGovernment - Steunpunt Bestuurlijke Organisatie

Transcription

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