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ISSN 1313-7735
RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON
MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES
Proceedings of the
Fourth International Conference
Publisher
Bulgarian National Multidisciplinary Scientific Network of the
Professional Society for Research work
Volume 1
LOZENEC, BULGARIA
12– 16 JUNE, 2013
RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS
ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES
Fourth Conference
Publisher
Bulgarian National Multidisciplinary Scientific Network of the Professional
Society for Research Work
with the support of
Bulgarian National Society of Agricultural Engineers
“Engineering and Research for Agriculture”
“Angel Kunchev” University of Rousse, Bulgaria
National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry, Bucharest, Romania
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat Timişoara,
Faculty of Zootechny and Biotechnology, Romania
Society “ECOLOGICA”, Belgrade, Serbia
Volume 1
Agriculture and Veterinary medicine
Technical sciences, Processing & Post Harvest Technology
and Logistics, Power and machinery
LOZENEC, BULGARIA
12– 16 JUNE, 2013
Organizing Committee
Atanasov Atanas, Bulgaria - Editor in Chief
Mihailov Nikolay, Bulgaria
Vezirov Chavdar, Bulgaria
Kehayov Dimitar, Bulgaria
Bikic Sinisa, Serbia
Vlăduţ Valentin, Romania
Dochev Veselin, Bulgaria
Bungescu Sorin, Romania
Atanasova Polina, Bulgaria
Kneţeviš Dario, Croatia
Biriş Sorin-Ştefan, Romania
Sandric Maria, Romania
International Scientific Committee
Vezirov Chavdar, Bulgaria
Banaj Đuro, Croatia
Paradjikovic Nada, Croatia
Vulkov Lubin, Bulgaria
Inoue Keiichi, Japan
Vlăduţ Valentin, Romania
Martinov Milan, Serbia
Popescu Simion, Romania
Bilalis Dimitrios, Greece
Fröba Norbert, Germany
Kehayov Dimitar, Bulgaria
Perkoviš Anica, Croatia
Zheliazkova Irina, Bulgaria
Bungescu Sorin, Romania
Kaya Yalcin, Turkey
Biriş Sorin-Ştefan, Romania
Jovanoviš Larisa, Serbia
ISSN 1313-7735
Printed in Bulgaria
Printing House “Angel Kunchev” University of Rousse
8, Studentska Street, 7017 Rousse, Bulgaria
PREFACE
Dear Colleagues!
The International Scientific Conference “Research People and Actual
Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences” is fourth International Conference
organized in Bulgaria with basic purpose to create the framework for the
presentation, debate and publication of the valuable scientific results obtained
by both the young members.
United by the idea of Multidisciplinary Sciences, the researchers and
faculty will report the results of their research. Thus, the scientists will
contribute is to promote exchange of research results, scientific ideas and
their practical implementation and development work in the various
disciplines.
We hope this meeting will initiate new joint research projects, new
friendships. We owe special thanks to all participants, and especially to the
supporting organizations.
Chief Editor
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Atanas Atanasov
CONTENTS VOLUME 1
Agriculture and Veterinary medicine
Technical sciences, Processing & Post Harvest Technology
and Logistics, Power and machinery
1. NITROGEN UTILIZATION OF VARIOUS WHEAT GENOTYPES ON AN ACID
SOIL
Slaviša Stojkoviš, Nebojša Deletiš, Milan Biberdţiš, Slaviša Gudţiš, Miroljub Aksiš,
Dragoljub Bekoviš and Nadica Tmušiš………………………………………………....1
2. GRAIN YIELD AND POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OF WINTER WHEAT
AS AFFECTED BY PRE-IRRIGATION SOIL MOISTURE
Miroljub Aksiš, Nebojša Deletiš, Nebojša Gudţiš, Slaviša Gudţiš, Slaviša Stojkoviš,
Saša Baraš, Jasmina Kneţeviš.................................................................................6
3. ARE THERE DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF BIOFERTILIZERS ON MAIZE HYBRIDS?
K.Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, G. Hankovszky, P. Makleit, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres,
B. Tóth……………………………………………………………………………………..11
4. DETERMINING YIELD AND QUALITY PERFORMANCES OF CONFECTIONERY
SUNFLOWER HYBRIDS
Y. Kaya, G. Evci, V. Pekcan, I. M. Yilmaz……………………………………………. 16
5. USE OF LIVING BACTERIA CONTAINING FERTILIZER FOR THE BETTER
NUTRIENT SUPPLY
G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, P.Makleit, L. Lévai, G. Hankovszky, K. Bodnár, Sz. Veres,
B Tóth……………………………………………………………………………….……..21
6. PREVALENCE AND ETIOLOGY OF SUBCLINICAL MASTITIS OF GOATS IN
SERBIA
Snezana Ivanovic, Jadranka Zutic, Ksenija Nesic, Miroslav Zujovic…………….…26
7. USE OF BY- PRODUCT OF LIME FACTORY IN THE MAINTENANCE OF SOIL pH
B. Tóth, K. Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, G. Hankovszky, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres……31
8. INDIVIDUAL AND JOINT EFFECT OF YIELD COMPONENTS ON GRAIN YIELD
OF TRITICALE AND BARLEY
Nebojša Deletiš, Slaviša Stojkoviš, Milan Biberdţiš, Dragana Laleviš,
Slaviša Gudţiš……………………………………………………………………………36
9. EFFECT OF FLUID BY-PRODUCT OF BIOGAS FACTORY ON HELIANTHUS
ANNUUS L.
G. Hankovszky, K. Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres, B. Tóth……41
10. BIOLOGICAL AND PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPE VARIETY
GEWÜRZTRAMINER IN VINEGROWING SUBREGION OF NIŠ
Bratislav Širkoviš, Nebojša Deletiš, Saša Matijaševiš, Dušica Širkoviš,
Zoran Jovanoviš…………………………………………………………………………..46
11. RESISTANCE OF WINTER WHEAT CULTIVARS TO Puccinia triticina
Slaviša Gudţiš, Nebojša Deletiš, Miroljub Aksiš, Nebojša Gudţiš, Katerina Nikoliš,
Slaviša Stojkoviš……………………………………….…………………………………51
12. EFFECT OF ROW SPACING ON SEED YIELD, YIELD COMPONENTS AND
SEED QUALITY OF ALFALFA
D. Bekoviš, R. Stanisavljeviš, V. Stevoviš, M. Biberdţiš, S. Stojkoviš,
J. Kneţeviš………………………………………………………………………………..55
13. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND GROWTH PERIOD OF DONOR PLANTS ON
PEPPER ANTHER CULTURE
S. Grozeva, V. Todorova, T. Cholakov, V. Rodeva…………………………………...60
14. ORGANIC ACIDS IN THE NUTRITION OF BROILERS
Zvonimir Steiner, Regina Joviš, Matija Domašinoviš, Đuro Senčiš, Ivana Klariš,
Danijela Samac, Natalija Steiner………………………………………………………..65
15. EFFECT OF SOME CHEMOTHERAPIES ON POTATO VIRUS Y AND X
INFECTED Solanum tuberosum L. PLANTLETS (cv. ROCLAS)
Carmen Liliana BĂDĂRĂU, Nicoleta CHIRU, Ionela Cătălina GUŢĂ……………….69
16. THE INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZING ON NUMBER OF PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY STALKS AT DIFFERENT CULTIVARS OF WINTER WHEAT
Nadica Tmušiš…………………………………………………………………………….75
17. EFFECT OF GROWTH STAGE ON MACROELEMENTS AND MICROELEMENTS
IN ALFALFA
J. Kneţeviš, M. Aksiš, S. Širiš, N. Gudţiš, D. Bekoviš………………………………..80
18. THE DYNAMIC OF SOLUBLE NITROGEN AND COEFFICIENT OF RIPENING
DURING THE SAME PROCESS IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF SENICA
CHEESE
Ţ.Saviš, V.Đuriš, N.lališ…………………………………………………………………..85
19. COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE HCH CONTAMINATION OF SOME DIARY
PRODUCTS IN OLT AND TIMIS DISTRICTS
M. Cazacu, A. Rivis, C.I. Jianu, I. Cocan, D.S. Stef…………………………..........90
20. THE EFFECT OF LIMING ON THE Al CONTENT IN SOIL TYPE Dystric Cambisol
AND IN A WHEAT ROOTS
Nebojša Gudţiš, Aleksandar Djikiš, Miroljub Aksiš, Slaviša Gudţiš,
Jasmina Kneţeviš, Miodrag Jeliš………………………………………………………95
21. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE ENERGY AND PROTEIC METABOLISM
APPLIED TO PIGS
R. Burlacu, C. Niţu…………………………………………………………………..…..100
22. OPTIMIZING THE ELECTROPHORETIC SEPARATION METHOD OF TOMATO
AND WHEAT PROTEIN FRACTIONS
Florina Furdi…………………………………………..…………………………………106
23. FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION
SERVICES IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
G. Maksimovic, B. Milosevic, Biljana Veljkovic, Z. Spasic…………………………..111
24. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF COWS IN THE MOUNTAIN GOLIJA
Bisa Radovic, Jasmina Janjic, Nitovski A., Valentina Milanovic…………………116
25. DIMBOA- AND DIBOA-CONTENT OF VARIOUS MAIZE (ZEA MAYS L.) HYBRIDS
P. Makleit, K. Bodnár, G. Hankovszky, B. Tóth, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres, L. Nagy,
G. L. Nagy………………………………………………………………………………..120
26. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE PROPERTIES OF TOMATO HYBRIDS FOR
GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
I. Stancic, S. Petrovic, J. Zivic, M. Jovic and D. Knezevic………………………….125
27. AGROBIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF VINE CULTIVAR MERLOT CLONE R18 IN
THE VINE DISTRICT OF ŢUPA
Z. Jovanoviš, B. Širkoviš, M. Gariš……………………………………………………129
28. THE INFLUENCE OF MANNAN OLIGOSACHARIDES ON THE UTILIZATION OF
NUTRIENTS IN SIMMENTAL CALVES
Nikola Stoliš1, Boţidar Miloseviš2, Zvonko Spasiš2, Zoran Ilic2, Bratislav Pesic2..133
29. AHP METHOD AS AN ANALYSIS TOOL FOR ACHIEVING GOOD PRACTICES IN
THE PRODUCTION OF MILK
J. Janjiš, J. Stankoviš, B. Radoviš…………………………………………………….138
30. PELVIMETRY IN CALIFORNIAN RABBIT (ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS)
Valentina Milanovic, Verica Mrvic, A. Nitovski, Bisa Radovic……………………..143
31. COMPARISON OF PRODUCTIVE ABILITIES OF IMPORTED AND DOMESTIC
FIRST CALVING SIMMENTAL COWS
B. Milosevic, S. Ciric, Z. Spasic, I. Zoran, N. Lalic, N. Stolic……………………….147
32. MICROPROPAGATION OF SOME STRAWBERRY SORTS
Zoran Nikoliš, Katerina Nikoliš, Ana Selamovska, Suzana Stankoviš..................151
33. ORGANIC AGRICULTURE-THE SOURCE OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS FOR
ECOLOGICAL MEDICINES, DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS AND COSMETICS
C. Popescu, Ş. Manea, C.L. Popescu, B. Popescu, M.Tita...................................155
34. AN ANALYSIS OF THE MORPHOLOGY AND PHENOLOGY OF SWEET
CHESTNUT (CASTANEA SATIVA MILL.) FLOWER AND NUT IN NORTHWESTERN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Mujagiš-Pašiš, D. Ballian…………………………………………………………..…..160
35. STUDY ON THE EFFICIENCY OF SOME SOIL AND VEGETATION HERBICIDES
IN SPRING RAPE (BRASSICA NAPUS)
Svetlana Stoyanova…………………………………………………………..………...166
36. STUDY ON THE RESPONSE OF ALFALFA GERMPLASM FOR RESISTANCE TO
ROOT ROT
Il. Ivanova, E. Zhekova, D. Marinova, D. Petkova..................................................171
37. INFLUENCE OF S04 ROOTSTOCK ON MODIFICATION VARIABILITY OF MAIN
CHARACTERITICS OF VINES OF PRISTA CULTIVAR. II. TECHNOLOGICAL
TRAITS
Galina Dyakova, Ivan Todorov, Ralitsa Mincheva………………………………….176
38. INFLUENCE OF S04 ROOTSTOCK ON MODIFICATION VARIABILITY OF MAIN
CHARACTERISTICS OF VINES OF PRISTA CULTIVAR. I. AGROBIOLOGICAL
TRAITS
Galina Dyakova, Ivan Todorov, Ralitsa Mincheva………………………………….181
39. ALFALFA (MEDICAGO SATIVA L.) SEED YIELD AND ITS RELATION WITH
SOME TRAITS
D. Marinova, D. Petkova……………………………………………………………….186
40. CORRELATIONS OF SOME IMPORTANT ALFALFA (MEDICAGO SATIVA L.)
TRAITS
D. Marinova, D. Petkova……………………………………………………………….189
41. TRACING THE AFTER-EFFECT OF WHEAT AND ALFALFA PREDECESSORS
ON SOME BIOMETRIC AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN COMMON WHEAT
(Triticum aestivum L.)
V. Dochev, D. Petkova, A. Atanasov......................................................................192
42. TECHNOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES OF OBTAINING ALCOHOLIC BEVERAJES
TYPE MISTELLES
Felicia Stoica, Camelia Muntean, C. Băducă, I. Popescu Mitroi………………….199
43. RESEARCH ON SENSORY PROFILE, QUALITY AND TYPICITY WINES
CHARDONNAY OBTAINED VINEYARD SAMBUREST
C. Băducă, Felicia Stoica, Camelia Muntean, Daniela Cichi..................................205
44. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL RAPESEED, ACACIA, MANA,
SUNFLOWER AND POLYFLORAL HONEY, USED IN ENHANCING CORNFLAKES NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Popa N.1, Buta Nadina1, Roman L.1, Bordea G.1, Rădoi B.2, Negrea Monica2, Stoin
Daniela2, Traşcă Teodor – Ioan2………………………………………………………210
45. GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC CORRELATION OF PRODUCTION TRAITS IN
COWS OF BLACK AND WHITE BREED
ZvonkoSpasiš, BoţidarMiloševiš, SlavicaŠiriš, LjiljanaAndjušiš, ValentinaMilanoviš,
NebojšaLališ……………………………………………………………………….…….215
46. EFFECT OF WATER –DEFICIT STRESS ON ROOTH GROWTH IN SOME
BALEY GENOTYPES
Velicevici Giancarla, Madosa E, Ciulca S, Lazar A., Malaescu Mihaela, Petolescu
Cerasela, Cretescu Iuliana, Coradini R…………………………..…………………..221
47. INVESTIGATIONS OF ALBENDAZOLE BIOMARKER CONCERNING THE
IMPLICATIONS ON THE HEPATIC CELLS ACTIVITY OF RUMINANTS
L. Manea, I. Manea……………………………………………………………………...227
48. THE EFFECT OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC SELENIUM ON THE
PRODUCTION AND CARCASS COMPOSITION OF HEAVY LINE BROILER
CHICKENS
B. Pešiš1*, B. Miloševiš1, Z. Spasiš1, N. Stoliš2, V. Petričeviš3...............................232
49. ESTIMATION THE ADAPTIVE POTENTIALS OF THE CULTIVATED CEREALS IN
DIFFERENT ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF AZERBAIJAN
N.Nabiyeva.............................................................................................................239
50. BIOSECURITY ASSESMENT MEASURES ON A SHEEP FARMS
A.Nitovski, M. Milenkovic, Bisa Radovic,Valentina Milanovic, Dragana Grcak,
M.Grcak…………………………………………………………………………………..243
51. A COMPARATIVE STUDY REGARDING THE OXIDATIVE STABILITY OF
COCONUT OIL AND WALNUT OIL USING FTIR SPECTROSCOPY
D. Moigradean, M.A. Poiana, D.M. Bordean and V.M. Popa……………………….246
52. INFLUENCE OF SALT STRESS ON GERMINATION AND ROOT GROWTH
DYNAMICS IN SOME GENOTYPES OF BARLEY PRETREATED WITH
MICROWAVE
I. Cretescu, G. Velicevici, R. Căprită, E. Madosa, G. Buzamat, C. Ruset, A. Lazar,
S. Bungescu……………………………………………………………………………..251
53. THE STUDY OF THE MAIN PHENOLIC PARAMETERS OF RED WINES DURING
THEIR EVOLUTION
Camelia Muntean, C. Băducă, Felicia Stoica……………………………….……….257
54. SENSITIVITY OF DIFFERENT SUNFLOWER HYBRIDS TO BIOFERTILIZER
TREATMENTS
L. Nagy, L.G. Nagy, B. Tóth, P. Makleit and Sz. Veres……………………………..262
55. GENETIC DIVERSITY IN BARLEY (HORDEUM VULGARE.) USING RANDOM
AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA (RAPD) MARKERS
Velicevici Giancarla, Madoşă E, Ciulca S, Petolescu Cerasela,Lazar A, Malaescu
Mihaela, Coradini R, Cretescu Iuliana………………………………………………..266
56. STUDY REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF OSMOTIC STRESS UPON
CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT IN SOME BARLEY GENOTYPES PRETREATED
WITH MICROWAVE RADIATION
I. Crețescu, R. Căpriță, E. Madoșa, G. Velicevici, G. Buzamat, C. Ruset, A. Lazar,
S. Ropciuc…………………………………………………………………………….….271
57. HYDRAULIC PRESSING OF OILSEEDS: EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY
STAND FOR DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL BALANCE
Ionescu M., Biris S., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Ungureanu N, Dilea M., Vladut V.,
Matache M., Voicea I……………………………………………………………………276
58. DETERMINING THE ELEMENTS DIMENSIONS OF MECHANISMS WHICH
COMPOSE THE DIGGING PITS MACHINES FOR SHRUBS
V. Moise, Gh. Voicu, I.Al. Tabara, St.I. Moise, Paula Voicu………………………..281
59. KINEMATIICS AND DYNAMICS OF THE PROCESS SAILING FLOATIG CUTTER
BLOK
Ivaylo K. Angelov………………………………………………………………………..290
60. DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY AND FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR TRACTORS
TRANSPORTATION
Chavdar Vezirov, Atanas Atanasov, Hristo Hristov, Veselin Lashev………….…..298
61. MATHEMATICAL MODELING IN DESIGN OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES
Cârdei P.1), 2)Atanasov At., Ciupercă R.1), Muraru V.1), Sfîru R.1)..........................303
62. RESULTS OF THE FIRST ENERGETIC WILLOW CROP IN ROMANIA
L. Mihaescu, A.Domokos, I. Pisa I. Oprea, S. Bartha…………….…………………312
63. TECHNOLOGY FOR MECHANIZATION OF SOIL TILLAGE IN THE ARABLE
SUBSTRATE
Croitoru Şt.1), Vlăduţ V.2), Atanasov At. 3), Constantin N.2), Biriş S.4), Bungescu S.5),
Caba I.5), Matache M.2), Voicea I.2), Ludig M.2).......................................................316
64. SOIL TILLAGE OPTIMIZATION BY UN-COMPACTION AND AERATION OF
DEFICIENT DEEP SOILS
Vlăduţ V.1), Croitoru Şt.2), Constantin N.1), Paraschiv G.3), Voicu Gh.3), Biriş S.3),
Bungescu S.4), Caba I.4), Ludig M.1), Atanasov At.5), Molder (Brencu) L.2).............324
65. ASPECTS REGARDING THE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF THE GRIST FRACTIONS AT THE FIRST PLANSIFTER
COMPARTMENT FROM THE REDUCTION PHASE OF A WHEAT MILLING
PLANT
G.Al. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, E.M. Stefan, P.Voicu, C. Carp-Ciocârdia…………...331
66. ASPECTS REGARDING DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRIST
PRODUCTS IN REDUCTION PHASE IN A MILLING PLANT WITH CAPACITY OF
4.2 T/H
Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, E.M. Stefan, E. Maican, S. Marcu…………………...337
67. RESULTS OF THE EXPLOITATION TRIALS OF CLASSIC PRESSES AND BIG
ROLL BALLERS FOR HAY PREPARATION IN THE AGROECOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS OF TOPLICA COUNTY
S. Barac, A. Vukovic, A. Djikic, M. Biberdzic, M. Aksic and D. Djokic……………343
68. THERMAL TREATMENTS OF CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS
M. Lupu, V. Pădureanu…………………………………………………………………348
69. ASPECTS REGARDING RESISTANCE MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ENERGETIC PLANT STALK (MISCANTHUS)
G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, P. Voicu…………………………………….353
70. RESEARCHES REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF OSCILLATION FREQUENCY
ON SEED LOSES FOR AN OSCILLATING CONICAL SIEVE
D. Stoica, Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, C. Carp-Ciocârdia…………………………359
71. TRENDS IN TIRE CONSTRUCTION FOR HEAVY AGRICULTURAL VEHICLES
Biriş S.Şt., Ungureanu N., Ionescu M., Atanasov A., Bungescu S………………..365
72. STUDY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADAPTIVE TIRE FOR AGRICULTURAL
TRAILERS
Biriş S.Şt., Ungureanu N., Vladut V., Ganea I………………………………………..371
73. REFRIGERATING CHAIN
M.G. Mardare…………………………………………………………………………….377
74. SAVE FUEL – PERMANENT CONCERN OF FARMERS
I. L. Caba, S. T. Bungescu, R. Ilea, V. Vladut, A. Atanasov and S. Biris………….380
75. BIOGAS, THE MOST EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR BIOMASS
M. Dilea, G. Paraschiv, Gh. Voicu, S.Şt. Biriş, N. Ungureanu, L. Toma and M.
Ionescu……………………………………………………………………………….…..386
76. THE LIFTING DRUMS IMPORTANCE IN CONSTUCTION OF SELF LOADING
WAGONS
I. L. Caba, A. Atanasov, V. Vladut, S. Biris, R. Ilea, and S.T. Bungescu………….391
77. STUDY ON THE MEASURING EQUIPMENT OF STRESS IN AGRICULTURAL
SOIL
N. Ungureanu, S. Şt. Biriş, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, M. Ionescu, M. Dilea, V.
Vlăduț, M. Matache……………………………..………………………………………394
78. VARIATION OF GRIST PARTICLE SIZE OBTAINED IN THE BREAKAGE PHASE
OF MILLING PLANT WITH ROLLER MILLS
E.M. Stefan, Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, N. Ungureanu…………………………400
RESEARCH PEOPLE AND ACTUAL TASKS ON MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCES
12 – 16 JUNE 2013, LOZENEC, BULGARIA
NITROGEN UTILIZATION OF VARIOUS WHEAT GENOTYPES ON AN
ACID SOIL
Slaviša Stojkoviš, Nebojša Deletiš, Milan Biberdţiš, Slaviša Gudţiš, Miroljub Aksiš,
Dragoljub Bekoviš and Nadica Tmušiš
Abstract: This paper presents the two year results of a study dealing with nitrogen utilization of twenty
recently developed Serbian winter wheat cultivars, on the acid soil typed as eutric vertisol. Nitrogen
reutilization ranged from 12.79 (Jarebica) to 18.75 mg/plant (Gruţa). Percent of nitrogen supply for grain
obtained by reutilization was from 38% (Renesansa) to 66% (Milica). Mean values of physiological efficiency
of nitrogen were within limits from 39 (Renesansa) to 46 kg/kg (Prima, Tera and Pobeda). The lowest crude
protein content was in the cultivar Nevesinjka (8.29%), and the highest one in the cultivar Milica (10.14%).
Key words: Wheat, Nitrogen, Soil, Acidity.
INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen fertilizers are widely used for increasing grain yield and protein content of
bread wheat. However, farmers must optimize their use in order to decrease
environmental risks and production costs (Le Gouis et al., 2008). For that reason,
efficiency of plant nitrogen use becomes a trait of the greatest importance in studying and
breeding of all plants, so of wheat too (Hirel et al. 2007). The core of the problem is to
increase nitrogen accumulation in plants not by increased amounts of nitrogen fertilizers
added, but by creating genotypes with a better ability of their root system to uptake higher
quantities of nitrogen from soil. On the other hand, in order to get higher values of grain
yield, that process necessarily have to be followed by an increased photosynthetic
intensity. If not, only higher concentration of nitrogen in grain and straw could be reached,
and nitrogen utilization efficiency of plants would be significantly lowered (Stojković et al.,
2006; Deletić et al., 2010).
One can often hear a statement that over 60% of soils in Serbia are acid. According
to the Report on Soils‘ Status published by the Ministry of Environment and Spatial
Planning of the Republic of Serbia (2009), during last ten years that percent is
characteristic for central Serbia, while in Vojvodina soil acidity status is incomparably
better. It is stated in this report that the percent of acid soils (on the basis of 25,118
samples from 2008) in central Serbia was 52.1%, with additional 29.2% of mildly acid soils.
Percent of acid soils is also high throughout the world, so there is plenty of references
dealing with parameters of nitrogen metabolism on acid soils (Bednarek and Reszka,
2009), and a great effort is directed to establishment of genetic specificity of nitrogen
metabolism parameters, as well as to those parameters‘ inheritance mode (Le Gouis et
al., 2008; Habash et al., 2007).
This study has been aimed to investigate genetic specificity of nitrogen accumulation
in twenty recently developed Serbian winter wheat cultivars on an acid soil.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The trials were set on the soil typed as eutric vertisol, which was acid. Soil acidity of
cultivated layer, measured as pH value in water, ranged between 5.41 and 5.85, while this
value in KCl was between 4.15 and 4.37. Titration acidity of the soil amounted 17.89 ccm,
and humus percent was from 2.13 to 2.54%. The investigation lasted two years, and
twenty recently developed Serbian winter wheat cultivars were included. The following
traits were studied: nitrogen reutilization, percent of nitrogen supply for grain obtained by
reutilization, physiological efficiency of nitrogen (PEN), as well as crude protein content.
The trials were set in random complete block design (RCBD), with four replications in each
1
year. The obtained data were processed by analysis of variances, and statistical
significance of differences among genotypes was estimated in general by F test. Statistical
significance of differences between particular genotypes each other was established by
comparing with the least significant differences (lsd test).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of F test revealed statistically significant differences among the investigated
genotypes regarding nitrogen reutilization (tab. 1). It is obvious that this parameter had
much higher values in the first year of investigation. In the first year it was within range
from 19.00 mg/plant in the cultivar Evropa 90 to 28.10 mg/plant in the cultivar Kremna,
with the average value of 22.86 mg/plant. In the second year, the lowest nitrogen
reutilization was observed in the cultivar Toplica (5.91 mg/plant), and the highest one in
the cultivar Milica (15.76 mg/plant), while the mean value was 9.37 mg/plant. As the
average for both years variation interval was from 12.79 mg/plant in the cultivar Jarebica to
18.75 mg/plant in the cultivar Gruţa.
Table 1. Nitrogen reutilization (mg/plant) and percent of nitrogen supply for grain
obtained by reutilization
% of nitrogen supplies for grain
Nitrogen reutilization
obtained by reutilization
st
nd
st
Cultivar
1 year
2 year average
1 year
2nd year average
1. Prima
19.10
7.60
13.35
56
40
48
2. Renesansa
25.30
3.76
14.53
62
15
38
3. Tera
23.60
10.90
17.25
63
68
65
4. Pobeda
24.40
11.80
18.10
60
66
63
5. NS Rana 5
26.70
6.08
16.39
69
30
49
6. Evropa 90
19.00
9.18
14.09
44
51
47
7. Milica
20.80
15.76
18.28
47
85
66
8. Jarebica
19.80
5.79
12.79
53
24
38
9. Kremna
28.10
10.22
14.16
64
49
56
10. KG 100
20.50
10.09
15.29
51
46
48
11. Pesma
23.20
10.26
16.73
49
50
49
12. Zlatka
24.90
9.32
17.11
64
40
52
13. Nevesinjka
20.40
13.88
17.14
40
72
56
14. Takovţanka
22.80
10.04
16.42
70
43
56
15. Gruţa
27.20
10.31
18.75
57
45
51
16. Mina
22.70
10.67
16.68
63
52
57
17. Tiha
23.20
7.40
15.30
48
28
38
18. Toplica
21.90
5.91
13.90
66
24
45
19. Bistrica
21.60
10.52
16.06
58
50
54
20. Prva
22.10
7.94
15.02
54
47
50
Average
22.86
9.37
16.11
57
46
51
0,05
6.57
4.27
LSD
0,01
8.99
5.84
Percent of nitrogen supply for grain obtained by reutilization (tab. 1) also was
significantly higher in the first year than in the second one. Differences among genotypes
were significant according to F test, and among particular genotypes each other in many
cases they were greater than lsd values for both probabilities of error (P<0.05 or P<0.01).
2
Variation interval in the first year of investigation was between 40% (Nevesinjka) and 70%
(Takovţanka), and in the second one between 15% (Renesansa) and 85% (Milica). As the
average for both years the lowest percent of nitrogen supply for grain obtained by
reutilization amounted 38% in cultivars Renesansa, Jarebica and Tiha, and the highest
one 66% in the cultivar Milica.
Table 2. Physiological efficiency of nitrogen (kg/kg) and crude protein content (%).
PEN
Crude protein content
st
nd
st
Cultivar
1 year
2 year
average
1 year
2nd year
average
1. Prima
46
46
46
10.03
7.18
8.60
2. Renesansa
43
35
39
11.11
8.21
9.66
3. Tera
47
46
46
10.26
7.58
8.92
4. Pobeda
43
49
46
10.43
6.78
8.60
5. NS Rana 5
46
42
44
10.32
7.92
9.12
6. Evropa 90
43
46
44
10.77
7.64
9.20
7. Milica
40
40
40
11.11
9.18
10.14
8. Jarebica
47
39
43
9.92
7.41
8.66
9. Kremna
46
44
45
10.71
8.09
9.40
10. KG 100
47
39
43
9.75
8.61
9.18
11. Pesma
41
50
45
11.29
6.50
8.89
12. Zlatka
45
39
42
10.03
9.23
9.63
13. Nevesinjka
43
48
45
9.75
6.84
8.29
14. Takovţanka
48
43
45
9.69
8.72
9.20
15. Gruţa
48
40
44
10.60
8.61
9.60
16. Mina
48
40
44
9.69
8.95
9.32
17. Tiha
42
44
43
10.89
7.98
9.43
18. Toplica
46
38
42
9.75
7.75
8.75
19. Bistrica
41
42
41
10.94
8.15
9.54
20. Prva
45
46
45
9.52
7.35
8.43
Average
45
43
44
10.33
7.93
9.13
0,05
2.59
6.08
LSD
0,01
3.54
8.32
Physiological efficiency of nitrogen (PEN) means activity of nitrogen of a plant in
producing assimilates needed to form its grain yield. It is also called efficiency of nitrogen
utilization in plant, and represents a parameter of nitrogen utilization in forming grain yield.
Physiological efficiency of nitrogen is measured as production of assimilates for grain filling
per unit of plant nitrogen, so it is expressed as kg of produced grains per kg of nitrogen
accumulated by crop. Differences among genotypes regarding physiological efficiency of
nitrogen were significant according to F test, and comparisons between each other
followed the same tendency (tab. 2). Values of the first year were between 40 (Milica) and
48 kg/kg (Takovţanka, Gruţa and Mina), and of the second one between 35 (Renesansa)
and 50 kg/kg (Pesma). As the average for both years, values of physiological efficiency of
nitrogen were within limits from 39 (Renesansa) to 46 kg/kg (Prima, Tera and Pobeda).
PEN can show significant variation depending on genotype and environmental conditions
(Đokić and Kostić, 1992). This parameter is greater when nitrogen nutrition is poor and
weather conditions are favorable for grain yield, as well as in genotypes with lower protein
content, lower nitrogen accumulation in plant and higher grain yield. Available data show
that physiological efficiency of nitrogen is better indicator of cultivars productivity than
nitrogen harvest index. Physiological efficiency of nitrogen is the parameter of nitrogen
3
utilization only for forming grain yield, while nitrogen harvest index regards nitrogen
utilization for increasing both grain yield and protein content.
Crude protein content (tab. 2) of the all cultivars was significantly higher in the first
year than in the second one. Differences between genotypes were not significant. Values
of this parameter in the first year were between 9.52% (Prva) and 11.29% (Pesma), and in
the second one between 6.50% (Pesma) and 9.23% (Zlatka). As the average for both
years, values of crude protein content were within limits from 8.29% (Nevesinjka) to
10.14% (Milica).
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
On the basis of the study, dealing with genetic specificity of nitrogen utilization in
twenty recently developed Serbian winter wheat cultivars on an acid soil, we can conclude
the following:
 There were significant differences between genotypes regarding nitrogen
reutilization. As the average for both years, this parameter ranged from 12.79
mg/plant in the cultivar Jarebica to 18.75 mg/plant in the cultivar Gruţa.
 Percent of nitrogen supply for grain obtained by reutilization was significantly higher
in the first year. As the average for both years the lowest percent of nitrogen supply
for grain obtained by reutilization amounted 38% in cultivars Renesansa, Jarebica
and Tiha, and the highest one 66% in the cultivar Milica.
 Mean values of physiological efficiency of nitrogen, considering both years, were
within limits from 39 (Renesansa) to 46 kg/kg (Prima, Tera and Pobeda).
 The lowest crude protein content was observed in the cultivar Nevesinjka (8.29%),
and the highest one in the cultivar (10.14%).
 Regarding nitrogen nutrition, grain yield mainly depends on amount of accumulated
nitrogen and degree of its utilization in plant. That means these parameters could
be a base for selection of wheat genotypes efficient in nitrogen nutrition. This
selection strategy would try to improve simultaneously traits for high accumulation
and efficient utilization of nitrogen in plant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation published in this paper is a part of the project ―The development of
new technologies of small grains cultivation on acid soils using contemporary
biotechnology‖ financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development of the Republic of Serbia, grant No TR-31054.
REFERENCES
[1]. Bednarek, W. and R. Reszka. 2009. The influence of liming and mineral fertilization
on the utilization of nitrogen by spring barley. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie –
Skłodowska, Lublin – Polonia, 64(3), 11-20.
[2]. Deletiš, N., Stojkoviš, S., Đuriš, V., Biberdţiš, M. and S. Gudţiš. 2010. Genotypic
specificity of winter wheat nitrogen accumulation on an acid soil. Research Journal of
Agricultural Science, 42(1), 71-75.
[3]. Đokiš, D. and M. Kostiš. 1992. Akumulacija i iskoriššavanje azota u biljci pšenice bez
Ťubrenja. Savremena poljoprivreda, 40(3), 75-79.
[4]. Gorjanoviš, B., Brdar-Jokanoviš, M. and M. Kraljeviš-Balališ. 2011. Phenotypic
variability of bread wheat genotypes for nitrogen harvest index. Genetika 43(2), 419-426.
4
[5]. Habash, D.Z,. Bernard, S., Schondelmaier, J., Weyen, J. and S.A. Quarrie. 2007. The
genetics of nitrogen use in hexaploid wheat: N utilisation, development and yield. Theor.
Appl. Genet., 114, 403-419.
[6]. Hirel, B., Le Gouis, J., Ney, B. and A. Gallais. 2007. The challenge of improving
nitrogen use efficiency in crop plants: towards a more central role for genetic variability
and quantitative genetics within integrated approaches. Journal of Experimental Botany,
58, 2369-2387.
[7]. Le Gouis, J., Fontaine, J-X., Laperche, A., Heumez, E., Devienne-Barret, F.,
Brancourt-Hulmel, M., Dubois, F. and B. Hirel. 2008. Genetic analysis of wheat nitrogen
use efficiency: coincidence between QTL for agronomical and physiological traits.
Proceedings of the 11th International Wheat Genetics Symposium, URL:
http://hdl.handle.net/2123/3217
[8]. Ministarstvo ţivotne sredine i prostornog planiranja Republike Srbije. 2009. Izveštaj o
stanju zemljišta u republici srbiji. Agencija za zaštitu ţivotne sredine, Beograd.
[9]. Stojkoviš, S., Deletiš, N. and V. Đuriš. 2006. Koncentracija azota u biljci kao indikator
produktivnosti sorata pšenice. Selekcija i semenarstvo 12(3-4), 29-33.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Stojkoviš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisa.stojkovic@pr.ac.rs
N. Deletiš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nebojsa.deletic@pr.ac.rs
M. Biberdţiš, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: milan.biberdzic@pr.ac.rs
S. Gudţiš, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisa.gudzic@pr.ac.rs
M. Aksiš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: miroljub.aksic@pr.ac.rs
D. Bekoviš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: dragoljub.bekovic@pr.ac.rs
N. Tmušiš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nadica.tmusic@pr.ac.rs
5
GRAIN YIELD AND POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OF WINTER
WHEAT AS AFFECTED BY PRE-IRRIGATION SOIL MOISTURE
Miroljub Aksiš, Nebojša Deletiš, Nebojša Gudţiš, Slaviša Gudţiš, Slaviša Stojkoviš, Saša
Baraš, Jasmina Kneţeviš
Abstract: Water deficiency during vegetation of winter wheat is a significant limiting factor in reaching
genetic yielding potential. Therefore it was important to establish winter wheat’s demand for water in the
conditions of irrigation, as well as the effect of real evapotranspiration on wheat grain yield. Regarding both
-1
years, the highest grain yield was reached at the variant with 70% of FWC (8678-9180 kg ha ), so the observed
values of ET at this variant (381.1-393.1 mm) represent potential evapotranspiration of winter wheat in the
conditions of southern Serbia.
Key words: Potential Evapotranspiration, Winter wheat, Irrigation, Grain Yield.
INTRODUCTION
Genetic yielding potential of winter wheat cultivars grown in Serbia is over 11 t ha-1, but
the average grain yield for the period 2002-2006 was 3.36 t ha-1 (Statistic Yearbook of
Serbia, 2008). During next few decades, breeding will also play the leading role in
improving wheat genetic yielding potential (Denčić et al., 1997; Kronstad, 1996), but
grain yield will much more depend on technology of new genotypes production. Genetic
specificity of new cultivars will get higher grain yield, but with more knowledge and skills of
farmers. Distribution area of new wheat genotypes will be narrower and their grain yield
higher. Scientists that work on small grains production improvement in global scale have
made strategic categorization of total area under small grains. Key problem is recognition
and listing of limiting factors for growing small grains.
Water deficiency during vegetation of winter wheat is an important limiting factor for
achieving high and stable grain yield. Water consumption for evapotranspiration of winter
wheat during vegetation, in the conditions of optimal soil humidity and if maximal grain
yield of good quality is reached, is called potential evapotranspiration (ETP). Discussing
wheat water demands, Vučić (1976) stated that those demands in our country are about
320-360 mm. Evapotranspiration (ET) can be established by direct measurements or by
many indirect mathematical methods.
Wheat ETP or water demands in various production areas are between 450-650 mm
(FAO WATER, 2013). In the conditions of Serbia, Vučić (1976) and Bošnjak (1999)
observed wheat ETP of 320-360 mm. Dragović and Maksimović (2000), in the conditions
of irrigation, found wheat ETP of 293-346 mm. Aksić et al., (2011) established water
demands of wheat between 322 and 374 mm in the conditions of southern Serbia. Xiying
et al. (2011) reported wheat ETP of 401-458 mm. In a three-year study Haijun et al.
(2011) observed wheat ETP of 266-499 mm. Luchiari et al. (1997), in the conditions of
irrigation, found wheat water consumption for ETP of 345-385 mm.
The experimental investigation through field trials has been carried out in the river
valley of Juţna Morava, municipality of Merošina, on the alluvium soil type, during the
period 2009-2011. The trials were set at 198 m of altitude, 43o19' N of latitude and 21o54'
E of longitude, in random complete block design (RCBD) with five replications. Areas of
elementary plots were 35 m2, and during vegetation were carried out usual agrotechnical
measures for wheat.
The winter wheat cultivar Pobeda was sown at October 12 th in 2009, and at October
17th in 2010. Seeding rate was 500 germinative seeds per m 2. Tillering of winter wheat
6
started in the second decade of November, so tillering lasted during November and the
first half of December. Wheat started stage of winter dormancy during second decade of
December and that period lasted until the third decade of March. In early April wheat went
out of dormant period, and flowering started in the middle of May. Harvest was carried out
during second decade of July in both years of investigation.
Irrigation was carried out by spray irrigation method, and its term was determined by
observing dynamics of soil humidity down to 60 cm of depth. Soil moisture content was
measured by thermogravimetric analysis in the oven at 105-110oC. Trials included three
irrigation variants with pre-irrigation soil humidity of 60%, 70% and 80% of FWC, as well as
unirrigated control. Rainfall was measured at the experimental field by rain gauge.
Calculation of water consumption for evapotranspiration in the conditions of irrigation
was done for each month and for vegetation period in whole (1), by balancing water from
precipitation during vegetation period, soil supplies (2), irrigation, and potentially
percolated or flown out water after heavy rains (3).
ETvp = (W1 – W2) + P + I – D (mm)
(1)
where ETvp is evapotranspiration for the vegetation period; W1 is amount of water in soil to
the depth of 1.2 m at the beginning of vegetation; W2 is amount of water in soil to the
depth of 2 m at the end of vegetation; P is water amount from precipitation; I is water
amount from irrigation; D is water loss by deep percolation.
W = 100 ∙ h ∙ d ∙ s (mm)
(2)
where W is amount of water in soil to the depth of 2 m; h is depth of soil; d is bulk density;
s is soil moisture.
Following heavy precipitation, water percolation into deeper soil layers was
calculated:
D = (W1 + P) – FWC (mm)
(3)
where D is deep percolation; W1 is soil water amount to the depth of 2 m at the beginning
of vegetation; P is precipitation amount (mm); FWC is field water capacity.
The obtained values of texture analysis (tab. 1) were expected, because fractional
relations confirm that this is a loamy alluvial soil.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of soil
Total sand (%)
Depth (cm)
> 0.02 mm
0-20
42.1
20-40
40.3
40-60
38.7
60-80
36.7
80-100
35.1
Powder (%)
0.02-0.002 mm
40.5
37.8
36.3
35.9
32.3
Clay (%)
< 0.002 mm
17.4
21.9
25.0
27.4
32.6
Immediately before the study began, water-physical properties of soil in the
experimental field were determined (tab. 2).
7
Table 2. Water-physical properties of soil
Specific
Bulk
Depth
FWC
weight
density
(cm)
(weight %)
(g cm-3)
(g cm-3)
0-20
27.32
2.65
1.35
20-40
25.94
2.58
1.34
40-60
24.44
2.56
1.34
Total
porosity
(vol. %)
49.05
48.06
47.65
Capacity for
water
(vol. %)
36.88
34.76
32.75
Capacity for
air
(vol. %)
12.17
13.30
14.90
Grain yield of winter wheat was high-significantly greater at the variant with pre-irrigation
soil humidity 70% of FWC in regard to the other two irrigated variants and unirrigated control
(tab.3). Comparing variants with pre-irrigation soil humidity 60% and 80% of FWC, grain yield
was higher in the former than in the latter one, at the level of significance P<0.05.
In the production season 2009/10, when precipitation pattern was favorable, grain yield
was higher at unirrigated control in regard to the irrigated variant with pre-irrigation soil
humidity 80% of FWC. Grain yield increase by irrigation in the season 2009/10 was from
1.57% to 4.93% comparing with unirrigated control. The effect of irrigation on grain yield
increase in regard to the control ranged between 19.05% and 32.85% in the season 2010/11.
Table 3. Grain yield of winter wheat (kg ha-1)
Year (B)
Pre-irrigation soil humidity (A)
FWC 80%
FWC 70%
FWC 60%
2009/10
8094
8678
8400
2010/11
8226
9180
8422
Average (А)
8160
8929
8411
LSD
A
B
0.05
151.76
107.30
0.01
218.36
154.39
Control
8270
6910
7590
Average (B)
8360.5
8184.5
8272.5
AB
214.62
308.81
Having in mind that the highest grain yield was reached at pre-irrigation soil humidity
70% of FWC, this value represents a proper term for irrigation of winter wheat in edaphic
and climatic conditions of southern Serbia. Sources of water spent for evapotranspiration
of winter wheat are given in table 4.
Table 4. Sources of water used for evapotranspiration of winter wheat as affected by
pre-irrigation soil humidity
Soil water
Grain
Pre-irrigation
Precipitation Irrigation
ЕТ
Year
supplies
yield
soil humidity
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
kg ha-1
80% PVK
51.2
279.5
80
8094
410,7
2009/10
70% PVK
63.6
279.5
40
8678
393.1
60% PVK
84.0
279.5
20
8400
383.5
Control
92.7
279.5
8270
372.2
80% PVK
43,5
211.7
150
8226
405.2
2010/11
70% PVK
49.4
211.7
120
9180
381.1
60% PVK
54.3
211.7
80
8422
346.0
Control
77.8
211.7
6910
289.5
Water consumption of winter wheat for evapotranspiration (289.5-410.7 mm) was
measured by the method of water balance. Highest values of wheat ET were observed at
8
the irrigated variant with pre-irrigation soil humidity 80% of FWC (405.2-410.7 mm), while the
lowest ET values were found at the control (289.5 mm) and the variant with pre-irrigation
soil humidity 60% of FWC (346 mm).
Considering both investigated years, the highest grain yield of winter wheat was
reached at the irrigated variant with pre-irrigation soil humidity 70% of FWC. (8678 kg ha-1
and 9180 kg ha-1), and for that reason the observed values of ET at this variant from 381.1
to 393.1 mm represent potential evapotranspiration (ETP) of winter wheat for the
conditions of southern Serbia.
The observed values of potential evapotranspiration are higher than the values
reported by Vučić (1976) and Bošnjak (1999). Measured ETP presented in our study is
similar to the values (345-385 mm) reported by Luchiari et al. (1997) and Balwinder et
al. (2011) who balanced wheat water demands of 345-404 mm in the conditions of
irrigation. Higher values of winter wheat evapotranspiration (401-458 mm) in regard to our
study were found by Xiying et al. (2011). Haijun et al. (2011) also reported a high value
of wheat ET which amounted 499 mm.
The two-year results of investigation in the conditions of irrigation point to a decrease
of wheat grain yield when soil moisture is high as 80% of FWC. Measured ETP of winter
wheat, in the conditions of southern Serbia, was from 381.1 to 393.1 mm. The established
potential evapotranspiration is a starting base for planning production in the conditions of
irrigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation published in this paper is a part of the project ―The study of genetic
basis improving yield and quality of cereals in different ecological conditions‖ financed by
the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, grant
No T.R.31092.
REFERENCES
[1].
Aksiš, M., Deletiš, N., Gudţiš, N., Gudţiš, S., Stojkoviš, S., and D. Kneţeviš. 2011.
Water use efficiency of winter wheat in ecological conditions of south Serbia. 22nd
International Symposium Food Safety Production, 19-25 June, 2011. Trebinje, Bosnia and
Herzegovina. 362-364.
[2].
Balwinder-Singh, Eberbach P.L, Humphreys E., and S.S. Kukal. 2011. The effect of
rice straw mulch on evapotranspiration, transpiration, and soil evaporation on irrigated
wheat in Punjab, India. Agricultural Water Management, 98(12), 1847-1855.
[3].
Bošnjak, Đ. 1999. Navodnjavanje poljoprivrednih useva. Poljoprivredni fakultet,
Novi Sad, 181-186.
[4].
Denţiš, S., Mladenov, N., Ronţeviš, P., Pankoviš, L. and V. Durie. 1997. Genetic
and productivity potential of wheat cultivars developed in Novi Sad. Proceedings of the
Scientific Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, Serbia, 29, 195-204.
[5].
Dragoviš, S. and L. Maksimoviš. 2000. Navodnjavanje ozime pšenice u cilju
realizacije genetskog potencijala na rodnost. Selekcija i semenarstvo, Novi Sad, Vol. VII,
No 3-4, 9-15.
[6].
FAO WATER. 2013. Wheat. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/cropinfo_wheat.html
[7].
Haijun, L., Lipeng, Y., Yu, L., Xiangping, W. and H. Guanhua. 2011. Responses of
winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) evapotranspiration and yield to sprinkler irrigation
regimes. Agricultural Water Management, 98(4), 483-492.
9
[8].
Kronstad, W.E. 1996. Genetic Diversity and the free Exchange of germplasm. In:
Reinolds, M.P., Rajaram, S. and Alma McNab (ed). Increasing Yield Potential in Wheat:
Breaking the Barriers. Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico, 19-27.
[9].
Luchiari, A.JR., Riha, S.J. and R.L. Gomide. 1997. Energy Balance in Irrigated
Wheat in the Cerrados Region of Central Brazil. Scientia Agricola. Piracicaba, 54, 78-88.
[10]. Republiţki zavod za statistiku Srbije. 2008. Statistiţki godišnjak Srbije 2007.
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[11]. Vuţiš, N. 1976. Navodnjavanje poljoprivrednih kultura. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi
Sad, 223-232.
[12]. Xiying, Z., Suying, C., Hongyong, S., Liwei, S. and W. Yanzhe. 2011. Changes in
evapotranspiration over irrigated winter wheat and maize in North China Plain over three
decades. Agricultural Water Management, 98(6), 1097-1104.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: miroljub.aksic@gmail.com
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: ndeletic@gmail.com
N. Gudţiš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nesagudzic@gmail.com
S. Gudţiš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: sgudzic@gmail.com
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisass@gmail.com
S. Baraš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: sbarac@eunet.rs
J. Kneţeviš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: jasmina.kneska@gmail.com
10
ARE THERE DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF BIOFERTILIZERS ON MAIZE
HYBRIDS?
K.Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, G. Hankovszky, P. Makleit, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres and
B. Tóth*
Abstract: Soils can be used optimally for the cultivation, if we considered them not only as a lifeless
mass with chemical and physical properties but we consider it as a living material with huge amounts of living
microorganisms which is changing the composition in consequence of metabolic cycles. For the findings of
soil fertility should be aware in physiology properties. The effects of two living bacteria containing biofertilizer
were examined on 5 maize hybrids (Zea mays L. EF 4503, EG 4707, EG 5009, EF 5209, EH 3605). The
applied biofertilizer “A” contains Azotobacter chrococcum and Bacillus megaterium. The biofertilizer „B”
contains the following bacteria: Azospirillum brasielnse, Azotobacter vinerolandii, Bacillus megaterium,
Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Sterptomyces albus.
The dry matter accumulation of roots and shoots, the relative chlorophyll content of 2nd and 3rd leaves
(SPAD-Unit), the photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenoids) and leaf area were
measured.
By the results of the experiment we conclude that the two living bacteria containing biofertilizers have
different effects on the various maize hybrids.
The „A” biofertilizer increased the dry weight of the EH 3605 hybrid while the „B” living bacteria
containing biofertilizer was effective on the EG 4707 hybrid.
Keywords: biofertilizer, fertility, maize, nutrients
INTRODUCTION
The reduction of the chemicals used is an essential element of the general
environmental and food safety requirements. The most important questions of the
sustainable crop production: „are there any technologies that can reduce the use of
chemicals?‖ and „how can be protected the soils from the acidification?‖ Some
agrotechnics used (ex. artificial fertilizer) are also responsible for the acidification. Come to
the front the treatments that utilize the natural endowments. These include the biofertilizers
too.
For the findings of soil fertility should be aware in physiology properties. The roots,
the soil and the microorganisms have a specific interaction [3]. The plant rhizosphere can
support a microbial community of several orders of magnitude higher than bulk soil [1].
According to Weller [4], root colonization is related to bacteria which can colonize the
whole root system and survive during several weeks in the presence of the natural
microflora.
Five maize hybrids (Zea mays L. vc. EF 4503, EG 4707, EC 5009, EF 5209, EH
3605) were used in these experiments. The plants were grown under controlled
environmental conditions.
The seedlings were transferred to a continuously aerated nutrient solution of the
following composition: 2.0 mM Ca(NO3)2, 0.7 mM K2SO4, 0.5 mM MgSO4, 0.1 mM
KH2PO4, 0.1 mM KCl, 10 µM H3BO3, 1 µM MnSO4, 1 µM ZnSO4, 0.2 µM CuSO4, 0.01 µ
M(NH4)6Mo7O24 [2]. Iron was added to the nutrient solution as Fe(III)-EDTA at a
concentration of 100 μM.
1 ml/dm-3 concentration biofertilizers were added to the nutrient solution. The applied
biofertilizer ―A‖ contains Azotobacter chrococcum and Bacillus megaterium. The
biofertilizer „B‖ contains the following bacteria: Azospirillum brasielnse, Azotobacter
11
vinerolandii, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Sterptomyces albus. The plants were grown in 1.7 L pots.
The relative chlorophyll content was mesaured by SPAD-502 Chlorophyll Meter.
The photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenoids) content were
determined by Metertek SP 830 Spektrofotometer (Moran and Porath, 1980).
The dry matter of shoots and roots were measured at the end of experiments with the
use of thermal gravimetric analysis, after drying at 85 Cº for 48 h.
For the germination test the seeds were taken to thermostat under 22 oC.
Firstly, the germination percentage was determined. The appearance of the first root
mean the beginning of the germination. The seeds did not germinate at the same time,
therefore need to measure the germination on several measurement days.
On the second day the germination of all hybrids was over 70% and 100% of the EG
4707 hybrid germinated. The full germination was the lowest in the case of EF 5209 hybrid
with 93%.
Table 1. The germination percentage of the different maize hybrids on several
measurement days (%)
Hybrids
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
EH 3605
2.
87.00
85.00
94.00
100.00
99.00
Measurement days
3.
3.00
6.00
5.00
0.00
0.00
4.
3.00
4.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Summary
93.00
95.00
99.00
100.00
99.00
The two living bacteria containing biofertilizers have different effects on the various
maize hybrids. The dry matter accumulation of the root and the sprout can be seen in
Table 2.
The „A‖ biofertilizer increased the dry weight of the shoots of the EH 3605 hybrid. The
dry matter accumulation in the root of EG 4707 hybrid was increased also by the „A‖
biofertilizer compared to the control.
The „B‖ living bacteria containing biofertilizer increase the root- and shoots weight of
the EG 4707 and EG 5009 hybrids.
Table 2. The dry matter accumulation of root and shoots of the examined hybrids to
the effects of „A” and „B” biofertilizer treatments. n=9± S.E. (g plant-1) Significant
differences in comparison to the control: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
The dry matter accumulation of sprout of the examined hybrids
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
EH 3605
0.271±0.04
0.151±0.03
0.252±0.05
0.290±0.1
0.368±0.08
0.205±0.05*** 0.092±0.04** 0.215±0.05
0.290±0.1
0.380±0.05
0.221±0.02** 0.117±0.01** 0.203±0.03
0.359±0.03
0.325±0.08
12
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
The dry matter accumulation of root of the examined hybrids
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
EH 3605
0.057±0.007
0.037±0.006
0.049±0.01
0.053±0.01
0.071±0.01
0.030±0.01* 0.022±0.009** 0.039±0.01
0.052±0.02
0.079±0.01
0.044±0.005* 0.027±0.005** 0.045±0.01
0.063±0.01
0.073±0.02
The difference of the respiration and the photosynthesis results the dry matter
accumulation. We therefore measured the relative chlorophyll content of the 2nd and 3rd
leaves of maize hybrids.
The two living bacteria containing biofertilizers have different effects on the relative
chlorophyll content (SPAD-Unit) of the hybrids. In the 2nd leaves the relative chlorophyll
content of EG 5009 hybrid was increased by the both biofertilizers. At the examination of
3rd leaves we concluded that the „A‖ biofertilizer was significantly effective on the EG 4707
hybrid correlate with control.
Table 3. The relative chlorophyll content of the 2nd and 3rd leaves (SPAD-Unit) of
maize hybrids to the effects of „A” and „B” biofertilizer treatments. n=60± S.E. Significant
differences in comparison to the control: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.
The relative chlorophyll content of the 2nd leaf (SPAD-Unit) of maize hybrids
Treatments
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
EH 3605
Control
43.88±3.31
37.94±4.71
37.75±3.78
40.93±2.74
43.68±2.86
„A‖
45.37±3.41
38.06±4.61
39.12±4.48
44.98±2.37*
43.48±2.47
„B‖
40.40±4.93
37.63±3.97
39.11±2.68
42.09±2.15
42.88±1.65
The relative chlorophyll content of the 3rd leaf (SPAD-Unit) of maize hybrids
Treatments
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
EH 3605
Controll
38.73±3.49
40.67±3.97
38.73±3.49
40.58±2.19
42.02±2.87
„A‖
38.20±2.68
42.38±2.41
38.20±2.68
40.52±2.16
38.99±2.42
„B‖
37.20±3.29
44.49±3.14*
37.20±3.29
37.06±2.58
37.77±2.79
The relative chlorophyll content is just a comparative value, therefore the quantity of
the photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenoids) was measured also
in the 2nd and the 3rd leaves, but in the study can be seen just the result of the 2 nd leaf,
because the biofertilizers made similar changes in the 3 rd leaf.
In the 2nd leaves the biofertilizers increased the chlorophyll-a content of the EG 5009
and decreased it in case of the EF 4503 and the EH3605 hybrids.
The concentration of the chlorophyll-b of the EG 5009 hybrid was increased by the
„B‖ biofertilizer correlate with control and the „A‖ biofertilizer.
The content of the carotenoids was higher by the effect of the „B‖ biofertilizer in the
EG 5009 hybrid.
In the 3rd leaves the „A‖ biofertilizer increased the content the chlorophyll-a in case
of the EF 5209 and EF 4503 hybrids.
The concentration the chlorophyll-b was higher by the effect of the „A‖ biofertilizer
correlate with control and the „B‖ biofertilizer.
The carotenoid content of the 3rd leaves was increased by also the „A‖ biofertilizer in
the EF 4503 and the EG 4707 hybrids.
13
Table 4. The chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenoid content of the maize hybrids in
the 2nd leaf to the effect of the biofertilizer treatments. (mg g -1)n=3± S.E Significant
differences in comparison to the control: *p<0.05; **p<0.01.
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
The chlorophyll-a of the maize hybrids in the 2nd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
15.80±0.84
12.94±1.41
15.03±0.03
12.86±0.16
15.39±0.97
13.82±1.86*
12.34±0.36
14.97±0.82*
14.07±1.76 15.70±0.76** 12.84±1.00
12.58±0.84
The chlorophyll-b of the maize hybrids in the 2nd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
6.07±0.67
4.25±1.86
4.72±0.81
4.40±0.15
5.81±0.65
4.82±1.42
4.18±0.48
4.45±0.83
4.94±0.99*
5.45±1.50
3.83±0.51
3.75±0.21
The carotenoids of the maize hybrids in the 2nd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
10.29±0.95
6.76±0.12
9.86±0.14
8.02±0.19
9.94±0.47
8.49±0.31*
8.09±0.02
8.59±0.65
9.60±0.18
9.98±0.32*
7.02±0.48
8.45±0.45
EH 3605
15.35±0.19
12.85±0.49*
12.78±0.23*
EH 3605
5.57±0.32
3.90±0.25*
3.78±0.29*
EH 3605
10.10±0.48
8.24±0.19*
8.26±0.00*
Table 5. The chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, carotenoid content of the maize hybrids in the 3rd
leaf to the effect of the biofertilizer treatments. (mg g -1)n=3± S.E Significant differences in
comparison to the control: *p<0.05; **p<0.01.
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
Treatments
Control
„A‖
„B‖
The chlorophyll-a of the maize hybrids in the 3rd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
15.02±0.90
12.13±0.02
14.72±0.77
15.49±0.50
15.27±0.02
13.14±0.03* 16.03±0.17*
16.76±0.89
14.91±0.01 14.91±0.01** 15.06±0.38*
16.31±0.46
The chlorophyll-b of the maize hybrids in the 3rd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
6.49±0.98
4.31±0.01
5.11±0.65
6.22±0.27
5.51±0.45
4.52±0.03
5.86±0.21
6.92±0.33
4.74±0.02*
5.24±0.02*
5.26±0.37
6.42±0.17
The carotenoids of the maize hybrids in the 3rd leaf
EF 5209
EG 5009
EF 4503
EG 4707
10.95±0.40
6.74±0.12
9.72±0.69
12.05±0.44
9.77±0.81
7.52±0.21
10.98±0.12
12.54±0.36
8.71±0.01*
8.41±0.45**
9.99±0.19
12.01±0.64
EH 3605
16.91±0.17
16.57±0.23
16.26±0.42
EH 3605
6.85±0.44
6.29±0.20
6.15±0.25
EH 3605
12.21±0.03
11.67±0.25
11.46±0.09
Our experiments call attention to the variety-dependence of the examined
biofertilizers. We suppose that this statement can be applied to for all commercially
available biofertilizer, although it is subservient the similar examination of the other
biofertilizers.
We deem it necessary to perform the same types of tests on sunflowers, cereals and
oilseed rape, and also considers it necessary to include biofertilizers later in the
experiment.
14
REFERENCES
[1]. Curl, Elroy A. and Truelove, Bryan (1986). The rhizosphere. Springer-Verlag, p.288.
[2]. Lévai, L.: 2004. The effect of smut gall tumour infection on iron and zinc uptake and
distribution in maize seedlings. Journal of Agricultural Sciences 15, 27-32.
[3]. Pethő, M. (2002). Mezőgazdasági növények élettana. Akadémia Kiadó, Budapest.
[4]. Weller DM. (1988). Biological control of soilborne plant pathogens in the rhizosphere
with bacteria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 26: 379–407.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
K. Bodnár, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
karinabodnar@gmail.com
G. Hankovszky, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
gerda.hankovszky@gmail.com
G. L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
nagy.agricultura.laszlo@gmail.com
L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
L. Lévai, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
levai@agr.unideb.hu
Sz. Veres, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
szveres@agr.unideb.hu
B. Tóth, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi street
138.,
4032
Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail:
btoth@agr.unideb.hu
15
DETERMINING YIELD AND QUALITY PERFORMANCES OF
CONFECTIONERY SUNFLOWER HYBRIDS
Y. Kaya, G. Evci, V. Pekcan, I. M. Yilmaz
Abstract: Confectionery sunflower grows generally in Eastern and Middle Anatolia in Turkey but
generally village populations are planting mainly in the production. Longer (≥20cm) and large size seeds and
white, striped, gray and dark gray hull colors are suitable for confectionary sunflower market. The study is
covered of research to determine the yield and quality performances of confectionery hybrids developed in
Confectionery Sunflower Breeding Project conducted by Trakya Institute, Turkey. The measured values on
major yield traits were evaluated in hybrids in regional yield trials at Edirne, Kesan and Kirklareli, Turkey in
2007-2008. Some experimental hybrids exhibited higher performance than controls in some locations both
for seed yield and seed weight and promising candidate hybrids were selected to send registration trials.
Key words: Sunflower, Confectionery Hybrid, Seed Yield and Yield Components
INTRODUCTION
Although sunflower is mainly growing for producing vegetable oil, it is also used for
confectionery seed both in Turkey and in the world [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Confectionery sunflower
is common snack in Turkey is growing by farmers in manly Middle and Eastern Anatolia,
Southern Marmara and Agean Regions in Turkey [4, 5]. Confectionery sunflower has
different quality characteristics such as taste, color and size, etc. depending on region and
country. For instance, while Turkish people like confectionery sunflower seed as bigger
sizes, white color with grey stripes consuming, Slavic countries such as Russia, Ukraine,
Bulgaria, Serbia, etc.. prefer mostly black colors [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Turkish confectionery sunflower areas are about 80.000 ha and seed production is
about 100.000 MT. Furthermore, Turkey has higher modern processing capacity and
export possibility to Middle East and Europe too. Therefore, confectionery industry needs
more domestic production and also imports confectionery seeds from other countries [4,
5]. The goal of the study was to determine of yield and seed quality performances of
hybrids in confectionery sunflower to give higher yielding and quality cultivars for sector.
Confectionery sunflower hybrid breeding research was started in National Sunflower
Project conducted by Trakya Agricultural Research Institute, Edirne, Turkey in 2001 [4, 5].
The experiments in the study were conducted in Kesan, Kirklareli and Edirne locations
based on this project to develop confectionery sunflower hybrids in 2007 and 2008. The
experimental design was a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replicates. The
four rows plots were 7,5 m long with the 70 x 45 cm plant spacing. The middle 2 rows were
harvested and the border rows were discarded, and plot size was 4.16 m² at harvest.
Trials were planted mostly in April and they were harvested mostly in September by hand
in each year. Seed yield (kg ha-1), 1000 seed weight (g), flowering and physiological
maturity (days), plant height (cm), head diameter (cm), oil content (%) were measured.
The candidate hybrids were obtained using inbred confectionery lines developed in
the National Project in previous years then selected ones which have enough seeds for
trials existed in the study. The candidate confectionery sunflower hybrids were exhibited
promising results in the research both in 2007 and 2008 (Table 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).
16
Table 1: Confectionery type hybrids in Yield Trial-1 at Edirne in 2007
Hybrids
Seed Yield Rate to Rank Oil Con 1000 S. Flower PM, P Hgt
-1
(kg ha ) Std (%)
(%)
W. (g)
(Day) (day) (cm)
G3XK6 A (2-7) X 7873-R
2618,0 117,1
1
32,2
84,30
66
100
179
G3XK6A(2-7)XK6-R(1-3)
2609,0 116,7
2
37,6
98,10
67
111
185
G2XK5A4 X 8459-5-R
2595,0 116,0
3
38,6
100,17
65
116
171
ÇRZ ELAZIĞ (Control)
2517,0 112,6
4
36,1
90,86
70
106
219
G3XK6A1XK6-R(1-3)
2481,0 110,9
5
39,8
98,74
68
101
180
G3XK6A (2-7)X84594-R
2467,0 110,3
6
39,8
98,19
69
102
178
G3XK6A(2-7)X8459-4-R
2461,0 110,1
7
43,8
107,79
67
112
197
G3XK6A (2-7)X8459-5-R
2435,0 108,9
8
40,2
97,89
69
114
173
G3XK6A(8-13)X84594-R
2410,0 107,8
9
42,0
101,22
65
115
183
G2XK5A 4 X 8459-4-R
2407,0 107,6
10
39,2
94,35
68
112
176
G3XK6A(2-7)X 7877-R
2394,0 107,1
11
32,5
77,81
70
101
184
G3XK6A(2-7) X 7873-R
2394,0 107,1
12
34,8
83,31
65
114
184
G2 XK5 A 4 X K9-R 3
2375,0 106,2
13
31,8
75,53
66
99
184
G3XK6A(8-13)X84595-R
2311,0 103,3
14
40,6
93,83
68
116
187
SAFA 3257 (Control)
2215,0
99,1
15
29,8
66,01
69
118
151
ÇRZ ALACA (Control)
2210,0
98,8
16
34,8
76,91
70 114
188
G3XK6A(2-7)XK9-R 2
2206,0
98,6
17
36,6
80,74
67
99
173
G3XK6A(2-7)XK6-R (3)
2195,0
98,2
18
30,2
66,29
65
104
156
G3 XK6A (2-7) X HAR-7
2174,0
97,2
19
36,4
79,13
68
118
161
G3 XK6A1X7877-R(T1)
2164,0
96,8
20
34,7
75,09
70
102
172
G3XK6A1X7877-R(T2)1
2160,0
96,6
21
33,4
72,14
68
107
176
G3XK6A(8-13)X84594-R
2158,0
96,5
22
37,0
79,85
64
116
170
G3XK6A(2-7)XK6-R-7
2093,0
93,6
23
34,4
72,00
67
115
174
CRZ BEYAZ (Control)
2003,0
89,6
24
32,1
64,30
69
116
165
-1
CV (%) =11,28
LSD=429,9 kg ha for seed yield,
HD
(cm)
17
17
16
16
15
17
17
14
17
15
15
13
18
20
18
15
14
15
16
14
13
19
12
18
Table 2: Confectionery type hybrids in the regional trial at Kirklareli in 2007
Hybrids
Seed Yield
Rate to Rank
-1
(kg ha )
Std (%)
EH-176 X 8459-5-R
1752,0
133,5
1
G2XK5 A 7X K9-R-1
1517,0
115,6
4
A-XXL X 8459-4-R
1510,0
115,0
5
EH-124 X MH-176X 8459-4-R
1478,0
112,6
6
G2XK5 A3 X K9-R3
1446,0
110,2
7
X-3257 (Control)
1448,0
110,3
8
G4XK7 A(1-13) X 8459-4-R
1443,0
109,9
9
ÇRZ ALACA (Control)
10
1440,0
109,7
G3XK6 A(14-20)X X8459-4-R
1369,0
104,3
11
G2XK5 A3 X8459-5-R
1334,0
101,6
12
G2XK5 A3 X K9-R 3
1318,0
100,4
14
G3XK6 A(32-34)X7877-R T2
1315,0
100,2
15
G3XK6 A (21-27) X 8459-4-R
1303,0
99,3
16
G2XK5 A3 X 8459-4-R
1299,0
99,0
17
EH-195A X 8459-5-R
1268,0
96,6
18
G3XK6 A(21-27) X K6-R 6
1228,0
93,5
19
G4XK7 A(1-4) X 7877-R
1222,0
93,1
20
G4XK7 A(1-13) X 7877-R
1218,0
92,8
21
ÇRZ BEYAZ (Control)
1200,0
91,4
22
G3XK6 A(21-27)X K6-R4-5
1181,0
90,0
23
ÇRZ ELAZIĞ (Control)
1163,0
88,6
24
G3XK6 A(14-20) X X8459-5-R
1105,0
84,2
25
G3XK6 AD(28-31) X K6-R6
1074,0
81,8
26
G2XK5 A 3 X 8459-4-R
1034,0
78,8
27
-1
CV (%) = 9,92 LSD= 210,0 kg ha for seed yield,
17
Oil Con
(%)
40,6
29,0
38,9
39,6
30,1
31,5
39,6
1000 S. Flower PM, P Hgt HD
W. (g) (Day) (day) (cm) (cm)
41,32
70 112 143 24
82,80
67 105 157 18
50,84
72 110 158 14
41,72
71 109 159 26
76,12
67 105 173 14
77,64
69 105 153 20
57,44
69 104 171 14
37,1
43,40
36,1
34,6
27,3
29,3
40,4
38,4
39,3
30,7
27,9
28,9
28,9
34,3
33,8
34,7
26,9
37,8
62,56
63,48
101,04
80,56
57,68
53,64
50,64
61,92
64,52
77,60
77,44
55,96
52,64
59,24
80,28
55,32
72 111
172
19
65
64
64
65
65
68
69
65
66
69
70
66
71
65
65
68
154
153
190
160
159
160
151
162
176
166
170
142
175
173
152
160
16
16
24
14
26
17
24
18
17
19
14
14
22
23
17
12
103
103
102
105
106
101
108
104
104
110
107
104
107
103
106
104
Table 3: Confectionery type hybrids in the regional trial at Edirne in 2007
Hybrids
Seed Yield Rate to Rank Oil Con
-1
(kg ha ) Std (%)
(%)
EH-176 X 8459-5-R
2986,0
130,6
1
41,2
G3XK6A(21-27)X8459-4-R
2704,0
118,3
2
38,5
G3XK6 A(21-27)X K9-R-1
2577,0
112,7
3
29,0
EH-124XMH-176X8459-4R
2571,0
112,4
4
41,9
G3XK6A(32-34)X7877-R-2
2496,0
109,2
5
34,2
A-XXL X 8459-4-R
2405,0
105,2
6
35,7
G2XK5 A 3 X 8459-4-R
2387,0
104,4
7
30,0
G4XK7 AD(1-13) X 7877-R
2371,0
103,7
8
30,5
G3XK6 A (21-27)XK6-R 6
2348,0
102,7
9
35,0
CRZ ELAZIG (Control)
2328,0
101,8
10
35,9
G4XK7 A (1-4) X 7877-R
2321,0
101,5
11
33,9
X-3257 (Control)
2311,0
101,1
12
31,4
G3XK6 A (28-31)X K6-R 6
2301,0
100,6
13
34,5
EH-195X 8459-5-R
2291,0
100,2
14
41,0
G4XK7A (1-13)X8459-4-R
2231,0
97,6
15
39,6
G3XK6 A(21-27)XK6-R-4-5
2183,0
95,5
16
39,4
G3XK6 A(21-27)X84595-R
2105,0
92,1
17
41,8
G3XK6 A (28-31)X K9-R 1
1999,0
87,4
18
37,9
G2XK5 A 3 X8459-5-R
1967,0
86,0
19
39,4
G3XK6A(32-34)X7877-R-1
1961,0
85,8
20
42,0
CRZ ALACA (Control)
1943,0
85,0
21
33,4
G2XK5 A 3 X K9-R 3
1924,0
84,1
22
31,7
ÇRZ BEYAZ (Control)
1896,0
82,9
23
30,2
G2XK5 A 7 X RHA-355
1823,0
79,7
24
41,5
-1
CV (%) = 10,66
LSD= 440,0 kg ha for seed yield,
1000 Flower PM, P Hgt
SW(g) (Day) (day) (cm)
72,88 64
107
22
75,76 58
97
18
131,56 61
95
18
56,76 64
110
18
93,12 62
103
16
62,76 62
100
18
88,36 62
103
16
126,04 62
110
20
84,48 61
106
16
76,36 64
106
16
102,88 63
105
18
96,96 67
112
17
87,96 61
106
15
72,96 62
104
16
71,56 62
113
17
84,82 60
102
17
61,8 60
99
16
101,64 61
95
15
59,92 61
99
16
65,76 62
99
18
61,58 68
107
16
91,28 61
95
16
122,64 64
106
16
65,04 63
104
14
HD
(cm)
200
176
198
199
191
231
189
216
192
204
191
167
180
172
201
178
182
189
167
183
210
180
179
170
Table 4: Confectionery type hybrids in Yield Trial-4 at Edirne in 2008
Hybrids
Seed Yield Rate to Rank Oil Con 1000 S. Flower PM, P Hgt
-1
(kg ha ) Std (%)
(%)
W. (g) (Day) (day) (cm)
G4XK7A 67-69 K5-R 13-17
3290,0 142,7
1
39,0
104,5 52
98 146
G4XK7A67-69 X K9-R 1
3170,0 137,5
2
39,3
101,7 54
97 150
G4XK7A 67, 68,69X K9-R 1
3170,0 137,5
3
39,3
101,7 54
97 150
G5XK8A10,11 X K4-R 26,27
3130,0 135,8
4
36,2
69,0 53
98 144
G5XK8A 10,11XK4-R 26,27
3130,0 135,8
5
36,2
69,0 53
98 144
G4XK7A 70-73XK5–R 13-17
3051,0 132,4
6
36,9
138,1 54
102 148
G4XK7A70-73X K5–R 13-17
3051,0 132,4
7
36,9
138,1 54
102 148
G4XK7A 48-51XK7R1,2
2756,0 119,5
8
40,4
82,0 52
98 145
G4XK7A70-73X K5–R3
2716,0 117,8
9
33,6
133,1 52
101 162
G5XK8A:22,23XK6-R 2
2710,0 117,5 10
38,6
68,0 54
105 157
G4XK7A70-73 X K4-R 34,35
2683,0 116,4 11
32,6
116,6 51
101 170
G4XK7A 48-51X K4-R 34,35
2596,0 112,6 12
37,0
98,7 52
97 145
PALANCI POP, (Control)
2515,0 109,1 13
35,0
65,6 56
106 160
G4XK7A 74,75X K4-R 23-25
2493,0 108,1 14
37,4
103,8 51
100 160
G5XK8 A 8,9 X ETAE-R-1 1
2467,0 107,0 15
40,0
73,6 54
97 120
G5XK8A24,25 X K5-R 3
2454,0 106,5 16
35,3
103,3 55
104 157
G5XK8A18,19X K4-R 34,35
2440,0 105,8 17
32,1
94,8 52
101 147
ÇİGDEM-1 (Control)
2399,0 104,1 18
35,5
92,4 55
105 154
G4XK7 A 61-63X K5-R 7-12
2361,0 102,4 19
34,8
96,2 52
98 165
G5XK8A18,19XK4-R 20,21
2327,0 100,9 20
35,7
75,6 54
103 147
G5XK8A 24,25 X K7-R 9,10
2259,0
98,0 21
37,9
77,5 54
104 140
G5XK8A 12 X K9-R 2
2094,0
90,8 22
42,0
51,4 52
104 134
SURİYE NEVADA (Control)
2003,0
86,9 23
35,2
106,8 57
109 158
-1
CV (%) = 10,17
LSD= 435,5 kg ha for seed yield,
18
HD
(cm)
18
22
22
17
17
20
20
21
15
18
19
17
18
20
18
12
16
19
22
19
14
17
18
Table 5: Confectionery type hybrids in the regional trial at Kesan in 2008
Hybrids
Seed Yield Rate to Rank Oil Con
-1
(kg ha ) Std (%)
(%)
G4XK7A 70-73 X K9-R 3
3103,0 115,1
1
33,0
G4XK7A57-60 X K4-R26,27
2957,0 109,7
2
25,4
G5XK8A10,11 X K9-R 2
2953,0 109,6
3
36,6
G4XK7A54-56XK4-R 23-25
2930,0 108,7
4
31,2
G5XK8A18,19 X K9-R 1
2795,0 103,7
5
32,6
CİGDEM-1 (Control)
2801,0 103,9
6
30,0
ÇEREZLIK ELAZIG (Control)
2732,0 101,4
7
33,9
G4XK7A74,75 X K9-R 3
2643,0
98,1
8
27,8
G4XK7A34,35 X K9-R 1
2519,0
93,5
9
30,7
SURİYE NEVADASI
2553,0
94,7 10
25,3
G4XK7A34,35X K5-R18,19
2533,0
94,0 11
29,5
G4XK7A57-60X K5-R 3
2439,0
90,5 12
30,3
G5XK8A1,2 X K9-R 3
2464,0
91,4 13
26,4
G4XK7A57-60 X K4-R20,21
2471,0
91,7 14
27,7
EH-102A X K9-R 3
2408,0
89,4 15
28,2
G4XK7A25,26X K5-R13-17
2460,0
91,3 16
28,5
G5XK8A20,21XK9-R 3
2356,0
87,4 17
23,3
G4XK7A44,45X K9-R 3
2319,0
86,1 18
26,2
G4XK7A 30-32 X K9-R 3
2267,0
84,1 19
26,3
G4XK7A 61-63 X K9-R 3
2247,0
83,4 20
26,9
G5XK8A 30,31 X K9-R 3
2265,0
84,0 21
39,4
G5XK8A30,31 X K9-R 3
2247,0
83,4 22
25,0
G4XK7A30-32XK4-R23-25
2217,0
82,2 23
28,8
G5XK8A 3 X K9-R 1
2107,0
78,2 24
31,3
-1
CV (%) = 10,27 LSD= 417,2 kg ha for seed yield,
1000 S. Flower PM P Hgt
W. (g) (Day) (day) (cm)
127,9
59
101
180
131,4
58
100
140
97,8
60
97
160
56,8
61
99
185
47,6
59
100
150
80,1
70
100
185
87,2
73
101
190
98,0
61
94
148
79,5
68
101
160
126,8
68
102
160
108,3
58
100
150
72,0
58
97
150
111,7
60
92
185
102,0
61
99
165
124,3
59
96
145
136,2
60
99
173
129,9
60
98
150
88,0
66
100
165
135,9
59
90
150
136,4
69
91
170
64,9
61
96
140
69,8
60
94
126
84,4
64
96
185
100,3
59
92
150
HD
(cm)
29
19
25
23
17
19
22
23
17
30
21
20
28
27
16
24
21
23
26
30
24
16
12
25
Table 6: Confectionery type hybrids in the regional trial at Edirne in 2008
Hybrids
Seed Yield Rate to Rank Oil Con 1000 S. Flower PM P Hgt
-1
(kg ha )
Std (%)
(%) W. (g)
(Day) (day) (cm)
G4XK7A:44,45XK9-R 3
3182,0 112,3
1
30,4
118,4 53
86
165
G4XK7A44,45XK9-R 3
3182,0 112,3
2
30,4
118,4 53
86
165
G5XK8A8,19XK9-R 1
3174,0 112,0
3
34,0
104,1 56
98
188
G5XK8A 18,19XK9-R 1
3174,0 112,0
4
34,0
104,1 56
98
188
G5XK8A10,11X K9-R 2
3118,0 110,0
5
40,3
82,5 53
97
135
G5XK8A10,11XK9-R2
3118,0 110,0
6
40,3
82,5 53
97
135
ÇEREZLIK ELAZIG (Control)
3001,0 105,9
7
36,1
95,5 56
91
200
ÇEREZLIK ELAZIG
3001,0 105,9
8
36,1
95,5 56
91
200
G4XK7A 57-60XK4-R 26,27
2996,0 105,7
9
30,9
112,1 52
95
170
G4XK7A 57-60XK4-R26,27
2996,0 105,7
10
30,9
112,1 52
95
170
G4XK7A 25,26XK5-R 13-17
2926,0 103,2
11
33,7
119,6 54
94
170
G4XK7A25,26XK5-R13-17
2926,0 103,2
12
33,7
119,6 54
94
170
G4XK7A 34,35XK9-R 1
2846,0 100,4
13
36,0
108,0 52
89
170
G4XK7A70-73 X K9-R 3
2844,0 100,4
14
33,7
102,0 54
90
170
G5XK8A 20,21 X K9-R 3
2802,0
98,9
15
28,1
116,1 53
96
200
G4XK7A 74,75 X K9-R 3
2797,0
98,7
16
32,1
119,3 52
88
153
G4XK7A 61-63 X K9-R 3
2786,0
98,3
17
31,3
118,3 53
88
170
G4XK7A 54-56XK4-23-25
2747,0
96,9
18
32,2
93,7 53
93
152
G4XK7A 57-60XK5-R 3
2724,0
96,1
19
29,3
136,8 52
95
153
G4XK7A 57-60XK4-R 20,21
2667,0
94,1
20
31,2
93,0 52
90
156
ÇIGDEM-1 (Control)
2663,0
94,0
21
33,1
102,1 56
95
170
EH102 X K9 R 3
2652,0
93,6
22
32,7
101,7 57
96
193
G5XK8A 30,31XK9-R 3
2648,0
93,4
23
30,2
98,7 54
86
168
G5XK8A30,31XK9-R 3
2636,0
93,0
24
42,6
73,7 52
98
160
-1
CV (%) = 12,61
LSD= 554,3 kg ha for seed yield.
HD
(cm)
28
28
18
18
18
18
24
24
24
24
20
20
24
27
28
19
25
22
24
31
20
30
22
27
Confectionery sunflower seed should be longer grain and have less than 30% oil
content and over 90 g 1000 seed weight [2, 6] and also they should be also whiter color
19
because of Turkish market demand. Based on the trial results, many candidate hybrids
exhibited higher seed yields than controls which were open pollinated varieties and higher
quality traits such as both lower oil content and also heavier seeds over 100 g. On the
other hand, white colors with grey stripe hybrids were also observed in the trials.
The higher seed yields and 1000 seed weights were measured at candidate hybrids
in 2008 than 2007. The highest seed yield (3290,0 kg ha-1) was obtained in 2008 and the
heaviest seeds (138,1 g) were measured in 2007 from candidate hybrids in the study.
Although these hybrids were commonly were obtained from earlier generation inbred lines,
these hybrids were exhibited more stabile morphological characteristics.
Based on the study results, higher yielding and quality candidate hybrids were
selected for next years. If they continue these promising performances in next year, they
would send to registration trials. As a result, G3 X K6 A (21-27) X K9-R-1 candidate hybrid
was observed higher yield and quality performance in 2007, then it was sent to registration
trials in 2008 and it registered in 2010 as named PALANCI-1. This was first Turkish
confectionery sunflower hybrid was developed and registered in Turkey. This hybrid has
also higher oleic acid content which gives longer shelf life and also has higher Tocopherol
(E Vitamin) content which is more nutritious and tasty. These yield trials were conducted
continuously further years to develop other confectionery sunflower hybrids in the project.
REFERENCES
[1]. Gontcharov S. V. and N. D. Beresneva. 2011. Confectionery Hybrid Sunflower
Breeding in Russia. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology. B 1. 919-924
[2]. Hladni, N., Mikliţ, V., Jociš, S., Jockoviš, M., Radeka, I., Leţiš, N. 2012. Determining
the influence of yield components on the confectionary sunflower seed yield. Proc. 53rd
Conference of Oils Industry. Production and Processing of Oilseeds. Herceg Novi,
Montenegro, June 3-8. p. 55-62
[3]. Hladni, N., S. Jocic, V. Miklic, N. Dušanic, D. Saftic-Pankovic, I. Radeka, N. Lecic.
2009. Test results for new experimental hybrids of confectionary type during 2007 and
2008. Periodical of Sci. Res. Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, 46(I):385-392.
[4]. Kaya, Y. 2004. Confectionery Sunflower Production in Turkey. Proceeding of 16 th
International Sunflower Conference. August 29-September 2. Fargo, US. 817-822.
[5]. Kaya, Y., G. Evci, , S. Durak, V. Pekcan, T. Gucer, I. M. Yilmaz. 2007. Cluster
Analysis in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) 1st International Conference on "Research
People and Actual Tasks on Multidisciplinary Sciences". June 6–8. Lozenec, Bulgaria.
283-286.
[6]. Kholghi M., I. Bernousi, R. Darvishzadeh and A. Pirzad. 2011. Correlation and pathcofficient analysis of seed yield and yield related trait in Iranian confectionery sunflower
populations. African Journal of Biotechnology.10 (61), pp.13058-13063.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Y. KAYA, Trakya Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box: 16, 22100. Edirne, Turkey,
Fax: (+90)284-2358210, Phone:(+90)284-2358182. E-mail: yalcinkaya22@gmail.com
G. EVCİ, E-mail: gokselevci@hotmail.com
V. PEKCAN, E-mail: velipekcan@hotmail.com
I. M. YILMAZ, E-mail: yilmazmehmet22@hotmail.com
20
USE OF LIVING BACTERIA CONTAINING FERTILIZER FOR THE BETTER
NUTRIENT SUPPLY
G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, P.Makleit, L. Lévai, G. Hankovszky, K. Bodnár, Sz. Veres, and
B Tóth
Abstract: One of the most important factors that controls plant growth and development is the
adequate supply of necessary plant nutrients. Nutrition must be in a form that plants can absorb immediately
as they require. At present, addition of nutrients to soil in the form of chemical fertilizer dominates the means
of increasing food supply in modern agriculture. Soil microorganisms can increase the available amount of
nutrients present in the soil. Thus, these microorganisms, which improve the fertility status of the soil and
contribute to plant growth, have been termed biofertilizers and are receiving worldwide attention for use as
microbial inoculants in agriculture.
Three living bacteria containing biofertilizer (LBCF) were used in this experiment. The applied
biofertilizer “A” contains Azotobacter chrococcum and Bacillus megaterium. The biofertilizer „B” contains the
following bacteria: Azospirillum brasielnse, Azotobacter vinerólandii, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus polymyxa,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Sterptomyces albus. Finally, the third biofertilizer which was marked with „C”
contains: Azotobacter chroccoccum, Azospirillum ssp., Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis.
These were tested on different maize hybrids (Zea mays L. DKC 3705, DKC 4025, DKC 4490, DKC
4717 and DKC 5222). The seedlings were grown on modified Hoagland’s nutrient solution for 14 days.
The dry matter accumulation and relative chlorophyll contents of the plants (SPAD-Units).. All these
examinations were conducted to serve as the basis of the practical use of the biofertilizer concerned.
Key words: Biofertilizer, Maize, Plant nutrition, Sustainable agriculture
INTRODUCTION
During the past four decades we have witnessed the doubling of the human
population and a concurrent doubling of food production. Plant nutrition has played role in
this dramatic increase in demand and supply of food. Increases in crop production have
been made possible through the use of commercial man-made fertilizers. The use of
nitrogen fertilizer has increased almost nine-fold and phosphorous more than four-fold [1].
The tremendous increase of N and P fertilization, in addition to the introduction of highly
productive and intensive agricultural systems, has allowed these developments to occur at
relatively low costs [2]. The increasing use of fertilizers and highly productive systems
have also created environmental problems such as deterioration of soil quality, surface
water and groundwater, as well as air pollution, reduced biodiversity, and suppressed
ecosystem function [3].
In this paper we aim to provide a brief overview of potential use of various biological
agents.
Maize seeds (Zea mays L. DKC 3705, DKC 4025, DKC 4490, DKC 4717 and DKC
5222) were used in the experiments. The seeds were sterilized with 18% hydrogen
peroxide, and then washed in distilled water. The maize seeds were then replaced to 10
mM CaSO4 for 4 hours. After that, they were germinated on moistened filter paper at 25°C.
KH2PO4, 0.1 mM KCl, 1µM H3BO3, 1µM MnSO4, 10 µM ZnSO4, 0.25 µM CuSO4, 0.01 µM
(NH4)6Mo7O24. Iron was added to the nutrient solution as Fe(III)-EDTA at a concentration
of 100 μM.
21
The seedlings, 12 for each treatment, were grown under controlled environmental
conditions (light/dark regime 10/14 h at 24/20 oC, relative humidity of 65–70% and a
photosynthetic photon flux of 300 μmol m-2 s-1) in controlled environmental room.
The relative chlorophyll contents of the 2nd and 3rd leaves of the sunflower were
measured by Chlorophyll Meter, SPAD - 502 (Minolta). The number of repetitions was 60.
The chlorophyll content was measured by spectrophotometycal method using N, Ndimethylformamide (DMF) as described by Moran and Porath [4].
The dry matter of shoots and roots were measured at the end of experiments with the
use of thermal gravimetric analysis, after drying at 85 Cº for 48 h.
The applied biofertilizer ―A‖ contains Azotobacter chrococcum (1-2x109 db cm-3) and
Bacillus megaterium (1-2x108 db cm-3). The biofertilizer „B‖ contains the following bacteria:
Azospirillum brasielnse, Azotobacter vinerólandii, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus polymyxa,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Sterptomyces albus.
The third biofertilizer was marked with „C‖ with the following components:
Azotobacter chroccoccum, Azospirillum ssp., Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis.
The applied biofertilizers have different effect on different maize varieties. The Table
1. contains the result of dry matter of roots and shoots.
Table 1. Dry matter accumulation of shoots and roots of different maize varieties treated
by biofertilizers (g plant-1) n= 9± S.E. (A, B, C: biofertilizers)
DKC 3705
DKC 4025
DKC 4490
DKC 4717
DKC 5222
DKC 3705
DKC 4025
DKC 4490
DKC 4717
DKC 5222
Dry matter accumulation on the shoots of maize
Control
"A"
"B"
0.257± 0.04
0.246± 0.03
0.262± 0.04
0.268± 0.06
0.249± 0.05
0.292± 0.05
0.435± 0.07
0.373± 0.05
0.443± 0.06
0.386± 0.06
0.417± 0.04
0.360± 0.07
0.376± 0.02
0.339± 0.02
0.386± 0.06
Dry matter accumulation on the roots of maize
Control
"A"
"B"
0.065± 0.01
0.059± 0.01
0.065± 0.01
0.055± 0.01
0.058± 0.01
0.078± 0.03
0.074± 0.02
0.058± 0.01
0.069± 0.02
0.068± 0.01
0.068± 0.01
0.081± 0.02
0.062± 0.01
0.052± 0.02
0.060± 0.01
"C"
0.267± 0.04
0.291± 0.05
0.419± 0.06
0.297± 0.03
0.335± 0.04
"C"
0.064± 0.01
0.056± 0.01
0.079± 0.01
0.065± 0.01
0.071± 0.01
The dry matter of shoot was higher at the DKC 3705 and DKC 4025 when ―B‖ and ―C‖
biofertilizer were applied than the control value. The increasing was higher at the ―C‖
biofertilizer at the DKC 3705.
The dry matter of shoots increased with 8 % at the DKC 4717 when it was treated
with ―A‖ biofertilizer and this value decreased (24%) when it was treated with ―C‖
biofertilizer.
The biofertilizers have negative effect on dry matter accumulation of shoot of DKC
4490.
The dry matter of roots decreased at the DKC 3705 at the all biofertilizers treatments.
The dry matter of roots increased at the DKC 4025 at the all biofertilizers treatments.
22
The ―C‖ biofertilizer treatment increased the dry matter of root of DKC 4490 compared to
the control.
Low chlorophyll content affects photosynthetic activity. The decreasing dry matter
accumulation can be explained by the lower level of the chlorophyll contents. The relative
chlorophyll contents were shown in the Table 2.
Leaf relative chlorophyll content can be rapidly estimated in situ by SPAD (Soil
Analysis Development) readings.
Table 2. The relative chlorophyll content of second and third leaves of maize treated by
biofertilizers (SPAD-index) n=60± S.E.
DKC 3705
DKC 4025
DKC 4490
DKC 4717
DKC 5222
Realtive chlorophyll content in the 2nd leaves of maize
Control
"A"
"B"
38.07± 4.58
29.19± 5.74
35.38± 6.60
37.63± 3.42
33.37± 2.51
33.86± 4.82
40.00± 3.41
38.78± 5.05
39.54± 2.89
44.23± 3.14
44.25± 2.54
42.49± 3.76
41.88± 2.91
41.80± 3.32
42.74± 2.05
"C"
36.56± 3.63
38.16± 2.89
41.34± 2.58
43.66± 3.45
40.46± 1.86
DKC 3705
DKC 4025
DKC 4490
DKC 4717
DKC 5222
Realtive chlorophyll content in the 3rd leaves of maize
Control
"A"
"B"
36.33± 3.46
36.86± 3.43
37.51± 2.20
40.37± 2.25
38.02± 1.74
39.45± 3.81
45.13± 3.77
42.20± 2.31
42.26± 3.62
44.61± 4.21
45.18± 3.01
43.74± 4.54
42.25± 2.73
42.07± 3.69
41.14± 3.00
"C"
37.33± 2.95
41.22± 2.55
42.95± 3.39
39.66± 4.26
37.97± 2.57
The relative chlorophyll content increased in the 2nd and 3rd leaves of DKC 4025,
DKC when was treated by ―C‖ biofertilizer compared to the control.
The relative chlorophyll content increased with 6.18 SPAD-units when DKC 3705 was
treated with ―B‖ biofertilizer and with 7.27 SPAD-units at the ―C‖ biofertilizer treatment
compared to the ―A‖ biofertilizer in the 2nd leaves.
The relative chlorophyll content in the 3rd leaves of DKC 3705 increased at the all
biofertilizers treatments.
Total chlorophyll concentration is a unifying parameter for indicating the effect of
specific interventions. The amount of photosynthetic pigments is given in Table 3.
The chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b and carotenoids contents increased in the cases of
DKC 3507 when were treated by ―B‖ biofertilizer in the 2nd leaves.
The biofertilizer ―B‖ and ―C‖ had positive effect on the DKC 4025 hybrid‘s
phyotosnythetic pigment content. The biofertilizer ―A‖ also had positive effect on the DKC
5222 hybride.
The chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b and carotenoids contents increased in the cases of
rd
3 leaves of DKC 3507 when were treated by ―C‖ biofertilizer. Also increasing could be
observed in the 3rd leaves of DKC 4490 when it was treated by ―A‖ biofertilizer.
The chlorophyll-a increased by 1.21 mg g-1, the chlorophyll-b by 1.14 and the
carotenoids by 1.89 when DKC 4025 was treated with ―A‖ biofertilizer.
23
Table 3. The content of chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids (mg g-1) in the 2nd and 3rd leaves
of maize
Content of phytosynthetic pigment in the 2nd leaves of maize
Chlorophyll-a Chlorophyll-b Carotenoids
Treatments
DKC 3507
9.87± 0.39
3.63± 0.30
5.65± 0.01
DKC 3507 "A"
5.48± 0.46
1.71± 0.17
3.23± 0.47
DKC 3507 "B"
12.24± 0.31
4.43± 0.06
6.53± 0.24
DKC 3507 "C"
9.23± 0.58
3.12± 0.21
4.62± 0.31
DKC 4025
11.65± 0.48
3.53± 0.15
6.71± 0.27
DKC 4025 "A"
13.31± 0.90
4.28± 0.39
7.85± 0.50
DKC 4025 "B"
11.23± 0.44
3.49± 0.10
6.71± 0.35
DKC 4025 "C"
13.55± 0.46
4.36± 0.23
7.52± 0.10
DKC 4490
13.14± 0.17
4.19± 0.13
7.44± 0.19
DKC 4490 "A"
12.96± 0.08
4.06± 0.23
8.14± 0.27
DKC 4490"B"
10.39± 0.33
4.46± 0.44
8.13± 0.27
DKC 4490 "C"
12.68± 0.26
3.97± 0.47
7.62± 0.15
DKC 4717
15.42± 0.23
5.72± 0.21
9.53± 0.00
DKC 4717 "A"
13.81± 0.18
4.62± 0.05
8.05± 0.49
DKC 4717 "B"
12.46± 0.55
3.87± 0.04
7.75± 0.29
DKC 4717 "C"
15.53± 0.19
5.70± 0.32
10.27± 0.22
DKC 5222
13.49± 0.66
4.87± 0.46
9.10± 0.34
DKC 5222 "A"
14.73± 0.24
5.41± 0.12
9.38± 0.25
DKC 5222 "B"
13.78± 0.83
4.59± 0.27
8.31± 0.06
DKC 5222 "C"
13.02± 0.80
4.50± 0.87
8.09± 0.32
Content of phytosynthetic pigment in the 3rd leaves of maize
Chlorophyll-a Chlorophyll-b
Treatments
DKC 3507
12.34± 0.31
4.42± 0.03
DKC 3507 "A"
11.14± 0.54
3.89± 0.06
DKC 3507 "B"
11.56± 0.44
4.11± 0.23
DKC 3507 "C"
12.95± 0.67
4.60± 0.39
DKC 4025
15.62± 0.14
5.63± 0.07
DKC 4025 "A"
16.83± 0.65
6.77± 0.68
DKC 4025 "B"
14.65± 0.43
5.01± 0.37
DKC 4025 "C"
15.93± 0.47
5.24± 0.33
DKC 4490
15.45± 0.41
5.52± 0.35
DKC 4490 "A"
15.67± 0.87
5.61± 0.62
DKC 4490"B"
12.69± 0.06
4.40± 0.01
DKC 4490 "C"
14.43± 0.99
5.06± 0.41
DKC 4717
16.32± 0.79
6.29± 0.65
DKC 4717 "A"
16.64± 0.42
6.72± 0.59
DKC 4717 "B"
15.56± 0.24
5.79± 0.38
DKC 4717 "C"
13.99± 0.90
4.95± 0.53
DKC 5222
15.97± 0.50
5.95± 0.50
DKC 5222 "A"
16.15± 0.71
5.43± 0.56
DKC 5222 "B"
15.55± 0.34
5.33± 0.91
DKC 5222 "C"
14.52± 0.80
4.95± 0.55
24
Carotenoids
6.76± 0.03
5.45± 0.38
6.42± 0.18
7.28± 0.13
9.72± 0.06
11.61± 0.58
9.15± 0.39
9.27± 0.29
8.64± 0.42
10.46± 0.23
7.55± 0.15
7.41± 0.27
11.55± 0.19
10.97± 0.46
10.06± 0.43
8.89± 0.17
10.29± 0.83
9.71± 0.78
9.65± 0.47
9.37± 0.47
The applied bacteria containing biofertilizers have different effect on the measured
plant physiological parameters.
When we use biofertilizer, we have to know the requirement of hybrid, too.
On the basis of our results, we came to the conclusion, that the biofertilizers is an
alternative for replacing partly the chemical fertilizer with a biologically active,
environmentally protective agent, and at lower cost.
REFERENCES
[1].
Vance C. P. 2001. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation and phosphorus acquisition. Plant
nutrition in a world of declining renewable sources. Plant Physiology 127, 390-397.
[2].
Schultz R. C. et al. 1995. Agroforestry opportunities for the united States of
America. Agroforestry System 31, 117-142.
[3].
Socolow R. H. 1999. Nitrogen management and the future of food: Lessons from
the management of energy and carbon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
USA 96, 6001-6008.
[4].
Moran R., Porath D. 1982. Chlorophyll determination in intact tissues using N,NDimethyl-formamide. Plant Physiology 65, 478-479.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
L. G. Nagy, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: nagy.agricultura.laszlo@gmail.com
L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: nagy.agricultura.laszlo@gmail.com
P. Makleit, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: pmakleit@agr.unideb.hu
L. Lévai, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: levai@agr.unideb.hu
G.,Hankovszky, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: gerda.hankovszky@gmail.com
K. Bodnár, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: kardina@citromail.hu
Sz. Veres, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: szveres@agr.unideb.hu
B. Tóth, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: btoth@agr.unideb.hu
25
PREVALENCE AND ETIOLOGY OF SUBCLINICAL MASTITIS OF GOATS
IN SERBIA
Snezana Ivanovic, Jadranka Zutic, Ksenija Nesic, Miroslav Zujovic
Abstract: Worldwide mastitis is one of the most important diseases of mammals, including goats. It is
a complex disease which is a result of interaction between each individual animal, the environment and
microorganisms. The primary objective of these investigations was to determine the incidence and species of
bacteria in goats milk samples from 8 farms, which yielded a positive reaction to the California mastitis test.
The prevalence of subclinical mastitis was 25 % according to California mastitis test. All positive samples
were subjected to bacteriological examination. Samples were cultured in different media, including 5 %
sheep blood agar, MacConkey and Baird Parked agar. The bacteria were further characterized by
biochemical tests. Positive bacteriological findings were obtained in the milk of 21 (39%) goats. The major
bacterial pathogens which were isolated were: Staphylococcus aureus with the highest frequency of 47.6%,
then followed Coagulase Negative Staphylococci with 19%, Streptococcus spp. 14.2%, E.coli 9.5 %,
Arcanobacterium pyogenes 4.7 % and also mixed infection with Bacillus spp.and E.coli 4.7%. Based on
these results it can be concluded that subclinical mastitis is a significant disease in goats that affects their
productivity and therefor measures need to be taken in order to control the disease.
Key words: goat, milk, bacteria, subclinical mastitis.
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide mastitis is one of the most important diseases of mammals, including
goats. It is a complex disease which is a result of interaction between each individual
animal, the environment and microorganisms. [4, 14.
Generally, mastitis occurs in two forms, both clinical and subclinical. In the clinical
mastitis all the cardinal signs of udder inflammation are present, while the subclinical form
is bereft of any obvious manifestation of inflammation. Mastitis is recognized as the most
important and costly disease of dairy animals worldwide but also posses the risk for the
transmission of milk borne zoonotic diseases [14.
The microorganisms which contaminate raw milk may originate from the farm
environment or from the goats and they also include the etiological agents responsible for
subclinical mastitis (SCM). Two definitions of subclinical mastitis are present in the
literature. Some authors use somatic cell count (SCC) as an indicator of intramammary
infection, whereas others use positive bacteriological culture in the absence of clinical
symptoms [9, 10.
While inflammation of the udder in cows can be identified based on the number of
somatic cells, the interpretation of somatic cells in goat milk requires careful assessment.
This opinion is based on the data that the number of somatic cells in goat milk is higher
than in milk of cows.
The increase in the number of somatic cells in milk is mostly the result of mammary
gland infection. The infection of one quarter of the udder increases somatic cell count in
another uninfected quarter of the udder of the same animal.
In Serbia, goats are mostly grown extensively, mainly in the hilly and mountainous,
less economically developed areas with poor or modest feed sources. Regardless of the
method of breeding, goat milk is increasingly being consumed for its characteristic taste
and desirable chemical composition. It is rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and
carbohydrates, while content of fat, especially cholesterol, is low [7. Bearing in mind that
mastitis in goats can pass without any clinical changes and that causative microorganisms,
which are mostly zoonotic, are excreted in milk, the aim of this study was to determine the
prevalence and etiology of subclinical mastitis of goats in Serbia.
26
The objective of these investigations was to determine bacteria species in the
samples of milk of 218 goats which yielded a positive reaction to the CMT. The milk
samples were inoculated on 5% sheep blood agar, Edwards, MacConkey and Baird
Parker agar (HiMedia) and incubated aerobically at 37 oC for a period of 24-48 h and
afterwards examined for characteristic bacterial colonies. Pure culture colonies were
selected and subcultured on general purpose medium, and incubated aerobically at 37 °C
for 24 - 48 h for further biochemical identification.
After incubation bacteria were identified according to their Gram stein and coloni
morphology. Further identification of the organisms was done by implementing
biochemical tests, Catalase, Oxidase (bioMerieux) CAMP test, IMViC tests,Triple sugar
iron agar test, Nitrate reduction, Urease and Indol test (HiMedia). In addition mannitol salt
agar was used to differentiate S. aureus from coagulase negative Staphylococcus spp.
Free coagulase (in tube) and bound coagulase-clumping factor slide, were investigations
with rabbit plasma (Veterinarski zavod Beograd). The applied confirmation test was BBL
Crystal G/P and E/N ID kit (Becton Dickinson).
Total of 436 samples of milk from 218 lactating goats were examined. In 54 animals
(25%) a positive reaction in the CM test was noted (Table 1). This result was in correlation
with 29.92% of positives as described by Al-Ramahi and Al-Nassrawi [1. Significantly
lower percentages were found by Ndegwa et al. [12 - 9.8% and Gebrewahid et al. [3 18%. On the other hand, a greater percentage of positives, 35% and 36%, was recorded in
Pakistan [5, 6. In our studies on individual farms the percentage of CMT positives ranged
from 8.7 to 35.8%.
Table 1. The test results of subclinical mastitis of dairy goats
Farm No
No of goats
CMT positive CMT positive Bact.
No
%
Positive No
1
23
2
8,7
0
2
19
2
10,5
2
3
39
14
35,8
8
4
31
9
29
4
5
25
3
12
1
6
20
4
20
1
7
35
11
31,4
2
8
26
9
34,6
3
Summary
218
54
25
21
Bact.
Positive %
0
100
57,1
44,4
33,3
25
18
33,3
39
By bacteriological examination bacteria were isolated from 21 of 54 samples (39%)
(Table 2). The percentage of bacteriologicaly positive samples among farms was from 0 to
57.1%. The exception was farm 2 where only in 2 goats among 19 was determined CMT
positive reaction both with positive bacteriological findings (100%).
In most of the samples, 10 of them (47.6%), Staphylococcus aureus was isolated.
The prevalence of this agent was found in testing by Sarker and Samad [16 of 34.69%
and Islam [6 from 20.8 to 46.6%.
S. aureus is the most significant pathogen of the caprine mammary gland [2.
Infections with S. aureus can be subclinical, chronic, acute, or gangrenous in their most
severe form.
27
Infected animals do serve as a reservoir for further infection within the herd, and may
shed the organism in milk intermittently. S. aureus is an important foodborne pathogen [8
and is capable of producing several toxins. Contaminated milk obtained from cows
affected by subclinical mastitis is a potential source of staphylococcal food poisoning to
consumers [15, 18.
In 19% of the samples were isolated CNS, which is significantly lower than the 88.5%
and 44.7% recorded in studies of Virdis et al. [17 and Gebrewahid et al., [3. At 14.2%
samples Streptococcus spp was identified and in 9.5% E. coli.
One case (4.7%) showed the presence of Arcanobacterium pyogenes. In the same
percentage mixed infection with E. coli and Bacillus spp was found. Mixed infection was
also found by Ribeiro et al., [11, 13, with the isolation of Staphylococcus aureus,
Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli.
The highest percentage of positive cases was found on the farm 3. That was the
result of several factors, including poor hygienic housing conditions, frequent purchase
and sale of animals and poor feed quality. Farm did not have continuous veterinary
supervision wich together with negligence of growers resulted as poor production.
Table 2. Proportion and frequency of isolates from milk samples of goats
Farm No
Bact. species
No of isolates
No of isolates
per farm
1
2
S.aureus
2
2
S.aureus
3
8
3
CNS
3
Strep.spp
2
S.aureus
2
4
4
CNS
1
E.coli
1
5
A.pyogenes
1
1
6
E.coli
1
1
S.aureus
1
7
2
Strep.spp
1
S.aureus
2
8
3
Bacillus spp + E.coli
1
Total
21
21
CNS -Coagulase negative staphylococci
Despite of some progress, breeding of goats, as a traditional branch of animal
husbandry, is mostly connected to the hilly and mountainous regions. It is probably a
consequence of the fact that these species utilize pasture and other land areas which are
not available to other animals. Such production system is considerably cheaper, which is,
from the economic point of view, a very important factor. In addition, goats are good field
"cleaners" of different weeds, thus contributing to improvement of the quality of pastures.
However, the advances in production of goats is unquestionable, primarily because
the milk, meat and cheese originating from these species are extremely favorable for
human consumption, and also for the reason of better cost-effectiveness, as a result of
achieving adequate prices for this type of products. A major contribution comes as well
from contemporary efforts, both in the world and in our region, for more organic products
and from a great attention which is paid to safety of food for human consumption.
28
CONCLUSIONS
The prevalence of subclinical mastitis based on CM test was found in 25% of goats.
By bacteriological examination from 21 (39%) of the 54 samples bacteria were isolated. As
the most common cause of inflammation Staphylococcus aureus was found. In the most
cases inflammation of the mammary gland could be excluded by mastitis test, but it must
be ensured that all positive samples would be examined bacteriologically. Subclinical
mastitis is considered especially significant, because it is clinically invisible, it can last a
long time and increase the cost of treatment, significantly contribute to the decline in milk
production and cause irreversible changes in the parenchyma of the udder.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was done within the project TR 31053, "Implementation of new
biotechnological solutions in breeding of cattle, sheep and goats for the purpose of
obtaining biologically valuable and safe food‖, funded by the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Serbia.
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[1. Al-Ramahi HM, Al-Nassrawi HA, 2007, Prevalence of goat's subclinical mastitis
caused by coagulase negative Staphylococci spp. in Al-Diwanyia province. The Scientific
Journal of Vet. Med. Vol.6.(1):1-5.
[2. Contreras A, A Luengo, A Sánchez and JC Corrales, 2003.The role of intramammary
pathogens in dairy goats. Livest Prod Sci, 79: 273-283.
[3. Gebrewahid TT, Abera BH, Menghistu HT, 2012, Prevalence and Etiology of
Subclinical Mastitis in Small Ruminants of Tigray Regional State, North Ethiopia Vet.
World, 2012, Vol.5(2): 103-109.
[4. Hawari AD, Al-Dabbas F, 2008, Prevalence and distribution of mastitis pathogens
and their resistance against antimicrobial agents in dairy cows in Jordan. American
Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences 3 (1):36-39.
[5. Islam A, Samad A, Rahman AKM, 2012, Prevalence of Subclinical Caprine Mastitis
in Bangladesh Based on Parallel Interpretation of Three Screening Tests. International
Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 4(3): 225-228.
[6. Islam MR, Ahamed S, Alam S, Masudur Rahman M, Sultana T,Roh YS, Kim B, 2011,
Identification and Antibiotic Sensitivity of the Causative Organisms of Sub-clinical Mastitis
in Sheep and Goats. Pak Vet J, 32(2): 179-182.
[7. Ivanoviš Sneţana, Pavloviš I., Ţujoviš M., Tomiš Zorica, Memiši N., (2011). Bacteria
in goat meat-biological danger. 3rd International congress on animal husbandry "New
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[8. Jorgensen HJ, T Mork, HR Hogasen and LM Rorvik, 2005,Enterotoxigenic
Staphylococcus aureus in bulk milk in Norway. J Appl Microbiol, 99: 158-166.
[9. Koop G, van Werven T, Schuiling HJ, Nielen M, 2010, The effect of subclinical
mastitis on milk yield in dairy goats. J. Dairy Sci. 93 :5809–5817.
[10. Leitner, G., Merin, U., Silanikove, N, 2004, Changes in milk composition as affected
by subclinical mastitis in goats. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 1719–1726.
[11. Moroni P, Pisoni G, Vimercati C, Rinaldi M, Castiglioni B, Cremonesi P, Boettcher P,
2005, Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from chronically infected dairy
goats. J. Dairy Sci. 88:3500–3509.
29
[12. Ndegwa EN, Mulei CM, Munyua SJM, 2000, The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in
dairygoats in Kenya. Journal South African Veterinary Association 71(1): 25–27.
[13. Ribeiro MG, Lara GHB,Bicudo SD, Souza AVG, Salerno T, Siqueira AK, Geraldo JS
2007, An unusual gangrenous goat mastitis caused by
Staphylococcus aureus,
Clostridium perfringens and Escherichia coli co–infection. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet.
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[14. Samad MA, 2008, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science.Volume 2,1 st.edn.,
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[15. Santos, TM, Neto RA, Mota LBG, Silva DA, Viana JL, Lima-Filho LA, Sarubbo, AC,
Porto A.LF, 2009, Susceptibility of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from milk of goats with
mastitis to antibiotics and green propolis erxtracts, Letters in Drug Design and Discovery,
Brazil,6:63-68.
[16. Sarker H, Samad MA, 2011, Udder-halve-wise comparative prevalence of clinical
and subclinical mastitis in lactating goats with their bacterial pathogens and antibiotic
sensitivity patterns in Bangladesh. Bangl. J. Vet. Med.9 (2): 137 – 143.
[17. Virdis S, Scarano C, Cossu F, Spanu V, Spanu C, De Santis EPL, 2010, Antibiotic
Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and Coagulase Negative Staphylococci isolated
from Goats with Subclinical Mastitis. Veterinary Medicine International Volume 2010,
Article ID 517060, 6 pages. doi:10.4061/2010/517060
[18. Zecconi A, Hahn G, 2000. Staphylococcus aureus in raw milk and human health risk.
Bull IDF, 345: 15-18.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Ivanovic, PhD, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, V.Toze 14, 11000
Belgrade, Serbia, Phone: +381116604020, E-mail: snezaivanovic@gmail.com
J. Zutic, PhD, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, V.Toze 14, 11000 Belgrade,
Serbia, E-mail: jadranka.zutic@gmail.com
K. Nesic, PhD, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, V.Toze 14, 11000 Belgrade,
Serbia, E-mail: ksenija_n@yahoo.com
M. Zujovic, PhD, Institute for Animal Husbandry, Autoput 16, 11080 Zemun, Serbia,
E-mail: 52.zotom@gmail.com
30
USE OF BY- PRODUCT OF LIME FACTORY IN THE MAINTENANCE
OF SOIL pH
B. Tóth, K. Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, G. Hankovszky, L. Lévai and Sz. Veres
Abstract: Lime is used to make soils less acidic, improve the structure of clay, and help prevent club
root diseases. Most of plants are grown best in slightly acid to neutral conditions but the majority will tolerate
alkaline soils, too. Raising the pH of soil to make it more alkaline is done by adding lime. Lowering the pH, to
make the soil more acid, is tricky. It can be done by using sulphur or more slowly by using acid fertilizers and
manures.
The pH of examined lime is very alkaline (pHH2O12.84). Three soil types were examined with different
-1
lime doses (0.2; 1; 2; 20 and 200 t ha ). The experimental plant was wheat. Plants were grown in a growth
o
o
-2 -1
chamber at 24 C : 20 C (light:dark, 10:14 h) with a light intensity of 300 μmol photons m s for 21 days.
The effect of different lime doses on soil pH was examined including the dry matter accumulation of
plants and chlorophyll- a,b and carotenoids contents.
The pH of soils were measured with and without growing plants. The plants do not modify considerable
the soil pH in our experiments. The optimal pH is around neutral (pH= 6.5) from the point of view of plants
-1
and soil microbial life. The neutral pH can achieve with 0.2 and 1 t ha lime. The pH is slight alkaline (pH=
-1
-1
7.2 – 8.5) at the 2 t ha lime doses. The pH was twice higher when 200 t ha was applied comparison the
-1
-1
control. The pH was strong alkaline when 20 t ha and 200 t ha lime doses were examined.
Key words: Lime, Maize, Soil pH
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of liming and fertilising such sites with Ca, Mg and N is thus to provide
the tree stand and other vegetation with a temporary supply of nutrients that will enable
them to survive up until the point where there has been a recovery in microbial activity and
nutrient mineralisation.
Positive experiences with liming in agriculture have led foresters to believe that liming
would be of considerable benefit in promoting humus decomposition and nutrient
mobilisation in acid forest soils. Use of liming to reduce the natural acidity of forest soils
was recommended in Germany over 100 years ago [3]. Interest in forest liming was also
stimulated by the finding that Ca concentration in mineral soil are closely associated with
site fertility [6, 7, 2], although N is known forests on mineral soils [8, 1, 5].
Wheat was used in the experiments. The seeds were sterilized with 18% hydrogen
peroxide, and then washed in distilled water. The maize seeds were then replaced to 10
mM CaSO4 for 4 hours. After that, they were germinated on moistened filter paper at 25°C.
The seedlings were grown on three different soils: calcareous chernozem (C), acidic
forest soil from 20 cm deep (F20) and acidic forest soil from 30 cm deep (F30). The pH of
soils are shown in the Table 1.
The applied lime originated from Carmeuse Hungaria Ltd.,Beremend. The element
contents of lime are shown in Table 2. The element content was measured by ICP-OES
Spectrophotometer.
The seedlings, 60 for each treatment, were grown under controlled environmental
conditions (light/dark regime 10/14 h at 24/20 oC, relative humidity of 65–70% and a
photosynthetic photon flux of 300 μmol m-2 s-1) in controlled environmental room.
The chlorophyll content was measured by spectrophotometrycal method using N, Ndimethylformamide (DMF) as described by Moran and Porath [4]. The pH was measured
with ORION 210 A+.
31
Table 1. The pH of different applied soils
Soils
Calcareous chernozem
Acidic forest (20 cm)
Acidic forest (30 cm)
H2O
5.93± 0.04
4.88± 0.02
5.31± 0.01
CaCl2
4.09± 0.19
3.60± 0.06
3.87± 0.01
Table 2. The element content of lime (mg kg-1)
Elements
Al
B
Ba
Ca
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
K
Mg
Mn
Na
Ni
P
S
Zn
Content
1,070
3.72
4.41
321,500
1.08
4.32
1.42
377
1,116
2,372
16.8
254
<1
23.2
567
11.8
Firstly, the pH of soils were measured with and with out plants. The results are shown
in Table 3. The plants do not modify considerable the soil pH. The quantity of organic
acids, secretes by plants roots, was unsuitable to compensate for the acidic effect of lime.
The optimal pH is neutral (pH= 7) from the point of view of plants and soil microbial life.
The neutral pH can achieve with 0.2 and 1 t ha -1 lime. The pH is light alcalic (pH= 7.2 –
8.5) at the 2 t ha-1 lime doses. The pH was twice higher when 200 t ha-1 was applied
comparison the control. The pH was strong alcalic when 20 t ha -1 and 200 t ha-1 lime
doses were examined.
Table 3. The effect of different lime doses (cont.: without lime treatments, 0.2: 0.2 t ha-1
lime doses, 2: 2 t ha-1 lime doses, 20: 20 t ha-1 lime doses, 200: 200 t ha-1 lime doses) on
the pH of three different soil types (C: chernozem, F30: acidic forest soil from 30 cm deep,
F20: acidic forest soil from 30 cm deep)
Treatments
C/contr.
C/0.2
Without plants
H2O
CaCl2
5.98± 0.24
4.23± 0.17
6.64± 0.21
4.26± 0.01
32
With plants
H2O
CaCl2
6.71± 0.21
4.28± 0.04
6.31± 0.18
4.52± 0.07
C/1
C/2
C/20
C/200
F30/contr.
F30/0.2
F30 /1
F30/2
F30/20
F30/200
F20/contr.
F20/0.2
F20/1
F20/2
F20/20
F20/200
7.12± 0.33
7.34± 0.56
8.36± 0.07
12.77± 0.06
6.62± 0.25
6.94± 0.13
7.57± 0.63
7.94± 0.30
11.62± 0.55
13.04± 0.01
6.42± 0.05
6.47± 0.10
6.64± 0.21
7.56± 0.47
9.14± 0.21
12.96± 0.05
4.41± 0.01
4.81± 0.15
7.03± 0.11
11.75± 0.25
4.04± 0.11
4.27± 0.26
5.03± 0.18
6.46± 0.06
9.71± 0.53
12.22± 0.01
3.83± 0.01
3.91± 0.01
4.24± 0.09
5.92± 0.63
7.39± 0.20
12.13± 0.12
6.74± 0.19
7.32± 0.33
8.79± 0.33
12.83± 0.04
6.36± 0.11
6.78± 0.12
7.46± 0.16
8.47± 0.13
9.09± 0.18
12.90± 0.04
6.39± 0.21
6.23± 0.17
6.58± 0.17
7.34± 0.03
8.95± 0.10
12.89± 0.06
4.64± 0.04
5.45± 0.12
6.80± 0.09
11.90± 0.06
4.20± 0.17
4.23± 0.07
4.97± 0.15
5.92± 0.45
7.11± 0.02
12.06± 0.03
3.89± 0.01
3.95± 0.02
4.16± 0.05
4.68± 0.16
7.17± 0.04
12.11± 0.16
The contents of chlorophyll a-, b and carotenoids of wheat increased with the
increasing lime doses (Table 4.).
Table 4. Effect of different lime doses on the photosynthetic pigment content (chl-a,
chl-b, carotenoids) (mg g-1)
Treatments
C/contr.
C/0.2
C/1
C/2
C/20
C/200
F30/contr.
F30/0.2
F30/1
F30/2
F30/20
F30/200
F20/contr.
F20/0.2
F20/1
F20/2
F20/20
F20/200
chl-a
14.57± 0.05
10.92± 1.62
12.96± 0.93
12.03± 1.28
15.23± 0.26
16.52± 0.66
14.55± 0.33
13.83± 0.78
13.96± 0.93
16.31± 0.08
14.67± 0.46
16.94± 0.94
13.73± 0.91
13.50± 0.61
13.97± 0.28
15.54± 0.61
15.34± 0.46
14.95± 1.27
chl-b
4.62± 0.58
3.49± 0.72
4.00± 0.73
4.44± 0.57
6.22± 0.38
7.37± 0.56
5.53± 0.28
4.91± 0.62
4.97± 0.47
7.21± 0.09
5.88± 0.69
7.93± 0.58
4.95± 0.51
4.88± 0.46
5.63± 0.70
6.73± 0.51
6.51± 0.40
5.95± 0.94
33
carotenoids
8.32± 0.56
5.21± 0.33
6.62± 0.54
8.01± 0.84
9.80± 1.36
10.71± 0.61
8.40± 0.74
8.06± 0.52
8.11± 0.81
9.74± 0.80
9.79± 1.39
11.55± 0.87
8.69± 0.53
8.34± 0.46
8.48± 0.01
10.61± 0.57
10.48± 0.68
9.39± 0.35
Table 5. Effect of different lime doses on the dry matter accumulation of shoots of
wheat (mg plant-1)
mg plant-1
22.16± 1.76
20.15± 3.16
18.87± 2.19
30.63± 4.99
47.47± 0.17
23.46± 2.23
14.54± 0.83
12.65± 1.58
12.25± 0.32
27.11± 1.33
31.32± 2.21
19.82± 0.11
16.09± 1.28
12.13± 0.93
13.11± 2.05
27.59± 0.94
31.77± 1.59
15.07± 0.89
Treatments
C/contr.
C/0.2
C/1
C/2
C/20
C/200
F30/contr.
F30/0.2
F30/1
F30/2
F30/20
F30/200
F20/contr.
F20/0.2
F20/1
F20/2
F20/20
F20/200
The chlorophyll-a, b and carotenoids content increased at the 20 and 200 t ha -1 lime
treatment on chernozem soil. The increasing was higher at the 200 t ha -1 than at the 20 t
ha-1 doses (Table 5.).
The 2, 20 and 200 t ha-1 lime doses increased the content of chlorophyll-a, b and
carotenoids on the acidic forest soil from 30 cm deep. While the 1, 2, 20, 200 t ha-1 lime
treatments increased the photosynthetic pigment content on the acidic forest soil from 20
cm deep.
The dry matter accumulation of shoots increased at the 20 t ha-1 lime doses
compared to the control value. The increasing was 54 % in the chernozem soil and acidic
forest soil from 30 cm deep, 50 % acidic forest soil from 20 cm deep. The 2 t ha-1 lime
doses also had positive effect on the dry matter of wheat on the all examined soil types.
The dry matter of wheat increased with 28 % on the chernozem soil, 47 % on the acidic
forest soil from 30 cm deep and 42 % on the acidic forest soil from 20 cm deep.
Especially, the 0.2 and 1 t ha-1 lime doses had negative effect on the dry matter. The
dry matter decreased with 2 mg at the 0.2 lime doses on the chernozem and acidic forest
soil from 30 cm deep, this value was 4 mg on the acidic forest soil from 20 cm deep.
Summery, the most favorable doses are 0.2 – 1 t ha-1 observing the soil pH and some
physiological parameters of plants. The different lime doses have different effect on
different soil types.
34
REFERENCES
[1] Kukkola M., Saramäki J. 1983. Growth response in repeatedly fertilized pine and
spruce stands on mineral soils. Commun. Inst. For. Fenn. 114, 55.
[2] Lipas E. 1985. Assessment of site productivity and fertilizer requirement by means of
soil properties. Folia For. 618, 16.
[3] Messmer H. 1959. Geschichte der forstlichen Düngung inbesondere der Kalkung. In:
Der Wald braucht Kalk. 3. Auflage. Kalkdienst. Kölnerer Universitätsverlag. 239.
[4] Moran R., Porath D. 1982. Chlorophyll determination in intact tissues using N,NDimethyl-formamide. Plant Physiology 65, 478-479.
[5] Tamm C. O. 1991.NitrogeninTerrestialEcosystems.EcologicalStudies81.SpringerVerlag, Heidelberg, 115.
[6] Valmari J. 1921. Beiträge zur chemischen Bodenanalyse. Acta For. Fenn. 20 (4), 67.
[7] Viro P. 1951. Nutrient status and fertility of forest soil I. Pine stands. Commun. Inst.
For. Fenn. 39 (4), 54.
[8] Viro P. 1967.Forestmanuringonmineralsoils.Medd.NorskeSkogforsøksv.85 (23), 113–
136.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
B. Tóth, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: btoth@agr.unideb.hu
K. Bodnár, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: kardina@citromail.hu
L. G. Nagy, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: nagy.agricultura.laszlo@gmail.com
L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: nagy.agricultura.laszlo@gmail.com
G.,Hankovszky, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: gerda.hankovszky@gmail.com
L. Lévai, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen, Hungary,
E-mail: levai@agr.unideb.hu
Sz. Veres, University of Debrecen, 138 Böszörményi Street 4032 Debrecen,
Hungary, E-mail: szveres@agr.unideb.hu
35
INDIVIDUAL AND JOINT EFFECT OF YIELD COMPONENTS ON GRAIN
YIELD OF TRITICALE AND BARLEY
Nebojša Deletiš, Slaviša Stojkoviš, Milan Biberdţiš, Dragana Laleviš, Slaviša Gudţiš
Abstract: This paper presents the two year results of a study dealing with individual and joint effect of
major yield components on grain yield of representative Serbian cultivars of triticale and winter barley. The
observed traits were the following: plant height, spike length, number of spikelets per spike, and number of
grains per spike. Individual effect of yield components on grain yield was measured by simple regression and
their joint effect by multiple regression. The obtained results showed different pattern od dependence in the
investigated plant species.
Key words: Triticale, Barley, Grain Yield, Yield Components, Regression.
INTRODUCTION
Barley shows a great economical importance because of its versatile utilization. It
mainly serves as animal feed and raw material in brewing industry, but it has increasingly
been used as a food, characterized by high nutritive value and certain health promoting
properties (Biberdžić et al., 2010).Triticale is the plant species which becomes more and
more important in animal feeding. Grain yield changed during the last century and yield
increase had resulted mostly from the development of plant selection and breeding
techniques, so that yield genetic potential achieved by new winter barley varieties reached
over 11 t/ha (Pržulj and Momčilović, 1999), and the one of triticale even greater values.
Grain yield is a complex trait of outstanding economic significance, dependent upon a
number of hereditarily determined traits and environmental conditions in which plant is
developing (Madić et al., 2005). Therefore, contribution of various plant traits to grain yield
is a permanent subject of studies in plant breeding.
After water, nitrogen is generally the most limiting factor in cereal crop production
(Szumigalski and Van Acker, 2006; Deletić et al., 2012). A 20% increase in nitrogen use
efficiency for cereal production around the world would be worth $10 billion annually
(Girma et al., 2010). However, farmers must optimize their use in order to decrease
environmental risks and production costs (Le Gouis et al., 2008). It is very interesting to
establish individual and joint effect of principal yield components on grain yield in various
conditions of nitrogen nutrition, for that knowledge has a potential use in breeding cultivars
with stable grain yield in various nitrogen nutrition levels.
This study has been aimed to investigate individual and joint effect of major yield
components on grain yield of representative Serbian cultivars of triticale and winter barley.
At the location near Bijelo Polje (Montenegro), during two years, field trials with two
plant species (barley and triticale, two cultivars of each species) and three nitrogen
fertilizer doses (80, 100 and 120 kg/ha N) have been set in random complete block design
with four replications. Otherwise, growing practice was standard. The observed traits were
the following: plant height, spike length, number of spikelets per spike, and number of
grains per spike. Individual effect of yield components on grain yield was measured by
simple regression and their joint effect by multiple regression. The input data for both
species were for the all cultivars and fertilization variants, in order to get a better estimate
of the part of grain yield variation explained by the investigated grain yield components.
36
Grain yield = 23,3238+59,5485*x; 0,95 Conf.Int.
; t=7.178***; P<0.001
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Grain yield = 550,9635+594,947*x; 0,95 Conf.
Int.; t=6.333***, P<0.001
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
5,5
Plant height
16
17
18
19
7,5
7,0
8,5
8,0
9,5
9,0
10,5
10,0
Spike length
Int.; t=3.041**, P<0.01
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
15
6,5
6,0
20
21
22
Int.; t=6.550***, P<0.001
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
15
Number of spikelets per spike
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Number of grains per spike
Graph 1.Effects of the observed traits on triticale genotypes‘ grain yield (simple regression)
Simple regression analysis for triticale (graph 1) shows that the all independent
variables had a positive effect on grain yield, and that effect was significant at the level of
P<0.001 for plant height, spike length and number of grains per spike, while for number of
spikelets per spike level of significance was P<0.01. Dependence of triticale grain yield
upon each investigated yield component is quantitatively expressed by corresponding
regression equation given in graph 1.
Simple regression analysis for winter barley (graph 2) shows quite different tendency.
Plant height had no significant effect on grain yield. Spike length and number of spikelets
per spike showed significant negative effect on grain yield at significance level of P<0.01,
while number of grains per spike had significant positive effect on grain yield at level of
significance of P<0.001. Dependence of winter barley grain yield upon each investigated
yield component is quantitatively expressed by corresponding regression equation given in
graph 2.
Multiple regression analysis of individual and joint effect of the studied parameters on
triticale grain yield showed that plant height (β=0.438***) and number of grains per spike
(β=0.432***) had significant effect on grain yield, while the effect of other two traits and
intercept value were not significant. Adjusted R2 value (0.577) showed that 57.7% of the
observed variation in triticale grain yield was explained by the studied four traits. F test for
goodness of fit was significant at level of P<0.001 (tab. 1).
37
Grain yield = 3542.7171+4.8541*x; 0.95 Conf.
Int.; t=0.499, P>0.05
Grain yield = 5346.4796-181.2547*x; 0.95 Conf.
Int.; t=-2.855**, P<0.01
5500
5500
5000
5000
4500
4500
4000
4000
3500
3500
3000
3000
2500
2500
2000
80
2000
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Plant height
Spike length
Grain yield = 4938.8723-46.1381*x; 0.95 Conf.
Int.; t=-2.430*, P<0.05
Grain yield = 1655.7814+97.6429*x; 0.95 Conf.
Int.; t=10.405***, P<0.001
5500
5500
5000
5000
4500
4500
4000
4000
3500
3500
3000
3000
2500
2500
2000
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
2000
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Number of spikelets per spike
Number of grains per spike
Graph 2.Effects of the observed traits on barley genotypes‘ grain yield (simple regression)
Table 1. Effects of the observed traits on triticale genotypes‘ grain yield calculated by
multiple regression analysis.
Intercept
Plant height
Spike length
Spikelets per spike
Grains per spike
β
SE (β)
-0.438
0.168
-0.203
0.432
-0.108
0.130
0.110
0.122
B
SE (B)
t (d.f.59)
-1955.76 1164.632 -1.679
38.74
9.563
4.051***
159.11 123.523
1.288
-137.99 74.540
-1.851
98.15
27.644 3.551***
P value
0.098383
0.000151
0.202732
0.069151
0.000762
R=0.777; R2=0.604; adjusted R2=0.577; goodness of fit: F(4, 59)=22.479P<0.0000
The results of multiple regression analysis of individual and joint effect of the studied
parameters on winter barley grain yield showed that only number of grains per spike
(β=0.778***) had significant effect on grain yield, and intercept value was also significant
but at the level of P<0.01. The effect of other three traits was not significant. Adjusted R 2
value (0.621) showed that 62.1% of the observed variation in winter barley grain yield was
explained by the studied four traits. F test for goodness of fit was significant at level of
P<0.001 (tab. 2).
38
Table 2. Effects of the observed traits on barley genotypes‘ grain yield calculated by
multiple regression analysis.
Intercept
Plant height
Spike length
Spikelets per spike
Grains per spike
β
SE (β)
B
SE (B)
t (d.f.59)
--0.056
-0.053
-0.032
0.778
-0.078
0.133
0.131
0.083
2447.00
-4.272
-28.31
-5.04
95.31
734.317
6.026
70.883
20.475
10.206
3.332**
-0.709
-0.399
-0.246
9.339***
P value
0.001491
0.481135
0.691035
0.806455
0.000000
R=0.803; R2=0.645; adjusted R2=0.621; goodness of fit: F(4, 59)=26.778P<0.0000
Establishing individual and joint effect of principal yield components on grain yield in
various conditions of nitrogen nutrition has a potential use in breeding cultivars with stable
grain yield in various nitrogen nutrition levels. Values of adjusted R2 coefficient showed
that those four parameters were clearly responsible for a great part of variation in grain
yield in both species (57.7 and 62.1%, respectively) among the investigated cultivars and
fertilization variants.
On the basis of the study, dealing with individual and joint effect of major yield
components on grain yield of representative Serbian cultivars of triticale and winter barley,
we can conclude the following:
 In triticale the all studied traits had a positive effect on grain yield measured by
simple regression, and that effect was significant at the level of P<0.001 for plant
height, spike length and number of grains per spike, while for number of spikelets
per spike level of significance was P<0.01.
 Simple regression for winter barley showed that plant height had no significant
effect on grain yield. Spike length and number of spikelets per spike showed
significant negative effect on grain yield at significance level of P<0.01, while
number of grains per spike had significant positive effect on grain yield at level of
significance of P<0.001.
 In triticale, multiple regression analysis showed that plant height and number of
grains per spike had significant effect on grain yield, while the effect of other two
traits and intercept value were not significant.
 Multiple regression for winter barley showed that only number of grains per spike
had significant effect on grain yield, and intercept value was also significant. The
effect of other three traits was not significant.

Values of adjusted R2 coefficient showed that those four parameters were clearly responsible for a
great part of variation in grain yield in both species among the investigated cultivars and
fertilization variants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation published in this paper is a part of the project ―The development of
biotechnology‖ financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development of the Republic of Serbia, grant No TR-31054.
39
REFERENCES
[1]. Biberdţiš, M. Stošoviš, D., Deletiš, N., Baraš, S. and S. Stojkoviš. 2010. Yield
components of winter barley and triticale as affected by nitrogen fertilization. Research
Journal of Agricultural Science, 42(1), 9-13, Timisoara, Romania.
[2]. Deletiš, N., Stojkoviš, S., Gudţiš, S., Djuriš, V. and M. Aksiš. 2012. Genotypic
specificity of some winter wheat traits and their effect on grain yield. Genetika, 44(2), 249258.
[3]. Girma, K., Holtz, S., Tubaña, B., Solie, J. and W. Raun. 2011. Nitrogen accumulation
in shoots as a function of growth stage of corn and winter wheat. Journal of Plant Nutrition,
34(2), 165-182.
[4]. Le Gouis, J., Fontaine, J-X., Laperche, A., Heumez, E., Devienne-Barret, F.,
Brancourt-Hulmel, M., Dubois, F. and B. Hirel. 2008. Genetic analysis of wheat nitrogen
use efficiency: coincidence between QTL for agronomical and physiological traits.
Proceedings of the 11th International Wheat Genetics Symposium (url:
http://hdl.handle.net/2123/3217).
[5]. Madiš, M., Paunoviš, A., Djuroviš, D. and D. Kneţeviš. 2005. Correlations and ―path‖
coefficient analysis for yield and yield components in winter barley. Acta Agriculturae
Serbica, 10(20), 3-9.
[6]. Prţulj N. and V. Momţiloviš. 1999. Stanje i perspektive u oplemenjivanju pivskog i
stoţnog jeţma. Zbornik radova, Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad, Serbia,
31,111-120.
[7]. Szumigalski, A.R. and R.C. Van Acker. 2006. Nitrogen yield and land use efficiency in
annual sole crops and intercrops. Agronomy Journal, 98(4), 1030-1040.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisa.stojkovic@pr.ac.rs
M. Biberdţiš, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: milan.biberdzic@pr.ac.rs
D. Laleviš, MSc, Teaching Assistant, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: dragana.lalevic@pr.ac.rs
40
EFFECT OF FLUID BY-PRODUCT OF BIOGAS FACTORY ON
HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L.
G. Hankovszky, K. Bodnár, G. L. Nagy, L. Nagy, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres and B. Tóth
Abstract: The physiological effects of fluid by-product of biogas factory were examined. One
possibility to minimize chemicals is the use of the by-products, for instance of biogas factories. The fluid byproduct contains several essential elements (e.g. Ca, P, K, S, Mg) therefore.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv. Arena) seedlings were used in the experiments. The effect of the
examined material depends on the concentrations of applied by-product.
The fluid by-product of biogas factory can be suitable material to replace the industrial chemicals,
especially in bio-production.
Keywords: biogas, crop production, environmental protection, industrial by-product
INTRODUCTION
The most important questions today – „how much more can the Earth take?‖ and
„how can we ensure sustainability?‖. Nowadays the fossil energy sources are limited.
Today, agricultural research is focused on sustainability in production, in using renewable
sources and protecting the environment. One of the big problems is the use of chemicals
in agriculture. The usage of chemicals has a harmful effect on the environment and human
health. It is necessary to avoid the usage of mineral fertilizers. One of the ways of doing
this is to use manure complemented with a fluid by-product of biogas.
The biogas is originated from different ambience for example wastewater sludge,
dump [6], animal manure, agricultural waste, kitchen waste and alga [2]. The biogas from
wastewater sludge contained 55-60% methane, 35-45% carbon-dioxide and 1% nitrogen
[1] and biogas from organic waste contained 60-70% methane, 30-40% carbon-dioxide
and 1% nitrogen [3, 5].
The anaerob degradation and biogas production make for the sustainable
development and decrease the environmental pollution [3].
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv. Arena) was used in these experiments and
mustard for the toxicity test.
The by-product is originated from the biogas industry of Biharnagybajom.
The seedlings were grown under controlled environmental conditions.
KH2PO4, 0.1 mM KCl, 10 µM H3BO3, 1 µM MnSO4, 1 µM ZnSO4, 0.2 µM CuSO4, 0.01 µ
M(NH4)6Mo7O24 [4].
Four different dilutions were used for the toxicity test (1.: 100ml by-product, 2.: 10ml
by-product + 90ml distil water, 3.: 1ml by-product + 99ml distil water, 4.: 0.1ml by-product +
99.9 ml distil water).
The examined by-product was added to the nutrition solution in different quantities
(5ml/dm-3, 10ml/dm-3, 50ml/dm-3) and 1ml/dm-3 bio-fertilizer was added to three treatments.
The bio-fertilizer contains two strains: Azotobacter chrococcum (1-2x109 cm-3) and Bacillus
megatherium (1-2x108 cm-3). The plants were grown in 1.7 L pots.
We used the 2nd and 3rd leaves of sunflower to measure the relative chlorophyll
content. The relative chlorophyll content was measured by SPAD-502.
41
The dry matter of shoots and roots were measured at the end of experiments with
the use of thermal gravimetric analysis, after drying at 85 Cº for 48 h.
The uptake of the elements was measured by ICP.
The treatments were the following: (1. Distil water, 2. Control – nutrient solution, 3.
8.5 ml by-product, 4. 17 ml by-product, 5. 85 ml by-product, 6. 8.5 ml by-product + 1.7 ml
bio-fertilizer, 7. 17 ml by-product + 1.7 ml bio-fertilizer, 8. 85 ml by-product + 1.7 ml biofertilizer)
The examined by-product contains plenty of useful elements, for example K, Mg, P, S
and Ca. It also contains considerable toxic elements, for example Cd, Cr and Al.
Magnesium has a major function, because it has the role as the central atom of
chlorophyll molecule.
Table 1. Contents of some elements (Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn,
Na, Ni, P, S, Sr, Zn) in the examined by-product (mg kg-1)
Elements
Al
Ba
Cd
Cu
K
Mg
Na
P
Sr
mg kg-1
109
4.29
0.12
3.89
2651
433
454
448
6.4
Elements mg kg-1
B
3.19
Ca
1411
Cr
0.39
Fe
157
Li
0.24
Mn
14.6
Ni
<1
S
405
Zn
18.8
A toxicity test was conducted with the use of mustard, because of the toxic element of
the by-product. Four different dilutions were examined.
Table 2. The germination of mustard seeds affected by different treatments. n=3± S.E
Significant differences in comparison to the control: ***p<0.001
Treatments
Control
1X
1st day
90.00 ± 2.64
0.00 ± 0.00
2nd day
4.66 ± 2.30
0.00 ± 0.00
3rd day
2.33 ± 1.52
2.33 ± 1.52
10X
100X
1000X
80.66 ± 4.04
87.33 ± 3.51
90.00 ± 1.73
13.00 ± 2.64
5.66 ± 0.57
6.33 ± 1.15
2.33 ± 2.51
3.00 ± 1.73
1.33 ± 1.15
4th day
1.33 ± 2.30
15.00 ±
5.00***
1.33 ± 0.57
2.00 ± 1.00
0.66 ± 0.57
Summary
98.32 ± 2.45
17.33 ± 1.03
97.32 ± 2.63
97.99 ± 2.71
98.32 ± 1.89
The germination percentage decreased at the one-time dilution and the germination
percentage around the control value at ten-time, hundred-time and thousand-time
dilutions.
We supposed that the more concentrated treatment had osmotic stress on
germination.
The next table shows the concentrations of examined elements in the shoots and
roots of sunflower.
42
Table 4. The concentration of examined elements (Ca, K, Mg, P, S) in the shoots of
sunflower (mg kg-1) affected by different treatments (1: distilled water, 2: control, 3: 8.5 ml
by-product, 4: 17 ml by-product, 5: 85ml by-product, 6: 8.5ml by-product + biofertilizer, 7:
17ml by-product + biofertilizer, 8: 85ml by-product + biofertilizer)
Elements 1.
Ca
18262
K
6590
Mg
2774
P
2917
S
2448
2.
29761
56250
3827
6954
5257
3.
27339
61923
3545
9595
6739
4.
20796
55799
3361
8765
6512
5.
16132
50353
4300
7999
8458
6.
18742
54399
4435
9003
9314
7.
25006
60847
3907
9040
8245
8.
31448
59059
4347
9726
6740
The contents of phosphate and sulphur increased in all treatments in the shoots. It is
very favorable for the plants, because the sulphur plays a very important role in the
biologically important compounds. The contents of magnesium increased in the 5th, 6th, 7th
and 8th treatments.
Table 5. The concentration of examined elements (Ca, K, Mg, P, S) in the roots of
sunflower (mg kg-1) affected by different treatments (1: distilled water, 2: control, 3: 8.5 ml
by-product, 4: 17 ml by-product, 5: 85ml by-product, 6: 8.5ml by-product + biofertilizer, 7:
17ml by-product + biofertilizer, 8: 85ml by-product + biofertilizer)
Elements
Ca
K
Mg
P
S
1.
4558
5311
394
2809
2322
2.
3.
5450 3478
79977 44120
1203
981
9484
9273
4609
5736
4.
5.
2962 5517
49022 22218
1001 1428
10742 9131
6680 7243
6.
2474
12577
690
4532
3880
7.
3084
25628
997
8764
6432
8.
6758
56099
1921
14906
11941
The contents of potassium increased in all treatments in the roots. It very favorable
for the sunflower, because the potassium plays an important role in the frost tolerant of
plants and helps to protect the plants against diseases. The concentration of sulphur was
higher in all treatments than in the 2nd treatment, except for the 6th treatment.
The dry matter accumulation of plants is a complicated bio-chemical process. The
results are shown in the table.
Table 6. Effects of different treatments (1: distilled water, 2: control, 3: 8.5 ml byproduct, 4: 17 ml by-product, 5: 85ml by-product, 6: 8.5ml by-product + biofertilizer, 7:
17ml by-product + biofertilizer, 8: 85ml by-product + biofertilizer) on the dry matter
accumulation of shoots, roots of sunflower seedlings (plant g -1) Significant differences
comparison to the control:*p<0.05; **p<0.01;***p<0.001.
Treatments
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Shoots
0,044 ± 0,01
0,433 ± 0,09
0,513 ± 0,09***
0,564 ± 0,12***
0,422 ± 0,09***
0,580 ± 0,11***
0,509 ± 0,11***
Roots
0,018 ± 0,01
0,103 ± 0,02
0,105 ± 0,03
0,107 ± 0,04
0,038 ± 0,01***
0,104 ± 0,02
0,070 ± 0,01**
43
8
0,465 ± 0,11***
0,042 ± 0,01***
The dry matter accumulation of shoots increased in all treatments except for the 5 th
treatment. At the 4th treatment the increase was 30 % and at the 6th it was 34 %. At the 7th
and 8th treatments the dry matter accumulation of shoots increased less, than the other
treatments, but increased significantly. The dry matter accumulation of roots increased at
the 3rd, 4th, 6th treatments and decreased significantly at the 5th, 7th and 8th treatments
correlate with control (2nd treatment).
The decreasing dry matter accumulation can be explained by the lower level of
chlorophyll content. We therefore measured the relative chlorophyll content of the 2nd and
3rd leaves of sunflower.
Figure 1. Effects of different treatments (1: distilled water, 2: control, 3: 8.5 ml presswater, 4: 17 ml press-water, 5: 85ml press-water, 6: 8.5ml press-water + biofertilizer, 7:
17ml press-water + biofertilizer, 8: 85ml press-water + biofertilizer) on the relative
chlorophyll contents of second and third leaves of sunflower (Spad units) Significant
differences comparison to the control: **p<0.01;***p<0.001.
At the first treatment we were not able to measure the relative chlorophyll content,
because the leaves of sunflower didn‘t grow. The chlorophyll content of the 2 nd leaves
increased significantly in all treatments, except for the 8th treatment. These values also
increased, but not significantly. The chlorophyll content of the 3 rd leaves did not change
significantly.
Most of the investigated elements are localized in the shoots. The dry matter
accumulation of shoots and roots decreased when organic fertilizer was added to the
nutrient solution. The decrease is explicable with supra-optimal nutriment quantity.
The relative chlorophyll content increased in all treatments in the 2nd leaves of
sunflower.
The fluid by-product can be suitable for replacing expensive mineral fertilizers and the
by-product has an important role in the environment protection.
We maintain that the fluid by-product of newly emerged biogas factories can be
useful tools of suitable agriculture from environmental aspect too.
REFERENCES
[1].
Allen, M. R., Braithwait, A., Hills, C.C.: 1997. Trace organic compounds in landfill
gas at seven UK waste disposal sites. Environ Sci Technol; 31, pp. 1054-1061.
44
[2].
Arthur, R., Baidoo, M. F., Antwi, E.: 2011. Biogas as a potential renewable energy
sources: A Ghanian case study. Renewable Energy 36, pp. 1510-1516.
[3].
Berglund, M., Börjesson, P. 2006: Assesment of energy performance in the lifecycle of biogas production. Enviromental and Energy Systems Studies LTH, Lund
University, Gerdagatan 13, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden.
[4].
Eklund, B., Anderson, E. P., Walker, B. L., Burrows, D. B.: 1998. Characterization of
landfill gas composition at the fresh kills municipial solid-waste landfill. Environ Sci
Technol; 32:2233-7.
[5].
Lévai, L.: 2004. The effect of smut gall tumour infection on iron and zinc uptake and
distribution in maize seedlings. Journal of Agricultural Sciences 15, 27-32.
[6].
Spiegel, R. J., Preston, J. L., Trocciola, J. C. (1997): Test results for fuel-cell
operation on landfill gas. Energy; 22, pp. 777-786.
[7].
Wellinger, A. and Linberg, A.: 2000. Biogas upgrading and utilization – IEA
Bioenergy Task, vol. 24. Paris, France: International Energy Association; 2000
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
G. Hankovszky, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
gerda.hankovszky@gmail.com
K. Bodnár, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
kardina@citromail.hu
G. L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
L. Nagy, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
L. Lévai, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
levai@agr.unideb.hu
Sz. Veres, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
B. Tóth, University of Debrecen, Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop
Physiology,
Boszormenyi
steet
138.,
4032
Debrecen,
Hungary,
E-mail:
btoth@agr.unideb.hu
45
BIOLOGICAL AND PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPE
VARIETY GEWÜRZTRAMINER IN VINEGROWING SUBREGION OF NIŠ
Bratislav Širkoviš, Nebojša Deletiš, Saša Matijaševiš, Dušica Širkoviš, Zoran Jovanoviš
Abstract: This study has been aimed to investigate growth, productivity and grape yield of the
observed grape variety in the conditions of Niš vinegrowing subregion. The obtained results point to
possibility of successful growing Gewürztraminer in the vinegrowing subregion of Niš. The average grape
yield varied from year to year depending on weather conditions. The highest grape yield was observed in the
third year of investigation (2006), while the best wine quality was reached in the second year of the study
(2005). Best vines of Gewürztraminer were selected for further studies and multiplication.
Key words: Ampelographic Description, Productivity, Gewürztraminer, Variety.
INTRODUCTION
Traminer is an old European grape variety which still has a burden of unanswered
questions and attracts attention of scientist in viticulture and enology. The variety, as well
as its clones and subvarieties, is described by many researchers, and all of them pointed
out to its great variability in quantitative and qualitative traits (Zirojević, 1974; Galet, 1998;
Cindrić et al., 2000; Imazio et al., 2002; Kaserer et al., 2003; Santiago et al., 2007).
The first written data about this variety go back to XV century (Goethe, 1887). There is an
opinion that its origin is Tyrolese town Tramin in Italy, from where it spreaded to many
European countries (Goethe, 1887). Traminer is a heterogeneous variety with several
clones and subvarieties, and there are some disputes about them. Thus, according to
botanical characteristics Gewürztraminer is identical to Red Traminer, but some
researchers reported it as a separate variety (Pospišilova, 1981). In many papers
Hillebrand (1984) did not mention Red Traminer but Gewürztraminer. On the contrary,
Nemeth (1975) did not regard Gewürztraminer as a separate variety but as a variant of
Red Traminer.
Gewürztraminer showed the greatest success in Alsace. During late XIX century
Alsatians used name Gewürztraminer for this variety and wine from it, although the name
was officially approved in 1973. Because of its limited popularity and difficulties that follow
its production, area under Gewürztraminer is in stagnation throughout the world.
Approximate areas under Gewürztraminer are the following: Alsace 2500 ha; Germany
less than 1000 ha; Australia 600 ha; California 690 ha. In the vinegrowing regions of
Serbia this variety can be met only in collection vineyards, while in production vineyards it
is almost completely absent. Red Traminer with its more productive subvarieties is
dominant, but those genotypes have weaker scent than that usually expected from
Traminer (Zirojević, 1974; Žunić, 1995; Cindrić, 2000).
This paper has been aimed to establish growth, productivity, grape yield, as well as
quality of grapes, must and wine of the variety Gewürztraminer in vinegrowing subregion
of Niš, which can improve knowledge about properties of this variety and its suitability for
growing in the conditions of Niš subregion.
The investigation has been carried out during the period 2004-2006 in the collection
vineyard of the Center for Viticulture and Enology at Niš. This grape varieties‘ collection is
located in vinegrowing subregion of Niš, characterized by moderately continental climate
with average annual air temperature of 11.8oC and average vegetational air temperature of
18.1oC. The absolute minimum of air temperature during the study was -18.2oC. The
46
average annual precipitation amount in the observed period was 750 mm, 422 mm of
which fell during vegetation. Soil type was eutric cambisol. The vineyard was established
in 1995, with planting distance of 3x1.2 m (2777 vines per ha), which was universal value
for the all varieties at this collection vineyard. Bud load per vine was 20 buds or 6.6 buds
per m2. The trial was set in random complete block design with four replications, and the
data were processed by analysis of variance. Ampelographic description has been done
according to the descriptor list of OIV. The all observed parameters were determined by
standard ampelographic procedures.
Ampelographic description of the variety Gewürztraminer. Ampelographic
description has been done according to the descriptor list for grape varieties and Vitis
species by OIV and harmonized with its 2nd edition (OIV, 2009).
Young shoot tip was fully open (001-5), with low anthocyanin coloration of prostrate
hairs (003-3), high density of prostrate hairs (004-7) and semi-erect attitude (006-3).
Mature leaf blade was small (065-3), 8.41 cm of length in average, circular (067-4), with
three lobes (068-2) and medium green color (069-5). Petiole sinus was brace-shaped
(080-2) and upper lateral sinuses were open (082-1). Density of prostrate hairs on main
veins on lower side of blade was high (086-7). Petiole was slightly shorter than middle vein
(6.45 cm; 093-3). Woody shoot was elliptic at cross section (101-2), red-violet colored
(103-3), with short internodes (353-3). Flowers had fully developed stamens and
gynoecium (151-3). Bunch was short (10.42 cm; 202-3), dense (204-7), with 83 grapes in
average. Peduncle of primary bunch was short (1.97 cm; 206-1). Berries were short (2203), uniform (222-2), broad ellipsoid (223-3) and green yellow (225-1). Berry flavor is
muscat (236-2). Single berry weight was very low (503-1). Length of seeds was medium
(242-5) and weight of seeds was very low (243-1).
Table 1. Phenological stages of grape variety Gewürztraminer development.
Stage of development
Bleeding sap
Time of bud burst
Beginning of flowering
End of flowering
Veraison
Full berry maturity
2004
Year of investigation
2005
2006
th
March 25
April 14th
June 5th
June 13th
August 3rd
August 11th
th
March 30
April 17th
June 10th
June 18th
August 11th
August 14th
Average
th
March 27
April 20th
June 12th
June 21st
August 6th
August 12th
March 27th
April 17th
June 9th
June 17th
August 7th
August 12th
OIV descriptors for phenological stages of Gewürztraminer development
OIV Code
301
302
303
304
Elements of description
Time of bud burst
Time of full bloom
Time of veraison
Time of full maturity of the berry
Score
3
5
5
3
Phenological stages of the variety Gewürztraminer. Phenological observation
showed that beginning and duration of phenological stages depended on weather
conditions of the investigated year (tab. 1). Bleeding sap was observed in the second
decade of March. The earliest bud burst was noticed in 2004 (April 14th), and the latest
47
one in 2006 (April 20th). As average for the investigated period, flowering began at June 9th
and ended at June 17th. Grape harvesting was carried out at September 12th.
Beginning and end of flowering dated slightly later than the date reported by
Zirojević (1974), while berry harvest was carried out earlier than reported by the
mentioned source. There were 148 days between bud burst and grape harvest. Based on
OIV descriptors, in the ecological conditions of Niš‘s subregion, bud burst was early,
flowering was moderately late, and berry maturation was early.
Productivity of buds and shoots. Weather conditions significantly influenced
number of developed shoots, differentiation of productive buds and development of
productive shoots. Of the total buds, 16.39 gave developed shoots, and 12 of them were
productive (tab. 2).
Table 2. Basic productivity parameters of grape variety Gewürztraminer.
Parameter
Buds per vine
Developed canes
% of developed canes
Productive canes
% of productive canes
Bunches per bud
Bunches per dev. cane
Bunches per pr. cane
Bunches per vine
Bunch mass
2004
2005
2006
20.0
16.50
82.50
12.25
74.24
0.93
1.09
1.52
18.58
98.39
20.0
14.75
73.75
8.67
58.77
0.55
0.74
1.27
11.00
107.22
20.0
17.92
89.60
14.50
80.91
1.09
1.22
1.52
21.83
97.56
LSD
Average
0.05
0.01
20.0
16.39
81.95
11.81
71.30
0.86
1.02
1.44
17.14
101.05
-0.57
-1.18
-0.14
0.15
0.13
2.73
11.46
-0.76
-1.58
-0.19
0.20
0.18
3.66
15.37
The lowest number of developed shoots was observed in 2005 as a result of the
lowest count of activated buds, which was significantly lower than in the other two
investigated years. Share of productive shoots in the total count of developed shoots was
from 58.77% to 80.91%. The highest number of bunches per vine (21.83) was observed in
the year with highest coefficient of production (2006). Bunch mass did not vary significantly
among the investigated years. As the average, Gewürztraminer had 17.14 bunches of
101.05 g. Bunch mass observed in this investigation is lower than the one reported by
Cindrić et al. (2000) for the conditions of vine district Fruška Gora.
Grape yield and quality. Grape yield depended much more on number of bunches
than on bunch mass (tab. 3). The observed grape yield per bud, developed shoot and vine
varied significantly at the level of P<0.01, while grape yield per productive shoot did not
vary significantly among the investigated years.
As the average for the investigated period, Gewürztraminer gave grape yield per vine
of 1.707 kg and 4742 kg per hectare. The lowest grape yield was observed in 2005 and it
was high-significantly lower than in the other two years of investigation. On the basis of the
observed grape yield Gewürztraminer can be classified as a variety with low productivity.
The highest mass of pruned biomass (676.67g) was observed in 2004, with 17 developed
shoots per vine and internode length of 6.26 cm. As the average for the studied period,
must had 23.03% of sugar and 7.50 g/l of organic acids. In ecological conditions of
vinegrowing subregion of Niš, Gewürztraminer gave wine having 14.19% of alcohol and
48
6.8 g/l of organic acids, with very pleasant and refreshing muscat flavor and taste, and
average sensory score of 18.21 points.
Table 3. Elements of grape yield and quality of the variety Gewürztraminer.
Parameter
Yield per bud (g)
Yield per dev. cane (g)
Yield per pr. cane (g)
Yield per vine (kg)
Yield per hectare (kg)
Pruned vine mass (g)
Sugar content (%)
Total acid content (g/l)
2004
2005
2006
91.38
59.83
104.96
106.67
81.52
117.71
145.96
136.60
145.00
1.827
1.196
2.099
5074
3322
5829
676.67
599.17
557.08
24.40
21.56
23.13
7.13
7.19
8.20
LSD
Average
85.39
101.97
142.52
1.707
4742
610.97
23.03
7.50
0.05
17.32
18.95
15.62
0.346
961
42.61
---
0.01
23.33
25.41
20.95
0.464
1289
57.14
---
Resistance of Gewürztraminer to Botrytis cinerea was evaluated by using OIV
descriptor 459 (tab. 4).
Table 4. Resistance to Botrytis cinereа of grape variety Gewürztraminer (OIV 459).
Score
2004
2005
2006
Average
7
5
5
5.6
During the observed period, Gewürztraminer showed middle degree of resistance to
gray mold caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. Slightly higher attack of the disease was
noticed in 2005 and 2006. During the second (2005) year of investigation berry ripening
was slowed down, because precipitation amount in August was higher regarding manyyear average (88 mm), which caused a higher attack of the diseases during full berry
maturity. During the third (2006) year of investigation noble rot was registered at
Gewürztraminer bunches, which positively influenced grape and wine quality. Cindrić
(2000) stated that the clone 11 Gm was more resistant to Botrytis cinerea than
Gewürztraminer, which is confirmed by our study.
On the basis of the three-year investigation of vine variety Gewürztraminer in the
conditions of Niš‘s vinegrowing subregion, we can conclude the following:
 Gewürztraminer showed positive agrobiological and technological properties and it
could be successfully grown in the studied conditions.
 In the ecological conditions of Niš‘s subregion, bud burst was early, flowering was
moderately late, and berry maturation was early. Twenty buds gave 16 shoots, 12
of them were productive, with 1.02 bunches per developed shoot, and 1.44 per
productive shoot. One vine gave 17 bunches with the average 100 berry mass of
101.05 g. The average grape yield per vine was low, and amounted 4.742 kg.
49
 Must had 23.03% of sugar and 7.50 g/l of total acid. It gave wine with 14.19% of
alcohol and 6.8 g/l of total acid. The average degustation score was 18.21, which
put the wine in the category of supreme quality wines.

Gewürztraminer showed a moderate level of resistance to Botrytis cinerea.
REFERENCES
[1]. Cindriš, P., Koraš, N. and V. Kovaţ. 2000. Sorte vinove loze. Prometej, Novi Sad,
Serbia.
[2]. Galet, P. 1998. Précis d'ampélographie pratique (7th ed). Published by the author,
Montpellier, France. 172-179.
[3]. Goethe H. 1887. Handbuch der Ampelographie. Zweite Auflage. Verlag Paul Parey,
Berlin, Germany.
[4]. Hillebrand, W. 1981. Taschenbuch der Rebsorten. Dr. Fraund, Wiesbaden, Germany.
[5]. Imazio, S., Labra, M., Grassi, F., Winfield, M., Bardini, M., and A. Scienza. 2002.
Molecular tools for clone identification: the case of the grapevine cultivar Traminer. Plant
Breeding, 121(6), 531-535.
[6]. Kaserer, H. and F. Regner. 2003. Genetic differences within the grapevine variety
Traminer. First Meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group of Vitis. Pališ, Serbia. 15.
[7]. Nemeth, M. 1975. Ampelografiai album. Mezögazdasági Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary.
[8]. OIV. 2009. OIV descriptor list for grape varieties and Vitis species, 2 nd edition. Paris,
pp 1-179.
[9]. Pospišilova, D. 1981. Ampelografia ŢSSR. Published by the author, Bratislava,
ŢSSR. pp 151-158.
[10]. Santiago, J., Boso, S., Gago, P., Villaverde, V. and M. Martinez. 2007. Molecular and
ampelographic characterisation of Vitis vinifera L. Albarino, Savagnin Blanc and Caino
Blanco show that they are different cultivars. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research,
5(3), 333-340.
[11]. Zirojeviš, D. 1974. Poznavanje sorata vinove loze. Vol. 1. Gradina, Niš, Serbia. 130142.
[12]. Ţuniš, D. 1995. Traminci-rezultati gajenja u razliţitim ekološkim uslovima. Zbornik
radova Savetovanja unapreŤenje vinogradarske proizvodnje. Beograd, 126-132.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
B. Širkoviš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: bratislav.cirkovic@pr.ac.rs
S. Matijaševiš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Agriculture, 6 Nemanjina Street 11080 Zemun, Serbia, E-mail: sasam@agrif.bg.ac.rs
D. Širkoviš, MSc, Research Associate, College of Professional Studies in Agriculture
and Food Technology Prokuplje, 1 Širila i Metodija Street 18400 Prokuplje, Serbia, E-mail:
dusicacirkovic26@gmail.com
Z. Jovanoviš, MSc, Teaching Assistant, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: zoran.bricko@gmail.com
50
RESISTANCE OF WINTER WHEAT CULTIVARS TO Puccinia triticina
Slaviša Gudţiš, Nebojša Deletiš, Miroljub Aksiš, Nebojša Gudţiš, Katerina Nikoliš, Slaviša
Stojkoviš
Abstract: The study was carried out during 2009 and 2010, in the condition of natural infection, at the
location Leposavić. Resistance of 16 winter wheat cultivars was studied. A high level of resistance in 2009
and 2010 was shown by the cultivar Kg-56, with infection coefficient of 0%. Highly susceptible infection type
4 and trace infection intensity in 2009 was observed in the cultivar Zvezda. Low infection intensity in 2010
was given by the cultivars Jasenica and Zvezdana, although they reacted by the infection type 3. Severity of
infection of the most susceptible cultivar Balkan was 50% in 2009, and 30% in 2010.
Key words: Winter Wheat, Leaf Rust, Resistance, Susceptibility, Cultivars.
INTRODUCTION
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of oldest and most important crops, and it is
widely grown throughout the world. Denčić (2006) suggested that good utilizability of
genetic potential for grain yield of grown wheat cultivars demands optimal weather
conditions, adequate agro-technique, as well as resistance to diseases. Rusts (Puccinia
sp.), well known for more than thousand years (McIntosh et al., 1995), are most common
causal agents of wheat diseases in the world (Kolmer, 1996). Consequence of an attack
by parasites from genus Puccinia is reduction of leaves, bracts, awns, as well as root
system, which leads to a lack of water and nutrients (Agrios, 2007). If plants are infected
during early stages of development, small and empty grains are formed, stem is weakened
or lodged, and whole plants can often die (Roelfs and Bushnell, 1985).
Leaf rust of wheat, caused by biotrophic fungus Puccinia triticina, is a disease which
regularly follows wheat production. Causal agent of leaf rusts is present in Serbia every
year and intensity of its attack rises rapidly from the second decade of May. In addition to
grain yield decrease, this pathogenous fungus has a significant deteriorating effect on
technological quality of wheat grain (Jerković and Đurić, 1998).
Among integrated protection measures, the most important one is breeding and
growing resistant cultivars, and that way most efficient, most economical and
environmentally friendliest protection is achieved. For that reason, in Serbia, a special
attention is paid to studying resistance of various wheat cultivars, with the aim to identify
good donors of resistance genes and to use them in wheat breeding programs. Jerković
et al. (2007) pointed out that reaching high and stable grain yield in semiarid regions is
possible only growing cultivars with genetic resistance. Introduction of new cultivars put a
pressure on parasite population and force it to make adaptations. It does that by changing
racial composition, and very quickly resistant cultivars become susceptible ones. This
study has been aimed to establish resistance of some wheat cultivars in order to
recommend the most resistant ones to farmers and help them in achieving high and stable
production.
The study was carried out during 2009 and 2010, in the condition of natural infection,
at the location Leposavic. The trials were set at 445 m of altitude, 43o06' N of latitude and
20o48' E of longitude. Resistance of the following 16 winter wheat cultivars was studied:
Zvezda, Zelengora, Jasenica, Francuska, Balkan, Jugoslavija, Panoramka, Lasta, Evropa,
Renesansa, Pobeda, Kg-56, Kruna, Ţitnica, NS-Rana 5, and Zvezdana.
Seeding was done a cultivar per row, with row length of 1 m and inter-row distance of
30 cm. During maximal pathogen development, reaction mode of the investigated cultivars
51
was graded by determining infection type from 0-4 (Stakman et al., 1962) and severity of
infection from 0-100% (Peterson et al., 1948). Meaning of infection types is the following:
0 – very resistant (VR); 1 – resistant (R); 2 – moderately resistant (MR); 3 – moderately
susceptible (MS); 4 – very susceptible (VS). Plants that react by infection type 0-2 are
regarded as resistant, and those reacting by infection type 3-4 as susceptible ones. On the
basis of determined infection type and severity of infection we calculated coefficient of
infection multiplying severity of infection by numerical values for infection types (0-0; 1-0.2;
2-0.4; 3-0.8 and 4-1). Cultivars with observed coefficient of infection 0-5 were regarded as
very resistant, 6-10 as resistant, 11-25 as moderately resistant, 26-40 as moderately
susceptible, 41-65 as susceptible and 66-100 as very susceptible ones (Stojanović,
2004).
Results of the study showed that severity of infection of the most susceptible cultivar
Balkan in 2009 was 50%, while in 2010 it was 30% (tab. 1).
Table 1. Resistance of some winter wheat genotypes to Puccinia triticina.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Cultivar
Zvezda
Zelengora
Jasenica
Francuska
Balkan
Jugoslavija
Panoramka
Lasta
Evropa
Renesansa
Pobeda
Kg-56
Kruna
Ţitnica
NS-Rana 5
Zvezdana
Average
2009
Type of Severity of Coeff. of
infection infection infection
4
t
-3
t
-3
t
-2
20
8
4
50
50
2
30
12
3
10
8
0
0
0
4
30
30
3
20
16
3
20
16
0
0
0
4
20
20
4
20
20
2
30
12
2
20
8
-24.5
--
2010
Type of Severity of Coeff. of
infection infection infection
2
20
8
1
10
2
3
t
-2
10
4
2
30
12
2
20
8
1
20
4
1
10
2
2
20
8
2
20
8
2
20
8
0
0
0
2
30
12
2
20
8
2
20
8
3
t
--19.2
--
The most resistant cultivar in both 2009 and 2010 was Kg-56 with coefficient of
infection 0%. It pointed to this cultivar as having factors of complex resistance. High level
of resistance was also shown by the cultivar Lasta which had coefficient of infection 2% in
2010. Resistance of cultivars Kg-56 and Lasta was previously reported by Stojanović et
al. (2006) and Stojanović et al. (1997), which was in accordance with the results of our
investigation. Trace severity infection in 2009 was observed in cultivars Zvezda, Zelengora
and Jasenica. Zvezda reacted by susceptible infection type 4, while Jasenica and
52
Zelengora showed moderately susceptible infection type 3. Severity of infection up to 10 %
was in 2009 shown only by the cultivar Panoramka, while in 2010 below 10% were
Zelengora, Francuska and Lasta. Moderate resistance in 2009 was observed in cultivars
Renesansa, Pobeda, Kruna and Ţitnica with coefficient of infection from 11% to 25%.
According to Jerković and Jevtić (2002) the cultivar Renesansa reacts by partial
resistance to this parasite. The results from 2010 showed a higher number of cultivars with
severity of infection up to 20% (Zvezda, Jugoslavija, Panoramka, Evropa, Renesansa,
Pobeda, Ţitnica and NS-Rana 5). Furthermore, during the second year of investigation in
most of cultivars the observed reaction types were moderately resistant or resistant.
Having in mind that infection type is a result of interaction between host‘s resistance genes
and pathogen‘s virulence genes, regardless severity of infection observed, it does not
mean those values have to be the same in other environmental conditions. For that
reason, before final decision on cultivars of choice, one ought to investigate resistance of
available cultivars in given environmental conditions.
Leaf rust is one of diseases regularly met in Serbia every year. The most resistant
cultivar to Puccinia triticina in both years of investigation was Kg-56. Furthermore, a high
resistance was also shown by the cultivar Lasta. Observing both years of the study, the
greatest susceptibility was observed in the cultivar Balkan. Success in wheat protection
from the causal agent of leaf rust could be achieved by combining various protection
measures. In addition to growing resistant genotypes, an adequate attention should be
paid to agrotechnical and chemical protection measures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation published in this paper is a part of the projects ―The development of
biotechnology‖ (grant No TR-31054) and ―The study of genetic basis improving yield and
quality of cereals in different ecological conditions‖ (grant No T.R.31092), financed by the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1]. Agrios, G. 2007. Plant pathology, 5th ed., Elsevier Academic Press.
[2]. Denţiš, S. 2006. Genetika i oplemenjivanje strnih ţita. Zbornik radova Nauţnog
institute za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad, Serbia. 42(2), 377-394.
[3]. Jerkoviš, Z. and V. Đuriš. 1998. Štete od Puccinia recondita tritici na novosadskim
genotipovima ozime pšenice. IV jugoslovenski kongres o zaštiti bilja, Zbornik rezimea,
123.
[4]. Jerkoviš, Z. and R. Jevtiš. (2002): Razlike izmeŤu novosadskih sorti ozime pšenice
po genima za otpornost prema Puccinia triticina. Zbornik rezimea sa XII Simpozijuma o
zaštiti bilja i Savetovanja o primeni pesticida, Zlatibor, Serbia. 45.
[5]. Jerkoviš, Z., Prijiš, Ţ. and M. Putnik. 2007. Novi metod za procenu opravdanosti
primene fungicida u pojedinim kultivarima pšenice. IV Sipozijum o zaštiti bilja u BiH.
Zbornik rezimea, Tesliš, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 32.
[6]. Kolmer, J.A. 1996. Genetics of resistance to wheat leaf rust. Annual Review of
Phytopathology. 34, 435-455.
[7]. McIntosh, R.A., Wellings, C.R. and R.F. Park. 1995. Wheat rusts: An atlas of
resistance genes. CSIRO Publications, East Melbourne, Australia.
53
[8]. Peterson, R.F., Campbell, A.B. and A.E. Hannah. 1948. A diagramic scale for
estimating rust intensity on leaves of cereals. Canadian Journal of Research, Section C.
26, 496-500.
[9]. Roelfs, A.P. and W.R. Bushnell (eds). 1985. The Cereal Rusts, Vol. II: Diseases
distribution, epidemiology and control. Academic Press Inc. Orlando, San Diego, New
York, London, Toronto, Montreal, Sydney, Tokyo.
[10]. Stakman, E.C., Stewart, D.M. and W.G. Loegering. 1962. Identification of physiologic
races of Puccinia graminis var. tritici. USDA Agricultural Research Service E-617, 1-53.
[11]. Stojanoviš, S., Stojanoviš, J., Gudţiš, S., Deletiš, N. and M. Aksiš. 1997. Resistance
of some Yugoslav wheat cultivars to Puccinia recondita tritici. Yearbook of the Symposium
‘‘50 Years Faculty of Agriculture‘‘, Skopje, FYR Macedonia, 39-43.
[12]. Stojanoviš, S. (2004): Poljoprivredna fitopatologija. Srpsko biološko društvo,
Kragujevac, Serbia.
[13]. Stojanoviš, S., Staletiš, M., Milovanoviš, M., Pešiš, V. and S. Gudţiš. 2006. Otpornost
nekih genotipova pšenice prema prouzrokovaţima pepelnice, lisne rŤe i sive pegavosti
lišša. Zbornik radova sa XI Savetovanja o biotehnologiji, Ţaţak, Serbia. 11(11-12), 325330.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nebojsa.gudzic@pr.ac.rs
K. Nikoliš, Teaching Assistant, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: katerina.nikolic@pr.ac.rs
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisa.stojkovic@pr.ac.rs
54
EFFECT OF ROW SPACING ON SEED YIELD, YIELD COMPONENTS
AND SEED QUALITY OF ALFALFA
D. Bekoviš, R. Stanisavljeviš, V. Stevoviš, M. Biberdţiš, S. Stojkoviš and J. Kneţeviš
Abstract: Under agro-environmental conditions of Southern Serbia, research was conducted over a
three-year period to evaluate the effect of row spacing on seed yield, yield components and seed quality of
1
alfalfa cv. ’NS-Tisa’. The average seed yield of alfalfa was highest at a row spacing of 40 cm (276.3 kg ha- ),
1
1
followed by row spacings of 20 cm (258.9 kg ha- ) and 60 cm (240.6 kg ha- ).
The highest and lowest number of inflorescences per stem were obtained in rows spaced 60 cm
(13.43 inflorescences/stem) and 20 cm apart (8.58 inflorescences/stem), respectively. The widest row
spacing of 60 cm (7.36 pods/inflorescence) resulted in the highest number of pods per inflorescence,
whereas the lowest number was produced at 20 cm spacing (5.76 pods/inflorescence). Grain number per
pod ranged from 3.56 (at 20 cm row spacing) to 4.19 (at 60 cm).
The highest quality of alfalfa seed during the three years of research was obtained at the widest row
spacing (60 cm). Thousand-seed weight was highest at 60 cm and lowest at 20 cm (2.18 g and 2.08 g,
respectively). The highest average values for seed germination rate were reported for 60 cm row spacing
(90.50%) and the lowest for 20 cm row spacing (88.0%).
Key words: alfalfa, seed yield, row spacing, yield components, seed quality
INTRODUCTION
Seed production of alfalfa crop which is remarkable for its high genetic potential for
forage yield shows high yield variability depending on agroenvironmental conditions and
production method. Seed yield is largely affected not only by climatic factors but also by
row spacing i.e. optimum number of plants per unit area. Numerous studies have shown
that high yields and good quality of alfalfa seed are obtained by seeding alfalfa in wide
rows at low seeding rates (Marble, 1970; Eriš, 1988; Sowinski et al. 1996; Lukiš, 2000;
Stanisavljeviš, 2006). However, wide row spacings and low seeding rates do not always
ensure high seed yields compared to narrow row spacings of less than 25 cm and high
seeding rates used in roughage production (Stjepanoviš, 1982; Lovato and Montanari,
1991; Vuţkoviš, 1994; etc.). Seed quality of alfalfa is primarily governed by its biology, as
well as by other factors, external ones in particular. Sowing method and seeding rate
contribute to seed quality of alfalfa more than in other crops. There are high variations in
seed quality of alfalfa depending on the growth used for seed, sowing method, seeding
rate and production year. As a rule, sowing alfalfa at high row spacings leads to better
quality seed, with a higher thousand-seed weight and germination rate obtained
(Eriš,1988; Vuţkoviš, 1991; Berngardt, 1988; Vuţkoviš, 1994). Environmental conditions
have a significant effect on alfalfa seed quality; therefore, seed germination rate is
considerably lower in years that have higher rainfall amounts than in dry warm sunny
years (Vuţkoviš, 1991; Karagiš 2004).
Given the importance of high-quality alfalfa seed production, the objective of this
study was to evaluate the effect of row spacing and environmental conditions on yield,
yield components and seed quality of alfalfa under agroenvironmental conditions in the Niš
region, in an attempt to significantly contribute to improving the production of this forage
crop.
To achieve the objective of this study, experimental research was conducted at
Ledena Stena, in the Niš suburbs, over a period of three years. Alfalfa cv. ‘NS Tisa‘
developed at the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad, was used. The cultivar
is well adapted to low temperatures, drought and major diseases, yielding over 70 t ha-1
55
green forage or up to 18 t ha-1 hay under non-irrigated conditions. The average crude
protein content on a dry matter basis is about 18 %.
Alfalfa was planted in spring at three row spacings viz. 20 cm, 40 cm and 60 cm using
the seeding rate of 15 kg ha-1, 7.5 kg ha-1 and 5 kg ha-1, respectively. The soil used in the
study was alluvium. In the first year (year of stand establishment-A0), weather conditions
were favourable for uniform germination, sprouting and further development of alfalfa crop.
The second year of study (first year of alfalfa utilisation-A1) was characterised by high
rainfall amounts during the harvest period, which resulted in harvest difficulties and seed
yield losses. Alfalfa seed production was most favoured by the third experimental year
(second year of alfalfa utilisation-A2), characterised by hot dry summer.
Yield and yield components of alfalfa were evaluated using the first alfalfa growth in
the first year (A0), and the second growth in the second (A1) and third years (A2).
Alfalfa seed yield was determined at a stage when 70-80% of the pods turned brown.
Number of inflorescences per stem were identified upon sampling of 20 stems per
replication, and number of flowers per inflorescence and pods per inflorescence were
determined from a sample of 30 well developed inflorescences collected uniformly from
the top, middle and bottom portions of the stem in each replication. Seed number per pod
was calculated using 30 randomly selected pods in each replication.
Thousand-seed weight (g) was determined by counting out and weighing 4 sets of
100 seeds per treatment. Seed germination rate (%) was assessed under laboratory
germination in Petri dishes on filter paper at a temperature of 20oC by counting
germinating seeds after 10 days.
The results obtained were subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the
significance of differences between the values was analysed by the LSD test.
The three-year data show that the highest seed yield of alfalfa was obtained at a row
spacing of 40 cm (276.3 kgha-1), and the lowest at 60cm (240.6 kgha-1), whereas the 20
cm spacing resulted in 258.9 kg seeds ha-1 (tab. 1). When analysed across years, the
average yield in the stand establishment year (A0) was found to be satisfactory - 142.2
kgha-1. In the second year (A1), the average yield of 230.8 kgha-1 was consistent with the
national average, whereas the highest average seed yield (403.7 kgha-1) was produced in
the third year (A2). Similar results were reported by Eric (1988) who produced the highest
seed yield at 30 cm and 40 cm spacing (251.4 kg ha-1 and 221.2 kg ha-1, respectively), and
decreased seed yields with a further increase in row spacing to 50 cm (194.6 kg ha-1).
Askarian et al. (1995) showed that the highest seed yield was obtained by sowing the crop
at a spacing of 45 cm (177.0 kg ha-1), with seed yield decreasing as the row spacing
increased to 60 cm (149.0 kg ha-1) or decreased to 30 cm and 15 cm (166.0 kg ha-1 and
136.0 kg ha-1, respectively). Similarly, Stanisavljevic et al. (2007) reported that medium
plant density (343.6 kg ha-1) gave the highest yields, as opposed to high and low row
spacings that induce declining yields.
56
Tab. 1. Seed yield, inflorescences per stem, pods per inflorescence, grains per pod, 1000seed weight and shooting potential
Year
st
1 – A0
Row
spacing
Seed
-1
yield kgh
20 cm
40 cm
60 cm
161.43
139.80
122.45
141.23
17.78
23.65
218.52
246.75
227.21
230.83
21.15
28.13
396.78
442.25
372.02
403.68
26.33
35.02
258.91
276.27
240.56
average
LSD 0.05
0.01
nd
2 – A1
20 cm
40 cm
60 cm
average
LSD 0.05
0.01
rd
3 – A2
average
LSD 0.05
0.01
average
st rd
1 -3
20 cm
40 cm
60 cm
20 cm
40 cm
60 cm
Yield components
Inflor. per
Pods per
stem
inflorescence
7.64
9.01
9.35
9.02
0.56
0.75
9.65
15.64
16.81
14.03
1.18
1.57
8.46
13.32
14.13
11.97
0.94
1.25
8.58
12.66
13.43
4.89
6.15
5.65
5.56
0.32
0.42
5.65
7.20
7.60
6.82
0.34
0.46
6.75
8.67
8.84
8.37
0.55
0.73
5.76
7.34
7.36
Grains
per pod
2.97
3.75
3.86
3.53
0.19
0.25
3.55
3.95
4.22
3.91
0.25
0.33
4.15
4.35
4.50
4.33
0.29
0.38
3.56
4.02
4.19
Quality
components
1000Shooting
seed
potential
yield
2.15
91.75
2.21
93.75
2.22
94.50
2.19
93.33
0.038
1.56
0.050
2.07
2.08
90.00
2.16
93.50
2.22
93.00
2.14
92.17
0.036
1.44
0.048
1.90
2.02
82.25
2.07
83.50
2.09
84.00
2.06
80.50
0.030
1.66
0.039
2.21
2.08
88.00
2.15
90.25
2.18
90.50
The number of inflorescences per stem was highest at the widest row spacing (13.43
inflorescences/stem) and lowest at the 20 cm spacing (8.58 inflorescences/stem). In this
study, the second year gave the highest number of inflorescences per stem (14.03
inflorescences/stem), as opposed to the crop establishment year (A 0) yielding the lowest
number (9.02 inflorescences/stem), whereas 11.97 inflorescences per stem were reported
for the third year (Tab. 1).
Pod number per inflorescence ranged from 5.76 (20 cm row spacing) to 7.36 pods
per inflorescence (60 cm row spacing). In terms of years, the highest number of pods per
inflorescence was observed in the third year (8.37 pods/inflorescence), which was the
most favourable year for seed production, and the lowest in the first year (5.56
pods/inflorescence).
The 60 cm and 20 cm row spacings resulted in the highest and lowest number of
grains per pod (4.19 and 3.56 grains/pod, respectively). The highest number of grains per
pod (3.69 grains/pod) was produced in the third year, and the lowest – in the first year
(3.42 grains/pod). Karagic (2004) reported an average of 9.66 inflorescences per stem,
9.03 pods per inflorescence and 5.47 seeds per pod in the second and third years of
alfalfa growth. Ilic (2005) obtained 14.0 inflorescences per stem on average in 17
genotypes, whereas Djurovic et al. (2007) produced an average of 9.37 inflorescences per
stem, 7.31 pods per inflorescence and 5.53 grains per pod in 5 genotypes.
Thousand-seed weight is an important seed quality component indicating seed size
and seed fill. The highest average thousand-seed weight (2.18 g) was obtained at 60 cm,
and the lowest (2.08 g) at 20cm (tab. 1.). Thousand-seed weight was highest in the first
year (2.19 g) and lowest in the third year (2.06 g). The finding that wide row spacings
increase thousand-seed weight was confirmed by Eriš (1988), Lovato and Montanari
57
(1991), Vuţkoviš (1994), Askarian et al. (1995) etc. In terms of years, thousand-seed
weight ranged from 2.02 g (2003) to 2.10 g (2001), suggesting the effect of environmental
conditions during seed production.
The average seed germination rate was highest at a row spacing of 60 cm (90.5%)
and lowest at 20 cm (88.0%). The highest values were reported in the first year (93.3 %)
and the lowest in the third year (80.5%). Variation in seed germination due to
environmental conditions was also reported by Berngardt (1988), Kostiš (1996), Katiš et al.
(1999), Jevtiš (2001), Karagiš (2004) etc. Sowing method had an important effect during
the three-year period, resulting in an average seed germination rate of 89.1% at 60 cm,
declining to 86.4% due to narrowed row spacing (20 cm).
The three-year results of the present study suggest the following:
Row spacing had an important effect on seed yield, which ranged from 240.6 kgha -1
(60cm row spacing) to 276.3 kgha-1 (40cm row spacing). As regards years, seed yield
ranged from 141.2 kgha-1 in the crop establishment year to 403.7 kgha-1 in the third year.
Number of inflorescences per plant was highest at 60 cm (13.43) and lowest (8.58) at
20 cm.
The highest numbers of pods per inflorescence and grains per pod were obtained at
60 cm (7.36 and 4.19, respectively) and the lowest at 20 cm (5.76 and 3.56, respectively).
The average thousand-seed weight was highest at 60 cm (2.18 g), and lowest (2.08
g) at 20cm. Its values ranged from 2.06 g in the third year to 2.19 g in the stand
establishment year, depending on environmental conditions.
The average seed germination rate ranged from 93.3% in the first year to 80.5% in
the third year. At a row spacing of 60 cm, the average value for seed germination rate was
90.5%, whereas narrow row spacing (20 cm) induced a decline in seed germination rate to
88,0 %. This indicates an important effect of row spacing on seed germination rate.
REFERENCES
[1]. Ascarian M., Hempton J.G., Hill M. J. (1995): Effect of row spacing and sowing rate
on seed production of lucerne ( Medicago sativa L.) cv Grasslands Oranga. New Zealand
Journal of Agricultural Research, 38: 289-296.
[2]. Bolanos -Aguilar E.D., Huyghe C., Djukic D., Julier B., Ecalle C. (2001): Genetic
control of alfalfa seed yield and its components. Plant breeding, 120: 66-72.
[3]. Djurovic D., Stevovic V., Dukic D., Petkova D. , Madic M. (2007): Prinos i
komponente prinosa semena genotipova lucerke. XI Simpozijum o krmnom bilju Republike
Srbije. Zbornik radova – Institut za ratarsvo i povrtarstvo Novi Sad,
[4]. 44 (1): 151-157.
[5]. Eric P. (1988): Uticaj nacina i gustine setve na prinos i kvalitet semena lucerke
(Medicago sativa (L) em Wass.) sorte ―NS Banat ZMS II‖ na zemljištu tipa cernozem.
Doktorska disertacija, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sad.
[6]. Ilic O. (2005): Geneticka varijabilnost fertilnosti lucerke u uslovima slobodne oplodnje.
Magistarska teza, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Novi Sa
[7]. Hasquet J. (1990): Genetic variability and climatic factors affecting lucerne seed
production. J. Appl. Seed Prod. 8: 59-67.
[8]. Karagic D. (2004): Komponente prinosa, prinos i kvalitet semena u zavisnosti od
sistema kosidbe. Doktorska disertacija, Poljoprivredni fakultet Novi Sad.
58
[9]. Karagic D., Katic S., Vasiljevic S . , Milic D. (2007): Semenarstvo lucerke u Vojvodini.
XI Simpozijum o krmnom bilju Republike Srbije. Zbornik radova – Institut za ratarsvo i
povrtarstvo Novi Sad, 44(1): 87-98.
[10]. Lovato A., Montanari M. (1991): Influence of Row Spacing and Sowing Rates on
Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) Seed Production. Rivista di agronomia, Bologna 25 (4):78-81
[11]. Lukic D. (2000): Lucerka. Naucni institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, Novi Sad.
[12]. Marble V.L. (1989): Fodders for the Eas, Alfalfa. FAO Plant Production and
Protection, 97-98.
[13]. Sowinski J., Gospodarszyk F., Nowak W. (1996): The yield of Lucerne (Medicago
media) seeds depending on sowing density and method of growing. VIII jugoslovenski
simpozijum o krmnom bilju, “Zbornik radova‖, 26: 167-171.
[14]. Stanisavljevic R. (2006): Uticaj gustine useva na prinos i kvalitet krme i semena
lucerke ( Medicago sativa L.). Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni fakultet, Univerzitet u
Novom Sadu
[15]. Stanisavljevic R., Djukic D., Milenkovic J . , Jevtic G., Bekovic D., Terzic D.( 2007):
Prinos i komponente prinosa semena u zavisnosti od gustine useva. XI Simpozijum o
krmnom bilju Republike Srbije. Zbornik radova – Institut zaratarsvo i povrtarstvo Novi Sad,
44(1): 107-114.
[16]. Vuckovic S. (1994): Uticaj nacina setve i dubrenja borom i cinkom na prinos i kvalitet
semena. Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni fakultet Beograd.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
D. Bekovic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak, Kopaonicka
bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: dragoljub_bekovic@yahoo.com
R. Stanisavljevic, Forage Research Institute – Krusevac, Trg Kosturnice 50, 37000
Krusevac, Serbia, E-mail: rade.stanisavljevic@ikbks.com
V. Stevovic, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Agronomy – Cacak, Cara Dusana
34, 32000 Cacak, Serbia, E-mail: vladeta@tfc.kg.ac.rs
M. Biberdzic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,
Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: mbiberdzic@gmail.com
S. Stojkovic, University of Pristina,
Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,
Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisass@gmail.com
Jasmina Knezevic, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina – Lesak,
Kopaonicka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: jasmina.kneska@gmail.com
59
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND GROWTH PERIOD OF DONOR
PLANTS ON PEPPER ANTHER CULTURE
S. Grozeva, V. Todorova, T. Cholakov, and V. Rodeva
Abstract: The influence of temperature and growth period of donor plants on anther culture in nine
pepper hybrids and varieties was studied. Frequency of embryo formation and plant regeneration varied with
genotype and period of culture initiation. The most effective androgenic answer was registered in September
when the optimal temperature for embryo induction was between 17.5-22.2ºС. In these conditions the
formed embryos were 52.9% of the total cultivated anthers and the obtained plant-regenerants – 50.6%. The
experimental results indicate that combination of factors as culture media, donor plant age and growing air
temperature can improve androgenic answer in different pepper genotypes. Slightly variation of daily
temperature also is a factor improving microspore embryogenesis in anther culture.
Key words: Capsicum annuum L., Androgenesis, Temperature, Genotype.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, interest in obtaining of haploid and doubled haploid plants via
anther and microspore culture are increased because of their potential for rapid
development of desired germplasm [1]. Pepper is one of the vegetable crops where
effectiveness of embryo induction and plants regeneration is still low [2]. The identification
of amenable genotypes is a main factor for successful anther culture [3; 4]. The ability of
plants to switch their development from gametophyte- to sporophyte-type and to produce
androgenic embryos with microspore origin is a genetically controlling process and
depends of many genes [5; 6]. Nevertheless, a number of factors influenced the frequency
of androgenesis as growing conditions and donor plant age, microspore development
stage, nutrient media, in vitro conditions, etc. [7; 8; 9].
Growing conditions in a process of donor plants cultivation especially air temperature
significantly affected androgenic response in different pepper genotypes. Some authors
determined 26.4ºC as optimal temperature for growing of donor plants [10], while other
established that lower temperature between 15-20ºC in the months of September and
October improved in vitro answer [11]. The highest yields of embryos Taskin et al. [12]
obtained from anthers cultivated during the period of April to May. Authors reported that
embryo development depended not only from genotype and culture media, but also from
cultivation period of donor plants.
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of air temperature and growth
period of donor plants on microspore embryogenesis in pepper.
The experimental work was carried out in non heated greenhouse conditions during
the period from June to October in 2011 and 2012 with nine pepper genotypes (C. annuum
L.). Anthers containing microspores in late uninucleate stage were collected from flower
buds sterilized for 20 min in 5% calcium hypochlorite solution and rinsed with sterile dH 2O.
Two variants of culture medium were used: 17-2 containing micro- and macrosalts [13],
vitamins [14], 0.1 mgL-1 2.4-Dichlorphnoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), 0.1 mgL-1 Kinetin, 0.005
mgL-1 Biotin, 0.1mgl-1 Glycine, 0.04mgL-1 Vitamin В12, 30 gL-1 Sucrose and 0.7% agar,
and 17-3 different only by 0.3 mgL-1 2.4-D. The cultivated anthers were treated in darkness
with 35±1°С for the first 8 days and later (at 12th days) were incubated on the same
medium without growth regulators in the condition of growth chamber. Androgenic
potential was defined as embryo formation frequency (% from total cultivated anthers) and
60
plantlet formation frequency (% from total cultivated anthers). Data were analyzed by twoway analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Data related to influence of donor plants growth period on embryogenesis in pepper
anther culture are presented in Fig. 1a. Androgenic answer was observed in all studied
periods. The highest value of embryo formation was registered in explants cultivated in
September (7.22%) and the lowest in October (1.68%). Plantlet formation frequency had
also the highest value in September (0.68%), while in the other months varied from 0.19%
(July) to 0.47% (October). This tendency was maintained during the both experimental
years, but the better results were registered in 2011 (Fig. 1b). The statistically analyzed
data indicated that in the pepper anther culture the influence of the month of anthers
cultivation dominated over the effect of year (Table 1).
months
0,47 1,68
October
0,68
Seprember
months
Plant formation frequency
Embryo formation frequency
7,22
Plant formation frequency 2012
0,16
October
Seprember
1,25
0,75
2,05
0,31
2,70
0,79
Embryo formation frequency 2012
Plant formation frequency 2011
Embryo formation frequency 2011
8,69
0,00
August
0,26
3,29
August
1,69
0,31
3,62
0,09
July
0,19
3,62
2,24
July
0,44
4,25
0,13
June
0,37
3,18
June
2,12
0,84
5,26
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
a. average for a both year
8,00
0,00
%
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
%
b. for each experimental years
Fig. 1. Effect of donor plants growth period on effectiveness of pepper anther culture
Table 1.
Results of two-way analysis of variance for embryogenic answer depending on month
(Factor A) and experimental year (Factor B) of anthers cultivation
Source of variation
Month
Year
AxB
Error
Relative effect size (% of total variance)
51.11***
24.96***
21.41***
2.52
The observed differences in androgenic reaction in 2011 and 2012 were probably
due to the influence of climatic conditions on donor plants growth. In both experimental
years optimal temperature for anther development was measured in September – 17.522.2ºС (Fig. 2). In the period from June to August the temperature were higher compared
to September and October, with the maximum values in July (24.7 and 27.0ºС,
respectively). Better embryogenesis observed in 2011 may be due to the lower average
month temperature in this vegetation period. Between both years and among studied
months the differences in average month temperature varied from 0.8ºС (September) to
5ºС (October). The changes in month temperature amplitude in June and September were
much constant than in the period of July and August.
Slight variation in average daily temperatures in each month was registered in 2011
(Fig. 3). This is a possible reason for induction of embryogenesis with higher frequency.
The positive effect of season and lower temperature of donor plants growth on
effectiveness of embryogenesis in pepper anther culture was established by some authors
61
[11; 12]. Kristiansen and Andersen [10] pointed out that the optimal temperature for
androgenesis is 26.4ºC, but significant declined embryogenic capacity of microspore with
increasing of donor plants age. On the other hand Ercan at al. [15] obtained the highest
embryo yield from 4-month-old plants in each season. The authors supposed that the
anthers collected from older plants have significant androgenic response when the optimal
developmental stage was selected. The higher embryo induction observed in this study in
September probably due to the suitable air temperature as well as the lower variation of
daily temperature in this period.
ºС
30,0
Temperature
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
June
July
August
September
October
2011
Months
2012
Fig. 2. Average month temperature in the vegetation period of 2011 and 2012
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
І
ІІ
June
ІІІ
2011
І
ІІ
July
2012
ºС
25,0
ІІІ
2011
ºС
28,0
27,0
26,0
25,0
24,0
23,0
22,0
21,0
І
2012
ІІ
August
ІІІ
2011
2012
ºС
20,0
20,0
Temperature
Temperature
ºС
28,0
27,0
26,0
25,0
24,0
23,0
22,0
21,0
Temperature
25,0
Temperature
Temperature
ºС
30,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
15,0
Fig. 3. Variation of average
daily temperature
10,0
5,0
0,0
І
ІІ
September
ІІІ
2011
І
2012
ІІ
October
ІІІ
2011
2012
Significant differences among studied genotypes in androgenic answer and number
of normal developed plants were found, but the highest values were registered in
September in both variants of induction medium (Table 2). Only in anthers of varieties
Kurtovska kapiya 1619 and Kurtovska kapiya 1300 the higher regeneration frequency was
obtained on variant 17-3 in October and June respectively. In variant 17-2 the higher value
of formed embryo and plant-regenerants was registered in August and September, while in
variant 17-3 – in June, July and October. In addition, regardless of the medium
composition in September was formed 52.9% of total embryogenic structures and 50.6%
of the plant-regenerants.
The genotype of the donor plants takes an important role in determining of frequency
of embryogenesis in pepper anther culture but the combination of factors as culture media,
donor plant growing temperature can improve androgenic answer. As a results of this work
there were established that androgenic reaction was more effective in September when
62
optimal temperature for embryo induction was between 17.5-22.2ºС. In these conditions
was formed 52.9% of total embryoids and 50.6% of the obtained regenerants.
REFERENCES
[1]. Ferry, A.M.R. and K.L. Caswell. 2011. Isolated microspore culture techniques and
resent progress for haploid and doubled haploid plant production. Plant Cell Tiss. Organ
Cult., 104, 301-309.
[2]. Supena E. and J. Custers. 2011. Refinement of shed-microspore culture protocol to
increase normal embryos production in hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Sci. Hortic.,
130, 769-774.
[3]. Mityko, J., et al. 1995. Anther culture response in different genotypes and F1 hybrids of
pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Plant Breed., 114, 78-80.
[4]. Grozeva, S., et al. 2009. Obtaining of pepper plants via anther culture. Genetics and
Breeding, BG, 38(3-4), 25-31.
[5]. Lee, Y., et al. 2009. A novel stress-related gene in developing pepper anthers. Russian
J. Plant Physiol., 56(6), 654-662.
[6]. Irikova, T., et al. 2012. Identification of BABY BOOM and LEAFY COTYLEDON genes
in sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) genome by their partian gene sequences. Plant
Growth Regul., 67(2), 191-198.
[7]. Koleva-Gudeva, L., et al. 2007. Somatic embryogenesis in pepper anther culture: the
effect of incubation treatments and different media. Sci. Hortic., 111, 114-119.
[8]. Niklas-Nowak, A., et al. 2012. Study of individual plant responsiveness in anther
cultures of selected pepper (Capsicum spp.) genotypes. Folia Hort., 24(2), 141-146.
[9]. Parra-Vega, V., et al. 2013a. Stress treatments and in vitro culture conditions influence
microspore embryogenesis and growth of callus from anther walls of sweet pepper
(Capsicum annuum L.). Plant Cell Tiss Organ Cult., 112, 353-360.
[10]. Kristiansen, K. and S.B. Andersen. 1993. Effects of donor plant temperature,
photoperiod, and age on anther culture response of C. annuum L. Euphytica, 67, 105-109.
[11]. Matsubara, S., et al. 1998. Embryoid and callus formation from microspores by anther
culture from July to November in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Scientific Reports of the
Faculty of Agriculture, Okayama University, N 87, 117-122.
[12]. Taskin H., et al. 2011. Induction of microspore-derived embryos by anther culture in
selected pepper genotypes. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 10, 17116-17121.
[13]. Murashige, S. and F. Skoog. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays
with tabacco tisuee cultures. Phisiol. Plant., 15, 473-497.
[14]. Gamborg, O. L., et al. 1968. Nutrient requirements of suspension cultures of soybean
root cells. Experimental Cell Research, 50, 148-151.
[15]. Ercan, N., et al. 2006. Influence of growing season and donor plant age on anther
culture response of same pepper cultivars (Capsicum annuum L.). Sci. Hortic., 110, 16-20.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Grozeva, Maritsa Vegetable Crops Research Institute, 32 Brezovsko shosse Str.,
4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria, E-mail: stanislava_grozeva@abv.bg
V. Todorova, Maritsa Vegetable Crops Research Institute, 32 Brezovsko shosse Str.,
4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria, E-mail: todorova_vili@abv.bg
T. Cholakov, Maritsa Vegetable Crops Research Institute, 32 Brezovsko shosse Str.,
4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria, E-mail: tenizk@mail.bg
V. Rodeva, Maritsa Vegetable Crops Research Institute, 32 Brezovsko shosse Str.,
4003 Plovdiv, Bulgaria, E-mail: velirod@yahoo.com
63
Table 2.
Influence of genotype and growth conditions of donor plants on microspore
embryogenesis in pepper anther culture
Culture media
Genotype
June
533/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1619
540/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya UV
586/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1
1063/10
Stryama
total
July
533/09 F1
540/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya UV
586/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1
1063/10
Stryama
total
August
533/09 F1
540/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya UV
586/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1
1063/10
Stryama
total
September 533/09 F1
540/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya UV
586/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1
1063/10
Stryama
total
October
533/09 F1
540/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya UV
586/09 F1
Kurtovska kapiya 1
1063/10
Stryama
total
17-2
Fomented
embryos
Obtained
plants
Cultivated
anthers
number
No.
%
No.
202
264
230
124
298
262
149
123
96
1748
127
255
207
155
184
278
249
139
221
1815
156
146
234
247
356
339
200
253
342
2273
240
535
592
389
485
256
210
338
338
3383
77
300
306
124
270
81
102
164
52
1476
0
0
0
1
3
5
1
0
30
40
0
2
0
2
0
0
27
0
21
52
0
1
2
0
4
13
4
2
94
120
1
10
6
70
20
70
10
5
112
304
0
0
7
3
5
0
0
3
0
18
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.81
1.01
1.91
0.67
0.00
31.25
2.29
0.00
0.78
0.00
1.29
0.00
0.00
10.84
0.00
9.50
2.87
0.00
0.68
0.85
0.00
1.12
3.83
2.00
0.79
27.49
5.28
0.42
1.87
1.01
17.99
4.12
27.34
4.76
1.48
33.14
8.99
0.00
0.00
2.29
2.42
1.85
0.00
0.00
1.83
0.00
1.22
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
10
0
4
0
0
0
9
1
2
15
31
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
3
64
17-3
Fomented
embryos
Obtained
plants
%
Cultivated
anthers
number
No.
%
No.
%
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.38
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.06
0.00
0.39
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.90
0.16
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.39
2.63
0.44
0.00
0.75
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.51
0.48
0.59
4.44
0.92
0.00
0.00
0.33
0.00
0.74
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.20
113
252
197
213
238
298
186
101
208
1806
129
132
233
245
221
363
209
95
235
1862
140
362
228
161
147
143
49
227
126
1583
189
373
485
311
517
371
263
396
219
3124
116
252
318
42
246
75
74
126
20
1269
0
0
0
0
2
8
0
0
63
73
0
0
0
3
2
7
0
0
69
81
0
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
8
1
45
1
2
3
10
4
92
166
1
1
16
0
5
0
5
0
0
28
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.84
2.68
0.00
0.00
30.29
4.04
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.22
0.90
1.93
0.00
0.00
29.36
4.35
0.00
1.66
0.44
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.44
4.23
0.27
9.28
0.32
0.39
0.81
3.80
1.01
42.01
5.31
0.86
0.40
5.03
0.00
2.03
0.00
6.76
0.00
0.00
2.21
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
10
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
4
0
1
0
0
0
5
13
0
0
9
0
1
0
0
0
0
10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.42
0.33
0.00
0.00
4.81
0.66
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.70
0.21
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.59
0.00
0.82
0.00
0.19
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.28
0.42
0.00
0.00
2.83
0.00
0.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.79
ORGANIC ACIDS IN THE NUTRITION OF BROILERS
Zvonimir Steiner, Regina Joviš, Matija Domašinoviš, Đuro Senţiš, Ivana Klariš,
Danijela Samac, Natalija Steiner
Abstract: Since 2006 the EU banned the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in diets for feeding
animals used for human consumption. One of the possible replacements of antibiotics is organic acids. They
have the role of optimizing the activity of enzymes digestion, relieving the metabolism and thus improve the
health, utilization of protein and amino acids, and improved availability of minerals and trace elements. The
study was conducted on three groups of broiler Coob. The control group was fed with feed mixtures without
added organic acids. The first experimental group is given a combination of formic, propionic, lactic, citric
and sorbic acids concentration of 0.4% in the feed mixture, while the second experimental group had the
concentration 0.8 % of same combination of organic acids. It was monitored daily gain, feed intake, and
health broiler of second week until the end of fattening. Statistically significant difference between groups
was not observed.
Key words:
broiler, breeding, organic acids, weight gain, feed conversion
INTRODUCTION
In recent years increased the number of studies to find alternatives to antibiotics.
Since 2006 the EU banned the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in diets for feeding
animals used for human consumption. The primary problem of excessive use of antibiotics
is increasing the resistance of the same in case of illness caused by bacteria [14,4]. One
of the possible replacements of antibiotics is organic acids. Acid used as a supplement in
feeding poultry. They have the role of optimizing the activity of enzymes digestion,
relieving the metabolism and thus improve the health; control of salmonella enteritis
[11,13], utilization of protein and amino acids [3,5,12], and improved availability of
minerals and trace elements.
The experiment was carried out cocoa to determine the effect of certain
concentrations of organic acids on health and performance of broilers.
MATRIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted on 150 broilers Coob. They were divided into three groups:
control and two experimental. After an individual weighing and marking, the chickens are
placed in boxes, the litter of sawdust. Feeding and watering chickens during the
experiment was at will. Microclimate conditions (light, temperature and airflow) are
automatically controlled according to known technological parameters.
Feed consisted of a combination of corn and supplemental mixture at 40% crude
protein. From first to the fifteenth day are fed on fodder mixture at 21% crude protein. After
that, the protein levels decreased (20.8% of 15-21 days, 20.3% from 21-29 days, 19.9 2938 days from the end of the level of crude protein was 18.3%). The control group (C) was
fed with feed mixtures without added organic acids. Experimental group 1 is given a
combination of formic, propionic, lactic, citric and sorbic acids concentration of 0.4% in the
feed mixture, while the experimental group 2 had the concentration 0.8 % of same
combination of organic acids.
During the experiment, the production indicators, followed by a body weight of
individual chicks weighed every 7 days, while also covering the same period (7 days)
control and consumption of food. On this basis, calculate the average daily gain, average
daily feed intake and conversion (kg / kg) of food per week and total fattening. Health
65
condition of experimental chicks was under constant supervision of the veterinary service.
The research results were processed according to LSD test system software Statistica
(2008).
Table 1. Body weight of the second week until the end of the experiment
Periods
of
breeding
2. week
3. week
4. week
5. week
6. week
Control
Std. dev.
Body weight,
g
448.54
53.47
853.44
110.47
1229.22
159.72
1835.62
259.38
2475.66
342.33
Experimental group 1
Std. dev.
Body weight,
g
454.14
54.53
852.04
89.07
1247.74
147.32
1846.92
210.03
2460.00
276.89
Experimental group
2
Std. dev.
Body weight,
g
449.04
50.99
852.20
83.04
1257.00
153.99
1821.38
244.81
2443.18
315.39
The control group had the lowest average body weight (448.54 g) in the second week
of fattening, although values were very consistent between the groups. By the end of
fattening control group had slightly higher average body mass (2476: 2460, 2443 g) with a
slightly higher standard deviation. Looking for weeks, statistically significant differences
between body weights between groups was not observed. Standard deviation is also not
differ in any group. These results are in agreement with those of [2,4,6,10], who reported
that supplementation of an organic acid did not have any effect on weight gain and feed
conversion ratio. The similar results were also found by [7], who observed that the addition
0.2% and 0.4% butyric acid had no effect on body weight or weight gain in either starter or
grower/finisher periods. However, the results on the beneficial effect of some organic acid
on weight gain and FCR were reported by other researchers [1,8].
Table 2. Amount spent per kg feed per kg gain
Periods
of
breeding
Control
kg/kg
Experimental
group 1 kg/kg
Experimental
group 2 kg/kg
1-3 week
1.66
1.77
1.71
3-6 week
2.56
2.68
2.75
1-6 week
1.95
2.01
2.04
Consumption kg of feed per kilogram of gain in the first three weeks was the lowest in
the control group (1.66 kg / kg), compared to the experimental group 1 (1.77 kg / kg) and
experimental group 2 (1.71 kg / kg). From the third to sixth week, the highest feed
consumption per kg gain was in the experimental group 2 (2.75 kg / kg) and lowest in the
control group (2.58 kg / kg). Overall, from first to sixth week food consumption was lowest
in the control group (1.95) and increased as the increasing concentration of organic acid
(2:01 to 2:04). There are some reports [2] that increasing levels of propionic acid
depressed feed intake, weight gain and increased mortality.
66
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the addition of organic acids did not lead to improvements in the overall
gain nor food consumption per kilogram of gain.
REFERENCES
[1].
Antongiovanni, M., Buccioni, A., Petacchi, F., Leeson, S., Minieri, S., Martini, A. and
Cecchi, R. (2007): Butyric acid glycerides in the diet of broiler chickens: effects on
gut histology and carcass composition. Italian Journal of animal Science 6: 19-25.
[2].
Cave, N.A.G. (1984): Effect of dietary propionic acids on feed intake in chicks.
Poultry Science 63: 131-134.
[3].
Dibner, J.J. and Buttin, P. (2002): Use of organic acids as a model to study the
impact of gut microflora on nutrition and metabolism. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 11:453 463.
[4].
Gunal, M., Yayli, G., Kaya, O., Karahan, N. and Sulak, O. (2006): The effects of
antibiotic growth promoter, probiotic or organic acid supplementation on performance,
intestinal microflora and tissue of broilers. International Journal of Poultry Science 5 (2):
149-155.
[5].
Hansen, C.F., Riis, A.L., Bresson, S., Hojbjerg, O. and Jensen, B.B. (2007):
Feeding organic acids enhances the barrier function against pathogenic bacteria of the
piglet stomach. Livestock Science 108:206-209.
[6].
Izat, A.L., Tidwell, N.M., Thomas, R.A., Reiber, M.A., Adams, M.H., Colberg, M. and
Waldroup, P.W. (1990): Effects of a buffered propionic acid in diets on the performance of
broiler chickens and on microflora of intestine and carcass. Poultry Science 69: 818-826.
[7].
Leeson, S., Namkung, H., Antongiovanni, M. and Lee, E.H. (2005): Effect of butyric
acid on the performance and carcass yield of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 84:14181422.
[8].
Runho, R.C., Sakomura, N.K., Kuana, S., Banzatto, D., Junoqueria, O.M. and
Stringhini, J.H (1997): Uso do acido organico (acido fumarico) nas racoes de frangos de
corte. Revista Brasileira de zootecnia 26: 1183-1191.Statistical Analysis System (SAS),
2001. User‘s Guide: Statistics SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina.
[9].
Statistica-Stat Soft, Inc. version 8.0, 2008, www.statsoft.com
[10].
Vale, M.M., Menten, J.M.F., Morais, S.C.D. and Brainer, M.M.A. (2004):
Mixture of formic and propionic acid as additives in broiler feeds. Scientia Agricola
Piracicaba 61: 371-375.
[11].
Van ImmerseeL, F., De Buck, J., De Smet, I., Mast, J., Haesebrouck, F. and
Ducatelle,R. (2002): Dynamics of immune cell infiltration in the cecal lamina propria of
chickens after neonatal infection with a Salmonella enteritidis strain. Dev. Comp. Immunol.
26:355–364.
[12].
Van Immerseel, F., Fievez, V., Debuck, J., Pasmans, F., Martel, A., Haesebrouck,
F. and Ducatelle, R. (2004): Microencapsulated short-chain fatty acids in fee
modify
colonization and invasion early after infection with Salmonella
enteritidis in young
chickens. Poultry Science 83:69-74.
[13].
Van Immerseel, F., Boyen, F., Gantois, I., Timbermont, L., Bohez, L., Pasmans,
F., Haesebrouck, F. and Ducatelle, R. (2005): Supplementation of coated butyric acid in
the feed reduces colonization and shedding of Salmonella in poultry.Poultry Science 84:
1851- 1856.
[14].
Yang, Y., Iji, P.A. and Choct, M. (2009): Dietary modulation of gut microflora in
broiler chickens: a review of the role of six kinds of alternatives to in-feed antibiotics.
World‘s Poultry Science Association 65:97-114.
67
Acknowleddgements
Data used in this paper from the thesis Regina Joviš
About the autors
PhD. Zvonimir Steiner, associate professor , Department of Animal Science, Faculty
of Agriculture, University of J.J.Strossmayer, K.P.Svaţiša 1d.E mail: zsteiner@pfos.hr
Joviš Regina student, Faculty of Agriculture, University of J.J.Strossmayer, K. P.
Svaţiša 1d.
PhD. Matija Domašinoviš full proffessor, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of J.J.Strossmayer, K. P. Svaţiša 1d.
PhD. Đuro Senţiš, full professor Department of Animal Science, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of J.J.Strossmayer, K. P. Svaţiša 1d.
BSc Klariš Ivana Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
J.J.Strossmayer, K. P. Svaţiša 1d.
BSc Samac Danijela Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University
of J.J.Strossmayer, K. P. Svaţiša 1d.
BSc Natalija Steiner – research technician, Department of Plant production, Faculty
of Agriculture, University of J.J.Strossmayer, K. P. Svaţiša 1d
68
EFFECT OF SOME CHEMOTHERAPIES ON POTATO VIRUS Y AND X
INFECTED Solanum tuberosum L. PLANTLETS (cv. ROCLAS)
Carmen Liliana BĂDĂRĂU, Nicoleta CHIRU, Ionela Cătălina GUŢĂ
Abstract. The purpose of this study is to decrease the PVY (potato virus Y) and PVX (potato virus X)
infection level, using antiviral compounds (ribavirin and oseltamivir) in the tissue culture and several
treatments (Satureja hortensis essential oils, H2O2) applied to microplants acclimatisated in green house.
-1
-1
Chemotherapy was undertaken with ribavirin (RBV) and oseltamivir (OSMV) (RBV 40 mg l +OSMV 40mg l
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
; RBV 20mg l + OSMV 40 mg l ; RBV 20mg l + OSMV 80mg l ). The first variant (RBV40mg l +
-1
OSMV40mg l added to the tissue culture medium + essential oils treatments of acclimatisated plants)
showed the highest rate of virus eradication.
Keywords: Satureja Hortensis essential oil, potato virus Y, potato virus X, Ribavirin, Oseltamivir
INTRODUCTION
Being one of the most widely distributed crop in the world, potato (Solanum
tuberosum L.) provide an important food for many people. Potato production is affected by
different pathogens such as: bacteria, fungi and viruses. Viral infected plants characterized
by a decrease in vigor, productivity and resistance to other pathogens [5]. One of the most
dangerous viruses for the potato crop is potato Virus Y (PVY) - the type species of the
genus Potyvirus, in the family Potyviridae [5]. High PVY level can cause stand loss,
reduced yields, undersized tubers and reduced quality. Yield decrease resulting from PVY
was found to range from 14 - 88% [15,1], while De Bokx and Huttinga (1981) [5] pointed
out that PVY reduced yield by 10-80% depending on the virus strain, potato cultivar and
inoculation time. Seed tuber quality is an extremely important factor for potato yield,
because it is a vegetative-propagated plant and viral disease agents are transmitted
through the tubers. Continuous introductions of the viruses through imported seeds, very
high virulence of this virus, and recurrent occurrence of the carrier/vector of some these
viruses are the main impediments in directly controlling viral infections [1]. Thus, efforts to
control PVY are essential when producing potatoes for market or seed.
The most difficult virus to eradicate is PVX [5], wich due to its small sizes can traffic
cell to cell even trough branched plasmodesmata to the meristemal cells and was found
even in the meristemal tip in the stem cells [8]. In presence of PVY the potato virus X
becomes more aggressive and can traffic till the apical meristems [5]. A viable method for
obtaining virus-free stocks from materials that provide from infected plants is viral
eradication by using tissue culture techniques, aided by chemotherapies [15]. Klein and
Livingston (1983) [9] described that, Potato Virus X (PVX) and Potato Virus Y (PVY) were
eliminated by meristem tip culture and chemotherapy using Ribavirin or Virazole (1-β-Dribofurasonyl-1,2,4 triazone-3-carboxamide), but the time required for tips regeneration
was longer than the untreated controls. Ribavirin is a synthetic analogue of guanosine,
specifically developed as an antiviral chemical [16].
Using treatments with Satureja hortensis essential oils and H2O2 is another potential
method for obtaining virus free material. The essential oils from Satureja hortensis L.
(summer savory – Family Lamiaceae, order Lamiales) are known for its antiseptic
(antifungal and antiviral) properties [2]. Maybe some compounds ot these oils could be
implicated in the processus signaling against stress, in infected potato plants [1,2]. Plant
cells have defensive responses to pathogen attack associated with changes in oxidative
metabolism [7]. H2O2 is believed to play two distinct roles in pathogenesis: one involves
the oxidative burst in the hypersensitive response, which restricts pathogen growth [14,11]
69
and the other activates plant defense responses (induction of phytoalexins, second
messengers - mediating the acquisition of tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses and
providing information about changes in the external environment) or signaling
intermediates and antioxidant enzymes [14].
This research started because high yielding commercial varieties shown durable
resistance against potato viruses (especially for PVY) in Romania are not available. The
study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of different therapies and treatments for PVY and
PVX elimination in potato plants and find out the best one for virus eradication.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant material. Solanum tuberosum L. microplants cv. Roclas, tested virus free, were
obtained from the Biotechnology Department of National Institute of Research and
Development for Potato and Sugar Beet Brasov. Single node cuttings were propagated in
test tubes on Murashige and Skoog [13] medium at 20±1°C under a 16 h photoperiod
(fluorescent lights, 400–700 nm). The microplants were transferred to greenhouse
conditions 30 days after the single-node subculture step. For obtaining positive material, a
part of these plants were mechanically inoculated [1] using:
- PVY secondary infected plants from Record variety (isolate 1, PVY o) and from
Ackersegen cv. (isolate 2, PVYN); the symbols used were RY1 and RY2
- PVX secondary infected plants from Ostara cv. (isolate 1) and Bintje cv. (isolate 2); the
symbols used were RX1 and RX2
Plants were indexed to confirm the occurrence of single infection by PVY or by PVX
in the selected material. Tissue samples from healthy and infected mother plants growing
in the greenhouse were used as negative and positive control. Stem segments excised
from infected potato plants were transferred in Murashige & Shoog medium. After 4
weeks, single nod cuttings (1 cm length) were excised and transferred in medium with or
without antiviral compounds.
Chemotherapy was undertaken with ribavirin (RBV) and oseltamivir (OSMV) in the
following variants: V1= RBV 40 mg l-1 + OSMV 40mg l-1 ; V2 = RBV 20mg l-1 + OSMV
40 mg l-1; V3 = RBV 20mg l-1 + OSMV 80mg l-1.
Acclimatization, treatments with essential oils + H2O2
Solanum tuberosum L. microplants submitted to chemotherapy, regenerated with
roots and a well developed aerial part (5-7 leaflets), were removed from the culture
medium and were acclimated in pots containing a sterilized mixture of soil, vermiculite and
organic matter (2:2:1) and kept under a transparent cover, for a week. After 7 days for
beginning the acclimatisation, the plants (excepting the controls) were sprayed twice a
week with a Satureja hortensis essential oils suspension (1/100, 100l each plant) and
weekly with H2O2 (1mM pH 5.6) [1]. Untreated controls were sprayed with distilled water.
The survivor plants were indexed after 21 days.
The parameters studied were % survival of plantlets after treatments; % virus
elimination which was determined by DAS-ELISA test (protocol according to Clark and
Adams,1977) [3] and therapy efficiency according to Lozoya-Saldaná et al. (1996) [12].
PVY and PVX infected plants used for obtaining microplants are presented in figure
1. The material inoculated, found as positiv using DAS ELISA technique was used like
mother plants. The absorbances at 405nm of infected mother plants used for tissue culture
and the number of plantlets obtained from this material are presented in table 1.
70
In the aime to evaluate the effect of antiviral chemicals, ribavirin and oseltamivir was
used and the presence of virus was detected with DAS-ELISA test. The variant 1 (40 mg L1
ribavirin and 40 mg L-1 oseltamivir) was the best in elimination of PVX from all replicates
(both for RX1 and RX2). As shown in table 2, in the first variant about of 78.57% and
100% were PVX-free. These percentages were decreased to 33.34 and 31.25% in variant
2 (medium with 20 mg L-1 ribavirin and 40 mg L-1 oseltamivir). Results showed by Sabry et.
al. (2009) [15] indicated that addition of ribavirin (RBV) to the growth medium allowed
satisfactory PVY elimination. The efficiency of RBV in the plant viruses elimination
depends on the concentration used, host plant and type of infected tissue [14].
Plantlets
variant RY2
infected
(identified
by ELISA
technique)
used for
tissue
culture
RY 2
RY 1
Figure 1. Plants (cv. Roclas) inoculated, inoculation sources and symptoms on the
leaves.
This substance has a broad spectrum of action against DNA or RNA viruses infecting
man, animals and plants [15]. In vitro culture and application of antiviral agents such as
ribavirin (RBV); 5-azacitidina (5-AZA) and 3-deazauridine (3-DZD), have been successfully
utilized in experiments involving potato cultivars toward the elimination of PVX, PVY,
PLRV [10].
Table 1. Number plants replicated using stem segments of the mother plants and
absorbance values of the mother plants used for replication.
Variant
ID/No plantlets
first/sec/third
replication
DO 405nm
(mother plant)
Variant
RX1
ID/No plantlets
first/sec/third
replication
DO 405nm
(mother
plant)
1/4/16/40
0.298
RY1
3/7/34
1.012
4/2/8/34
0.252
4/6/23
0.250
6/4/14/36
0.291
5/7/33
0.292
Cut-off
0.120
Cut-off
0.139
RX2
2/4/18
0.412
RY2
1/7/30/50
0.648
5/7/32
0.313
13/5/24/44
0.221
8/4/20
0.316
14/3/12/36
0.271
14/7/30
0.336
Cut-off
0.120
Cut-off
0.110
RX1= Roclas cv. infected with PVX isolate1(Ostara cv.); RX2 = Roclas cv. infected with PVX
isolate 2 (Bintje cv.); RY1= Roclas cv. infected with PVY isolate1 (Record cv.); RX2 = Roclas cv.
infected with PVX isolate 2 (Ackeersegen).
71
Good results were obtained in the variant 3 (20 mg L -1 ribavirin and 80 mg L-1
oseltamivir) using this medium about 87.5% (for the plants inoculated with isolate1) and
60.00% (for the plants inoculated with isolate2) of plants were PVX free. This study
indicated that excepted the first variant, PVX was not completely eliminated by the
treatment applied and showed severe growth abnormalities. So that, the present research
suggested that combination treatment with other means might be necessary. Combinating
chemotherapy (ribavirin and oseltamivir) with essential oils and H 2O2 treatments as well
might be effective in the virus elimination. To eliminate PVX and PVY from the potato
variety used in this study, the plantlets were planted in the grenhouse and sprayed weekly
with a Satureja hortensis essential oils suspension (100l each plant) and H2O2 (1mM pH
5.6). At the end of the culture, it was confirmed that PVX and PVY was completely
eliminated in all replicates inoculated with isolate 1 (Record for PVY, Ostara for PVX
respectively) and treated (table 2), but not for the other samples inoculated with a source
of necrotic strains (PVY) or with sap from another isolate of PVX (isolate 2 -Bintje). This
study confirmed that, PVYo and one strains of the PVX were eliminated in all replicates
treated and cultured in the medium with 40 mg L-1 ribavirin and 40 mg L-1 oseltamivir. Virus
elimination showed further support the use of essential oils, together with the addition of
ribavirin and oseltamivir to the growth medium, as the best treatment for virus elimination
in potato, but only for PVYo strains and for PVX infected plants with sap extract from
isolate 1 (Bintje cv. secondary infection).
Table 2. Effects of antiviral compounds and chemical treatments on PVX elimination.
Variant
RX1
RX2
RY1
RY2
Healthy
plants
Treatments
V1+ EOs + H2O2
V2 +EOs + H2O2
V3 + EOs + H2O2
EOs + H2O2
Without treatments
V1+ EOs + H2O2
V2 +EOs + H2O2
V3 + EOs + H2O2
EOs + H2O2
Without treatments
V1+ EOs + H2O2
V2 +EOs + H2O2
V3 + EOs + H2O2
EOs + H2O2
Without treatments
V1+ EOs + H2O2
V2 +EOs + H2O2
V3 + EOs + H2O2
EOs + H2O2
Without treatments
V1+ EOs + H2O2
V2 +EOs + H2O2
V3 + EOs + H2O2
EOs + H2O2
Without treatments
Regeneration
PRN/
%
PMN*
9/27
12/27
8/27
3/5
4/4
14/42
16/39
10/41
2/5
5/5
.8/26
.11/27
6/27
3/5
4/5
12/30
16/30
9/30
3/5
5/5
4/5
4/5
3/5
4/5
5/5
Virus free plants
VFP
%
/PRN**
33.34
44.44
26.63
60.00
100.00
33.33
41.02
24.39
40.00
100.00
30.77
40.74
22.22
60.00
100.00
40.00
53.34
30.00
60.00
100.00
40.00
53.34
30.00
60.00
100.00
72
9/9
.4/12
7/8
1/3
0/4
11/14
5/16
6/10
2/3
0/5
8/8
6/11
5/6
1/3
0/4
14/14
7/16
8/9
1/3
0/5
4/4
4/4
3/3
4/4
5/5
100.00
33.34
87.50
33.34
0.00
78.57
31.25
60.00
66.66
0.00
100.00
54.54
83.34
33.34
0.00
100.00
50.00
88.89
33.34
0.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Therapy and
treatments
efficiency***
33.34
14.81
25.92
20.00
26.18
12.81
14.63
26.67
30.77
22.22
18.51
19.99
40.00
23.34
26.67
20.00
-
* RN/MN: Plants regenerated and survivor/ number of plantlets transferred to medium
** VFP /RN: Virus free plants /plants regenerated and survivor
*** Therapy efficiency (TE) = RN/MN (%) x VFP /RN (%) according to Lozoya-Saldana (1996)
[12].
Abreviations: V1= RBV 40 mg l-1+OSMV 40mg l-1; V2= RBV20mg l-1 +OSMV 40 mg l-1; V3=
RBV 20mg l-1+OSMV 80mg l-1;RBV= ribavirin;OSMV= oseltamivir;EOs=Satureja hortensis
essential oils.
Other researchers such as Griffiths et al. (1990) [6], observed similar results, virus
concentration was reduced when the ribavirin and oseltamivir was added to the medium
and plants. The technique of in vitro cultivation of single nodel cuttings aimed to
propagation virus-free plantlets, since it allows the production of plants in approximately 6
weeks, as compared to the 6 months required by meristem culture [6].
According to these results, efficiency of treatments with Satureja hortensis essential
oils combined with ribavirin and oseltamivir for eradication of potato viruses was higher. At
present, there is a tendency towards of a whole-tuber planting by using small size of seed
tubers. This procedure could prevented some pathogens (such as ring rot, bacterial wilt,
PVX, potato spindle tuber viroid) transmitted by tuber-cutting. Also, development of seed
potato production system characteristic of minituber multiplication must be expansion for
virus-free seed potato. The practical use of these chemotherapies and treatments for
overcoming damage in seed tubers is another strong justification for continue investigation
and research work.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National
Authority for Scientific Research, CNDI-UEFISCDI, project number 104.
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[5] De Bokx, J.A. and D. Huttingah, 1981. Potato virus Y. CMI/AAB descriptions of plant
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[6] Griffiths, H.M., S.A. Slack and J.H. Dodds, 1990. Effect of chemical and heat therapy
on virus concentrations in in vitro potato plantlets. Canadian Journal Botanic, 68: 15151521
[7] Hammerschmidt, R., 2005. Antioxidants and the regulation of defense. Physiological
and Molecular Plant Pathology, 66: 211–212.
[8] Hull R., 2002, Induction of disease: Virus movement through he plant and effect on
plant metabolism, In: Matthew’s Plant Virology, Fourth Edition, 373-411
73
[9] Klein, R.E. and C.H. Livingston, 1983. Eradication of potato viruses X and S from
potato shoot tip cultures with ribavirin. Phytopathology, 73: 1049-1050.
[10] Kleinhempel, D., G. Schenk, H. Bittner, G. Gase and B. Kurzinger, 1990.
Determination of virus resistance under in vitro conditions. Potato Research, 5: 341-342
[11] López-Delgado,H.,H.A.Zavaleta-Mancera, M.E. Mora-Herrera, M.Vázquez-Rivera,
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stem starch content, stem diameter and stem lignin content. American Journal of Potato
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Bădărău Carmen Liliana, Faculty of Alimentation and Tourism, Transilvania
University,
2
Castelului,
500470
Brasov,
Romania,
e-mail:
badarau_carmen14@yahoo.com
Chiru Nicoleta, National Institute of Research and Development for Potato and Sugar
Beet, 2 Fundaturii, 500470 Brasov, Romania, e-mail: chirunic12@yahoo.com
Gută Ionela Cătălina National,
Institute of Research and Development for
Biotechnology in Horticulture, 37Calea Bucuresti, 117715 Ştefăneşti Argeş, Romania, email: ionalecatalinaguta@yahoo.com
74
THE INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZING ON NUMBER OF PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY STALKS AT DIFFERENT CULTIVARS OF WINTER WHEAT
Nadica Tmušiš
Abstract: Examinations were held at stationary field experiment with fertilizing during period of three
years (2004-2007).
The experimental examinations, beside control, included six fertilizing variants: 1) N0 P0 K0; 2) N80, 120
P0 K0; 3) N80, 120 P60 K60; 4) N80, 120 P100 K60; 5) N80, 120 P60 K0; 6) N80, 120 P100 K0; 7) N80, 120 P0 K60. During
experiment individual fertilizings were implemented as follows: KAN (as nitrogen fertilizing), superphosphate
(as phosphate fertilizing) and 60 ℅ of kalium salts (as kalium fertilizing). Aport from above mentioned
variants of mineral nutrition, in experiment were included seven cultivars of winter wheat.
The aim of this work was to examine the effect various dosages and relation of mineral fertilizers on
number of primary and secondary stalks at different cultivars of winter wheat.
Obtained results demonstrate that the number of primary and secondary stalks conditioned by mineral
nutriment, especially by using phosphorus fertilizers which together with nitrogene and kalium, increases the
2
intensity of bushing of winter wheat. Most the number of primary and secondary stalks per m achieved
cultivar Takovčanka at NP2K variant of fertilizing, at lower nitrogene dosage.
Key words: wheat, primary stalks, secondary stalks, fertilizing, cultivars
INTRODUCTION
The number of primary and secondary stalks is imortant struktual element of wheat
yield which depends on genetical characteristics of cultivar, agrotechnical methods and
climate conditions during vegetation period. Usage of mineral fertilizers is the most
efficient measure of increasing the number of primary and secondary stalks and therefore
increasing grain yield of winter wheat [8].
Yield properly supplied with nitrogene have richer bushes than the ones with
nitrogene deficit [6]. The number of primary and secondary stalks are dependent on
sowing density and bushes coefficient [2; 9].
The aim of this work was to examine the effect various dosages and relation of
mineral fertilizers on number of primary and secondary stalks at different cultivars of winter
wheat.
Examinations were performed at stationary field experiment with fertilizing that has
been applied for many years (over 30), at the property of Center for small grains in
Kragujevac. The experiments were performed in three years period (2004-2007). The
experiment on which examinations have been performed includes also six variants of
fertilizing: 1) N0 P0 K0; 2) N80, 120 P0 K0; 3) N80, 120 P60 K60; 4) N80, 120 P100 K60; 5) N80, 120 P60
K0; 6) N80, 120 P100 K0; 7) N80, 120 P0 K60. Individual fertilizers were used: KAN as the
nitrogen fertilizer, superphosphate as the phosphate fertilizer, and as the potassium
fertilizer it was used 60% potassium salt. Besides mentioned variants of mineral nutrition,
in experiment it was included also seven different cultivars of winter wheat from the region
of Kragujevac:,Takovţanka, Ana Morava, KG 100, Lazarica, KG 56 S, KG 4 and KG 5.
The area of the basic experimental parcels is 100 m 2 for fertilizing with phosphor and
potassium, and for fertilizing with two dosages of nitrogen of 80 and 120 kg ha-1, basic
parcel was divided in two parts of 50 m2 each.
The experiment was set up at random block system in 5 repetitions. Sowing density
for all examined cultivars was 600 germinating grains at m2. It was used standard
75
agrotechnics. Statistical data processing of grain yield was done in the method of variance
analysis. The experimental field is of type vertisol in the process of degradation.
About average monthly temperatures and quantity of precipitations during our
examinations, we can conclude that the weather conditions differed in each experimental
year (table 1.). The most favorable weather condition were in the first vegetation period,
2004/2005, when the highest total quantity of precipitations was registered, with the most
favorable disposition through months. Also the temperatures were optimal for planting the
wheat, especially during the most important phases of its growth. Vegetation period in the
years 2006/2007 was also favorable for winter wheat growing, while the most unfavorable
weather conditions for growth of winter wheat were in second year of experiment.
Table 1. Temperature and water in the course of the vegetation (2004-2007)
Month
September
Oktober
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
(IX - VII)
2004/
2005
16.2
14.7
6.8
3.0
1.5
-1.5
4.5
11.6
16.4
19.2
21.6
10.6
Temperature t ºC
Year
2005/
2006/
2006
2007
17.4
17.4
11.5
13.3
5.6
7.6
3.3
3.5
-1.7
6.1
1.5
6.3
5.6
9.1
12.7
12.1
16.4
18.2
19.7
22.8
23.0
24.8
10.6
12.9
Average
perenn.
1961-99
16.7
11.3
6.5
1.1
-1.8
3.0
6.5
11.3
16.3
19.0
21.1
10.4
2004/
2005
31.0
50.1
90.7
170.0
36.6
66.9
178.7
72.3
70.2
39.1
86.2
891.8
Water lm -1
Year
2005/
2006/
2006
2007
57.4
115.6
16.7
49.0
13.7
54.8
51.9
47.1
45.3
27.9
32.1
38.1
62.9
116.1
3.6
29.6
118.4
86.3
25.3
84.8
10.1
22.4
437.4
671.7
Average
perenn.
1961-99
50.5
42.8
46.4
46.8
38.3
35.7
40.4
53.1
66.7
80.3
70.6
571.6
climate conditions during vegetation period. The number of primary and secondary stalks
of winter wheat per square unit is conditioned by mineral nutriment of plants, especially
with usage of phosphorus fertilizers which together with nitogene and kalium increases
forming of winter wheat plants, and therefore grain yield of winter wheat [5].
The number of primary stalks per m2 in triannual average in winter wheat yield was
very different and varied depending on variant of mineral nutriment, nitrogene dosage and
cultivated sorts (table 2.). It is nessesery to emphasise that on acid grounds, as the one
where the examination has been perphormed perishing of the part of spring occured in the
early phases of development, what brings to decreasing of number of primary stalks and
reducing density of wheat yield [1; 3].
The lowest number of primary stalks per m2 in winter wheat yield has been achieved
at control while the significant increase of number of primary stalks per m2 obtained using
NPK, NP and NK fertilizers among which there wasn' t significant differences. Appliance of
higher dosage of nitrogene fertilizers comparing the lower one, conditioned higher number
of primary stalks and the highest with NP1K variant fertilizing.
Examined cultivars demonstrated certain variations in number of primary stalks at m2
in winter wheat yield, so the cultivar Takovţanka (415.5), Lazarica (399.2) and Ana
76
Morava (399.0) had significant increase of primary stalks number per m2 comparing other
examined cultivars. Cultivar KG 5 had the lowest number of primary stalks in winter wheat
yield.
In triannual average individually the highest number of primary stalks per m2 obtained
cultivar Takovţanka (471) at NP2K variant of fertilizing, with lower nitrogene dosage.
Table 2. The number of primary stalks per m2 (triannual average 2004-2007)
Variant Dosage
fertilizing
N
O
N
NP1K
NP2K
NP1
NP2
NK
Average
Average
LSD
0.05
0.01
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1 / N2
A
23.652
31.197
1.
2.
3.
374
379
351
378
415
471
413
397
405
436
404
451
399
436.4
394.7
415.5
347
360
357
393
446
439
424
419
416
398
405
455
375
402.0
396.0
399.0
321
340
335
396
400
366
354
344
353
322
373
343
355
349.2
356.0
352.6
B
23.652
31.197
AB
62.578
82.540
Cultivars
4.
5.
314
358
389
459
423
393
412
403
450
414
415
400
448
391.7
406.8
399.2
C
12.641
16.673
315
310
346
358
443
407
399
364
387
421
395
363
381
362.7
381.2
375.9
6.
7.
308
364
359
394
462
374
387
374
388
381
380
385
349
368.9
381.1
375.0
299
315
331
398
368
390
374
353
338
336
353
318
327
344.5
341.7
343.1
AC
33.449
44.120
Average
340.10
346.81
352.76
396.81
422.76
406.00
394.38
379.43
391.14
388.67
389.48
388.19
376.48
379.36
379.65
379.50
BC
33.449
44.120
340.10
349.79
409.79
400.19
385.29
389.07
382.33
379.50
ABC
88.499
116.729
1. Takovţanka, 2. Ana Morava, 3. KG - 100, 4. Lazarica, 5. KG - 56S, 6. KG - 4, 7.KG - 5
A-variant fertilizing, B -cultivar, C -nitrogen fertilizer dosage, AB, AC, BC, ABC - interaction
The number of secondary stalks per m2 of winter wheat i triannual average
demonstrated significant variation depending on mineral fertilizers appliance and
examined cultivars. The lowest number of secondary stalks was achieved at control (9.43)
and significant increasing was achieved with appliance of fertilizers (table 3.).That way by
using only nitrogene ferttilizers very higly significant increasing number of secondary stalks
per m2 comparing control was achaived [4; 7]. Further using P and K fertilizers together
with N obtained significant increase of number secondary stalks per m2 comparing control
and N variant of fertilizing.
Dosage of nitrogene fertilizer didn't have any important influence on the number of
secondary stalks of winter wheat yield.
Examined cultivars of winter wheat had very different number of secondary stalks as
the results of cultivar characteristics. Cultivar with higher coefficient of bushes in conditions
of appropriate nutriment, had higher number of secondary stalks comparing the one with
lower bushes coefficient. The highest number of secondary stalks per m2 in winter wheat
yield was reported at cultivar Takovţanka (40.38). Cultivars of winter wheat KG 4 and KG
5 had the lowest number of secondary stalks per m 2.
77
In triannual average individually the highest number of primary stalks per m2 obtained
cultivar Takovţanka (74) at NP2K variant of fertilizing, with lower nitrogene dosage.
Table 3. The number of secondary stalks per m2 (triannual average 2004-2007)
Variant Dosage
fertilizing
N
O
N
NP1K
NP2K
NP1
NP2
NK
Average
Average
LSD
0.05
0.01
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
N1 / N2
A
6.703
8.842
1.
2.
3.
Cultivars
4.
5.
6.
7.
11
11
10
10
8
8
8
23
24
41
25
20
16
27
27
30
42
39
20
20
20
30
39
41
44
34
32
35
68
41
35
40
44
48
27
74
46
29
36
42
37
40
44
45
29
52
42
36
32
29
45
34
47
29
33
33
28
52
39
34
37
34
35
48
50
26
35
47
40
26
59
44
32
35
43
34
25
60
54
34
35
37
35
26
48
47
34
49
43
23
30
39.71 38.71 31.76 33.14 31.05 28.76 28.05
41.05 38.86 32.05 37.43 34.14 29.05 25.67
40.38 38.78 31.90 35.29 32.60 28.90 26.86
B
6.703
8.842
AB
17.735
23.393
C
3.583
4.725
AC
9.480
12.504
BC
9.480
12.504
Average
9.43
25.62
28.76
36.76
43.81
43.24
40.19
36.43
37.14
39.29
39.19
40.43
39.71
33.03
34.03
33.53
9.43
27.19
40.29
41.71
36.79
39.24
40.07
33.53
ABC
25.082
33.083
1. Takovţanka, 2. Ana Morava, 3. KG - 100, 4. Lazarica, 5. KG - 56S, 6. KG - 4, 7.KG - 5
A-variant fertilizing, B -cultivar, C -nitrogen fertilizer dosage, AB, AC, BC, ABC - interaction
climate conditions during vegetation period. The number of primary and secondary stalks
of winter wheat per square unit is conditioned by mineral nutriment of plants, especially
with usage of phosphorus fertilizers which together with nitogene and kalium increases
forming of winter wheat plants, and therefore grain yield of winter wheat.
The number of primary and secondary stalks per m2 in triannual average in winter
wheat yield was very different and varied depending on variant of mineral nutriment,
nitrogene dosage and cultivated sorts.
Most the number of primary and secondary stalks per m 2 achieved cultivar
Takovţanka at NP2K variant of fertilizing, at lower nitrogene dosage.
78
REFERENCES
[1]. Balint, A., Gyarmati, B., Harshegyi, Z., Heltai, G. (2008): Effect of nitrogen fertilization
on grain of winter wheat. Cereal Research Communications, 36, 1687-1690.
[2]. Djokiš, D. (1985): Some of actual aspects of nitrogene in forming the yield and quality
of the grain of wheat. Agrochemistry, No. 2, 80-93.
[3]. Jeliš, М. (1996): Studying of mineral mutrition of wheat planted on vertisol in process
degradation. Doctoral thesis, Belgrade, 1-121.
[4]. Jeliš, M., Stojanoviš, J., Stojanoviš, S., Ţivanoviš, S. (2002): Optimal technology in
producing of wheats of Kragujevac. Agroinnovations, No. 3, 163-171.
[5]. Jeliš, M., Kastori, R., Dugališ, G., Kneţeviš, D. (2008): Environmental and genetical
influences on nutritional status of wheat grain. Cereal Res. Commun., 36, 683-686.
[6]. Kertesz, Z., Matuz, J., Barabas, Z. (1980): Combining obilitz of winter wheat lines for
protein content cereal. Cereal Res. Commun, 8, 381-384.
[7]. Mišanoviš Danica, Lomoviš, S., Širiš Draga (1994): Varying of leaf characteristics and
components of wheat productivity. Collection of works, SMIS 94, Beograd, 320-324.
[8]. Saviš, N (2009): Productivity and quality of grains of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum
ssp. vulgare) on the ground of type vertisol. Doctoral thesis presented on Faculty of
agriculture of University of Pristina in Zubin Potok, 1-138.
[9]. Varga, A., Gotlin, J., Pucariš, A. (1987): Uticaj sjetvene norme i gnojidbe dušikom na
prinos zrna pšenice u razliţitim rokovima sjetve. Zbornik radova "Jugoslovensko
savetovanje o proizvodnji 6 miliona tona pšenice", 229-233.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
N. Tmušiš, assistant professor, University of Pristina, Faculty of agriculture, Lešak,
Serbia, E-mail: nadica18@ptt.rs, +381642196422
79
EFFECT OF GROWTH STAGE ON MACROELEMENTS AND
MICROELEMENTS IN ALFALFA
J. Kneţeviš, M. Aksiš, S. Širiš, N. Gudţiš, D. Bekoviš
Abstract: Examination of Ca, P, Mn, Cu, Fe and Zn in green alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in the
budding phase in full-flowering in four locations in Rasinski district indicates considerable variation. It was
found that less Ca, Mn and Fe containing alfalfa in the budding site Globoder and Jaruge and more at the
site and Mackovac and Bagdala. The contents of Ca, P, Cu and Zn is the same for all four locations. The
level of Ca, P, Cu and Zn, during the phase of full-flowering, was equal in all locations. Under Mn and Fe in
the full flowering as well as budding contained the alfalfa at the site Globoder and Jaruge. These
investigations are indicating on the necessity of dedicating more attention to the conditions of the contents of
macro and micro nutrient elements in voluminous feeds, as such differences, and connected with them, the
supplying of domestic animals, can become significant.
Key words: growth phases, alfalfa, macroelements, microelements
INTRODUCTION
Alfalfa is the dominant legumes in animal nutrition. Special attention is given to the
content of macro-and micronutrients, which are not easily add animals because of the
difficulty in regulating consumption, utilization and toxicity. The absence or lack of food in
one or more elements or their abundance can cause physiological and metabolic disorders
in animals. It is therefore necessary to systematically introduced into the body to maintain
life and productivity of animals.
Most domestic animals is an integral part of alfalfa meal, especially because it is rich
in protein, vitamins and minerals. This forage crop is used for fodder as green mass,
ensiled or dehydrated form.
Phosphorus content in forage alfalfa is of utmost importance. In the beginning of the
vegetation largest amounts in the list, and when the plant begins to flower, phosphorus
moves into the reproductive organs and the end of the growing mainly concentrate in the
grain [5]. As an element of the nutrition of animals, calcium plays a special role in building
bones, dairy, etc.. [4]. noted that the amount of calcium in forage alfalfa higher stage of
development than in the bud of blossoming.
All trace elements have several very important functions that are important for the
animal organism (catalytic, structural and regulatory functions). Given the biochemical role
of trace elements (Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn) in the life processes of plants, it can be expected
that young bodies and young plants, in which metabolic processes are intense, contain
large amounts of these micronutrients. The literature generally states that the greatest
amount of trace elements in the early vegetative stages of growth and development of
plants [2].
The aim of our study was to examine the contents of calcium, phosphorus and trace
elements, iron, copper, zinc and manganese in green alfalfa fields during the bud and full
bloom, bearing in mind that these are just the vegetation period for the crop most used for
fodder.
Measuring the content of macro-and micronutrients in alfalfa has been done in the
area Rasinski district in four sites. The amount of calcium and phosphorus, and trace
elements zinc, copper, iron and manganese in green alfalfa were tested on samples found
on the field during bud and full bloom. Were collected from the plots on a random sample
80
of at least five different places. Checking the macro-and microelements was determined in
leaf and stem, because of animal feed used mostly whole plant. The samples were packed
in plastic bags and were brought to the laboratory, where he was immediately determined
dry matter by drying the sample at 65 ° C to constant weight.
Phosphorus was determined according to the standard method ISO 6491 with
molibdenvanadatnim reagent spectrophotometry. Calcium was determined by AAS with
the addition of lanthanum salts for control of ionization, complexometric method. The trace
elements Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu were determined on an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer, as follows: 5 g of plant material is burned at 5500C for four hours until
a white ash. Ash is dissolves in hot concentrated HNO3 twice per 5 ml, then filtered
through the blue bar at the court measured up to 50 ml with the addition of 5 ml 5%
solution SrCl3. The trace elements copper, iron, manganese and zinc are determined
directly from the filter, and the calcium in the diluted 1:100. The obtained values are
presented in absolute dry matter, and the data processed by analysis of variance for a
randomized complete block design. The significance of differences between arithmetic
means tested LSD test.
The obtained values for calcium, phosphorus, manganese, iron, copper and zinc in
alfalfa during bud and full bloom shown by test sites (Table 1 and 2) and the graph. (1-6).
Table 1 Green alfalfa bud dry matter content
Lokalitet
n
Ca gkg-1
P gkg-1
Mn gkg-1
Jaruge
5
13.90
4.70
17.18
Globoder
4
14.40
4.70
21.47
Bagdala
4
18.30
4.27
32.32*
Maţkovac
4
16.60
4.12
32.10*
*P<0.05
X
15.72
4.48
25.26
Cu gkg-1
3.98
4.77
4.57
4.30
4.38
Fe gkg-1
151.20
107.10
271.00*
219.80*
172.52
Zn gkg-1
22.86
25.67
23.55
26.80
24.02
Cu gkg-1
6.24
6.12
4.38
7.58
5.94
Fe gkg-1
164.80
108.75
374.84*
218.00*
230.52
Zn gkg-1
25.34
24.62
18.31
26.82
23.28
Table 2 Green alfalfa in full bloom dry matter content
Lokalitet
Jaruge
Globoder
Bagdala
Maţkovac
*P<0.05
n
5
4
6
4
X
Ca gkg-1
17.18
17.18
19.78
20.95
19.93
P gkg-1
3.90
5.62
2.48
3.92
3.82
Mn gkg-1
19.88
21.75
39.68*
31.03
28.87
Calcium content in green alfalfa bud varies in the research areas. The largest share
of calcium in kg dry matter is sown stand in the locality Bagdala-18.30g, at least at the site
Ravines-13.90g. Differences in the content of phosphorus, copper and zinc in alfalfa
between the investigated sites were insignificant. Phosphorus ranged from 4:12-4.70mg,
copper 3.98-4.77mg, zinc and 22.86-26.80mg kg of dry matter. Differences in the content
of manganese were slightly larger, because its content is varied from 17:18-32.32mg. The
greatest variation was found in the content of iron. The differences between the
investigated sites ranged up from 34.10-143.90mg. At least iron in alfalfa-107.10mg was
found at the site Globoder, and most 271.00mg the site Bagdala.
During flowering alfalfa contained at least 17.18g of calcium is also the site of
Ravines, and most 21.70g Globoder the site. Phosphorus ranged from 2:48-5.62g, copper7.58mg 4:38, 18:31 zinc-26.82mg, Manganese 19.88-39.68mg. For iron was recorded
minimum and maximum value of the sites and Globoder, Bagdala.
81
During the growing amounts of investigated macro-and micronutrients were changing.
Calcium and copper more in the full bloom than during budding. Phosphorus decreased in
the investigated area, while one increased. Manganese. Iron and zinc were higher in some
localities in full bloom, and somewhere in the budding stage. The results showed that the
content of some trace elements in green alfalfa growing in both phases depending on the
locality alfalfa fields. Thus, the site Bagdala and Maţkovac found significantly more iron
and manganese in alfalfa than in localities Ravines and Globoder.
Figure 1. Calcium
Figure 2. Phosphorus
Figure 3. Manganes
Figure 4. Iron
Figure 5. Copper
Figure 6. Zinc
Based on the analysis of the results we note that the content of macro-and
microelements in Plants depend on the soil where plants grow and its soil characteristics.
82
The amount of phosphorus in forage alfalfa from the standpoint of proper animal
nutrition is insufficient. Particularly noteworthy is the poor relation of calcium and
phosphorus should be 2:1 [1], which in the present study was (tables 1 and 2)
Calcium is also present in these studies in larger quantities in the full flowering than
during budding, which agrees with the results quoted by [1].
In the present study, the values for calcium and phosphorus are higher than those
quoted by [7].
Forage plants generally contain more iron than they need these elements for
ruminants [3]. [9] observed that the average iron content in alfalfa 108 mgkg -1DM. In
contrast, in this study the author finds higher iron content in alfalfa (Table 1 and 2).
A number of authors believe that the forage plants optimally secured if its copper
content in the aboveground parts of plants 5 mgkg-1DM. In the literature it is stated that the
alfalfa optimally secured with copper, they contain as much as 20 mgkg-1DM. In the
budding phase change in the amount of copper shows no regularity (Table 1), while in full
bloom test results show the correctness (Table 2)
In addition to growth stages significantly affect the concentration of mineral elements
in plants, an important factor is the availability of elements in soil and usability of these
elements in plants. Adoption of biogenic elements from plants largely depends on the
chemical form in which they are present in the plant. Biogenic elements can react with
each other and with other nutrients, whether in food, the lumen of the digestive organs,
cells and tissues, ie at the level of the substrate. For example, in the lumen of the digestive
organs P and Mg, and Zn and Cu mutually inhibit each other's absorption and inhibits the
absorption of Cu and Zn and Mn [6]. High concentrations of ferrous carbonate in forage
also reduces the absorption of Cu in cattle and sheep [8]. Antagonistic effect between
Bioelements manifested as disrupted the optimum proportions. Therefore, the amounts of
these elements in the diet of animals should not be greater than the amount required for
the metabolic maintenance of life and productivity of certain kinds of domestic animals.
This test involves analyzing the contents of calcium, phosphorus, manganese, iron,
copper and zinc in four different locations in Rasinski district.
The results show that the amount of investigated macro-and micronutrients in green
alfalfa change during the growing season. Calcium and baker are represented mainly in
dry matter during the full flowering than during the bud stage, while the phosphorus
situation is reversed. The content of zinc, manganese and iron in alfalfa in some localities
was higher was in full bloom, and at some time in the bud.
Alfalfa field at the site Bagdala and Maţkovac contained significantly higher (P
<0.05), manganese and iron than in the Ravines and Globoder.
The results indicate the need for regular reviews of the content of macro and
micronutrients in green alfalfa. Only such a process can provide farm animals really meet
the needs of those elements.
REFERENCES
[1]. Eriš P., D. Djukiš, Šupina B. (1996): The dynamics of the content and distribution of
N, P, K and Ca in alfalfa. VIII Yugoslav symposium on fodder crops with international
participation, 26, 205-210
[2]. Ignjatoviš S. Diniš B. Kolarski D. Uroševiš K. (1998): Chemical composition of first
and second cut of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.). Ecological Aspects of Grassland
Management, 17th EGF Meeting, 729-732
83
[3]. Ignjatoviš S. (2000) Biochemical-genetic and biochemical characteristics of new
domestic varieties Red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) K-9 dateline and white clover
(Trifolium repens L.), K-33 and their nutritive value at different growth stages. Master's
thesis, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Chemical
[4]. Ignjatoviš, S., J. Vuţetiš, Z. Lugiš, Diniš B. (2001): Effect of growth stage on macro
and micro elements in red and white clover. J. Sci. Agric. Research / Arch. Agric. Science,
62, 220, 309-316
[5]. Caste, R. (1986): Plant Physiology II. The importance of the elements in the life
processes of plants. Matica Serbian, Novi Sad
[6]. Kolarski, D. (1995): Principles of feeding livestock. Scientific Book, Belgrade, 124-181
[7]. Markovic, J. Ignjatovic, S., Radovic, J., Lugiš, Z. (2007): Effect of growth stage on
macro and micronutrients in alfalfa and red clover. XI Symposium on forage Republic of
Serbia with international participation, Novi Sad, 30 May and first June Journal-Vol.44,
No.I, 401-406
[8]. Spears, J. W. (1994): Minerals in Forages, 281-318. In: George C. Fahey, Ir. (ed.)
Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization. Based on the National Conference on Forage
Quality, Evaluation, and Utalization held at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, on 13-15
April 1994
[9]. Whitehead DC, Jones E. C. (1969): Nutrient elements in the herbage of white clover,
red clover, alfalfa and Sainfoin. J. Sci. Food Agric., 20, 584-591
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Jasmina Kneţeviš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of
Agriculture Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail:
jasmina.kneska@gmail.com
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: miroljub.aksic@gmail.com
S. Širiš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavica.ciric@open.telekom
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nesagudzic@gmail.com
D. Bekoviš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: dragoljub.bekovic@yahoo.com
84
THE DYNAMIC OF SOLUBLE NITROGEN AND COEFFICIENT OF
RIPENING DURING THE SAME PROCESS IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
OF SENICA CHEESE
Ţ.Saviš, V.Đuriš, and N.lališ
Abstract: Senica cheese belongs to a group of white cheese in brine. The main feature of this group
of cheese is keeping and ripening into brine, which is used as a preservative and gives a specific sour-salty
taste and odor, and which contributes to brittle structure of these kinds of cheese. These kinds of cheese
have no rind and are formed in the shape of slices. Products which are produced by indigenous technology,
and recently becouse of certain defects, with more standard technology in industrial scale-dairies, are
predominant in the area of Senica-Pester Plain.The experiment was performed in the diary “Senica”. These
types of cheese are made from whole-row cow milk, whole-row sheep milk and mixed cow and sheep
milk.From many products of degradation that occurred during the process of ripening, nitrogen components,
which are also water soluble, are of special importance.Senory features and arheological features of
cheese dough depend on these componets.Taking into accrount the importance of these matters for the
quality of the cheese, it is necessary to determine their dynamic and contet during cheese ripening and the
coefficient of maturity shows their level of maturity too.Therefore, we followed their dynamic after the process
of production, then after a period of 15,30 and 45 days, which was also determined ripening period.The
results showed that the amount of soluble nitrogen increased for cow and mixed cheese during the entire
period of maturity, and that the most intensive increase of ripening process was in the period between 1-15
day for sheep cheese.The largest increase of ripening was also recorded in this period . At the end of 45
days of ripening period, the content of soluble nitrogen did not change significantly in comparison to the 30th
day, and when average amount of it was 0.397% for cow cheese, 0.408% for mixed cheese, and 0.376% for
sheep cheese. The values of the maturity process were : for cow cheese 15.81, for mixed cheese 15.50, and
for sheep cheese12.81.
Key words: Senica cheese, soluble nitrogen, coefficient of maturity, sensory properties.
INTODUCTION
Cheese ripening time is the longest and most important operation in the production of
cheese. Desired sensory characteristics and quality of cheese under controlled conditions
of temperature and relative humidity, are the depending on the type of cheese and the
ripening lasts to mature for a few months to two years (Wilkinson 1990 ).
During cheese ripening , complex biochemical and physicochemical changes occure,
starting even from the raw milk and addition of rennet starter cultures. These changes
usually occur in proteins, milk sugar and milk fats (Fenelon and Guinee 2000; Fox 1989,
Fox and Cogan 1990).
The biggest changes during maturation occur in milk sugar, which is under the
influence of lactic acid bacteria decompose the fastest and educate lactic acid and other
organic acids and aromatic substances, which play an important role in the formation of
sensory and rheological characteristics of a mature cheese ( Fox and Cogan 1990 ; Fox
and Cogan 2000).
During ripening process , complex biochemical and physical chemical changes do not
only occur, but structural changes and the quality of transformation in zero curd cheese
also occur. Actually, the grain structure, is eventually turning into a quality homogeneous
mass , which has the taste, aroma and texture characteristic of a particular type of cheese
(Jovanović 2001).
The process of maturation is characteristic for most types of cheese, as a necessary
stage in the cycle of their production. Young types of cheese, after the process of
production, are characterized by the absence of the of the characteristic flavor and aroma
and high elasticity curd mass , and as such are unacceptable for consumption because
they are tough. Indicated shortcomings in the young types of cheese, are removed by
85
realization of the ripening process, in the course of which cheese takes on a distinctive
flavor, aroma and coexistence ( Puđa 2009).
A number of authors (Beresford et al .,1998 ; Fox and Cogan 2000 ; Ross, et al
.,2000) consider the ripening of cheese as essentially enzymatic process ,and in the
process of ripening the following agents participate : wide, native enzymes of milk, starter
culture and other non-starter bacteria.
White brined cheese are produced from raw,thermally not treated milk. This means
that a significant role in proteolytic processes during ripening process,have native milk
proteinase. In addition, in the production of these types of cheese starter culture are not
used and becides rennet addition and native proteinase , enzymes indigenous micro
flora play a significiant role (Barać et al., 2006).
The most significant features of cheese, are caused by changes in the proteins.
During maturation process, proteins are transformed to a variety of low molecular weight
products, some of which depend on the organoleptic and rheological properties of ripened
cheese. Of the many degradation products of particular importance are the water soluble
nitrogen components , as they affect the properties of curd mass, actually its aroma, taste
and smell. (Maćej 1989).
Experiments with the preparation of cheese, are performed in industrial conditions of
dairy , "Sjenica". The raw material for the production of cheese was fresh, whole cow milk,
sheep milk and mixed sheep and cow milk. Milk is mixed in 1:1 ratio. The experiments
wereperformed in five replicates. Storage and ripening was carried out at a temperature of
150C. The research was aimed at monitoring the dynamics of changes during ripening,
and the intensity and depth of protein degradation. The dynamic of changes of soluble
nitrogen is followed after production, and then after 15, 30 and 45 days, which was the
fixed period of maturity process. Analyses were performed in the chemical laboratory of
Veterinary Specialist Institute in Kraljevo, as follows:
-the percentage of soluble nitrogen by a ( van Slike-a ;Pejić; Đorđević 1963)
-and statistical processing of the obtained values-testing the differences of mean
values, Student's t-test was applied(Stanković et al., 1989).
The results of research are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.The dynamic of soluble nitrogen during cheese ripening
Cheeese Cow cheese
maturity Soluble N u %
by days
Sd
1
15
30
45
(n=5)
0.178
0.312
0.380
0.397
0.04
0.031
0.062
0.083
Cv
Mixed cheese (O+K)
Soluble N u %
Sd
Cv
Sheep cheese
Soluble N u %
Sd
Cv
23.52
10.09
16.28
20.88
(n=5)
0.186
0.321
0.406
0.408
(n=5)
0.273
0.408
0.393
0.376
12.76
9.16
10.60
7.70
0.046
0.042
0.044
0.057
24.70
13.35
10.95
13.98
0.034
0.037
0.041
0.028
It can be seen that all types of cheese have already contained a certain amount of
soluble nitrogen, in the first day of ripening process. The presence of soluble nitrogen on
the first day of ripening, suggests that changes in the protein start already during the
preparation of cheese.
86
From the results we can see that during ripening the amount of soluble nitrogen
increased in all three types of cheese, and the highest increase was in the period from 1 th
to 15th day of ripening.
On the first day of ripening cow cheese contained an average of 0.178%, mixed
cheese 0 .186% sheep cheese 0.273% soluble nitrogen.
After 15 days of ripening, the amount of soluble nitrogen in average, for cow cheese
0.312%, mixed cheese 0.321%, and sheep cheese 0.408%.
The analysis of the results showed that the differences between cow and sheep
cheese and mixed and sheep cheese were highly significant, whereas between cow and
mixed cheese, there was no statistically significant difference.
In the period of 15-30 days the amount of soluble nitrogen increased in cow cheese
for 0.067%, mixed cheese 0.085% , and for sheep cheese it decreased for 0.014%. After
30 days of ripening, the average amount of soluble nitrogen was 0.380% for cow cheese,
0.406% for mixed cheese ,0.393% for sheep cheese. Analysis shows that these
differences were not statistically significant.
At the end of the ripening period of 45 days, the soluble nitrogen content for cow
and mixed cheese has not significantly changed, actually , there is an increase for cow
cheese for 0.016% and mixed cheese for 0.002%, but in sheep cheese we have marked
the transition of soluble nitrogen in the whey for ripening and its reduction for 0.017%. The
average content of soluble nitrogen after maturity process of 45 days was as follows:
0.397% cow cheese, 0.408% mixed cheese and 0.376% sheep cheese. Processing data
revealed that these differences were not statistically significant.
If we compare the content of soluble nitrogen in the period between 30-45 days, it
can be seen that its content did not significantly change over the 30 th day of maturity. This
shows, that the content of soluble nitrogen as a measure of maturity, reaches a certain
trading maturity for 30days of ripening.
The results are consistent with published data for similar types of cheese in this
group: Homoljski 0.479%( Jovanović 2005); Svrljiški 0.119% (Maćej et al., 2005);
Sjenica cheese 0.359% , 0.318% for some type,( Savić 2011).
The dynamics of the coefficient of maturity: During maturation process proteins in
cheese are transformed to lower molecular weight products, of which heavily depend on
sensory and rheological properties of cheese. Therefore, as a measure of the intensity of
protein degradation, the amount of soluble nitrogen in the water, which occur during
ripening is taken. As a true indicator of maturity or level of maturity of the cheese, ratio of
soluble nitrogen content and total nitrogen is commonly used. This relation, according to(
Duclaux-in and Đorđević quoted Maćej; 1989) is called the coefficient of maturity.
Research results are presented Table 2 .
Table 2 The dynamics of the coefficient of maturity during cheese ripening
Cheese Cow cheese
ripening Coefficient of maturity
by days
Sd
Cv
1
15
30
45
(n=5)
7.67
12.90
13.35
15.29
1.38
1.04
1.39
0.80
18.03
8.09
10.42
15.18
Mixed cheese (O+K)
Coefficient of maturity
Sd
Cv
Sheep cheese
Coefficient of maturity
Sd
Cv
(n=5)
7.80
12.04
13.82
15.50
(n=5)
9.93
14.17
13.18
12.81
2.15
2.30
1.00
2.30
27.57
19.16
7.26
14.84
1.10
0.75
1.59
1.23
1.12
5.33
12.10
9.66
Table 2 Shows that the coefficient of maturity for mixed and cow cheese, had a
tendency to increase throughout the whole ripening period, although the largest increase
in all three types of cheese, was within the first 15 days of ripening, which can be
87
associated with the greatest increase in soluble nitrogen in the same period. Sheep
cheese shows a slightly different trend. The highest value of the coefficient of maturity was
after 15 days of ripening, after which a slight decrease is observed.
On the first day of ripening coefficient of maturity for cheese was 7.67, for mixed
cheese 7.80 and for sheep cheese 9.93 . After 15 days of ripening maturity coefficient in
all three types of cheese showed a tendency to increase, when in sheep cheese it
reaches the maximum. Average increase was for cow cheese 5:23, for mixed cheese
4:24, and for sheep cheese 4.25. The average value of the coefficient of maturity was
12.90 for cow cheese, 12:04 for mixed cheese and 14:17 for sheep cheese.
In the period of 15-30 days of ripening for cow cheese, there was an increase in the
coefficient of maturity for 0:45, in mixed cheese for 1.78. In this period there was a
decrease in the coefficient of maturity in sheep cheese for 0.99. After 30 days of ripening,
the average value of the coefficient of maturity of cow cheese was 13:35, sheep cheese
13:18, and mixed cheese 13.82 . Analysis shows that these differences were not
statistically significant.
After the ripening period, the coefficient of maturity is increased compared to 30 th day
for cow cheese for 1.94, mixed cheese for 1.68, while in sheep cheese it decreased for
12:37. Average value of the coefficient of maturity was for cow cheese 15:29, mixed
cheese 15:50 and sheep cheese 12.81. The analysis of results show that differences
between cow and sheep cheese were statistically highly significant, between mixed and
sheep cheese significant, while between cow and mixed cheese stastistically significiant
differences did not occur.The obtained values are similar to the coefficients of maturity for
close types of cheese:( White slices cheese 12.83 Maćej 1989; Travnički 14.30
Dozet et al., 1987 ; Homoljski 17.70 Jovanović 2005; Sjenički 17.99 Sjenica type
13.16 Savić 2011).
CONCLUSION
Based on facts given above, we can conclude the following:
• Small amounts of soluble nitrogen compounds which are present even in the first
days of ripening, indicate that changes in the proteins begin as early as during the cheese
making
• Young cheese has the character of dry, hard and tough food, regardless of taste
and smell, and as such is unsuitable for consumption and nutrition. The formation of the
desired sensory and rheological properties of cheese during ripening is achieved, while
soluble nitrogen components play a key role in this.
• Proteolytic maturation processes were intensive. This is supported by data on the
values of soluble nitrogen content (0.380%, 0.406%, 0.393%) in cheese.
• The content of soluble nitrogen is mixed and cow cheese was increased for the
entire maturity period, and the biggest increase among the three kinds of cheese was in a
period between 1-15 days. In sheep cheese, after 15 days, we have a slight decrease of
soluble nitrogen content.
• During the maturation a part of soluble nitrogen exceeds into the brine, due to
which there is no certain regularity in the increase of its content.
• The values of the coefficients of maturity for white types of cheese in brine, show
that these types of cheese are characterized by a smaller volume of protein degradation.
Their maturity coefficient is much smaller compared to other types of cheese, which is
explained by anaerobic ripening conditions, storage under pressure and a high content of
salt in the brine for ripening. Our types of cheese from experiments confirmed this
constation.
88
REFERENCES
1. Baraš, M., Jovanoviš, S., Mašej, O. 2006. Autohtoni beli sirevi u salamuri –Monografija
; Poljoprivredni fakultet Beograd
2. Beresford, T.P., O `Reilly, C., O'Connor, P., Murphy, P.M. and Kelly, A. 1998. VTT
Symposium "Fresh Novel Food by High Pressure." Ed. By Autio, K., Helsinki, 103-114
3. Dozet, N., Adţiš, N., Stanišiš, M., LJumoviš, M. 1987. Kvalitet I tehnologija autohtonih
mlijeţnih proizvoda Crne Gore. Zbornik radova poljoprivrednog Instituta, Titograd.
4. Fenelon, M.A .and Guinee, T.P. 2000. Flavour Devlopment in Low-Fat Cheese. 6th.
Cheese symposium. Ed. By Cogan, T.M., MeSweeney, P.L.H. and Guinee, T.P.,
MOOREPARK, 31-42.
5. Fox, P.F . 1989. Proteolysis during Cheese Manufacture and Ripening. J.Dairy Sci. 72
(6), 1379-1400.
6. Fox, P.F. and Cogan, T.M. 1990. Production and Metabolism of Lactate during
Cheese Manufacture and Ripening. Cheese 2nd symposium. Ed. by Cogan, T.M.,
MOOREPARK, 63-70.
7. Fox, P.F. and Cogan, T.M. 2000. Cheese: Scientifie Highlights of the 20 century.
6thCheese Symposium.Ed. by Cogan T.M., McSweeney, P.L.H.and Guinee, T.P.,
MOOREPARK, 83-121.
8. Jovanoviš, S. 2001. Doktorska disertacija, Univerzitet u Beogradu
9. Jovanoviš, S., Mašej, O., Vuţiš, T., Seratliš, S. 2005. Zbornik radova Simpozijuma ―
Mleko I proizvodi od mleka‖ . Ur. Mašej, O., Jovanoviš, S. Tara, 84-86.
10. Mašej, O., Jovanoviš, S., Baraš, M., Seratliš, S., Vuţiš, T. 2005. 8 th International
Symposium Modern Trends In Livestock Production, Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry,
Belgrade- Zemun, Serbia and Montenegro, Vol 21 (5-6), 369-373.
11. Mašej, O.,1989. Prouţavanje mogušnosti izrade mekih sireva na bazi koagregata
belanţevina mleka. Doktorska disertacija, Poljoprivredni fakultet Beograd.
12. Pejiš, O., ĐorŤeviš, J. 1963. Mlekarski praktikum, Nauţna knjiga Beograd
13. PuŤa, P. 2009. Tehnologija mleka 1 sirarstvo , Poljoprivredni fakultet Beograd
14. Ross, P.R., StantonC., Hill, C., Fitzgerald, G.F. and Coffey, A. 2000. 6 th Cheese
Symposium. Ed. By Cogan, T.M., McSweeney, P.L.H. and Guinee T.P., MOOREPARK,
72-82.
15. Saviš, Ţ., 2011 . Promena azotnih materija tokom zrenja Sjeniţkog sira i sira u tipu
sjeniţkog, Doktorska disertacija, Poljoprivredni fakultet Priština – Lešak
16. Stankoviš, J., Raleviš, N., LJubanoviš-Raleviš, I. 1989. Statistika sa primenom u
poljoprivredi, Savremena administracija, Beograd.
17. Wilkinson, M.G. 1990. 2nd Cheese Symposium. Ed. By Cogan, T.M., MOOREPARK,
111-119.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ţ.Saviš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: zeljko.savic@pr.ac.rs
V.Đuriš, PhD, Assistant , University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: vladan.djuric@pr.ac.rs
N.Lališ, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka
Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nebojsa.lalic@pr.ac.rs
89
COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON THE HCH CONTAMINATION OF
SOME DIARY PRODUCTS IN OLT AND TIMIS DISTRICTS
M. Cazacu, A. Rivis, C.I. Jianu, I. Cocan and D.S. Stef
Abstract: The aim of this study was detection of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) residues in dairy
products from the sheep and cattle in Timis and Olt counties. The researches were performed over a period
of three years. The analyzed products were: the milk, cheese and the butter. Five hundred and seventy
three samples were collected, of which 458 Timis and of 115 from Olt. Seventy samples (12.22%) out of 573
were contaminated with HCH. The percentage of contaminated products was far higher in Olt County
(16.52%) comparatively with Timis county (11.14%). The smallest percentage of contamination has been
observed in butter, which had no one sample contaminated in Timis area and only one in sample
contaminated in olt county. It followed the milk with 6.89% contamination percent in Olt county and only
2.68% in Timis County. The worst situation was recorded for cheese, that had a 20.25% percent
contamination in Olt county and 14.20% in Timis County. One good thing was that year by year, both
districts have registered a smaller contamination. In Timis county the percentage of contamination
decreased from 24.69% in the first year to 5.21% in the second year, respectively at 3% in the last year. In
Olt county the decreased was from 27.27% in the first year to 15.0% in the second year, respectively at
7.84% in the last year.
Key words: pesticides, hexachlorocyclohexane, dairy products, sheep, cattle
INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are widely used in agricultural crops because of their susceptibility to
insect and disease attacks. Therefore, it has been a growing interest in the detection and
quantification of pesticide residues in agricultural produce intended for human
consumption [3].
Extensive use of pesticides in agriculture industry poses a serious threat to
surroundings, domestic animals and public health [6].
The increasing public concern over the potential health hazard associated with
exposure to pesticides has led to the strict regulation of maximum residue limits (MRLs) of
pesticide residues in food commodities [1].
Pesticide poisoning in developing countries has been a concern since decades. The
International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has been one of the most important
international initiatives to reduce negative impact from pesticide use in developing
countries. The FAO Code of Conduct is considered the globally accepted standard for
pesticide management [9].
Among common pesticides, organochlorine pesticides received the most attention
because of their persistence in the environment (air, sediments, groundwater), ability to
concentrate up the food web, and tend to bioaccumulate in various organs like kidney,
liver, gills, stomach, brain, and muscle of aquatic organisms particularly fish [8]. Due to
their high toxicity and lipid solubility these pesticides
are known to have carcinogenic,
teratogenic, and endocrine-disruptive effects in humans and wildlife [4]. Also, it has been
suggested that exposure to high levels of pesticides, including poisoning, experienced by
agriculture workers and rural residents may result in an elevated risk of neuropsychiatric
sequelae (mood disorders, depression and anxiety) and suicide attempts and mortality [5].
Among the organochlorine pesticides, c-hexachlorocyclohexane (c-HCCH) is
commercially available as lindane has a wide range of applications in agricultural, medical
and veterinary products as a very effective systemic insecticide [2].
Therefore the aim of this study was detection of HCH residues in dairy products from
the sheep and cattle in Timis and Olt counties.
90
Sample collection
A total of five hundred and seventy three samples were collected, of which 458 Timis
and of 115 from Olt counties.
Gas chromatographic determination
The final residues were analyzed by gas chromatograph that allowed the detection of
contaminants even at trace level concentrations (in the lower mg/g range) from the matrix
to which other detectors do not respond. The GC conditions used for the analysis were
capillary column: 100-120 OV11 on Chromosorb WHP. The injector and detector
temperatures were set at 250 ºC. The column temperature was programmed at 200 ºC.
Nitrogenwas used as carrier gas at a flow rate of 20 mL/ min. The injection volume of the
GC was 2.0 µL [7].
The results for HCH contamination of some diary products in Olt and Timis districts
are presented in Table 1 and more suggestive in Figures 1 and 2.
Table 1 The results for HCH contamination of some diary products in Olt and Timis
districts
Specification
Year 1
Diary product
Milk
Telemea
Cheese
Butter
Total
Year 2
Milk
Telemea
Cheese
Butter
Total
Year 3
Milk
Telemea
Cheese
Butter
Total
Samples
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
Analyzed Samples
Confirmed
91
Coun
ty
Timi
O
s
lt
13
8
2
1
146
33
38
11
3
3
162
44
40
12
11
9
1
1
70
11
4
2
15
96
20
5
3
68
12
122
35
6
3
10
4
1
200
51
6
4
Olt
458
Timiş
500
450
400
350
300
162
4
6
51
5
3
20
12
50
40
44
100
51
96
115
150
19
200
200
250
0
Analyzed Confirmed Analyzed Confirmed Analyzed Confirmed Analyzed Confirmed
Samples
Samples
Samples
Samples
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Total
Figure 1. The graphic illustration of the total number of samples analyzed
Seventy samples (12.22%) out of 573 were contaminated with HCH. Fifty one
samples of these were registered in Timis and nineteen in Olt. Thus, the percentage of
contaminated products was far higher in Olt County (16.52%) comparatively with Timis
county (11.14%).
One good thing was that year by year, both districts have registered a smaller
contamination. In Timis county the percentage of contamination decreased from 24.69% in
the first year to 5.21% in the second year, respectively at 3% in the last year. In Olt county
the decreased was from 27.27% in the first year to 15.0% in the second year, respectively
at 7.84% in the last year.
Milk Anal.
Milk Confirm.
Cheese Anal.
Cheese Confirm.
Butter Anal.
Butter Confirm.
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 1
Timis
Year 2
Year 3
Olt
Figure 2. The graphic illustration of the kinds of dairy products analyzed
The smallest percentage of contamination has been observed in butter, which had no
one sample contaminated in Timis area and only one in sample contaminated in olt
county. It followed the milk with 6.89% (2 samples out of twenty nine) contamination
percent in Olt county and only 2.68% in Timis County (3 samples out of one hundred
92
and twelwe). The worst situation was recorded for cheese, that had a 20.25% percent
contamination in Olt county and 14.20% in Timis County.
One good thing was that year by year, both districts have registered a smaller
contamination. In Timis county the percentage of contamination decreased from 24.69% in
the first year to 5.21% in the second year, respectively at 3% in the last year. In Olt county
the decreased was from 27.27% in the first year to 15.0% in the second year, respectively
at 7.84% in the last year.
Even if a small number of dairy were assessed, the results have shown a higher
contamination with pesticides in Olt county. It was registered a higher percentage
(+5.38%) for Olt county comparatively with Timis county.
The least contaminated of the three analyzed products was butter which has a single
contaminated sample in thirty five analyzed samples. The worst situation was recorded for
cheese, that had 64 contaminated samples out of 417 analyzed.
Over the three studied years in both counties was noticed a accentuated decrease of
dairy products number contaminated with pesticide.
REFERENCES
[1]. Barr, D. B. and Needham, L. L. 2002. Analytical methods for biological monitoring of
exposure to pesticides: A review. Journal of Chromatography B, 778, 5–29
[2]. Ecobichon, D.J. Toxic effects of pesticides, in: M.O. Amdur, J. Doull, C.D. Klaassen
(Eds.), assarett and Doull‘s toxicology fourth ed., McGraw-Hill, Toronto, 1991, pp. 565–622
[3]. Hercegova, A., Domotorova, M. and Matisova, E. 2007. Sample preparation methods
in the analysis of pesticide residues in baby food with subsequent chromatographic
determination. Journal of Chromatography A, 1153, 54–74.
[4]. Huang, D.J., Wang, S.Y. and Chen, H.C. 2004. Effects of the endocrine disrupter
chemicals chlordane and lindane on the male green neon shrimp (Neocaridina
denticulata), Chemosphere 57:1621–1627.
[5]. London, L., Beseler, C., Bouchard, M.F., Bellinger, D.C., Colosio, C., Grandjean, P.,
Harari, R., Kootbodien, T., Kromhout, H., Little, F., Meijster, T., Moretto, A., Rohlman,
D.S., Stallones, L. 2012. Neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental effects of pesticide
exposures. Neurotoxicology 33, 887–896.
[6] Oheme, W.F. and Mannala, S. Pesticide Use in Veterinary Medicine: Handbook of
Pesticide Toxicology, 2nd Ed., Academic Press, New York, 2001. pp. 263–283
[7]. Popescu, N., Popa, G. and Stanescu, V., Physicochemical determinations for the
foodstuffs. Publishing house Ceres, Bucharest, 1984
[8]. Rahman, M.Z., Hossain, Z., Mollah, M.F.A. and Ahmed, G.U. 2002 Effect of diazinum
60 EC on Anabas toxicant/xenobiotic and to meet energy required to sustain testudineus,
Channa punctatus and Barbodes gonionotus Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly, 25: 8–12
[9]. Vaagt, G., 2002. New code of conduct on pesticides adopted. FAO Press releases,
news stories, Rome (http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/news/2002/10525-en.html.
Accessed July 3, 2004).
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
M. Cazacu, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 119
Aradului Street 300365 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: cazmih@yahoo.com
93
A. Rivis, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 119
Aradului Street 300365 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: adirivis@yahoo.com
C.I. Jianu, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 119
Aradului Street 300365 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: calin.jianu@gmail.com
I. Cocan, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 119
Aradului Street 300365 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: negreaileana@yahoo.com
D.S. Stef, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 119
Aradului Street 300365 Timisoara, Romania, E-mail: ducu_stef@yahoo.com
94
THE EFFECT OF LIMING ON THE Al CONTENT IN SOIL TYPE Dystric
Cambisol AND IN A WHEAT ROOTS
Nebojša Gudţiš, Aleksandar Djikiš, Miroljub Aksiš, Slaviša Gudţiš, Jasmina Kneţeviš,
Miodrag Jeliš
Abstract: The objective was to determine the reasonable amount of lime material required, in order to
mobile Al content in the soil type Dystric Cambisol to bring below the hazardous level. The aim was to
determine the Al content in the roots of wheat plants, as well as plant’s response to the reduction of content
of this element in the soil. Compared to variants where no lime applied, by partial liming content of Al in the
soil has been halved, and in the roots of wheat throughout whole vegetation it has been multiply decreased.
Key words: Liming, Al, Dystric Cambisol, Wheat, Root
INTRODUCTION
At acid soils with pH ≤ 5.5 Al-toxicity is the main stress factor for plants (MerinoGergichevich et al., 2010), and in such conditions it is linked to the prevailing pressure
for adaptation of cultivated plants (Ryan and Delhaize, 2010). First, its indirect impact by
reduction of solubility is being noticed, as well as by availability of nutrients. Namely,
aluminum ions, among other things, block the adsorption of phosphorus and potassium,
and cause disturbing crop growth and development (Zheng, 2010). In addition there are
indirect and direct effects, when Al ions act toxic to the plant. The acidic environment
increases presence of trivalent aluminum cations - Al3 + (Lidon and Barreiro, 2002;
Kochian et al., 2005), which is the most toxic of all types Al.
The best recognized Al-toxicity effects, have been noticed and well described, in the
roots (Barceló and Poschenrider, 2002, Ma, 2007; Panda and Matsumoto, 2007). A
serious problem that appears at high concentrations of aluminum is the inhibition of root
growth. It has been noticed that aluminum influences on the formation of immature and
poor root systems, which have limited ability to adopt mineral nutrients and also increase
the risk of stress caused by drought (Marcshner, 1991). More precise, toxic effect is being
caused by the inhibition of lateral roots and root hairs, interruption of feeding with P and
Ca and inhibition of growth of shoots (Fageria et al., 1988).
However, the upper parts of the plants may be damaged (Merino-Gergichevich et
al., 2010), especially leaves, and about which is rarely known. Today, there are more
evidences of the negative effects of aluminum on the light absorption, photosynthetic
electron transport, gas exchange (Chen et al., 2005a, Chen et al., 2005b; Chen, 2006),
photoprotective systems (Chen et al., 2005a; Ali et al., 2008), pigments (Chen et al.,
2005a; Mihailoovic et al., 2008; Milivojević et al., 2000), as well as other elements
associated with the structure or function of the photosynthetic apparatus.
Aluminium toxicity in acid soils negatively impacts the production of staple food
crops, particulary grain crops (Pineros et al., 2005). Calciation of acid soils is one of the
key factors which can keep or even improve their productivity (Mao et al., 2008; Repšiene
and Skuodiene, 2010). Therefore, this research has the aim to investigate use of different
levels of calcification in an acid soils, such as the Distric Cambisols, defines its effect on
the degree of change on acidity and content of mobile Al in the soil and wheat roots.
Studies were conducted on the soil type Dystric Cambisol near Leposaviš (Kosovska
Mitrovica) during two consecutive years (2009 and 2010. Years). Test crop was wheat
cultivar Pobeda. For calcification has been used CaO with high degree of purity. The
95
material is applied in both years in September, precisely before primary treatment, so it
has been properly distributed over the surface and entered into the soil by plowing.
The quantities of CaO which have been applied, were calculated according to the
value Y1 in the soil and the size of the experimental plots (50 m 2). Three variants of
calcification have been determined and applied: 1/3 Y1 CaO (V-3), 1/2 Y1 CaO (V-4) and
Y1 CaO (V-5), and two variants without calcification: variant with NPK (V-2) and the variant
without liming and fertilization - control (V-1). Fertilizers were applied with the variant
performed with calcification. In all cases, the dose of active nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium were the 120 kg N/ha for P2O5 and K2O, 90 kg/ha (N120P90K90).
The experiment has been performed as a randomized complete block design (RCBD)
with four replications.
In both years, during the stage of wheat tillering (TL), 5 months after liming and
after the harvest (AH), 10 months after liming, the pH was determined in 1M KCl using a
pH meter, and exchangeable Al or cell by the method of Sokolov in soil extract with 1M
KCl, so it has been firstly determined by the total substitutional acidity, and then
precipitation of Al with NaF and influence of Al-ions in forming of substitutional acidity. The
content of Aluminum has been determinate in the average samples of wheat roots during
the phenophasis of tillering (TL) as well as the full maturity (FM) on the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS).
Data were analyzed using standard statistical methods of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using Microsoft Excel 2007 and Statistical Program 5.0. Data analysis has been
used to interpret the results and draw conclusions.
The effects of different liming on active and substitutional acidity during these years
are given in Table 1. Results from the table clearly indicate the very significant effect of
applied CaO. The changes were evident in the first checking after 5 months of treatment
(in the stage of wheat tillering), and the variant with the lowest amount of the calcification
materials.
Table 1. Changes of pH in KCl After Liming
Variantes
V-1
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
Lsd (0.05)
Lsd (0.01)
2009. Years
TL
4.83
4.75
5.23
5.57
6.24
0.12
0.17
2010. Years
AH
4.83
4.79
5.30
5.56
6.20
0.10
0.14
TL
4.84
4.79
5.29
5.60
6.24
0.14
0.20
AH
4.83
4.82
5.24
5.58
6.19
0.09
0.12
Such changes of substitutional, as well as of the active acidity support the necessity
of calcification of acid soils (Busari et al., 2008; Jelic et al., 2011, Mao et al., 2008;
Repšiene and Skuodiene, 2010), in order to create favorable conditions for easy growth
and development of plants. In particular, it refers to a group of plants that are not
sufficiently tolerant to soil acidity.
Mobile aluminum, as one of the limiting factors for crop production on acid soils, at
the Dystric Cambisols was at the level which has been expected for depressing effect on
crops. However, calcification in all the years of research and at all levels of melioration,
radically changed a picture of mobile Al content, and the results are shown in Table 2.
Contents of mobile Al3 +, in both years, strongly changed in the entire variant with CaO.
96
Thus, during the first phase of determining in the phase of tillering of wheat, in the variant
with full calcification, it has been found Al content in trace amounts. At the same time, at
the partial variant (V-3), and in particular the partial calcification, mobile aluminum content
is reduced to a level when it significantly reduces the risk of its toxic effects on crops. In
the treatments V-3 and V-4 during the growing season it has been registered a slight
increase of the mobile Al content.
Table 2. Changes of Content of Mobile Aluminium in Soil (mg · 100 g-1) After Liming
Variantes
V-1
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
Lsd (0.05)
Lsd (0.01)
2009. Years
TL
12.28
12.32
5.26
2.17
0.48
0.35
0.50
2010. Years
AH
12.21
12.54
5.56
2.37
0.40
0.28
0.40
TL
13.62
13.92
6.25
2.44
0.47
0.35
0.50
AH
13.80
13.87
6.39
2.62
0.42
0.07
0.10
According to results of other authors calcification had the same effect on other soil
types, as pseudogley (Dugalić et al., 2002, Jelic et al., 2011), Dystric albeluvisol
(Repšiene and Skuodiene, 2010), rinsed pseudogley and cambisol (Pivić et al., 2011).
The reaction of the plant versus to lower content of Al in the soil in which liming has
been applied, fully veryfy this measure. Namely, starting from partial and endin with full
liming, it has been recorded constant decrease of Al content, in teh wheat roots (Table 3.).
Table 3. Changes of Aluminium Content in Wheat Roots (mg · 100 g-1) After Liming
Variantes
V-1
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
Lsd (0.05)
Lsd (0.01)
2009. Years
TL
54.00
55.50
43.50
26.00
21.25
4.52
6,25
2010. Years
FM
64.50
64.00
42.00
25.75
21.25
4.71
6.51
TL
55.00
55.00
44.50
24.00
20.75
3.56
4.92
FM
66.75
65.00
44.50
25.25
21.25
3.32
4.60
By full liming, content of aluminum has been reduced at the normal level. The similar
effect has been achieved at the variant with half-liming, what can completely recommend
this level of the applied lime materials. A positive influence of liming materials on the Al
content at other grains has been noted by other authors as well, like in the rotts and lieves
of oats. (Djuric et al., 2011) and above land wheat mass – (Pivić, et al, 2011).
Since the problem of acidity can not be definitively resolved, it is completely
acceptable regular application of lime material that would soil acidity maintain at an
acceptable level (Garscho and Parker, 2001). In this way benefits would be multilateral.
Smaller quantities calcification materials would be on one side, economically viable, and
on the other side can ensure better availability of nutrients, as well as a more favorable
environment for the growth and development of crops.
The degree of reduction in content of mobile Al with partial (1/3 Y 1) and in half
calcification (1/2 Y1) justify and affirm these levels in calcification of acid soil. Main benefits
97
of lower levels of calcification were lower investments in calcification material, and
reducing the content of mobile Al Tha plants response was in the reduction of Al content
in the values which are usual in the lower level of calcification. By this it is appearing the
imperative that further work should be targeted toward the defining of more precise, and
economic reasonable quantities of lime materials lower than complete quantities for
neutralization of acid soils, which can significantly improve soil conditions for unpended
plant growth.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation published in this paper is a part of the projects ―The development of
biotechnology‖ (grant No TR-31054) financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
REFERENCES
[1]. Ali, B., Hasah, S.A., Hayat, S., Hayat, Y., Yadav, S., Fariduddin, Q., Ahmad, A. 2008.
A role for brassinosteroids in the amelioration of aluminium stress through antioxidant
system in mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Environmental and Experimental Botany
62 (2), 153-159.
[2]. Barceló, J., Poschenrieder, C. 2002. Fast root growth responses, root exudates, and
internal detoxification as clues to the mechanisms of aluminum toxicity and resistance: a
review. Environmental and Experimental Botany 48 (1), 75-92.
[3]. Busari, M.A., Salako, F.K., Adetunji, M.T. 2008. Soil chemical properties and maize
yield after application of organic and inorganic amendments to an acidic soil in
southwestern Nigeria. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Reserch 6 (4), 691-699.
[4]. Chen, L.S., Qi, Y.P., Liu, X.H. 2005a. Effects of aluminum on light energy utilization
and photoprotective systems in citrus leaves. Annals of Botany 96 (1), 35-41.
[5]. Chen, L.S, Qi, Y.P., Smith, B.R., Liu, X.H. 2005b. Aluminum-induced decrease in
CO2 assimilation in citrus seedlings is unaccompanied by decreased activities of key
enzymes involved in CO2 assimilation. Tree Physiology 25 (3), 317-324.
[6]. Chen, L.S. 2006. Physiological responses and tolerance of plant shoot to aluminum
toxicity. Journal of Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology 32 (2), 143-155.
[7]. Dugališ, G., Jeliš, M., Jovanoviš, Ţ. 2002. Effect of liming and fertilization on agro
chemical properties of pseudogley soil in the Kraljevo basin. Zemljište i biljka 51 (1), 41-50.
[8]. Djuric, M., Mladenovic, J., Pavlovic, R., Murtic, N., Murtic, S., Milic, V., Sekularac, G.
2011. Aluminium content in leaf and root of oat (Avena sativa L.) grown in pseudogley soil.
African Journal of biotechnology 10 (77), 17837-17840.
[9]. Fageria, N.K., Baligar, V.C., Wright, R.J. 1988. Aluminium toxicity in crop plants.
Journal of Plant Nutrition 11 (3), 303-319.
[10]. Garscho, G.J., Parker, M.B. 2001. Long-term liming effects on coastal plain soils and
crops. Agronomy Journal 93 (6), 1305-1315.
[11]. Jeliš, M., Milivojeviš, J., Đaloviš, I., Paunoviš, A., Dugališ, G. 2011. Amelioration of
pseudogley soil using different ameliorants and fertilizers. Proceedings. 46th Croatian and
6th International Symposium on Agriculture. Opatija, pp 98-101.
[12]. Kochian, L.V., Pineros, M.A., Hoekenga, O.A. 2005. The physiology, genetics and
molecular biology of plant aluminum resistance and toxicity. Plant and Soil 274, 175-195.
[13]. Lidon, F., Barreiro, M. 2002. An overview into aluminum toxicity in maize. Bulgarian
Journal of Plant Physiology 28 (3-4), 96-112
98
[14]. Ma, J.F. 2007. Syndrome of aluminum toxicity and diversity of aluminum resistance in
higher plants. Int. Rev. Cytol. 264, 225-252.
[15]. Mao, J., Olk, D. C., Fang, X., He, Z., Schmidt-Rohr, K. 2008. Influence of animal
manure application on the chemical structures of soil organic matter as investigated by
advanced solid- state NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy. Geoderma 146 (1-2), 353-362
[16]. Marschner, H. 1991. Mechanisms of adaptation of plants to acid soils. Plant and Soil
134 (1), 1-20.
[17]. Merino-Gergichevich, C., Alberdi, M., Ivanov, A. G. Reyes-Diaz. 2010. Al3+ - Ca2+
interaction in plants growing in acid soils: Al-phytototoxicity response to calcareous
amendments. Journal Soil Science Plant Nutrition 10 (3), 217-243.
[18]. Mihailovic, N., Drazic, G., Vucinic, Z. 2008. Effects of aluminium on photosynthetic
performance in Al-sensitive and Al-tolerant maize inbred lines. Photosynthetica 46, (3),
476-480.
[19]. Milivojeviš, D.B., Stojanoviš, D.D., Driniš, S.D. 2000. Effects of aluminium on
pigments and pigment-protein complexes of soybean. Biologia Plantarum 43, (4), 595-597.
[20]. Panda, S.K., Matsumoto, H. 2007. Molecular physiology of aluminum toxicity and
tolerance in plants. Botanical Review 73, (4), 326-347.
[21]. Pineros, M.A., Schaf, J.E., Monslank, H.S., Carvalho-Alvesand, V.M., Kochian, L.V.
2005. Aluminium resistance in Maise Cannot Be Soley Explained by Root Organic Acid
Exudation. A Comparative Physiological Study. Plant Phyisiology 137 (1) 231-241.
[22]. Piviš, R., Stojanoviš, A., Maksimoviš, S., Stevanoviš, D. 2011. Chemical properties of
soils and plant as affected by use of metallurgical slag. Scientific Research and Essays 6,
(8), 1793-1807
[23]. Repšiene, R., Skuodiene, R. 2010. The influence of liming and organic fertilisation
on the changes of some agrochemical indicators and their relationship with crop weed
incidence. Ţemmdirbzste - Agriculture 97 (4), 3-14.
[24]. Ryan, P.R., Delhaize, E. 2010. The convergent evolution of aluminium resistance in
plants exploits a convenient currency. Functional Plant Biology 37 (4), 275-284.
[25]. Zheng, S.J. 2010: Crop production on acidic soils: overcoming aluminium toxicity and
phosphorus deficiency. Annals of Botany 106 (1), 183-184.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: nebojsa.gudzic@pr.ac.rs
A.Djikic, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: alaksandar.djikic@pr.ac.rs
S. Gudţiš, PhD, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: slavisa.gudzic@pr.ac.rs
J. Kneţeviš, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: jasmina.knzevic@pr.ac.rs
M.Jeliš, Associate Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street bb 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: miodrag.jelic@pr.ac.rs
99
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE ENERGY AND PROTEIC
METABOLISM APPLIED TO PIGS
R. Burlacu, C. Niţu
Abstract: The paper presents a mathematical model to calculate the energy and protein requirements
of the growing and fattening pigs. Traditionally, the energy and protein allowances are designed to produce
as high as possible performance (we shall refer subsequently to the daily weight gain). Only a few systems
of assessing the energy and nutrient requirement offer the possibility to monitor carcass quality expressed
mainly by the lipid to protein ratio. The purpose of this paper is to present a viewpoint on a possible solution
for this aspect. The model is used to develop a procedure for diet calculation.
Keywords: mathematical modelling, energy metabolism, protein metabolism, pig nutrition
NORMS FOR GROWING AND FATTENING PIGS
A) Body weight and chemical composition assessment
The body weight (kg), function of age, is calculated with a Gompertz equation:
G  Ae
e
B  t - t x 


[kg]
(1)
where:
A = body weight at maturity
B = growth coefficient
t = age in days
tx = inflexion point, the time in days when the gain peaks
The net weight Gn may be assessed with the formula:
Gn  G/1,05
[kg]
(2)
and the net weight gain Gn is the sum Pr (retained protein), Lr (retained lipids), Cenr
(retained ash) and Ar (retained water).
The values Pr, were calculated with the formula
 P
t
Pr  B  Pt  In 
 Pt 
 
[kg]
(3)
where Pt, kg is given by the relation:
B  t - t x 


[kg]
(4)
Pt  Pˆt  e e
ˆ
values B and Pt are given in the gable below, which also shows the maximal values
of Pr and of the minimal ratio Lr/Pr.
Type
Household
Commercial
Elite
Superelite
Sex
B
M
F
C
M
F
C
M
F
C
M
F
C
0,0105
0,0100
0,0095
0,0115
0,0110
0,0105
0,0125
0,0120
0,0115
0,0135
0,0130
0,0125
P t̂ [Kg]
37,5
35,0
34,5
42,5
40,0
37,5
47,5
45,0
42,5
52,5
50,0
47,5
100
Pr [Kg]
(Lr/Pr)m
in
0,145
0,120
0,114
0,180
0,162
0,145
0,218
0,199
0,180
0,261
0,239
0,218
0,9
1,1
1,2
0,7
0,9
1,0
0,5
0,7
0,8
0,4
0,5
0,6
The daily gain of lipids Lr was calculated with the ratio Lr/Pr:
Lr = Lr/Pr  Pr
[kg]
(5)
where Lr/Pr was calculated differentiated by males, females and castrated pigs
according to the age (Burlacu et al., 1996):
For young boars:
2
3
4
(6)
Lr/Pr  e -0,935 -0,0288t 0,000826t -0,00000616t 0,000000015t
For young sows:
2
3
4
5
(7)
Lr/Pr  e -2,6330,08t -0,00142t 0,0000154t -0,0000000793t 0,0000000001513t
For castrated pigs:
2
3
4
5
(8)
Lr/Pr  e -2,0740,06364t -0,001317t 0,0000168t 0,0000000977t 0,000000000206t
The daily retained water and ash (Ar + Cenr) are calculated with the relation:
Ar  Cenr 
where
Ar  Cenr
 Pr
Pr
[kg]
(9)
Ar  Cenr
has the following values:
Pr
For young boars and castrated pigs:
2
3
Ar  Cenr
 e2,7390,0434t0,000421t 0,000001325t
Pr
(10)
For young sows:
t


Ar  Cenr
 37,423 e 10,703  4,154 e
Pr
t
744,84
(11)
The net weight Gn, ([Kg] at age t + 1) = Gn + (ΔGn at moment t), where t initial = 35
days, and Gn initial = 9.5 Kg for all sexes and categories
B) Assessment of EM norms
EM = EMm + EPr + ELr
[MJ/day]
(12)
for the calculation of
EMm= requirement of metabolisable energy for maintenance
[MJ/day]
EPr = requirement of metabolisable energy for body protein synthesis [MJ/day]
ELr = requirement of metabolisable energy for body fat synthesis
[MJ/day]
the following formulas are to be used:
[MJ/day]
(13)
EMm 1,75 Pt0,75
EPr  54,6 Pr
ELr  53,3Lr,
[MJ/day]
(14)
[MJ/day]
(15)
where: Lr (lipid gain, in kg.) = 1,1 Pt0,07  Pr
C) Assessment of the norms of available protein and limiting amino acids
PA = Pm + Pr : 0,813
where:
Pm (net protein for maintenance)
Pm  0,04 x Pt
Pr = gain of body protein
[kg]
101
[kg]
(16)
[kg]
(17)
0.813 is the output of PA utilization for Pr
- lysine requirement = PA x 70
- met. + cys. requirement = PA x 40
- tryptophan requirement = PA x 15
- threonine requirement = PA x 45
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
PARTICULAR CASES OF DIET CALCULATION (RESTRICTED FEEDING)
In the practice, we are often confronted with situations when feeding is restricted. In
this situation (restricted feeding), the manner of calculating changes. Therefore, we are
presenting subsequently the manner of calculation of the requirement of energy and amino
acids:
Inputs
:
Body weight: G [kg]
Average daily body weight: G [kg]
Age: t [days]
Parameters: B, Pˆt, Prˆ , t* - with the values and significance as shown above
Stage I Calculation of the requirement of metabolisable energy and protein
corresponding to the minimal Lr/Pr - ratio
The value of minimal
Lr
Pr
ratio was calculated using the experimental data:
Lr
min a 
Pr
b
(22)
- t -c
1 e d
where for the commercial castrated type we used the following values:
a = 0.677; b = 1.95; c = 148; d = 23.63
The value of the retained protein is given in this case by:
Pr 
G
Lr
Ar  Cenr 

1,051 
min

Pr
Pr


[kg]
(23)
[kg]
(24)
where:
G - average daily gain
For
Ar  Cenr
Pt, Pm, PA, EMm, EPr, Lr, ELr, EM, LizD, M+CD, TRID, TREONINAD
Pr
the formulas from the above relations are to be used.
OBSERVATION 1: The dimensions important in determining the requirement of
energy and protein according to this system of calculation are the metabolisable energy
EM and the available protein PA.
The two calculation stages presented above show a striking fact, at first sight, but
perfectly justified physiologically: for a restricted feeding and lower weight gains than the
maximal values, there are variable values of the ratio Lr/Pr
Lr  Lr
Lr

(25)
  min; max
Pr
Pr 
Pr

involves the existence of norms that belong to some intervals:
102
EM EMmin; EMmax 
(26)
PA  PAmin; PAmax 
In other words, for a set daily gain, for each value
Lr
Pr
there is a distinct norm of
protein and energy.
Observation 1 is shown graphically as follows:
P
G
- fixat
A
PA
A
max
B
PA
E
min
E
E
Mmin
Mmax
M
Fig. 1
Any pair EM, PA of segment AB represents pertinent values to obtain the set weight
gain.
Obviously, each time there will be a different quality indicator as given by Lr/Pr ratio.
OBSERVATION 2: It can be immediately observed that the protein norms assessed
with the system presented here eliminate the value of the digestible protein. Yet, diet
optimisation also involves the essential use of an equation in PBD.
The connection between PBD and PA is given by the biological value of the diet:
VB 
PA
PA
 PBD 
,
PBD
VB
0  VB  1
(27)
As VB can not be known beforehand it results that the norm of PBD depends on the
nature and structure of the dietary raw materials, since it is no longer unique the value of
PBD can no longer be used traditionally in the ―norm tables‖ even though diet optimisation
is done using the digestible nutrients.
Stage II. The calculation of the requirement of metabolisabe energy and protein
corresponding to the maximal ratio Lr/Pr
We calculate the maximally ingested metabolisable energy:
G

EMmax  441- e- 0,0204 




[MJ]
(28)
We calculate the maximal value of the retained protein with the formula:
Prmax  B  Pt  ln
Pˆ t
Pt
(29)
With the formula
EPr  54,6 Pr
[MJ/day]
we calculate the energy required to retain the protein corresponding to Pr max.
We calculate the energy required to retain lipids:
ELr  EMmax - EMm - EPr - Q,
[MJ]
(30)
(31)
Which gives the maximal value for the retained lipids:
Lrmax 
ELr
53,3
[kg]
103
(32)
Thus, we obtained the maximal ratio retained lipids / retained protein:
Lr
Lr
max  ma x
Pr
Prmax
(33)
We then use the same procedure of calculation as in stage I, starting with the
calculation of Pr inclusive.
The dependence of PBD requirement function of the biological value of the diet is
shown in Fig.2.
PA given
C
PB
Dmax
D
PB
Dmin
V
V
B
V
Bmin
Bmax
Fig. 2
The dependence of PBD requirement function of the available protein is shown in Fig.
3.
PB
D
P
PBDmax
O
N
M
P
PBDmin
P
A
Fig. 3
P
Amax
A
Amin
Fig. 4 shows graphically the connection between EM and PBD.
P
PB
D
E
G
- fixed
PBDmax
H
PBDmin
F
V
Bmin
G V
Bmax
E
E
M
Mmax
Mmin
Fig. 4
Any point in the trapeze EFGH is a norm expressed in EM, PBD for a set ∆G.
The existence of an area EFGH for the requirement of EM and PBD is due to the two
E
parameters
Lr Lr
Lr

  Pr min, max and VB  [VBmin, VBmax].
Pr 
Pr

104
OBSERVATION 3. For simplification, the tables may show the average values for EM
and PA (and therefore for amino acids too).
EMtabel 
EMmax  EMmin
PA tabel 
2
PAmax  PAmin
2
(34)
REFERENCES
[1]. Burlacu Gh., Burlacu R., Cavache A, (1996), Indicatorii noului sistem de apreciere a
valorii nutritive a nutreţurilor. Calculul normelor de hrană şi optimizarea raţiilor pentru
animalele de fermă, IBNA  SIAT (New system of indicators for assessing the nutritive
value of forages. Calculation and optimization rules for food rations for farm animals)
[2]. Kyriazakis J. and G.C. Emmans (1992) , British J. Nutr., 68, 615
[3]. Whittemore C. (1993), The Science and Practice of Pig Productions, Longmane
Scientific and Technical, London
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
R. Burlacu, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 59 Marasti
Street, sect. 1, Bucharest, Romania, 0040 722 422 881, E-mail: R.Burlacu@usamv.ro
C. Niţu, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 59 Marasti
Street, sect. 1, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: c.nitu@fifim.ro
105
OPTIMIZING THE ELECTROPHORETIC SEPARATION METHOD OF
TOMATO AND WHEAT PROTEIN FRACTIONS
Florina Furdi
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to describe an improved protocol for obtaining very accurate
images of electrophoretic profiles of seed proteins from several important crops. To obtain protein profiles,
the separation method of protein subunits with different molecular weights by their electrophoretic migration
through sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel was used.
After the optimization, the protocol has proven to be very effective in cereals and tomato, showing
protein bands with molecular weights ranging from 10kDa to 150kDa.
Key words: Protein Fractions, Electrophoretic Profiles, Seed Storage Proteins, Cereals, Wheat,
Tomato.
INTRODUCTION
We say that a protein is a biochemical marker of the gene that caused it. In many
plant species storage proteins are well characterized and are used to identify and to
differentiate genotypes, based on protein pattern. They are also used to highlight the
relationships between genotypes and between species. One of the methods used to
estimate genetic variability in plants is the analysis of electrophoretic profiles of proteins.
Lately, the characterization of germplasm using biochemical fingerprinting has got special
attention.
In wheat was proven the correlation between dough quality for bread making and
presence of several electrophoretic fractions of glutenins and gliadins (storage proteins of
wheat grain) [1, 5, 6], which opened the prospect of direct selection of valuable genotypes
at the level of individual grain.
In tomato, SDS-PAGE is used for analysis of protein polymorphism for germplasms
characterization and for genotypes identification [2, 4] but also to assess tolerance to
environmental factors [3].
The overall objective of this work was to optimize a SDS-PAGE protocol in order to
obtain a good resolution of seed storage protein fractions and a good quality of protein
patterns images in cereals and tomato.
Romanian genotypes of wheat and tomato were used for analysis of seed protein
electrophoretic fractions through SDS-PAGE method.
The protocol was optimized after repeated probing with different amounts of reagents
and with different concentrations of solutions, starting from a protocol for isolation of
Triticum aestivum glutenins, provided by the website http://agricoop.nic.in. Changes relate
mainly to the stacking gel composition, but also to the loading dye and to the fixing,
staining and destaining solutions.
Protein extraction solution was prepared from 4.25 ml of stock solution (wich
contained 6.25 ml 1 M TRIS HCl buffer (TRIS Hydrochloride) pH 6.8, 12.05 ml distilled
water, 2 g SDS (sodium dodecyl sulphate), 10 mg Bromphenol Blue or Coomasie Brilliant
Blue, 10 ml glycerol) to wich were added 0.75 ml of 2-mercaptoethanol and distilled water
to 10 ml immediately before use.
50 mg of the resulting flour by grinding seeds were mixed in Eppendorf tubes with
0.75 ml of the fresh prepared extraction solution. The samples were left for two hours at
room temperature and were shaken on vortex for several times. The samples were then
kept in the thermostat at 100°C for 10 minutes and then allowed to cool. After cooling,
106
were centrifuged at 9000 rpm, 10 minutes.
The polyacrylamide gels were prepared in the amounts required by the
molds used sizes but may be adjusted to any size.
Solutions required: 40.02% acrylamide solution; 0.39% bisacrylamide solution; buffer
for resolving gel (121.14 g TRIS, HCl to pH 8.8, distilled water up to 1000 ml); buffer for
stacking gel (121.14 g Tris, HCl until pH 6.8, distilled water to 1000 ml); 10% SDS (sodium
dodecyl sulphate) solution; 10% APS (amonium persulphate) solution; TEMED
(tetramethylethylenediamine); stock buffer solution for migration (10 x) (141.1 g glycine, 30
g TRIS, 10 g of SDS, distilled water up to 1000 ml, NaOH or HCl to pH 8.3); 2-15% TCA
(trichloroacetic acid) solution, 1% CBB (Coomassie Brilliant Blue) solution; staining
solution (55 g of TCA, 65 ml of glacial acetic acid, 180 ml of ethanol, 25 ml of 1% CBB,
distilled water up to 1000 ml); bleaching solution: 12% TCA.
The following tables present the gels compositions.
Table 1. Resolving gel composition (pH 8.8)
No.
Name of the component
Quantity
1.
Acrylamide 40.02 %
8 ml
2.
Bisacrylamide 0.39 %
10.4 ml
3.
Buffer for resolving gel, Tris-HCl 1 M, pH 8.8
12 ml
4.
SDS 10 %
0.32 ml
5.
APS 10 %
0.8 ml
6.
TEMED
0.016 ml
Total volume
31.53 ml
Table 2. Stacking gel composition (pH 6.8)
No.
Name of the component
Quantity
1.
Distilled water
3.252 ml
2.
Acrylamide 40.02 %
0.750 ml
3.
Bisacrylamide 0.39 %
1.074 ml
4.
Buffer for stacking gel, Tris-HCl 1 M, pH 6.8
1.252 ml
5.
SDS 10 %
0.1 ml
6.
APS 10 %
0.037 ml
7.
TEMED
0.012 ml
Total volume
6.47 ml
The resolving gel was thoroughly mixed and poured into the space between the glass
plates, in order to avoid the formation of air bubbles.
1-2 ml butanol was carefully added above the resolving gel to obtain a flat surface.
After solidification of the gel, butanol was removed, the gel was rinsed with distilled water,
and the remaining residues were absorbed with filter paper.
After the stacking gel was poured carefully over the resolving gel, in the upper part of
the mold was immediately inserted a comb. After solidification of stacking gel comb was
removed. Wells obtained after removal of the comb, were rinsed with running buffer diluted
1:10 with distilled water, or only with distilled water.
Diluted migration buffer was poured into the electrophoresis tank and after removing
the clamps and rubber spacer, the mold was inserted into the electrophoresis tank and
secured with clips. Gel electrophoresis was maintained first at 100V from 10 to 30 minutes,
107
after which the samples were placed in the wells (about 7.75 ml of supernatant/well).
Electrophoresis was held at room temperature at a voltage of 65-100 V for the stacking gel
and 120-200 V for the resolving gel. After the dye has passed the bottom of the gel, the
current was switched off, the mold was disassembled and the separation gel was cut at a
fixed angle (to facilitate recognition of the order of samples) and stirred in 200 ml of TCA 2
% or 12%, for 30-60 minutes for fixation. Then, after washing with distilled water, it was left
in the dye solution over night. Destaining was carried out with 12% trichloroacetic acid
solution to remove the dye which non-specifically adhered to the gel. The gel was rinsed
with distilled water and viewed under white light. Gels were photographed, and the images
were processed using Microsoft Office Picture Manager.
54 wheat genotypes (cultivars, lines and hybrids) obtained from INCDA Fundulea
and from USAMVB Timisoara and 12 tomato genotypes obtained from SCDL Buzau and
ICDLF Vidra, were tested during and after optimization of this protocol.
In figure 1 and figure 2 are shown several profiles obtained after wheat glutenins‘
separation.
Fig. 1. Electrophoretic profiles for glutenin subunits of some wheat genotypes
108
Fig. 2. Electrophoretic profiles for glutenin subunits of some wheat genotypes
In figure no. 3 are shown several profiles obtained after tomato seed proteins‘
separation.
Fig. 3. Electrophoretic profiles for seed protein fractions of some tomato genotypes
Photos were obtained by special photographic camera. Thanks to the resolution and
quality of the gels, the molecular weights and nomenclature (the number assigned to each
subunit in part) of protein bands could be easily determined.
109
After optimization, this protocol has proven very effective in assessing genetic
diversity in cereals and tomatoes, for marker-assisted selection and for determining
individual protein fingerprints. In future experiments should be tested also in other species.
REFERENCES
[1]. Branlard, G., Dardevet, M. 1985. Diversity of Grain Protein and Bread Wheat Quality.
II. Correlation between High Molecular Subunits of Glutenin and Flour Quality
Characteristics. J. Cereal Sci. 3, 345-354.
[2]. Elham A.A. Abd. El-Hady, Atef A.A. Haiba, Nagwa R. Abd. El-Hamid & Aida A. Rizkalla
2010. Phylogenetic Diversity and Relationships of Some Tomato Varieties by
Electrophoretic Protein and RAPD analysis. Journal of American Science 6/11, 434-441.
[3]. Khalifa Noha S. 2012. Protein Expression after Nacl Treatment in Two Tomato
Cultivars Differing in Salt Tolerance. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica 54/2,
79–86.
[4]. Miskoska-Milevska Elizabeta, Dimitrievska Blagica, Poru K., Popovski Z.T. 2008.
Differences in Tomato Seed Protein Profiles Obtained by SDS-PAGE Analysis. Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 53, 1, 13-23.
[5]. Payne, P., I., Holt, L., M., Law, C., N. 1981. Structural and Genetic Studies on the High
Molecular Weight Subunits of Wheat Glutenin. I. Allelic Variation in Subunits Amongst
Varieties of Wheat (Triticum aestivum). Theor. Appl. Genet. 60, 229-236.
[6]. Payne, P., I., Lawrence, G., J. 1983. Catalogue of Alleles for the Complex Gene Loci,
Glu-A1, Glu-B1, and Glu-D1 which Code for the High Molecular Weight Subunits of
Glutenin in Hexaploid Wheat. Cereal Res. Commun. 11, 29-35.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Furdi Florina, postdoctoral internship researcher, Banat‘s University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Calea Aradului no. 119, 300645, Timisoara, Romania,
phone/fax: 0256-277263, E-mail: floryna_researches@yahoo.com
Acknowledgement
This work was published during the project ―POSTDOCTORAL SCHOOL OF
AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE", POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62371, co-financed
by the European Social Fund through the Sectorial Operational Program for the Human
Resources Development 2007-2013.
110
FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND
EXTENSION SERVICES IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
G. Maksimovic, B. Milosevic, Biljana Veljkovic, Z. Spasic
Abstract: Development policies in agriculture have been very effective in addressing the problems of
agricultural productivity. However, this process caused a global growth in consumption of pesticides,
inorganic fertilization components, animal feed-stuffs and heavy machinery. The transfer of technology,
usually produced in developed countries, caused a depletion of natural resources and produced social and
economic problems that, by neglecting the local knowledge and tradition together with applying not adaptive
breeds and varieties, in fact, increased the problem of food insecurity worldwide. Nowadays, many
evidences show that resource-conserving technologies and practices, incorporated into the framework of
sustainable agriculture, can provide many benefits for farmers, even improved yields and productivity, with
introducing only few, or no external inputs.
There is a need for clear national strategy for agriculture and rural development with clearly defined
points of sustainable agriculture. The role of research and extension services in implementation of such a
strategy is irreplaceable. The present system of extension services has to be reformed in order to achieve
the goals of sustainable agricultural development.
Key words: Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development, Research and Extension.
INTRODUCTION
Adoption of sustainable agriculture will inevitably involve losing money. This sentence
illustrates one of the myths about sustainable agriculture, promoted by people who
stubbornly stand at the position of supporting conventional agricultural production.
Concern for the future is the main postulate of sustainable agriculture movements which
was set out in Chapter 14 of Agenda 21. Meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is the key principle
behind the concept of sustainability.
We should ask ourselves why practices consistent with sustainable agriculture are
not adopted more widely. It is obvious that many production questions about sustainable
agriculture are unanswered, partly because of continuing low levels of research funding
available for directly addressing sustainable agriculture issues. Additionally, higher
education institutions do not pay adequate attention to that issue and the conventional
agriculture still persists as the focal point of their work. And finally, transfer of knowledge
from educational and research subjects to the farmers stayed challenging even regarding
the regular activities already incorporated into agenda of research and extension services.
There is a lack of strategic planning that indicates future directions. These institutions
remains oriented towards the large scale production systems, while small farmers stay
away of adequate institutional support. Farmers and households are in the center of
sustainable agriculture philosophy, so it is necessary to adopt new principles and to reform
research and extension system in order to support agricultural development in as much as
possible sustainable way.
In order to effectively provide answers to the questions given in the introduction a
qualitative analysis methodology [3] has been applied and RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal)
approach has been chosen. Semi-structured interviews with key informants and with focal
groups were the primary tool for gathering information. Information from several sources,
statistical office data and papers published, regarding the problem mentioned, as well as
those collected during the field investigation, were synthesized and incorporated in a
111
qualitative analysis report, which summarizes context and future framework for the view of
research and extension service role within the framework of sustainable agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture principles
The concept of sustainable agriculture represents a response to the decline in the
quality of the natural resource base as a result of introducing modern, intensive agriculture
(7). The multifunctional nature of agricultural production and repercussions of intensive
agricultural production redefined the concept which has evolved from a technical one to a
more complex one characterized by social, cultural, political and economic dimensions.
Agriculture jointly produces much more than just food, fiber or oil, having a profound
impact on many elements of local, national and global economies and ecosystems (7).
The mentioned impacts can be negative or positive and the green revolution agriculture,
so far, exerted to many negative ones.
It is obvious that natural processes and resources have been replaced by external
inputs. Inorganic fertilizers have replaced livestock manures, composts, and nitrogen-fixing
crops; pesticides have replaced biological, cultural, and mechanical methods for
controlling pests, weeds, and diseases; information for management decisions comes from
input suppliers, researchers, and extension agents rather than from local sources; and
fossil fuels have substituted for locally generated energy sources. Thus the basic goals of
sustainable agriculture are to make better use of internal resources, both by minimizing the
external inputs used, and by regenerative technologies introduction (2).
The current excessive use of nonrenewable resources will not be possible for future
generations. Sustainable agriculture means greater reliance on renewable methods and
enhancing the resource base for future generations by exploiting useful biological cycles,
thereby saving money spent on externally purchased inputs. Sustainable agriculture is
able to survive in the current economic ambiance by working with nature‘s biological
cycles (through diversification); reducing expenditure for purchased inputs, relying on
income generated through human creativity, labor, and constant sources of energy,
especially the sun (14). Even in highly industrialized agriculture countries, farmers
adopting regenerative technologies have maintained yields at the same time as
substantially reduced use of external inputs (10). The evidences of profitability maintained
even though input use has been cut dramatically, are coming also from Europe (1).
The success of sustainable agriculture depends not just on the motivations, skills,
and knowledge of individual farmers, but also on action taken by groups or communities as
a whole. This implies the need for greater empowerment of farmers and their families and
emanates the need for their involvement in decision making processes and adequate
transfer of knowledge (8). In this process the role of agricultural research and extension
services is essential.
Research and extension services - key elements for sustainabie agriculture
The agricultural research and extension system is one of the primary tools for
spreading the knowledge and technologies and therefore has a very important role in the
development process (16). However, clear agriculture and rural development strategies
with measurable and benchmarked performance indicators and specific targets generally
do not exist or have been inadequately formulated (5). The system of research, education
and extension still performs its previously defined role to support the needs of large scale
technology, intensive ex-state or commercial farms. Most small farmers are used to
obtaining information and guidance from informal and predominately local sources and
seldom view the existing extension service as a supportive institution for development (4).
112
Table 1. Key features of research and extension transformation
Feature
Driving motive
Assumed causes
of problems
Conventional agriculture
Efficiency: maximize
productivity and profit/return to
limited resources;
competitiveness
Lack of knowledge
Farmers are irrational
Sustainable agriculture
Productivity, achieving food and nutritional
security, poverty alleviation, ecological
sustainability and equity
Political-economic roots of problems, neglect
of ecology and farmers' needs / knowledge)
Postulates and
key features
Crop/commodity specific
monoculture, uniformity/
homogeneity, reductionism.
Institutional
relations and
actors
Top-down (linear) technology
development and transfer
model Research to extension
(or private sector) to farmers
Main
beneficiaries
Private sector, formal
institutions
Focus of
innovation
Single technologies (seeds,
agro chemical, bio-technology)
Production technologies
Main types of
research
Unidisciplinary, reductionist,
scientists or private sector
generate knowledge, mainly
done in laboratories and
research stations
Both production and R&D technologies;
Multidisciplinary, farmers are researchers
and innovators, on-farm, participatory, in
communities
Common view of
farmers
Passive audience/partners,
irrational seen as conservative
and ignorant
Active, rational, key partners in the
innovation process with valuable knowledge;
Farmers are active in adopting new research
findings
Skills required
Policy arena
Specialization in technology,
biological/agronomic sciences,
business/finances, bio
technology
Political agencies form rules,
close connection with private
sectors
Agro-ecosystems, polycultures, multiple and
high value crops and resources in system,
diversity, holistic approach
Collaboration and networks, horizontal
relations (farmer to farmer); innovation
systems,
pluralism (research, extension, NGOs,
education, civil societies, private sectors)
Public interests, communities and farmers
(especially the poor), women and children,
vulnerable groups
Agro ecological principles, institutional
innovations, empowerment and capacity
building, relationship among partners and
actors
Biological systems management, social and
institutional relations, people/partnering
skills, facilitating skills.
Community actively involved in setting
agenda and decisions environmental/social/
interests
Extension workers are selecting key farmer ―leaders‖ supposing that technologies
and approaches will be disseminated to other farmers. However, they tend to select
―suitable farmers‖ so it is not possible to achieve ―farmer to farmer‖ extension. Finally,
maybe the main constraint factor for effective research and extension services represents
a lack of accountability. There is no feedback on effectiveness of extension program with
no developed system for measuring and monitoring the impact (11).
Evolution of development philosophy, experiences in agricultural extension and
development have indicated that traditional top-down approaches will need to transform in
order to move toward sustainability. It is necessary to change attitude towards farmers
who were treated as a simple, stubborn, receiver of what others regard valuable. Yet,
examples of innovative and research oriented farmers are coming from Serbia where an
extensionist published a brochure about the innovation and all the measures that follow
the removal of the young sprouts in order to obtain high yield and good quality raspberry,
that originally was developed by a farmer (13). Such example of extensionist approach
recognizing the farmers as an intelligent partner in the development process should be the
basis for future reform of agricultural extension.
113
Consequently, one of the new challenges for extension services is to become
learning organization (6), with ability to continually expand capacity to create their future
and future of entire society. Public agricultural extension organizations in the Western
Balkans countries are disrepute due to poor progress in achieving policy aims such as
export, food security, sustainability and social well-being. Now, Extension systems should
be much broader and more diverse, including public and private sector and civil society
institutions that provide a broad range of services such as advisory, technology transfer,
training, promotional and information on a wide variety of subjects (such as agriculture,
marketing, social organization, health and education (16). So it means that pluralism, as a
key element of new paradigm, provides framework for multiplication of actors providing
services, either autonomously in response to farmer demand or facilitated by government
policy measures (9). Decentralization is one of the most important aspects in agricultural
extension restructuring toward green agriculture. Decentralization could be defined as the
reassign of planning, decision making and management functions from the central
government to field organizations, secondary units of government, semi-autonomous
public corporations, regional development organizations, specialized functional authorities
or non-governmental organizations (12). So, the goal of decentralization would be better
tuning of public services to the needs and demands of local people. Ability of local
institutions and organizations to actively participate in agricultural development based on
SARD principles has been proven in Serbia. Emerged associations of agricultural
producers in the area of Sandzak, established very good connection with the local
government in defining their own future. They know what their needs are. They are
ordering and financing the specific advisory services from those who are the best. This
area is very specific with specific demands so that official extension system is not able to
answer in a proper manner (8). Consequently research and extension institutions need a
strategy that will incorporate regional production, cultural and social specificities. Research
information and results need to be better summarized, presented and exchanged
nationally and regional research programmes identified and developed in areas such as
for, pests and disease (IPM), forecasting and water management. Farmer innovations
need to be identified, documented and disseminated regionally. It is necessary to provide
environment for extension stakeholder multiplication with a stable accreditation system
and network of information, together with farmers‘ active participation in decision making.
In such a sector competition of extension providers could be established, which means
that farmers can eliminate those who do not respond to their demands (15).
Sustainable agriculture offers progress toward forgotten, green agriculture. It seeks
technologies that are environmentally friendly, economically viable and socially just. In
promoting and disseminating the idea of agricultural production sustainability, research
and extension services role is crucial. However, these institutions need a reform that
should include decentralization and shift to farmer centered approach. An interdisciplinary,
holistic approach is needed in order to address the problems derived from intensive,
conventional production. That means development of innovative training delivery
methodologies tackling ecology, natural pest management, minimum tillage, team working
principles etc. Research and extension will need to build on communication systems and
involve farmers in the process of extension making the process really participatory and
demand driven.
114
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[2]. FAO (1998): Improving agricultural extension. A reference manual. Food &
Agriculture Org; 2 edition (January 1998) ISBN-13: 978-9251040072.
[3]. FAO,2001, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Gender and Development
Service. Socio-economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA).
[4]. FAO (2007): Building Partnerships for Technology Generation, Assessment and
Sharing in Agriculture among West Balkan Countries.
[5]. Lamberti L., Belsanti V., Annarita Antonelli (2006): Results of a survey on Policies,
Institutions and Processes for SARD in editerranean Mountain areas. CIHEAM-BARI.
[6]. Leeuwis, C. and A. Vanden Ben, (2004): Communication for Rural Innovation:
Rethinking Agricultural Extension. 2nd Edn., Blackwell, Iowa, USA., ISBN: 10:
063205249X, pp: 424.
[7]. McIsaac G. and Edwards, W. (1994): Sustainable Agriculture in the American
Midwest, Univ. of Illinois Press, 125-143.
[8]. Milosevic B. (2006): Enabling external institutions for sustainable agriculture - Case
Study Of The FAO In Southwestern Serbia. Final report. CIHEAM-BARI.
[9]. Ponniah, A., R. Puskur, S. Workneh and D. Hoekstra, (2008): Concepts and
Practices in Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries: A Source Book. 1st Edn.,
International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ISBN: 92-9146-217-9.
[10]. Pretty, J., Noble,A.D.,Bossio,D.,Dixon, J., Hine, R.E.,Penning de Vries,F. W. T. and
Morison, J. I.L. (2006): Resource-conserving agriculture increases yieldsin developing
countries,Environmental Science and Technology, 40(4): 1114-1119.
[11]. Richardson, J. G. (1999). Accountability of extension education in the global arena.
South African Journal of Agricultural Extension: 28, 45-61. University of Pretoria, 0002
PRETORIA, South Africa.
[12]. Rivera, W.M., (1997): Agricultural extension into the next decade. Eur. J. Agric. Edu.
Extens., 4: 29-38.
[13]. Treskic Sanja (2006): Innovations in Raspberry Production in Serbia. Report, Bari.
[14]. Savory, A. (1998). Holistic Resource Management. Island Press, Washington, DC.
[15]. Volker H., Lamers J., Kidd D. (2000): Reforming the organisation of agricultural
extension in germany: lessons for other countries. Agricultural Research & Extension
Network. Network Paper No. 98. ISBN 0 85003 450 7
[16]. World Bank, (2005): Agriculture Investment Sourcebook. 1st Edn., World Bank,
Washington DC, USA., ISBN: 08213-6085x, pp: 508.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Goran Maksimovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb,
28273 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: goran.maksimovic@pr.ac.rs
Bozidar Milosevic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: bozidar.milosevic@pr.ac.rs
Biljana Veljkovic, Faculty of Agronomy, Cara Dusana 34, 32000 Cacak, Serbia. Email: biljavz@kg.ac.rs
Zvonko Spasic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: zvonko.spasic@pr.ac.rs
115
PRODUCTION OF MILK OF COWS IN THE MOUNTAIN GOLIJA
Bisa Radovic, Jasmina Janjic, Nitovski A., Valentina Milanovic
Abstract: Research in this study were conducted in the mountainous region of Serbia, in order to
carry out control of milk production in 787 breeding cows, during the eight lactations. According to race and
type of cows, there were four groups. In the first group, there were 213 Simmental cows, in the second 118
cows race busha, in the third 335 cows race busha Simmental type and in the fourth 121 cows race busha
black-and-white Friesian type cattle. For the period that study covered, average age of all animals was 6.03
years and the average milk production 2753 kg. The average daily milk production in 305 days in kilograms
was highest in the first group of cows and it was 11.72, the lowest in the second group of cows - 5.68.
Statistical analysis of the data demonstrated that there were significant differences (p <0.05). For statistical
analysis we used the computer program SPSS, Descriptive statistics, ANOVA (One - Way).
Keywords: cows, breed, milk production, age
INTRODUCTION
Mountain Golija is National Park and an area of special purposes "Golija" ("RS
Official Gazette", no. 45/01 and br.16/09) and Biosphere Reserve of UNESCO-MAB
program (2001). It covers an area of 938.66 km ², an altitude of 450-1674 gives great
opportunities for the development of livestock farming, especially organic. But because
depopulation trend and lack of care and investment, it almost came to disappearance of
livestock production. According to the (Mijajloviš et al., 2009, Cvijanovic, 2009), Animal
Husbandry in the whole of Serbia is at the lowest level in the past 30 years, so that in the
period between 1984 - 2007 number of cattle decreased by 41%. The annual rate of
decline in the number of cattle and the number of farms that cultivate them has continued
and it is 2-3%. The average herd size in Serbia is 1.9 heads with an average milk
production per cow of 9.7 l / day. This has a direct impact on the reduction of the total milk
production that has a negative trend (Perisic et al., 2006, 2011, Popovic, 2008). As the
small farms are dominating factor in milk production, so they are an important asset to the
examination, to improve the productivity of cattle, and of particular interest are the
mountainous areas, such as Mount Golija. In this area in 1970 the racial composition of
cattle were 80% busha and 20% of its crosses. As that year began artificial insemination
with semen of Simmental bulls and East Friesian, and in 1975 began large-scale
importation of Simmental cows, there have been rapid changes in racial composition, and
already in 1984 the presence of busha race in the mountain Golija was only 10% and that
on its margins. Otherwise, the racial composition of cattle in Serbia is relatively
unsatisfactory: 60% Simmental, a high share of crossbred (35%) and Holstein 5%
(Mijajloviš et al. 2009).Therefore, the aim of this research was to examine the milk
production by breed and type of cattle on this site, or to investigate the effect of
assimilation of the domestic cattle population with other noble race, on milk production.
Bush is indigenous cattle of Balkan Peninsula and in our country is grown in almost all
regions. It annually provides about 700 - 1500 kg of milk, more or less, depending on the
conditions of keeping and feeding. That milk contains up to 6% fat (Memiš et al., 2003b,
DAD - IS FAO, 2009, AFI 2009). During the twentieth century, constant crossing with other
races, brought busha to the edge of disappearance, so that Serbia bush belongs to the
group of endangered races (Perisic et al., 2005) and current conservation activities were
performed in accordance with Convention of biodiversity (FAO).
116
Control of milk in the mountain Golija was performed in 787 dairy cows during eight
lactations. According to race and type of cattle there were four groups: 213 Simmental
cows (group I); 118 cows busha (Group II), 335 cows in the bush Simmental type (group
III) and 121 cows in the busha type east Friesian cattle (group IV). Reducing real lactation
to the standard of 305 days, was performed by interpolation method based on the actual
data with the help of coefficients (Nenadoviša 1974). Variability of daily quantities of milk
per lactation and the breed was done by calculating the parameters of descriptive
statistics. To compare the average daily milk production in the investigated breeds was
used (One - Way) ANOVA method. To determine between which race there were
statistically significant differences obtained with F - test (p <0.05) in average daily milk
production, post - hoc test was made (Tamhanov test) as one of the possible tests for
homogeneity of variances previously established with Levene test. For statistical analysis
we used the software package IBM SPSS Statistics 20. The results are presented
graphically and in tabular form.
Based on the results of mean daily milk production during eight presented lactation
(Chart 1.), it can be concluded that in all breeds and types of cattle it increases up to sixth
lactation, and then stagnating or declining, which can be explained by the influence of age
of the cows on milk production. Significant increase in milk production during the first three
117
lactations explains the increase in body weight of the animals and increase of the capacity
of the udder (Nenadoviš, 1976, Veljkovic, 2013).
groups
N
Mean
Std.
Std. Error
Deviation
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
simental
8
11.7270
.86491
.30579
11.0040
12.4501
busha
8
5.6848
.27272
.09642
5.4568
5.9128
busha simental
8
8.4377
.68205
.24114
7.8675
9.0079
8
9.8107
1.53621
.54313
8.5264
11.0950
32
8.9151
2.41304
.42657
8.0451
9.7851
busha type east Friesian
cow
Total
Table 1. The average daily milk production per breeds and types of cow
Descriptive analysis of the data (Table 1.) showed that the average daily milk
production of cows in all breeds is less than the average in Serbia, and much lower than
the EU average (Perisic et al., 2011, Popovic, 2008). The reason is probably the influence
of diet on the expression of genetic characteristics of each race, and each individual
separately.
Table 2. Variability of daily milk production
(I) rase
(J) rase
Mean Difference
Std. Error
Sig.
(I-J)
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
6.04221*
.32063
.000
4.9465
7.1380
*
3.28934
.38943
.000
2.0880
4.4907
1.91639
.62330
.062
-.0745
3.9073
simental
-6.04221*
.32063
.000
-7.1380
-4.9465
busha simental
-2.75287*
.25970
.000
-3.6185
-1.8872
-4.12582*
.55162
.001
-6.0812
-2.1704
-3.28934*
.38943
.000
-4.4907
-2.0880
*
2.75287
.25970
.000
1.8872
3.6185
-1.37295
.59426
.238
-3.3290
.5831
simental
-1.91639
.62330
.062
-3.9073
.0745
busha
4.12582*
.55162
.001
2.1704
6.0812
busha simentalka
1.37295
.59426
.238
-.5831
3.3290
busha
busha simental
simental
busha type east
Friesian
busha
busha type east
Friesian
Tamhane
simental
busha
busha simental
busha type east
Friesian
busha type east
Friesian
On milk production affects a significant number of genetic and paragenetic factors.
Racial characteristics have a primary effect on the amount of milk produced which explains
the existence of a statistically significant difference (p <0.05) in average daily milk
118
production among all races and types other than Simmental cows and busha in Simmental
type, or between busha in Simmental type and busha type east Friesian cow in our
research. In groups where the variability is not detected, it is likely to be a type of cow
created by unplanned crossing of busha, which is hilly common in mountains regions
(Table 2).
CONCLUSION
Cattle population in the mountainous area of Serbia and cattle population of Golija
mountain (busha, Simmental, Simmental type busha, busha in the type of black and white
cattle), leaves the most room for the application of breeding with mandatory global strategy
and organized work to preserve the busha, as genetic resource that is not sufficiently
explored. It is this part of the cattle population that in the future should make the base,
whose direction of breeding should be directed to the demands of the market.
REFERENCES
[1.] COAR – Centar za oţuvanje autohtonih rasa (2009): Izvor podataka, DAD–IS FAO
[2.] Cvijanoviš D., Katiš B., Vukoviš P., (2009): Mogušnosti proizvodnje mleka i mleţnih
proizvoda u Zlatiborskom okrugu, Institut PKB „Agroekonomik― , Beograd, Zbornik nauţnih
radova, 115 – 124
[3.] Memiš N.,Dubovina Ruţa, Antonov G.,Plavšiš M., (2003b): Reproduktivne osobine
krave buše, Savremena poljoprivreda, 52, 3 – 4, 229 - 231
[4.] Mijajloviš Nada., Arsiš Slavica, Kljajiš Nataša (2009): Stanje i perspektive stoţarske
proizvodnje u Parku prirode Golija, Univerzitet u Prištini, Poljoprivredni fakultet,
Simpozijum sa meŤunarodnim uţeššem, Vrnjaţka Banja, Zbornik, 361 - 368.
[5.] Perišiš P., Skolicki Z., Bogdanoviš V., (2011): Stanje u sektoru proizvodnje mleka u
EU i kod nas, Biotehnologija u stoţarstvu, vol. 27, br. 3, 315 – 327
[6.] Perišiš P., (2006): Trendovi gajenja simentalca, Eurofarmer, 7 – 8
[7.] Perišiš P., Skalicki Z., Đedoviš Radica, (2005): Definisanje odgajivaţkog programa za
bušu kao odrţivog genetiţkog resursa, Izveštaj po projektu, Ministarstvo poljoprivrede, RS
[8.] Popoviš R., (2008): Trendovi na svetskom trţištu mleka i uticaj na trţište Srbije,
prehrambena industrija – mleko i mleţni proizvodi, 19, 1 – 2, 38 - 42
[9.] Struţni izveštaj i rezultati ojavljenih poslova i kordinacije (2009): Govedarstvo, Institut
za stoţarstvo, Zemun
ABOUTH THE AUTHORS
Dr Bisa Radovic, Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina - Kosovska
Mitrovica, contact: bisaradovic@yahoo.com
Mr Jasmina Janjic, assistant professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina Kosovska Mitrovica.
Dr Atanas Nitovski, Associate Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina Kosovska Mitrovica.
Mr Valentine Milanovic, assistant, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina Kosovska Mitrovica
119
DIMBOA- AND DIBOA-CONTENT OF VARIOUS MAIZE (ZEA MAYS L.)
HYBRIDS
P. Makleit, K. Bodnár, G. Hankovszky, B. Tóth, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres, L. Nagy, G. L.
Nagy
Abstract: Cyclic hydroxamic acids (cHx-s) are secondary metabolites. These compounds are present
especially in species of the Poaceae family. In maize the most abundant cyclic hydroxamic acids are
DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one) and DIBOA (2,4-dihydroxi-1,4-benzoxazolin-3on). The DIMBOA- and the DIBOA-content were measured in the leaves of five different hybrids in our
experiments. Significant differences were detected amongst the examined hybrids in DIMBOA- and DIBOAcontent of the different leaves. There were significant differences too in the different leaves on the average of
the examined hybrids. The DIMBOA- and DIBOA-content of the examined leaves decreased with their
ageing. As the cyclic hydroxamic content of hybrids and its change in various organs have a close impact on
the self protecting ability of the plant, gathering information about these features helps us to understand the
various hybrids’ different susceptibility for pathogens and pests.
Key words: Cyclic hydroxamic acids, maize hybrids,plant defence
INTRODUCTION
Cyclic hydroxamic acids (cHx-s) are secondary metabolites produced mainly by the
species of Poaceae family (Niemeyer, 1988). The quantity of these chemicals varies
widely amongst and within plant species (Woodward et al.1979; Zuniga-Massardo,
1991).The cHx-s are key defense chemicals of cereals: they protect the plants against
pathogens and pests especially in the early stages of development (Niemeyer, 2009).
Aphids are one of the main pests of cereal crops (Mukanganyama et al. 2003). The main
cHx in maize and wheat is 2-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-4-hydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4benzoxazine-3-one (DIMBOA-Glc) with lesser amount of 2-β-Dglucopyranosyloxy-4hydroxy-1,4-benzoxazine-3-one (DIBOA-Glc) (Tipton et al. 1967). The 2-β-Dglucopyranosyloxy-4-hydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoxazyne-3-one (DIM2BOA-Glc) is
also found in maize. In injured plants the glycosides are hydrolyzed by β-glycosidase,
yielding the respective aglycones which are unstable. Mainly the 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA) could play several roles in Poaceae family by exerting
both toxic and antifeedant effects on aphids as summarized by Cambier et al. 2000). The
rising costs of pesticides, the increasing resistance of insects to them and their
undesirable effects on the environment have led to renewed efforts to identify and exploit
host plant resistance to pests and diseases. It is essential to understand and know in more
detail the factors determining the cHx-content and cHx-synthesis potential of plants of
different varieties to allow a better use of their natural capacities.
Maize cultivation was carried out on field experimental plots. Samples were taken
from: 3,9,15 and 21 days old young plants at three different levels. Sampling was
performed randomly from experimental plots and 6 individuals were selected from each
cultivar at each sampling time. At day 3. 1 st and 2nd leaf (level) was sampled, while at day
9. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd leaves, at day 15. 1st, 3rd, 5th leaves and at day 21. 1st 4th, 7th were
sampled at the tips (apex of leaves). Each tip was measured exactly and recorded, (+
0.1g) then placed with label into sachets, sealed and immediately placed into -80 Co and
retained. The number of taken samples was 300. Experiments terminated upon HPLC
measurements.
120
Five different maize hybrids were used for our experiments: PR38A79 (FAO 310),
P9578 (FAO320), P9494 (FAO390), PR36K67 (FAO 480) and PR36V52 (FAO 430).
The qualification and quantification of 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3one (DIMBOA) and 2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIBOA) was the main purpose.
As indicated some further minor cHx-s may occur in maize, however, the latter are the
most significant ones in maize. As for sample preparation and measurements the method
of Lyons et al. (1988) was applied: Plant materials were homogenized in 5 ml distilled
water and were kept at room temperature for ´ hour. This was followed by vortexing twice
in 5-5 ml nhexane. After filtering the two phases were separated in shaking funnels, and
the aqueous phase was shaken out three times with 5-5 ml ethyl-acetate. The ethylacetate phases were pooled and were dried under vacuum while the remaining/residue
were taken up in 1 ml methanol. These samples were subjected to RP-HPLC analysis. For
HPLC analysis a Thermo Accela (fully automatic) unit was used and equipped with a
reverse phase C18 column (50 x 2.1 mm). The mobile phase consisted of 1% formic acid
(A); methanol (B) and acetonitrile (C). Flowing rate was 350 μl/min. The initial conditions
were: 94% A, 2% B, 4% C and the gradient reached 50% within 11 mins. Samples (1μl)
were automatically injected every 15 mins to allow stabilization of initial running conditions.
For detection a variable wavelength diode array detector was used set for 280nm.
Standard curves of purified DIMBOA and DIBOA were used for the analyses.
For statistical analyses of SPSS 13.0 software was used. Diagrams were made
based on the descriptive statistical analyses. Depending on whether samples showed
normal distribution or not, analysis of variance, t-probe or non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis
test or Mann-Whitney-test was used to analyze significant differences between
samples/data. On the diagrams Standard Error (SE) is represented in the boxes, while
Standard Error (SD) with bars. Black stripes represent weighted means, because
recognized outliers are marked. Circles represent notable outliers, while asterisks special
outliers.
Three main comparisons were made on the basis of obtained data which are the
following:
1/ Comparison of the amounts of compounds in different leaves, according to the
examined hybrids;
2/ Comparison of the amounts of compounds in the various plant organs (e.g. leaf level,
taking the average of the 5 different varieties) taking into account only the data obtained
from its earliest appearance (youngest phase).
3/ Comparison of the amounts of compounds, according to the plant organ (e.g. leaf level,
taking the average of the 5 different hybrids) at the 4 different sampling times.
According to the DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of the third, fourth, fifth and seventh
leaves, three groups can be created within the examined hybrids. In the first group: hybrids
PR38A79 and P9578 with the lowest, in the second group: P9494, with the highest
amount. Hybrids PR36K67 and PR36V52 had an intermediate level between these two
groups. The difference between the first and second group is significant (Figure 1.).
In contrast with the later developed leaves, there was no significant difference
amongst the examined hybrids in DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of the first and second leaves.
According to our results the differences amongst hybrids evolved at later stages of
development, or with other words, the persistence of the hybrids‘ self protecting ability
what differentiate them from each other.
121
Figure 1. DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of third, fourth, fifth and seventh leaves of the
examined hybrids
Figure 2. DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of various organs at the youngest age, on the
average of the examined hybrids
Examined organs can be divided into three groups according to their DIMBOA+
DIBOA-content. Inside the groups there are not significant differences. The first and
second leaves have the highest DIMBOA+DIBOA-content amongst all other leaves. The
fourth and seventh leaves have significantly lower DIMBOA+DIBOA-content than all other
122
leaves. The third and fifth leaves have an intermediate level DIMBOA+DIBOA-content
between these two groups (Figure 2.).
Figure 3. DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of first leaves on the average of the examined
hybrids
The age of the organ has an impact on its DIMBOA+DIBOA-content. It can be seen
on the example of the first leaf (Figure 3.). The DIMBOA+DIBOA-content of the first leaf
showed decreasing tendency with ageing, althought there was not significant difference
between the 15 and 21 days old plants. The difference in the DIMBOA+DIBOA-content
amongst the 3, 9 and 15/21 days old plants first leaves was significant.
The level of DIMBOA and DIBOA - defence chemicals – varies with plant part, plant
organ age and hybrid examined. The hybrids with higher content in different parts have
higher ability for pathogen and pest tolerance or resistance. The knowledge of cHx-content
can help us to select the hybrids with lower costs of plant protection. In the future it is
necessary to examine the cHx-content of more hybrids for more accurate selection.
REFERENCES
[1]. Cambier, V. Hance, T., De Hoffmann, E. 2000. Variation of DIMBOA and related
compounds content in relation to the age and plant organ in maize. Phytochem. 53, 223229.
[2]. Lyons, P. C. Hipsakind, J. D., Wood, K. V. Nicholson, R. L.1988. Separation and
quantification of cyclic hydroxamic acids and related compounds by high-pressure liquid
chromatography. J. Agric.Food Chem. 36, 57-60.
123
[3]. Mukanganyama, S., Figuerora, C.C., Hasler, J.A. and Niemeyer, H.M. 2003. Effects of
DIMBOA on detoxification enzymes of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (Homoptera:
aphididae). J. Insect Physiol. 49, 223-229.
[4]. Niemeyer, H. M. 1988: Hydroxamic acids (4-hydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones), defence
chemicals in Gramineae. Phytochem. 27, 3349-3358.
[5]. Niemeyer, H. M.: 2009. Hydroxamic acids derived from 2-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin3(4H)-one: key defence chemicals of cereals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57 (5), 1677-1696.
[6]. Tipton, C. L., Klun, J. A., Husted, R. R., Pierson, M. D. 1967. Cyclic hydroxamic acids
and related compounds from maize. Isolation and characterization. Biochemistry. 6. 28662870.
[7]. Woodward, M. D., Corcuera, L. J., Helgeson, J. P., Kelman, A. and Upper, C. D.1979.
Quantitation of 1,4-benzoxazin-3-ones in maize by gas-liquid chromatography. Plant
Physiol. 63, 14-19.
[8]. Zuniga GA, G. E. and Massardo, F. 1991. Hydroxamic acid content in undifferentiated
and differentiated tissues of wheat. Phytochem. 30, 3281-3283.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
P. Makleit, B. Tóth, L. Lévai, Sz. Veres, reserchers at the University of Debrecen,
Centre for Agricutural and Applied Economic Sciences, 4032, Debrecen, Böszörményi Str.
138.
pmakleit@agr.unideb.hu;
btoth@agr.unideb.hu;
levai@agr.unideb.hu;
K. Bodnár, G. Hankovszky, B.Sc. students at the University of Debrecen, Centre for
Agricutural and Applied Economic Sciences, 4032, Debrecen, Böszörményi Str. 138.
kardina@citromail.hu; gerda.hankovszky@gmail.com
L. Nagy, G. L. Nagy, Ph.D students at the University of Debrecen, Centre for
Agricutural and Applied Economic Sciences, 4032, Debrecen, Böszörményi Str. 138.
124
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE PROPERTIES OF
TOMATO HYBRIDS FOR GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
I. Stancic, S. Petrovic, J. Zivic, M. Jovic and D. Knezevic
Abstract: This paper presents the quantitative and qualitative properties of different tomato hybrids in
greenhouse. The study involved eight tomato hybrids from the Hazera Genetics company (Israel). The
following characteristics were analyzed: fruit weight, fruit diameter, compactness and internode length,
ripening time, fruit firmness and fruit color intensity. The experiment was conducted in the village GLASINAC,
the municipality of Zitoradja, in autumn 2011 and 2012. A high tunnel without additional heating was used on
the loamy soil. The research results show a wide diversity, both in terms of fruit morphological
characteristics, and in terms of the yield achieved. Thus, there were significant and highly significant
differences in fruit mass and fruit diameter among the hybrids. For qualitative characteristics, most of the of
hybrids showed good compactness and internode length, good fruit firmness and characteristic fruit color
intensity. In terms of ripening, the tested hybrids showed characteristics of early and medium early varieties.
Key words: tomato, fruit weight, fruit diameter, ripening time, fruit color intensity.
INTRODUCTION
Tomato production has increased in recent years, especially in protected areas,
where it occupies the largest area in production structure. Its production is mainly
organized in units without additional heating, in spring and autumn, while there is a limited
number of modern facilities with additional heating where one can organize production
throughout the year [1]. One of the most important factors in production technology is the
proper selection and breeding of hybrids for the desired production goal with all the
features in terms of yield, fruit uniformity, ripening dynamics, tolerance and resilience,
shape and diameter of fruit, transportability, storage capacities, and others. [2].
Recently, there has been a large selection of both domestic and foreign hybrids for
various purposes and cultivation methods. Based on these facts, the goal of the research
was - to examine quantitative and qualitative properties of new greenhouse tomato hybrids
from Hazera Genetics.
The experiment was conducted in Glasinac village, the municipality of Zitoradja.
Quantitative and qualitative properties of greenhouse tomato plants were examined.
Experimental investigation lasted for two seasons (2011 and 2012.), and it involved eight
tomato hybrids from the Hazera company (Israel). Hybrids Alhambra F1 (NickersonZwaan, the Netherlands) and Topkapi F1 (Vilmorin, France) were used as the standard.
The seeds were planted in 66 hole seed trays (530 plants per square meter). The fine
structure 0-5 mm substrate made of a mixture of light and dark peat was used to fill the
seed trays. Top dressing with Agroleaf High P fertilizer 12-52-05 + me was applied on two
occasions during the fourth week, and plant protection activities (application of Previcur
Energy) were performed immediately before transplanting.
A high tunnel without additional heating was used on the loamy soil. Planting was
done with a row spacing of 90 cm, while in-row distance was 35 cm. This produced a crop
density of 3 plants per square meter. Pepper was the preceding crop in the spring
production, land preparation was done only with a rototiller, and then the land was
mulched with sheets of black plastic film.
Basic process of fertilization was not done, while top dressing was done through the
system of drip irrigation with water-soluble fertilizers (Solinure 1,7,9, Ca, K). The amount of
125
water-soluble NPK fertilizers was about 500 gr. per are for a period of seven days, i.e. 3
times a week, about 150-200 gr. with added calcium. Plant stems were propped up with a
rope. Fertilization was carried out with a buzzer.
Ten tomato plants of each hybrid were examined during the experiment. Tomato
fruits from the first fruitful branch were measured immediately after the first fruit-ripening.
During the growing season, qualitative characteristics of tomato hybrids were examined,
and they were rated from 1 to 5.
- Tomato plant strength (1-poor ; 5-very luxuriant)
- Internode compactness (1-bad ; 5-very good)
- Ripening time (1-late ; 5-very early)
- Firmness (1-soft ; 5-very firm)
- Color intensity (1-poor ; 5-strongly colored)
Fruit weight is an important yield component, which is genetically preconditioned.
Also, fruit weight specifies the use of fruit variety - if fruits are smaller in size, fruit variety is
suitable for industrial processing and those varieties with larger fruits are suitable for fresh
consumption [3].
Table 1. Average fruit weight and diameter
Year
Hybrid
H-1
H-18
H-19
H-41
H-43
H-50
H-51
H-52
AlambraF1
Topkapi F1
LSD 0,05
0,01
Cv
2 0
Fruit
weight
(g)
200
130
255
270
240
215
180
210
150
175
27,364
36,584
6.56
1 1
Fruit
diameter
(mm)
75
55
90
85
75
70
75
80
65
70
2 0
Fruit
weight
(g)
230
170
295
270
260
245
180
250
170
185
33,457
39,654
7.23
1 2
A v e r a g e
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
diameter
weight
diameter
(mm)
(g)
(mm)
85
215
80
65
150
60
90
275
90
85
270
85
85
250
80
80
230
75
75
180
75
80
230
80
75
160
70
80
180
75
The obtained results show very significant differences between the hybrids in terms of
fruit weight (table 1). The hybrid H-18 (150 g) had the smallest average fruit weight, while
the hybrid H-19 (275 g) had the greatest average fruit weight. Such large tomato fruits
indicate that those hybrids are suitable for fresh consumption. Many researchers have
received similar results concerning this characteristic of tomato [4], [5]. Also, in respect of
fruit size, the hybrid H-41 (90 mm) had the largest fruit diameter while the hybrid H-18
(60mm) had the smallest diameter. Standard hybrids Alhambra (160g, 70mm) and Topkapi
126
(180g, 75mm) were slightly smaller with lower weight, and these their characteristics show
for what purpose these tomato varieties are suitable.
Table 2. Evaluation of morphological characteristics of the hybrids
Hybrid
H-1
H-18
H-19
H-41
H-43
H-50
H-51
H-52
AlambraF1
Topkapi F
Plant
strength
3
4
3
4
4
4
3-4
3
3
3
Internode
Ripening
compactness time
3
4
5
4
3
3-4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
3
Fruit
firmness
4
5
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
Color
intensity
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
The influence of morphological characteristics of the plant and the fruit is particularly
significant in terms of growing a hybrid [6]. In respect of morphological characteristics,
most of the hybrids exhibited luxuriance and internode length compactness, and the hybrid
H-18 proved to be the best (Table 2). Ripening time showed that all these hybrids
belonged to early or middle-early tomato varieties. Fruit firmness was rated as very good
in all the hybrids, except for the hybrid H-19 which was slightly softer. Color intensity was
very strong in all the hybrids.
Based on these results, it can be concluded that in terms of fruit weight and fruit
diameter, there are significant and highly significant differences between the hybrids. As
for the morphological characteristics, most of the hybrids were characterized by luxuriant
growth, and they possessed the desired compactness and internode length, good fruit
firmness and distinctive color intensity. In terms of ripening time, all the hybrids showed
characteristics of early to middle-early ripening tomato varieties.
Based on previous observations, it can be concluded that the hybrids from Hazera
Genetics can be grown successfully in the vegetable growing area of Toplica.
REFERENCES
[1]. Damjanoviš, M., Markoviš, Ţ., Zdravkoviš, J., Stevanoviš, D., Starţeviš, M. (1992):
Rana proizvodnja paradajza. Savremena poljoprivreda, Vol.40, 1-2, str. 94-98, Novi Sad
[2]. Takaţ, A., Gvozdenoviš, Đ., Gvozdenoviš-Varga J., Ţervenski, J. (2004): Nove
indeterminantne linije paradajza. Zbornik radova VIII Nauţno-struţnog simpozijuma
―Biotehnologija i agroindustrija‖, str. 159-165, Velika Plana.
[3]. Denis, B., Mayse, M., Otto, C.H. (1979): The effect of fertilization on yield and quality
of tomatoes on lettuce in greenhouse. Gartenbau-Wissenschaft, 44 (2), p. 53-55.
[4]. Ucan Chan, J., Sanches del Catillo, F. (2005): Effect of plant density and fruit thinning
on tomato yield and fruit size. Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana, Vol. 28 (1), 33-38.
[5]. Beneton, J. (2007): Tomato Plant Culture. CRC Press Inc., London, 163-192.
127
[6]. Markoviš, Ţ., Zdravkoviš, J., Damjanoviš, M.(2001): Evaluacija morfoloških osobina
ploda lokalnih populacija paradajza. Savremena poljoprivreda, vol. 50, br. 1-2, str. 59-64.
[7]. Pavloviš, R., Boškoviš-Rakoţeviš, Lj. (2009): Sortna ispitivanja paradajza za gajenje u
zaštišenom prostoru. Zbornik nauţnih radova, Vol. 15 br. 1-2
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Ivica Stancic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia,
E-mail: istancic@medianis.net , +381(0)647010777
Dr. Sasa Petrovic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia,
Dr. Jelica Zivic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia,
Marija Jovic, professor, College of Agriculture, Prokuplje, Serbia,
Dr. Desimir Knezevic, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina,
Serbia.
128
AGROBIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF VINE CULTIVAR MERLOT
CLONE R18 IN THE VINE DISTRICT OF ŢUPA
Z. Jovanoviš, B. Širkoviš, M. Gariš
Abstract: This paper deals with the results obtained by the investigation of agrobiological properties
of vine cultivar Merlot, clone R18.The investigacion has bin carried out at a productive vineyard in private
property, at the location Varine during the period 2007–2008. The vineyard was planted in 2001, with
planting distance 3 x 0.8 м. Agroecological conditions were favorable for growth and development of vine
cultivar Merlot. The stady was aimed to observe important agrobiological traits of the cultivar Merlot, as well
possibility for its spreading in the vine district of Ţupa. The following parameters were observed:
phenological observations, productivity of the cultivar, grape yield and quality. Grape yield ranged from 7.498.61 t/ha. Sugar content varied from 21.3-22.2%, and the total acid content from 6.5-7.1 g/l, which enabled
making of high quality wine categories.
Key words: clone, phenological observations, productivity, grape yield, grape quality.
INTRODUCTION
Aiming the improvement the grape and wine quality in the district of Ţupa, the special
place was given to the cultivar Merlot, clone R18. This cultivar originates from France and
it is growing in almost all vineyard countries of the world. In our country, it is especially
spread in Kosovo I Metohija, central Serbia and Vojvodina. According to its ecological and
geographical classification it belongs to the group Convarietas occidentalis.
The grape yield and quality great deal vary depending the agroecological conditions,
the use of ampelotechnique, breeding forms etc. We can find the data about that in the
papers of numerous authors, Avramov et al., 1996; Cindrić et al., 2003; Ţunić and
Garić, 2010; Ćirković et al 2011 and others.
The investigation was carried during the period 2007-2008. at a productive vineyard
in private property, at the location Varine in the vine district of Ţupa. The vineyard was
planted in 2001 and it is in the period of growing yield. The planting distance is 3x0.8 m.
Breeding form is Gijo‘s one with the mixed pruning, it is left 15 buds by grape-vine and one
arch with 12 and one condir with 3 buds.
The following parameters were observed:
Phenological observations;
The number and the percent of the developed, productive young vine plants,
The namber of bunches of grapes by one bud, of the developed and productive
young vine plant, as well as by the grape vine;
The mass of the grape;
The yielding of the cultivar (the yield by the bud, by the developed and yielding
young vine plant, by the grape vine and by the hectare);
The sugar content in the sweet wine;
The total acid content.
The important difference between the observed parameters in different years is
tested with t test. After it was found that the variations of some of the years observation
were homogenized for all parameters, the varation of t test was used for the samples with
homogenized variations in all cases. The number of the buds which were left were the
same on all grape-vines, and the mass of the grape, the sugar content and the total acid in
the sweet wine were resulted as the average amount of the observed vines.
Agroecological conditions in the observed period were very good for the cultivar Merlot
129
developing. The amountof the active temperatures for the vegetation period is 3528 0C (the
average for 20 years). The vegetation period is 198 days. The average amount of rain in
the vine Ţupa area is 578.3 mm the total lasting of the sun shine is 2350 hours a year.
The average dates of developmental phenophases of vine cultivar Merlot, clone R18,
are shown in the table 1. Beginning of bud burst started earliest in 2007., (01.IV) in
relationto 2008., (03.IV). Phenophases of flowering averagely started 27.V, some time
earlier than the data which Garić et al., 2010., for the conditions of north Kosovska
Mitrovica, The veraison in average was 03. VIII, some time earlier in 2007., (02. VIII) in
relation to 2008., (05,VIII). The date of grape harvest was averagely done 02.X.
Table1. Developmental phenophases of vine cultivar Мерлот clone R18
Year
Beginning of
Beginning of
Veraison
Date of grape
bud burst
flowering
harvest
2007.
01.IV
26.V
02. VIII
01.X
2008.
03.IV
28.V
05.VIII
04.X
Averages
02.IV
27.V
03.VIII
02.X
Earliest
01.IV
26.V
02.VIII
01.X
Latest
03.IV
28.V
05.VIII
04.X
Considering all the data, shown in table 2, we can see that after the pruning there left
15 buds per grape-vine, that is 6.25 buds per square meter. The number of the developed
young vine plants was very high and it varied, according the observed years,
insignificantly. The number and the percent of the productive young vine plants was very
high also, and it had the value 11.57, and lower than the data Garić et al., 2010. The
number of bunch of grapes per bud, which were on developed and productive young vine
plant, as well as on the grape-vines is for some value higher than the data which, for
Merlot, stated Avramov et al., 1996.
Table 2. Basic production parametеrs of vine cultivar Мерлот clone R18
Parametar
Year
Avarage Difference
and signif
2007 2008
1 Number of buds per grape vine
15
15
15
-2 Number of developed young vine plants
12.87 12.80
12.83
0.07ns
3 Percentage of developed young vine plants
85.78 85.33
85.56
0.44ns
4 Number of productive young vine plants
11.67 11.47
11.57
0.20ns
5 Percentage of productive young vines
77.78 76.44
77.11
1.33ns
6 Number of bunch of grapes per bid
1.44
1.43
1.43
0.01ns
7 Number of grapes per developed young vine
1.68
1.68
1.68
0.00ns
8 Number of grapes per productive young vine
1.86
1.88
1.87
0.02ns
9 Number of grapes per grape vine
21.53 21.40
21.47
0.13ns
10 The mass of grapes in g
96
84
90
-ns
= P>0.05; * = P<0.05; ** = P<0.01
The number of bunch of grapes is considerly bigger per productive young vine (1.87)
in relation to the data which stated Tarailo et al. 1996., for the conditions of the Niš area
vineyards. The average number of bunch of grapes per bud, was 21.47, while the mass of
the grape varied from 84 to 96 g, which is considerly higher than the value which stated
Garić et al., 2010., and it is lower than the data which stated Tarailo et al., 1996.
No
130
Table3. Grape yield and quality of vine cultivar Мерлот clone R18
No
Parametar
Year
Avarage Difference
and signif
2007
2008
1 Yield of grapes per bud in g
137.81 119.84 128.83
17.97**
2 Yield of grapes per developed young vines in g
160.91 140.89 150.90
20.03**
3 Yield of grapes per productive young vines in g
178.53 157.90 168.21
20.63**
4 Yield of grapes per grape-vine in kg
2.07
1.80
1.93
0.27**
5 Yield of grapes per hectare in t
8.61
7.49
8.05
1.12**
6 Sugar content in sweet wine in %
22.2
21.3
21.75
-7 Total acid content g/l
7.1
6.5
6.8
-ns
= P>0.05; * = P<0.05; ** = P<0.01
The yield of grapes per hectare was displayed in tb. 3 and it was according the
number of bunch of grapes per productive and developed young vine, as well as the
gained mass of grapes. The difference in all displayed parameters between the examined
year were proofed as very significant. As we can see, the considering grape yield per
hectare was obtained in 2007. (8.61), in relation to 2008. (7.49 t/ha), wich was considered
as very important. This values were lower than the data which Avramov et al.1996., and
they were in the limits which for the cultivar Merlot stated Garić et al., 2010.
For the sugar content the biggest influence expressed weathher conditions during the
observed years. The higher sugar content in sweet wine was obtained in 2007. (22.2%) in
relaton to 2008. (21.3%). Climatic and temperatures conditions have a great effect on total
acid (Kliewer and Dokoozlian, 2000). The total acid content varied from 7.1 to 6.5 g/l.
The given values of sugar content and the total acid content make possible the making
high quality wines from this cultivar.
Based upon the expressed data and the analyze of the some, for the cultivar Merlot,
clone R18, in the vine district of Ţupa, it can be expressed the following conclusions.
Agroecological conditions of the vine distict area very good for normal growth and
obtaining the stable yielding and good quality grapes of this cultivar.
The cultivar Merlot, clone R18, showed positive agrobiological characteristics in the
vine district of Ţupa.
The average yield per hectar is 8.05 t, which is significantly more than data other
auothors, who were doing the investigation on the cultivar Merlot from the population.
The average sugar content was 21.75%, and the total acid content 6.8 g/l, which
represents optimal values for producing high quality wines.
REFERENCES
[1]. Avramov, L., Ţuniš, D., Milanoviš, M. 1996. Agrobiološke karakteristike sorte merlo i
kaberne fran u ţupskom vinogorju. Poljoprivreda, 383-385, 41-47.
[2]. Cindriš, P., Koraš, N., Kovaţ, V., 2003. Sorte vinove loze.
[3]. Gariš, M., Širkoviš, B., Baraš, S., Jovanoviš, Z., Todosijeviš, S. 2010. Agrobiološka
svojstva sorte merlo u uslovima severne Kosovske Mitrovice. Agroznanje, 11(2), 8793.
[4]. Kliewer, W.M. Dokoozlian, N.K. 2000. Leaf area/crop weight ratios of grapevines:
influence on fruit composition and vine quality. Proceedings of the Amer. Society for
Enology & Viticulture 50th Anniversary Annual Meeting 285-289.
131
[5]. Tarailo, R., Kociš, S., Zima V., Stankoviš, S., Miloševiš, G., Ţivkoviš, J. 1996. Vaţnije
agrobiološke i privredno tehnološke osobine sorti kaberne sovinjon, kaberne fran i
merlo u niškom vinogorju. Poljoprivreda 383-385, 68-72.
[6]. Ţuniš, D., Gariš, M. 2010. Posebno vinogradarstvo, Ampelografija II. Poljoprivredni
fakultet Beograd-Zemun.
[7]. Širkoviš, B., Ţuniš, D., Gariš, M., Matijaševiš, S., Jovanoviš, Z. 2011. Ampelografske
i gospodarske karakteristike dva varijateta sorte traminac u uvjetima niške podregije.
46th Croatian 6th International Symposium on Agriculture Opatija, Zbornik radova,
927-931
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Z. Jovanoviš, Msc, Teaching Assistant, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture
Lešak, Kopaoniţka Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: zoran.bricko@gmail.com
B. Širkoviš, PhD, Docent, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: bratislav.cirkovic@pr.ac.rs
M. Gariš, PhD, Professor, University of Priština, Faculty of Agriculture Lešak,
Kopaoniţka Street 38219 Lešak, Serbia, E-mail: garicm@sbb.com
132
THE INFLUENCE OF MANNAN OLIGOSACHARIDES ON THE
UTILIZATION OF NUTRIENTS IN SIMMENTAL CALVES
Nikola Stoliš1, Boţidar Miloseviš2, Zvonko Spasiš2, Zoran Ilic2, Bratislav Pesic2
Abstract: The list of alternative products take up an important place especially oligosacharides,
Mannan-oligosacharides (Bio-Mos), which proved to be very effective in improving the health status and
performance of animals. Two groups of calves were formed: control and experimental. The ration of
experimental calves was supplemented with 4 g of prebiotics mannan-oligosaccharides per day. After 75
days control group of calves, consumed average of 621 g of mixture, and the treatment group consumed
655.2 grams, which was 5.50% more than in the control group. The regarding the daily consumption of dry
matter it can be seen that the indices were higher in the experimental group compared to the control group
for 2.66%. Relative indicators of metabolic energy consumption, it could be concluded that it was higher for
1,62% in the treatment group comparing it to the control group, while regarding the protein consumption
index was higher in treatment group for 2,02%. The conversion of dry matter indices were lower in
experimental group for 3.07% compared to the control group, while the conversion of metabolic energy per
kilogram of growth index was lower for 2.21% in sample group compared to the control group, and regarding
the conversion of crude protein this ratio was lower in experimental group for 2.05% compared to the control.
Thanks to the positive characteristics, Mannan-oligosacharides contribute to the increased vitality of animals,
reduce losses and improve utilization of food, by which achieve optimal production results.
Key words: : prebiotic, mannan oligosacharides, calves, nutrients.
INTRODUCTION
The growing number of resistant bacteria toward antibiotics that are regularly used in
human therapy has brought about great demand for alternatives to antibiotics in animal
feed [1]. Consequently, there is increasing interest in development of nutritional strategies,
involving replacement of dietary antibiotics with natural feed additives, such as probiotics
and prebiotics. The aim of use of probiotics is to balance the host‘s intestinal microbial
eco-system and restore its resistance to diseases, by intake of viable probiotic
microorganisams [2].Besides this approach, prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients,
usually oligosaccharides, proteins, peptides and some of lipids, that escape digestion in
the upper gastrointestinal tract and selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of
selective bacterial genera such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the colon [3].Lately,
prebiotic oligosaccharides having high mannose content have been recieving great
attention [4].. Manno-oligosaccharides have high resistance toward acidity and human
gastrointestinal enzymes, and thus can rich the colon undigested where act as substrates
for certain intestinal bacteria associated with health and well-being [5].On the other hand,
manno-oligosaccharides can reduce patoghen bacteria due to specific molecular features.
Pathogen bacteria's fimbriae are rich in lectins and it is essential for their adherence to the
mannose-containing cells in the intestinal tract. Mannan-oligosaccharide provides a
mannose-rich source for bacteria attachment, instead of being attached to the gut wall and
cause disease [6].The selectivity of mannan-oligosaccharides is based on that some
beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus casei, L. acidophitus, L
delbrukii) produce the enzyme mannanase which targets its hydrolysis and therfore do not
enable formation of complexes, unlike to those undiserable pathogen strains lacking
mannanase [7].Yeasts are considered to be one the most valuable sources of mannanoligosaccharides.
Due to its beneficial effects, dietary intake of mannan-oligosacharide contributes to
increased vitality of animals, affecting the digestive and immune system, that further leads
to optimum production and economic benefits.
133
The experiment was organized as a group control system, with calves of domestic
spotted cattle in the type of Simmental. Calves were healthy, progressive, and vital without
any shortcomings and defects. Calves were housed in facilities for the calves, where they
were located after the separation from their mothers. The first 5 days after receipt of
colostrum they started receiving the mother's milk, and later consumed the cumulative
milk. Calves were marked with tattoo stamps and numbered ear tags. Microclimatic
conditions in the facilities during the experiments, keeping, and care, feeding and watering
were identical for all calves. Two groups of calves were formed, a control group that was
fed without added manan-oligosaccharide (C), and the treatment (T) group, which received
in milk the mentioned prebiotic. Each group of calves was comprised of 16 calves so that
in total experiment was conducted with 32 calves.
At the beginning the calves were fed fresh colostrums. After the fifth day they were
fed with 6 l of the cumulative milk produced on the farm. Treatment group was
supplemented with 4 g prebiotic Bio-Mos/calf/day. The calves were fed via nipple bottle
feeder, signed for each calf. After the day 15 a mixture was included in the daily diet
according to the calves' physiological requirements and regulations on quality of animal
food and feed in Serbia (Sl.List 20/2000, 38/2001). To avoid imprecise estimates, alfalfa
flour was used up to 15 % in the mixture instead of hay.
During the whole period of the examination (75 days) the daily consumption was 621
g of concentrated feed for the control group, while 665.2 g for the treatment group. At the
same time, the consumption of the milk was 4.74 l in both groups. The results indicate that
there was difference in the intake of the concentrate, being higher for 5.5% at the control
group, while the intake of milk was not significantly different (Table1).
Table 1. Body weight calves observed during the experiments, kg
feed
group
concetrated feed mixture, g
milk, l
control
treatment
control
treatment
32
255
297
710
1811
621
35
242
329
720
1950
655.2 (+5,50%)
5.73
6.00
6.00
6.00
4.74
5.73
6.00
6.00
6.00
4.74
period
1-15
16-30
31-45
46-60
61-75
1-75
The control group's average daily consumption for the whole experimental period was
114.1 DM/g, 12. MJNel and 246.66 DCP/g. The treatment group these parameters were
1171.5 DM/g, 12.5 MJNel and 251,64 DCP/g, respectively. From the Table 1 it could be
observed that compared to the treatment, the control group had 2.66% higher indexes.
From the daily consumption data, the relative parameters of the metabolic energy show
that the ratio was higher for 1.62% for the control group, while the consumption of proteins
was 2.02% higher for the treatment (Table 2).
134
Table 2. Daily consumption of dry matter, energy and digestible crude protein
C
T
C
DM, g
DM, g
MJNel
793.3
957.7
994.8
1360.4
1599.1
795.8
946.2
1023.2
1369.2
1723.4
1141.1
1171.5 (+2,66%)
group
period
1-15
16-30
31-45
46-60
61-75
1-75
T
C
T
MJNel
DCP, g
DCP, g
11.00
11.54
11.83
14.68
12.50
10.98
11.45
12.05
14.75
13.50
219.20
228.82
235.28
298.80
251.19
220.40
226.82
240.20
300.34
270.47
12.3
12.5 (+1,62%)
246.66
251.64 (+2,02%)
During 75 days, the consumption of the dry matter, energy and digestible crude
proteins per increment of 1kg in the control group was 1800.31 DM,g/kg, 19.84 MJNel/kg
and 397.46 DCP,g/kg, while for the treatment group were 1745.07 DM,g/kg, 19.40
MJNel/kg and 389,15 DCP,g/kg (Table 3). These data indicate that the index of dry matter
consumption was lower for 3.07% in the treatment group. The consumption of metabolic
energy for an increment of 1kg the index was lower for 2.21% in the control group, while
the consumption of crude proteins the ratio was 2.09% lower for the treatment compared
to the control group.
Table 3. Conversion of dry matter, energy and digestible crude protein per kg of gain
group
period
C
DM, g/kg
T
C
T
DM, g/kg
MJNel/kg
MJNel/kg
C
SSP, g/kg
T
SSP, g/kg
1-15
1652.71
1591.60
22.92
21.96
456.67
440.80
16-30
1487.11
1473.83
17.92
17.83
355.31
353.30
31-45
1530.46
1371.30
18.20
17.46
361.97
348.12
46-60
2125.63
2090.38
22.94
22.52
466.88
458.53
61-75
2205.66
2198.21
17.24
17.22
346.47
344.99
1-75
1800.31
1745.07(-3,07%)
19.84
19.40 (-2,21%)
397.46
389.15(-2,05%)
The food consumption was affected differently when the groups are compared. The
mannan-oligosaccharide Bio-Mos stimulated the consumption of food in calves fed with
milk containing this prebiotic. After 75 days, on average the control calves consumed 621g
of concentrate, while the treatment 655.2% which is 5.5% higher. As both group were fed
and took the same amount of milk, it can be concluded that the consumption of
concentrate could be also used as parameter showing the effect of added prebiotic, so the
5.5% can be regarded as the result of prebiotic effectiveness. To establish and
demonstrate the real consumption of nutritive compounds in the conducted experiment,
the consumed feeds were converted into the amount of dry matter consumption, as the
most important parameter of energy and crude proteins. The conclusion is that the
prebiotic had stimulated the food intake, so the tested calves consumed 2.66% more.
In order to get more valuable conclusions regarding the prebiotic efficiency on
production, among which are data of food utilisation per body gain in kg, the ratio of the
amount of dry matter, energy and the most expensive proteins has to highlighted.
135
It can be concluded that calves fed with milk containing prebiotic showed better food
utilisation, as they had 3.07% less dry matter, 2.21% less energy and 2.05% less crude
protein consumption.
Similar results were shown by other researches when the effect of prebiotics,
especially mannan-oligosaccharides, usage in calf diet was studied [7],[8],[9]. In addition,
those studies showed that Bio-Mos has enzymatic system with high activity, which gives
the explanation and reason why this prebiotic can be used in nutrition of lot animals,
including calves. Chuqinlin [8]. investigated the effect of Bio-Mos on calves and found very
similar results to ours, in regard of feed consumption and utilisation, indicating that this
prebiotic has positive effect on calves. Also, the study by [10] showed that the daily
consumption of food increased for 35%, while the difference in body weight gain was
significant during first two weeks and become more significant after 30 days. Bio-Mos
improved the food utilisation efficiency for about 6MJ and 120 g digestible crude proteins.
[11].conformed all above stated trends regarding the food consumption, but also indicated
that the prebiotic also had positive influence on growth. BIO-MOS was beneficial on health
and reduced diarea, so his results confirmed its high potential to be used as antibiotic
substitute in milk. On the other hand, Donovan et al. [9].showed that the consumption and
conversation were niether significantly different in treatments, nor showed changes at the
beginning of growth, but according to them the replacement of antibiotics with fructooligisaccharides, probiotics and alicine could be done, while the calves' performance is
similar.
Thirty-two calves domestic spotted cattle of type Simentalac were used to study the
effect of feeding prebiotic (mannanoligosaccharide) Bio-Moss on their performance up to
75 days. This study showed the control group consumed on average 621g of concentrate,
while the experimental group 655.2 g , which is 5.5% higher during 75 days. The calves in
the control group had 2.66% higher dry matter consumption, i.e. in this group the daily dry
matter consumption was 1171.5 g, while in the treatment group it was 11421.1 g. The
control group consumed 12,3 MJNel of energy per day, while it was 1.62% higher for the
treatment group being 12.5 MJNel. The daily digestible crude protein consumption was
increased for calves fed with the prebiotic for 2.02%, as the values were 251.64 g and
246.66 g of digestible proteins in the treatment and the control group, respectively. The
consumption of dry matter and energy for body weight gain were higher in the control
group (1800.4 g and 19.84 MJNel) compared to treatment group (1745.07g and 19.40
MJNel), indicating better conversation of dry matter into body gain and 2.21% less energy
for a 1kg of body gain in calves taking the prebiotic. The control group needed 397.46 g of
crude digestible proteins per body weight gain, while the treatment group needed 389.15g
of these components. All these results suggest that prebiotic (mannanoligosaccharide) can
be supplemented to the calves for better performance
REFERENCES
[1]. Bywater, R., H. Deluyker, E. Deroover, A. de Jong, H. Marion, M. McConville, T.
Rowan, T. Shryock, D. Shuster, V. Thomas, M. Valle, and J. A. Walters. (2004). European
survey of antimicrobial susceptibility among zoonotic and commensal bacteria isolated
from food-producing animals. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54:744-754.
[2]. Gibson G. R., Roberfroid M. B. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota:
introducing the concept of prebiotics. J. Nutr. (1995); 125:1401-1412
136
[3]. Corrier, D.E., A. Hinton, Jr., R.L. Ziprin, R.C. Beier and J.R. DeLoach. (1990).Effect of
dietary lactose on cecal pH, bacteriostatic VFA and Salmonella typhimurium colonization
of broiler chicks. Avian Dis. 34:617-625.
[4]. Spring P., Privulescu m., (2000): Mananoligosaccharide: Its logical role as a natural
feed additive for piglets. Biotecnology in the Feed Industry, 553-561.
[5]. Newman K., (1999): Feeds with antibiotic growth promoters-The oligosacharide
alternative. Alltech 1999 European, Middle Eastern and African Lecture Tour, 21-26.
[6]. Sharon, N., Lis, H. (1993). Carbohydrates in cell recognition. Scientific American, 1, 57.
[7]. Ferket, P. R., (2000): Mananoligosaccharides in poultry diets as an alternative to
growth promotant antibiotics. Zootecnica international, pg. 36, december, 2000.
[8]. Chuquilin J.C.(1999): Bio-mos improves performance and health of heifer calves,
Technical update, bio-mos-26 engRT
[9]. D. C. Donovan, S. T. Franklin,C. C. L. Chase, and A. R. Hippen (2002): Growth and
health of holstein calves fed milk replacers supplemented with antibiotics or enteroguard.
J. Dairy Sci. 85:947–950
[10]. Lazareviš M.(2003): Mannan oligosaccharides enhace absortion of colostral igG in
newborn calves and piglets. Poster presented at Alltech s 19th Annual Nutritional
Biotehnology in the Feed & food Industries Symposium, Lexington, Kentacky
[11] .Heinrichs J., C. M. Jones, and B. S. Heinrichs (2003):Effects of Mannan
Oligosaccharide or Antibiotics in Neonatal Diets on Health and Growth of Dairy Calves J
Dairy Sci, December 1, 2003; 86(12): 4064 - 4069.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr.
Nikola
Stolic, professor, College
of
Agriculture, Prokuplje,
Serbia,
E-mail: nikola.stolic@gmail.com , +38163669410
Dr Bozidar Milosevic, associate professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina,
Serbia, E-mail: brzkom@yahoo.com, +381641505274
Dr Zvonko Spasic, associate professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina,
Serbia, E-mail: spasic.zvonko@gmail.com, +381658765678
Dr Zoran Ilic, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina, Serbia, E-mail:
izoama@open.telekom.rs, +38163271021
Mr Bratislav Pesic, spec. , Faculty of Agriculture, University of Pristina,
E-mail:batta.pesica@gmail.com
137
AHP METHOD AS AN ANALYSIS TOOL FOR ACHIEVING GOOD
PRACTICES IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK
J. Janjiš, J. Stankoviš, B. Radoviš
Abstract: At the present time, the numerous requirements that must be met are placed in the front of
the producers of milk if they are to produce milk for the market. Practices on the farm need to ensure that
the milk production is coming from healthy cows at acceptable conditions for the animals and in the balance
with the environment. The problem of determining the optimal combination of measures for the
implementation of good practice in milk production is the problem of decision theory. Using the method of
multi-criteria analysis is a convenient means for the efficient decision-making. Effective structuring of the
problem implies that different combinations of measures are taken as alternatives to possible realization of
good agricultural practices (GAP), and as criteria for the selection of appropriate alternative has been used a
set of economic, health, sanitation, environment and others factors. One of the methods that can be applied
to the multiple criteria decision making is - Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP method) and it will be
presented in this paper. By solving the model, it will be obtained a vector of priorities that defines what
combination of proposed measures for the implementation of good practice in milk production achieves
optimal effects.
Key words: AHP metods, alternatives, criteria, good agricultural practices.
INTRODUCTION
Good agricultural practices for the primary production of milk are actually good
manufacturing practice referred to as Good Dairy Farming Practice (GDFP).
The concept of Good Dairy Farming Practice is a modern management concept,
which originated in developed countries, which means a set of measures that should be
implemented in order to increase the financial benefits from the use of resources in an
efficient and cost-effective manner, while protecting the environment and promoting
sustainable agricultural development. These measures are mainly related to usual
activities that should be implemented in different ways and in a different order and with no
direct connection to additional investment. There is an unjustified belief that the use of new
equipment will solve all the problems, however, the application of new technology should
be accompanied by changes in management that will support good practice in milk
production.
Good agricultural practice implies the existence of a clear and comprehensive control
strategies and the ability of adaptability to a change in circumstances. Success depends
on the development of skills and abilities, continuous monitoring and analysis of results,
and the implementation of the recommendations of experts. Planning is the key word when
it comes to meeting the requirements necessary for good agricultural practice, primary
producers of milk. All plans should be based on knowledge and experience, taking into
account the applicable laws.
The international framework to ensure the safety and suitability of milk and milk
products is contained in the Codex Recommended International Code of Practice –
General Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1- 1969, Rev. 4, 2003)1 together with the
Codex Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk and Milk Products (CAC/RCP 57-2004).
The benefits of milk production on the basis of good agricultural practices are:
1. Primary producers of milk, that will bring added value and improved market access;
2. Consumers, who will get the better of the Health and safer food produced in a
sustainable manner;
3. Economy and industry, as through quality products gives greater pofit;
4. Humanity, through better environment.
In this way, good agricultural practice becomes something that benefits all of the
community, and to the interest of the community for its application to be adequate. Due to
that aim, it should by various measures to promote awareness of all stakeholders on the
138
need for sustainable development and in contributing to the achievement of his may have
a good agricultural practice.
The objective of this paper is to set the theoretical basis for the application of multicriteria analysis for the evaluation of the selection of measures implemented in the domain
of practice for the production of milk, which would largely achieve the goals of good
agricultural practices. Optimization in this context, is the topic of the paper and its own
multi-criteria analysis method.
MULTI –CRITERIA PROBLEMS OF MAKING NATURE OF GOOD PRACTICE FOR
MILK PRODUCTION
Based on the theoretical model of multi-criteria analysis, taking into account the
objectives of a good agricultural practice, it is possible to analyze the design of optimal
farming practices. As the main objectives of good agricultural practice for milk production
are:
1. Quality and health safety of milk;
2. The standard of living of farmers;
3. Social sustainability;
4. Animal Welfare;
5. Protection of the environment.
As a basis for the production of safe food is considered a primary production
because of it all begins. The objective of milk producer is to ensure the safety and quality
of raw milk that will meet the expectations of the food industry and consumers.
In the system of the market economy and the current circumstances of evaluation,
each production must be economically justified. If not, it is not and can not be sustained.
Social sustainability means high quality of life for people who live and work on the
farm, as well as the local community to which they belong.
Over the past decade, the protection of animal welfare has become a standard which
weighs most countries. The animal welfare is achieved when the animal is healthy,
nourished, safe, able to express natural behavior, if she's comfortable and it does not
suffer due to unpleasant situation which are the pain, fear and stress. The reason for this
assessment is the area of animal welfare association to safety and quality of food products
of animal origin, rural development etc.
Irrationality, inefficiency and negligence in manufacturing have resulted in the
increasing pollution of the environment. The production that will generate high returns and
profits without degrading natural resources should be a priority to producers in the future.
To achieve these goals, dairy farmers need to apply certain measures in the
following areas:
1. Animal Health;
2. Milking hygiene;
3. Nutrition (food and water);
4. Animal welfare;
5. Environment and
6. Socio-economic management.
The stated goals are diverse in nature and include the implementation of a package
of measures for each of the above mentioned categories. Measures that dairy farmers
should implement on their farms are given in the "Guide to good dairy farming practice"
and are not legally binding, but serve to help dairy farmers to select and implement those
measures that are relevant to their situation. Different combinations of these measures
represent alternative ways of implementation GDFP.
For this explained the problem, it may be appropriate to form multi-criteria model,
because it is the multi-criteria analysis methods aimed at solving the problem of choosing
139
one of a series of m altrnativa Ai (i = 1, 2, ..., m) based on the n criteria X j (j = 1, 2, ..., n).
Each alternative represents a vector Ai = (xi1, xi2, ..., xij, ..., xin), where xij is the value of the
j-th attribute of the i-th alternative. The usual way of presenting the problem is multi-criteria
analysis matrix form, and this problem can be expressed as follows [4]:
X
1 X
2 . . X
n
A1
A
2
.
.
A
m
 x11 x12
x
 21 x22
 .
.

.
 .
xm1 xm2
. . x1n 
. . x2n 
. . . 

. . . 
. . xmn 
Thus, the formation of multi-criteria analysis model implies the existence of relevant
information on possible alternative ways of realizing the process for which the decision is
made, the objectives of the decision maker wants to achieve, but also information on how
each of the available alternatives contributes to achieving a certain goal. In particular, this
implies that it is possible to carry out quantify the contribution of the measures
implemented, each of these goals.
Alternatives in the model form set with a finite number of elements to be tested,
evaluated, prioritized, and finally make a choice, or ranking. Essentially, it represents a
possible alternative mode of action of the decision maker. In particular, the previously
described problems of making GDFP, the term alternative involves some combination of
measures that can be implemented in order to meet the criteria proposed by the GDFP.
The criteria in the model are represented by the corresponding function, their
importance is shown by the appropriate weighting coefficient. Depending on the extreme
values of the criterion function which is consistent with the interests of the decision makers
distinguish between two types of criteria. The first group includes criteria where the
interests of the decision maker to achieve the maximum value of the function section
focuses, such as the maximization of profits, revenue, efficiency and so on. The second
group includes criteria where the interests of the decision maker to achieve the minimum
value of the function section focuses, such as the minimization of costs, prices,
consumption, etc.. The importance of the criteria that will have the model directly depends
on the preferences of the decision maker, or weighting factor to the decision maker assign
certain criteria [5]. As stated earlier, the criteria that are considered relevant to the problem
of designing GDFP are proposed targets of good agricultural practices. How much
importance will be assigned to each of the criteria depends on the decision maker.
Appropriate weighting coefficients, the decision maker stated that the objectives of the
GDFP as a priority.
The problem now can be structured in three levels of hierarchy (Figure 1):
1. Good Dairy Farming Practice
2. The objectives of Good Dairy Faming Practice
3. Alternative measure mix of Good Dairy Faming Practice.
140
Good Dairy Farming Practice
Safety and
quality of milk
Alternative 1
The standard of
living of farmers
Social
sustainability
Alternative 2
Animal
Welfare
............................
.. .
Environment
Alternative n
Figure 1. Multi-criteria structure problems conceiving good agricultural practices for
the primary production of milk
The essence of the problem is to choose one, "optimal" combination of measures
that will contribute to achieving the maximum most of the above objectives. The word
"optimal" can not be taken literally, with this kind of problem, because often, because of its
contradictory nature, can not satisfy all of these goals, it will be considered "optimal" the
alternatives that meet most of the targets. For example, a measure that will give the
maximum effect in terms of improving the living standards of farmers, it does not give the
same effect in terms of environmental protection.
The optimization procedure, below involves the use of some methods of multi-criteria
analysis. Suitable methods for solving so described problem is analytical hierarchical
process (AHP method), as one of the multi-criteria optimization method, which is a tool for
decision making on the selection of one of a range of alternatives, especially in cases
where there are several criteria by which to make a decision. The method was created
seventies last centery, and its creator is considered Thomas Saaty. Since it contains the
correct mathematical model was implemented and shaped like usual software for the PC
platform with full technical support-generally has good reason to be in the computer
version of Expert Choice 2000 is considered commercial DSS.
CONCLUSIONS
When making the decision on the selection of appropriate alternatives for creating
good DPP is necessary to meet a variety of criteria, which multi-criteria analysis methods
are considered powerful optimization tool. In fact, it is the choice of the optimal
combination of measures for the implementation of good agricultural practices that
contribute to the utmost satisfaction of the relevant objectives.
The structure of this problem is hierarchical, because it needs to meet seven different
criteria, a combination of finite number of alternative combinations of measures. For this
reason, a suitable method for solving this type of problem is the analytical hierarchy
process. This method performs a comparison of pairs of alternatives at each of the
hierarchical levels.
The solution is a kind of composite indicators of the impacts of all the observed
individual factors, the implementation and realization of alternative combinations of the
141
objectives of good agricultural practices. The optimal combination of measures can be
considered as one that largely contributes to the satisfaction of the above criteria.
The goal of this optimization is the production of safe and healthy food and other
agricultural products, while the realization of economic value, social stability and
environmental protection. Keywords that are related to good agricultural practice are:
knowledge, understanding, planning, measurement, control and management.
REFERENCES
[1]. Cupic M., Tummala V. M. R.,1977. Modern decision making, Faculty of Organizational
Sciences, Belgrade.
[2]. FAO and IDF,2011., Guide to good dairy farming practice, Animal Production and
Health Guidelines No. 8, ISBN 978-92-5-106957-8,Rome.
[3]. Glaviš M. 2010. Good hygienic practice in milk production ,Banja Luka.
[4]. Jankovic-Milic V., Stankovic J. 2010. Bayesian approach to multi-criteria analysis for
business decision making. Scientific monograph. Vrnjacka Banja: SaTCIP, 2010. – 102 p.
ISBN 978-86-6075-011-4.
[5]. Stankovic, J., Stankovic, J. 2006. Evaluation of data for multi-criteria analysis method.
Strategic Management . Vol. 11, Issue 1-2 (2006), p. 105-108. ISSN 0354-8414.
[6]. Saaty T. L. 1980. Multicriteria decision making: the Analytic Hierarchy Process. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
[7]. www.fao.org - Milking, Milk production hygiene and udder health.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
J. Janjiš, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaoniţka bb, Lešak,
Serbia, E-mail: mina1@ptt.rs, jasmina.janjic69@gmail.com
J. Stankoviš, University of Niš, Faculty of Economics, Trg kralja Aleksandra
Ujedinitelja 11, Niš, Serbia, E-mail: jelena.stankovic@eknfak.ni.ac.rs
B. Radoviš, University of Pristina, Faculty of Agriculture, Kopaoniţka bb, Lešak,
Serbia, E-mail: bisaradovic@yahoo.com
142
PELVIMETRY IN CALIFORNIAN RABBIT
(ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS)
Valentina Milanovic, Verica Mrvic, A. Nitovski, Bisa Radovic
Abstract: Rabbits are widely used as an experimental model in different biomedical research, but they
are also known as a good meat and fur producers. New genetic selection programs in rabbit, focused on
improving litter size and physiological reproductive rhythms, demand great knowledge of reproductive
anatomy and physiology.
This study were taken on ten unpaired, sex-matured female Californian rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus
domesticus), at the age of 4-6 months and body weight about 3,5 kg-4,2 kg, which were housed in individual
cage system. Following dissection, using standard anatomical techniques, the pelvis measure were taken,
data were analyzed statistically and compared to relevant data for other animals species.
The results are considered to be of assistance in diagnostic and clinical work.
Key words: Oryctolagus cuniculus domesticus, pelvimetric diameters, pelvis cavity
INTRODUCTION
As an often used experimental mammal within the EU [4], rabbit is widely distributed
animal species, but not only for scientific purpose, but also in production of high-quality
meat and luxury fur. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) taxonomically belongs
to the mammalian order Lagomorpha, family Leporidae, species Oryctolagus [3, 8]. Rabbit
is a model for numerous medical experiments, because its gene sequences are more
similar to human than rodents like [7]. Therefore, rabbit was used in chirurgical and
orthopedic investigation [1, 9], research in glaucoma [11], arteriosclerosis, leukemia,
peritoneal dialysis, neurophysiology, tumor therapy [16] and production of antibodies [10]
It‘s also very common species in experiments of embryology and reproductive
biology, starting from the late 19th century, from the first investigation of the in vitro
development of rabbit blastodermic vesicules, over the investigation of sperm and oocyte
transport, prenatal mortality, capacitation of spermatozoa, oocyte maturation and
fertilization, embryo survival, embryo in vitro culture to isolation of embryonic stem cells
[6]. Many advantages of rabbit reproduction, such are exact timing of fertilization and
pregnancy stages, high cells numbers and yield in blastocysts, relatively late implantation
when gastrulation is already proceedeng and hemochorial placenta, structured similar to
the human ones, make rabbit as a suitable model for study in animal reproduction. That‘s
why morphologic and topographic knowledge about rabbit‘s reproductive system is
necessary either in scientific research field or in the rabbit‘s husbandry.
Pelvimetry is a procedure used to identify a female with the greatest risk of
cephalopelvic disproportion as a result of small pelvic size, which is one of factors for
dystocia, inability to expel fetus from the uterus during the parturition. The measureof
maternal pelvic volumes are taken to improve the prediction of cephalopelvic disproportion
leading to caesarean delivery for labor dystocia [17]
This investigation was taken at 15 virgin female Californian rabbits, at the age of 4-6
months and body weight about 3500-4200g. Animals were housed in individual cage
system, under the same environmental conditions, with free access to water and feeding
ad libitum. The rabbits were killed with Ketamidor 10% (i.m. 0,02 ml/kg), with
premedication with Ksilazyn. After the dissection, standard anatomical methods were
taken for preparation the pelvic and sacral bones: boiling in a hot water, washing
thoroughly for removing the fats and putting in peroxide for whitening. The findings were
143
documented with digital photo camera Sony Cyber shot 6,0 megapixels, and the
measurements of pelvic volumes were analyzed statistically with data analysis software
system Statistica, version 6, StatSoft. Inc. [15].
Female reproductive tract of rabbits is located in abdominal and pelvic cavity. Rabbits
have elongated oval ovaries, presented in bursa ovarica, tuba uterina, uterus duplex, with
lack of uterine body, consisted of two cervices and two very long uterine horns and vagina
simplex [2]. There is abundant adipose tissue in mesometrium and mesoovarium, making
identification and ligation of uterine vessels challenging for an ovariohysterectomy or
Caesarean section [14]. Rabbits are induced ovulators: ovulation occurs 10 h after mating.
Typical litter sizes are 6 to 8 kits, but in larger breeds there are 8 to 12 kits, with the birth
weight between 40 to 60 g.
Abdominal cavity is relatively long, and its length, from diaphragm to apertura pelvis
cranialis, is about 21 cm. Apertura pelvis cranials is oval shaped, while is apertura pelvis
caudalis relatively more narrowed and not bone- limited.
Figure 1. Pelvimetry in Oryctolagus cuniculus,
a) facies dorsalis,
b) facies ventralis
Legend: Facies dorsalis: A- diameter transversalis dorsalis, B- diameter transversalis
medialis, C- diameter transversalis ventralis, D- alla osssis sacri, E- allla ossis ilei, Facetabulum, G- foramen obturatum, H- symphisa pelvis, I- tuber sacrale. Facies ventralis:
A- conjugata vera, B- promontorium ossis sacri, C- margo cranialis symphisis pelvicis
Pelvic measurements (Figure 1), which were taken to determine the size of pelvic
cavity, were: conjugata vera (CV) was average 2,99 ± 0,098 cm, conjugata diagonalis
(CD) was average 5,42 ± 0,028 cm, diameter vetricalis (DV) was average 1,12 ± 0,02 cm,
diameter transversalis dorsalis (DTD) was average 2,55 ± 0,22 cm, diameter transversalis
medialis (DTM) was average 2,21 ± 0,038 cm, diameter transversalis ventralis (DTV) was
144
average 2,0 ± 0,044 cm, diameter transversalis caudalis (DTC) was average 2,63 ± 0,036
cm, diameter transversalis caudalis dorsalis (DTCD), as a longitude from one spina
ishiadica to another was average 2,52 ± 0,026 cm and altitude of pelvic outlet (PO), from
caudal part of os sacrum to caudal part of simphysa pelvis was average 2,44 ± 0,047 cm.
The correlation among those parameters was shown in Table 1. According to previous
data ratio abdominal cavity: pelvic cavity was 4:1.
Table 1. Correlation in pelvimetric diameters
CV
DV
CD
PO
DTD
DTM
DTV
DTCD DTC
CV
1.00
0.59
0.92** 0.55
0.60
0.86** 0.88** 0.49
0.73*
DV
0.59
1.00
0.60
0.24
0.33
0.70*
0.77** 0.45
0.39
CD
0.92** 0.60
1.00
0.74*
0.70*
0.83** 0.85** 0.44
0.61
PO
0.55
0.24
0.74*
1.00
0.71*
0.51
0.44
0.15
0.61
DTD
0.60
0.33
0.70*
0.71*
1.00
0.52
0.54
027
0.70
DTM
0.86** 0.70*
0.83** 0.51
0.52
1.00
0.76*
0.74*
0.59
DTV
0.88** 0.77** 0.85** 0.44
0.54
0.76*
1.00
0.37
0.68*
DTCD 0.49
0.45
0.44
0.15
0.27
0.74*
0.37
1.00
0.33
DTC
0.73*
0.39
0.61
0.61
0.70*
0.59
0.68*
0.33
1/00
*Correlation is significant p<0.05, **correlation is very significant p<0.01
Those results had shown that value for conjugata vera was in very significant
correlation with value for conjugata diagonalis, diameter transversalis medialis, diameter
transversalis verticalis and diameter transversalis verticalis, also in significant correlation
with diameter transversalis caudalis. Diameter verticalis was in significant correlation with
diameter transversalis medialis and very signoificant correlation with diameter
transversalis verticalis. Conjugate diagonalis was in very significant correlation with
diameter transversalis medialis and diameter transversalis verticalis, but in significant
correlation with pelvic outlet and diameter transversalis dorsalis. Pelvic outlet was in
significant correlation with diameter transversalis dorsalis, diameter transversalis medialis
with diameter transversalis dorsalis caudalis and diameter transversalis verticalis with
diameter transversalis caudalis. All below mentioned lead to conclusion that the height of
pelvic cavity was in very significant correlation with pelvic width, and its diagonal diameter.
The pelvimetry in Mustela vison vison, species Mustela vison, genus Mustela, familia
Mustelidae, order Carnivora, classes Mammalia, showed that the values for pelvic
diameter parametres were similar to the rabbit‘s pelvis, the ratio abdominal cavity:pelvic
cavity was 4:1 [12]. Pelvimetric measures in small green monkey Cercopithecus aetiops
salveus, familia Cercopithecoidea, order Primates, classes Mammalia, had shown that the
ratio abdominal cavity:pelvic cavity was 2:1 [13], which manifested that primates had
relatively largiesr pelvic cavity in comparation with abdominal cavity, inspite the animals in
familia Leporidae and Carnivora, which had smaller pelvic cavity.
Although Primates are animals with larger pelvic cavity, and animals which deliver
less youngs than animals in familia Leporidae and Carnivora, labour dystocia was, in
opposite, more frequent in the first one mentioned animals. The reasons for this
phenomenon might be in some morphological, topographic and anatomic characteristics of
some reproductive organ, but also in some diameter values for fetus and that should be a
hypothesis for future work.
145
REFERENCES
[1]. Alberti L., Vasconocellos L., Petroianu A., 2013. Antilogous and allogeneic ovarian
orthotopic transplantation. Morphologic, endocrinologic and natural pregnancy
assessment. Acta Cirurgica Brasiliera, Vol. 28, 1, p 59-65
[2]. Bishop R., 2002. Reproductive medicine of rabbits and rodents. Veterinary Clinic
North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 5, 507-535
[3]. Dorit R., Walker W., Barnes R. 1991. Zoology. Saunders College Publishing,
Mammals, 909-955
[4]. EU report 2010. http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/rabbit
[5]. Fisher B., Chavatte-Palmer P., Viebahn C., Navarrete Santos Anne, Duranthon
Veronique. 2012. Rabbit as a reproductive model for human health. Reproduction, 144,p
1-10
[6]. Fischer B., Chavatte‘Palmer P., Viebahn C., Santos Anne Navarrete, Durenthon
Veronique, 2012 Rabbit as a reproductive model for human health. Reproduction. 144,
1‘10
[7]. Graur. D., Duret L., Goury M. 1996. Phylogenetic position of the order Lagomorpha
(rabbits, hares and allies). Nature, 379, 333-335
[8]. Hickman C., Roberts L., Larson A., I‘Anson Helen. 2004. Integrated principles of
Zoology. Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, Mammals, 582-609
[9]. Huber F., Belyaen O., Huber Colette, Meeder P., 2006. A Standard Surgical Protocol
for a Rabbit Ulnar Osteotomy Model. Scand. J. Lab. Anim. Sci., Vol. 33, No 2, p 89-95
[10]. Lipman N., Jackson Lynn, Trudel Laura, Weis-Garcia F., 2005. Monoclonal Versus
Polyclonal Antibodies: Distingushing Characteristics, Applications and Information
Resources, ILAR Journal. Vol. 46, 3, p 258-268
[11]. May C., 2008. Comparative Anatomy of the Optic Nerve Head and inner Retina in
non-primate Animal Models Used for Glaukoma Research. The Open Ophtalmology
Journals, 2, p 94-101
[12]. Miladinoviš Ţivka,1965, The Morphologz and vascularisation of Female reproductive
tract of Mustela vison, PhD Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Belgrade, University of
Belgrade
[13]. Mrviš Verica, 1995, Morphology, topography an vascularisation of Female
reproductive tract of Small Green Monkey, Cercopithecus aethiops sabeus, PhD Thesis,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Belgrade, University of Belgrade
[14]. Quesenberry E., Carpenter W., 2004.Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents:Clinical Medicine
and Surgery, 2nd edition, Saunders
[15]. Statistica 2003, Statsoft. Inc., ver.6, www.statsoft.com
[16]. Vanderhyden Barbara, Shaw Tanya, Either J., 2003. Animal models for ovarian
cancer. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 1, p 1-11
[17]. Zeretsky M., Alexander J., McIntire D., Hatab M., Twicker Diane, Leveno K. 2003.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Pelvimetry and the Prediction of Labor Dystocia.
Obstretic&Ginecology, Vol. 106, No 5, part 1, p 919-926
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Valentina Milanovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb,
28273 Lešak, Serbia: E-mail: troska@sezampro.rs
Verica Mrvic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine-University of Belgrade, Bulevar JNA 14,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia: E-mail: vrmrvic@bg.ac.rs
Atanas Nitovski, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: anitovski@gmail.com
Bisa Radovic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: bisaradovic@yahoo.com
146
COMPARISON OF PRODUCTIVE ABILITIES
OF IMPORTED AND DOMESTIC FIRST CALVING SIMMENTAL COWS
B. Milosevic, S. Ciric, Z. Spasic, I. Zoran, N. Lalic, N. Stolic
Abstract: The basic scientific goal of this investigation was to make a complex view and study of
milking traits in two Simmental cow groups in the production conditions of Southern Serbia. A total of 100
Simmental first calving cows were investigated. The first calving cows originally arrived from Germany and a
comparison of productive abilities with their contemporary group of domestic Simmental cows has been
performed.
Conditions and housing were similar for both groups and with the same feeding regime and feedstuffs
quality. The information of the cow’s milk production were collected and incorporated into a database created
in Microsoft Access for Windows software and then processed using the software Statistica for windows.
Statistical difference has been determined using the T test.
Average duration of all lactations investigated were 305,8 days in imported and 302,8 days in the
group of domestic first calving cows. Milk production per standard lactation of the cows grown up in our
conditions averaged 3727,3 kg with 3,815% or 142,95 kg of milk fat, and in the group of imported cows these
values were 4772,5 kg, 3,858% and 185,76 kg respectively. These parameters are similar considering the
whole lactation. Differences were statistically highly significant in all parameters under investigation
(P<0,001).
Obtained results confirm that import of more expensive animals with better genetic potential is
economically justified for the breeder, but it is necessary to provide best breeding practice and high quality
voluminous fodder in order to exploit imported genetic potential in a best manner in upcoming lactations.
Key words: cattle, Simmental, milk yield, milk fat yield 4% FCM
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the import of breeding cattle has increased in Serbia, especially import of
first calving Simmentall cows. Breeders are trying to improve a quality of their herds and
increase milk production. However, often there are no so high benefits from imported
animals since high genetic potential can be expressed only if adequate measures such as
good housing conditions, feeding regime and selection are introduced. Milk production is
the basic goal of production and the most important source of income for the breeder.
Thus, some investigators conduct experiments in order to compare production abilities of
imported Simmental cows and their contemporaries in order to make right conclusions
regarding the quality and arrange their production technology according to results
obtained. The basic goal of our investigation was to compare milking abilities of first
calving Simmental cows imported from Germany with a contemporary group of calves born
in Serbia.
A total of 100 Simmental first calving cows and mother cows were subject of our
investigation. Conditions and housing were similar for both groups and with the same
feeding regime and feedstuffs quality.
The information of the cows‘ milk production were collected and incorporated into a
database created in Microsoft Access for Windows software and then processed using the
software Statistica for windows. Statistical difference has been determined using the T
test.
The following traits were subject of investigation:
147
 duration of lactation (days)-DL
 milk yield in standard lactation (kg)-MY
 milk fat content in standard lactation (%)-MFC
 milk fat yield in standard lactation (kg)-MFY
 yield of 4% FCM in lactation (kg)-4%MKM
The amount of 4% Fat-corrected milk was calculated using Gaines' s equation:
FCM = 0.4M + 15F
M = milk yield, F = butterfat yield: all in the same units, kg.
First calving cows, that were subject of our investigation, expressed high differences
regarding milk production abilities (Table 1). High statistical differences (P<0,001) have
been recorded in all investigated traits, except those showing duration of the lactation.
Cows, produced in our condition, had lactation that lasted 302,8 days, less for
approximately 3.5 days, with no statistical differences.
Milk production per standard lactation of the cows grown up in our conditions
averaged 3727 kg with 3,81% or 142,95 kg of milk fat, and in the group of imported cows
these values were 4772 kg, 3,87% and 185,76 kg of milk fat respectively.
Table 1: Milk production of first calving cows and their mothers of Simmental breed
TRAITS
IMPORTED
DOMESTIC
SIGNIFICANCE
Duration of lactation (days)
305.8±22.39
302.8±12.30
P=0.418 ns
Milk yield
4797±885.64
3704±450.22
P<0.001***
4772±694.01
3727±439.37
P<0.001***
Milk fat yield
185.97±36.70
142.14±18.75
P<0.001***
Milk fat yield in standard
lactation
185.76±28.60
142.95±17.98
P<0.001***
3.87±0.08
3.81±0.07
P<0.001***
4708±750.22
3613±455.15
P<0.001***
Milk yield
lactation
in
standard
Milk fat content
Yield of 4% FCM in standard
lactation (kg)
The yield of 4% fat corrected milk in standard lactation averaged 3613 kg in the group
of domestic cows and in the group of imported cows it was 4708 kg. Differences are
statistically highly significant (P<0.001).
It could be concluded that imported group of first calving Simmental in comparison
with the cows produced in our conditions has better genetic potential which is reflected
148
trough significantly higher milk and milk fat production. It is necessary to have in mind
previously reported problems such as mastitis and inadequate forage quality which caused
a drop in production of imported first calving Simmental cows during the last decade in
Serbia which highlights the acclimatization problem of imported cows in both Simmental
and Black&White breed in our production conditions [5, 6]. The recorded milk production of
imported first calving cows was actually very close to the milk production in standard
lactation of Simmental first calving cows in Austria, which amounted about 5000 kg [1, 7].
We can conclude that that before an import of animals, necessary housing, feeding
and other conditions, must be provided can be supported by results of investigation in
Slovenia [2].
In conditions where there are similar breeding cultures, differences between imported
and domestic Simmental first calving cows were not recorded. Simply, in our conditions
adaptation of animals lasts longer due to improper management.
Our preliminary results are in accordance with previously mentioned conclusions
given by Spasic that after a period, genetic potential of imported animals can be fully
expressed. This genetic potential is undoubtedly very valuable and at the end incorporates
a new quality in domestic population, which justifies import process [3].
Milk production per standard lactation of the cows grown up in our conditions
averaged 3727 kg with 3,81% or 142,95 kg of milk fat, and in the group of imported cows
these values were 4772 kg, 3,87% and 185,76 kg of milk fat respectively. The yield of 4%
fat corrected milk in standard lactation averaged 3613 kg in the group of domestic cows
and in the group of imported cows it was 4708 kg.
Differences among groups under investigation were all highly significant for all
parameters, except those of average duration of the lactation.
Obtained results highlight the problem of acclimatization of cattle imported from other
areas. Results confirm that import of more expensive animals with better genetic potential
is economically justified for the breeder during the first lactation only when is able to
provide best breeding practice and quality voluminous fodder.
in general, imports of animals is necessary, since latter productivity provides better
income for farmers and, in turn, gives the possibility for better selection and improving the
potential of domestic Simmental population.
REFERENCES
[1]. Raganitsch G. (2001.): Das Österreichische Flekvieh und seine Genetik. 368 str.
[2]. Janzekovic M., Skorjanc D., Smolinger J. (2004): The influence of various origins of
first calving Simmental and Black-White cows on production and content of milk.
Mljekarstvo 54 (4) 275-283, 2004.
[3]. Medic D., Veselinovic S., Veselinovic Snezana, Ivancev Anica, Cupic Z. (2006):
Uporedna ispitivanja osobina mlecnosti simentalskih krava domace i austrijske
provenijence. Simpozijum stocarstvo i agroekonomija u trnzicionim procesima. Herceg
Novi.
[4]. Raganitch G. (2001.): Das Österreichische Flekvieh und seine Genetik. 368 str.
[5]. Spasic Z (1996): Varijabilnost I povezanost osobina mlecnosti i plodnosti tri
generacije domacih sarenih goveda. Magistarska teza. Poljoprivredni fakultet. BeogradZemun.
[6]. Spasic Z. (2000): Kvantitativno genetska analiza proizvodnih i reproduktivnih osobina
krava u populaciji crno belih goveda. Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni
fakultet.Krusevac.
149
[7]. Zentrale arbeitsgemeinschaft österreichischer
österreichhische Rinderzuht Ausgabe 2000, 26-80
rinerzüchter-zar
(2000.):
Die
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the Serbian Ministry of Science for support. Project TR-31001
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Bozidar Milosevic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: bozidar.milosevic@pr.ac.rs
Slavica Ciric, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: slavica.ciric@pr.ac.rs
Zvonko Spasic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: spasiczvonko@gmail.com
Zoran Ilic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273 Lešak,
Serbia. E-mail: zoran.z.ilic@pr.ac.rs
Nebojsa Lalic, Faculty of Agriculture-University of Pristina, Kopaoniţka bb, 28273
Lešak, Serbia. E-mail: dr.lalicn@gmail.com
Nikola Stolic, Agricultural College, 27000 Prokuplje, Serbia. E-mail:
nikola.stolic@gmail.com
150
MICROPROPAGATION OF SOME STRAWBERRY SORTS
Zoran Nikoliš, Katerina Nikoliš, Ana Selamovska, Suzana Stankoviš
Abstract: This work presents the production technology of four strawberry sorts by micropropagation.
Meristems of 0,5mm size were isolated in June from the stolons of examined strawberry sorts. They were
raised on MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium in presence of BAP, IBA and GA 3. Fifty days later meristems
were organized into a foliate rosette. Multiplication was achiewed on MS substratum with BAP and IBA. The
plants which came to the size of about 10mm were shifted to the substratum for tree rooting. Tree rooting
was achiewed on MS substratum with IBA. Sixty days later the plants with strongly developed roots were
transplanted into the peaty briquettes. One month later the plants were transplanted into flowerpots and kept
0
in a greenhouse at a temperature of 10-15 C.
Key words: strawberry, meristem ,micropropagation, sort, stolons ,multiplication, adaptacion, hormones.
INTRODUCTION
According to the production volume, strawberry is the most important berry fruit. The
areas covered with strawberries are not so small (7.829 ha ), but the yields per hectare are
low (4,2 t/ha). The reasons for this lie primarily in an inappropriate assortment, technology
of cultivation and poor quality planting material.
Since the various fungal, bacterial, virus and other diseases are transmitted using
conventional methods of multiplication, and this leads to a yield reduction, the production
of healthy planting material is imposed as a special problem.
The modern production of strawberry runner plants consists of production of the
selected and virus-free strawberry runner plants. Strawberries can be virus-free by using
the micropropagation method. This method is based on the ability of plants to regenerate
from individual cells, tissues or organs into a new plant. This multiplication is provided only
in the laboratory.
Micropropagation is performed on a special medium, which contains a larger number
of nutrients, especially minerals, sucrose and phytohormones. The influence of hormones
on the plant growth and cell division, and their development into an organized structure,
cannot be inferred on the basis of pedigree. Thus, for example, a certain hormonal
treatment for the induction, division and the growth of plant cells applied to one sort of
strawberries did not show itself as efficient when compared to another sort. A lot of
unsolved issues mainly regard the specific features of a certain sort.
Four sorts of strawberries were examined during the three-year research: Senga
Sengana, Cortina, Marmolada and Idea. The starting material for the examined sorts was
taken from the mother plantation of strawberries in D.P. „Poreţje― Vuţje. Preparation of the
starting material and MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) medium was performed in the
biological laboratory ‗‘Zdravlje‘‘ Leskovac, whereas the isolation of plant material was
performed in the laminar microbiological laboratory of the mentioned company. The
impacts of different phytohormones were also carried out in these laboratories.
The explants were kept at ‗‘Zdravlje‘‘ Leskovac in controlled conditions and at a
temperature 20 -25 o C, with light intensity of 2000 – 2500 luxes and the length of
brightness of 16 hours per day and 8 hours per night. Adjustment to environmental
conditions was carried out in the greenhouses of the company under the ‗‘mist‘‘ system.
After adjustment, the plants were planted on the plots of D.P. „Poreţje―Vuţje and one
private producer in the village of Strojkovce for further research.
151
Stolons of the runner plants of the following sorts of strawberries were used for the
isolation of meristems: Senga Sengana, Cortina, Marmolada and Idea. The isolated
strawberry meristems were cultured on MS mineral solution with sa 0,1mg/I GA 3
(gibberellic acid), 0,1 mg/l BAP (benzyl amino purine), 1 mg/I IBA.
Starting cultures at these concentrations is shown in table 1.
Tab.1 The beginning of the development og various sorts of strawberry cultures
Sort
Senga
Sengana
Cortina
Marmolada
Idea
The
number
Of
meristem
s present
in the
culture
30
30
30
30
Nonifendested
cultures
Number
%
Activated
cultures
Number
% of
succes
%
27
90
22
81.48
73.33
25
25
26
83.33
83.33
86.67
18
12
17
72.00
48.00
65.38
60.00
40.00
56.67
The biggest success in the initiation of culture has been achieved with the sort
Senga Sengana (81.48%) and lowest with Marmolada (48.00%).
Milosavljevic at.al(1999) with the sort Selena achieved the highest percentage of
startup culture (70%) and lowest with Sena.
Nikolic at al. (2004) with the sort Selena achieved the initiation of culture of 76.67%
and 63.33% for Hummel constantly giving birth.
After 40 days of growing in culture, formed scions were transferred to MS medium
phytohormones at a concentration of 1 mg / L BAP and 1 mg / L IBA. The results are
shown in table 2.
Tab. 2. The multiplication of various strawberry cultures
Sort
Senga Sengana
Cortina
Marmolada
Idea
Number of plants in
The number of
culture
produced plants per row
22
193
18
111
12
65
17
96
Index of
multiplication
8.77
6.17
5.42
5.65
The highest index of copying has a sort Senga Sengana (8.77) and the lowest
Marmolada (5,42).
The presence of hormones BAP in the medium efficiently prevented rooting of all
tested sorts. At the optimal combination of hormones multiplicative index of all the
passages was higher than 1:5, and was approximately 1:5-9, (in some passages and 10).
By omitting hormone IBA, in all tested sorts there was a reduction of multiplication, but not
to the omission of multiplication.
Three-year cultivation did not significantly reduce biological potential starting material,
and it was in the range of calculated value multiplication.
152
When they reached a height of 10-20 mm, strawberry scions were transferred to the
rooting medium. Into the composition of this medium of phytohormones only 0.5 mg / L
IBA was added.
Tab.3. The rooting of various strawberry sorts after 60 days
Sort
Number of plants Number of rooted % of rooting
In culture
plants
Senga Sengana
30
26
86,67
Cortina
30
27
90,00
Marmolada
30
25
83,33
Idea
30
22
73,33
The average number of
root/culture
6.11
6,04
5,96
5.09
The first root initials could be observed after 15 days, and after 4 - 5 weeks roots
reached a length of about 40 mm. The roots were thin and long, and with little callus on the
cut place of the scion. Number of roots per plant ranged from 5.09 for a sort Idea, 6.11 for
Senga Sengana.
The highest rooting is with the sort Cortina (90%) and the lowest with Idea (73.33%).
After the rooting, the most convenient moment for transplantation of those plantlets is after
60 or so days of agrarian ´ MS medium, when the roots reach a length of 4-6cm. The
results of adaptation of tested sorts of strawberries are shown in the following table.
Tab. 4. The adaptation of various sorts of strawberries to the outdoor condicions
Sort
Senga Sengana
Cortina
Marmolada
Idea
The number of
planted plants
40
40
40
40
The number of plants
that survived
31
34
32
29
% of survived plants
77.50
85.00
80.00
72.50
According to the analyzes in these experiments it is possible to multiplicate 4 tested
sorts by using the micropropagation methods.
The biggest success in the initiation of culture was with the sort Senga Sengana
(81.48%) and the lowest with Marmolada (48%).
For scion multiplication of strawberry the hormone BAP has the most important role.
The highest index of multiplication has a sort Senga Sengana (8.77) and the lowest
sort Marmolada (5.33)
The highest percentage of multiplication has a sort Cortina (90%) and the lowest
Idea (73.33%).
The highest number of roots has a sort Senga Sengana (6.11) and the lowest Idea
(5,09).
During the adaptation to external conditions the highest number of adapted plants
was with the sort Cortina (85.55%) and the lowest with Idea (72.50%).
153
REFERENCES
[1]. Blagojeviš, R., Nikoliš, Z. 2012. Jagodasto voše. DIS Publik, Beograd.
[2]. Milosavljeviš, S., et al. 1999. Razmnoţavanje novih sorti jagode metodom kulture
meristema in vitro. Nauka u praksi, 20, 11-18.
[3]. Murashige, T., Skoog, F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and biossays with
tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol.Plant.15, 473-497.
[4]. Nikoliš, M., Milivojeviš, J.2010. Jagodaste voške. Grafika Jureš, Ţaţak.
[5]. Nikoliš, Z., et al. 2004. Meristemskoto razmnoţuvanje kako metod za dobivanje na
zdrav saden material kaj neki sorti jagoda. Godišen zbornik za zaštita na rastenijata.Vol.
XV, 153-162. Skopje.
[6]. Nikoliš, Z., 2006. Mikrorazmnoţavanje i njegov uticaj na agrobiološke i tehnološke
osobine kod nekih sorti jagoda. Doktorska disertacija. Lešak. 134.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Zoran Nikoliš, assistant professor, University of Prishtina, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kopaoniţka bb, Lešak, Serbia, +381691583860, E-mail: zotanikl@gmail.com
Katerina Nikoliš, assistant, University of Prishtina, Faculti of Agriculture, Kopaoniţka
bb, Lešak, Serbia, +381638266191, E-mail: Katerina Nikolic@yahoo.com
Ana Selamovska, scientific collaborator, Institute of Agriculture, Bul. Aleksandar
Makedonski bb., 1000 Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, +38978255729, E-mail:anfilika2@thome.mk
Suzana Stankoviš, Primary school teacher, OŠ „ Partizanski dom― Buţumet, Serbia.
Aleksandar Mitiš, „Poreţje Vuţje―, 16203 Vuţje, Serbia.
154
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE-THE SOURCE OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS FOR
ECOLOGICAL MEDICINES, DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS AND COSMETICS
C. Popescu, Ş. Manea, C.L. Popescu, B. Popescu, M.Tita
Abstract: It should be noted that organic agriculture involves many disciplines and subdomains such
as: vegetal cultures, food security, livestock, biodiversity, ecology, land use, processing, production,
knowledge, tradition, agricultural inputs, certification, standards, and accreditation.
Organic agriculture is a production management system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems
and people.
Our main responsibility is to assure and keep under control all the steps and traceability of our
products used about 64 species of plants from our own ecological agriculture
Key words: organic agriculture, quality, safety, security
INTRODUCTION
Organic agriculture has generated increasing global interest. It can provide an
additional avenue for climate change mitigation and it is also considered ecosystemfriendly because of its emphasis on minimum tillage and reduced use of pesticides,
herbicides and synthetic fertilizers. Organic agriculture is also expected to play a major
role in fighting against desertification, preserving biodiversity, contributing to sustainable
development and promoting animal and plant health.
To this end, the entire farm cycle, from production and processing, to handling and
delivery, excludes:
- Genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
- External agricultural inputs: pesticides, drugs, additives and fertilizers.
- No radiations during the manufacturing of the finished goods.
The growing interest of consumers and markets worldwide in organic products has
also opened new trade opportunities for developing countries, through internationally
recognized certification [1].
In the SC Hofigal Export Import SA the work in the field of organic agriculture started
in the 2008. The company utilizes an area of around 25 hectares on the main site and
about 161 ha on the one of ours branch= 66 organic plants.
Hofigal is a company that is specialized in the manufacture of exclusively natural
products, being characterized by the fact that they produce in their own greenhouses and
agricultural lands the majority of the organic raw materials that they use.The Active
Ingredients that are used are obtained in controlled conditions, by way of a strictly
ecological agriculture.
Lands were first prepared for ecological farming by growing a succession of diverse
species of plants that removed from the soil any substances that could contaminate future
harvests. The plants used as Active Ingredients were then cultivated without the use of
chemical fertilizers, herbicides, growth stimulators, or any other type of chemical
treatment, which could have contaminated the resultant crops and subsequently the
products obtained from them.Hofigal finished the procedure of conversion from
conventional agriculture to ecological agriculture.
The main objectives of the company are to apply the conditions and measures with
regards to quality assurance, safety and efficacy of all products, as with the acquisition of
natural vegetal Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API‘s) guaranteed to correspond in
totality with current international ecological norms.
All of the stages of the process, from cultivation (pre-processing, plant processing),
down to the finished product in the form of pharmaceutical products, dietary supplements,
cosmetics, and teas conform to international norms regarding the cultivation and
155
harvesting of plants, as well as the rules for Good Agriculture Practice, Good
Manufacturing Practice, Good Hygienic Practice, Good Storage Practice, Good
Distribution Practice.
With regard to the quality and safety of the products, regardless of what stage they
are in, they fulfill the requirements of the European Pharmacopoeia, complemented with
those of other internationally circulating pharmacopoeias, and of the quality conditions
pertaining to Hofigal‘ Quality & Safety Philosophy.
This work was inspired by our company policy regarding the quality and safety of our
products and we have putted on the top our care for the customers health and safety=
food security for all.
Collaboration was initiated with international recognition certification body named
Suolo e Salute from Italy (now= SC CERT ORGANIC S.R.L for Romania); during our
collaboration have been several initiatives to enhance the knowledge-base and the sharing
of experiences.
Conventional agriculture prioritizes high yields and does little to harmoniously interact
with and preserve its immediate environment.
These practices can result in widespread environmental degradation, commonly
resulting in soil erosion, water, soil and pollution, biodiversity loss and desertification. Soil
erosion by conventional agriculture is a main cause of loss of yield capacity and fertility
and the organic agriculture‘s methods improve the fertility and overall health of the soil.
Organic agriculture used the concept of land management that emphasizes
preservation of a land‘s natural ecosystem, consuming less energy and reducing the risks
of pollution.
Soil conservation is therefore one of the key concepts in organic agriculture [2].
We carried out a set of tests named ‖Content in heavy metals‖ on the our organic soil,
water for irrigation, fresh and dry plants, fatty oils and the results were Non Detectable for
the following ions: Cd, Pb , Hg, As and a good content in ions with a huge importance in
mineral content for human bodies, antioxidant properties: Ca,Mg,Na,K,Mn, Fe,Zn, Cu.
We have carried out a test for the own antimicrobial efficacy for some greasy
ecological oils too.
With a full set of physic – chemical, microbiological and toxicological test we can have
a general overview about quality and safety characteristics on our ecological plants and in
this moment we are present on the domestic and international market with our ecological
teas.
Heavy metals in herbal drugs, dietary supplements, cosmetics and fatty oils from
Hofigal Organic Farming were examined by atomic absorption spectrometry.
The apparatus typically consists of the following: as digestion flasks with a volume of about
120 ml, a tube from polytetrafluoroethylene; a system to make flasks airtight, a microwave
oven and an atomic absorption spectrometer equipped with hollow-cathode lamps as
source of radiation and a deuterium lamp as background corrector.
Test solution: from about 0, 50 g of powdered product or 0, 50 g of fatty oil; add 6 ml
of heavy metal-free nitric acid R and 4 ml of heavy metal-free hydrochloric acid R. Carry
out the digestion in 3 steps with 7 flasks each containing the test solution: 80% power for
15 min, 100% power for 5 min, 80% power for 20 min. At the end of the cycle allow the
flasks to cool in air and to each add 4 ml of heavy metal-free sulfuric acid R.
Blank solution: mix 6 ml of heavy metal-free nitric acid R and 4 ml of heavy metal-free
hydrochloric acid R in a digestion flask and carry out the digestion in the same manner as
156
for the test solution. The test is in complies with the European Pharmacopoeia, the 7th
Edition [3].
The own antimicrobial efficacy for some greasy ecological oils and the microbial
contamination test on organic Hofigal teas was carried out in compliance with the
European Pharmacopoeia, the 7th Edition requirements [3].In this both test we used the
following microorganisms test:
1. The benefits of organic agriculture
1.1. Environmental benefits
Figure No.1- Organic farming Hofigal
Table no.1-Examples of content in minerals and heavy metals in the organic
plants farming Hofigal [mg/100g]
Name of Hofigal
organic plants
Angelica arhangelica
Capsicum annuum
(Pepper)
Silybum marianum
(Milk Thistle)
Ocimum basilicum
(Basil)
Momordica charantia
(Bitter cucumber)
Common chicory,
(Chicory )
Ca
Mg
Na
K
Mn
4,50
11,0
1,30
180,0
3,0
3,90
8,3
1,01
180,0
9,0
3,80
8,9
2,08
186,0
5,0
4,10
10,1
1,70
165,0
7,0
4,99
11,7
6.00
352,0
2,0
5,90
13,6
2,40
261,0
10,0
Fe
Zn
Cu
Pb
Cd
Hg
As
2,5
1,5
1,0
0,9
<2
<2
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
7,4
4,5
2,0
1,5
<2
<2
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
1,7
1,5
<2
ND
ND
ND
ND
<2
ND
ND
ND
ND
5,0
2,0
1.2. Human beans’ health benefits
In addition to grading and technical suitability(utility value), food quality is determinate
by its nutritional quality = describes the inherent biological or health value of a product
including the ratio of beneficial to harmful substances, and taste, fragrance, freshness and
shelf-life as important quality characteristics governing consumer behavior.
Organing Farming claims to produce higher quality than conventional agriculture. The
production processes are an important part of food quality identified as ‗process quality‘.
Nutritional quality is determinate by the value of the product for the consumer‘s
physical health, grows, development, reproduction and general well-being [4].
Consumers buy organic products because they expect a certain standard of
production that is environmentally-friendly and free of any artificial inputs.
1.3. Social benefits
157
- Improved employment opportunities in local communities (Organic farming often
requires more manual labor= 10-20% higher than on comparable conventional farms
- Organic farming has the effect of strengthening local communities and supporting
rural development.Many organic farms also incorporate fair trade principles with respect to
labor welfare.
- Consumer protection = organic agriculture contribute to food security.
- Organic agriculture improves access to food by reducing risks of disease, increasing
biodiversity and productivity over the long term.
1.4. Economic benefits
- Farmers have realized that consumers are willing to pay a premium for organicallygrown foods.
- Organic farmers must carefully plan how best to enter such markets and obtain
certifications that will be recognized where they wish to sell their products. Governments
have also contributed to this growth, by subsidizing conversions to organic farming.
- Growth rates in organic food sales have been in the range of 20-25% for the last ten
years.
- Organic agriculture is now practiced in approximately 120 countries throughout the
world.
2. Hofigal’ Organic products on the domestic and international market
Figure No.2- Organic teas Hofigal
3. Test for efficacy of antimicrobial preservation for a Hofigal cosmetic product with
Organic APIs
Graficul 17
Testarea eficacitatii conservantilor antimicrobieni pentru un
produs cosmetic,gel,multidoza, inoculat cu
Candida albicans ATCC 10231
350000
Concentratia microorganismelor (
UFC/g )
UFC/g )
Graficul 16
produs cosmetic gel,multidoza,inoculat cu
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027
300000
250000
200000
Proba
150000
Martor
100000
50000
0
28 zile
200000
150000
Proba
100000
Martor
50000
0
0
48 h
7 zile
14 zile
Proba
240000
7000
0
0
Proba
185000
8000
0
0
Martor
290000
290000
290000
290000
Martor
190000
190000
190000
190000
Tim p
0
48 h
7 zile
14 zile
28 zile
Tim p
Graph no.1-Test for efficacy of antimicrobial preservation for a cosmetic product,
gel,multidose,tube x 30ml, inoculated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa
ATCC 9027 ,respective with Candida albicans ATCC 10231
158
Graficul 19
Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404
300000
250000
200000
Proba
150000
Martor
100000
50000
0
0
48 h
7 zile
14 zile
Proba
263000
8000
0
0
Martor
281000
281000
281000
281000
UFC/g )
Concentratia microorganismelor ( UFC/g )
Graficul 18
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538
160000
140000
120000
100000
Proba
80000
Martor
60000
40000
20000
0
0
48 h
7 zile
14 zile
Proba
120000
9000
0
0
Martor
140000
140000
140000
140000
28 zile
28 zile
Tim p
Timp
Graph no.2-Test for efficacy of antimicrobial preservation for a cosmetic product,
gel,multidose,tube x 30ml, inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus
ATCC 6538 , respective with Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404
All Hofigal Organic Plants are used in about 475 finished products under drugs,
dietary supplements, cosmetics, organic greasy oils, organic APIs; all of them are
marketing licente and are already on the domestic and internatioanal market.
All of them haven‘t proved adverse reactions.
REFERENCES
[1]. Morgera,E., Bullon Caro,C.,Durán, G.M., Rome, 2012, Organic agriculture and the
law, FAO Legislative study 107, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
5.
[2]. Morgera,E.,Bullon Caro, C.,Durán, G.M., Rome, 2012, Organic agriculture and the
law, FAO Legislative study 107, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
6.
[3]. Consiliul European-(EDQM), Strasbourg, Franta, 2010, Farmacopeea Europeana,
editia a 7-a, volumul1.
[4]. Kopke, U.,Impacts of agriculture on human health and nutrition, Vol.II,Influence of
Organic and Conventional Farming Systems on nutritional quality of food
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
C.V. Popescu, Hofigal Export Import SA, 2 Intr. Serelor, district 4, code 042124,
Bucharest, Romania,E-mail: carmen_popescu@hofigal.eu
Ş.Manea,Hofigal Export Import SA, 2 Intr. Serelor, district 4, code 042124, Bucharest,
Romania,E-mail: directorgeneral@hofigal.eu
C.Popescu, Pharmacies network Sensiblu, Bucharest,Romania, district 5,
popescu_candice@yahoo.com
B.Popescu, Pharmacies network Catena, Bucharest, Romania, district 4,
satiriadis1@yahoo.com
M.Tita,Regional Hospital Pharmacy, Craiova,Romania,
monica_gabriela2007@yahoo.com
159
AN ANALYSIS OF THE MORPHOLOGY AND PHENOLOGY OF SWEET
CHESTNUT (CASTANEA SATIVA MILL.) FLOWER AND NUT IN NORTHWESTERN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Mujagiš-Pašiš, D. Ballian
Abstract: North-western Bosnia and Herzegovina is considered one of the regions in Bosnia and
Herzegovina which are richest in sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) and where sweet chestnut occurs as
part of natural populations.
The objective of this research is to establish intra-population and inter-population variability of natural
populations of sweet chestnut on the basis of six morphological and five derived properties of the nut and
phenology of blooming. A total of 16 subpopulations and 146 trees from the localities of Cazin (Gornja
Koprivna), Buţim (Zaradostovo) and Velika Kladuša (Vrnograč) have been selected, and a total of 3.631
nuts have been collected during their full maturity. Phenologic monitoring was carried out in 2009 and 2010,
including the recording of dates of the beginning, the peak and the end of the blooming of male catkins and
dates when female flowers occurred.
A single analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been carried out to establish a presence of variability both
between the studied subpopulations and within subpopulations for all studied properties of the nut, except for
nut embryony. A discriminatory analysis has established eleven functions with values lower than 1, which
means that there is no statistically significant discrimination, and that there is no division into groups by any
of the functions. It has been perceived by means of phenologic monitoring that at the beginning of blooming
there is variability within the units of the same subpopulations, between the studied subpopulations and
between the years in which monitoring was carried out.
Key words: Sweet chestnut, North-western Bosnia and Herzegovina, Morphologic properties of the
nut, Phenology of blooming.
INTRODUCTION
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller) represents the only natural species of the
Castanea genus in Europe. In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Balkan
Peninsula, sweet chestnut represents a relist and regressive species, and the majority of
stands is distributed between 300 and 600 m above sea level [1]. It is known that the
starting basis for plant breeding is phenotype and genotype variability of the material. The
reason for this is the fact that properties complying with the pursued goal can be found
only in distinctively variable material [2]. Morphological and phenological properties are
frequently used in practice to study genetic variability [3], because they sometimes provide
a faster insight into the existence of variability compared to analyses of isoenzymes and
molecular markers. Studies based on the morphology of the nut of sweet chestnut as well
as the phenology of blossoming are still generally excepted in the world, given the fact that
the shape, size and anatomy of the sweet chestnut leaf vary considerably in different
environmental conditions [4], while the phenology of blossoming of sweet chestnut is
important for detecting a connection between climate change and the physiological activity
of this kind of trees, and their reaction to climate change and global warming [5], [6] et al.
A total of 16 subpopulations and 140 sweet chestnut trees as well as 6 trees of the
―Pelasore‖ cultivar were collected in 2009 among the natural populations of the sweet
chestnut in north-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina (Cazin, Buţim and Velika Kladuša)
(Table 1).
160
Table 1. Review and codes of the studied subpopulations
Locality
Vrnograţ (Velika Kladuša)
Zaradostovo (Buţim)
Gornja Koprivna (Cazin)
Subpopulation
code
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation (m)
V1
45°10‘11‖ N
15°56‘07 ― E
268.80
V2
45°09‘56 ― N
15°58‘13 ― E
262.10
V3
45°09‘54 ― N
15°58‘12 ― E
252.10
V4
45°10‘06 ― N
15°58‘13‖ E
258.60
V5
45°10‘02 ― N
15°58‘19 ― E
285.20
B6
45°04‘44 ― N
16°03‘42 ― E
282.60
B7
45°04‘44 ― N
16°03‘53 ― E
271.10
B8
45°04‘40 ― N
16°03‘43 ― E
319.60
B9
45°04‘35 ― N
16°03‘38 ― E
323.30
C10
44°58‘47 ― N
15°57‘35 ― E
503.00
C11
44°58‘44 ― N
15°57‘40 ― E
490.10
C12
44°58‘49 ― N
15°57‘39 ― E
484.10
C13
44°58‘59 ― N
15°57‘45 ― E
498.80
C14
44°59‘08 ― N
15°57‘46 ― E
486.40
Ck15
44°58‘52 ― N
15°57‘41 ― E
498.60
Ck16
44°58‘47 ― N
15°57‘35 ― E
492.00
The selection of subpopulations made sure that scientifically interesting, minor and
local subpopulations from contrasting environmental conditions are equally represented.
30 nuts per each tree were selected during their full maturity (October) by means of
random sampling in order to carry out a pomological analysis. A total of 3,631 nuts were
collected, and the following variables were measured: nut length in mm (DPL), nut width in
mm (ŠPL), nut thickness in mm (DEP), hilum width in mm (ŠH), hilum length in mm (DH),
nut mass in g (MP). The following ratios were calculated on the basis of known values and
in accordance with the references in scientific literature [7]: calculated nut shape in mm
(nut length/nut width, IOP) and relative hilum size in mm (hilum width x hilum length, RVH).
According to the international descriptor for sweet chestnut [8], the derived properties of
the nut were determined: nut shape – OP (property 31), nut embryony - EP (property 27)
and penetration of the pericarp into the cotyledon – PSO (property 29). Phenological
monitoring was conducted in 2009 and 2010, in which the time of the start of the
blossoming, the climax and the end of blossoming of male catkins as well as the
occurrence of female flowers in accordance with properties 11 and 12 of the international
descriptor for sweet chestnut (UPOV 1989). Blossoming was monitored four times a week
so that the data will be as precise as possible. The morphological data from the
measurements was processed statistically by means of the XLSTAT 2011 [9] and
STATISTICA 10 [10] packages.
161
An analysis of variance for the studied properties of the nut (Table 2) has shown that
there are statistically very significant differences between the groups by each of the
studied property, except for nut embryony.
Table 2. An analysis of variance of the groups for the studied properties of the nut
Property
DP – nut length
(mm)
ŠP – nut width
(mm)
DEP – nut
thickness (mm)
IOP –
calculated nut
shape (DP/ŠP)
ŠH – hilum
width (mm)
DH – hilum
length (mm)
RVH – relative
size of hilum
(ŠHxDH) in mm
MP – fresh nut
mass (g)
OP – nut shape
EP – nut
embryony
PSO penetration of
the pericarp
into the
cotyledon
Source of
variability
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Liberty
rate
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
15
3615
3630
Sum of squares
7648,032
19053,057
26701,089
11636,385
25508,266
37144,651
4411,219
19964,116
24375,335
4,449
30,480
34,929
3402,461
9492,900
12895,361
11203,653
28284,599
39488,252
3419679,829
8277690,261
11697370,090
2749,566
7837,629
10587,195
622,453
6729,573
7352,026
0,204
21,663
21,867
33,003
657,822
690,825
Mean of
squares
509,869
5,271
F
96,739
Sig.
(Pr > F)
< 0.0001
775,759
7,056
109,940
< 0.0001
294,081
5,523
53,251
< 0.0001
0,297
0,008
35,177
< 0.0001
226,831
2,626
86,380
< 0.0001
746,910
7,824
95,461
< 0.0001
227978,655
2289,817
99,562
< 0.0001
183,304
2,168
84,547
< 0.0001
41,497
1,862
22,291
< 0.0001
0,014
0,006
2,265
0.004
2,200
0,182
12,091
< 0.0001
On the basis of a disctiminant analysis by subpopulations, eleven properties have
values below 1, which implies that there are no statistically significant differences between
the studied subpopulations by none of the properties (Table 3). The table shows the first
five properties with the total variation of 93.14 %.
162
Table3. Eigenvalues and cumulative variability contained in the first five properties
F1
F2
0,734
0,228
0,177
0,087
0,064
Discrimination (%)
53,014
16,456
12,763
6,312
4,599
Cumulative %
53,014
69,469
82,233
88,544
93,143
Eigenvalue
F3
F4
F5
Picture 1. A discriminant analysis of the studied subpopulations
53.01 % of the present variations were explained with this aspect of discriminant
analysis, while the remaining variations are related to other factors.
It was noticed on the basis of a two-year monitoring of the phenology of blossoming
of sweet chestnut in north-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina that there are differences in
the beginning and duration of individual phenophases between subpopulations, between
seasons, but also within individual items of the same subpopulation. The observed varying
can be caused by different microclimate conditions of the area, which can vary
considerably between two relatively close localities. The earliest beginning of blossoming
was recorded in 2009 (28 May) in subpopulation B8 in Buţim, and the latest in 2010 (26
June) in control subpopulation Ck15, with the difference amounting to 29 days (Table 4).
Table 4. Phenophases of blossoming of the studied subpopulations
2009
First blossoming ♂
Occurrence of ♀ flowers
Full blossoming ♂
End of blossoming ♂
May
28.
2010
June
31.
2.
20.
163
June
5.
July
7.
11.
1.
In the majority of cases, sweet chestnut starts to blossom in the studied area in late
May, while the blossoming ends in late June or early July. Total duration of the blossoming
season varied between 11 and 22 days. The blossoming in 2010 was late 8 days on
average in the majority of subpopulations, with the possible reasons being relatively low
average and maximum temperatures in the months of the start of blossoming in 2010.
According to the references [11] and based on the phonological characteristics of
blossoming, the phonological studies carried out imply the existence of different ecotypes
in terms of the duration of blossoming in the studied subpopulations. The majority of the
studied subpopulations from Buţim and Vrnograţ belong to medium ecotypes, while the
studied subpopulations from Cazin belong to late ecotypes, which on average begin to
blossom in the second half of June. Similar results of the phonology of blossoming of
sweet chestnut during a 14-year period (1991–2004) were measured also by Rizzi Longo
et al. [12], with the authors confirming the existence of variability in terms of blossoming at
an annual level.
Such a form of individual intra-population and inter-population variability can
represent a starting point for further research of sweet chestnut in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and the results of this research serve as a good basis for the selection of
tree stands, plant breeding, preservation of genetic diversity (gene pool), and in
differentiation of individual species, ecotypes and the lower taxa of sweet chestnut.
REFERENCES
[1]. Wraber, M. 1958. Biljnosociološki prikaz kestenovih šuma Bosne i Hercegovine.
Godišnjak Biološkog instituta Univerziteta u Sarajevu god. IX, fasc. 1-2:139-182.
[2]. Ballian, D. and D. Kajba 2011. Oplemenjivanje šumskog drveša i oţuvanje njegove
genetske raznolikosti. Univerzitetski udţbenik. Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu i
Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Zagrebu.
[3]. Neophytou, CH., G. Palli, A. Dounavi, F.A. Aravanopoulos. 2007. Morphological
differentiation and hybridization between Quercus alnifolia Poech and Quercus coccifera L.
(Fagaceae) in Cyprus. Silvae Genet., 56 (6):271-277.
[4]. Bruschi, R., R. Grossoni, F. Bussotii. 2003. Within- and among-tree variation in leaf
morphology of Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. natural populations. Trees, 17:164-172.
[5]. Sparks, T. H., E. P. Jeffree, C. E. Jeffree. 2000. An examination of the relationship
between flowering times and temperature at the national scale using long-term
phenological records from the UK. International Journal of Biometeorology 44, 82-87.
[6]. Menzel, A., T.H. Sparks, N. Estrella, E. Koch, A. Aasa, R. Ahas, K. Alm-Kübler, P.
Bissolli, O. Braslavská, A. Briede, F.M. Chmielewski, Z. Crepinsek, Y. Curnel, Å. Dahl, C.
Defila, A. Donnelly, Y. Filella, K. Jatczak, F. Måge, A. Mestre, Ø. Nordli, J. Peñuelas, P.
Pirinen, V. Premišová, H. Scheifinger, M. Striz, A. Susnik, A.J.H. Van Vliet, F.-E.
Wielgolaski, S. Zach, A. Zust. 2006. European phenological response to climate change
matches the warming pattern. Global Change Biology 12, 1969-1976.
[7]. Furones-Pérez, P. and J. Fernández-López. 2009. Morphological and phenological
description of 38 sweet chestnut cultivars (Castanea sativa Miller) in a contemporary
collection. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 7 (4), 829-843.
[8]. UPOV (International union for the protection of new varieties of plants). 1989.
Guidelines for the conduct of tests for distinctness, homogeneity and stability: Chestnut
(Castanea sativa Mill.) Geneve, p. 23.
[9]. XLSTAT 2011: http://www.download3k.com/Business-Finance/Personal Finance/Download- XLSTATWin.html
164
[10]. STATISTICA 10: http://www.statsoft.com/support/free-statistica-10-trial/
[11]. Serdar, U., H. Demirsoy, L. Demirsoy. 2011. Morphological and Phenological
Characteristics of Erinsop and Eryayla Chestnut Cultivars. American-Eurasian J. Agric. &
Environ. Sci., 10 (4):684-691.
[12]. Longo, R.L. and M.P. Sauli. 2010. Flowering phenology and airborne pollen
occurrence of Corylus and Castanea in Trieste (Italy), 1991-2004. Acta Bot. Croat. 69 (2),
199-214.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
A. Mujagiš-Pašiš, Biotechnical faculty University of Bihaš, Luke Marjanoviša bb 77
000 Bihaš, Bosnia and Herzegovina, E-mail: aida.mujagic@gmail.com
D. Ballian, Faculty of Forestry University of Sarajevo Zagrebaţka 20 71 000 Sarajevo,
Bosna i Herzegovina, E-mail: balliand@bih.net.ba
165
STUDY ON THE EFFICIENCY OF SOME SOIL AND VEGETATION
HERBICIDES IN SPRING RAPE (BRASSICA NAPUS)
Svetlana Stoyanova
Abstract: During 2009 – 2011 at the Experimental field of IASS “Obraztsov Chiflik” – Rousse a field
experiment was conducted with three herbicides in spring rape variety “AMICA‖. The objective of the study
was the efficiency and selectivity of herbicides tested to be determined, being applied at optimal, reduced
-1
and duel high doses. It was found out that herbicides pendimethalin at dose of 264 gda a.s. and
-1
kwizalaphop P-ethyl at dose of 20 g.da a.s., caused plant damages. Pendymethalin, applied post sowing,
before emergence, and tetraloxidim – methyloleat and kwizalaphop P-ethyl in phase 3-5 leaf of weeds and
phase “leaf rosette” of the crop, reduced density of annual cereal and broad-leaved weeds up to 100%. The
herbicides showed insignificant effects on perennial weeds – up to 59%.
Key words: spring rape, weeds, herbicides, efficiency, selectivity
Abbreviations: a.s. – active substance, EWRS - European Weed Research Society
INTRODUCTION
Weed infestation of stands effects on growth, development and formation of rape
yield. Weeds strongly compete with rape and along with yield reduction they lower its
winter resistance. Weed seed presence increases the moisture content and hampers the
storage of production. The implementation of the biological potential of the crop is closely
related to the removal of the harmful effects of weeds [3, 8, 9]. Weed control in spring rape
is chemically, i.e. the application of herbicides (soil or vegetation), which creates favorable
conditions for germination, growth and development of the crop, with good density and
high-yield stands.
Chemical weed control took place at the end of the XIX century, about a hundred
years ago, when the herbicidal action of the copper sulfate was detected. Later it was
found that such an action also have other inorganic compounds - ferric sulfate, kainite,
potassium cyanate, etc. In 1933 herbicidal properties of some organic compounds
(dinitroortokrezil, dinitrophenol) were found which shall apply to a limited extent.
Breakthrough occurred after 1942, when the first highly effective herbicides from the group
of chlorophenoxyacetic acids were found out. Since the last 60-70 years the production of
pesticides, including and herbicides, have marked a rapid pace. Today there are over 300
herbicidally active compounds, on the basis of which hundreds commercial preparations
were formulated, and thousands of compounds have been examined, and the process
continues with respect to their herbicidal properties. At the present stage herbicides
represent over 60% of the total amount of pesticides in the world [5].
The intensive and prolonged application of herbicides under certain soil-climatic
conditions may lead to the occurrence of direct phytotoxicity on crops. It‘s possible a part
of the active substances to remain intact, causing phytotoxicity on subsequent crops and
to suppress microbiological activity of the soil microflora
In rape the number of registered rape herbicides is very small, and chemical control
of certain weed species is practically impossible. There are a lot of publications in
Bulgaria, connected with the use of different herbicides and herbicide combinations, doses
and time of treatment [1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 10]. The data obtained are valid for the relevant soil
and climatic conditions, types and quantities of weeding.
These circumstances gave us reason to test pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC),
tepraloxydim and metiloleat (Aramo 50) and kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus) herbicides.
166
The objective of that study was to determine the efficiency and selectivity of the soil
and vegetation herbicides tested, applied at optimal, reduced and double high doses of
weed control in spring rape.
During the period 2009 - 2011 at IASS ―Obraztsov chiflik‖ a field experiment was
conducted with herbicides in spring rape variety ―AMICA‖. The experiment was started
after the Block method in four replications, the harvesting plot being 10 m2 and
randomized location of the variants. Hybrids: pendimethalin 330g / l (Stomp 330 EC),
tepraloxydim 50g / l - metiloleat 500g / l (Aram 50), kvizalafop-P-ethyl 50g / l (Taurus) were
tested, applied at reduced, optimal and dual high doses.
Pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC) herbicide was applied after sowing before emergence
of rape at doses of 66, 132, 264 g.da-1 a.s. and the other herbicides - tepraloxydim metiloleat (Aramo 50) at doses of 27.5, 55, 110 g.da -1 a.s. and kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus)
at doses of 5, 10, 20 g.da-1 a.s. at phase third - fifth leaf of weeds and phase leaf rosette of
rape (Table 1).
Table 1
Variants description
Herbicid’s substance
330g.l-1 pendimethalin
Name
of herbicide
Stomp 330 ЕC
50 g.l-1 tepraloxydim + 500
Aramo 50
g.l-1 Metiloleat
50 g.l-1 kvizalofop – p - etil
Taurus
Rate,
g.da-1 а.s.
66
132
264
27,5
55
110
5
10
20
Soil tillage involved 20-25 cm plowing, disking and milling. Crop sowing was carried
out in the optimal period for the region, following the adopted technology.
Rape was grown after predecessor Aglika wheat variety, fertilized by N - 14 kg.da-1
a.s., P2O5 - 8 kg.da-1 a.s. and K2O - 4 kg.da-1 a.s. The soil type of the experiment was
strongly leached chernozem with low humus content (1.98%), low N and P2O5 and good
K2O stock. The soil reaction was slightly acidic (pH - 5.2).
Herbicides were applied via knapsack sprayer, dose of working solution being:
 30 l.da-1 for soil herbicides (applied after sowing before crop emergence)
 20 l.da-1 for vegetation herbicides (applied at 3-5 weed leaf phase and leaf
rosette phase of rape)
Efficacy of herbicides was registered on the 25-th day after spraying, in constant
sampling plot for yield estimation of 1m2, and the selectivity of the preparation – according
to the Scale of EWRS (where grade 1 - no damage, and grade 9 – the crop is completely
destroyed). The species composition of weeds was recorded after the Method of visual
estimation and the registration of weeds - after the Quantitative-weighting method.
167
Meteorological conditions over the years were favorable for the development of rape.
Precipitation and temperatures varied within optimal range, enabling the timely crop
emergence and the effects of soil and vegetation herbicides.
The area, where the tests were conducted was with a natural background of weed
infestation with prevailing participation of: large crab-grass - Digitaria sanguinalis (L.),
green bristlegrass - Setaria viridis (L.), green amaranth - Amaranthus retroflexus (L.), white
goosefoot - Chenopodium album (L.), deady nightshade - Solanum nigrum (L.), common
purslane - Portulaca oleracea (L.), scarlet pimpernel - Anagallis arvensis (L.), black
bindweed - Polygonum convolvulus (L)., field chamomile - Anthemis arvensis (L.), field
bindweed - Convolvulus arvensis (L.), Canada thistle - Cirsium arvense (L.), johnsongrass
- Sorghum halepensis (L.) and field sow thistle - Sonchus arvensis (L.).
Soil herbicide pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC) was applied after sowing, preemergence of crop, at three doses - reduced, optimal and double high. Applied at a dose
of 264 g.da-1 a.s., caused serious damages (grade 6-7 according to EWRS scale),
expressed in chlorosis, developing into necrosis (Tables 2). On the 30-th day after
treatment somewhat overcome of the phytotoxicity to moderate damage was registered
(grade 4-5 according to EWRS scale), and at doses of 66 and 132 g.da -1 a.s. high
selectivity to rape was shown (grade 1 according to EWRS scale).
Table 2
Efficiency and selectivity of some leaf and soil herbicides in hybrid ―AMICA‖
Variants
Control - untreated
Control tilling
Pendimethalin -66
-1
g.da
Tepraloxydim+
-1
Metiloleat -27.5 g.da
Kvizalofop–p –etil - 5
-1
g.da
Pendimethalin-1
132g.da
Tepraloxydim +
-1
Metiloleat - 55 g.da
Kvizalofop–p –etil-10
-1
g.da
Pendimethalin - 264
-1
g.da
Tepraloxydim+
-1
Metiloleat - 110g.da
Kvizalofop – p – etil -1
20 g.da
Grass
after
before
treat
treatm
ment
ent
Weeds number per m2 25 days after treatment
Annual
Perennial
Broad-leaved
befor after
befor after Efficien
Efficien
Efficien
treatm
treatm cy, %
e
e
cy, %
cy, %
treatm ent
treatm ent
ent
ent
40** 40***
26** 26***
0
0
0
0
-
Selectivi
ty
by
EWRS
26**
0
26***
0
-
0
2
91
0
3
92
0
12
53
1
23
2
91
46
10
78
7
6
19
1
21
1
95
44
12
73
8
5
33
1
0
0
100
0
5
87
0
13
52
1
37
2
95
54
8
86
12
9
20
1
15
1
96
68
9
86
8
6
25
1
0
0
100
0
1
98
0
11
59
5
20
0
98
68
5
92
12
9
23
1
38
2
96
43
7
84
7
5
33
3
** The weeds are encountered before introducing the herbicides
*** The weeds are encountered 25 days after introducing the herbicides
The effect on annual cereal and broad-leaved weeds varied from 87% to 100%,and
the initial weeding was prevented. Because of the unilateral spectrum of influence of the
herbicide, the following weeds showed higher resistance: field bindweed - Convolvulus
168
arvensis (L.), Canada thistle - Cirsium arvense (L.) and deady nightshade - Solanum
nigrum (L.) – up to 59%.
Tepraloxydim - metiloleat (Aramo 50) herbicide was selective to rape, when applied
at the three doses.
Kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus) vegetation herbicide applied at a dose of 20 g.da -1 a.s.
showed slight to moderate chlorosis only in "JURA" hybrid (grade 4 according to EWRS
scale), that on the 14-th day was overcome, and at doses of 5 and 10 g.da -1 a.s. showed
high selectivity (grade 1 according to EWRS scale).
In tepraloxydim - metiloleat (Aramo 50) and kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus) very good
effects were registered on annual cereals weeds 91% - 98%, and a lower one - on annual
broad-leaved weeds - 73% - 92%. As regards to perennial weeds: johnsongrass - Sorgum
halepense (L.), Canada thistle - Cirsium arvense (L.) and bindweed - Convolvulus arvensis
(L.), the herbicides showed unsatisfactory effect from 19% to 33%,The slight effect of
herbicides on those weeds was influenced by their advanced phase of development (after
2 nd leaf).

Pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC) applied at dose of 264 g.da-1 a.s. caused
serious crop damages (grade 5-6 according to EWRS scale), expressed in chlorosis, and
passing in necrosis.

Kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus) applied at a dose of 20 g.da-1 a.s. showed slight
to moderate chlorosis only in "JURA" hybrid (grade 4 according to EWRS scale) which is
overcome up to 14 days.

Pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC) applied at doses of 66, 132 g.da-1 a.s.,
tepraloxydim - metiloleat (Aramo 50) - 27.5, 55, 110 g.da-1 a.s. and kvizalafop-P-ethyl
(Taurus) - 5, 10, 20 g.da-1 a.s. were selective to spring rape hybrids.

Pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC) applied after sowing before crop emergence
at doses of 66; 132 and 264 g.da -1 a.s. reduced the density of the annual cereal and
broad-leaved weeds up to 100%, and the density of perennial ones – up to 59%.

Tepraloxydim - metiloleat (Aramo 50) and kvizalafop-P-ethyl (Taurus)
successfully controlled cereal weeds at 3-5 weed leaf phase and at leaf rosette phase of
the crop from 91% - 98%, a slighter effect was observed on annual broad-leaved weeds 73% - 92%. Herbicides showed a slight effect on perennial weeds – up to 33%.
REFERENCES
[1]. Dimitrova M., R. Ivanova, 2007. Efficiency and selectivity of new herbicides in winter
rape. Plant sciences, 44:365-367 (Bg).
[2]. Dimitrova Tsv., 1991. Opportunities for the use of herbicides in spring rape. Plant
sciences, ХХVІІІ, 3-6 (3):112 – 116 (Bg).
[3]. Ivanova R., I. Angelov, V. Koprivlenski, 1999 Rape /Technology of growing.
Economics/, Sofia, Videnov & son (Bg).
[4]. Ivanova R., M. Dimitrova, V. Delibaltova, 2006. Control of weeds in winter oilseed
rape. Agriculture. Vol. 9 (Bg).
[5]. Moraliiski Teodore, 2008. The modern herbicides for weed control and ways of
application. Yearbook of the Technical University - Varna, 219-224 (Bg).
[6]. Tityanov M., T. Tonev, A. Mitkov, 2009. Innovations in chemical weed control in rape.
Third international symposium ―Ecological approaches in production of safety foods‖. 237244 (Bg).
169
[7]. Tonev T., M. Dimitrova, Sht. Kalinova, et al., 2007. Herbology, Academic publishing
house of the Agrarian University, Plovdiv (Bg).
[8]. Martin, S.G., 2001. Critical period of weed control in spring canola. Weed Science, 49
(3): 326-333.
[9]. Primot S., D. Makowski, 2006. Predicting the risk of weed infestation in winter oilseed
rape crops – European Weed Research Society, 46 (1): 22 – 33.
[10]. Wlutman P., J. Sweet, K. Bery, 2008. Weed control in conventional and herbicide
tolerant winter oilseed rape (brassica napus) grown in rotation with winter cereals in the
UK – European Weed Research Society, 48 (5): 408 – 419.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Svetlana Stoyanova, Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ―Obraztsov Chiflik‖ ,
1"Prof. Ivan Ivanov " Street, Rousse – 7007, Bulgaria, e-mail: sv_stoianova@mail.bg
170
STUDY ON THE RESPONSE OF ALFALFA GERMPLASM FOR
RESISTANCE TO ROOT ROT
Il. Ivanova, E. Zhekova, D. Marinova, D. Petkova
Abstract:The investigation was conducted at IASS “Obraztsov chiflik” – Rousse during the period
2009 – 2011. Bulgarian and foreign germplasm was the object of study.
The objective of the present investigation was to isolate and identify the causes of root rot in alfalfa and to
determine the reaction of local and foreign germplasm to the agent.
Isolation of the pathogen was performed on KDA and Capek nutritive medium.
Positive results were reported in all germplasm observed. Attack was the lowest in annual plants.
Key words: Plants, Thermal Comfort in Buildings.
INTRODUCTION
To ensure ultimate success in alfalfa breeding, it is necessary germplasm to be
introduced, gone under ecological-genetic evaluation, also and selection for productivity,
ecological stability and resistance to diseases of economic significance [8].
Many of causes of diseases in alfalfa Medicago sativa L. are fungal in nature and in
Bulgaria they are relatively well studied [2;3;4;7;11;12;13;14].
Root rot in alfalfa is an underlying disease that occurs annually and causes
premature thinning and death, and is being subject of wide breeding work in many
countries [5;7]. It is caused by both – the bacteria and the fungi. The productivity of alfalfa
stands also and their persistence reduced [6]. The disease is observed wherever alfalfa is
cultivated [15].
The study was conducted during 2009 – 2011 at IASS ―Obraztsov chiflik‖ – Rousse.
Bulgarian alfalfa varieties: Prista 2, Prista 3, Prista 4, Mnogolistna 1, Pleven 6, French
alfalfa variety Europe and 12 Bulgarian germplasm were the object of investigation. Prista
2 alfalfa variety was accepted as yield standard /acc. Bulgarian Variety List - official
standard in Bulgaria for the period specified/. The trial was started after the Block method
in four replications, experimental plot being 10 m2 merged seeding and polycross scheme
to a distance of 80 x 80 cm.
Health of the roots was estimated by cutting the root at 10 cm below the root neck,
according to the Scale of Lubenets and Shtoukina [9;10] based on changes that have
occurred in the color of the root vascular system. According that scale the digital
expression was connected with the following changes: 0 - healthy root; 1 – small brown
spots or stripes, occupying from 1 to 10% of the root surface; 2 - darkening, representing
individual dots or spots or part of a ring - about 11 to 25% of the root surface; 3 - greater
darkening of the root, which covers 26 to 60% of the root is in the form of half-rings or full
rings; 4 - darkening has covered the root and occupies 61 to 85% of its surface; 5 - almost
dead or dying plants, the roots of which are almost entirely dark - from 86 to 100%.
For the purpose of each variety 10 samples were processed, each including 10
plants taken randomized from the trial.
Plants of different age were used as sources of infection, selected from the breeding
materials grown in the Vegetation house of the Institute. The isolation of agents, causing
root rot was accomplished by prior washing with water the cuttings of roots taken from the
border between healthy and diseased tissue, disinfection of the surface with alcohol and
washing with
distilled water. Materials were placed in Petri dishes with KDA Capek
171
nutritive medium. Etiology and pathogenicity of the disease were defined after the
phytopathological conventional methods. The identification of pathogens was performed
after Bilai [1]. Index of attack was calculated by the formula of Mc Kinney [16]. The
correlation coefficients between the parameters studied were determined by Microsoft Excel.
Three-year data showed that during the years of study /2009 - 2011/ a development
of the disease in field trials was observed, as the highest degree of infestation was in fouryear alfalfa stands. Plants were with suppressed development and had chlorotic
appearance. At the root slice browning wood was observed. At high soil moisture affected
areas were covered with white to pink mycelium. In trials the disease was developing
locally.
The varieties and germplasm included in that study manifested susceptibility. In 5 of
germplasm the bacterium Corynebacterium insidiosum was isolated, and in 6 of
germplasm – the fungus Fusarium oxysporum var. Medicaginis characterized with white to
pink-red mycelium.
Data obtained of the correlation analysis showed positive correlation of medium
sprength (r = +0,43) between the attack of root rot and the root neck diameter, and weak (r
= - 0,15) between the attack of root rot and the weight per a plant.
Testing the resistance of plants, yield of every plant was reported with the objective
the best of them to be used in the next stages of the breeding process. 74/05 и 149/05
were the only germplasm tested that showed productivity below the standard Prista 2. All
other exceeded the standard. Average for the period 141/05 germplasm had the highest
weight per a plant - 0.292 g, and 74/05 germplasm – 0.121 g, the lowest /Table 1/.
After uprooting the plants the thickness of root necks of all germplasm studied were
determined. Prista 4 germplasm distinguished with the highest value of root neck diameter,
d = 23.00 mm, and IA 1 2012 had the lowest one – d = 11.20 mm.
Table 1
Characteristics of alfalfa germplasm and attack of root rot
Germplasm
№
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
Prista 2-st.
IА 1 2012
IА 2 2012
IА 3 2012
IА 4 2012
Green
plants,
%
Weight
per a plant,
g
d
of
root neck,
mm
Root rot,
%
/index of attack/
30
0.132
21.16
54
20
0.189
11.20
25
20
0.205
13.50
20
25
0.187
12.00
15
30
0.136
20.15
10
25
0.159
22.30
55
20
0.168
21.00
65
25
0.250
23.00
55
30
0.188
19.50
50
18.00
55
Mnogolistna 1
6
1
7
1
Europe
Prista 4
1
Prista 3
1
Victoria
8
9
30
172
10
0.205
1
Pleven 6
11
1
12
1
13
1
14
1
15
1
16
1
17
1
18
1
19
53/05
74/05
137/05
141/05
149/05
173/05
179/05
185/05
30
0.198
20.00
45
30
0.158
22.25
83
25
0.121
20.35
100
33
0.137
19.00
100
17
0.292
21.00
90
11
0.131
19.67
100
16
0.162
13.00
76
12
0.188
18.10
100
14
0.167
20.63
100
Table 2
Isolates
№
Varieties
Number of
pathogenic
isolates
Fusarium
Oxysporum
var. medicaginis
Color of
mycelium
Coryne
bacterium
insidiosum
Color of
mycelium
Germplasm
1Mnogolistna 1
4
4
pink
-
2
Europe
3
3
pink
-
3
Prista 2
3
2
4
Prista 4
3
3
5
Prista 3
3
1
6
Victoria
4
1
7
Pleven 6
2
2
8
IА-1
3
3
-
9
IА-2
4
2
2
yellow-brown
1
IА-3
4
2
2
yellow-brown
1
IА-4
4
4
1
2
1
yellow-brown
3
pink
-
4
2
yellow-brown
pink
3
yellow-brown
pink
-
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
173
pink
Table 3
Correlation coefficients between attack of root rot and diameter of root neck
d of root neck, mm
d of root neck, mm
root rot
root rot, R
1
0.43
1
Table 4
Correlation coefficients between attack of root rot and weight per a plant
weight per a plant, g
weight per a plant, g
root rot
1
-0.15
Root rot
1
As a result of the study, it could be considered, that Fusarium oxysporum
var.medicaginis is the main cause of root rot in alfalfa. The highest indices of attack were
observed in germplasm: 74/05, 137/05, 149/05, 185/05, the lowest - in IА 4 2012 and IА 4
2012. Attack was the lowest in annual plants. There are not completely resistant forms. A
medium positive relation was determined (r= +0,43) between the attack of root rot and the
diameter of root neck and low (r = - 0,15) – between the attack of root rot and the weight
per a plant.
Fig. 1. Plants with signs of disease – Vegetation house in IASS ―Obraztsov chiflik‖
a
b
Fig. 2. a – b General view of the root
174
Fig. 3 Isolates
REFERENCES
[1].Bilai V. I., N. M. Pidopolichko. 1970. Toxigenic microscopic fungi, and diseases they
cause in humans and animals. Publication house ―Scientific word‖. Kiev. 213
[2]. Blazhev V., 1976. Effects of fungal diseases on leaves and stems on alfalfa
productivity. Problems of alfalfa production. S. 102 – 108.
[3]. Blazhev V., K. Donchev, L. Kamarova, 1976. Influence of the mineral fertilization in
alfalfa on infestation of diseases and pests. In: Problems of alfalfa production. Sofia,
108-117.
[4]. Blazhev V., 1982. Influence of diseases on productivity, quality and persistence of
alfalfa. Agrarian science, XX, vol. 3, pp 91-95.
[5]. Blazhev V., 1990, Diseases of economic significance in root system in alfalfa and
opportunities to control them. Auto paper.
[6]. Blazheva N., V. Blazhev, L. Simeonova. 1982. Nitrogen exchange of alfalfa plants
with varying degrees of disease bacterial root rot. Physiology of plants, 8, 4. 57-61.
[7]. Georgieva, Zapryanov, 1972 Root rot in alfalfa, Plant defense 1972
[8]. Dyulgerov G., Z. Dyulgerova, K. Hristov, 2005, Heterosis in alfalfa breeding problems and perspectives. Plant sciences, vol. 42, 111-117
[9]. Loubenets P. A., G. N. Shtoukina, 1968 Bulletin of applied botany, genetics and
breeding, 38, 3,
[10]. Loubenets P. A. 1972. Bulletin of applied botany, genetics and breeding, vol. 46, 3
[11]. Mirkova E. 1969 Lepto leaf spots. Plant defense, 3
[12]. Mirkova E., 1970. Dark brown spots – dangerous diseases in broad beans and
alfalfa. Plant defense, 1, 25-27.
[13]. Mirkova E., 1972. New fungal diseases in alfalfa in Bulgaria, Dissertation, Sofia
[14]. Nikolova, G. 1990, Dissertation – Study on black leaf spots in alfalfa, 3.
[15]. Hristov Al., Z. Georgiev, V. Blazhev. 1978. Opportunities to increase yield and
quality of alfalfa via breeding, Obzor, Sofia
[16]. Iosifovits M., 1956, Agricultural Phytopathology, Belgrade.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Iliana Ivanova
Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ―Obraztsov Chiflik‖, №1 „Prof. Ivan Ivanov"
Street, Rousse – 7007, Bulgaria, e-mail: tri_dve@abv.bg
175
INFLUENCE OF S04 ROOTSTOCK ON MODIFICATION VARIABILITY
OF MAIN CHARACTERITICS OF VINES OF PRISTA CULTIVAR.
II. TECHNOLOGICAL TRAITS
Galina Dyakova, Ivan Todorov, Ralitsa Mincheva
Abstract: The study followed the modification variability of technological traits of Prista table cultivar,
under the influence of the rootstock Berlandieri x Riparia selection Openhime (S04), comparing with vines,
rooted on their own roots of the same variety. The experiment started at the Experimental vineyard of IASS
"Obraztsov chiflik" – Rousse in block, with grafted on S04 rootstock plants. Uniformed in vegetative
development vines on their own roots of Prista cultivar, were used as control and the observations were for
4-year period (1996 – 2000).
The technological parameters were determined according to the adopted methods: the mechanical
composition of the grapes – after the classical methods of Prostoserdov; sugar content was determined by
sugarmeter Dyuzharden and total acids - by titration with 0,1 n NaOH. Transportability was determined
theoretically-experimentally by measuring the resistance of ripened berry to pressure..
The method of the dispersion analysis, using the criterion (t) of Student was used to prove the
differences determined in the individual traits.
In some technological parameters of Prista table cultivar under the influence of S04 rootstock
modifications were determined, that were not statistically proven, but showed certain trends.
Key words: vine cultivars, own roots, rootstocks , qualitative parameters
INTRODUCTION
A large number of studies on the influence of the rootstock on the technological
parameters of the grafted varieties were designed to look for such rootstocks that
contribute qualitative yield of grapes to be obtained. Many scholars expressed concern
that American wild vines that are with inadequate or poor quality of the fruit, when are
used as rootstocks may negatively affect the excellent taste of the grapes of the culture
vine [5], [17]. Huang and Ough, Boselli and Volpe et al., studied the influence of the
rootstock on quality parameters of grapes and grape juice and found that the rootstock
effects on the quality of fruit [10], [3]. The influence is indirect, through its impact on the
nutritive regime of vine plants [8], which effects on the structure of grape berries [22].
Factors, influencing the quality of grapes are: sugars, organic acids, pH, phenolics and
anthocyanins, non-simultaneous development of berries, etc. [12]. The rootstock
influences on the leaf area, the content of chlorophyll, conductivity of breathing openings,
and the quality of yield [2]. Strong growth induced by the rootstock can violate the balance
between the leaf surface and the other organs of the vine and to cause excessive shading
and disturb the process of photosynthesis [4] [20]. It was also found that a higher intensity
of breathing in rootstocks contributes to accumulation of more sugars in grapes [7]. Hale
and Brien studied the influence of Salt Creek (V. Champini) rootstock on the structure and
quality of grapes of Syrah cultivar [9]. Their conclusions were that the grapes from grafted
vines are with a lower sugar content, but pH, titric acids and content of K are higher.
Kaserer et al. found in Grüener Veltliner cultivar, that the accumulation and concentration
of sugars, decrease of titric acidity, the level of malic and tartaric acids, the concentration
of K+ in grape juice are responded to the rootstock, as SO4 influences most favorably on
the traits studied [13]. The results of the study of biological and technological
characteristics of Nova Dinka cultivar showed that the rootstock has no influence on yield
and mass of the cluster, but on the quality of grapes (contents of sugars and acids) - the
effect is significant [18]. In this aspect Zupljanka and Sila cultivars have been studied. The
yield is significantly higher in variants with SO4 rootstocks, while the quality of grapes
176
(sugars and acids) is dependent on two elements - type of the rootstock, and grafted
cultivar thereon.
A study of Dyakova on the influence of four rootstocks on modification variability of
Ruse Muscat cultivar, determined SO4 rootstock as the most suitable for that variety [6].
Vines of Muscat rusenski cultivar, grafted on SO4 rootstocks, concerning technological
qualities exceeded the combinations with the other three rootstocks - Rupestris du Lo
Chasselas x Berlandieri 41B and Ferkal.
The study aims to trace the influence of SO4 rootstock on modification variability of
some technological parameters of vine of Prista cultivar, comparing them with vines,
grafted on their own roots of the same variety.
The trial started at the experimental vineyard of IASS ―Obraztsov chiflik" - Ruse in
block in four repetitions with 11 plants grafted on SO4 rootstocks in each of them, and
uniformed in vegetative development vines on their own roots of Prista cultivar were used
as control.
Planting of vines took place in 1990, at a density of 2,0 m/ 1,4 m, in hilly terrain,
facing south, at a distance of about 1 km from the Danube river. The soil type is
calcareous chernozem on deep loess. The formation was half standard Guyot training
system, with stem height of 0,60 m and variations in 16 fruit buds loads, realized with 4
spurs of 2 fruit buds and one fruiting cane of 8 buds.
Observations on that study were for 4-year period (1996 - 2000), as in 1997 readings
were not performed due to technical reasons.
The technological parameters are a combination of mechanical and chemical
compositions of grapes and their transportability. The mechanical structure of grapes is
characterized with the parameters of structure of the cluster and the berry that are
determined after the adopted classical methodology of Prostoserdov (acc. to Ivanov) [11].
Contents of sugars and acids were determined in the technological maturity of grapes. The
entering this phase was determined via periodic preliminary measurements of sugars by
handheld refractometer every third day. Sugar content was determined by Dyuzharden
mastomer in % and total acids - by titration with 0,1 n NaOH in thousandths (g/dm3).
Transportability is determined theoretically-experimentally by measuring the resistance of
ripe berry to pressure (bursting of the skin) and separation from the stalk (g). The
endurance of the berry to the resistances was measured by special instruments of three
samples, 100 berries each replication.
Statistical processing of the experimental results to prove the differences found in
individual parameters was performed after the method of dispersion analysis, using the
criterion (t) of Student [1].
The mechanical composition of grapes characterized the varieties primarily in terms
of the ratio of individual evological units (clusters, skins, seeds and mesocarp) in the
structure of the cluster. The averaged values of the traits of the mechanical composition
for the period of study are presented in Table 1.
Size and shape of the berry. Size and shape of the berries are extremely important
morphological traits in vine not only ampelographic, but also with aesthetic and economiccommercial value.
The results obtained from studies on modification variability of size and form of the
berry in Prista under the influence of SO4 rootstock showed that the values, reported on
that trait in vines, grown on own roots (20,6 mm) were higher than the values of variants
177
with grafted vines (18,5 mm). The difference registered in length of berry was not
statistically proven. After the standard classification, according to the length of berry of
Prista cultivar determined, grown on their own roots and grafted on SO4, belongs to the
category with "large berry" (18 - 23 mm) [14]. In comparison with the width of berry in
Prista on own root (17,9 mm), lower values are recorded in SO4 rootstock - 15,29 mm,
and the difference was not statistically proven. According to the ratio between length and
width of a berry of Prista which was 1.16 in both cases, the shape of the berry is oval [16].
Table 1
Mechanical composition of grapes of Prista cultivar during 1996 – 2000
Vines Prista cultivar:
Traits
own-rooted
grafted on SO 4
Parameters of berries:
length/width mm
20,6/17,9
18,5/15,9
ratio
1,16
1,16
Percentage of berries in cluster
97,55
97,04
Percentage of the mass of the berry of:
Mesocarp
Seeds
Skin
93,23
93,46
2,61
2,12
4,16
4,42
Percentage of grain in the cluster (by weight). Data of the study showed that
compared with the percentage of berries in the cluster in the control variant (97.55%), the
value of that trait is lower when grafted on SO4 - 97,04% (Table 1).
But differences between the variants were not proven.
Percent of mesocarp, seeds and skin of the mass of the berry. Presented results in
table 1 showed that Prista cultivar, grafted on SO4 (93,46) was with a higher percentage of
mesocarp, and on their own roots - 93.23. Compared with the control variant, with a lower
percentage of seeds were the berries of vines, grafted on SO4 - 2.61% and 2.12%,
respectively. In vines grafted on SO4 a higher percent of skin was determined (4,42),
followed by the variant on own roots - 4.16%. The reported values of the trait, showing the
structure of the berry were not statistically proven.
Chemical composition. The study of Popov and Hristov on the influence of rootstocks
Ferkal and Chasselas X Berlandieri 41B on Bolgar, Muscat Ottonel, Super ran Bolgar,
Pleven, Druzhba and Naslada showed insignificant differences in the elements of the
chemical composition examined and degustation evaluation of the grape [19]. The average
values for the period of study of the parameters of the chemical composition are shown in
Table 2.
-- sugar content. In the variants studied there was no a significant dependence of that
parameter on the rootstock (Table 2). The sugar content in grapes varied over a
substantial range over the years depending on the conditions during vegetation. A higher
percentage of sugars (20,3%) during the study was reported in grapes of the variant with
SO4. In the variant on own root, sugar content of 18.7% was recorded.
The differences between the variants were not proven statistically, but a clear trend
was observed, that is also found in degustation.
- content of total acids. In the study a lower content of acids was reported in grapes
of the control variant (3,87 g/dm3) (Table 2). In the variant with SO4 rootstock the total
acids were 4,01 g/dm3.
The differences were minimal and not statistically proven.
178
Table 2
Chemical composition and transportability of grapes of Prista cultivar, during the period
1996 – 2000
Vines Prista cultivar:
Traits
own-rooted
grafted on SO 4
Sugar contents , %
18,7
20,3
Titric acids, g/dm3
3,87
4,01
Resistance of berry on pressure, g
1590
1395
Transportability of grapes. Besides the mechanical composition of table vine cultivars
the appearance is of critical importance for the cluster and resistance to pressure and
separation from the stalk. The latter properties are directly related to cracking and rot of
grapes and indirectly to their transportability, storing and organoleptic qualities. According
to Katerov and Ivanov, the typical table quality cultivars have resistance of the berry to
pressure above 1500 g, and resistance to separation from the stalk over 350 g [15]. The
consistenceof the berries of these cultivars should be pulpy, pulpy-crispy or juicy-pulpy,
the skin - medium thick, fragile, and seeds - few.
- resistance of the berry to pressure. The influence of SO4 rootstock on the
resistance of the berry to pressure is given in Table 2. Data showed that berries of
ungrafted vines were with higher resistance to pressure (1590 g), and vines, grafted on
SO4 rootstock - with resistance to pressure of 1395 g. The differences between the
veriants were not large and are not proven statistically, but are manifested yearly as a
trend.
In some technological parameters of Prista table cultivar under the influence of S04
rootstock modifications were determined, that were not statistically proven, but showed
certain trends.
Mechanical composition of grapes was modified to varying degrees in Prista cultivar
under the influence of the rootstock. The reported values of the parameters, showing the
mechanical composition of the grapes were not statistically proven.
The chemical composition of grapes of Prista cultivar was genetically determined and
was not modified in grafting it on SO4 rootstock. A trend was manifested towards yield of
grapes with a high content of sugars and acids.
The resistance of berry to pressure was not modified under the influence of the
rootstock in Prista cultivar, the reduced values of those parameters were observed in
grafting onto SO4.
REFERENCES
[1]. Barov, V., P. Naidenova. 1969. Statistical methods in field and vegetation experiments.
Zemizdat, Sofia, 275, 67-68
[2]. Bica, D., G. Gay, A. Morando, E. Soave, B. A. Bravdo. 2000. Effects of rootstock and
Vitis vinifera genotype on photosynthetic parameters. Acta Hort., 526, 373-379.
[3]. Boselli, М., B. Volpe. 1993. Influence of rootstocks on the content of potassium, on the
pH and the concentration of organic acids in the juice of cv "Chardonnay". Notebooks of
the School of Viticulture and Enology, University of Turin, 16, 37-40.
[4]. Bravdo, B., Y. Hepner, C. Loinger, S. Cohen, H. Tabacman. 1985. Effect of irrigation
and crop level on growth, yield and wine quality of Cabernet Sauvignon. Am. J. Enol. Vitic.,
36/2/132-139.
179
[5]. Daniel L.1902. Specific changes in the graft or assexuelle hybridization. Report
presented at the Congress of the hybridationde vine, held in Lyon, Nov. 15 1901.
[6]. Dyakova, 2010. Influence of rootstock on modification variability of table vine cultivars.
Dissertation. V. 162 s., 72-78
[7]. Gallet, P., 1978. The choice of rootstock, France The wine, 1, 5-1
[8]. Garcia, M., H. Ibrahim, P. Gallego, P.H. Puig, 2001. Effect of three rootstocks on
grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cv.Negrette grown hydroponocally. II. Acidity of musts and
wine. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., 22 /2/, 104-106.
[9]. Hale, C.R., C.J. Brien. 1978. Influence of Salt Creek rootstock on composition and
quality of Shiraz grapes and wine. Vitis, 17,139-146.
[10]. Huang, Z., C. S. Ough. 1989. Effect of Vineyard Locations, Varieties, and Rootstocks
on the Juice Amino Acid Composition of Several Cultivars. Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 40/2/135139.
[11]. Ivanov, Tr., 1981. Technology of wine. Plovdiv, Hr. Danov, 573 s., 24-29.
[12]. Jackson D.I., P.B. Lombard. 1993. Environmental and management practices
affecting grape composition and wine quality—a review. Amer. J. Enol. Viticult., 44,409430.
[13]. Kaserer, H., D. Blahous, W. Brandes, C. Intrieri, 1997. Optimizing wine grape quality
by considering rootstock scion interaction. Acta Hort., 427:267-276.
[14]. Katerov, K. et al. 1990. Methodology for study and description of vine varieties and
rootstocks. Bulgarian ampelography. Vol. I, BAS,. 280 s, 157-158, 168-180.
[15]. Katerov, K., J. Ivanov. 1967. Quality requirements to the table grapes and parameters
for degustation. Viticulture and enology, 5, 11-15.
[16]. Lazarevskiy, M. 1959. Grape varieties. Moscow, State edition. Agricultural. Literature,
420 s., 35-39.
[17]. Marinov, V. 1922. Grafting and reciprocal influence between the rootstock and the
graft. Pleven, 1922
[18]. Papric, Dj., I.Kuljancic, M. Medic, 1998. The influence of rootstock on biological and
technological characteristics of variety (grape) New Dink. Agriculture (Yugoslavia), vol. 47
(388-389), pp. 187-192.
[19]. Popov, K., Hr. Hristov. 2008. Influence of Ferkal rootstock on the appearance, quality
and quantity of grapes of grafted varieties. Viticulture and Enology, 1, 15-20.
[20]. Smart, R.E., J.B. Robinson, G.R. Due, C.J. Brien, 1985. Canopy microclimate
modification for the cultivar Shiraz. II. Effect on must and wine composition.Vitis,24,119128.
[21]. Todorov, I. 1987. Bolgar variety in vine breeding (V.vinifera L.). Publishing House of
BAS, Sofia, 277 s., 77-96
[22]. Walker, R.R., P.E. Read, D. H. Blackmore, 2000. Rootstock and salinity effects on
rates of berry maturation, ion accumulation and color development in Shiraz grapes. Aust.
J. Grape Wine Res., 6, 227-239.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
G. Dyakova, Asst. Prof., PhD, Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science „Оbraztsov
Chiflik‖, Rousse, 1 Prof. Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail:
DjakovaRousse@abv.bg
R. Mincheva, Asst. Prof., Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science „Оbraztsov
Chiflik‖, Rousse, 1 Prof. Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail:
ralica_m@mail.bg
180
INFLUENCE OF S04 ROOTSTOCK ON MODIFICATION VARIABILITY
OF MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF VINES OF PRISTA CULTIVAR. I.
AGROBIOLOGICAL TRAITS
Galina Dyakova, Ivan Todorov, Ralitsa Mincheva
Abstract: The study traced the modification variability of agro-biological traits of Prista table cultivar,
under the influence of the rootstock Berlandieri x Riparia selection Openhime (S04), comparing with vines,
rooted on their own roots of the same variety. The experiment started at the Experimental vineyard of IASS
"Obraztsov chiflik" – Rousse in block, with S04 rootstocks plants grafted on. Uniformed in vegetative
development vines on their own roots of Prista cultivar, were used as control and the observations were for
4-year period (1996 – 2000). The influence of S04 rootstock on the modification variability in all agrobiological traits observed was not proved statistically, compared with vines of Prista cultivar, grown on own
roots. Considering that in investigation of the traits observed, measurements were made of all plants of the
replications of variants, it could be assumed that data presented highlighted a trend.
Vines of Prista cultivar, grafted on SO4 rootstock distinguished with a good vegetative growth,
comparatively good ripening of annual shoots in autumn, without virgin berries, and exceeding the control
plants, grown on own roots in other agro-biological traits. Vines, grafted on rootstocks Berlandieri x Riparia
selection Openhime (S04) are sufficiently long-lived as the yield doesn’t lower their vitality.
The method of the dispersion analysis, using the criterion (t) of Student was used to prove the
differences determined in the individual traits.
Key words: vine variety, rootstock, own roots, growth, fertility
INTRODUCTION
The modification variability does not affect plant genotype and manifests as
temporary ephemeral change in phenotypic expression of genes controlling morphological,
agro-biological and technological features in vine. This occurs under the effect of certain
specific factors (environment, technology, rootstock, etc.) and disappears when these
factors removed.
The underlying Bulgarian studies on a large number of vine rootstocks reported as
the most resistant to phylloxera (depending on the type of soil-climatic conditions):
Rupestris du Lo Chasselas X Berlandieri 41B, Berlandieri X Riparia Kober 5BB and
Berlandieri x Riparia selection Oppenheim (SO4) [24].
A large number of studies have been devoted to the influence of the rootstock on
morphological and agro-biological traits of grafted cultivars.
In grafting between the two components, an artificial symbiosis is being created in
which the cultivar via its individual genetics, combined with the rootstock and
environmental factors forms its biological and economic characteristics [22], [23], [21], [7],
[29], [16], [1], [26], [3] etc. Hedberg found that yield of all grafted cultivars is much higher
than yield of vines, grown on their own roots, particularly those, grafted on "Ramsey" and
"Dog Ridge" [14]. Ferree et all reported an increase in yield of grafted "Cabernet Franc"
and "White Riesling", compared to vines rooted on their own roots [10].
It has been found that some rootstocks improve yield, growth and longevity of almost
all cultivars, grafted thereon as compared with vines rooted on their own roots of the same
cultivars [18], [14], [10] etc. The influence of rootstocks is highly dependent on the cultivar
that is grafted onto them. Those vines, grafted on rootstock of Sultana cultivar are always
less productive compared with those on to their own roots [27]. According Foott et all,
Fardossi et all, Colldecarrera et all and Lovicu et all, certain rootstocks, one of which is
SO4, induce stronger growth [12], [9], [5], [19]. According to the study of Dyakova on the
effects of four rootstocks on modification variability of Muscat rusenski cultivar, the SO4
rootstock is the most suitable for this cultivar [8]. Vines of Muscat rusenski cultivar, grafted
on SO4 rootstocks, are characterized with intense vegetative growth, relatively good
181
ripening of the shoots in the fall, heavier weight of annual mature increment of vines and
almost without virgin berries. These exceed the three combinations with the rest three
rootstocks and in other agro-biological and technological qualities.
Many researchers have reported a negative or negligible influence of the rootstock
on growth and yield. According Boselli et all, in Chardonnay vines grafted on Teleki 5C,
Kober 5BB, G13, Teleki 8B, SO4, 1103 P and 41B Chasselas significant differences were
not reported in yield compared with vines on their own roots [4]. The habitus of
Chardonnay vines is even smaller when the rootstocks are Kober 5BB and 1103P [13].
Significant differences were not registered in yield, structure and mass of cluster in
Gewürztraminer vines – on own roots and grafted [25].
Other authors, having regard to their long-standing observation, consider that in most
cases the rootstocks stimulate the increase yield of grapes and improving its quality.
Varieties grafted on rootstocks of Vitis berlandieri genus, mostly determine a higher yield
of the grafted thereon cultivars [31].
According to Stoev and Todorov and Todorov, when studying the issue of
modification variability in vine, it should be taken into acount that the varieties of European
vines in phylloxera areas are being grafted on different rootstocks, which influence on
them in a specific way, as a particular case of modification variability, but with enormous
economic significance [28], [29].
The objective of this study is the influence of the rootstock Berlandieri x Riparia
selection Oppenheim (SO4) to be traced on the modification variability of some agrobiological parameters in vines of Prista cultivar, comparing them with vines, rooted on their
own roots of the same cultivar.
The trial started at the experimental vineyard of IASS ―Obraztsov chiflik" - Ruse in
block in four replications, 11 plants grafted on SO4 rootstock in each, and uniformed in
vegetative development vines on their own roots of Prista cultivar were used as control.
Planting of vines took place in 1990, at a density of 2,0 m/ 1,4 m, in hilly terrain,
facing south, at a distance of about 1 km from the Danube river. The soil type is
calcareous chernozem on deep loess. The formation was half standard Guyot training
system, with stem height of 0,60 m and vine loads being 16 fruit buds each, realized with 4
spurs of 2 fruit buds and one fruiting cane of 8 buds.
Traits that reflect fertility, yield and growth were reported. The study of the above
traits was conducted after the conventional methods. Observations on that study were for
4-year period (1996 - 2000), as in 1997 readings were not performed due to technical
reasons. The longevity of vines was reported in percentage dead vines to the 12- th year
of planting.
Statistical processing of the experimental results to prove the differences found in
individual parameters was performed after the method of dispersion analysis, using the
criterion (t) of Student [2].
Data about the percentage of budding fruit shoots showed on average for the period
it was lower in vines of Prista cultivar, grown on their own roots (Table 1). Grafted on SO4
exceeded it by 12.94%. Compared with the data for the vines, grown on their own roots,
the marked differences in the variant with SO4 were unproven. The differences of traits average number of inflorescences per a vine and coefficient of fruitfulness were small and
unproven. In most years of study, the vines grafted on SO4 were with the largest number
of inflorescences and the highest coefficient of fruitfulness.
182
Table 1
Traits of fertility (1996 – 2000)
Prista cultivar vines:
On own roots
Grafted on SO 4
% Fruit shoots
41,10
54,04
Number of inflorescences per a vine
8,83
12,32
Coefficient of fruitfulness
0,56
0,71
Many authors, having regard to their long-standing observation, consider that in most
cases the rootstocks stimulate yield of grapes and improving its quality [17], [29], [30], [15].
When commenting on that trait it must be taken into account that the stronger growing vine
rootstocks often cause putting forth aments, leading to reduced harvest, i.e. the presence
of a large number of inflorescences on the vines in spring is not an indication for a higher
yield [8]. The trait number of clusters per a vine is closely depending on this circumstance
(Table 2). Data about the number of clusters per a vine under the influence of SO4
rootstock in Prista cultivar during the period of our study are one-way with the data about
the percentage of fruit shoots and the number of inflorescences per a vine. Statistically
unproven differences were reported as the larger was the number of clusters of vines,
grafted onto SO4.
In regard to the mass of one cluster and 100 berries, there are also differences
statistically unproven, as the higher values were recorded in vines, grown on their own
roots. These differences are manifested as a trend throughout the whole period of study (t
= 1,445, P > 10% and t = 0,825, P > 10%, respectively).
Data about yield of grapes per a vine indicates a trend towards higher yield in vines,
grown on their own roots, as the differences are small and statistically unproven.
Table 2.
Traits of yield of Prista cultivar during 1996 – 2000.
Показатели
On own roots
Grafted on SO 4
Number of clusters per a vine
8,08
12,52
Mass of one cluster, g
381,5
280,2
Mass of 100 berries, g
506
460
Average yield per a vine, kg
2,969
2,868
Depending on the rootstock, differences were reported also in strength of the growth
of the grafted plants. It was found that the higher intensity of breathing in rootstocks
contributed to a stronger growth of the shoots, but there are different opinions about the
relationship between the strength of the growth and fruitfulness of vines [13]. More
scientists are united around the idea that higher yield can be obtained with the use of
dwarf rootstocks [20], [6].
The reported data about growth performance and durability of test plants indicated a
trend towards a slightly larger number of shoots in the control, grown on their own roots
(16.3) at 16.1 pc. in vines grafted on SO4 (table 3). The mass of the annual increment in
vines was greater in the variant of Prista vines, grown on own roots, because the value of
the previous trait in that variant was lower. The differences in both traits were not proven
statistically.
The influence of different rootstocks on the longevity of grafted vines on them is of
economic importance in the cultivation of the vine. In the present study dead vines after
the 10-th year of planting were reported. Data showed that the percentage of dead vines
was high in the variant with Prista cultivar on own roots - 46.87% and vines grafted on SO
4 appeared to be long-lived - 6.66% died, but the age of the reported dead plants was not
sufficient for an objective assessment of their longevity.
Traits
183
Table 3
Traits of growth of Prista cultivar during (1996 – 2000)
Traits
Average number of shoots per a vine
Mass of the annual increment, g
On own roots
Grafted on SO 4
16,3
16,1
0,625
0,447
From the above said it can be concluded that the influence of SO4 rootstock on
modification variability in all considered agro-biological traits is statistically unproven
compared to vines of Prista cultivar, grown on their own roots. Taking into account that in
the study of traits observed, measurements have been made of all plants of the
replications of the variants it could be considered that data presented highlighted a trend.
Vines of Prista cultivar, grafted on SO4 rootstock, are characterized with good
vegetative growth, relatively good ripening of the shoots in the fall without virgin berries
and in other agro-biological traits exceeded control plants, grown on their own roots.
Vines, grafted onto SO4 rootstock are sufficiently long-lived, in the presence of adequate
soil-climatic conditions, as the value of yield does not lower their vitality.
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Composition of Grapes in British Columbia. HortTechnology, July – September, 11 (3),
419-427.
[27]. Sommer, K.J., M.T. Islam, P.R. Clingeleffer. 2001. Sultana fruitfulness and yield as
influenced by season, rootstock and trellis type. Austral. J. Grape and Wine Res., 7,19-26.
[28]. Stoev, K., Todorov. 1972. Studies on some modification changes in Bolgar cultivar.
Horticulture and viticulture Science, 7, 99-108.
[29]. Todorov, I. 1987. Bolgar variety in vine breeding (V.vinifera L.). Publishing House of
BAS, Sofia, 277 pp. 77-96
[30]. Todorov, I. 2005. Production of vine planting material, Publishing House "Dionysus",
Sofia, 300 p.
[31]. Vanden Heuvel, J. E., J. T.A. Proctor, K. H. Fisher, J. A. Sullivan. 2004. Shading
affects morphology, dry-matter partitioning and photosynthetic response of greenhouse
grown ―Chardonnay‖ grapevines. HortScience, 39, 1, 65-70.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
G. Dyakova, Asst. Prof., PhD, Institute
Chiflik‖, Rousse, 1 Prof. Ivan Ivanov
DjakovaRousse@abv.bg
R. Mincheva, Asst. Prof., Institute of
Chiflik‖, Rousse, 1 Prof. Ivan Ivanov
ralica_m@mail.bg
of Agriculture and Seed Science „Оbraztsov
Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail:
Agriculture and Seed Science „Оbraztsov
Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail:
185
ALFALFA (MEDICAGO SATIVA L.) SEED YIELD AND ITS RELATION
WITH SOME TRAITS
D. Marinova, D. Petkova
Abstract: In the present study eight germplasm were included: Prista 2 variety – standart, six alfalfa
germplasm created in Institute of agriculture and seed science "Obraztsov chiflik" – Rousse and Icon variety.
Seed yield (SY), grass stand height (GSH) and regrowth rate was determined. Using the method of
correlative analysis there were determined several relations between studied traits.
Icon variety, № 5 -I PP and Syn – CP-04 germplasms formed high seed yield, exceeding the standard
Prista 2 variety. The positive difference was statistically significant.
There was strong positive relation (r = 0, 81) between seed yield and regrowth rate.
A moderate positive correlation between seed yield and grass stand height (r = 0, 46) was found.
Key words: alfalfa, germplasm, seed yield, regrowth rate, grass stand height, correlation.
INTRODUCTION
Alfalfa seed yield is controlled by external factors - climate, agrotechnology, diseases
and pests damage, pollinators, etc. [3], [4], [5], [7] and internal - number of clusters per
stem, number of blossoms per cluster, number of seeds per bean [2].
Furthermore, the productivity of alfalfa seed was positively correlated with the
quantity and quality of the pollen and the number of seed-buts per ovary [6]. It has been
found that the real seed productivity of varieties was almost 10 times lower than the
potential one [8]. Seed yield is influenced by complex of factors. Тhis interaction does not
allow to use any of seed yield cmponents as a marker for selection in the breeding
progrаms. Effective selection can be obtained only on а produced seeds basis [1].
The objective of this study was to determine the seed yield potential of alfalfa
germplasm created in Institute of agriculture and seed science "Obraztsov chiflik" - Rousse
and its relation with several traits.
The experiment was carried out from 2008 to 2011 at the experimental field of
Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ―Obraztsov chiflik‖ – Rousse. Eight germplasm:
Prista 2 variety – standart, six alfalfa germplasm created in Institute of Agriculture and
Seed Science "Obraztsov chiflik" – Rousse and Icon variety were included. The
experiment was sown on 17 Mart 2008. The experimental design was a randomized block
with four replications. The harvesting plot size was 5 m 2. Alfalfa is grown without irrigation.
In the sowing year alfalfa was harvested for dry matter yield determination. During the next
three years the first regrowth was harvested for green mass in early flowering stage. The
second one was left for seeds.
Conventional analyses of plants height, grass stand height and regrowth rate traits
were made. Before every cutting the grass stand height was recorded by measuring the
height of 10 plants in each harvesting plot. The regrowth rate (cm) was recorded on a
scale from 1 to 10 by measuring the height of grass stand in the studied germplasm (of 5
plants in each harvesting plot) ten days after each harvest. Seed yield was estimatde by
weight.
186
Correlation coefficients among studied traits were calculated using Microsoft Excel.
Climatic conditions during period of study was relatively favorable for alfalfa seed
yield.
In the sowing year total rainfall during the autumn-winter (October 2007 – March
2008) was 364.4 mm which is 129.3 mm above the norm (235,1 mm) for 110 years.
Ontogenetic development of alfalfa passed under optimal moisture supply and normal
average daily temperatures. Growth and development of young alfalfa plants in the coming
months were strongly suppressed as a result of long-term drought occurred. The second
and third years of the study also characterized by poor soil moisture supply, spring drought
and high air temperatures during the alfalfa growing season. This not affected the
formation of seeds and alfalfa manifested fully their yield potential. The last year of study
characterized with insufficient soil moisture through the vegetation and air temperature
close to the long-standing norm.
During the three-year period of investigation seeds yield varied in years and in
germplasm studied. The highest seed yield for variety Icon - 85 kg/da in the first year was
obtained. A low productivity was established for germplasm № 6-I PP - 37 kg/da (Tabl. 1).
In the second and third year seed yield varied from 39 kg/da for Icon variety to 72 kg/da for
№ 5-I PP and from 43 kg/da for № 6-I PP to 83 kg/da for Syn -CP-04, respectively.
Average for the period of the study, Icon variety, № 5 -I PP and Syn -CP-04 germplasms
formed high seed yield, exceeding the standard Prista 2 variety -53 kg/da. The positive
difference was statistically significant.
Plants height is variety character and one of the yield components, depending to
some extent on the climatic conditions. During the study, grass stand height varied both in
years and in varieties. Averaged values of grass stand height showed no significant
differences between studied germplasms. GSH ranged from 67 cm for the № 6-I PP
germplasm to 71 cm for Syn -CP-06.
For the period of study germplasms were characterized by high potential of regrowth
rate. Germplasm Syn -SP-04 and Icon variety showed the most rapid recovery after
cutting. The slowest recovery in № 6 -I PP germplasm was determined.
Table 2 shows correlation coefficients among traits studied. There was a very strong
positive relation (r = 0,81) between seed yield and regrowth rate trait.
The results about the relationships showed a moderate positive correlation between
seed yield and grass stand height (r = 0,46).
Table 1
Seed yield, grass stand height and regrowth rate during the period of study
Seed yield, kg/da
First year
Second year Third year
Average
Prista 2 - st
58
51
50
53
№ 5 -I PP
52
72
68
64 ***
№ 6 -I PP
37
43
43
41
Syn – CP-04
60
49
83
64 ***
Syn - CP-05
72
52
51
58
Syn - CP-06
67
52
69
63 **
№ 7- 76KCO
58
32
64
51
Icon
85
39
75
66 ***
*,**,*** Significant at the 5, 1 and 0,01 probability levels, respectively
Germplasm
187
Grass stand
height, cm
69
69
67
70
70
71
70
68
Regrowth
rate
9
9
8
10
9
9
9
10
Table 2
Correlation coefficients between seed yield, grass stand height (GSH) and regrowth rate
Seed yield, kg/da
GSH, cm
Regrowth rate
Seeds yield, kg/da
1
0,464
0,813
GSH, cm
Regrowth rate
1
0,304
1
The highest seed yield for Icon variety, Syn -CP-04 and № 5 -I PP germplasms was
obtained and the positive differences were statistically significant.
There was a strong positive relation (r = 0, 81) between seed yield and regrowth rate.
A moderate positive correlation between seed yield and grass stand height (r = 0, 46)
was found.
REFERENCES
[1]. Georgiev, Z. 1976. Dissertation.
[2]. Martinenko, S.Y.1978. About the factors affecting the seed yield of different accessions
of alfalfa. Breeding and seed production, 40, 5-15.
[3]. Petkova D. 1990. Effect of the nitrogen and some microelements on yield and quality
of alfalfa variety Nadezhda 2 seeds. Dissertation.
[4]. Richards KW. 1996. Comparative efficacy of bee species for pollination of legume
seed crops. In: Matheson A, Buchmann SL, O'Toole C, Westrich P, Williams IH, editors.
The conservation of bees [based on the symposium organized jointly by the International
Bee Research Association and the Linnean Society of London, held in April 1995].
London: Academic Press, 81-103. (Linnean Society Symposium Series, 18)
[5]. Sowinski, J. F. Gospodarczyk, W. Nowak. 1996. The yield of Lucerne (Medicago
media) seeds depending on sowing density and method of growing. Zbornik Radova. VIII
Yugoslav Forage Crop Symposium, 167-175.
[6]. Tereshchenko, N.M., V.V., Petkov, M.N Lutonina. 1981. The dependence of alfalfa
seed production on the degree of fertility of pollen and seed-buds in the ovary. Collection
of scientific papers, Russian Research Institute, 25, 197-201.
[7]. Vаsilеvа V. 2010. Effect of mineral nitrogen fertilizing on nodulation of Lucerne of
seeds in conditions of water-deficiency stress. Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the
Balkans. National Centre For Agricultural Sciences. Research Institute of Mountain
Stockbreeding and Agriculture, Troyan, ISSN 1311-0489, vol. 13, 5, 1094-1105.
[8]. Zarinov, V.I. 1977. Actual and potential alfalfa seed productivity in the forest-steppe
zone of Ukraine. Tr. Harkov Agricultural Institute. 235, 56-60.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
D. Marinova, Asst. Prof., Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science "Obraztsov chiflik",
1 Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail: diana27hm@abv.bg
D. Petkova, Assoc. Prof., Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science "Obraztsov
chiflik", 1 Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail: dimapetkova@abv.bg
188
CORRELATIONS OF SOME IMPORTANT ALFALFA (MEDICAGO
SATIVA L.) TRAITS
D. Marinova, D. Petkova
Abstract: In the present study eight germplasm were included: Prista 2 variety – standart, six alfalfa
germplasm created in Institute of agriculture and seed science "Obraztsov chiflik" – Rousse and Icon variety.
Using the method of correlative analysis there were determined several relations between dry matter yield
(DMY), crude protein (CP)content, grass stand height (GSH)and regrowth rate.
There was found a strong positive relation (r = 0, 60) between dry matter yield and regrowth rate.
Crude protein content was moderately and negatively correlated with dry matter yield (r = -0, 34) and
was slight negatively correlated with grass stand height (r = -0, 20).
A moderate correlation between regrowth rate and grass stand height (r = 0, 30) was found.
Key words: alfalfa, germplasm, dry matter yield, regrowth rate, correlation.
INTRODUCTION
Alfalfa is the main and most important perennial forage crop in Bulgaria. Its
substantial role is determined by excellent forage quality (high crude protein and vitamin
content in dry matter), fast growth and high productivity (from 5000 to 20000 kg dry matter
per hectare for one year vegetation).
Yield, quality and persistence of alfalfa depend on many factors - internal (heritable)
and external (environmental conditions). They are situated in a complex relation and
elimination of one of them reduces the effect of other. This affects negatively the alfalfa
yield and quality and decreases the life of the crop.
Kertikova found that the green mass yield was strong positively associated with
regrowht rate after harvesting. According to many authors, the rapid regrowht rate after
cutting can be used as an important criterion in the alfalfa germplasm evaluation [1], [5],
[6].
Many authors have established a close relations between chemical composition of
forage and some morphological characteristics: plant height [3], [4], average number of
nodes per stem [7] and percentage of leaves [2].
The objective of this study was to determine the relationships of several important
traits in alfalfa germplasm created in Institute of agriculture and seed science "Obraztsov
chiflik" - Rousse.
The experiment was carried out from 2008 to 2011 at the Experimental field of
Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ‗Obraztsov chiflik‘ – Rousse. Eight germplasm:
Prista 2 variety – standart, six alfalfa germplasm created in the Institute and Icon variety
were included. The experiment was sown on 17 Mart 2008. The experimental design was
a randomized block with four replications. The harvesting plot size was 10 m2 with interrow space of 12,5 cm. Alfalfa was grown without irrigation and green mass harvesting was
carried out in early flowering stage.
Twelve cuttings were taken during period of study (2008 -2, 2009 and 2010 – 3 and
2011- 4). Conventional analyses of traits dry matter yield, crude protein content, plants
height and regrowth rate were made. Before every cutting the grass stand height was
recorded by measuring the height of 10 plants in each harvesting plot. Dry matter yield
was estimated by weight. The crude protein content was determined using the Kjeldahl
method. The regrowth rate (cm) was recorded on a scale from 1 to 10 by measuring the
189
height of the grass stand on studied germplasm (5 plants in each harvesting plot) ten days
after each harvest.
Correlation coefficients among studied traits were calculated using Microsoft Excel.
Climatic conditions during study period were relatively unfavorable for alfalfa stand
development.
In the sowing year total rainfall during the autumn-winter (October 2007 – March
2008) was 364, 4 mm – 129, 3 mm higher than the norm of 235,1 mm for the period of 110
years. The ontogenetic development of alfalfa passed under optimal moisture supply and
normal average daily temperatures. Growth and development of young alfalfa plants in the
next months were strongly suppressed as a result of continuous drought occurred. The
second and third years of the study also characterized with low soil moisture supply, spring
drought and high air temperatures during the alfalfa growing season. This resulted in a
slow accumulation of biomass in the old stand. Alfalfa stand did not manifest fully their
productive possibilities. Three cutting were made. The last year of study characterized with
insufficient soil moisture through the growing season and air temperature close to the longstanding norm. Alfalfa yield potential was reduced.
During the four-year period of investigation dry matter yield varied in years and
between germplasm studied.
The results obtained indicate that Syn -SP-04 germplasm was characterized with the
highest yield potential. Average for the period of the study, germplasm formed dry matter
yield 1225 kg/da, exceeding the standard Prista 2 -1072 kg/da (Tabl. 1). The positive
difference was statistically significant. Data showed a strong positive association (r = 0, 60)
of dry matter yield with regrowth rate (Tabl. 2). This result allows the regrowth rate to be
used as an indicator for the productivity of alfalfa varieties. A moderate positive correlation
(r = 0, 36) between dry matter yield and grass stand height was found.
Averaged values of crude protein content in dry matter showed no significant
differences between germplasm. Grass stand height ranged from 17.88% for the standard
Prista 2 variety to 15.89% for № 7-76. Our results showed that there was a moderate
negative relation (r = -0, 34) between crude protein content and dry matter yield. The slight
negative relation for crude protein content and grass stand height (r = -0, 20) was found.
There was no correlation (r = 0,07) between crude protein content and regrowth rate.
For the period of study germplasms were characterized by high potential of regrowth
rate. Germplasm Syn -SP-04 and Icon variety showed the most rapid recovery after
cutting. The slowest recovery in № 6 -I PP was established. The results about the
relationships between traits studied showed a moderate relation (r = 0,30) between
regrowth rate and grass stand height.
Table 1.
Dry matter yield (DMY), crude protein (CP) content, grass stand height (GSH) and
regrowth rate
Dry matter yield,
Grass stand
Crude protein, %
kg/da
height, cm
Prista 2 - st
1072
17,88
69
№ 5 -I PP
1136
16,77
69
№ 6 -I PP
1106
16,80
67
Syn – CP-04
1225 **
16,67
70
Syn - CP-05
1099
17,47
70
Syn - CP-06
1170
16,94
71
№ 7- 76 KCO
1111
15,89
70
Icon
1143
17,39
68
*,**, *** Significant at the 5%, 1% and 0,01% probability levels, respectively
Germplasm
190
Regrowth
rate
9
9
8
10
9
9
9
10
Table 2
Correlation coefficients between DM yield, CP content, plants height (PH) and
regrowth rate
DM yield, kg/da
Crude protein, %
GSH, cm
Regrowth rate
DM yield, kg/da
1
- 0,341
0,360
0,602
Crude protein, %
GSH, cm
Regrowth rate
1
- 0,206
0,070
1
0,304
1
There was strong positive relation (r = 0, 60) between dry matter yield and regrowth
rate.
Crude protein content was moderately and negatively correlated with dry matter yield
(r = -0, 34) and slightly and negatively correlated with grass stand height (r = -0, 20).
A moderate positive correlation between regrowth rate, and grass stand height
(r = 0, 30) was found.
REFERENCES
[1]. Brummer, C. 2008. Alfalfa improvement and the maize syndrome: have we suffered
enough. Atti del workshop ―La figura di Pietro Rotili e il milioramento genetico dell‘erba
medica‖, lodi, 21 ottobre 2008, 55-69.
[2]. Fick, G.W., D.W. Onstad. 1988. Statistical models for predicting alfalfa herbage quality
from morphological or weather date. J. Prod. Agric, 160-166.
[3]. Gengenbach, B.G. and D.A. Miller. 1972. Variation and heritability of protein
concentration in various alfalfa plant parts. Crop science, 12, 767-769.
[4]. Kephart, K.D., D.R. Buxton, and R.R. Hill. 1898. Morphology of alfalfa divergently
selected for herbage lignin concentration, Crop science, 29, 778-782.
[5]. Кertikova, D. 1994. Formation dry vegetative matter of alfalfa varieties depending on
harvesting regime. Plant Science, 5-6, 43-46.
[6]. Rotili, P., G. Gnocchi, C. Scotti, D. Kertikova. 2001. Breeding of the alfalfa plant
morphology for quality. Options Mediterranean‘s, NA-45: 25-27.
[7]. Volenec, J.J., J.H. Cherney, and K.D. Johnson. 1987. Yield components, plant
morphology and forage quality of alfalfa as influenced by plant population. Crop science,
27, 321-326.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
D. Marinova, Asst. Prof., Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science "Obraztsov chiflik",
1 Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail: diana27hm@abv.bg
D. Petkova, Assoc. Prof., Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science "Obraztsov
chiflik", 1 Ivan Ivanov Street, 7007 Rousse, Bulgaria, E-mail: dimapetkova@abv.bg
191
TRACING THE AFTER-EFFECT OF WHEAT AND ALFALFA
PREDECESSORS ON SOME BIOMETRIC AND CHEMICAL
PARAMETERS IN COMMON WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)
V. Dochev, D. Petkova, A. Atanasov
Abstract: The sdudy was conducted at the Experimental field of IASS “Obraztsov chiflik" during the
period 2006 - 2008 after the method of the Latin rectangle. Yantur variety wheat was used, sown after wheat
and alfalfa predecessors. The objective of this study was the after-effect of the predecessors (wheat and
alfalfa) to be determined on some biometric and chemical parameters in common wheat. It was found that
the higher content of nitrogen in soil after alfalfa predecessor influenced suppressively on plant height and
weight of the grain in the presence of soil and air drought. The presence of ammonia nitrogen in soil before
drought favored the increase of the values of the elements of yield in wheat. Wheat grown after alfalfa
predecessor had significantly greater height and grain weight than those of wheat grown as a monoculture,
under conditions of normal moisture-accumulation. In a dry year, a counterproductive was observed.
Key words: wheat, predecessors, after-effect, nitrogen, grain weight
INTRODUCTION
Cultivation of alfalfa leads to accumulation of crop residues in soil, increases the
content of detritus /plant and animal residues in the different stages of decomposition, in
which the cells have lost their shape /40-60%/. According to this indicator restoration of
soil fertility approaches and equalizes to that of virgin soil [2]. After plowing 1202 kg roots
per hectare remain into the soil. It was found that after 3 years using alfalfa the quantity of
nitrogen in soil increased by 50 kg per hectare, resulting in a very good alfalfa predecessor
of cereal, industrial, forage crops, etc.
Its root system absorbs nutrients in deep soil profile, while improving soil structure, its
permeability and water holding capacity [6].
Cultivation of alfalfa reduces erosion and improves soil fertility [3]. It influences
significantly on increasing soil fertility, as the relative amount of humic acid increases from
6 to 61%, indicating that the processes of humus formation are strongly influenced by the
quantities of organic nitrogen compounds. At the same time it determines the lowest
values of the ratio of carbon to nitrogen in soil and in this respect it can be considered that
in all soil types not only the composition of humus, but also and the nitrogen balance
improves, too [2].
In an effort to obtain higher yield of grain, wheat varieties with intense type of
development entered in the practice. These in turn require increased and balanced
fertilization. It was found that the variety and quantity of imported nitrogen strongly
influenced on yield and quality of wheat [7].
One of the most powerful plant factors to increase yield per unit area is fertilization 30% on average. In Bulgaria, the use of fertilizers in recent years has significantly
reduced. Among the main reasons are the high prices of fertilizers. The objective of our
study was the after-effect of the predecessors (wheat and alfalfa) on some biometric and
chemical parameters in common wheat to be determined.
The study was conducted at the Experimental field of IASS ―Obrsztsov chiflik" in the
period 2006 - 2008 after the method of the Latin rectangle. Yantur variety wheat was used,
sown in five replications, harvesting plot being 12 m2, after wheat and alfalfa
predecessors. Sowing took place in early October, with sowing rate of 500 germinating
192
seeds per m2. In February, 10 kg/ha a. s. were imported. Biometric data were taken from
100 randomly selected plants and the number of the productive suckers was determined
by throwing on sampling plot (1 m2) for yield estimation in phase ―complete ripeness‖ of
the crop. The weight of the plant organs was determined after pre-drying at 105 ° C to
absolute dry matter. Soil samples were taken from a depth of 0-40 cm in the period before
spring vegetation of wheat. The total nitrogen and crude proteins in plant samples were
made after the method of Keldal [4]. Soil nitrogen was determined by the methodology
adopted in the institute [1]. Statistical analysis was made by the program "Excel".
mm
In meteorological and economic terms 2006 - 2007 was very different from the other
years. That was the year with the warmest winter among the last few decades.
Precipitation of 44.7 mm in September provided the normal emergence of wheat. Over the
next few months the amount of precipitation was lower than usual. Moisture-accumulation
in autumn-winter period was 198.5 mm at a rate of 258.4 mm. The average daily
temperatures in January and February were extremely high - 6.2 º C and 4.0 º C,
respectively. The absolute maximum temperatures reached 17.5 º C in both winter
months. Absolute minimum temperature of 9.0 º C was registered in February. Insufficient
precipitation in autumn and winter, combined with high average daily temperatures favored
the evaporation of moisture from the soil and deteriorated moisture-accumulation of the
crop during spring vegetation.. April and May were extremely dry (Fig. 1). The amount of
precipitationl in April was 4.6 mm. The first significant rainfall (32.5 mm) was in late May.
The average daily temperature in May exceeded the norm by 2.26 º C. The soil and air
drought during periods of ear formation-flowering and grain filling, accompanied with high
air temperature suppressed the process of grain formation..
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
25
20
15
°C
10
5
0
IV
V
VI
месеци
валеж
W норма
температура
t норма
Fig.1 Precipitation and average daily air temperatures in 2007
Months – precipitation, norm, temperature, norm
In meteorological aspect the economic 2007 - 2008, was characterized with a very
good moisture-accumulation, temperature at about the norm in the autumn-winter period
and heavy drought together with high temperatures in the summer. Precipitation and
average temperature in autumn ensured normal germination and growth of winter wheat.
Amount of precipitation for the autumn-winter period was 129.3 mm higher than the norm
for the region. That provided a good start of the spring vegetation of wheat. In temperature
and precipitation spring months were close to the norm for the region (Fig. 2). Except
precipitation in June that was significantly less than the norm.
193
mm
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
25
20
15
°C
10
5
0
IV
V
VI
месеци
валеж
w норма
температура
t норма
Fig. 2 Precipitation and average daily air temperatures in 2008
The correlation analysis between certain biometric parameters of wheat, grown after
wheat predecessor in 2007 and the content of nitrogen in soil determined significant
negative relationship (Table 1).
Table1. Correlation between some biometric parameters of wheat grown after wheat
predecessor in 2007 and nitrogen in soil
Traits
Productive
suckers/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
Leaf weight, g
Stem weight, g
Ear weight, g
Grain weight, g
Total weight, g
NH4+ ,
mg/1000 g
NO3-,
mg/1000 g
- 0.67**
- 0.87***
- 0.91***
- 0.84***
- 0.84***
- 0.94***
- 0.24
- 0.22
- 0.87***
- 0.60**
- 0.75***
- 0.80***
0.09
0.07
- 0.66**
- 0.59**
- 0.84***
- 0.82***
0.11
0.18
- 0.67**
Total nitrogen,
mg/1000 g
*, **, ***, in Р ≤ 0.05; 0.01; 0.001, respectively
In wheat, grown after alfalfa predecessor it was found that only the ammonium form
of nitrogen has acted in the direction of increasing values of the parameters studied (Table
2). The nitrate form of nitrogen and total nitrogen suppressed the traits studied.
Depressing influence of nitrogen prior to 2007 was explained by the extreme drought
during the spring vegetation. A similar is the reaction of alfalfa under conditions of waterdeficient stress, as the mineral fertilization reduces nitrogen in yield of dry root mass from
8 to 12% [5].
194
Table 2. Correlation between some biometric parameters of wheat, grown after alfalfa
predecessor in 2007, and the content of nitrogen in soil
Traits
Total
nitrogen,
mg/1000 g
NH4+ ,
mg/1000 g
NO3-,
mg/1000 g
0,91***
-0,85***
0,39*
0,99***
0,55**
0,85***
0,92***
0,99***
0,87***
-0,73***
-0,49*
-0,92***
-0,94***
-0,80***
-0,85***
-0,44*
-0,88***
-0,88***
-0,77***
-0,63***
-0,88***
Productive
suckers/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
Leaf weight, g
Stem weight, g
Ear weight, g
Grain weight, g
Total weight, g
The differences in the average values of some biometric parameters of wheat grown
after wheat and alfalfa predecessors, determined by the t-test are shown in Table 3.
Proven significant difference was determined in the traits plant height and grain weight.
Table 3. Differences between the average values of some biometric traits of wheat grown
after different predecessors in 2007, using t-test
Wheat predecessor
Alfalfa predecessor
Traits
t - Stat
X
MS
X
MS
Number
of
plants/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
Leaf weight, g
Stem weight, g
Ear weight, g
Grain weight, g
Total weight, g
62.0
76.8
13.0
31.5
24.0
30.0
83.5
48.0
0.33
1.33
40.33
385.33
0.66
1992.2
69.5
56.33
- 1.47
67.6
15.5
28.5
21.0
26.00
69.2
21.33
16.33
75.0
341.33
0.66
1987.2
5.37***
- 1.19
0.56
0.22
6.93***
0.48
X – Average arithmetic, MS – Dispersion, t - Criterion
*,**,***, in Р ≤ 0.05; 0.01; 0.001, respectively
The differences in the average values of some chemical parameters of soil in wheat
and alfalfa predecessors are shown in Table 4. It is obvious that only the content of
nitrogen and crude protein in the leaves and stems of plants grown after alfalfa
predecessor exceeded significantly the same in wheat grown as a monoculture.
Table 4. Differences between the average values of some chemical elements
stems and ears of wheat, grown after various predecessors in 2007, using t-test
Wheat predecessor
Alfalfa predecessor
Traits
X
MS
X
MS
2.05
1.46
2.75
1.07
N, absolute leaves
dry matter, stems
1.04
0.4
1.59
0.68
%
ears
1.87
0.01
1.39
0.08
Crude
leaves
11.81
48.13
15.85
35.7
protein, %
stems
5.92
13.35
9.12
22.37
ears
10.76
0.06
11.47
1.05
195
in leaves,
t - Stat
- 3.25*
- 4.26*
0.69
- 3.25*
- 4.47*
- 1.29
P, absolute leaves
dry matter, stems
%
ears
K, absolute leaves
dry matter, stems
%
ears
0.63
0.61
1.06
2.82
2.86
0.76
0.08
0.04
0.01
0.56
1.98
0.01
0.67
0.97
1.0
3.24
2.96
0.84
0.02
0.37
0.01
1.3
2.7
0.03
- 0.27
- 1.08
0.45
- 1.74
- 0.78
- 1.13
Х – Average arithmetic, МS – Dispersion, t – Criterion
In meteorological terms the following year - 2008 was more favorable for the growth
and development of plants. The ammonium form of nitrogen in soil after wheat
predecessor had proven positive effects on the number of productive suckers, the weight
of leaves and the grain weight (Table 5). In most traits the nitrate form of nitrogen acted
significantly suppressive. Overall the total nitrogen showed a positive influence on the
values of the traits studied and it is statistically proven. The only exception was the height
of plants, which was unproven.
In wheat, grown after alfalfa predecessor, the total nitrogen and its ammonia form had
favored significantly the increase of values of the traits studied (Table 6). The nitrate form
of nitrogen as more susceptible to washing in the presence of more precipitation in traits plant height, ear weight and grain weight had significantly negative after-effect.
Table 5. Correlation between some biometric traits of wheat, grown after wheat
predecessor in 2008 and the content of nitrogen in soil
NH4+ ,
NO3-,
Total
nitrogen,
Traits
mg/1000 g
mg/1000 g
mg/1000 g
Productive
0.51**
0.14
0.47*
suckers/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
0.06
- 0.73***
0.32
Leaf weight, g
0.44*
- 0.88***
0.65**
Stem weight, g
0.17
-0.99***
0.86***
Ear weight, g
-0.16
- 0.01
0.46*
Grain weight, g
0.51**
- 0.78***
0.50**
Total weight, g
0.18
- 0.94***
0.68**
Table 6. Correlation between some biometric traits of wheat, grown after alfalfa
predecessor in 2008 and the content of nitrogen in soil
NH4+ ,
NO3-,
Total nitrogen
Traits
mg/1000 g
mg/1000 g
mg/1000 g
Productive
0.75***
- 0.27
0.99***
suckers/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
0.98***
- 0.86***
0.70***
Leaf weight, g
0.46*
- 0.08
0.73***
Stem weight, g
0.22
0.32
0.80***
Ear weight, g
0.56**
- 0.54**
0.33
Grain weight, g
0.80***
- 0.50**
0.82***
Total weight, g
0.36*
0.19
0.89***
196
In 2008 significant differences were determined between the average values of the
traits - plant height, leaf weight of and grain weight (Table 7). They were higher in wheat,
grown after alfalfa predecessor
Table 7. Differences between the average values of some biometric traits in wheat, grown
after various predecessors in 2008, using t-test
Wheat predecessor
Alfalfa predecessor t - Stat
Traits
X
MS
X
MS
Number
of
plants/m2, pcs.
Plant height, cm
Leaf weight, g
Stem weight, g
Ear weight, g
Grain weight, g
Total weight, g
67.0
48.0
69.0
1.33
- 0.57
79.0
11.0
45.5
29
40.0
105.5
108.0
12.0
456.3
768.0
0.66
5370.7
97.5
20.5
52.5
38
45.75
134.0
16.33
0.33
176.3
901.3
0.66
4876.2
- 3.32**
- 5.41***
- 0.56
- 0.48
- 10.39***
- 0.55
Significant differences were not determined between the average values of content of
the chemical elements studied in plant samples of wheat sown after various predecessors
(Table 8).
Table 8. Differences between the average values of some chemical elements in leaves,
stems and ears of wheat, grown after various predecessors in 2008, using t-test
Wheat predecessor
Alfalfa predecessor
X
MS
X
MS
leaves
1.88
0.1
2.6
0.53
N, absolute
stems
1.8
0.89
1.78
1.72
dry matter, %
ears
1.79
0.02
1.75
0.05
leaves
10.72
3.33
14.82
17.31
Crude
stems
10.28
29.03
10.17
55.85
protein, %
ears
10.16
0.68
9.94
1.55
leaves
0.67
0.0
0.73
0.03
P, absolute
stems
0.89
0.18
0.76
0.18
dry matter, %
ears
1.03
0.02
1.14
0.06
leaves
1.81
0.34
2.15
0.5
K, absolute
stems
2.08
3.53
2.19
4.85
dry matter, %
ears
0.89
0.06
0.89
0.04
Traits
197
t - Stat
- 1.19
0.07
0.8
- 1.19
0.09
0.76
- 0.56
0.93
- 1.62
- 1.1
- 0.56
0.0
1. The higher nitrogen content in soil after alfalfa precursor acted suppressively on
plant height and grain weight in the presence of soil and air-drought.
2. The presence of ammonia nitrogen in soil before drought favored the increase of
the values of the elements of yield in wheat.
3. Wheat grown after alfalfa predecessor had significantly greater height and grain
weight than those of wheat grown as a monoculture, under conditions of normal moistureaccumulation. In a dry year, a counterproductive was observed.
REFERENCES
[1]. Gorbanov S., C. Velchev, J. Matev, Z. Tanev, G. Rachovski, T. Tomov, 1990. Manual
of agricultural chemistry. Zemizdat
[2]. Pachev I., E. Filcheva, I. Dimitrov, 2007. Soil Organic Matter composition according to
Soil Tillige and Fertilization of Alfalfa growing. Proceeding International Conference 60 –
years Inst. of Soil Science, 13-17.05, Sofia, pp. 187-192
[3]. Samac D. A., A. M. Willert, M. J. Mcbride, L. Kinkel, 2003. Effects of
antibioticproducing Streptomyces on nodulation and leaf spot in alfalfa. Applied Soil Ecol.,
22, 55-66
[4 Standard of International Society of Chemistry grain, ICC
[5]. Vasileva V. 2008. Effect of fertilizer and water deficiency stress on nitrogen in the root
mass yield of lucerne for seeds. In: Porqueddu C., M.M. Tavares de Sousa (Eds.). Options
Mediterraneennes. Series A, No 79, 353-355.
[6]. Veronesi F., Ch. Brummer , Ch. Huyghe, 2010. Alfalfa. Fodder crops and amenity
grasses. Handbook of Plant Breeding, vol. 5, 395-437
[7]. Yanchev I., K. Ivanov, 2004. Comparative studies on the chemical composition,
technological and baking qualities of grain from new varieties of common wheat. Plant
Sciences, 41, 260-266.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
V. Dochev, Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ―Obraztsov Chiflik‖ – Rousse, Email: vdotchev@abv.bg
D. Petkova, Institute of Agriculture and Seed Science ―Obraztsov Chiflik‖ – Rousse
A. Atanasov, University of Rousse ―A. Kanchev― – Rousse E-mail: aatanasov@uniruse.bg
198
TECHNOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES OF OBTAINING ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAJES TYPE MISTELLES
Felicia Stoica, Camelia Muntean, C. Băducă, I. Popescu Mitroi
Abstract:The grape must has a high fermentescibility because of the presence at the same time, in
composition, of the hexoses, growth and nutrition factors for microorganisms and a number of bacteria and
yeasts of spontaneous flora. The fortified product must be made named mistelles. Mistelles has a very high
energy value because significant proportions of alcohol and carbohydrate they contain. The addition of 96%
vol alcohol occurs generally decreases of all compositional characteristics considered. Also, percentage
changes, with variable values, some significant, some degree of alcoholization (the addition of the must of
the same amount of alcohol) have determined the interest to quantify the causes behind the compositional
changes that intervening in the must alcoholized.
Keywords: must alcoholized, alcohol 96% vol, mistelles, Fetească albă grapes
INTRODUCTION
As is known, grape must have a high degree of fermentation the presence at the
same time, in the composition, of the hexoses, growth factors and nutrition for
microorganisms and a large number of bacteria and yeasts from spontaneous flora. In
order to eliminate to bregin any recourse fermentative transformation, frequently, the
addition of SO2 or alcohol in such proportions as to cause a complete inactivation of
microflora.
The fortified product must be made named mistelles. Mistelurile has a very high
energy value because significant proportions of alcohol and carbohydrate they contain.
Therefore, they are consumed mainly in cold geographic areas. Mistelles are olso, a raw
material for preparing special drinks. Mistelles are products made by fortified must or
grape marc, with refined or distilled spirits of wine. These drinks has an alcoholic strength
of 15 to 25% vol and a sugar content lower than the grapes at harvest (due to dilution with
alcohol or distilled) (Gheorghiţă, M & col. 2002). Concomitant presence of alcohol and
carbohydrates in high proportions, gives the product the biological and physico-chemical
stability (Rberon-Gayon P., Dubourdieu D., Doneche B., Lonvaud A., 2006).
Mistelles do not have components to be formed by alcoholic fermentation as follows:
glycerol, 2,3-butyleneglycol, acetoin, diacetyl, the volatile acids, etc. The proportions of
ammonium salts (first yeasts consume nitrogen) are integrated, which means that there
has been an alcoholic fermentation (Pissara J., Lorenco S., Machado J.M., Mateus N.,
Guimaraens D., De Freitas V., 2005). Finally, another criterion of distinction is the ratio
glucose/fructose. While natural sweet wines higher proportion of fructose (as easily
fermentable glucose) in mistelles the two sugars indicates approximately equal proportions
(as in must of grape) (Guymon J.F., Ough C.S., 1972).
The study was conducted on the vintage of 2012; we used the raw grapes, Fetească
albă in Drăgăşani vineyard. At technological maturity physico-mechanical analysis was
performed, as determined proportions: clusters, berries (grapes), skin, seeds and pulp (the
seeds). Based on the proportions of components grapes values were calculated
technological indices: index structure (Is) grain index (Ib) of grain composition index (Ic)
and performance index (Ir). Is= grain weight / weight of bunches, Ib =the number of seeds
per 100 g of grape, Ic=kernels weight / weight marc, Ir =must weight/ weight marc. The
contents were set to: carbohydrates (g/l) acidity (g/l H2S04), polyphenol content (g/kg
seeds). Taking into account the production of conventional unit area (ha), yields the
primary winemaking and relative content of grape sugars were determined quantities of
199
carbohydrates and alcohol unit as surface indicators of technological synthetic. White
musts were obtained from grapes according to traditional technology (crushing, removing
clusters, separation, pressing), clarifying the action of S02 (100 mg/l) and low temperature
(6-8°C). Fetească albă musts were fortified to 15% vol and 20% vol alcohol exquisite food
using the following characteristics: 96% alcohol content, density 0,810; acidity (CH3COOH)% max. 0,005; alkalinity (NH3)% max. 0.003; methanol (CH3-OH)% max. 0,100;
evaporation residue% max. 0,001. Fortified musts were based on mathematical formulas
(Stănescu C. quote Pomohaci N., 1982). Thus, to determine the necessary proportions of
wine and alcohol have been used in the formulas: M=C(Ta-Tc)/Ta; A=(CxTc)/Ta;
Zm=(ZcxTa)/(Ta-Tc), where: M=liters must, A=liters of 96% alcohol volume, C=liters
coupling (Mistel), Zm=sugar must (in%), Ta=alcoholic strength (in% vol) Tc=strength
Misteli (in% vol), Zc=sugar blending (in%). Global transformations of the constituents
mentioned proportions were expressed in absolute and relative values.
Knowing that alcohol (especially in high content and additionally suddenly), exerts a
considerable action of tartaric acid, precipitating a good part of it, in the form of potassium
bitartrate (COOH-CHOH-CHOH-COOK) and macromolecular nitrogen (protein), by
distorting formations colloidal, were measured extent of dilution produced decreases (due
to the fortified with alcohol), on the one hand, and those produced by precipitation, on the
other hand.
Fetească
albă
VARIETY
Physico-mechanical analysis of Fetească albă grape presented in Table 1, indicate if
the value of all analyzed characteristics of wine grape variety. Lower values are the
proportions of skin and seeds, which attract the differences and amounts of core
component directly related to return on wine.
Table 1
The main physical and mechanical characteristics of the grapes used to obtain musts
The
weight of
Volume of
100
100 beans
grains
cm3
g
125
116
Weight skins
Weight of seed
Weight of
kernels
g
%
g
%
g
%
12,92
10,51
5,81
4,71
92,89
74,9
Physico-mechanical structure of the grapes - raw material is underscored conclusive
evidence by tehnological index as synthesis elements of the proportions of components
grapes. In terms of importance considerable technological and economic efficiency index
(Ir), this had a value of 2.3 which falls in the category of varieties for wine variety. The
calculated values for other technological indices are: index structure (Is) 19.3; grain index
(Ib) 43.5 index and composition of grain (Ib) 8.1.
The main characteristics of the grape composition clearly put out quality
characteristics of the variety investigated. Thus, technological maturity (performed in early
September in terms of 2012), the levels of glucose had relatively high levels of 235 g/l. It is
particularly interesting situation recorded for total acidity, which in 2012 extremely dry
conditions and heat is maintained at values above 4.50 g / l (4.53 g/l).
200
Based on the quantity of grapes per hectare, relative to carbohydrate content (g / l),
the primary wine yields were determined quantities of musts, carbohydrates and alcohol
ha as synthetic indicators with important technological and economic practice (Table 2).
The production of 8756 kg grapes / ha, with a yield of 68.71 liters per 100 kg grape wine of
Fetească albă were obtained 1621.6 kg/ha carbohydrates of which, according to the
balance of the alcoholic fermentation, it may be obtained 953.9 liter and 763 kg of pure
alcohol.
Table 2
The main elements of productivity and yield of varieties used for the production of
type mistel
Production
grape
VARIETY VINEYARD
kg / ha
Fetească
albă
Drăgăşan
i
Yield to wine
Liters must
l00 kg
grapes
8756
68,71
Kg must
at 100 kg
grapes
Carbohy
drates
72,8
Kg/ha
1621,
6
Absolute
alcoholl/ha
Liters
953,9
Kg
763
After Fetească albă musts fortified to 15% vol alcohol level occurred composition
changes, the values of which are written in Table 3. The addition of 96% vol alcohol
alcohol occurs generally decreases of all compositional characteristics considered. The
reductions are: 15.67% carbohydrate, the titratable acidity of 23.62%, 25.47% from tartaric
acid, 22, 48% in total nitrogen, with the proportion of 15.70% yellow-orange pigment.
Table 3
The composition changes that occurred in the Fetească albă musts after fortification
to 15 vol%, compared with the juice itself, rinsed
Characteristics of
composition
Carbohydrates
g/l
Total acidity
g/l H2S04
Tartric acid g/l
Total nitrogen mg/l
Colour Do 420 nm
Clarity
Must unfortified
(without added
alcohol)
Must fortified
(Mistelle)
%
±
must to profit
235
199,1
-15,67
4,53
3,46
-23,62
3,69
572,0
0,106
Good
2,75
443,4
0,089
Perfect
-25,47
-22,48
-15,70
0
Must of Fetească alba fortified to 20% vol of alcohol held in the characteristics of the
composition decreases, higher than in the case discussed above. These changes are
recorded in Table 4. It follows that in product mistel carbohydrates are 20.46% lower
compared to the untreated musts. The other constituents of the following reductions:
29.80% for total acidity, tartaric acid, 31.43%, 29.54% for total nitrogen, 20.8% for color
(Do 420 nm).
201
Table 4
Compositional changes that occurred in Fetească albă musts fortified to 20 vol%,
compared with untreated alcohol musts
Characteristics of
composition
Carbohydrates g/l
Total acidity g/l H2S04
Tartric acid g/l
Total nitrogen mg/l
Colour Do 420 nm
Clarity
Must unfortified
(without added
alcohol)
Must fortified
(Mistelle)
%
±
must to profit
235
4,53
3,69
572,0
0,106
Good
186,9
3,18
2,53
403
0,084
Perfect
-20,80
-29,80
-31,43
-29,54
-20,8
0
In comparison with the fortified to 15% volume, decreases the fortified to 20% volume
the higher value of 5 to 8%, most important that the content recorded on tartaric acid (31.43%) total nitrogen (-29.54%) and titratable acidity (-29.80%). Percent change variable
values, some material to a certain degree of fortification (by adding in must of the same
amounts of alcohol) determined the interest for quantifying the causes that led to the
changes in composition that occur in fortified musts. Analytical data obtained in the
experiments performed and order oenological knowledge accumulated so far allowed us to
identify two causes of changes in composition through fortified musts. They are as follows:
dilution caused by addition of alcohol and precipitation taking place (the crystallization and
flocurare) under the action of constituents of alcohol (Table 5).
Table 5
Quantifying
the
causes
of
the
differences
in
composition
Mistelle - Fetească albă 15 vol% alcohol
Causes changes
Must
Mistelle
Dif. ± Total
%
Carbohydrates
g/l
235
199,1
Total acidity g/l
H2S04
4,53
Tartric acid g/l
Additional alcohol
dilution %
Precipitation
under the
influence of
alcohol %
- 15,07
15,67
0
3,46
- 23,462
15,67
7,95
3,69
2,75
- 25,47
15,67
9,80
Total nitrogen mg/l
572
443,4
- 22,48
15,67
6,81
Colour Do 420 nm
0,106
0,089
- 15,67
15,67
0
Characteristics of
composition
For all constituents taken under observation, the additional dilution of alcohol was
15.67%. Differences until the titratable acidity of 23.62%, 25.47% to tartaric acid, 22.48%
total nitrogen (which is, in the order given, 7.95%, 9.80%, 6.81 %) are the result of
crystallization of tartaric acid and submission form potassium bitartrate and distortion and
flocculation protein nitrogen under the influence of alcohol.
202
At the same wine, fortified to more severe (20% volume) results in the overall
decrease of higher values, as by dilution and flocculation, crystallisation and alcohol
products in higher proportions (Table 6).
Thus, for all constituents, dilution caused decrease of 20.8%. The differences of up
to: 9.0% of the total acid, tartaric acid, 10.63% and 8.74% total nitrogen of alcohol are
produced by the effect of crystallization and denaturation of proteins. Compared with the
situation in fortified Fetească albă must up to 15% vol, differences produced by
crystallization and flocculation are: 1.05% for total acidity. 0.83% for tartaric acid, 1.93 for
total nitrogen, which means that the percentage of total nitrogen reductions tartaric acid
and is increasing with the growing amount of additional alcohol in wine.
Quantifying
the
causes
of
Mistelle - Fetească albă 20 vol% alcohol
the
differences
Table 6
composition
in
Causes changes
Must
Mistelle
Dif. ± Total
%
Carbohydrates
g/l
235
186,9
Total acidity g/l
H2S04
4,53
Tartric acid g/l
Additional alcohol
dilution %
Precipitation
under the
influence of
alcohol %
-20,80
20,80
0
3,18
-29,80
20,80
9,0
3,69
2,53
-31,43
20,80
10,63
Total nitrogen mg/l
572
403
-29,54
20,80
8,74
Colour Do 420 nm
0,106
0,089
-20,8
20,80
0
Characteristics of
composition
Grapes of Fetească albă in the Drăgăşani vineyard by carbohydrate and acid
contents proved to be an excellent feedstock for the production of white mistel type.
Depending on the degree of fortification of grape in its basic composition is produced
significant changes.
In general decreases of occur in carbohydrate content, total acidity, total nitrogen.
A fortification of up to 15% volume decreases the carbohydrate is 15-16% to 23-24%
acid, tartaric acid 25-26%, the total nitrogen of 22 to 24%.
Fortified with up to 20-21% volume attract decrease by 5 to 10% compared to the
previous situation.
REFERENCES
[1]. Cotea V., Pomohaci N. Gheorghiţă M., 1982 – Oenologie, Editura Didactica si
Pedagogica, Bucuresti
[2]. Gheorghiţă M. şi col., 2002 – Oenologie, Ed. Sitech, Craiova
[3]. Guymon J.F., Ough C.S., 1972 – Refermentation of High-Alcohol High-Sugar
Blending Wine into Distilling Material for Beverage Brandy, Am. J. Enol. Vitic., no.23, p.
124-127
203
[4]. Pissara J., Lorenco S., Machado J.M., Mateus N., Guimaraens D., De Freitas V.,
2005 – Contribution and importance of wine spirit to the port wine fine quality – initial
approach, J of Science Food and Agric., vol.85, 157, p.1091-1097
[5]. Ribereau-Gayon P., Dubourdieu D., Doneche B., Lonvaud A., 2006 – Handbook of
Enology, vol.1, 2nd Edition.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Stoica Felicia, University of Craiova, Faculty of Agronomy and Horticulture,
Departament of Horticulture and Food Science, 13, A.I. Cuza street, Craiova, Dolj, E-mail:
feliciastoica@yahoo.com
Muntean Camelia, University of Craiova, Faculty of Agronomy and Horticulture,
camellia_muntean@hotmail.com
Băducă C., University of Craiova, Faculty of Agronomy and Horticulture, Departament
of Horticulture and Food Science, 13, A.I. Cuza street, Craiova, Dolj, E-mail:
cbaduca@gmail.com
Popescu Mitroi I., University "Aurel Vlaicu", Elena Dragoi Street, No.2-4., Arad,
Romania, E-mail: ionel89@hotmail.com
204
RESEARCH ON SENSORY PROFILE, QUALITY AND TYPICITY
WINES CHARDONNAY OBTAINED VINEYARD SAMBURESTI
C. Băducă, Felicia Stoica, Camelia Muntean, Daniela Cichi
Abstract:The basis of this work are physical, chemical and organoleptic analysis of the wines produced in
2011 from 6 combinations clones / rootstocks of Chardonnay, harvested from the vineyard Samburesti
where this variety was introduced in assortment. The six clones of Chardonnay were: 95/K5BB, 121/K5BB,
548/K5BB, 95/SO4, 76/SO4, 548/SO4.
Purpose of this research was to outline a typical sensory profile of wine of those clones introduced this
new variety assortment Samburesti vineyard from which expectations are very high, the extent of
international fame.
Keywords: clones, Chardonnay, sensory profile, wine quality, wine typicity,
INTRODUCTION
Noble grapes of Chardonnay from Burgundy and Champagne have long been a
member of the aristocracy wines. White wine, classic, whose name in Latin means "a
place of thorns", originate from the Middle Ages the small village of the same name in
Macon region of France. (Olmo, 1971).
Chardonnay has spread to the new world by the end of the nineteenth century, when
California began to realize their own possibilities of the wine industry. The precise date of
his appearance is relatively uncertain due to a combination of lack of knowledge on the
variety and mislabelling the newly introduced Chardonnay grapes. Notwithstanding
differences in morphological and physiological variety Chardonnay has long been
confused with true variety of Pinot blanc, and occasionally, Melon (Gallet P., 1998 L.
Christensen et al, 2003). Viticulturists and wine producers showed kindness to
Chardonnay since 1960. Davis university experts, led by Dr. Harold p.olmo viticulturalistul
of the University of California and the Phytopathological Dr. Austin Goheen from USDA,
selected and tested promising material in California and have undergone heat treatment to
remove viruses affecting yields. The result was increasing yields of clonal material of
viruses tested effect in various climatic zones, including internal warmer valleys of
California.
FPS has a large collection of Chardonnay selections, mostly available to the public.
FPS selections combines two main styles of Chardonnay grapes. Traditional Chardonnay
grape bunches are small to medium size and cylindrical shape. The berries are small and
round and thin skin. Chardonnay often suffer from "millerandage" why clusters containing
both normal berries and small berries as "hens and chicks" or "pumpkins and peas." (LP
Christensen et al, 2003 J. Robinson, 2006). The second style of Chardonnay differs from
the traditional form to the flavor profile. Clones known like Chardonnay musqué are
muscat flavor submanifold, probably caused by an accumulation of monoterpenes during
the ripening of the fruit. (Reynolds A. et al, 2007). There is a third form of Chardonnay, a
rare pink mutant named Chardonnay rose, which is available in the FPS collection.
At the base of this work are physico-chemical and organoleptic characteristics of wine
in 2011 combinations of 6 clones / rootstocks of Chardonnay, harvested from the vineyard
Sâmbureşti where this variety was introduced recently in the assortment. The wines were
prepared under identical technology by microvinification in Oenology Laboratory of the
205
Faculty of Agriculture and Horticulture in Craiova, where they performed and all tests
regarding the main composition and organoleptic parameters.
The 6 clones of Chardonnay were: 95/K5BB, 121/K5BB, 548/K5BB, 95/SO4, 76/SO4,
548/SO4.
Composition parameters analyzed were: alcoholic strength, total acidity, volatile
acidity, residual sugar, glycerol, free SO2, total SO2. The analytical methods used were the
official, currently used in oenology laboratories in our country. For sensory analysis of wine
using common sheet -OIV tasting U.I.O.E., On which wines were tasted by a panel of
tasters, the score given is based on consensus.
To perform an accurate analysis of oenological potential of each of the six clones of
Chardonnay, the results will be analyzed according to the types of analyzes performed.
That is why these results have divided into 2 groups, which will be described below.
1. RESULTS OF WINE COMPOSITION
The results of the chemical composition of the wine are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
The chemical composition of Chardonnay wine, Sâmbureşti 2011
Determination
Clones of Charonnay
76/SO4
14,1
Alcohol, %vol
12,0
Glycerol, g / l
3,4
Residula sugar, g/l
4,3
Total acidity, g/l
0,28
The volatile acid, g
95/SO4
14,5
12,4
3,0
3,9
0,32
95/K5BB
15,0
12,8
2,7
3,8
0,24
121/K5BB
14,1
12,1
3,6
4,2
0,34
548/K5BB
15,0
12,9
2,8
4,1
0,30
34
168
30
162
548/SO4
15,0
12,8
2,6
4,3
0,32
/ l acetic acid
SO2 free,mg/l
SO2 total,mg/l
40
180
32
172
30
164
33
160
From Table 1. it is noted that in 2011, all 6 Chardonnay wines the content between
14.1 and 15% vol alcohol. Values are high, even very high, which are not common in
wines therefore are well above the annual average of Sâmbureşti vineyard wines. It is also
important to note that wines from grapes harvested in the middle of the harvesting
campaign, so there are not wines produced from grapes last in a plantation. Another
element to take into account when discussing the alcoholic strength of wines and other
parameters of the composition is that 2011 was the entire area south of the country,
especially Oltenia, a year characterized by large accumulations of wine sugar in the
grapes, well above the average annual values. It is also important to mention that the
grapes from which the wine coming obtained from a young plantation in the first year of
production. The high alcohol content (15.0% vol) was calculated for the two wines
obtained from the clone 548 and clone 95/K5BB. The other Wine produced from the clone
95 (the rootstock SO4) presented the following alcohol content (14.5% vol), and clones 76
and 121 were given wine with an alcoholic strength of 14.1% vol.
The second parameter of the chemical composition, oenological importance is the
total acidity. For wines of 2011, total acidity value analysis indicates that the wine contains
between 3.8 and 4.3 g / l H2SO4 therefore quite small differences between them.
Obviously, these values are slightly deficient, given that they should start at 4.5 g/l. Slightly
acid deficiency is still acceptable, given that it comes from wine grapes rich in sugar, so
very ripe. The higher total acid content, 4.3 g/l occurs in two wines, one of which has the
206
highest content of alcohol (548/SO4) and one has the lowest alcohol content (76/SO4).
More than 4 g/l Total acidity have presented wines obtained from clones 121/K5BB (4.2
g/l) and 548/K5BB (4.1 /l). The lower total acid content in the wine meet 95/SO4 (3.9 g/l)
and 95/K5BB (3.8 g/l). So, of the two clones that are grafted on both rootstock, clone 95
has a lower total acidity valueswhile clone 548 has a total acidity higher with 0.3 g /l. Also,
in both clones grafted on rootstock SO4 version has slightly higher acidity than grafted on
rootstock K5BB.
Regarding the volatile acidity of wines, the values that the age of 6 months wines are
normal, which does not show any immediate danger to the biological stability of wines.
Volatile acidity values between 0.24 and 0.34 g / l CH3COOH is lower than the legal limit
of 1.08 g / l CH3COOH and are not perceptible to taste to balance negative influence
olfacto-taste wines.
All wines were under 4 g / l residual sugar  which means that alcoholic fermentation
was conducted in very good conditions, even if the grapes are very high in sugar. The use
of yeasts selected to achieve alcoholic fermentation has been very useful in this point of
view because they lead to dryness and without incident fermentation.
The next parameter composition analyzed was glycerol content in of wines. Glycerol
is the second chemical constituent of wine, in quantitative terms, and also the main
byproduct of alcoholic fermentation. The glycerol content of the 6 wines presented high
values relatively uncommon in wines, but which are consistent with high alcohol content.
Under these conditions, the 6 Chardonnay wine in the glycerol content between 12.0 g/l
and 12.9 g/l The biggest are found at the same three clones as in ethyl alcohol: 95/K5BB,
548/SO4 and 548 / / K5BB, the latter being only 12.9 g/l. The lowest content presented it
76/SO4 clone with 12.0 g/l and clone 121/K5BB, 12.1 g/l them having the lowest alcoholic
strength. 95/SO4 clone which showed a medium alcohol content as compared to the other
clones, presented in glycerol containing medium (12.4 g/l).
The last parameter analyzed was SO2 content in of wines, both free and total.
Regarding this parameter should be noted that the wines have received the same
sulphitation regime until the first transfuse. Subsequently, according to the results tastings
performed regularly for some wines more willing to administering certain doses of SO 2,
which made the results of SO2 dosage to 6 months of wine to indicate some differences
between wines in terms of total SO2 content. The content of free SO2 and total SO2 in the
wines is between 30 and 40 mg/l and 160-180 mg/l. Are values that fall within legal limits
that do not exceed 210 mg / l as the limit imposed by law for Romanian wine dry white
wines. For free SO2, none of the 6 wines do not reach the limit of 50 mg / l required by law
and does not fall below 20 mg / l are stable and providing assurance that there is no risk of
diseases or other accidents order microbiological medium and short term. The lowest
content of total SO2 (162 or 160 mg/l) are recorded at the two wines from clone 548 and
the highest value of total SO2 content is recorded to clone 76/SO4 (180 mg/l). The clone
which has the largest free SO2 content (40 mg/l), while the content of free SO 2 lowest (30
mg/l) was registered 95/K5BB and 548/K5BB clones.
2. RESULTS OF THE ORGANOLEPTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WINES
All wines were tasted regularly to follow their evolution over time. Thus, all of the wine
was tasted at 2, 6, 12, 18 months after obtaining. All tastings were made in the presence
of authorized tasters of the Department of Viticulture-Oenology. Tasting results, presented
as the scores obtained by each wine tasting open are shown in Figure 1.
After tasting the best appreciation for tasting were the earliest to two months, with a
single wine at the clone 76/SO4 got more than 90 points but in this case we can say it was
a very good wine. The next tasting, lower his score, but not too much so that after 18
207
months of obtaining, wine tasting appreciated by 83 points, a score superior wine from the
same clone but the year before, wine to the 18 months tasting only got 74 points.
Interesting to note is that the wine tasting at 2 months was most appreciated was all
the wine produced from clone 548/K5BB. This time, he started with a great score of 92
points, and maintained at all subsequent tasting first, which seems to clearly indicate that it
is clone that gives the best Chardonnay wines from Sâmbureşti. This is reinforced by the
fact that the wine made from the same clone but the other rootstock was also highly
praised, with 91 points and 86 first tasting tasting over 1 year and a half, the highest score
given to the tasting.
548/SO 4
548/K5BB
121/K5BB
95/K5BB
95/SO 4
76/SO 4
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
76/SO4
95/SO4
95/K5BB
121/K5BB
548/K5BB
548/SO4
18 luni
83
84
86
86
86
86
12 luni
85
86
87
87
88
87
6 luni
86
87
88
88
89
89
2 luni
88
90
91
90
92
91
Fig.1. Results tasting Chardonnay wines of 2011
Research on wines produced in 2011 of the 6 clones of Chardonnay led to the
following conclusions:
1. Introducing the Chardonnay variety white wine assortment is an absolute novelty for
vineyard Sâmbureşti because this variety has not been so far assortment vineyard.
However, the vineyard Sâmbureşti gained reputation wine market in our country by
the quality of its red the wines, white wines are only complementary way of
production.
2. Chardonnay is the most popular white wine variety grown in the world, being spread
on all continents. In our country was very little cultivated before 2000, but in the last
208
3.
4.
5.
6.
decade is in continuous expansion. Thus came to be cultivated and Sâmbureşti a
winery destined by excellence, producing red wines.
Characterization Sâmbureşti quality Chardonnay wines in 2011 met with difficulty
related to the fact that the plantation from which grapes that were the basis of the
wines is very young, being the first year of production and difficulty in that wine year
2011 was a very different from the previous year, in that it allowed the accumulation
of large proportions of sugar in the grapes, which does not occur in the normal
manner, in the following years.
Alcohol content wines showed 14-15% vol unusually high and the glycerol content
was very high, more than 12 g / l and 4 g / l. In these circumstances it is clear that
the future requires a primordial necessity in the coming years, in the event that the
grapes will accumulate much sugar again be harvested early to have less alcohol
and more acidity in wine.
Wine sensory appreciation was hampered by applying a scheme of wine and the
wines conditioning unit and, especially, the fermentation of all variants of the same
type of yeast selected. In this way, the differences between the wines were quite
small so it is difficult to formulate definite conclusions about differences between
clones. However, sensory analysis showed that from 2 months to taste all the wines
were best rated against subsequent tasting, which is explained by the important
contribution of secondary aroma-type fermentation in wine quality assessment.
Of all Chardonnay clones studied, sensory analysis seems to indicate that the 548
would be the one that gives the best results and enjoy the best appreciations no
matter what rootstock is grafted.
REFERENCES
[1]. Christensen L. P., Dokoozlian N., Andrew Walker M., Wolpert J., 2003 - Wine Grape
Varieties in California. Agriculture and Natural Resources Communication Services,
University of California.
[2]. Olmo H.P., 1971 - Chardonnay. Wine Advisory Board, San Francisco, California.
[3]. Reynolds A.G., Schlosser J., Power R., Roberts J., Willwerth J., and Savigny Ch.,
2007- Magnitude and Interaction of Viticultural and Enological effects. I. Impact of Canopy
Management and Yeast Strain on Sensory and Chemical Composition of Chardonny
Musque. American Journal of Enology and. Viticulture, 58:1.
[4]. Robinson J., 2006 - The Oxford Companion to Wine. 3ded. Oxford University press.
Oxford, England.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
of Horticulture and Food Science, 13, A.I. Cuza street, Craiova, Dolj, Email:cbaduca@gmail.com
Cichi Daniela, University of Craiova, Faculty of Agronomy and Horticulture,
danielacichi@yahoo.com
209
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL RAPESEED, ACACIA,
MANA, SUNFLOWER AND POLYFLORAL HONEY, USED IN ENHANCING
CORN-FLAKES NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Popa N.1, Buta Nadina1, Roman L.1, Bordea G.1, Rădoi B.2, Negrea Monica2, Stoin
Daniela2, Traşcă Teodor – Ioan2
Abstract: from ancient times honey was one of the most valued products. Honey is a natural product
produced by bees, which takes their main materials directly from plants (nectar) or from other unconventional
sources which are high in sugar. Honey’s rich contain in sugar, nutrients and mineral substances gives
people a high energy intake. Honey can be used raw or in combination with other products. The main
purpose of this paper is to investigate the physic and chemical properties of different honey types and see if
they are suitable for enhancing the nutritional value of whole grain cornflakes. It is imperative to know this
quality fact and the causes that led to their modification. The analyses were made according with the E.U.
standards in the laboratory of the Banat`s University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Romania.
Key words: bees, flowers, honey, cornflakes, nutrients
INTRODUCTION
Honey is the natural product extracted from ¾ covered honey combs, in such a way
that impurities from the bee hive, such as bees dead bodies, wax, larva and propolis wood
not enter it. Anny form of honey presentation honey must have its appropriate name
written on it, for example honey comb honey, honey with royal jelly, honey with propolis,
honey with pollen etc.
Honey's natural sugars are dehydrated, which prevents fermentation, with added
enzymes to modify and transform their chemical composition and pH. Invertases and
digestive acids hydrolyze sucrose to give the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. The
invertase is one of these enzymes synthesized by the body of the insect.
Honey bees transform saccharides into honey by a process of regurgitation, a
number of times, until it is partially digested. The bees do the regurgitation and digestion
as a group. After the last regurgitation, the aqueous solution is still high in water, so the
process continues by evaporation of much of the water and enzymatic transformation [2].
Honey can be used in several branches of industry. It can be used raw or in addition
with other products. Raw cornflakes without any flavour are very healthy but their taste is
not so god. To enhance the organoleptic properties many producers use artificial sugars
and flavours witch reduce the healthiness of the product. The purpose of this paper is to
determinate the physic and chemical properties of several honey type and see how it can
be used to enhance cornflakes organoleptic properties and raise their nutritional value.
Colour is determinate in a colourless glass tube on a white background and with
natural light. The main components that give honey its specific colour are the vegetable
pigments such as chlorophyll, carotene, and mineral substances.
The flavour and taste of honey occurs from the aromatic substances witch can be
found in nectar and manna, due to the aromatic etheric oils contained in these. These
substances are highly volatile and can decrease in intensity or disappear completely with
the passing of time. The honey with the most intense aroma is the one witch is freshly
collected from honeycombs.
Consistency can be appreciated by watching the flow of honey on a wooden spoon.
It can be uniform, viscous, or with a crystalized aspect. The consistency can vary with the
210
quantity of sugars, the time and conservation way. The honeys witch are rich in fructose
such as pine honey, manna and willow etc. crystallize very hard.
Hygroscopicity is the honey property to absorb water from the environment; thing
witch must be accounted for during conservation.
Determination of water content has been made by drying in an oven. Water content
can be also determinate with the Abbe - Zeiss refractometer. Water content from honey
must not exceed 20%. At content higher than 20% honey begins to ferment. This
phenomenon can be noticed by the occurrence of white foam at the surface of the honey
due to the emanation of carbon dioxide. Fermented honey can has her taste and flavored
changed, specific to alcoholic fermentation. Also at high water content lactic and acetic
fermentation can occur.
Acidity is determinate through titration with NaOH 0.1N in presence of fenolftalein
Amylase activity (diastasis index) through Gothe method. Diastasis index
represents the number of starch ml, 1% which is completely hydrolysed and transformed in
dextrin during 1 hour, by the existing amylase from honey. The minimum required is 5 for
acacia honey and 10.9 for all other assortments [1].
Amylase activity is calculated by the following formula:
Where:
5 – Starch ml
V – Volume of honey from the specific test tube
Ash content on an analytic scale we measure approximately 5g of honey. After
carefully measuring the honey we eliminated the water on a heated bath then we
carbonized it in flame, followed by calcination in an oven until we obtain a white powder
then we measure it again the mas again [1].
Ash content is determinate by the following formula:
Where:
Ma – Ash mass
Mh – Honey mass
Metals were determinate from ash with a mono lamp flame atomic abortion
spectrophotometer CONTR AA 300 [1].
The metal content in [ppm] was determinate by the following formula:
Where:
V – Volume
M – Ash mass
D – Dilution
211
Table 1. Organoleptic properties of acacia rapeseed manna sunflower and polyfloral
honey
Type
Acacia
Color
Smell
Almost colorless till Nice smell specific
bright yellow
to acacia
Rapeseed Gray till white gray
Sweet
smell,
specific
to
rapeseed
Manna
Green yellow up Sweet
slightly
until slightly red
bitter
Sunflower Golden
yellow, Nice
sweet
yellow dark yellow
specific
to
sunflower
Polyfloral Yellow red – yellow Nice and very
up until dark yellow
flavored
Taste
Consistency
Specific
to Homogenous,
fluid,
acacia
viscous.
Specific
to Homogenous,
fluid,
Rapeseed
viscous or crystalline.
Bitter
Specific
sunflower
Homogenous,
fluid,
to Homogenous,
fluid,
Very aromatic Homogenous,
fluid,
In the table above we present the results obtained at the organoleptic exam as we
can see each of the honey assortment have their specific smell, consistency, taste and
color.
No abnormal tastes, smells, or coloration was found in the samples above.
Table 2. Acidity and diastase index
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Name
Polyfloral
Manna
Acacia
Rapeseed
Sunflower
Acidity
3.5
4.5
2.2
3.5
2.3
Diastase
20.9
29.4
38.5
38.5
17.8
In the table above we present the acidity and diastase index we obtain at the
following assortments of honey. The honey acidity is between 2.2 at freshly harvested
honey and 5.5 at a slightly old honey. We can see from the table above that acacia honey
has the lowest acidity meaning that it is very fresh.
Also we can see that all assortments have their diastasis index higher than 10.9
which is the minimum required, even acacia presents a value of 38.5.
212
Table 3. Ash and metals
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Name
Pot [g]
Polyfloral
Manna
Acacia
Rapeseed
Sunflower
52.0383
58.0278
51.3703
55.1339
51.7573
Honey
[g]
5.3150
5.2580
4.8380
6.5047
6.1212
Ash
[g]
0.0089
0.0264
0.0060
0.0106
0.0042
Ash
[%]
0.16
0.50
0.10
0.16
0.06
Zinc
[ppm]
3.473
7.585
2.621
0.627
0.030
Copper
[ppm]
1.349
2.137
0.489
0.665
0.632
Iron
[ppm]
6.779
2.782
3.124
5.058
3.055
Cadmium
[ppm]
2.880
0.288
0.292
0.370
0.282
Led
[ppm]
0.300
0.431
0.357
1.032
0.153
In the table above we can see that the highest amount of ash can be found in manna
honey followed by polyfloral and rapeseed and acacia. The lowest content in ash was
restarted in sunflower honey only 0.06% of its actual mass. The difference between manna
honey and other honey assortments is very high due to the composition of this assortment,
which is made from insect secretion or green secretion of certain plant. It is a type of
honey that does not have pollen as its main component [1].
Metal levels of several honey assortments
We can see from the graphic above that each assortment is very rich in iron, and
zinc. Each of the samples above have iron the richest element, except manna honey witch
has zinc the highest. Heavy elements such as cadmium and lead have low values. The
highest level of cadmium was detected in polyfloral honey and for led in rapeseed.
Copper can be found in relatively low amounts, the highest amounts of copper were
found in manna polyfloral and rapeseed followed by sunflower and acacia.
213
From the results above we can see that the honey used for enhancing our cornflakes
is top quality. The organoleptic and chemical properties of our assortments make it ideal
for this purpose. Because of honey low water content below 20% it is ideal to be applied in
a thin layer then dried even more or with no followed drying. Cornflakes depending of the
assortments have a humidity of approximately 12 – 18%, so we can say that for the
assortments with lower water content after applying honey it is recommended to dry the
product again if we want to maintain its crispiness.
We can see that these assortments of honey brings a high amount of minerals such
as iron, very useful in the blood stream and zinc witch supports our immune system,
synthetizes our DNA and is essential for wound healing.
For future work we planned to analyse other honey assortments such as lime,
cranberries, blackberry, clover, dandelion, pumpkin, eucalyptus, avocado, orange,
coriander, apple, mint, willow, fennel, sage, buckwheat, rosemary and lavender. We want
to see which of these assortments can be used as a flavour agent, who gives a pleasant
taste and which not.
We also want to determinate other micro and macro elements, and we want to see
the exact amount of energy in kilo calories that each assortment brings in addition to
cornflakes.
REFERENCES
[1]. Ioan F., Cristina M., Adrian S., Eliza C., Agripina S., Nicoleta I., Dumitru C., Best
practice guide beekeeping 2011
[2]. National Honey Board. "Honey and Bees." Last accessed 10 January 2010.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Nadina Buta, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, RO
300645, Timisoara Romania; E-mail: nadina_buta@yahoo.com
N. Popa, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, RO 300645,
Timisoara Romania; E-mail: popa_ncl@yahoo.com
Bordea Gabriel, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of
300645, Timisoara Romania;
Negrea Monica, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of
300645, Timisoara Romania; negrea_monica2000@yahoo.com
Rădoi Bogdan, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of
Stoin Daniela, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of
T.I. Trască, Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Banat‘s University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, RO 300645,
Timisoara Romania; E-mail: teodortrasca@yahoo.com
214
GENETIC AND PHENOTYPIC CORRELATION OF PRODUCTION
TRAITS IN COWS OF BLACK AND WHITE BREED
ZvonkoSpasiš, BoţidarMiloševiš, SlavicaŠiriš,
LjiljanaAndjušiš, ValentinaMilanoviš, NebojšaLališ
Abstract: For investigation of phenotypic and genetic correlations of reproductive and longevity traits
in black white cows 1502 animals (751 mothers and 752 daughters of 5 bull sires) were selected. Totally
6.393 lactations have been investigated. On this occasion it has been determined that coefficients of genetic
correlations between some reproductive traits exceed analogous phenotypic correlations in all cases,
ranging from weak to very strong (from 0,318 to 0,892).
Phenotypic correlations between some milking traits are positive and ranging weak (0,372) to complete
(1,00), similar to genetic correlations. Phenotypic correlations of milk fat content and other milking traits are
negative, and ranging from -0,014 (absent) to -0,669 (strong).
The obtained results regarding the correlation of investigated productive traits are very important for
simultaneous selection of cows on multiple traits.
Key words: milkability, fertility, longevity, correlations, black white breed
INTRODUCTION
Achieving genetic progressin increasing the production and quality of milk and
meatare the main prerequisites of modern livestock production. Progressin improving
production traits of cattle can be achieved primarilyby introducing new technologies and
methods of breeding domestic animals, which mast give away a lot of attention.
The breeding groundsofthe variability and assessment of genetic and phenotypic
correlations and heritability traits, which all owsthe study of the natural action of genes
(primarily additive components) to implement the choice direction of breeding cattle, and
all that in order to assess the breeding value breeding stock, on the basis of which the
selection.
The main scientific objective of this research is to review and investigate the traits of
milk yield, fertility traits, as well as longevity and production of milk and milk fat during the
production cycle in two groups of black and white breed cows in production conditions. In
addition, the research association of phenotypic and genotypic characteristics, should
answer the question of correlation of milk production and milk fat, as well as important
reproductive traits and longevity of black and white breed of cattle in our production
environment.
To test the phenotypic and genetic correlation between production, reproduction and
longevity traits of two generations of cows black and white race included 1,502 head: 751
mothers and 751 daughters (who are descended from five fathers). Results of controls
productivity, systematizedand recorded in the proper registry records farmin Upper Dobrev
served as the main source of data for analysis in this paper, and examined during 6,393
lactation.
Examined following fertility traits of cows (I):
- cow age at fertilization (Ia),
- duration of the pregnancy rates of cows (Ib) ,
- cow age at calving (Ic) ,
- service period (Id) and
- duration of the interval between calving (If).
From production traits and milk traits of cows were tested (II):
- duration of lactation (IIa),
215
-
milk yield for the whole lactation (IIb),
content of milk fat in whole lactations (IIc),
yield of milk fat in whole lactations (IId),
milk yield in standard lactation (IIe),
milk fat yield in standard lactation (IIf) and
yield of 4% FCM in standard lactation (IIg).
Observed traits of longevity and milkproduction during the life of cows (III):
age of cow at culling (IIIa),
total number of milking days (IIIb),
length of productive life (IIIc),
cow utilization index (IIId),
lifetime milk production (IIIe),
lifetime production of 4% FCM (IIIf),
lifetime milk fat (IIIg),
production per milking day (IIIh),
milk production per productive day (IIIi) and
production of milk per day of life (IIIj).
Correlation of the studied traits of fertility, milk production and longevity traits, as well
as interconnections, was tested with the coefficient of phenotypic correlation (rp),
according to the formula:
where: Cov (AB) = covariance for trait A and B;
s 2A  = variance for trait A and s 2B  = variance for trait B
Standard errors of phenotypic correlations were calculated with the
formula:
where: r = coefficient of phenotypic correlation, n = number of pairs
Correlation coefficient test was performed using t-test, and the strength of
phenotypic correlations are discussed by Romer-Orfal's classification.
Genetic correlation coefficients were calculated using analysis of variance and
covariance,
and
according
to
a where: Covxy= covariance of the traits; VarBB = variance between fathers;
procedure developed by VarWB = variance within fathers
[2]:
where:
While the error of the coefficient
of genetic correlations determined by
the approximate method described by
[5]:
= Heritability of trait A;
=Heritability of trait
B; k = average number of daughters by his father
s = the number of fathers
216
The coefficients of genetic correlations between some fertility traits of cows exceeds
the corresponding phenotypic correlations in all cases. Complete genetic and phenotypic
dependence found between cow age at first mating and age at first calving, as well as
between service period and duration of the interval between calving, as expected given
that the calving intervalis directly dependent on the duration of pregnancy rates and
service period. Duration of pregnancy rates was found for all the animals and identical with
the lowest variability. Other genetic interdependence of the traits of fertility ranging from
weak to very strong (from 0.318 to 0.892).
Table. 1.
Genetic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation coefficients between indexes of cows‘
fertility
TRAITS
Ia
Ib
Ic
Id
Ie
Ic
Id
Ie
Id
Ie
Ie
Ib
Ic
Id
rg
Srg
rp
Srp
texp,(rp)
1,000
0,658
0,892
0,318
0,464
0,664
0,890
0,997
0,001
0,323
0,116
0,442
0,386
0,314
0,117
0,001
0,061
0,999
0,030
-0,053
0,083
-0,012
-0,008
0,031
-0,052
0,997
0,036
0,002
0,037
0,036
0,036
0,037
0,037
0,037
0,036
0,003
1,684
***
595,56
N,S,
0,818
N,S,
1,449
*
2,292
N,S,
0,323
N,S,
0,220
N,S,
0,855
N,S,
1,433
***
352,48
N,S,
Phenotypic correlation coefficients are ( except for the age at first insemination and
calving and service period and interval between calving) is very low and mostly negative,
that is, no correlation (from -0.012 to 0.083), which was also determined by [4] for Friesian
cows. It is important to also note that the calculated coefficients are not statistically
significant, except for the coefficient of 0.083, which was found between the duration of
pregnancy rates and age at first calving cows (P<5%).
Of the average duration of lactation and milk production there is a very strong and
complete genetic correlation (Table 2), which also notes [1].
Table. 2.
Genetic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation coefficients between average indexes of cows‘
milk and milk fat production
TRAITS
IIa
IIb
IIc
IIb
IIc
IId
IIe
IIf
IIg
IIc
IId
IIe
IIf
IIg
IId
IIe
IIf
IIg
rg
Srg
rp
Srp
texp,(rp)
0,966
0,051
0,990
0,892
0,972
0,963
-0,234
0,995
0,982
0,980
0,973
-0,135
-0,463
-0,296
-0,287
0,032
0,054
0,001
0,105
0,028
0,029
0,047
0,005
0,018
0,010
0,012
0,049
0,039
0,046
0,045
0,840
-0,014
0,882
0,372
0,440
0,456
-0,376
0,988
0,762
0,784
0,847
-0,237
-0,669
-0,480
-0,497
0,020
0,037
0,017
0,034
0,033
0,029
0,034
0,001
0,024
0,023
0,022
0,036
0,027
0,032
0,026
42,365
N,S
0,379
***
51,185
***
10,982
***
13,392
***
13,900
***
11,101
***
174,49
***
32,225
***
34,616
***
36,521
***
6,669
***
24,632
***
14,987
***
15,320
217
***
IId
IIe
IIf
IIe
IIf
IIg
IIf
IIg
IIg
0,952
0,999
0,982
0,984
0,963
1,000
0,044
0,001
0,002
0,015
0,011
0,010
0,691
0,746
0,784
0,971
0,991
1,000
0,026
0,024
0,019
0,009
0,019
0,009
***
26,127
***
30,652
***
28,275
***
110,86
***
82,623
***
101,62
The exception is the average milk fat content in the cow´s milk, there is no genetic
correlation (0,051). Average milk yield for the whole lactation is completely correlated with
other indicators of milk. And here is an exception to the average milk fat content, where we
found a very weak and negative genetic correlation. Genetic correlation between the
average fat content of milk yeald and milk fat during the whole and standard lactation is
very low and medium negative, and is similar to the results presented in their research [3]
and [6]. Average yield of milk fat during the whole lactation, with other milk traits in
standard lactation, eachin a completely positive genetic correlation.
Tab. 3.Genetic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation coefficients between average
indexes of cows‘ longevity and lifetime milk production
TRAITS
IIIa
IIIb
IIIc
IIId
IIIe
IIIf
IIIb
IIIc
IIId
IIIe
IIIf
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIIc
IIId
IIIe
IIIf
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIId
IIIe
IIIf
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIIe
IIIf
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIIf
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
rg
Srg
rp
Srp
texp,(rp)
0,975
0,999
0,996
0,984
0,980
0,978
0,744
0,974
0,987
0,986
0,966
0,998
0,997
0,976
0,600
0,994
0,999
0,995
0,991
0,987
0,956
0,690
0,983
0,995
0,966
0,960
0,942
0,651
0,964
0,978
1,000
1,000
0,653
0,987
0,995
1,000
0,652
0,987
0,994
0,027
0,002
0,006
0,018
0,023
0,022
0,249
0,032
0,015
0,015
0,041
0,003
0,003
0,011
0,325
0,007
0,001
0,007
0,011
0,015
0,014
0,295
0,021
0,006
0,042
0,051
0,047
0,355
0,048
0,028
0,001
0,002
0,307
0,015
0,006
0,001
0,307
0,015
0,007
0,813
0,964
0,819
0,806
0,810
0,823
0,288
0,032
0,500
0,860
0,795
0,965
0,976
0,986
0,231
0,098
0,847
0,921
0,844
0,850
0,838
0,266
0,021
0,579
0,765
0,774
0,752
0,216
-0,049
0,602
0,997
0,986
0,447
0,478
0,896
1,000
0,407
0,465
0,889
0,021
0,010
0,021
0,022
0,021
0,019
0,035
0,037
0,032
0,019
0,022
0,010
0,008
0,010
0,036
0,034
0,019
0,014
0,020
0,019
0,020
0,035
0,022
0,030
0,024
0,023
0,019
0,036
0,036
0,029
0,003
0,009
0,033
0,032
0,016
0,001
0,033
0,032
0,017
38,175
***
99,752
***
39,090
***
37,228
***
37,853
***
38,538
***
8,221
N,S,
0,882
***
15,780
***
46,210
***
35,846
***
100,03
***
121,66
***
112,33
***
6,491
N.S.
1,885
***
43,578
***
64,517
***
43,085
***
44,247
***
40,326
***
7,561
N,S,
0,594
***
19,454
***
32,530
***
33,411
***
30,238
***
6,046
N,S,
1,341
***
20,626
***
342,89
***
262,83
***
13,676
***
14,889
***
55,141
***
98,325
***
12,202
***
14,363
***
53,179
218
***
IIIg
IIIh
IIIi
IIIh
IIIi
IIIj
IIIi
IIIj
IIIj
0,652
0,987
0,994
0,580
0,599
0,997
0,302
0,015
0,007
0,373
0,341
0,004
0,407
0,465
0,889
0,465
0,488
0,743
0,033
0,032
0,017
0,032
0,032
0,024
***
12,202
***
14,363
***
53,179
***
14,365
***
15,305
***
30,384
Phenotypic correlations between some milk production traits were positive, ranging
from weak (0.372) to complete (1,000). Similar to the genetic correlations. Phenotypic
correlation of fat content compared to othermilk traits are negative, ranging from -0.014
(no) to -0.669 (strong). The level of statistical significance determined by t-test showed
highly significant (0.01%), except in the case of phenotypic correlation of average duration
of lactation and average milk fat content in the milk of cows.
Coefficients of genetic correlations between longevity and lifetime milk production
and milk fat (Table 3) show that there is a complete positive correlation between these
traits. The exception is a feature of production per milking day in relation to all the other
properties, where exist the strong and positive correlation (from 0,580 to 0,744).
Phenotypic correlation of the stated production performance was strong and positive,
with high statistical significance (P<.01). Indicators of milk production per dairy, productive
and life-giving day slightly lower coefficients of phenotypic correlation with longevity and
lifetime productionof milk and milk fat. The lowestratios were established between the
production of milk per day productive and longevity traits (from -0.049 to 0.098), but they
were not statistically significant.
CONCLUSION
On the based of conducted research it is possible to conclude the following:
- Identified genetic correlation coefficients between some fertility traits of cows
exceeds the corresponding phenotypic correlations in all cases.
- The average yield for the whole lactation milk is completely correlated with other
indicators, with the exception of the average milk yield, milk fat content, where we found a
very weak and negative genetic correlation.
-Genetic correlation between the average fat content of themilk yield and milk fat
during the whole lactation and the standard is very low to medium and negative(from 0.135 to -0.463).
-Coefficients of genetic correlations between longevity and lifetime milk production
and milk fat indicate that there is a complete positive correlation of these traits, which
applies also to the phenotypic correlation (P<0.01).
REFERENCES
[1]. Kapš, M., Špehar, M. 2004: Estimation of genetic parameters and breeding values of
milk traits for Simmental cattle in Croatia using a lactation animal model. Agric. Consp.
Sci, 69, 4, 91-94
[2]. Latinoviš D. 1996: Populaciona genetika i oplemenjivanje domaših ţivotinja Praktikum. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd.
[3]. Lin, C.Y., Mcallistek, A.J., Batra, T.R. 2003: Effects of early and late breeding of heifers
on multiple lactation performance of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci, 71, 10-17
[4]. Petroviš M.M., Sretenoviš Lj., Aleksiš S., Panteliš V., Novakoviš Ţ., Perišiš P., Petroviš
M.D. 2009: Ispitivanje naslednosti fenotipova plodnosti i mleţnosti simentalske rase
goveda u Srbiji, Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry, vol. 25, br. 5-6-1, str. 285-292
[5]. Pogaţar J., 1974: Pomen molznosti za selekcijo krov. Doktorska disertacija. Univerza v
Ljubljani, Ljubljana.
219
[6]. Spasiš Z.,Stoliš N., Miloševiš B., Iliš Z., AnŤušiš Ljiljana 2012: Age Influence of the
First Insemination and Service Period on Longevity and Life-long Production of Milk
Cows. Macedonian Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 253–256.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr Zvonko Spasiš, full professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of PrtištinaKosovska Mitrovica, Lešak, Kopaoniţka bb, 38219 Lešak, Serbia. E-mail:
zvonko.spasic@pr.ac.rs
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the Serbian Ministry of Science for support. Project TR-31001
220
EFFECT OF WATER –DEFICIT STRESS ON ROOTH GROWTH IN
SOME BALEY GENOTYPES
Velicevici Giancarla, Madosa E, Ciulca S, Lazar A., Malaescu Mihaela, Petolescu
Cerasela, Cretescu Iuliana, Coradini R.
Abstract: Drought is one of the most important types of abiotic stress that affects stability and amount
of yield.The objective of the present study was to evaluate the rooth growth dynamics as an early stage
screening criterion for characterization of drought tolerance in barley. The studied biological material
consisted of four barley varieties with different genetic and ecologic origin, along with their 6 one- way
crosses.Fluid deficit was induced by polyethylene-glycol (PEG6000) solution, with osmotic pressure (-7.35
Bars.). Determinations of rooth growth were effectuate after a periods of 7/14/ and 21 days from the
induction of osmotic stress. Rooth growth was significantly reduced by , -7.35 Bars polyethylene glycol.
Hybrid combinations: Adi x DH 260/18 and Andrei x Adi showed the highest values for this character, which
are less influenced by the action of water stress.
Key words: barley, water stress, rooth growth
INTRODUCTION
Drought occurs around the world, every year, often with devastating effects on crop
production (Ludlow and Muchow, 1990). Water deficit (commonly known as drought) is
defined as the absence of adequate moisture necessary for normal plant growth and
completion of the life cycle (Zhu, 2002). Impacts of terminal water stress on cereals have
been thoroughly investigated, while studies of early season drought are lacking. An early
season drought may affect considerably yields through the limitation of tiller survival rate
and number of kernels produced (Hafid et al., 1998a). means to improve drought tolerance
(Turner, 1997). A better understanding of mechanisms of adaptation to water deficit and
maintenance of growth, development and productivity during stress periods would help the
drought-tolerance breeding (Chloupek & Rod, 1992). Nevertheless, drought tolerance is a
complex trait resulting from the contribution of numerous factors. Among the several
putative characters, water status parameters (Merah, 2001, Szira et al., 2008) carbon
isotope discrimination (Merah, 2001), roots and shoot characters (Hafid et al., 1998b;
Dhanda et al., 2004; Szira et al., 2008), root-shoot partitioning (Thornley, 1998; Dhanda et
al.,2004), early growth vigour (Hafid et al., 1998b; Dhanda et al., 2004) are interesting
traits for drought-tolerance evaluation. Szira et al., (2008) suggest that the drought stress
induced by polyethyleneglycol (PEG) at germination stage is quick, simple, cheap and
provides many reproductible data and adequate to pre-select large number of genotypes
at early growth stages.
The development of extensive root system contributes to differences among cereal
cultivars for drought tolerance (Fukai & Cooper, 1995; Turner, 1997). Genotypic variability
has been found in many species for shoot and root characters (Wahbi &Gregory, 1989,
Tischler et al., 1989), and its significance for drought tolerance improvement discussed
(Chloupek & Rod 1992; Turner, 1997; Fukai & Cooper, 1995).
An appreciable genotypic diversity for shoot and root growth at early stages was
reportedin barley under favorable conditions or under other abiotic stress (Wahbi &
Gregory,1989; Saito et al., 1999; Malik et al., 2002). Root and shoot lengths were
considered as efficient characters to evaluate genotype response to water stress at
seedling stage (Guedira, 1997; Szira et al., 2008).
221
Four barley varieties with different genetic and ecologic origin, along with their 6 oneway crosses, were studied in a randomized block design with three replications. Fluid
deficit was induced by polyethylene-glycol (PEG6000) solution, with osmotic pressure (7.35 Bars.). Determinations of rooth growth were effectuate after a periods of 7/14/ and 21
days from the induction of osmotic stress. The determination of differences significance
between the studied cultivars and crosses, the processing of obtained experimental data
was performed using variance analysis according to Ciulca, 2006.
From the analysis of the variance (tab. 1) it was found that both the genotype, age of
plantlets or treatment with PEG had a positive significant distinct real influence on the
growth of roots to the barley genotypes. The plantlets age presented the highest influence
on the variability of this character. The interaction between the plantlets age and the
treatment with PEG and their combined effects on the growth of roots in the studied
varieties were provided statistically. The significant differences among the studied
genotypes studied in terms of the growth of roots shows that in the phenotypic
manifestation of this indicator, it also acts an important genetic component.
Table 1
Variance analysis on the effect of genotype, plantlets age and PEG on the growth of
roots
Source of variation
Total
Repetition
Varieties
Varieties error
Seedlings age
Variety x seedlings age
Error for seedlings age
PEG
Variety x PEG
Seedlings age x PEG
Variety x Seedling age x PEG
Error PEG
SP
4482,11
38,17
677,03
215,79
267,54
200,09
872,87
524,91
354,07
31,92
77,83
1221,89
GL
599
9
9
81
2
18
180
1
9
2
18
270
S2
Test F
4,241
75,226
2,664
133,770
11,116
4,849
524,910
39,341
15,960
4,324
4,526
F=0,94
F=16,62**
F=29,56**
F=2,46**
F=115,99**
F=8,69**
F=3,53*
F=0,96
In terms of this indicator, the genotypes, included in the study, recorded values
between 8,56cm for (DH 260/18 x Djerbel) and 12,23 cm for ADI, with an amplitude of
variation of 3,67. It appears that parental lines Adi, Djerbel, DH 260/18 achieved significant
increases compared to the parental line Andrei. Taking also into account the F1 hybrids
obtained as a result of diallel hybridization, it may be observed (tab. 2) that the hybrids
(Andrei x Adi), (Andrei x DH 260/18) recorded increases of growth of roots significantly
higher to the parental line Andrei.
Table 2
The effect of barley varieties on the growth of root seedlings
Varieties
Relative value
(%)
Average (cm)
Difference/
Signiffication
Adi - Andrei
12,23
9,52
128,47
2,71***
DH 260/18 - Andrei
10,95
9,52
115,02
1,43***
Djerbel - Andrei
10,58
9,52
111,13
1,06***
DH 260/18 - Adi
10,95
12,23
89,53
-1,28000
Djerbel - Adi
10,58
12,23
86,51
-1,65000
222
Djerbel - DH 260/18
10,58
10,95
96,62
-0,37
(Andrei x DH 260/18)( Andrei x Adi)
10,81
11,42
94,66
-0,610
(Andrei x Djerbel)( Andrei x Adi)
11,14
11,42
97,55
-0,28
(Adi x DH 206/18)( Andrei x Adi)
10,94
11,42
95,80
-0,48
(Adi x Djerbel)(Andrei x Adi)
9,15
11,42
80,12
-2,2700
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel)(Andrei x Adi)
8,56
11,42
74,96
-2,86000
(Andrei x Djerbel)( Andrei x DH 260/18)
11,14
10,81
103,05
0,33
(Adi x DH 260/18)( Andrei x DH 260/18)
10,94
10,81
101,20
0,13
(Adi x Djerbel) (Andrei x DH 260/18)
9,15
10,81
84,64
-1,66000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel) (Andrei x DH 260/18)
8,56
10,81
79,19
-2,25000
(Adi x DH 260/18)( Andrei x Djerbel)
10,94
11,14
98,20
-0,20
(Adi x Djerbel)( Andrei x Djerbel)
9,15
11,14
82,14
-1,99000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel)(Andrei x Djerbel)
8,56
11,14
76,84
-2,58000
(Adi x Djerbel)(Adi x DH 260/18)
9,15
10,94
83,64
-1,79000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel) (Adi x DH 260/18)
8,56
10,94
78,24
-2,38000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel)(Adi x Djerbel)
8,56
9,15
93,55
-0,590
(Andrei x Adi) - Andrei
11,42
9,52
119,96
1,90***
(Andrei x Adi) - Adi
11,42
12,23
93,38
-0,8100
(Andrei x DH 260/18) -Andrei
10,81
9,52
113,55
1,29***
(Andrei x DH 260/18) –DH 260/18
10,81
10,95
98,72
-0,14
(Andrei x Djerbel) – Andrei
11,14
9,52
117,02
1,62***
(Andrei x Djerbel) – Djerbel
11,14
10,58
105,29
0,56
(Adi x DH 260/18) - Adi
10,94
12,23
89,45
-1,29000
(Adi x DH 260/18) – DH 260/18
10,94
10,95
99,91
-0,01
(Adi x Djerbel) – Adi
9,15
12,23
74,82
-3,08000
(Adi x Djerbel) – Djerbel
9,15
10,58
86,48
-1,43000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel)- DH 260/18
8,56
10,95
78,17
-2,39000
(DH 260/18 x Djerbel)- Djerbel
8,56
10,58
80,91
-2,02000
LSD5%=0,59 cm
LSD1%=0,79 cm
LSD0,1%=1,02 cm
From the analysis of the obtained results (tab. 3) it is evidenced that the second and
third period of determination provide an increase of roots growing significantly higher to the
first period of determination in the studied genotypes. Also the third period of determination
shows an increase of growth of root significantly distinct from the second period of
determination.
Table 3
The effect of barley seedlings` age on rooth growth
Relative value
Difference/
Average (cm)
Seedlings` age
(%)
Signiffication
14 zile – 7zile
21 zile – 7zile
21 zile – 14zile
10,61
11,31
11,31
DL5%=0,43 cm
9,68
9,68
10,61
109,61
116,84
106,60
DL1%=0,57 cm
0,93***
1,63***
0,70**
DL0,1%=0,74 cm
Having regard to the analysis of the effect of culture medium on the growth of roots in
barley, we can observe a decrease in the growth on medium with osmotic pressure of
(7,35-Bars), with an amplitude of variation of 3,19.
Table 4
The effect of PEG concentration on root growth of barley
PEG solution
V1 – V0
Average (cm)
8,94
12,13
Relative value
(%)
73,70
LSD5%=0,34 LSD1%=0,45 LSD0,1%=0,58
223
Difference/
Signiffication
000
-3,19
Table5
The effect of genotype and seedlings` age on root growth of barley
N
Seedlings` age
Genotypes
r.
c
7 days
14 days
21 days
x9,49c
y11,34ab
y10,20bc
x9,95c
x12,27a
y9,24cd
y9,70c
y9,68c
y8,02d
x9,62cd
xy12,55a
xy10,73bc
x10,69bc
x10,95b
x10,98b
x11,59ab
y10,55bc
x9,48cd
x9,46e
x12,81a
x11,93ab
x11,11bc
x11,06bcd
x12,22ab
x12,12ab
x12,61a
x9,96cde
y6,90e
x8,94d
x9,85de
rt.
0
Andrei
1
2
Adi
3
DH 260/18
4
Djerbel
5
Andrei x Adi
6 Andrei x DH 260/18
7 Andrei x Djerbel
8 Adi x DH 260/18
9
Adi x Djerbel
1
DH 260/18 x Djerbel
-Genotypes LSD5%=1,26 cm
LSD1%=1,66 cm
LSD0,1%=2,14 cm
- seedlings` age LSD5%=1,37 cm
LSD1%=1,81 cm
LSD0,1%=2,33 cm
There are significant differences between the combinations considered denoted by
different letters: a, b, c, d – for vertical comparisons (genotype); x, y, z, - for horizontal
comparisons (plantlets age)
13
12,81
12,55
Lungimea radacinii (cm)
12
11,93
11,34
11
10,73
10,20
10
9,62
9,49
9,46
11,11
10,69
12,61
12,27
12,22
11,06
10,95
10,98
12,12
11,59
10,55
9,95
9,70
9,96
9,48
9,68
9,24
9
8,94
7 zile
8
9,85
14 zile
8,02
21 zile
7
DL5% Genotip
DL5% Varsta pl.
6,90
6
Andrei
Adi
DH260/18
Djerbel
Andrei x
Adi
Andrei x
DH260/18
Andrei x
Djerbel
Adi x
DH260/18
Adi x
Djerbel
DH260/18 x
Djerbel
Genotip
Fig.1 Graphical representation of the influence of plantlets age on the growth of
barley plantlets roots
Regarding the effect of culture medium on growth of the roots, it can be seen from
the results in table 6 that the culture medium (PEG 6000) influenced negatively the growth
of roots, the normal hydrated variant being significantly superior to the medium variant with
PEG 6000. The Hybrid Andrei x Adi combination was significantly superior to the other
genotypes on the variant medium Vo.
Table 6
The effect of genotypes and PEG concentration on root growth of barley
N
r.
PEG
Genotypes
c
V0
V1
x12,79ab
x12,83ab
x12,84ab
x12,59abc
x13,37a
x12,74ab
y6,25e
y11,64a
y9,06cd
y8,58d
y9,48bcd
y8,89cd
rt.
Andrei
1
2
Adi
3
DH 260/18
4
Djerbel
5
Andrei x Adi
6 Andrei x DH 260/18
224
0
7 Andrei x Djerbel
8 Adi x DH 260/18
9
Adi x Djerbel
1
DH 260/18 x Djerbel
-Genotypes LSD5%=0,96 cm
- PEG LSD5%=1,08 cm
x12,39bc
x11,71c
x9,85d
y9,89bcd
y10,18b
y8,45d
x10,16d
y6,97e
LSD1%=1,27 cm
LSD0,1%=1,63 cm
LSD1%=1,42 cm
LSD0,1%=1,83 cm
There are significant differences between the combinations considered denoted by
different letters: a, b, c, d – for vertical comparisons (genotype); x, y, z, - for horizontal
comparisons (PEG)
The modifying of osmotic presure determined significant diferences concerning the
rooths growth ; the rooths lenght decreased proportional with osmotic presure.Hybrid
combinations: Adi x DH 260/18 and Andrei x Adi showed the highest values for this
character, which are less influenced by the action of water stress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was published during the project ―POSTDOCTORAL SCHOOL OF
AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE", POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62371, co-financed
by the European Social Fund through the Sectorial Operational Programme for the Human
Resources Development 2007-2013.
REFERENCES
[1]. Chloupek, O. and J. Rod., 1992. The root system as a selection criterion. Plant
Breed. Abstr., 62:1337-1341.
[2]. Ciulca S., 2006- Experimental methodology for agriculture and biology. Ed
Agroprint, Timisoara.
[3]. Dhanda, S.S., G.S. Sethi and R.K. Behl. 2004. Indices of drought tolerance in
wheat genotypes at early stages of plant growth. J. Agron. Crop Sci., 190: 6-12.
[4]. Fukai, S. and M. Cooper. 1995. Development of drought-resistant cultivars using
physiomorphologicaltraits in rice. Field Crops Res., 40: 67-86.
[5]. Guedira, M., J.P. Shroyer, M.B. Kirkham and G.M. Paulsen. 1997. Wheat
coleoptile and root growth and seedling survival after dehydration and rehydration. Agron.
J., 89: 822-826.
[6]. Hafid, R. El., D.H. Smith, M. Karron and K. Samir. 1998a. Physiological
responses of spring durum wheat cultivars to early-season drought in a Mediterranean
environment. Ann. Bot., 81:363-370.
[7]. Hafid, R. El., D.H. Smith, M. Karrou and K. Samir. 1998b. Root and shoot growth,
water use and water use efficiency of spring durum wheat under early-season drought.
Agronomie, 18: 181-195.
[8]. Ludlow MM, Muchow RC (1990). A critical evaluation of traits for improving crop
yields in water-limited environments. Advance Agron. 43: 107-153.
[9]. Malik, A.I., T.D. Colmer, H. Lambers, T.L. Setter and M. Shortemeyer. 2002.
Short-term waterlogging has long-term effects on the growth and physiology of wheat.
New Phytol., 153:225-236.
[10]. Merah, O. 2001. Potential importance of water status traits for durum wheat
improvement under Mediterranean conditions. J. Agric. Sci., 137: 139-145.
[11]. Saito, A., Y. Masaoka and K. Sato. 1999. Differential responses of seminal and
crown roots among barley cultivars (Hordeum vulgare L.) under acid and acid/aluminium
225
stress in hydroponics,Plant & Animal Genome, VII conference, 17–19 January. San Diego,
CA, USA. http://intlpag.com/7/abstracts/pag7653.html.
[12]. Szira, F., A.F. Balint, A. Borner and G. Galiba. 2008. Evaluation of droughtrelated traits and screening methods at different developmental stages in spring barley. J.
Agron. Crop Sci., 194:334-342.
[13].Tischler, C.R., P.W. Voigt and E.C. Holt. 1989. Adventitious root initiation in
kleingrass in relation to seedling size and age. Crop Sci., 29: 180-183.
[14]. Turner, N.C. 1997. Further progress in crop water relations. Adv. Agron., 58:
293-338.
[15]. Zhu JK (2002). Salt and drought stress signal transduction in plants.Annual Rev.
Plant Bio. 53: 247-273.
[16]. Wahbi, A. and P.J. Gregory. 1989. Genotypic differences in root and shoot
growth of barley(Hordeum vulgare). I. Glasshouse studies of young plants and effects of
rooting medium. Exp.Agric., 25: 357-387.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Velicevici Giancarla, Madosa E., Ciulca S., Lazar A., Malaescu Mihaela, Petolescu
Cerasela, Cretescu Iuliana, Coradini R.- 1Banat, s University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Horticulture and Forestry, Aradului Street 119, 300645
Timisoara, Romania, giancarlavely2000@yahoo.com, madosae@yahoo.com,
226
INVESTIGATIONS OF ALBENDAZOLE BIOMARKER CONCERNING THE
IMPLICATIONS ON THE HEPATIC CELLS ACTIVITY OF RUMINANTS
L. Manea, I. Manea
Abstract: It follows the activity of some enzymes that may reflect changes in hepatocellular tissue
after administration of albendazole, a widely used in endoparasitosis chemotherapy bet on prevention and
treatment. Albendazole is active against gastrointestinal and lung nematodes (adults, larvae, eggs).
Administered orally bet on amount of 5mg/kg body weight (BW) bet on dry lactation period, is rapidly
absorbed and reaches pharmacodynamics legally bet on all organs and tissues, thus eliminating the
predominantly about urinary. A biomarker of albendazole hepatotoxicity is increased enzymatic activity of the
enzymes GOT (glutamic oxalic-acetic transaminase), GPT (glutamic pyruvic transaminase) and LDH (lactic
dehydrogenase).
Dynamics enzyme levels expressed their bet IU/L, their activity was assessed at 2 days of dosing
every 3 days using automatic biochemistry analyzer SP-4430 EZ dry Spotchem to analyze changes in
enzyme activity, waiting for disposal albendazole liver at 10 days after administration.
Key words: Albendazole, Enzymes, Hepatotoxicity, Ruminants.
.
INTRODUCTION
Albendazole is approved for the following endoparasites of cattle: Ostertagia
ostertagi, Haemonchus spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Nematodius spp., Cooperia spp.,
Bunostomum phlebotomum, Oesphagostomum spp., Dictacaulus spp., Fasciola hepatica
(adults), and Moniezia spp. It is also used in sheep, goats and swine for endiparasite
control. Also can using in cats, albendazole has been used to treat Paragonimus kellicotii
infections. In dogs and cats, albendazole fas been to treat capillariasis. In dogs,
albendazole has been used used to treat Filaroides infections
In Africa, albendazole is being used to treat filariasis as part of efforts to stop
disemination of the disease, and in sub –Saharian Africa, albendazole is used in
conjunction with ivermectin. [1]
As a vermicidal, albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and
intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchincine-sensitive site of tubulin thus
inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules.
Albendazole also has been shown to inhibit the enzyme fumarate reductase, which is
helminth-specific.
Albendazole chemistry show that it is a benzimidazole antihelmintic structurally
related to mebendazole, albendazole has a molecular weight of 265. It is insoluble in water
and soluble in alcohol. Pharmacokinetic data for albendazole in cattle, dogs and cats were
not located. The drug is thought to be better absorbed orally than other benzimidazoles.
Approximately 47% of an oral dose was recovered (as metabolites) in the urine over a 9
day period. [4]
After oral dosing in sheep, the parent compound was either not detectable or only
transiently detectable in the plasma due to a very rapid first-pass effect. The active
metabolites, albendazole sulphoxide and albendazole sulfone reached peak plasma
concentrations 20 hours after dosing. Albendazole is tolerated without significant adverse
effetcs when dosed in cattle at recommended doseges. Dogs treated at 50 mg/kg twice
daily may develop anorexia.
About oveddosage and toxicity can say that doses of 300 mg/kg (30X recommended)
and 200 mg/kg have caused death in cattle and sheep, respectively. Doses of 45 mg/kg
(45X) those recommended did not cause any adverse effects in cattle tested. Cats
227
receiving 100 mg/kg/day for 14-21 days showed signs of weight loss, neutropenia and
mental dullness.
In humans, the drug Interactions dexamethasone and praziquantal both have been
demonstrated to increase albendazole serum levels. Cimetidine increased albendazole
levels in bile and cystic fluid. The drug cimetidine heightens serum albendazole
concentrations, and increases the half life of albendazole.[3]
Whereas veterinary clinical relevance is unknown, we seek to evaluate the possible
clinical and paraclinical expressions.
In the randomized study, enter a group of five cattle, Brown breed, of different ages,
dairy cattle in the mammary dry period. Are receiving them in 1 day albendazole
suspension, in doses of 10 mg\/kg PO. In day 3 and 7 are taken from blood samples,
blood serum was analyzed by biochemistry, to be compared with blood samples from
control animals. [2]
Enzymatic activities are analyzed (enzyme status) of the transaminase (GOT, GTP).
In biochemistry, a transaminase or an aminotransferase is an enzyme that catalyzes a
type of reaction between an amino acid and an α-keto acid.
R1
R2
R1
R2
|
|
|
|
Amino
CH  NH 2  C  O
C  O  CH  NH 2
transferase
|
|
|
|
COOH
COOH
COOH COOH
An amino acid contains an amine (NH2) group. A keto acid contains a keto (=O)
group. In transamination, the NH2 group on one molecule is exchanged with the =O group
on the other molecule. The amino acid becomes a keto acid, and the keto acid becomes
an amino acid.
To determine the status of the blood serum enzyme it uses automatic biochemistry
Analyzer dry Spotchem EZ SP-4430 manufactured by ARKRAY, Inc. – Japan.
It has the following technical features: 1.Samples processed: serum, plasma, whole
blood 2. The principle of measurement: Optical Measurement of reflection intensity – five
different kinds of optical filters (five wavelengths), the optimal wavelength is selected for
each parameter measured (tested) 3. Type: dry chemistry reagents (strips) 4. Sample
usage: 4-6uL for each parameter measured 5. The minimum amount of serum, plasma: 6
x (nomber of parameters measure) + sample 38μL-250 microliters of whole blood.
Considering the waiting time for the metabolism of albendazolului it is important to
know the pharmacokinetics of chemotherapy, monitoring the enzymatic activity of the liver,
as well as other metabolic parameters involved in detoxification.
One can observe in table no.1 an increasing accumulation of T-Bil (total biliverdine) in
the blood of the animals tested. The increase is significant, being the maximum 50-100%
in the case of T-Bil, in two of the samples from the youth cattle.
228
Table no.1
Day 3 of experiment after albendazole administration
Age
of cattle
TPro g/dl
Alb
g/dl
T-Bil
mg/dl
GOT
IU/L
GPT
IU/L
LDH
IU/L
UA
mg/dl
7 years
3 years
4 years
8 month
1 year
6.2
5.7
5.6
5.8
5.6
3.2
3.1
3
3.3
3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
1.4
78
89
87
70
97
27
46
34
25
46
1356
1467
1568
1381
1585
1
1,3
1,4
1.2
1.7
This thing shows the albendazole involvement in the hepatic function and deficiencies
in the elimination of bile in small intestine. Normal results for a typical bilirubin test are 0.1
to 1 milligram per deciliter (mg/dL) of total bilirubin (direct plus indirect) and 0 to 0.3 mg/dL
for direct. Lower than normal bilirubin levels are usually not a concern. Elevated levels
may indicate liver damage or disease.
Table no.2
Day 7 of experiment after albendazole administration
Age of
cattle
T-Pro
g/dl
Alb
g/dl
T-Bil
mg/dl
GOT
IU/L
GPT
IU/L
LDH
IU/L
UA
mg/dl
7 years
3 years
4 years
8 month
1 year
5.4
5.8
6
6.1
6.4
3.2
3.3
3.1
3.2
3.1
1.6
0.6
0.7
2.2
3.6
96
55
59
56
98
35
15
19
19
37
1492
1411
1801
1207
1174
1.8
1.1
1.2
3.9
3.4
Higher than normal levels of direct bilirubin in blood may indicate in the figure no.2
that liver isn't clearing biliverdine properly, because of a blocked bile duct. Elevated levels
of indirect bilirubin may indicate other problems.
Long-term carcinogenicity studies were conducted in mice and rats. In the mouse
study, albendazole was administered in the diet at doses of 25, 100, and 400 mg/kg/day
(0.1, 0.5, and 2 times the recommended human dose based on body surface area in
mg/m2, respectively) for 108 weeks. In the rat study, albendazole was administered in the
diet at doses of 3.5, 7, and 20 mg/kg/day (0.04, 0.08, and 0.21 times the recommended
human dose based on body surface area in mg/m 2, respectively) for 117 weeks. [6]
229
Figure no.1 The level of T-Bil in the 3 day after albendazole administration
Albendazole did not adversely affect male or female fertility in the rat at an oral dose
of 30 mg/kg/day (0.32 times the recommended human dose based on body surface area
in mg/m2). Albendazole has been shown to be teratogenic (to cause embryotoxicity and
skeletal malformations) in pregnant rats and rabbits. The teratogenic response in the rat
was shown at oral doses of 10 and 30 mg/kg/day (0.10 times and 0.32 times the
recommended human dose based on body surface area in mg/m 2, respectively) during
gestation days 6 to 15 and in pregnant rabbits at oral doses of 30 mg/kg/day (0.60 times
the recommended human dose based on body surface area in mg/m 2) administered during
gestation days 7 to 19. In the rabbit study, maternal toxicity (33% mortality) was noted at
30 mg/kg/day.
Figure no.2 The level of T-Bil in the 7 day after albendazole administration
Albendazole should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the
potential risk to the fetus.
Doses used to cattle for susceptible parasites:1) 10 mg/kg PO (Labeled directions;
Valbazen – SKB);2) 7,5 mg/kg PO; 15 mg/kg for adult liver flukes. (Roberson 1988b).
Albendazole have in Romania numerous presentations and as many trade names,
such as: Valbazen (2.5% and 10% suspension; 40% toothpaste; 200 mg tablets, 600 mg,
tablets) Vermitan 2.5% and 100% suspension; Albendazole 4% or Trichinostop;
Rombendazol. [2]
In Romania can be highlighted some aspects of the use of albendazolului, thus the
first data on albendazole in parasitology meet in 1977. Albendazole is a preparation
belonging to the group benzimidazol carbamate, which seems to be the ideal, having
anthelmintic preparation action both of simultaneous pulmonary nematodes, including
gastrointestinal and Dictyocaulus nematodes, including Ascaridata, and Oxyurata –
Strongylata and the cestodes, including Moniezia and Trematodes, including the Fasciola.
230
For this reason must be shown that curative and prophylactic doses is lacking any
impairment, bodies for its products and products, and by the poliparasitic action of
albendazol will be one of anthelmintic preparations of great prospect. [2]
A biomarker of albendazole hepatotoxicity was considered enzymatic activity of the
enzymes GOT (glutamic oxalic-acetic transaminase) and GPT (glutamic pyruvic
transaminase), but this study cannot prove the role of biomarker enzyme of GOT and GPT
in monitoring liver, because enzymatic activity is no significantly changed.
For this reason albendazole remains active against gastrointestinal and lung
nematodes (adults, larvae, eggs), many species of animals (herbivores, carnivores, pigs,
birds, human).
In other news should not be omitted but note the damaging effects on rats or mice. A
long-term carcinogenicity study was no evidence of increased incidence of tumors in the
treated mice and rats. Albendazole has been shown to be teratogenic (to cause
embryotoxicity and skeletal malformations) in pregnant rats and rabbits at oral doses of 10
and 30 mg/kg/day.
On the other side, we have the young cattle noted a high level of T-Bil (biliverdine), it
grows at about 7 days after albendazole ingesting, being an indicator of liver dysfunction.
REFERENCES
[1]. Horton J., 2003, Albendazole for the treatment of echinococcosis, Fundam Clin
Pharmacol 17 (2): 205–12.
[2]. Manea L., 2007, Patologie animală, Editura Transversal, 140-145.
[3]. Schipper, H.G.; Koopmans, R.P.; Nagy, J.; Butter, J.J.; Kager, P.A.; Van Boxtel, C.J.,
2000, Effect of dose increase or cimetidine co-administration on albendazole
bioavailability, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene 63 (5): 270–273.
[4]. Nelson, David L. & Cox, Michael M., 2000, Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (3rd
ed.), pp. 628–631, 634, 828–830. New York: Worth Publishers.
[5]. Pirone, C; Quirke, JME; Priestap, HA; Lee, DW., 2009, The Animal Pigment Bilirubin
Discovered in Plants, Journal of the American Chemical Society 131 (8): 2830.
[6]. Wen H, Zhang HW, Muhmut M, Zou PF, New RR, Craig PS., 1994, Initial observation
on albendazole in combination with cimetidine for the treatment of human cystic
echinococcosis, Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 88 (1): 49–52.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
L.C.Manea, Valahia University of Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Bd., Targoviste, Romania,
E-mail: laur_manea@yahoo.com
I. Manea, Valahia University of Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Bd., Targoviste, Romania, Email: yuliamanea1967@yahoo.com
231
THE EFFECT OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC SELENIUM ON THE
PRODUCTION AND CARCASS COMPOSITION OF HEAVY LINE
BROILER CHICKENS
B. Pešiš1*, B. Miloševiš1, Z. Spasiš1, N. Stoliš2, V. Petriţeviš3
Abstract: This study is aimed at determination of the effect of selenium (Se), in its inorganic and organic
form present in broiler chicken diet, considering body weight gain, yield and share of some categories of
chicken meat in chickens of heavy line parent stock.
The trial was conducted with 120 Cobb 500 hybrid chickens, divided into 3 groups, lasted for 7 weeks.
Chickens were fed with standardised feed mixtures, while their parents were fed with mixtures containing
added Seat the same amount (0,3 mg/kg), but in different forms, according to the following design: without
Se (I group), organic form (II group) and inorganic form (III group).
The highest final body mass at end of fattening showed chickens from the group II (2634,91 g), followed by
group III (2581,21 g) and group I (2307,48 g). The average daily feed consumption was the highest for
chickens in group I, while the lowest in group I, during the whole period of trial. The weekly feed consumption
showed to be the highest for chickens from the group II, and the lowest for group I, being 102,99 g and 95,11
g respectively. The feed consumption per kg of body weight gain was the highest for the group I, (1,731 g),
while in the group III was the lowest (1,633 g). The results of this study showed that chickens fed without
addition of Se (group I) had the lowest meat yield of the first, second and third category being 869,54 g,
148,43 g and 343,47 g, respectively. Chicken fed with mixtures supplemented with organic Se form (group II)
had the largest yield of meat of the first, second and third quality being 1074,59 g, 173,18 and 396,62 g,
respectively.The differences between groups were statistically significant (P<0,05) and statistically highly
significant (P<0,01).
Key words: broiler chicken, selenium, body gain, heavy line parents.
INTRODUCTION
For many years, very little attention was given to a fact that the natural food
contains mineral components that humans and animals use in their nutrition.
Starting from this fact, the subject of this research was examination of selenium
effect on the production results of fattening chickens whose parents consumed food that
contained selenium of different origin, both organic and inorganic.
The main difference in physiological value of organic and inorganic selenium in
nutrition is found in the ability of selenomethionine that allows it to be unspecifically
contained inside body proteins. Conversion of inorganic selenium into selenocysteine,
through selenide, usually takes part inside the liver. This mechanism is usually fully
saturated if the quantity of inorganic selenium inside the food is over 0,3ppmand inorganic
selenium deposition inside the tissues (skelletalmiscles, liver) is limited (Rach and sar.,
2000).
Organic selenium in nutrition gets two big advantages by inserting
selenomethionine inside of the body proteins. First advantage is that it provides selenium
reserve inside of the tissues for the time in which the needs for this microelement are
increased. And the second advantage is that it increases selenium concentration in
embryonic fetus, which can be easily mobilised and used by young organisms (Jacques,
2001).
Researches in the recent years have shown that the organic selenium is
suppressing the use of inorganic selenium. Metabolic paths of organic and inorganic
selenium are different.
232
The experiment was conducted on120 chicken from provinience Cobb 500 which
were divided in 3 groups (30 chicken in each group), for a period of 7 weeks. Experiment
was conducted in two phases. The first phase was conducted on the farm for fattening
broiler „Katun― in Vranje spa, and the second phase was conducted on slaughter line in
slaughterhouse „Hibrofarm― in Ristovac. All groups of chickens were fed with standard sow
mixture, while the parents whose offfspringwere tested, fed with mixtures which was
supplemented with the same amount of selenium 0,3 mg/kg, but different origin: without
selenium (I group), organic origin (II group) and inorganic origin (III group).
At the beginning of the experiment,chickens were weighed and marked by toe rings,
paying attention that each group of chickens fit to a group of chickens obtained after
incubation of hatching eggs,whose origins were from parents who were control group (I)
that consumed food without selenium, experimental group (II) whose meals contained
organic selenium (0,3 mg/kg) and experimental group (III) whose meals were
supplemented with inorganic selenium (0,3mg/kg).
Fattening lasted 42 days, and it was divided into two periodes. In the first period
(1-28 day) chickens were fed with a complete food mixture with 22 % crude proteins and
13,00 MJ/kg ME, and in the second period (29-42 days) chickens were fed with mixture
which contained 17% crude proteinswhose energy value was 13,08 MJ/kg ME.
Chicken body mass was measured at the beginning of experiment and every week
until the end of fattening.At the same time food consumption and weight gain in chickens
is controlled and recorded. During the experiment, chickens had available sufficient
quantities of food and water that they could use whenever they wanted.
At the end of the experiment chickens were transported to the slaughterhouse,
slaughter was done and it includedcleaning and measuring the mass of slaughtered
carcasses, and after that scheduling parts of the carcass by category ( I-chest, drumstick
and thigh, II-wings, III- pelvis and backs) and their measurement. Measurements were
performed on electronic scale with accuracy ± 0,1 g.
Statistical analysis of the data was performed using the software package Microsoft
STATISTICA. Evaluation of the statistical significance of means of small independent
samples was performed by t-test.
Body weight of chickens and average daily yield achieved in the present study are
shown in Table 1 and 2.
Table. 1. Average weight of chickens (g)
GROUP
I
II
III
AGE,
DAYS
X  Sx
SD
X  Sx
SD
X  Sx
SD
t0.05=2,052
t0.01=2,771
1
44,5±0,08
2,3
46,7±0,10
3,1
45,1±0,13
3,8
texp.=1,291
7
146,0±0,12
3,5
151,4±0,12
14
385,8±0,11
a
21
708,7±0,12 a
28
35
1189,2±0,13
a
1720,6±0,12
a
3,7
147,1±0,11
3,3
texp.=1,987
3,4
413,3±0,18
b
5,5
390,0±0,28
8,4
texp.=2,435
3,5
821,4±0,13 c
4,0
804,7±0,23 c
3,9
3,4
1378,2±0,18
c
1989,0±0,11
c
233
5,5
3,4
6,9
texp.=2,634
1355,7±0,29
c
8,8
texp.=2,615
1948,3±0,33
c
10,0
texp.=2,423
2307,5±0,28 a
42
8,3
2634,9±0,14 c
4,2
2581,2±0,46 c
13,9
texp.=2,515
Legend: a, b – t<0,05; a,c – t<0,01, Differences between a and b are significant on
level P<0,05, and between a and c on lavel P<0,01
The results presented in Table 1 shows quite uniform body mass at the end of the
first week of fattening (146,03-151,36 g). At the end of the first fattening period (28. day)
chickens of group II had the highest body mass (1378,18 g), which is 13,7% more in
comparison with the first group of chickens. The data showed statistical significance
greater than 5. Chickens from the group III had a slightly lower body weight than group II
1,6% which is not statistically significant, and a slightly bigger body weight in comparison
with the first group (12,2%,)which shows the significance of difference of more than 5%.At
the end of 42-day chickens from the group II also had the highest body mass (2634,91 g),
which is 12.4% more than the chickens of group I (statistical significance 5%) The values
established in chickens of group III were significantly lower by 2.0% compared to the
chickens of group II, or higher statistical significance for 10.6% compared to chickens of
group I.
This results are consistent with research that has been conducted by Callini and
Sirri(2006), which have proven that feeding parents can affect the quality of offspring and
provide improved weight gain during the first two weeks of life, which will have an impact
on the end resultof the development.
Table. 2. Average daily consumption per weeks (g)
GROUPS
AG
E,
I
II
III
DA
X  Sx
7
14,5±0,01
0,36
14,9±0,01
0,21
14,5±0,01
0,18
14
34,3±0,01
0,45
37,4±0,01
0,43
34,7±0,03
0,76
21
46,1±0,01
0,34
58,3±0,02
0,62
59,2±0,01
0,37
28
68,6±0,02
0,49
79,5±0,02
0,49
78,7±0,02
0,50
35
75,9±0,01
0,39
87,3±0,01
0,44
84,6±0,03
0,80
42
83,8±0,03
0,84
92,7±0,01
0,23
90,4±0,04
1,16
SD
X  Sx
SD
X  Sx
SD
YS
Analyzing the data from Table 2.we can see that at the end of the first week there
were no major differences in the growth between the groups. Chickens from the group II
have the highest growth (37.42 g), slightly lower growth have chickens from the Group III,
and the lowest growth have chickens from the group I (34.26 g).This trend continued until
the end of fattening. At the end of the first period 28 daychickens from the group I
achieved the highest growth (79,52 g) whose parents received food through organic
selenium supplement of 0.3 mg / kg. Approximate daily gain, decreased by 2.9% had been
reached by the chickens from the group III whose parents consumed inorganic selenium
(0.3 mg / kg.), while the lowest daily gain had been reachedby chickens from the group I
(68.63 g). Dealing with similar studies Edens (2001) confirmed our cleim that most weight
gain and body mass have chickens whose parents consumed organic selenium. Growth
in chickens continued at the same pace until the end of fattening, and the differences
between the groups remained the same. Chickens from the group II achieved higher
growth compared to chickens from the group I by 9.1% and by 2.0% in comparison with III
234
group of chickens. Effect of selenium in the diet of broiler parents is certainly of great
importance and impact on the quality of offspring, while ensuring improved weight gain
during the first week of life. The results obtained for feed conversion (Table 3) also vary
depending on the treatment and study period.
Table. 3 Average daily feed intake of chickens (g) per week.
AGE WEEK
1
2
3
4
5
6
AVERAGE
I
X  Sx
SD
16,9±0,18
46,2±0,48
72,9±0,25
114,9±0,49
140,2±0,10
179,4±0,78
95,11±0,38
5,4
14,4
7,6
14,8
3,1
23,5
GROUPS
II
SD
X  Sx
17,3±0,18
5,5
45,7±0,45
13,5
80,3±0,32
9,5
125,9±0,50
15,1
155,7±0,17
5,0
192,7±0,47
14,2
102,99±0,34
III
X  Sx
SD
17,10±0,18
46,95±0,48
78,45±0,29
122,22±0,47
150,57±0,25
186,77±0,54
100,34±0,36
5,4
14,5
8,7
14,1
7,5
16,2
Chickens whose parents were fed with meals that contained organic selenium (II)
improved intake and feed conversion compared to chickens of group of 7.88 g and 2.65 g.
compared to chickens of group III. The difference in food consumption per week was
similar in comparison to the end of the first period 28 days, and at the end of fattening in
42 day. The same conclusions came from Tona et al., (2003), Patton et al., (2002),
Pappas et al., (2006b), and they indicate in their works that the content of selenium in the
diet of broiler breeders has a significant impact on the quality of offspring and their
production results.
The data obtained from the results of cutting processed chicken carcasses from the
experimental group (Phase II experiment) are shown in Table 4. From the standpoint of
yield and ratio of certain types of meat chickens.
235
Tabela.4 .
Yield and share of some meat categories of dressed carcasses of chickens, n=30
Paramet
er
Gro
up
Weight of
cold
carcass, g
1428,5
S
Cv %
I (K)
SD
II
(O)
SD
S
Cv %
III
(O)
SD
t0.05=2,052
t0.01=2,771
II
Category meat
g
g
869,5
%
a
60,87
148,4
%
a
10,39
III
Category meat
g
343,4
%
a
0,1
0,2
0,4
0,4
4,12
6,51
12,70
12,339
58,9
56,1
18,8
42,5
1723,6
S
Cv %
I
Category meat
1074,59
b
62,34
173,18
10,05
396,6 b
1,2
1,4
0,5
1,4
2,09
4,11
9,38
11,06
36,1
44,16
16,3
43,9
1634,9
999,1
0,1
0,1
0,2
0,4
3,04
5,07
7,95
10,89
49,7
50,6
14,0
41,9
texp.=2,768
61,11
texp.=1,98
6
175,9 b
10,76
385,3
texp.=1,236
24,04
23,01
23,57
texp.=
1,986
Legend: a, b – t<0,05, Differences between a and b are significant on level P<0,05
The data in Table 4 shows that the yield of first category meat (breast, thigh and
drumstick) in absolute figures was the highest in chicks of group II (1074,59 g), followed by
Group III (999,11 g) and at least in the first group (869,54 g). That means that chicks of
group II achieved better results in 19.08% compared to the first group. Regarding the
share of first category meat in comparison to the mass of chilled carcass performance
indicators measuring the following: first group (60,78%), second group (62,34%) and third
group (61,11%).
As for the yield and the share of meat meat category II (wings) approximate results
are observed for the second group (173,18 g) and third group (175,92 g) and lower values
for the first group (148,43 g). If meat's share of category II in relation to the chilled carcass
it was following: first group (10,38%), second group (10,05%) and third group (10,76%).
Shares of more valued, first category meat, established in this study are slightly higher
than the results that have been obtained by Bogosavljevic-Boskovic and associates (1998)
and Milosevic and associates (2003) organizing chicken fattening in a similar way.
Yield and share of third category meat (pelvis and wings) was as follows: second
group 396,62 g, third group 385,32 g and finally first group 343,47 g. From the standpoint
of the percentage of third category meat it can be seen that most of the contribution was
from the first group (24,04%), then from third group (23,57%) and finally, with the lowest
participation, second group (23,01%).
Based on these data and considerations it can be concluded, that the chickens that
come from parents who are receiving food through organic selenium had the largest share
of meat of I category. This study is confirmed with the results Bogosavljeviš-Boškoviš (
236
1994) i Radoviš i sar., (2008), who found a high correlation relationship between carcass
weight and yield of the main parts.
CONCLUSIONS
The research results obtained by experiment, related to the growth of the share of
different types of meat in the carcasses of chickens, showing:
- That groups of chicken, whose parents consumed selenium through food, got better
results than the control group who didn‘t consume selenium.
- That organic selenium had a big influence on the growth of chickens, especially
those whose parents consumed organic selenium during exploatation and production.
- That organic selenium which parents used in their nutrition had impact on better
food usage in their offspring, and by that also on better production results.
- That the chicken whose parents consumed organic selenium, had the biggest meat
quantity
REFERENCES
[1]. BOGOSAVLJEVIŠ-BOŠKOVIŠ SNEŢANA, (1994): The influence of fettening
performance and meat quality of broiiler chickens heavy line hybrids. Doctoral disertation
Belgrade.
[2]. BOGOSAVLJEVIŠ-BOŠKOVIŠ SNEŢANA, MITROVIŠ S., GAJIŠ I. (1998): the
analysis of quantitative characteristics of processed broiler carcasses were grown in
different ways. The science of poultry ferming,3 (1998), 1-2, 177-181.
[3]. CALINI, F. And SIRRI, D.F. (2006) Breeder nutrition and offspring performance.
World’s Poultry Science Journal XIIth European Poultry Conference, Verona, Italy.62,
supplement, 293.
[4]. DANIELS L.A. (1996): Selenium metabolisam and bioavailability. Biological Trace
Element Research, 53 (3), 185-199.
[5]. EDENS, F.W. et al. (2001): Housing and selenium influences on feathering in
broilers. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 10: 128-134.
[6]. JACQUES, K.A. (2001) Selenium metabolisam in animals: the relationship
betwen dietery selenium form and physiological respons. In: Science and tehnology in the
Feed Industry, Proceedings of Allrech’s 17th Animal Symposium. (T.P. Lyions and K.A.
Jacqes, eds), pp. 319-348. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham. UK.
[7]. MAHAN, D.C., (1999): Organic selenium: using natures model to redefine
selenium suplemention for animals. In: Biotehnology in the Feed Industry. Proccedings of
the 15th Annual Synposium (T.P. Lyons and K.A. Jacqueseds. Nottingham University
Press).
[8]. MILOŠEVIŠ N., PERIŠ LIDIJA, SUPIŠ B., (2003): Raising chickens on a fre
range system 1. Evaluation of carcass quality. Biotehnology in Animal Hysbandry 19(5-6),
p. 335-343.
[9]. RADOVIŠ VERA, KAROVIŠ D., OKANOVIŠ D., FILIPOVIŠ S., KORMANJOŠ Š.
(2008): Effect of mineral absorbenata, added in food, some of the production results of
broilers. Meat technology, 5-6, 271-275.
[10]. SURAI, P.F. (2000): Organic selenium: beneficts to animals and humans, a
biochemist‘s view. In: Biotehnology in the Feed Industry. Proccedings of Allrech’s 16th
Animal Symposium. (T.P. Lyons and K.A. Jacqueseds. Nottingham University Press).
ABAUT THE AUTORS
1*
PhD Bratislav Pešiš mast. spec. email: batta.pesic@gmail.com +381631218022
237
1
Dr Boţidar Miloševiš, full. Professor, Dr Zvonko Spasiš, full. Professor, University of
Pristina,
Faculty of Agriculture, Kosovska Mitrovica
2
Dr Nikola Stoliš, Professor 2Agricultural College, Prokuplje, Serbia
3
Dipl.ing Veselin Petriţeviš Institute for Animal Husbandry, Belgrade, Serbia
238
ESTIMATION THE ADAPTIVE POTENTIALS OF THE CULTIVATED
CEREALS IN DIFFERENT ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF AZERBAIJAN
N.Nabiyeva
Abstract: It was carried out the biennial monitoring of the T.aestivum L. and H.vulgare L. in some
ecologically different zones of Azerbaijan. The adaptation potentialities of the plants was studied by methods
the cytogenetic analysis of level of spontaneous mutation of chromosomes in meristematic cells of rootlets
and biochemical determination of intensity of lipid peroxidation in the leaves. The results of 2-year-dynamics
investigations defined the significant increase the mutation activity in the cells of seedlings and enhancement
of lipid peroxidation in the leaves of both species irrespective of the conditions of their habitat.
Keywords: monitoring, cereals, adaptive potentials, spontaneous mutability, lipid peroxidation
INTRODUCTION
The study of adaptation mechanisms of plant organisms growing under increasing
pressure of natural and technogenic stresses, as well as prognostication of their genetic
potential play important role for the conservation of plant biodiversity. In connection with it
is necessary to carry out the systematic monitoring of the condition of plant resources and
evaluation of the adaptive potentials of the species in ecologically unfavorable territories
[10,11,12,13,14,16].
Such territories are characteristic for our country too, where there are areas exposed
to effects of the radar station, arid and saline soils, air pools industrial cities, etc. Long
effects of these factors leads to the disturbance of many vital functions of plant organisms,
and in particular their genetic status that, finally, puts them under the threat of an
exhaustion and disappearance [4,9,12,13,16].
On this purpose we carried out two-years monitoring of agriculturally important
cereals - T.aestivum L. and H.vulgare L., cultivated in ecologically different areas of the
Greater Caucasus: in Shemakha, Gabala and Oghuz regions The selection of these
territories is due to the fact that Shemakha is a high-altitude area (749 meters above sea
level), and there was a functioning a Radar Station in Gabala during our investigations
which zone of action was covered Oghuz region.
It was carried out monitoring of the T.aestivum L. and H.vulgare L., which seeds
samples were collected in Shemakha, Gabala and Oghuz regions by expedition way within
two years. In the dynamics of two-years the adaptation potentialities of the plants was
studied on early devised by us complex methods including the cytogenetic analysis of level
of spontaneous mutation of chromosomes in meristematic cells of rootlets and biochemical
determination of lipid peroxidation (LPO) intensity on content of malondialdehyde (MDA)
in 7-day-old leaves [8].
One of the approaches to estimate genetic effects in plants resulting from negative
anthropogenous factors is based on the cytogenetic study of chromosomes [1,3,7,9].
Therefore, the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in anaphase cells of the root
meristem of the seedlings was taken as a basis in the researches [1,8,12,15].
Considering that the condition of cell metabolic system influences on the mutability of
genome, the intensity of LPO in the plants leaves has been investigated. The analysis of
change of LPO intensity is the most objective method for the estimation of adaptive
resistances of plants [2,13,17].
239
It is known that peroxide reactions are very sensitive to any, even very small negative
effects of environment impact. Products of peroxidation are highly active dialdehydes
among which МDA is found out in the highest concentrations [5,6]. The MDA content in
leaves was determined using a thiobarbituric acid [7].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Monitoring of the first year investigation has shown that in barley collected in each of
three regions the level of spontaneous chromosomal mutability is in the limits of
evolutionally developed values and varies from 2 to 4 % (Table 1). These values were
comparatively high in wheat (from 4 to 7%) collected from the same population.
Table 1
Two-year dynamics of spontaneous mutability in T.aestivum L. и H.vulgare L.
T.aestivum L.
Areas
studied
Shemakha
Gabala
Oghuz
Years of
observation
I
II
I
II
I
II
H.vulgare L.
Total
amount
of
anaphases, (N)
Amount
of
aberrated
anaphases, (n)
Frequency of
chromosomal
aberrantions, (M±m)
Total
amount
of
anaphases, (N)
Amount
of
aberrated
anaphas
es, (n)
Frequency of
chromosomal
aberrantions, (M±m)
994
992
1055
1036
927
952
63
180
47
80
67
80
6,34±0,77
18,1±1,22
4,45±0,64
7,72±0,83
7,23±0,85
8,40±0,9
862
959
891
907
898
827
22
60
39
59
30
39
2,55±0,54
6,26±0,78
4.38±0,69
6.51±0,82
3,34±0,60
4,72±0,74
By results of the monitoring carried out in the 2 nd year, the increase of frequency of
structural changes of chromosomes in root meristem cells of the seedlings of the plant
seeds collected from all experimental fields was observed. So, in comparison to the first
year the level of cytogenetic damage in wheat increased: in Shamakha by 3, in Gabala by
1.7, and by 1.2 times in Oghuz.
It was established the higher frequency of chromosomal rearrangements in wheat
cells, seeds which collected from the cultivated fields of Shemakha in comparison with the
frequency of rearrangements in the same species cultivated in Gabala and Oghuz regions.
The tendency of increase of cytogenetic damages during the years of the study was also
observed in the barley plants collected from the same populations. However, in
comparison with wheat, the barley plants demonstrated relatively a lower frequency of
chromosomal aberrations.
Monitoring of the first year investigation of cellular metabolism has shown that in
barley collected in each of three regions the LPO activity is in the limits of evolutionally
developed values. These values were comparatively high in wheat collected from the
same population (Table 2).
240
Table 2
Two-year dynamics of MDA content in T.aestivum L. и H.vulgare L.
Areas studied
Shemakha
Gabala
Oghuz
Years
of
observation
I
II
I
II
I
II
The content of MDA,
mmol/g - 1 FW
T.aestivum L
H.vulgare L.
2,95 ±0,29
6,25 ±0,03
5,96 ±0,44
9,40 ±0,22
5,03 ±0,03
7,28 ±0,44
2,78 ±0,44
5,80±0,09
4,90 ±0,05
7,68±0,68
3,98 ±0,30
6,25±0,12
Comparative analysis of LPO on years has shown two or more fold increase in MDA
content in the leaves of both species in all studying populations.
Thus, investigations on 2-year-dynamics has shown that the increase of spontaneous
mutations level in plant seeds accompanied by increased MDA content in the leaves of the
same plants, indicating that an intensification of peroxidation processes in the cell
membrane.
CONCLUSION
As the result of dynamics two-years investigations of cytogenetic and metabolic
status of T.aestivum L. and H.vulgare L. defined the increase of analysed criterion in both
species irrespective of condition of their habitat. It was established the reliable rising of
mutational activity in meristematic cells of rootlets and reinforcement of lipid peroxidation
processes in leaves. Ultimately, it has a significant negative influence to the adaptive
capacity of the studied species of cereal crops, which is decreasing year by year at the
Worsening Environment.
The results of the study indicated that the adaptive resistance of barley to the existing
environment is higher than that of wheat, which is explained by the presence evolutionarily
formed the xenobiotics metabolism system in barley cells and, accordingly, its absence in
the wheat cells.
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mutations. Baku, 162 p.
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resistance. Zemdirbyste-Agriculture, vol. 95, No. 3 p. 298–303
[3]. Grant WF. 1999. Higher plant assays for the detection of chromosomal aberrations
and gene mutations - a brief historical background on their use for screening and
monitoring environmental chemicals. Mutation Res., 426: 107-112.
[4]. Grigorev O.A., Bicheldey E.P. et al. 2003. Definition of approaches to rationing of the
influence of anthropogenous electromagnetic field to natural ecosystems. The annual book
241
of the Russian national committee on protection from non-ionizing radiation. Russian
University of FN,p.46-74
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peroxidation in wheat in connection with high-quality stability to soil rehumidifying. Plant
physiology,1999. V.46, №2, p.268-275
[6]. Kruchkova L.A., Makoveychuk T.I. 2007. Activation of oxidative processes in winter
wheat under the influence of Fusarium Graminearum. Plant physiology and biochemistry,
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[7]. Lukatkin A.S., Golovanova V.S. 1988. Intensity of lipid peroxidation in cooled leaves
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genetic monitoring of plant resources. II Vavilov International Conference "The genetic
resources of cultivated plants in the XXI century: status, problems and prospects". The
Vavilov All-Union Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg. 26-30 November, p.229
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climate". Trends in Plant Science.
[10]. Otto H.F. et al. 1995. The conservation of plant biodiversity. Cambridge University
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spatial and temporal aspects // Environmental Economics. № 1. p. 112-118
[12]. Shumniy V.K. et al. 1993. The genetic effects of anthropogenous factors of
environment. V. 1, p. 91–106
[13]. Shumniy V.K. 2000. The complex interdisciplinary estimation of consequences of
anthropogenous influences. The Siberian ecological journal. V.1, p.1-4
[14]. Van Overwalle, G. 2005. Protecting and sharing biodiversity and traditional
knowledge: Holder and user tools. Ecological Economics 53:585–60
[15]. Voronkova E.V., Grigorev J.G. et al. 1996. Cytogenetic researches of influence of the
electromagnetic field on plants in natural conditions. // Materials of 1st Russian conference
«The problems of electromagnetic safety of human». Fundamental and applied
researches. Moscow, 28-29 November, p.110
[16]. Xingli G., Corey J.A. et al. 2010. Future habitat loss and the conservation of plant
biodiversity. Biological Conservation,143, p.1594–1602
[17]. Zaysev V.G. 1998. Methodological aspects of researches of free-radical oxidation
and antioxidizing system of organism. The Zakrevsky bulletin of the Volgograd Medical
Academy. Volgograd. V.4, p.49-53
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
N.Nabiyeva, PhD, Genetic Resources Institute of Azerbaijan National Academy of
Sciences. AZ1106, Azadlig Ave 155, Baku, Azerbaijan, E-mail: gen_eht@yahoo.com
242
BIOSECURITY ASSESMENT MEASURES ON A SHEEP FARMS
A.Nitovski, M. Milenkovic, Bisa Radovic,Valentina Milanovic, Dragana Grcak,
M.Grcak.
Abstract: Biosecurity is the prevention of disease causing agents entering or leaving any place where farm
animals are present (or have been present recently). Component of a biosecurity program are: Isolation,
Sanitation, Traffic control, Herd Health management, Program maintenance.The aim of our work is an
example of a modern cow farm with 2500 sheep, show the most sensitive place, and biorisk assessment and
present owner of the farm. During the assessment we had in mind the regulation on veterinary sanitation
facilities for breeding ungulate, pigs, poultry and rabbits, which is part of the Veterinary Law (Official Gazette
RS, no 91/05.
Biosecurity measures analysis we concluded that there are several biorisk places that may endanger
the health of sheep on the farm. Sensitive areas are: size and appearance disinfection barriers, cross dirty
and clean road workers, sales lambs (contact customers with the workers), inadequate box for lamb,
inadequate program of health protection of sheep after parturition and not adequate programs for health
protection of lambs, non adequate protection against rodentia-mice and ret (mousetrap in addition to fences,
outside, next to the building, and facilities), problems with sheeps on pasture, e tc. The owner of the farm
report, we concluded deficiencies in primary and secondary measures biosecurity measures and suggested
ways of solving these problems.
Key words: biosecirity, measures, shep, farm
MATERIAL AND METODS
This paper analyzes the application of biosecurity measures on a sheep farm in
southern Serbia. The farm consists of three parts: farming, livestock and machinery. Our
object of interest is a sheep farm, which at that time had about 2,500 sheep farms of
different kategory.Full capacity is 5600 ovaca.Farm consists of 8 buildings for the keeping
of sheep, a separate building for storage of hay and the receiving facility, which is at the
beginning of the farm . The most important buildings are the Maternity Ward,Objekt for
fertilization, and the rest are objects to hold the sheep and lambs of different categories
and in different stages of the reproductive cycle. At the beginning of the farm is a special
object that is made of sheep shearing, sheep bathing, dressing of hoofs and a pool with a
means of protection against the hooves of footrot in sheep. The farm is located about 1500
sheep, 1000 lambs of different ages and 60 rams. Breeds of sheep are refined Pirot and
Sjenicka strains of sheep with sheep Wirtenberg. The buildings are constructed according
to the plans of the time modern facilities to keep of sheep. Made of brick, covered with tiles
and insulation material underneath the tile chipboard. Above sheep are holders of hay
placed straw bales used for mats and insulating material. Ventilation is natural, and winter
heating is enabled using heaters. Feeding sheep with meadow hay, alfalfa hay, a
combination of grains, rye, oats, triticale. (Scot P,2010). All facility has eight boxes of the
100 sheep. Sheep are hold in objects of May to September are the pastures with four
summer home. Summer houses have eaves, sources of drinking water and a crib for the
nutrition of sheep. Before the expulsion is carried out to pasture sheep shearing, their
dehelmintization, swimming in the asset against mange and treatment of hoof in sheep
showing signs of hoof diseases. In the fall when the sheep are trimmed in buildings are
made to the law on health care prescribed diagnostic procedures such as taking blood
samples for examination for brucellosis, tuberculin, parasitological examination of faeces.
Measures implemented vaccination against enterotoxemia.
243
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
During the tour I use biosecurity control measures on the farm, we had in mind that
we can get a true picture if you look at the state of the indicator biosecurity on the farm,
such as the presence or absence of a written plan for biosecurity on the farm; isolation of
farms or individual product segments and operations, the introduction of newly acquired
animals in the herd; health status of the herd; ratio of staff to equipment, control of
movement and circulation; attitude towards visitors, control of food and water; manure;
removal of animal carcasses; relationship to other animals on the farm, control populations
of rodents and birds; sanitation. Hristov S, 2007).
1.Exist of written plan of biosecurity.On farms there is not a written plan for implementation
of biosecurity measures.
2.Izolation. The farm is surrounded by a fence of woven wire 160 cm high. In some
buildings there is the possibility of partition in case of the need for isolation of a number of
sheep.
3.Introduction newly acquired animals in the herd. We said that the racial composition of
the sheep on the farm refined domestic pramenka and Pirot breed for milk and Sjenikali
strain for meat.Ennoble is done with rams wirtemberg sheep.Thus gradually increasing
weight and ewes retain their properties. Recently purchased a dozen rams Wirtemberg
that were placed in the receiving facility, part of whose transformed into quarantine.
4. Health status in the herd. Health sheep controlled by two veterinary technicians
constantly employed in farm. The Farm invited visiting veterinarians veterinary stations.
This means that the farm does not have his vet, despite the large number of animals
concentrated in one place. At the farm to explain that they had a vet but I do not hold the
working conditions and the amount of personal income. The health status of herd with our
tour in the spring was satisfactory despite the harsh winter and heavy snow. Apply to all
preventive measures before the expulsion of the stall and returned to the farm.
5.Relation of staff through equipment. On the farm there is equipment collection and
baling hay, tractors, sowing machines, plows, harrows and other farming machines. Grains
stored in sacks in a separate building to building with hay. For the transport of food used
tractors trayler. In farmacy of farms there are necessary medicines that buys farm which
ordered the veterinary inspection post.
6.Control of movement and traffic. The farm is fenced and has a gate porter at the gate.
The farm can not be entered without the permission of the Head of farm. Not a book of
records entry to the farm, and there are no boots, coats, or else what would have changed
clothes guests on arrival at the farm.
7.Control food and water. The farm is located near the lake and stocked with high quality
water that is piped water was brought to the farm. This means that the sheep controlled
drinking tap water. Food is meadow hay, alfalfa hay and wheat-rye, oats, triticale.Example
of food sent to the periodic review of the Veterinary Institute.
8.Evacuation of mannure. Sheep on the farm name in farm.Through of winter the sheep
are kept on deep litter, so that only adds new quantities of clean straw. In the spring, the
facility is cleaned and prepared for the next winter..Mannure transported to the infield
trailer trash that manure. With rotational grazing sheep, sheep droppings leave behind
trash and specific surface to feed. Thus, during the spring, summer and early fall father
moved the pasture and meadow trash.
9.Evacuation of carcasses. The farm is located near cattle cemetery in which are buried
dead animals.Not provided canopies for autopsy examination carcasses. After of
obduction next to the pit, the sheep are fed into it. Place around the pit, and the pit is
sprayed with chemical chlorine.
244
10.Relation to other animals on the farm. The farm has its shepherd dog breed puly. We
have noticed that there are cat. U one facility were a few cows. So do not comply with the
postulate that the farm holds only one type of animal.
11.Control populations of rodents and birds. On the farm we saw concrete feeder mice and
rats in which nutrients are put to the poison that are not present on the farm. Birds freely
enter through the doors and windows of which we saw wire grids.
12.Sanitation. Sanitation involves a series of measures that specifically apply to the spring
after the expulsion of sheep on pasture.Then mechanically clean facilities, wash and
dezinfection of objects.To be of use the preparations according to the suggestion of
experts from the Institute of Veterinary from Nis.Exist and disinfectant barrier at the
entrance to the farm, and of appropriate length and dep.Acording it is pedestrian, but not
covering.In them in the spring and winter pours NaOH2. (Nitovski A, 2010).
CONCLUSION
1.On farm not written biosecurity plan as the primary document that outlines our practices
in the implementation of a written biosecurity measures. Not technological studies for the
operation of the farm and also does not keep complete records on entry to the farm,
monitoring individual performance data, which is the basis Writing the plan of
biosecurity.2.Not respect to sanitation procedures relat ed to dis barriers in winter not
working. Desinfektant bariere are not cover,required equipment, boots, coats for visitors of
farm.3.Not there is adequate protection of farms from rodents and wild birds . According to
the technicians and protection against flies and is a last neredovna.4.Veterinary service
farm should be completed with the vet care for yours seriousness of such a large number
of sheep.
REFERENCES
[1]. Hristov S., at all. 2007. Why do we need an animal welfare.Monografy, Welfare and
Biosecurity of animals on farms from 0.5 to 21.
[2]. Hristov S., at all.2007. Measures of Biosecurity on farm of cows, Monografy Welfare
of animals on farms and Biosecurity, 259-269.
[3]. Phill Scot, 2010, Biosecurity in Dairy and Beef Cattle, EBLEX-Improving Beef and
Sheep Health, 45 – 52
[4]. Nitovski A, at all. 2010th Assessment of Biosecurity on the pig farms, 2nd Europian
Symposium
on
Porcine
Health
Management,
Proceedings,
171-172.
ABUTH THE AUTORS:
Atanas Nitovski, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo
and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: anitovski@gmail.com
Milinko Milenkovic, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica,
Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: milinkomil@gmail.com
Bisa Radovic, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo
and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: bisaradovic@yahoo.com
Valentina Milanovic, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica,
Kosovo and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: troska@sezampro.net
Dragana Grcak, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo
and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: stefangrcak@gmail.com
Milovan Grţak, Agriculture Faculty, Lesak, University of Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo
and Metohy, Serbia, E-mail: stefangrcak@gmail.com
245
A COMPARATIVE STUDY REGARDING THE OXIDATIVE STABILITY
OF COCONUT OIL AND WALNUT OIL USING FTIR SPECTROSCOPY
D. Moigradean, M.A. Poiana, D.M. Bordean and V.M. Popa
Abstract: Oxidative stability of oils is the resistance to oxidation during processing and storage. The
purpose of the present study was to evaluate the oxidative stability of coconut oil and walnut oil during 12
month of storage. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to monitor the peak changes as
effect of oxidation during storage. FTIR spectral data were used to determine the bands, which can be
considered as the fingerprints of the oxidation.
The results suggest that walnut oil quickly go rancid but the coconut oil keeps its good chemical
properties during 12 month on storage.
Key words: Coconut oil, Walnut oil, FTIR Spectroscopy
INTRODUCTION
The coconut palm is the species Cocos nucifera, which grows well in the humid
regions a few degrees‘ latitude either side of the equator. Fresh coconut kernel contains:
moisture (50%), oil (34%), ash (2.2%), fibre (3.0%), protein (3.5%) and carbohydrate
(7.3%) [1]. Coconut oil is produced by crushing copra, the dried kernel, which contains
about 60- 65% of the oil. The oil has the natural sweet taste of coconut and contains 92%
of saturated fatty acids (in the form of triglycerides). Coconut oil has a long shelf life and is
used in baking industries, processed foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and as hair oil [2].
The walnut tree (Juglans regia L.) is native in southeastern Europe, Asia Minor,
India and China. Walnut kernels generally contain about 60% oil, but this can vary from 50
to 70% depending on the cultivars, location and irrigation rate [3, 4]. Walnut oil has
exceptional nutritional value, it is used directly (without refining) for edible purposes mainly
as a salad dressing. The major components of walnut oil are triacylglycerols in which
monounsaturated FAs and polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs; linoleic and α- linolenic acids)
are present in high amounts. In fact, among vegetable oils, walnut oil has one of the
highest amounts of PUFAs (up to 78% of the total FA content) [5]. Fatty acids (FA), and
especially PUFAs, are prone to oxidation and can be oxidised easily under certain
conditions such as temperature and the presence of pro-oxidants (minerals) and light can
also accelerate the oxidation process. In the first step, the fatty acids are oxidised to
hydroperoxides, which are not stable, and which forming aldehydes and ketones as their
main degradation products. Other degradation products include aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons, monoterpenes, alcohols, furans, esters and lactones [6].
FTIR spectroscopy has been used for determination of molecular structures,
identification of compounds in oil samples and investigation of complex polymer. Currently,
FTIR spectroscopy has gained a special attention as a reliable technique for fat and oil
analysis, due to its finger print technique [7].
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the oxidative stability of coconut oil and
walnut oil during storage because this have a signifiant influence on degree of oil
freshness and both oil samples are used in food products.
Oil extraction. Coconut oil (CO) was obtained from grated coconut flakes from
Romanian hypermarket and walnut oil (WO) was obtained from kernels were collected by
Romania west area. Oils samples were extracted using an automated extractor (Velp
Scientifica, Italy) with petroleum ether (1:5) by AOAC (1999) methods [8]. In order to
assess the oxidative stability, oil samples were stored in a dark bottle at room temperature
246
(25°C) during 12 month. Oxidative stability by FTIR spectroscopy was made on fresh (non
oxidized) oil and after one year of storage.
FTIR spectroscopy. Absorption spectra of oil samples were measured on a Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer - FTIR-8400S by Shimadzu (Japan) using a high
sensitivity pyroelectric detector DLATGS (L-alanine-doped deuterated triglycerine
sulphate) element. The detector relies upon the temperature-dependent pyroelectric effect
created on the crystal surface by spontaneous ferroelectric polarizarion. All FTIR spectra
were recorded in the wavenumber range from 4000-600 cm-1. BKG scan a samples were
sequentially measured at 4 cm-1 resolution, and 2.8 mm/s mirror speed with 45
accumulations (1 minute scan). Background measurements were made against air. The
spectrometer was connected to a computer using Windows XP Professional software to
manipulate the spectra. Both of spectra were recorded at frequency 4000 – 650 cm-1.
The FTIR spectra of vegetable oils present a series of bands with different intensities
and forms. Some regions of the spectra present a very good signal/noise ratio, which
corresponds to various types of vibration characteristic to different types of atoms [9]. The
results obtained by measuring the intensity of FTIR absorption at different frequency for
the analyzed CO are presented in Table 1 [10] and for WO in Table 2.
Table 1.
FTIR absorbtion for non oxidized coconut oil and during storage
Oil
sample
Non
oxidized oil
During
storage
2953
2922
2852
1742
Frequency (cm-1)
1450 1417 1377
0.49
1.12
0.86
1.26
0.39
0.27
0.38
1.17
0.85
0.24
0.44
0.56
1.22
0.55
1.36
0.38
0.27
0.39
1.18
0.85
0.22
0.41
1151
1111
962
721
Table 2.
FTIR absorbtion for non oxidized walnut oil and during storage
Oil
sample
Non
oxidized oil
During
storage
3006
2924
2853
1743
Frequency (cm-1)
1464 1456 1377
0.20
0.96
0.72
1.17
0.50
0.54
0.32
0.50
0.97
0,63
0.69
0.25
1.07
0.80
1.23
0.50
0.54
0.33
0.51
0.97
0.62
0.64
1236
1159
1099
721
Changes in frequency values of different bands and in ratios between absorbances of
some bands allow different stages of the oxidation process to be distinguished as well as
determining their oxidative stability in a simple and fast way, showing the usefulness of this
technique in monitoring oil oxidation processes [11].
In Figure 1 are present the most significant FTIR spectra regions for both oils in non
oxidized stage and at the end of storage time. The functional groups responsible for
infrared absorption at each frequency in CO spectrum are as reported by Rohman et al.
[7].
The vegetable oils do not have infrared absorption to interval 4000 - 3100 cm-1
because corresponding by O-H functional group (polymeric and water impurities). The WO
show high absorption at 3006 cm-1, band corresponding to the cis double-bond (=CH)
stretching vibration therefore its intensity is affected by the number of cis double bonds
present and assigned to the oleic and linoleic acids [9].
247
1,2
1,2
1,0
1,0
0,8
0,8
Absorbance
Absorbance
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,0
0,0
3100
3050
3000
2950
2900
2850
3100
2800
3050
3000
2950
2900
2850
2800
-1
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Wavenumber (cm )
0,6
0,6
0,5
0,5
Absorbance
Absorbance
(a)
0,4
0,3
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,0
1600
1550
1500
1450
0,0
1600
1400
1550
1500
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
1450
1400
1250
1200
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
(b)
0,6
0,6
0,5
Absorbance
Absorbance
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
1400
1350
1300
1250
0,1
1400
1200
1350
-1
1300
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Wavenumber (cm )
(c)
1,2
1,2
1,0
1,0
0,8
Absorbance
Absorbance
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,0
0,0
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
1200
-1
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Wavenumber (cm )
(d)
Figure 1. Regions of the most prominent changes in the comparativ FTIR spectroscopy
of non oxidized CO (—) and WO (—) (left) and during storage (right):
(a) 3100-2800 cm-1; (b) 1600-1400 cm−1; (c) 1390-1200 cm−1 and (d) 1200-650 cm−1
248
Thus, the changes observed indicate a decrease in the number of cis double-bond,
therefore a decrease in degree of unsaturation as a consequence of oxidation process. As
oxidation proceeds, the concentration of hydroperoxides increases and this gave a broad
band which overlapped with that of the glyceride ester carbonyl groups [11].
The CO spectrum showed that the band of C-H stretching with wavenumber of 30002800 cm-1 indicates the presence of alkanes groups in the oil. The asymmetrical stretching
vibration of methyl (-CH3) causes a shoulder at wavenumber of 2953 cm −1, where as the
symmetrical vibration of methyl band is not observed [7]. For CO, the asymmetrical or
symmetrical stretching vibration of methylene band was observed at 2922 cm −1 and 2852
cm−1 [7, 11]. The absorption band 2924 cm–1 may be also characteristic for the presence
of aliphatic CH groups in WO [12] and the oil degradation.
The absorption of carbonyl (C=O) functional group from ester linkage of
triacylglycerol of CO can be seen at frequency 1742 cm -1 and 1743 cm–1 for WO, with
strong intensity due to the great difference of electronegativity between carbon and
hydrogen atoms [7]. The spectral differences were observed between non oxidant CO
(1.26) and WO (1.17) and during storage (1.36 for CO, 1.23 for WO), where these oils
shows high absorbance.
The intensity from interval 1600-1400 cm-1 has a linear variation and therefore can be
used for identifying the storage oxidation. The C=C stretching vibrations from FTIR
spectrum indicate presence of aromatics compounds.This band can be used to determine
the total unsaturation [9]. The absorption bands 1464 cm–1 and 1456 cm–1 are due to the
bending vibration of CH3 and CH2 aliphatic groups [12]. An absorption band at 1417 cm−1
is attributed from rocking vibrations of CH bonds of alkenes with cis-disubstituted [7]. The
intensity of the band at 1464 cm-1 (0.50) to 1456 cm-1 (0.54) for WO and 1417 cm-1 (0.27)
for CO remains unaltered in non oxidized oils and during storage. The trend is high
oxidative stability of the oils.
The symmetric bending vibration of CH3 group can be seen at wavenumber 1377
cm−1 for both oils (Table 1 and 2). In WO the absorption bands at 1236 cm -1 represent the
stretching, bending of –C–O, –CH2 – [13].
The absorption band at 1151 cm-1 corresponding from the vibrations of stretching
mode from the C-O group in esters [7]. An absorption band at 1111 cm−1 is attributed from
-CH bending and –CH deformation vibration of fatty acids; has the same value (0.85) for
non oxidized CO and during storage [10]. An absorption band at frequency of 962 cm -1 is
related to bending vibration of cis disubstituted olefinic groups in CO [7, 11]. In WO the
absorption peak at 1159 cm-1 [13] to 1099 cm−1 [14] is attributed to stretching of C_O.
Finally, absorption peak at frequency 721 cm -1 is resulted from the rocking vibrations of
methylene group which overlaps with bending vibration on out of plane mode of alkenes
with cis-disubstituted [7,12].
The storage conditions have not change the peak intensities of CO at studied
frequencies that prove the high stability of this oil during investigated time [10].
High contents of saturated fatty acids in CO caused this oil to have higher stability as
compared to WO which has lower contents of saturated fatty acids but higher unsaturated
fatty acids, in fact PUFAs.
The results suggest that walnut oil quickly go rancid but the coconut oil keeps its
good chemical properties during 12 month on storage.
FTIR spectral data were used to determine the bands, which can be considered as
the fingerprints of the oxidation.
249
REFERENCES
[1]. Hui, Y.H., 1996. Bailey’s Ind. Oil & Fat Products, 5th edn, Vol. 2, John Wiley & Sons
Inc.,NewYork, pp. 101
[2]. Gopala Krishna, et al. 2010. Coconut Oil: Chemistry, Production and Its Applications A Review, Indian Coconut Journal, 15-27
[3]. Rabrenovic, B., et al. 2008. Physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition of
Juglans regia cultivars grown in Serbia, Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 44( 2), 151-154
[4]. Popa, V.M.,et al. 2011. Gas-chromatography from the GC-MS analysis for the walnut
grown in Romania, Journal of Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies 17(3), 261-265
[5]. Amaral JS, et al. 2003. Determination of sterol and fatty acid compositions, oxidative
stability, and nutritional value of six walnut (Juglans regia L) cultivars grown in Portugal. J
Agric Food Chem 51:7698–7702
[6]. Pereira, J.A., et al. 2008. Bioactive properties and chemical composition of six walnut
(Juglans regia L.) cultivars, Food. Chem. Toxicol. 46, 2103-2111
[7]. Rohman, A., et al. 2009. Quantitative analysis of virgin coconut oil (VCO) in cream
cosmetics preparations using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Pakistan
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 22, 415-420
[8]. *** AOAC International, Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 16th ed.
Gaithersburg, 1999
[9]. Alexa, E., et al. 2009. The use of FT-IR spectroscopy in the identification of vegetable
oils adulteration, Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment 7(2), 20-24
[10]. Moigradean, D., et al. 2012. Quality characteristics and oxidative stability of coconut
oil during storage, Journal of Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies 18 (4), 272-276
[11]. Guillen, M.D. and Nerea C., 2000. Some of the most significant changes in the
Fourier transform infrared spectra of edible oils under oxidative conditions, Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture 80(14), 2028–2036
[12]. Guillen M.D. and Cabo, N., 2002. Fourier transform infrared spectra data versus
peroxide and anisidine values to determine oxidative stability of edible oils. Food Chem.
77, 503–510
[13]. Gokulakumar, B. and Narayanaswamy,R., 2008. Fourier transform–infrared spectra
(FT-IR) analysis of root rot disease in sesame (Sesamum indicum), Romanian J. Biophys.
18(3), 217–223
[14]. Guillen, M.D. and Cabo, N., 1997. Characterization of edible oils and lard by Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy. Relationships between composition and frequency of
concrete bands in the fingerprint region. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 74:
1281–1286.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Diana Moigradean, Mariana-Atena Poiana, Despina-Maria Bordean, Viorica-Mirela
Popa, Banats University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Food
Processing Technology, Calea Aradului 119, Timisoara, RO 300645, Romania, E-mail:
dimodean@yahoo.com,
atenapoiana@yahoo.com,
despina.bordean@gmail.com,
mirevio_gh@yahoo.com
250
INFLUENCE OF SALT STRESS ON GERMINATION AND ROOT
GROWTH DYNAMICS IN SOME GENOTYPES OF BARLEY PRETREATED
WITH MICROWAVE
I. Cretescu, G. Velicevici, R. Căprită, E. Madosa, G. Buzamat, C. Ruset, A. Lazar, S.
Bungescu
Abstract: Drought is one of the most important types of abiotic stress that affects stability and amount
of yield. This study was conducted to screen for drought tolerance at early seedling stages for some
Romanian barley cultivars pretreated with microwave.
The objective of this study was to determine if there were differential responses to water deficit on
germination and root growth dynamics at some barley cultivars preteated with microwave irradiation on
different time of exposure (0s-control, 10s and 20s) and on two microwave output power (720W and 400W).
Salt stress was induced by NaCl solution, using control and variants with different concentration.
rd
th
Determinations of germination were efectued at 3 and 7 from the induction of osmotic stress. The root
growth measurements were effectuated after periods of 3, 7, 14 and 21 days from the induction of osmotic
stress. Salt stress, produced by treatment with 200mM NaCl, reduced the length of roots.
Treatments of seeds with microwave radiation followed by salt stress restored x these parameters, and
not only, close to those in non-salt-treated seedlings. The results indicate that application of a suitable dose
of microwave radiation to seeds can enhance tolerance to salt stress in barley seedlings.
Key words: barley, salt stress, microwave pretreatment.
INTRODUCTION
Salinity is a serious problem affecting the yield potential of cultivars. Salinity stress
affects nutrient uptake [1] and metabolic activities in plant [2]. Germination and seedling
growth under saline environment are the screening criteria which are used to select the
salt tolerance genotype [3, 4].
Naseer et al. [5] reported that the germination percentage, root and shoot length and
fresh and dry weights were decreased in barley varieties with increasing in salinity level.
Salt tolerance is, however, a complex trait and affect by a large number of mechanisms.
Recent research has suggested that microwaves may be used for growth stimulation
in agriculture. Microwaves are non ionizing radiations and are part of electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum (300 MHz to 300 GHz).The germination of seeds and the growth rate are
important features for maximizing the productivity that need a close observation. There is
some evidence that microwaves produces changes in the cell membrane‘s permeability
and cell growth rate as well as interference with ions and organic molecules, like proteins
[6].
The present investigation was to determine the salt tolerance potential of barley
varieties pretreated with microwave at germination and early seedling growth stages.
The biological material used in this study was represented by a collection of 2
genotypes of Romanian winter barley. The influence of microwave irradiation on barley
seeds has been investigated before. A magnetron MWG20H with a frequency of radiation
of 2.45GHz and maximum output power of 800W, according to supplier‘s data, has been
used as microwave source. The maximum density of irradiation has been estimated at
40kW/m3. The experiment for the present investigation was conducted in the laboratories
of the Faculty of Horticulture and Forestry Timisoara, Department of the Genetic
Engineering in agriculture. Four barley genotypes were used in the experiments – Sistem
251
and Dana, differing in their reaction to microwaving irradiations. The seeds were obtained
from the Fundulea Agriculture Research Station.
The seeds were initially treated with 1,5% sodium hypochlorite for 15 min. The
residual chlorine was eliminated by thorough washing of the seeds with distilled water. The
seeds have been exposed to the microwave radiation for 0s (control-M), 10s, and 20s, with
two modifications of output powers of the magnetron – II-400W and I-720W, corresponding
intensities – 20kW/m3 and 36kW/m3 respectively, have been applied. Salt stress was
produced by sodium chloride solution with different concentrations NaCl (50 mM-V1;
100mM-V2; 150mM-V3 and 200mM-V4). The seeds for the experiment were distributed in
3 replicates, each containing 25 seeds each. The seeds were then germinated on filter
paper in Petri dishes, in the growth chamber, under laboratory conditions (the natural light
cycle was 9 h of light / 14 h of darkness, and the daily temperature was 21 ± 2 ºC, night
temperature 15 ± 2 ºC) [7,8,9,10].
The data for root length (cm) determination were recorded on 3, 7, 14 and 21 days
after sowing, for each variant. Experimental data have been statistically analyzed using
analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The results discussed in this section are the effects of various parameters like
exposure time, power of microwave, on seed germination and growth rate for seed upon a
salt stress. Analysis is based on the results shown in Figures 1-5.
In the laboratory, using a saline solution to induce water stress, it is possible to test
the drought tolerance of plants from seed germination stage.
Figure 1. Influence of microwave treatment on energy of germination at 3 days(%)
and capacity of germination at 7 days(%) for genotype Sistem upon of varied salt stress
(V0=0mM; V1=50mM; V2=100mM; V3=150mM and V4=200mM).
Figure 2. Influence of microwave treatment on energy of germination at 3 days(%) and
capacity of germination at 7 days(%) for genotype Dana upon of varied salt stress
(V0=0mM; V1=50mM; V2=100mM; V3=150mM and V4=200mM).
252
At high concentration (over 150mM), germination decreased significantly. The
highest germination was related to control also with (100%), while lowest with 200 mM with
(40%) for genotype Dana (Figure 2) and with (72%) for genotype Sistem (Figure 1). This
reduction in energy of germination and germination indicates extreme insensitivity to
salinity, so it isn‘t advisable to cultivate it in saline soil. The results indicate that treatments
of seeds with microwave radiation restored of these parameters and application of a
suitable dose of microwave to seeds can enhance tolarence to salt stress in barley
seedlings.
Etesami and Galeshi [11] reported that salinity is the cause of reduction in
germination percentage, race and homogeneity of germination and dry weight of barley
(Hordeum vulgare) seedling.
Figure 3. Effect of microwave pretreatment of seeds on root growth in 3, 7 and 14 day old
barley seedlings upon of salt stress.
253
Figure 4. Growth of roots for genotype
Dana preteated with microvawe upon of salt stress
Figure 5. Growth of roots for genotype
Sistem preteated with microvawe upon of salt stress
The effects of salinity stress on root length have been showed in Figures 3, 4 and 5.
Results a significant difference in root length in 0.05% probable level. Comparison of root
length means in salinity different level (0, 50, 100, 150mM and 200mM) showed that when
salinity level increases, seedlings root length decreases. The most reduction in root length
related to 200 mM. In this relation Munns and Termaat [12] suggested that salinity
254
decreases root growth and if we increase salinity level, the amount of the reduction will
increase. Salinity which is the result of osmotic pressure leads reduction in water
absorbance so cell division and differentiation reduce and reduction of roots length will be
explainable.
Its cause could be more than usual presence of anion, cation which in addition to
intoxication, decreased water potential that is because of its solubility in water.
In general, this study indicates that all treats were decreased in response to salinity
in barley varieties. Sodium chloride treatment decreased germination percentage, the
germination processes might have been stopped as a result of contact of the seeds with
+
high concentration of Na and Cl ions [13]. We observed that germinated seeds in salinity
environments have short root and NaCl, has on extreme deterrence effect on embryo
development.
In the early stages of development is observed that including the development of the
root system. Microwave pretreatment of seeds under salt stress has a beneficial influence.
This treatment could potentially benefit agriculture by increasing growth under saline
conditions [14]. It can counteract the effect of salt stress on the appropriate dose and
exposure time which is to be established in future research.
Seeds were processed in different regimes to study their influence on germination
and growth rate. The effects of different treatments with microwave were found to be
stimulating the germination and seedling vigour of plants especially in power and exposure
time treatments in early stages for variants upon salt stress. Decrease in trend is observed
for seed germination and root length for most of the samples used with the increase in
microwave power and exposure time as compared to control, and also for increase a
concentration of salt solutions (V3-150mM, V4-200mM). The results indicate that
application of a suitable dose of microwave radiation to seeds can enhance tolerance to
salt stress in barley seedlings.
REFERENCES
[1]. Due, R.P., 1998. Salinity tolerance in chickpea (Cicer arietimum L.). Indian. J. PL.
Physiol., 3, 102-106.
[2]. Singh, R. A. and M. S. Hoque, 2001. Changes in growth and metabolic activity in
seedling of lentil (Lens culinaris medik) genotypes during salt stress. Indian J. Plant
Physiol., 6, 406-410.
[3]. Ashraf, M.Y., et. al. 1990. Effect of salinity (NaCl) and polyethyleneglycol (PEG) on
germination, seedling growth and water uptake of sorghum. Pak. J. Agric., Agril. Engg.,
Vet.. Sci., 6, 33-36.
[4]. Taghipour, F.and M. Salehi, 2008. The Study of Salt Tolerance of Iranian Barley
(Hordeum vulgare L.) Genotypes in Seedling Growth Stages, American-Eurasian J. Agric.
& Environ. Sci., 4 (5), 525-529.
[5]. Naseer, Sh., et. al., 2001. Effect of salt stress on germination and seedling growth of
barley (Hordeum vulgare L. ). Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 4(3), 359-360.
[6]. Ungureanu, E., et. al. 2009. Consideration on the Peroxidase Activity during
Hippophae Rhamnoides Seeds Germination Exposed to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic
Field Influence, Analele stiintifice ale Universitattii, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Sectiunea
Genetica si Biologie Moleculara, TOM X, pp. 29-34
[7]. Cretescu I., et. al. 2012. Evaluation of relative water content (RWC) at four barley
(HORDEUM VULGARE L.) genotypes in response to microwave treatment, JOURNAL of
Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology, 16(3), 124- 127.
255
[8]. Cretescu I. et. al. 2013. Effect of microwave irradiation on germination seeds of
barley (Hordeum vulgare). The 48th Croatian & 8th International Symposium on Agriculture,
Croatia, pp.
[9]. Cretescu I., et. al. 2013. Influence of Microwave Treatment on Root Growth Dynamics
in Some Genotypes of Barley (Hordeum Vulgare), Scientific Papers: Animal Science and
Biotechnologies, Ed. Agroprint, vol 46(x), in press.
[10]. Cretescu I. et. al., 2013. Response of Barley Seedlings to Microwaves at 2.45 GHz,
Scientific Papers: Animal Science and Biotechnologies, Ed. Agroprint, vol 46(x), in press.
[11]. Etesami, M. and S. Galeshi, 2008. Assessment of 10 barely (Hordeum vulgare L.)
genotypes reaction to salinity in germination and seedling growth stages, Journal of
agriculture science and natural resource., 15, 5.
[12]. Munns, R., and A. Termaat, 1986, Whole-plant response to salinity. Aus. J. Plant
Physiol., 13, 143-160.
[13]. Almodares A., Hadi M. R. and Dosti B. 2007. Effects of salt stress on germination
percentage and seedling growth in sweet sorghum cultivars. Journal of Biological
Sciences. 7(8), 1492-1495.
[14]. Yi-Ping Chen, Jing-Fen Jia and Ying-Juan Wang, 2009. Weak Microwave Can
Enhance Tolerance of Wheat Seedlings to Salt Stress, J. Plant Growth Regul, 28, 381385.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
I. Cretescu, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: iulianacretescu@usab-tm.ro
G. Velicevici, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
from Timisoara,Calea Aradului 119,Timişoara,Romania,E-mail: giarncarlavelicevici@usabtm.ro
R. Caprita, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: rodicaprita@usab-tm.ro
E. Madoșa, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania,E-mail: emilianmadosa@usab-tm.ro
G. Buzamat, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: genovevabuzamat@usabtm.ro
C. Ruset, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania,E-mail: corinaruset@usab-tm.ro
A. Lazar, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania,E-mail: alexandrulazar@usab-tm.ro
S. Bungescu, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: sorinbungescu@usabtm.ro
256
THE STUDY OF THE MAIN PHENOLIC PARAMETERS OF RED
WINES DURING THEIR EVOLUTION
Camelia Muntean, C. Băducă, Felicia Stoica
Abstract: It is well known that red wines with normal composition improve their quality attributes as you go
through stages of maturation and aging. Red wines most "dramatic" changes in stages of maturation and
aging are produced on phenolic compounds. During maturation of wines under the influence of alcohol and
other constituents of wood vessels are extracted certain proportion of tannins which joining the wine. Also
are extracted and certain aromatic constituents. The study was conducted for 18 months, on two red wines
produced in vineyards Drăgăşani. That two varieties have Romanian origin and they are, Fetească neagră şi
Negru de Drăgăşani
Keywords: Romanian grapes, red wines, polyphenolic characteristics, maturationand aging of wine
INTRODUCTION
The red wines with a normal composition improve their quality attributes as they
progress through stages of maturation and aging.
At this stage of maturity, the transformations that took place under the moderate
influence of oxygen, and at the state of aging, there are important transformations, with
effects of compositional and organoleptic nature, occurred in conditions of a deeper and
deeper reducing process.
In red wines, the most important changes in the phases of maturation and aging are
produced on phenolic compounds.
During the maturation of wines, under the influence of alcohol, acids and other
characteristic substances, there are extracted, from the timber of the vessels especially
tannins and some aromatic constituents.
Through bridges of C-C type occur also the associations between anthocyanins and
non-hydrolyzed tannins (catechins), but also combinations of anthocyanin and products
resulting from condensing leucoanthocyanins between them, or between them and their
catechins (Cotea D.V.si col.-1988 citat de Muntean Camelia 2012).
The color of combinations between anthocyanins and tannins is less influenced by
PH, SO2 oxidation. This aspect is explained by the protection of anthocyanins by tannins,
as antioxidants. (Glories Y. – 1998, Somers C.T. – 1983, Ribereau-Gayon P. şi col. –
1998, Badea, P.,-1998, Vivas N., et.al.- 2000, Vladu Cristina-2007).
The researches were conducted on wines made from Romanian grapes ‖Negru de
Dragasani‖ and ‖Fetească Neagră‖ from Drăgăşani vineyard, maturated in oak barrels for
12 months and bottled in bottles.
By Applying modern methods of analysis and control (spectrophotometry) at 3, 6, 12,
15 and 18 months, there have been made analyzes on the wines regarding to: total
contents of anthocyanin; contents of free and combined anthocyanin; proportions of
yellow, red and blue pigments on which there have been calculated chromatic attributes
(intensity colour, colour tone, proportions of flavilium cations); contents of total polyphenols
and tannins.
The data on the development of phenolic components of the wine Negru de
Drăgăşani during 12 months of evolution and wood maturation and during 6 months of
aging in the bottle, are quantified in Table 1.
257
Negru de Drăgăşani Wine shows, since the beginning, a phenolic and‖robust‖
composition, with real possibilities to evolve very positively during vessel maturation and
aging in bottle.
Table no. 1
The evolution of polyphenolic characteristics of Negru de Drăgăşani wine during
stages of maturation and aging
Age of wines – months –
Antocyanin sizes
3
6
12
15
18
Maturation
Aging
Total antocyanins mg/l
804
767
674
627
610
Antocyanin Free antocyanins mg/l 562,4
521,2
438,8
376,0
353,7
complex
Free antocyanins %
70
68
65
60
58
Combined antocyanins 241,6
245,8
236,2
251,0
256,3
mg/l
Combined antocyanins
30
32
35
40
42
%
DO 420 nm 0,486
0,461
0,439
0,431
0,402
Colour
DO 520 nm 0,920
0,820
0,771
0,705
0,659
DO 620 nm 0,222
0,201
0,194
0,159
0,156
Yellow pigments %
29,8
31,0
31,2
33,2
33,0
Red pigments %
56,5
55,3
54,9
54,4
54,1
Blue Pigments %
13,7
13,7
13,9
12,4
12,9
Ic 1,628
1,482
1,404
1,295
1,217
Tc 0,527
0,560
0,568
0,610
0,609
dA% 61,47
59,61
58,88
58,14
57,65
Throughout the period of maturation and aging of wine, anthocyanins content
decreases continuously, so that in 12 months maturing period, these colour components
are reduced by 130 mg./l, and during aging, by another 64 mg/l, which represents a total
loss of 24.18%.
Free anthocyanins, in percentage values, are decreasing from 70% - in the case of
the wine aged 3 months to 65% - at the time of bottling, reaching 58% - after 18 months of
maturation and aging. Throughout the period of maturation and aging (together) combined
anthocyanins increased from 241.6 mg/l to 256.3 mg/l. It results that the rate of
combination of anthocyanins in polymer formation is more intense during the stage of
maturation and slower during the phase of aging. It results also that oxygen is the main
factor involved in the polymerization of anthocyanins.
Both during maturation and aging, there are occurring important combinations
between anthocyanins and tannins, rates of these reactions being higher during
maturation.
The contents of yellow-orange, red and blue pigments are decreasing progressively
over the two stages of evolution, which is found in the values of optical densities at
wavelengths of 420, 520, 620 nm
The evolutions of the three components of chromatic spectrum are better expressed
by the percentages, comparing to the dye intensity values. From this point of view, the
situation is different in the case of the absolute participation of the pigments.
Thus, in relation with the general evolution of the chromatic complex, the yellow
component is growing, the red component decreases continuously and the blue
component knows oscillations, with a general trend of growth.
258
These changes of the anthocyanin complex components accurately reflect in the
values of chromatic characteristics of wine during maturation and ageing times. In this
way, the staining intensity (Ic) decreases continuously from 1628 (at 3 months) to 1217 (at
18 months).
This development of the color intensity is driven by the diminution of the color
intensity of red component, which can not be compensated by the increasing of the
proportion of yellow-orange and blue pigments.
Color tone value is increasing from 0.527 (3 months) to 0.609 (at 18 months), a
situation realized by increasing the proportions of yellow pigment and a drop of red
pigment. In this way, as compared visually, improved color become more and more as
time passes. Flavilium cations decrease from 61.47% (3 months) to 57.65% (18 months).
The values of the Flavilium cations proportions at different stages of aging, although
declining, reflect beside an intense color a very beautiful and attractive ruby red color with
an obvious shine.
Table no. 2
The evolution of the polyphenols complex from Negru de Drăgăşani wines
Age of wines – months Polyphenolic sizes
3
6
12
15
18
Maturation
Aging
Total
Total polyphenol g/l
3,27
3,41
3,45
3,39
3,32
Polyphen
ols and
Tannin g/l
2,82
2,93
3,10
3,04
2,99
total
tannins
HCl Index %
30,3
31,5
32,2
32,3
32,0
Tanin
Gelatine Index %
51,9
50,7
49,3
48,1
48,0
index
EtOH Index %
17,2
18,4
19,5
19,5
19,8
Polyphenols and tannins (Table 2) are increasing during aging in wooden bowl and
down the stage of aging. Increases of these phenolic compounds during maturation stage
are based on drawings of some phenolic constituents from the staves of vessels.
The states of the tannins and their implications for the compositional and sensory
values are found in the values of specific indices. In this sense, very condensed and
condensed tannins (HCl index %), evolve in a steady increasing, with more sustained
rates during maturation stage.
Astringent tannins, being able to combine with gelatin (gelatin index) are going down,
quite uniform, during both stages. This development means a continuous decrease of the
sensation of astringency, which in organoleptic aspect represents a real advantage.
The tannins combined with some salts and polysaccharides (EtOH index% or
ethanol) are increasing in the same direction with the passage of time of maturation and
aging. The consequence of this development index of ethanol is continuously enhancing
the character of softness, fullness and expressiveness of the Negru de Drăgăşani wine.
The evolution of the phenolic components of the Fetească Neagră wine, during
maturation and aging stages is presented in Table 3. On the whole it appears also in this
case similar developments as meanings as in the previous cases, but starting to maturing
and aging from lower contents in: anthocyanins (677 mg/l) staining intensity (1.392)
polyphenols (2,82 g/l), tannins (2.63 g/l).
After 18 months of primary winemaking, the content of colored anthocyanin content is
at the level of 528 mg/l, providing a normal color for high class red wine. Inside the
complex anthocyanins after that period mentioned above, the proportion of free
antocyanins is 52% and that of the combined anthocyanin is 48%.
259
The values of the tonality and Flavilium cations (0.647 and, respectively 56.9%) being
in context with other color sizes, are signifying at ‖Fetească Neagră‖ wine a vivid color,
bright, "warm" and very attractive. Tannin indicators, at their turn, are showing taste
characters, to the highest demands.
Table no. 3
Evolution of the chromatic and polyphenic characteristics of Fetească Neagră wine
during stages of maturation and aging
Polyphenolic sizes
Age of wines – months –
3
6
12
15
18
Maturare
Învechire
Total antocyans mg/l
677
605
573
554
528
Antocyan
Free antocyans mg/l
494
411
349
316
285
ic
Free antocyans %
72
66
59
55
52
complex
Combined antocyans
183
194
224
238
243
mg/l
Combined antocyans %
28
34
41
45
48
DO 420 nm
0,444
0,419
0,389
0,376
0,355
Colour
DO 520 nm
0,807
0,741
0,677
0,602
0,548
DO 620 nm
0,141
0,138
0,135
0,124
0,117
Yellow Pigments %
31,9
32,3
32,4
34,1
34,8
Red Pigments %
58,0
57,1
56,4
54,6
53,7
Blue Pigments %
10,1
10,6
11,2
11,3
11,5
Ic
1,392
1,298
1,201
1,102
1,020
Tc
0,550
0,565
0,574
0,624
0,647
dA%
63,7
62,5
61,3
58,46
56,9
Table no. 4
The evolution of polyphenols complex from Fetească Neagră de Drăgăşani wines
Polyphenolic sizes
Vârsta vinurilor – luni –
3
6
1
1
1
2
5
8
Maturare
Învechire
Total
Total plyphenols g/l
2,82
3,11
3,26
3,20
3,19
plyohenol
Tannin g/l
2,63
2,87
2,95
2,95
2,93
s and
tannins
Tannin
HCl Index %
11,2
12,4
16,4
18,4
18,3
index
Gelatine index %
41,1
40,6
38,3
38,0
37,1
EtOH Index %
17,7
18,4
18,6
19,1
19,4
Total polyphenols and tannins (Table no. 4) in contents somewhat lower than Negru
de Drăgăşani wine, keeping the proportions, are having evolutions similar to those from
the previous analysis.
The values of the tannin indexes are showing that for the same ages of wines,
Fetească Neagră has better organoleptic characteristics than the wine made from the
variety of Negru de Drăgăşani, meaning that is less astringent (gelatin index%), more
"soft" and more "round" (EtOH index%).
260
During the maturation and aging of red wines there are some important changes
taking place in the phenolic composition. In colorants, free anthocyanins are decreasing,
and the combined ones are increasing. There are decreasing the proportions of yellow and
red pigments, but the relationship between them changes from one stage to another, in the
advantage of the yellow coloring, the consequence being the decreased intensity and the
increased tonality. The proportions of the flavilium cations are decreasing continuously,
due to the decline of the red pigments contents.
During maturation are increasing the contents of the total polyphenols and tannins,
these constituents are decreasing insignificantly during aging.
During maturation and aging is increasing the proportions of condensed tannins
(index HCl), are decreasing the contents of astringent tannins (gelatin index), and also are
increasing the tannins combined with the polysaccharides, which has effects on the
improvement of taste qualities.
REFERENCES
[1]. Badea P, 1998 - Contribuţii privind studiul variabilităţii potenţialului oenologic al
soiului Pinot noir în podgoria Dealu Mare şi optimizarea extracţiei polifenolice în etapa
macerării-fermentării. Ph.D. Thesis, USAMV – Bucharest.
[2]. Glories Y., 1998 – Les tanins du raisin et du vin. Revue Française d‘œnologie, nr.
173, pg.14–15.
[3]. Muntean Camelia 2012 - Tehnologii in industria vinicola. Sitech, Craiova.
[4]. Ribereau-Gayon P., Dubourdieu D., Doneche B., Lonvaud A., 1998 – Traité
d‘Oenologie, Ed. Dunod, Paris.
[5]. Somers,C.T.,1983 – Influence du facteur temps de conservations sur les
caracteristiques physico-chimiques et organoleptiques des vin.Bull.OIV,vol.56, nr.625
[6]. Vivas N., Vivas De Gaulejac Nathalie, 2000 – Maîtrise des conditions d‘élevage des
vins rouges en barrique: incidence de différent parametres technologiques. Rev. Française
d‘Oenologie, nr. 185, p. 38–47.
[7]. Vladu Cristina, 2007 – Studiul unor compuşi chimici în parcursul de maturare şi
supramaturare a strugurilor în condiţiile complexului natural din centrul viticol Stârmina şi
evoluţia acestora în procesul de vinificare şi învechire rapidă la barrique. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Craiova.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
of Horticulture and Food Science, 13, A.I. Cuza street, Craiova, Dolj, E-mail:
cbaduca@gmail.com
261
SENSITIVITY OF DIFFERENT SUNFLOWER HYBRIDS TO
BIOFERTILIZER TREATMENTS
L. Nagy, L.G. Nagy, B. Tóth, P. Makleit and Sz. Veres
Abstract: Biofertilizer has been identified as an alternative to chemical fertilizer to increase soil fertility
and crop production in sustainable farming. Biofertilizers are containing different microorganism, which have
an ability to convert nutritionally important elements to available form. The main objective of this study is to
evaluate the effect of biofertilizer on some physiological parameters of sunflower seedlings under laboratory
conditions. Different sunflower hybrids were involved in this investigation and the applied biofertilizer
includes plant growth-promoting bacteria. According to the same experimental design in all the cases of
different hybrids the following parameters were measured: the ratio of fresh and dry matter of root and
shoots, relative chlorophyll contents of leaves with different ages. According to our results, the mean of the
dry and fresh weight of root and shoots in the case of biofertilizer treated plants was higher than without
treatment. The background of increased production is the higher relative chlorophyll content. During the
experiments different sensitivity of hybrids were detected to biofertilizer treatment. Based on our results
biofertilizer can improves fertility condition of the soil and supplies plants with nutrients.
Key words: Plants, Thermal Comfort in Buildings.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the application of mineral fertilisers is the most advantageous and fastest
way to increase crop yields. Plants use around 50% of nitrogen originated from mineral
fertilisers, soil microorganisms transform 15-20 % of nitrogen fertilisers into gaseous
compound, while 20-30% are integrated into the soil organic matter. The remaining
amounts of nitrogen are leached or can be involved into metabolism of effective
microorganisms. Nitrogen fertilisers are the most dangerous mineral fertilisers from the
aspect of pollution of the environment [1]. Soil microorganisms are very heterogeneous
and the most abundant group that makes the soil a very complex and dynamic system.
They can be grouped in different ways based on their nature and function. Several
microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the production
of biofertilizers. The abundance, activity and diversity of microorganisms are considered a
significant indicator of potential and effective soil fertility. Studies and utilisation of
microorganisms and their metabolic processes for the crop production optimisation provide
a long-term conservation of soil qualities. The application of microorganisms based
biofertilizers, stimulators or biocontrols of phytopathogens in the food production, satisfies
the concept within the system of sustainable agriculture. It means stability and quality of
yield, maintenance of the ecological equilibrium that is reflecting on both, health safety of
food and economic effect. Use of biofertilizers is one of the important components of
integrated nutrient management, as they are cost effective and renewable source of plant
nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture [2].
The seeds of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) hybrids (Barolo, Heliasol RM, NK
Alego, PR63E82, P63LE13, P64LE25) were germinated for three days, and they were
grown in nutrient solution [3] under controlled environmental conditions. The nutrient
solution was changed on every third days. Seedlings were divided into two groups: 1.,
seedlings were treated with biofertilizers (1 ml L-1) from the first day of the experiments; 2.,
seedlings were grown in control nutrient solution. We had 3 pots per treatment, 4 plants
per pot in every experiment. The applied biofertilizer contains microorganisms, which are
in the group of plant growth promoting bacteria through helping nutrients uptake and
262
mobilisation from the rhizosphere. The actual dry weight was determined with thermogravimetric analysis. Relative chlorophyll contents (Spad-index) of elder (2th) and younger
(last well developed) leaves were detected with SPAD-501 chlorophyll meter (Minolta).
As our previous results show we have no convincing data about the positive effect of
applied biofertilizer on the dry weight of shoot [4]. When we compare the ratio of dry
weight of root and shoot of different sunflower hybrids additional information would be
expected. According to our results (Figure 1) we did not find significant differences
between control and biofertilizer-treated samples. Although, the tendency is obvious, in
almost all of the cases the ratio of shoot and root dry weight increased by the effect of
biofertilizer. The reason of these increases, that the dry matter production of root was
higher than in shoot. The application of biofertilizers provides plants with an easier intake
of phosphorus and nitrogen, absorption of active growth substances and vitamins, auxins,
gibberellins produced by biofertilizers‘s microorganisms. Differences between treatments
were not experienced in P64LE25 and Heliasol RM hybrids
sunflower hybrids
6
5
4
3
2
control
+ biofertilizer
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
ratio of shoot and root dry weight
Figure 1 Effect of biofertilizer treatments on the ratio of dry weight (g) of shoot and
root in different sunflower hybrids (1. Barolo, 2. Heliasol RM, 3. NK Alego, 4. PR63E82, 5.
P63LE13, 6. P64LE25). (significant differences compared to the control values: p<0.05*,
p<0.001***)
The ratio of shoot and root dry weight by the effect of biofertilizer treatment shows
strong differences among hybrids.
Behind the dry matter production an efficient photosynthetic mechanism can be
found. The basis of active photosynthesis is the photosynthetic pigments. Chlorophylls
have a crucial role in catching and inverting light energy to organic materials. The relative
chlorophyll meter (SPAD) is a simple, portable equipment to measure the relative
chlorophyll concentration of leaves.
263
relative chlorophyll contents
(Spad index)
last developed leaves
elder leaves
control
+ biofertilizer
45
45
*
40
**
*
40
*
*
35
35
30
30
25
25
1
2
3
4
5
1
6
2
3
4
5
6
synflower hybrids
Figure 2 Effect of biofertilizer treatments on the Spad index of different sunflower hybrids
(1. Barolo, 2. Heliasol RM, 3. NK Alego, 4. PR63E82, 5. P63LE13, 6. P64LE25).
(significant differences compared to the control values: p<0.05*, p<0.01**)
The relationships between total chlorophyll concentration and SPAD units have been
proved for several species [5]. The values of relative chlorophyll contents of the last well
developed leaves and elder leaves (Figure 2) show small, but tendentious increases by
the effect biofertilizer in the case of younger leaves. In elder leaves of three hybrids the
relative chlorophyll values significantly decreased, the other three also showed slight
increase in Spad values. In elder leaves of investigated hybrids more pronounced changes
could be described by biofertilizer treatments. Although, positive effect of biofertilizer was
more effective in the case of younger leaves, the relative chlorophyll contents were
increased in the case of all investigated genotypes except for no. 6 (P64LE25).
Sunflower is one of the most important oilseed crops containing high quality edible oil. The
applied biofertilizer contains living cells of different types of microorganisms, which have
the ability to convert nutritionally important elements from unavailable to available form
through their biological processes. The increased values of root‘s dry weight – as the
decreased ratio of shoot‘ and root‘ dry weight – and the moderately increased relative
chlorophyll values support our later work: involve more sunflower hybrids in investigations
and determine more mainly photosynthetic parameters. Biofertilizer has emerged as a
promising integrating sustainable nutrient supply system in agriculture. According to our
results further investigations should be done involving more genotypes to investigate
differences among physiological responses caused by different nutrient supply under
laboratory and field conditions as well.
264
REFERENCES
[1] Marchner, H., Römheld, V. (1992): Optimieuring der Stickstoffdüngung bei
gleichzeitiger Verringerung der Umwltbelastung. Inter. Tagung Optimierung der
Stickstoffdungumg. Hohenheim, 187-192
[2] Sani, B. (2012): Sustainable economic development (SED) by biofertilizers.
Proceedings of 19th International Business Research Conference, Monash University,
Caulfield Campus, 19 – 21 November, 2012, Melbourne, Australia, p 173-176
[3] Lévai, L., Kovács, B. (2001): The influence of IAA and TIBA on iron concentration of
maize seedlings. In: Horst W.J. (eds), Plant Nutrition – Food. Security and
Sustainability of Agro- Ecosystem. Kluwer Academia Publishers, Netherlands, 154-155
[4] Nagy, L.G., Nagy, L., Tóth, B., Lévai, L., Veres, Sz. (2013): Biofertilizer application as a
tool of sustainable and economical agriculture. 3rd AGRIMBA-AVA Congress,
Agribusiness and rural development as a global challenge, Budva-Montenegro, 26-27
June, 2013 (in press)
[5] Netto, A.T., Campostrini, E., Oliveira, J.G., Bressan-Smith, R.E. (2005): Photosynthetic
pigments, nitrogen, chlorophyll a fluorescence and SPAD-502 readings in coffee
leaves, Sciencia Horticulture 104: 199-209
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
László Nagy, László Géza Nagy, Brigitta Tóth, Péter Makleit and Szilvia Veres
Department of Agricultural Botany and Crop Physiology, Institute of Crop Science,
University of Debrecen, Böszörményi street 138, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary, E-mail:
265
GENETIC DIVERSITY IN BARLEY (HORDEUM VULGARE.) USING
RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA (RAPD) MARKERS
Velicevici Giancarla, Madoşă E, Ciulca S, Petolescu Cerasela,Lazar A, Malaescu
Mihaela, Coradini R, Cretescu Iuliana
Abstract: Random amplified polymorphic PCR (RAPD-PCR) markers were used to identify and to
examine the genetic diversity of nineteen barley genotypes isolates with different geographic origins. The
success of a breeding program depended on the genetic variability available into the germoplasm of the
crop. The results demonstrated that RAPD analyses are useful for evaluation of genetic diversity between
different winter barley cultivars, considering the fact that the average polymorphic rate was 85.86%. and 8.3
polymorphic bands/primer. Based on the RAPD analysis using the three primers, we see that there is a high
genetic variability between studied cultivars of winter barley, which can be exploited effectively in the
improvement programs for this species. The use of cultivars from various clusters and sub clusters offer the
possibility of obtaining an appropriate genetic variability in hybrid populations.
Key words: barley,RAPD, genetic diversity.
INTRODUCTION
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 2n = 2 x = 14) is a crop with a great adaptation potential
in many regions of the world. The development of molecular markers makes it easy to
assess genetic diversity in crops at the DNA level (Reif et al., 2003). Molecular markers
such as RAPD (Fernández et al.,2002; Meszaros et al., 2007), AFLP (Zhang and Ding,
2007), ISSR (Fernández et al., 2002), STS (Meszaros et al., 2007), and SSR (Feng et al.,
2006;) can be used to estimate genetic diversity.
The development of molecular (DNA) marker provides new dimension, accuracy and
perfection in the screening of germplasm (Tar‘an et al., 2005). Evaluation of germplasm
diversity can help to identify landraces with the greatest novelty and thus are most suitable
for rescue or incorporation into crop improvement program (Asif et al., 2005). Molecular
markers are considered constant landmarks in the genome. In this study the random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique has been used (Williams et.al., 1990;) for
the identification of improved genotypes (Manifesto et al., 2001) to screen the genetic
similarity/dissimilarity between some barley germplasm. The most distinct genotypes will
be used in the breeding program to increase the genetic diversity in barley and will be
used in marker assisted breeding as well as genome mapping.
Plant material. Ten leaves from each of the 19 cultivars were collected separately
and stored immediately at-80o for DNA extraction. The origin of cultivars were (Orizont,
Dana, Precoce, Adi, Mădălin, Andrei, Compact ,DH19/1, DH 254/10, DH 260/18, DH
260/12,DH 261/22 from Romania, Gerbel, Dina - Germany, Lyric- France, Plaisant Tas Hungary and Secura- Austria).
DNA extraction Total genomic DNA from fresh leaves was extracted using
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB protocol). DNA concentration was determined by
both spectrophotometry at 260 nm and by 2% agarose gel electrophoresis.
Primers. Three RAPD primers were screened using ten DNA samples from each
cultivar and on the basis of that preliminary data.
RAPD- PCR reaction The amplifications were carried out in a 25 μl PCR buffer
containing: GoTaq® Green Master Mix ready-to-use solutions (GoTaq® DNA Polymerase,
dNTP, MgCl2, and reactions buffers at optimal concentrations for efficient amplification of
DNA templates), RAPD primers, DNA template and Nuclease-Free Water. GoTaq® Green
266
Master Mix contained two dyes (blue and yellow) that allow monitoring of progress during
eletrophoresis. DNA amplification was carried out using a Thermalcycler by Corbett and
reactions were submitted to the following PCR program: preliminary DNA denaturation
step at 94°C for 4 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94°Cfor 1 min., 35°C for 1 min. and 72°C
for 2 min. A final extension for 4 min at 72°C was included. The RAPD products were
separated by 2% agarose gels electrophoresis (3V cm-1), which run with 1xTAE buffer.
The PCR marker (1000-50bp) was also run on each gel as a molecular weight standard.
Photo documentation was performed under UV light using a photo imaging system.
Data analysisTo make calculs after the analysis made through different primers,
were selected as being present (1) only the clear bands, while the bands with a very
reduced resolution were marked as absent (0). Further, the respectively bands were
introduced in a binar matrix. Concerning the potential characterisation of different systems
of molecular markers to evaluate the interpopulational variability to the studied genotypes,
were calculated different parameters:
-total polymorphism generated by a certain primer (PIC) which indicated its discriminatory power:
n 1
n
PIC  1   Pij2  
i 1
i 1
n
 2P
j  i 1
i
2
Pj2 ;
Pi- allele‘ frequencyi; Pj- allele‘ frequency; Pij- allele‘ frequency i for locus j; n- total number of loci.
-discrimination index (Pi), which attested the efficiency of a certain primer in
polymorphism detection.
PI   PIC .
Genetic similarity among genotypes studied calculated through coefficient Jaccard,
which was recommended to be used for dominant markers RAPD, taking in view that the
absence of a bands was associated to a homozygous loci. JC= a/(a+b+c), where a, b, c,
represented the commons and un-commons of those genotypes [Danghi ,2004).
On base of genetic similarity matrix among genotypes, it was made the dendrogram
using the method of clusters average.
Studies conducted on different primers with arbitrary sequence have established that
to produce detectable levels of amplification, the minimum length of primers might be of
nine bases, while in case of decamer primers guanine cytosine should be at least 40%
[Williams,1993]. Each primer, generally determines the amplification of sequences from
several genome loci this being the reason why this technique is an effective means of
assessing DNA polymorphism in different genotypes [Molnar,2000]. In order to analyze the
genetic polymorphism of barley genotypes were surveyed three RAPD primers.
All RAPD primers used generated polymorphic bands, resulting a polymorphic rate
with values between 66.67% in case of the P-16 and 100% for the oligonucleotides P-17.
Table 1
Polymorphism rate of barley cultivars through RAPD primers
Primer
code
Sequence (5’-3’)
No. bands
Total no of
fragments
9
P-16
TCGGCGGTTC
P-17
CTGCATCGTG
9
P-27
CCGTGCAGTA
11
Polimorphism Range of frag(%)
ment size(pb)
PIC
PI
x  sx
Polymorphic
fragments
6
66.67
120-1000
0.235+0.069
1.407
9
100
100-1000
0.228+0.058
2.050
10
90.91
75-1250
0.147+0.043
2.526
Total polymorphism generated by a certain primer (PIC), presented values between
0.147 to P27 and 0.235 to P-16. The discrimination index (PI), registered values among
267
1.407 for the primer P16 and 2.526 for P-27 primer, which had the highest capacity to
generate polymorphic bands to barley genotypes studied.
Considering the bands generated by the primer P-17, it is observed (tab. 2) that all
the 9 amplified bands are polymorphic, the lower frequency (5.2%) was recorded in the
case of the bands with the size of 200bp ,650bp,750bp, present in the case of Dana,
Plaisant and Precoce varieties.
Table 2
Frequency and polymorphism bands of RAPD primer P-17 in barley varieties
Bands (pb) RAPD- P17 primer
100
PIC
150
200
250
350
450
650
750
1000
pi 0.105
0.947
0.052
0.947
0.526
0.315
0.052
0.052
0.315
0.188
0.099
0.099
0.099
0.498
0.432
0.099
0.099
0.43
The highest potential of discrimination (0.498) was observed in the amplicon having the
size of 350pb, while the amplicons of 150 and 200 bp, 250pb, 650pb, 750pb showed low
values of the polymorphic capacity.
The dendrogram (Fig. 1) constructed on the basis of the matrix similarity showed that
the varieties of the studied barley could be divided into two groups. Most of the genotypes
were clustered in first group in the dendrogram showing more genetic similarity among
each other. DH 251-10 line clustered in second group.
O rizont
Madalin
Secura
Plaisant
Precoce
Lyric
Andrei
DH19-1
DH260-18
DH260-12
Dana
Adi
Compact
Djerbel
Regal
T as
Dina
DH254-10
DH261-22
0. 20
0. 40
0. 60
Coef icient
0. 80
1. 00
de similarit at e
Fig 1. UPGMA clustering of barley cultivars using the P-17RAPD primers
In the case of primer P16, fragments ranged in size from (120-1000pb) (Table 3), from the
total amplified fragments, six of them are polymorphic, the bands having the sizes of 530,
650, 850pb are monomorphic. Fragments with a length of 120pb and 350 pb recorded the
lowest frequency (10.52%), and fragments of 700pb and 1000pb recorded the highest
frequency (94.73%).
The greatest potential of discrimination (0.499) was observed in the band having
the size of 450, while the bands of 700 and 1000pb recorded low values of polymorphic
ability.
Table 3
Bands (pb) primerRAPD- P16
530
650
700
120
250
350
450
pi
0.105
0.789
0.105
0.526
1.000
1.000
PIC
0.188
0.332
0.188
0.499
0.000
0.000
850
1000
0.947
1.000
0.947
0.100
0.000
0.100
Orizont
DH260-18
Precoce
Madalin
Andrei
Regal
Compact
Dina
DH19-1
Dana
Adi
Plaisant
Secura
DH254-10
F
Lyric
DH260-12
Djerbel
Tas
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
268
Coeficient de similaritate
DH261-22
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
ig.2.
UPGMA clustering of barley cultivars using the P-16RAPD primers
It can be seen in the dendrogram obtained that the Romanian genotypes have a
genetic similarity of 85%, being the first cluster. The second cluster includes the genotype
of German origin Gerbel who presents a genetic diversity of 20%. In comparison to the
genotypes of the first cluster, the third cluster includes the genotypes Tas and DH251/22
which shows a similarity of 68%. Considering the bands generated by the primer P27, it is
noted that of the 11 amplified bands, 10 are polymorphic. The lowest frequency was
recorded (tab. 4), in the case of the alleles having the size of 800pb and 1250pb.
Table 4
pi
PIC
75
100
170
Benzile (pb) primerului RAPD P-27
200
300
400
450
600
800
0.158
0.266
0.211
0.332
0.158
0.266
0.105
0.188
0.105
0.188
0.158
0.266
0.579
0.488
1.000
0.000
0.053
0.100
850
1250
0.211
0.332
0.053
0.100
The highest discrimination potential (0.488) was observed in the case of amplicon
with a length of 450pb, while the amplicons with length of 800 and 1.250 pb presented the
lowest polymorphic capacity.
O rizont
Dana
Djerbel
Dina
DH261-22
Adi
T as
Andrei
Compact
Lyric
Plaisant
Secura
Precoce
DH254-10
DH260-12
Madalin
Regal
DH19-1
DH260-18
0. 65
0. 70
0. 75
0. 80
Coef icient
0. 85
0. 90
0. 95
1. 00
de similarit at e
Fig 3. UPGMA clustering of barley cultivars using the P-27RAPD primers
On the basis of genetic similarity among genotypes it was prepared the
corresponding dendrogram. The analyzed genotypes are divided into 2 clusters. The first
cluster consists of the DH 620/18 and DH 19/1 genotypes similar to each other at a rate of
82%. The second cluster is made up of 2 subclusters that comprise the majority of the
studied genotypes. From the data presented it can be noted the presence of the genetic
diversity among the analyzed genotypes.The observed genetic variation can be attributed
to the individual variation within the tested populations. Fernandez et al., (2002) , Baum et
al., (1997)and Ciulca et al.(2010) also reported polymorphism among the barley cultivars
using the RAPD analysis. The four alleles common identified for all the 19 genotypes
studied P27-600pb, P16-530pb, P16-650pb, P16-850pb could be considered specific
markers RAPD for the barley.The RAPD analysis has been found to be a valuable DNA
marker system to evaluate genetic diversity. The information about genetic similarity will be
helpful to avoid any possibility of elite germplasm becoming genetically uniform.The use of
cultivars from various clusters and subclusters offers the possibility of obtaining an
appropriate genetic variability in hybrid populations.
Acknowledgement
This work was published during the project ―POSTDOCTORAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND
VETERINARY MEDICINE", POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62371, co-financed by the European Social Fund through the
Sectorial Operational Programme for the Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
269
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Velicevici Giancarla, Madosa E., Ciulca S., Lazar A., Malaescu Mihaela, Petolescu Cerasela, Cretescu
1
,
Iuliana, Coradini R.- Banat s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Aradului Street
119, 300645 Timisoara, Romania, giancarlavely2000@yahoo.com, madosae@yahoo.com,
270
STUDY REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF OSMOTIC STRESS
UPON CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT IN SOME BARLEY
GENOTYPES PRETREATED WITH MICROWAVE RADIATION
I. Crețescu, R. Căpriță, E. Madoșa, G. Velicevici, G. Buzamat, C. Ruset, A.
Lazar, S. Ropciuc
Banat’s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119,
Timişoara, Romania
Abstract: Chlorophyll is one of the major components of chloroplasts and represents a variable in
assessing the physiological status and photosynthetic performance of plants. Salt stress perturbs a multitude
of physiological processes such as photosynthesis and growth. The purpose of this study was to apply an
indirect test method to drought tolerance, based on the influence of hydric stress determination upon
chlorophyll accumulation and to evaluate the microwave irradiation effect on the chlorophyll content of
Hordeum vulgare L. The hydric stress was of NaCl solution, using control and variants with different
concentrations (50mM, 100mM, 150mM and 200mM NaCl). Determination of chlorophyll content was
realized at 14 days from stress induction using the portable chlorophyll meter SPAD- 502. Variations could be
observed in the chlorophyll content when applying different power values of the radiations and different times
of exposure. The applying of some different osmotic pressure made some variations on the chlorophyll
content. These findings suggest that a greater tolerance to 50mM and 100mM NaCl is related to the more
restricted accumulation of total cations and toxic Na+ in the roots and enhanced levels of antioxidative
metabolites in root and leaf tissue.
Key words:. Water Deficit, Chlorophyll Content, Barley cultivars.
INTRODUCTION
Salt stress as a major adverse factor can lower leaf water potential, leading to
reduced turgor and some other responses. Salt stress is the most limiting factor for the
productivity of cultivars in arid and semi arid areas. Salt stress perturbs a multitude of
physiological processes such as photosynthesis and growth [1]. Plants differ in their
responses to salt stress. Chlorophyll is one of the major components of chloroplasts and
represents a variable in assessing the physiological status and photosynthetic
performance of plants. Microwaves are known to induce compositional, nutritional and
functional changes in majority of the food and biological systems.[2,3 ,4]
The aim of our investigation was to determine the effect of microwave pretreatment
on the chlorophyll content of two Romanian barley genotypes (Dana and Sistem) upon salt
stress with different concentrations of a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl).
The biological material used in this study was represented by a collection of two
genotypes of Romanian winter barley. The influence of microwave irradiation on barley
seeds has been investigated before. A magnetron MWG20H with a frequency of radiation
of 2.45GHz and maximum output power of 800W, according to supplier‘s data, has been
used as microwave source. The maximum density of irradiation has been estimated at
40kW/m3. The experiment for the present investigation was conducted in the laboratories
of the Faculty of Horticulture and Forestry Timisoara, Department of Genetic Engineering
in Agriculture. Four barley genotypes were used in the experiments – Sistem and Dana,
differing in their reaction to microwaving irradiations. The seeds were obtained from the
Fundulea Agriculture Research Station.
The seeds were initially treated with 1,5% sodium hypochlorite for 15 minutes. The
residual chlorine was eliminated by thorough washing of the seeds with distilled water. The
seeds have been exposed to the microwave radiation for 0s (control-M), 10s, and 20s, with
two modifications of output powers of the magnetron – II-400W and I-720W, corresponding
271
intensities – 20kW/m3 and 36kW/m3 respectively, have been applied. Salt stress,
produced by treatment with NaCl solution with different concentrations (50mM, 100mM,
150mM and 200mM NaCl). The seeds for the experiment were distributed in three
replicates, each containing 25 seeds . The seeds were then germinated on filter paper in
Petri dishes, in the growth chamber, under laboratory conditions (the natural light cycle
was 9 h of light / 14 h of darkness, and the daily temperature was 21 ± 2 ºC, night
temperature 15 ± 2 ºC).
The data for chlorophyll content (SPAD) determination were recorded on 14 days
after sowing, for each variant. Experimental data have been processed by calculating the
mean, variance analysis and LSD test.
Sodium chloride solution may have created an osmotic potential which prevented
water uptake. It is also possible that solution provided the entry of the ions to the seeds
that might have been toxic to the embryo or the developing seedlings [5].
Table 1. The effect of microwave irradiation on the average chlorophyll content
(SPAD) of barley seedlings upon of salt stress treatment with NaCl solution with different
concentrations (V1=50mM, V2=100mM, V3=150mM and V4=200mM NaCl) for genotype
SISTEM. The data were presented as the average ± standard errors (SE).
Variant/treatment
14 days
0W
720W
400W
0s
10s
20s
10s
20s
V0
21.33±1.9 21.33±1.9 21.33±1.9 21.33±1.9 21.33±1.9
V1
19.8±2.5 25.44±1.1 29.1±1.4 24.1±2.3 25.2±1.5
V2
19.26±2.8 24.88±2.7 21.18±5.3 15.36±6.2 19.3±5.7
V3
17.45±5.7 17.08±5.7 0.92±0.5 2.76±2.7 7.62±5.2
V4
6.38±6.1
0±0
0±0
0±0
0±0
The results support the hypothesis that microwave treatment can enhance tolerance
of barley seedlings to salt stress especially for 50mM and 100mM NaCl solution. We
observed for variant V4(200mM NaCl solution) that salt stress was great, never seed
growth at stady of leaf for measure cholorophyll content at 14 days and for all experimental
variant could not measure chlorophyll content with portable chlorophyll meter at 7 days.
Table 2. The effect of microwave irradiation on the average chlorophyll content
(SPAD) of barley seedlings upon of salt stress treatment with NaCl solution with different
concentrations (V1=50mM, V2=100mM, V3=150mM and V4=200mM NaCl) for genotype
DANA. The data were presented as the average ± standard errors(SE).
Variant/treatment
14 days
0W
720W
400W
0s
10s
20s
10s
20s
V0
21.03±1.96 21.03±1.96 21.03±1.96 21.03±1.96 21.03±1.96
V1
19.54±1.92 23.04±1.03 18.06±3.74 20.08±0.3 24.16±2.2
V2
14.73±0.67
0±0
0±0 12.06±0.38
0±0
V3
0±0
0±0
0±0
0±0
0±0
V4
0±0
0±0
0±0
0±0
0±0
The effect of salinity on SPAD value was genotype-dependent.
272
Table 3. The effect of the saline concentration (NaCl) on the average chlorophyll
content (SPAD) of barley seedlings
Variant/treatment
SPAD
Rel. val.
Difference/
NaCl concentration (mM)
(%)
Significance
V1-V0
22.78
21.18
107.55
1.6
V2-V0
12.67
21.18
59.82
-8.5100
V3-V0
4.58
21.18
21.62
-16.6000
V4-V0
0
21.18
0
-21.18000
V1-V2
22.78
12.67
179.79
10.11***
V1-V3
22.78
4.58
497.37
18.2***
V1-V4
22.78
0
22.78***
V2-V3
12.67
4.58
276.63
8.09**
V2-V4
12.67
0
12.67***
V3-V4
4.58
0
4.58**
LSD5%=2.33; LSD 1%=4.28; LSD 0.1%=9.50
Salinity which is a result of osmotic pressure leads reduction in water absorbance so
cell division and differentiation reduce and reduction of chlorophyll content will be
explainable.
Massai et al. [6] say that salinity is delaying plant growth under reduction of
photosynthesis effects, it is cause of closing stomata and reduction of water entrance into
the plant and so that it causes duplicate reduction in plant weight.
Table 4. The effect of the time of microwave exposure on the average chlorophyll
content (SPAD) of barley seedlings
Time of
SPAD
Rel.
Difference/
exposure
val.(%)
Significance
10sec - 0sec
12.47
21.18
58.87
-8.71000
20sec - 0sec
11.51
21.18
54.34
-9.67000
20sec-10sec
11.51
12.47
92.30
-0.9600
LSD5%=0.48; LSD 1%=0.89; LSD 0.1%=1.97
Table 5. The effect of the power of microwave on the average chlorophyll content
(SPAD) of barley seedlings
Time of
SPAD
Rel. val.
Difference/
exposure
(%)
Significance
400W - 0W
11.39
13.95
81.64
-2.560
720W - 0W
12.22
13.95
87.59
-1.730
720W- 400W
12.22
11.39
107.28
0.83
LSD5%=0.87; LSD 1%=4.40; LSD 0.1%=44.07
The possible explanation suggests a hypothesis about the absorption of the
microwave radiation energy by the hydrogen or magnesium of the atom electrons in the
chlorophyll molecule. The energy absorbed is redistributed and it causes changes in the
chlorophyll molecule. By increasing the radiation power used for the treatment of the
samples, the amount of free ions in the extract decreases.
The results indicate that microwave radiation can protect cells of barley cultivars
study from salt stress for early stages of growth [7].
273
We observed variations in the chlorophyll content when applying different power
values of the radiations and different times of exposure. The results indicated that sodium
chloride solution inhibits the primary growth of plants. Findings suggest that the greater
tolerance to 50mM and 100mM NaCl is related to the more restricted accumulation of total
cations and toxic Na+ in the roots and enhanced levels of antioxidative metabolites in root
and leaf tissue. We have not yet investigated the effects of the microwave seed
pretreatment on the later stages of growth and on yield. This biophysics method has the
potential to increase plant growth under saline conditions and in arid and semiarid areas.
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Sciences. 7(8), 1492-1495.
[6]. Massai R, Remorin D, Tattini H., 2004. Gas exganges, water relation and osmotic
adjustment in two scion rootstock combinations of pronus under water vrious salinity. Plant
and Soil. 259, 153-162.
[7]. Yi-Ping Chen, Jing-Fen Jia and Ying-Juan Wang, 2009. Weak Microwave Can
Enhance Tolerance of Wheat Seedlings to Salt Stress, J. Plant Growth Regul, 28, 381385.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
I Cretescu, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: iulianacretescu@usab-tm.ro
G. Velicevici, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
from
Timisoara,
Calea
Aradului
119,
Timişoara,
Romania,
E-mail:
giarncarlavelicevici@usab-tm.ro
R. Caprita, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: rodicaprita@usab-tm.ro
E. Madoșa, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: emilianmadosa@usab-tm.ro
G. Buzamat, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: genovevabuzamat@usabtm.ro
C. Ruset, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: corinaruset@usab-tm.ro
274
A. Lazar, Banat‘s University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from
Timisoara, Calea Aradului 119, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: alexandrulazar@usab-tm.ro
S.Ropciuc,
University
Stefan
cel
Mare,
Suceava,
Romania,
Email:ropciucsorina@yahoo.com
275
HYDRAULIC PRESSING OF OILSEEDS:
EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY STAND FOR DETERMINATION
OF MATERIAL BALANCE
Ionescu M., Biris S., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Ungureanu N, Dilea M., Vladut V.,
Matache M., Voicea I.
Abstract: Vegetable oil, one of the most important component for both food and non-food industry,
is contained by the oleaginous plants in seeds, pulp, stone fruits, in the tubers or sprouts. Depending on the
nature of material and their oil content, various methods can be used for oil extraction from oleaginous
material.
One of the most usually method for oil extraction is the mechanical expression, also known as
pressing. Pressing represents the operation which separates the oil from the oleaginous material (solid-liquid
mixture), under the action of external forces, resulting crude oil and cake. The pressing process of
oleaginous material occurs under the influence of compressive forces that arise in the equipment. The
equipments used for mechanical oil extraction are the presses, which can be screw presses or hydraulic
presses.
In this paper are presented the results obtained from oilseeds pressing, using a hydraulic laboratory
press. Based on the experiments, the material balance was made, taking into account the piston speed and
its applied force, for both types of oilseeds used (sunflower seeds and rapeseeds).
Key words: Vegetable oil, oilseeds, extraction, hydraulic pressing
INTRODUCTION
In plants, fatty matter is concentrated only in some parts such as seeds, fruits and
tubers, stone fruits, sprouts, representing a reserve substance that the plant uses during
its development as a source of energy. Although the oilseeds field is very wide, plants that
can be used as raw material in vegetable oils industry are slightly because many of them
have low oil content - being unprofitable, others with higher oil content present difficulties
in oil extraction because of the special structure of the plant. [2]
The request for the vegetable oil industry increases with increasing population
through the discovery of new uses. Thus, to satisfy the vegetable oil demand, it is
necessary that the oil extraction methods to be faster and more efficient. [1]
Vegetable oils are used principally for food (mostly as shortening, margarines, and
salad and cooking oils) and in the manufacture of soap and detergents, in paints and
varnishes, and for a variety of other industrial items. [6]
Currently, worldwide there are four basic methods for obtaining vegetable oil:
chemical extraction (using solvent or enzymes), supercritical fluid extraction, steam
distillation and mechanical extraction. Mechanical extraction and solvent extraction are the
most commonly used methods for commercial oil extraction. Mechanical pressing is used
for oil recovery up to 90-95%, while solvent extraction is capable of extracting 99%. [3]
Taking into account the disadvantages presented by solvent extraction method, many
of vegetable oil producers choose to utilize mechanical extraction, using the screw presses
or hydraulic presses. Between these equipments, hydraulic press is common in small
scale processors because it is less capital-intensive in terms of initial and maintenance
costs. Hydraulic presses are now available in different versions, but their efficiency seldom
exceeds 70%. [4]
Expression is a unit operation in which a liquid is separated from a solid-liquid mixture
or liquid bearing matrix by mechanical compression. Hydraulic expression involves
application of pressure to the oleaginous material found in a cylindrical cage perforated
laterally. The results consist of an axial compaction and a radial oil flow. The three distinct
276
phases (initial stage, dynamic stage and final stage) of hydraulic expression are presented
in the following figure. [4]
Figure 1. Phases of hydraulic expressions, [5]
a – initial stage; b – dynamic stage; c – consolidation stage (final stage).
In the present paper there are presented the experiments conducted on a small
capacity experimental stand for obtaining oil from oilseeds under hydraulic pressing.
The experiments were conducted using whole sunflower seeds and rapeseeds,
supplied by Giurgiu County, Romania. Before the experiments, both types of seeds were
subjected to a selection process using a SS-02 seeds selector (provided by STIMEL
Timisoara) with a capacity of 100 kg seeds/h, in order to separate the impurities from the
seeds.
Mechanical expression of oil from oilseeds was performed using an experimental
stand for hydraulic expression. The experimental stand, presented in figure 2, was
constructed using the pressing chamber of a PU-50 screw press (STIMEL Timisoara),
which was fixed in vertical position. For oilseeds compression, a computer control
electromechanical universal testing machine, model WDW-100, provided by Jinan Testing
Equipment IE Corporation, was used. On the external side of the pressing chamber, a
metal ring was fixed for oil collection. The oil collected in the metallic ring reach farther,
through a metallic pipe, in a beaker. For the experiments were also used a KERN-EG
electronic precision balance, with maximum capacity of 4200 g, to measure the weight of
seeds, respectively oil and cake. The experiments were conducted at NATIONAL
INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH - DEVELOPMENT FOR MACHINES AND INSTALLATIONS
DESIGNED TO AGRICULTURE AND FOOD INDUSTRY – INMA from Bucharest,
Romania.
For the experiments, 120 g of seeds was placed in the press chamber, after which
the piston was lowered on top of the seeds. With the help of electromechanical universal
testing machine, the piston starts compressing the sample seeds. For each type of seeds,
four experiments were carried out varying the speed of the piston. The four values choose
for piston speeds were: 2 mm/min, 4 mm/min, 8 mm/min and 12 mm/min, while the
maximum load for piston was 7 tons for all the experiments. After the samples
compression, the oil and the cake obtained were weighed in order to achieve the material
balance.
277
Figure 2. Experimental hydraulic expression stand
Table 1 presents the material balance (oil, cake, losses) obtained from the
experiments, for both seeds type and the four piston‘s speed.
The dependence between the stroke and the load of piston are represented in the
following graphs. First graph is traced using the data obtained from the universal testing
machine software for the experiments conducted with rapeseeds, for all the four pistons
speed, while the second graph represents the same dependence for the sunflower seeds.
Seeds
Rapeseed
Sunflower
Table 1. Material balance of 120g seeds hydraulic compression
Piston
speed
Oil [g]
Cake [g]
Losses [g]
[mm/min]
2
18.3
101.56
0.14
4
16.04
103.19
0.77
8
10.95
108.73
0.32
12
6.38
113.52
0.10
2
19.83
99.75
0.42
4
17.17
102.37
0.46
8
14.15
105.14
0.71
12
11.35
108.03
0.62
278
Figure 3. Dependence between stroke and load piston
In the figure 4 is presented the influence of piston speed on the efficiency of
expression process. It can be observed that, for both seeds type, the increasing of piston
speed from 2 mm/min at 12 mm/min conduces to a decrease of oil extracted quantity.
Thus, the residual oil in the cake increases.
The explication for this tendency is that oil extraction efficiency is influenced by the
time of pressing, the oil needing enough time to drain the oleaginous material during the
pressing process.
Figure 4. Influence of piston speed on the efficiency of extraction process
279
Many researches focused on the hydraulic pressing, one of the most utilized methods
of oil extraction, in order to improve the extraction efficiency.
Hydraulic extraction is influenced from various parameters, as it results from the
researches, one of the most important being the pressing time.
This work shows the influence of piston speed on the efficiency of hydraulic extraction
method, in the case of rapeseeds and sunflower seeds. Thus, an increasing of speed
piston, meaning a decreasing of pressing time, involves a decreasing of oil extracted,
which is equivalent with the increasing of residual oil in the cake. It is necessary that the
pressing time to be not small, so that the oil has enough time to cross the oleaginous
material and be evacuated.
REFERENCES
[1]. Alonge A.F., A.M. Olaniyan, K. Oje and C.O. Agbaje, 2003. Effects of dilution ratio,
water temperature and pressing time on oil yield from groundnut oil expression, Journal of
Food Science and Technology, vol. 40, no.6, 652-655.
[2]. Banu C., 1999. Manualul inginerului din industria alimentară, vol. I and II, Editura
Tehnică, București.
[3]. Karaj S. and Muller J., 2009, Optimization of mechanical extraction of Jatropha curcas
seeds, Landtechnik 64, no. 3, pp. 164-167.
[4]. Owolarafe O.K., A.S. Osunleke and B.E. Oyebamiji, 2007, Effect of hydraulic press
parameters on crude palm oil yield, International Agrophysics, vol. 21, pp. 285-291.
[5]. Owolarafe O.K. et all, 2008, Mathematical modeling and simulation of the hydraulic
expression of oil from oil palm fruit, Biosystems Engineering 101, 331-340.
[6]. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/426212/oil-plant
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ionescu M., Biris S., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Ungureanu N, Dilea M. - ‖Politehnica‖
University of Bucharest, Spl. Independentei, nr.313, sect.6, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail:
maneamaryana@yahoo.com, biris.sorinstefan@gmail.com, ghvoicu_2005@yahoo.com,
paraschiv2005@yahoo.com, nicoletaung@yahoo.com, mirela_dilea@yahoo.com
Vladut V., Matache M., Voicea I. - National Institute of Research - Development for
Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry – INMA, ROMANIA,
6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Blv, sector 1, Bucharest 71592, OP 18, Email:
valentin_vladut@yahoo.com, voicea_iulian@yahoo.com.
280
DETERMINING THE ELEMENTS DIMENSIONS OF MECHANISMS
WHICH COMPOSE THE DIGGING PITS MACHINES FOR SHRUBS
V. Moise, Gh. Voicu, I.Al. Tabara, St.I. Moise, Paula Voicu
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest,
Splaiul Independentei, no.313, 060032, Bucharest, Romania
e-mail: victor.moise@yahoo.com; ghvoicu_2005@yahoo.com
Abstract: The main condition to design mechanisms which compose the digging machines for shrubs
is that a tracer point of the connecting rod to move straight after a parallel line with the vertical axis. In
practice, there are various mechanisms that can draw a precise mathematical curve or mechanisms that can
copy diverse curves. These mechanisms can be sufficiently complex or contain in their composition more
prismatic joints with their known disadvantages. Most times, high precision is not required to draw a curve,
which can lead to the idea of designing mechanisms to approximate certain curves.
In this paper we present the kinematics synthesis of the elements dimension of the driving mechanism,
which represents the basis for the achievement of the digging machine. To write the necessary equations for
the accomplishment of the kinematic synthesis of the mechanism, we used the methods of mechanisms
theory. Usually, in the mechanisms synthesis appears the systems with a great number of nonlinear
equations, whose solving are used the adequate numerical methods.
INTRODUCTION
The digging machines for shrubs are designed to carry a tracer point belonging to a
connecting rod after a vertical direction. In practice, are used different mechanisms to
obtain a precise mathematical curve [1, 2, 7, 15]. These mechanisms can be added to the
tractor lifting mechanism, leading to the accomplishment of digging machines for shrubs.
Some of these mechanisms contain a great number of elements, case in which it can
be a disadvantage from the constructive point of view. In figures 1,.2, 3, 4 are presented
few such mechanisms.
I
6
7
J
B, E
2
F ,G
F
T
H
1
5
G
4
A
0
C
3
D
0
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
281
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Therefore, for the most part, we carry out the synthesis of other mechanisms with a
low number of elements, which can be approximated certain known curve. The curves
approximation it is made for certain number of data points. The number of the positions of
a tracing point of the mechanisms (the point of the curve approximation) is made by the
complexity of the used mechanism. Thus, the more independent number of contours of the
used mechanisms is greater the number of the imposed positions of the tracing point is
bigger as well as it is presented in the next paragraph.
We use the contours method to write the synthesis equations [Chr. Pelecudi]. The
number of unknowns in the system of equations is determined from the balance equations-unknowns in the case of mechanisms synthesis in order to approximate curves.
1. The contours method in mechanisms synthesis
One of the easiest methods for analysis and synthesis of mechanisms is the loops
method. (Chr. Pelecudi).
When using this method, position equations are obtained based on vector equations
which schematize the independent loops of the mechanism.
We consider kinematic chain in figure 5. Vector equation is written using contour
OABC    NPO
OA  AB  BC      NP  OP .
(1)
Two scalar equations result from the projection of the vector equation (1) on the axes
coordinate system (XOY), as follows:
AB cos 1  BC cos  2  S3 cos 3  d cos(3   / 2)  ...  NP cos  n  XA  XP  0;
AB sin 1  BC sin  2  S 3 sin 3  d sin(3   / 2)  ...  NP sin  n  YA  YP  0.
282
(2)
Y
C 3
B
1
2
3
2
S3
D 4
d
E
A
5
F
n
1
A
5
P
n
N
p
O
X
Fig. 5. Kinematic chain with lower pairs
The two scalar equations usually form a non-linear system, from which it results two
unknowns.
Depending on the nature of kinematic joints (prismatic or revolute) unknowns will be
among the relative displacements S i , i  1, n or the absolute angles  i , i  1, n , between
the axis Ox and the vectors attached to elements.
It can be written 2N scalar equations for N independent deformable contours that will
result (in non-singular cases) 2N unknowns.
Systems of nonlinear equations, obtained when using contours method, can be
solved analytically or numerically by appropriate numerical methods [3,4,5,6,9,14].
2. Plane mechanisms’ synthesis for curve approximation.
The kinematics scheme for a complex mechanism is given in figure 1. The tracing
point T occupies p positions. Data regarding the unknowns and the number of equations
that can be written must be determined, in order for the system to be consistent and
determined.
For the beginning, the data regarding the unknowns will be discussed. In the
mechanisms‘ synthesis for the approximation of a given curve, both constant and variable
data appear.
The unknown constant data are:
a) n1  n , number of elements;
b) n2  4( N  1) , the number of parameters to be attached to the initial contour of
(N – 1) independent contours ( N is the mechanisms‘ independent contours);
c) n3  3 , number of parameters necessary for base positioning;
d) n4  2 , number of parameters necessary to position a point on an element;
e) n5  Ct , number of parameters which are eliminated due to the insertion of Ct
translation couple.
In order to identify the variable parameters, lets consider p positions of the tracing
point, which means p positions of the mechanism. In this case there are:
f) n6  m  p , variable data. These parameters are the angles made by the vectors
attached to the mechanism‘s elements with the OX axes, as well as the variable
283
parameters in the translation couples (if they exist).
Y
C .R.
Ti
 5i
C.D.

4
E
C
5
2
 2i
B
1
1i
F
 4i
 3i
0
A
3
C
0
D
A
O
X
Figure 6. Complex mechanism with articulated rods
From the mechanisms structure [1, 6, 8, 9] it is a matter of knowledge that:
M is the mechanism‘s degree of mobility.
The total number of unknowns is:
n  2 N  M  1, m  2 N  M , where
Unknowns _ No  n1  n2  n3  n4  n5  n6  6 N  M  2  Ct  2 N  p  M  p.
(3)
In order to establish the equations number, it is considered that:
a) a mechanism with N independent contours, whereby 2N scalar equations are
resulting; for the p mechanism‘s positions 2 N  p equations result;
b) for the OABETO contour (fig.6), a vector equation is written; when projected on the
OXY coordinate system‘s axes, this equation leads to two scalar equations. If p
mechanism‘s positions are considered, there are resulting 2 p scalar equations.
The total number of equations is:
Eq_Number = 2 N  p  2 p .
(4)
From the compatibility conditions it is found that:
Unknowns_No = Eq_Number,
which means:
p
(5)
6 N  M  2  Ct
.
2 M
(6)
Depending on the mechanism‘s degree of mobility, equation (6) gives the number of
positions the tracing point T can occupy:
284
1, results p  6 N  3  C t ;

M 

 2, results p  .
(7)
From equation (7) one can notice that p   for M  2 mechanism‘s mobility, which
means that the tracing point T can occupy an infinity number of positions in the
mechanism‘s region of operation, which was expected.
If n6  (m  1) p is considered in the equations-unknowns balance, then equation
(5) leads to:
p
6N  M  2  Ct
.
3 M
(8)
For different values of the mobility degree, different relations are attained, which help
to calculate the maximum number of positions of the tracing point T:
3 Ct

1, results p  3N  2  2 ;

M   2, results p  6 N  4  Ct ;

3, results p  .

(9)
3. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
3.1. Exemple 1
In figure 1 is presented a mechanism that can be used to achieve the digging pits
machines for shrubs.
285
T
G
Y
3

D
 2i
2
 3i
A
0
C
5
E
4
B
1
F
1i
0
O
 5i
 4i
X
Fig. 7. The kinematics scheme of the mechanism
It plans to use contours method [Chr. Pelecudi] for writing equations required for
synthesis of this mechanism. Thus, with the support of independent contours OABCEAO,
OAFGDEO and of using open contour EMCDDA vector equations are written:
OA  AB  BC  OE  ED  DC ;
OA  AF  FG  OE  ED  DG;
OE  ED  DT  OT .
(10)
In the vector equations (10) contains the constant parameters and variable
parameters.
Constant parameters are: XA, YA, XE, YE, AB, BC, DE, CD, DG, AF, FG , DT,  .
Variable parameters are angles 1i ,  2i , 3i , 4i and  5i .
Scalar equations are obtained by projecting the equations (10) on the
XOY coordinate‘s axis system.
 AB cos 1i  DE cos  2i  CD cos 3i  BC cos  4i  XE  0;
 AB sin   DE sin   CD sin   BCins  YE  0;
1i
2i
3i
4i

 AF cos 1i  DE cos  2i  DG cos(3i  )  FG cos 5i  XE  0;
 AF sin 1i  DE sin  2i  DG sin( 3i  )  FG sin 5i  XE  0;
 DE cos  2i  DT cos(3i  )  FG cos 5i  XE  XTi  0;
 DE sin   DT sin(   )  FG sin   YE  YT  0;
2i
3i
5i
i

i  1, p .
(11)
Considering the balance equations-unknowns 13  5 p  6 p , it results p  13 , thus
13 positions of the tracing point T can be imposed.
286
The element 1 is part of the lifting system of the tractor, so that the lengths AB and
AF are known.
If we consider the origin of the coordinates system in point A and size DE is
considered known, from balance equations-unknowns balance is resulting p  8 , namely
8 positions of the tracer point T can be required.
For the positions of the tracing point T presented in table 1, we obtain the dimensions
of the mechanism elements and the positions of the frame joints (table 2).
Table 1: The positions of the tracing point T
XTi , i  1,8
2.200
2.200
2.200
2.200
2.200
2.200
2.200
2.200
YTi , i  1,8
1.000
0.860
0.720
0.580
0.440
0.300
0.160
0.020
Table 2: The dimensions of the mechanism elements and the positions of the frame
joints

XE
YE
BC
CD
DG
FG
DT
0.35013 0.39848 0.4664 0.13770 0.43836 0.46939 2.14238 0.12755
3.2. Exemple 2
There is the directing mechanism, given in figure 8, used at the achievement of a
machine for fruit tree digging pits. It is required to determine the mechanism dimensions,
thus the tracing point T to be approximate with a straight line.
For the writting the necessary equation of mechanisms‘ synthesis is used the
contours method. Thus, the independent contours ABCEA, ABFGA and ABTA can be
written the vectorial equations:
AB  BC  AE  EC;
AB  BF  AG  GF ;
AB  BT  AT .
 2i B
 5i
C
2
Y
G
5
3
1
F
1i
A
(12)
S 4i D
4
T
 4i
X
E
Fig. 8. The kinematic scheme of the mechanism
287
As part of the vectorial equation (8) there are presented constant and variable
parameters. The constant parameters are: XE , XG , YG , AB , BC , BF , FG , BT . The
variable parameters are the angles 1i ,  2i ,  4i , 5i and S 4i in the D prismatic couple.
By projecting equations (12) on the XOY coordinate system‘s axes are obtained the
scalar equations:
 AB cos 1i  BC cos  2i  S 4i cos  4i  XE  0;
 AB sin   BC cos   S sin   0;
1i
2i
4i
4i

AB
cos


BF
cos


FG
cos

1i
2i
5i  XG  0;

 AB sin 1i  BF sin  2i  FG sin 5i  YG  0;
 AB cos 1i  BT cos  2i  XTi  0;
 AB sin   BT sin   YT  0;
1i
2i
i

i  1, p .
(13)
Equalling the number of the equations with the number of unknowns, it results
8  5 p  6 p , so we obtain p  8 , that imposes 8 positions for the tracing point T.
The equations (13) represent a system with 48 nonlinear equations and 48
unknowns. The solving of nonlinear equations system (13) is made by using the gradient
method [3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 13, 14]. The number of the equations system (13) being great, the
determination of the value of the functional matrix elements can be done by the numerical
method.
For the positions of the tracing point T presented in table 3, we obtain the dimensions
of the mechanism elements and the positions of the frame joints (table 4).
Table 3: The positions of the tracing point T
XTi , i  1,8
2.352
2.352
2.352
2.352
2.352
2.352
2.352
2.352
YTi , i  1,8
0.223
0.363
0.503
0.643
0.783
0.923
1.063
1.203
Table 4: The dimensions of the mechanism elements and the positions of the frame
joints
XE
XG
YG
AB
BC
BF
FG
BT
0.569944 0.783524 0.787194 0.784537 0.554568 0.608553 0.255711 2.435267
4. CONCLUSIONS
Using adequate numerical methods, we can do the synthesis of each mechanism for
the curve approximation. The number of the assessed points depends on the mechanism
independent contours number; therefore the synthesis equation systems must be
compatible and determined. The obtained curve deviation refers to the known curve
depends of the used solving method and of the computer system performance.
288
5. REFERENCES
[1] Artobolevski, I.I., The mechanisms and machines theory (in French). Mir Press,
Moscow, 1977.
[2] Bakvalov, N., Numerical methods (in French), Editions Mir, Moscou, 1976.
[3] Chapra, S.C., Canale, R., Numerical methods for engineers, Second edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1988.
[4] Demidovitch, B., Maron, I., Elements of numerical calculus (in French), Editions
Mir, Moscou, 1976.
[5] Dorn, W.S., Mc Cracken, D.D., Numerical methods with FORTLAN programs (in
Romanian), Technical Press, Bucharest, 1976.
[6] Manolescu, N., Kovacs, Fr., Orănescu, A., The Mechanisms and machines theory
(in Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogic Press, Bucharest
[7] Moise, V., Simionescu, I., Planar Linkages (in Romanian), Printech Press,
Bucharest, 1999.
[8] Moise, V., Maican, E., Moise, Şt.I., Numerical methods. Theory and Applications
(in Romanian), Editura Printech Press, Bucharest, 2004.
[9] Moise, V., Simionescu, I., Ene, M., Neacşa, M., Tabără, I.A., The Analysis of
applied Machinery (in Romanian), Printech Press, Bucharest, 2007.
[10] Pelecudi, Chr., Mechanisms precision (in Romanian), R.S.R. Academy Press,
Bucharest,1975.
[11] Pelecudi, Chr., D. Maroş, V. Merticaru, N. Pandrea, I. Simionescu, Mechanisms
(in Romanian), Didactical and Pedagogic Press, Bucharest,1985.
[12] Salvadori, G.M., Baron, L.M., Numerical methods in technology (in Romanian).
Technical Press, Bucharest, 1974.
[13] Simionescu,I., Dranga, M., Moise, V., Numerical methods in techincs (in
Romanian), Technical Press, Bucharest, 1995.
[14] Simionescu, I., Moise, V., Mechanisms (in Romanian), Technical Press,
Bucureşti, 1999.
289
KINEMATIICS AND DYNAMICS OF THE PROCESS SAILING FLOATIG
CUTTER BLOK
Ivaylo K. Angelov
Abstract: The floating cutter is positioned in the horizontal plane of the voyage. When considering
projections small displacements (sailing), generated transients of: Kinematics plan – transition during cutting
of the second cutting insert; Dynamic Plan - projection of "floating", incision at the second cutting circular
plate to the treated surface. Consider floating cutting unit (FCM), as a mechanical system with one degree of
freedom, in (reciprocating translational displacement of the blade unit).
Key words: Reciprocating translational displacement of the blade unit, Normal and binormal reaction,
Circular cutting element
INTRODUCTION
Consider the forced dynamic movement of the floating cutting unit, the action of a
system of forces: FR  FX  FC  FP in the area of breakout (non-periodic disturbances).
This is a transient process in the area of cut of the first cutting insert, until forced to
cut the second to the machined surface. The generation of a system of forces to the
periphery of the floating cutting unit. Approximates normal NFp1 and binormaling NFp2
reactions in (fig.1) in the required fields, radially to the axis of the machined surface.
n
n'
NF
P1
NF
P2
C
NF
A DB
C'
A' D' B'
P1
n
NF
P2
n'
Fig. 1.Removing (unbalance) in the area of cut of the
first cutting insert:
A) Kinematic scheme in the area of the incision of the
floating cutting unit;
B) Combined cutting tool with floating cutting unit and EDP;
To find the normal and binormaling reaction, is essential that the time of cutting, in
overcoming friction in guide block, overcoming imbalances incision, between the first to
second plates. To find the normal NFp1 (for cutting) and binormaling NFp2, (in the second
cut-out an insert), using equations:
FP1. cos  . p.m1  FC1. sin  . p.m 2  FX 1. cos  .h 1  cos 
N FP1 
.
(1)
G
2
290
N FP 2  .
 FP 2 . sin  . p.m1  FC 2 . cos  . p.m2  FX 2 . sin  .h 1  cos 
;
.
G
2
Wherein; G = mg - weight bearing floating cutting unit;
m - Total mass of the wearer floating cutting unit;
g = 9, 81 - acceleration of gravity;
NFp1 - normal response to the first cutting blade;
NFp2 - binormaling reaction of the second cutting blade;
Fp1 - tangential force acting on the first cutting blade;
Fc1 - radial force acting on the first cutting blade;
Fx1 - axial force;
Resultant function of FΣ f (Fx; Fc; Fp) system distributed forces;
Normal and binormaling reaction effects act, law and inverse (decreasing damping for the
second plate). Action radially oriented relative to the rotation axis of the blank.
Kinematics’ term vector - direction of the shift in loop.
Let from (fig.2), Giving continuity of the functions of the points, with approximate
coordinates: А (0,02;0); D (0;0); C (0.04;0),; Compared with the projection of the plan to
move the vector forces acre in this coordinate system FR (F'p1; F'c2;F'c1).
Presented a plan - the direction of the shift in loop. Where, ADCD is the perimeter of
a triangle with its vertices at (fig.2).
n
y
C
(0.4;0)
F'C1
x
F'C2
D(0;0)
0
F'P1
A
(0.2;0)
Figure. 2 Perimeter of the triangle ADCD, projection
of vector forces with the direction of integration in closed
loop.
General integral form of presentation in a composite
vector form is:
AD
 F'
dx  F 'C 2 dy  F 'C1dz 
P1
AC
 F ' dr ;
R
(2)
ADCD
n
Consider the vector as a force, (we have a vector
force field) work done this force acting on human AD, is
determined by the line integral.
(3)
A   FR ' dr ;
AD
The direction of integration is determined from the sequence of the letters, which
points circuit (fig.2). Integrate each side of the triangle, keeping their direction, and collect
the results. Side AD has equation y = 0. Then dy = 0 and the integrand for the length of
this country will be: 3x2 dx ; Point D has abscissa x = 0 and the point A - x = 1. Therefore:
0.015
I1 
2
 3x dx  3
 x dx  1;
AD
0
2
(4)
Side AC has the equation x + y = 1. Transform the integral on the side AC in the
definite integral on the variable x. The equation x + y = 1 we find:
291
y  1  x;
;
dy  dx
Then D has abscissa x = 1 ', a point C-x = 0. Therefore:
0
5
I 2     3x 2  (1  x)  x  2(1  x 2 ) dx   ;
3
1
AC


(5)
(6)
Country CD has equation x = 0. Then dx = 0 integrand and the length of this country
has the form:-2y2dy; the limits of integration are from the point C (y = 1), then A (y = 0). we
have:
0
2
(7)
I 3      2 y 2 dy  ;
3
1
CD
In this way we get:
5 3
I   1    0 ;
3 2
ADCD
The condition of unity and differentiation of functions: FR (F'p1; F'c2; F'c1), it follows that the
F ' P1  F 'C 2
integrand 2 satisfies the condition:
; and functions Fp1 and Fc2 are

dy
dx
continuous together with their partial derivatives, where the integral in closed loop is zero.
This premise is the key to proper distribution of vectors force field in the projection of
the forces derived on the first cutting insert. Considering the fact that the supporting
floating cutting unit is symmetrically balanced and sized. Shift from the first incision cutting
insert is cinematic regulated due to the projection of the vector plan - the direction in small
limited movements of set points from the carrier plate in closed loop. For - just analysis,
the errors in translational displacement of any point on the x axis, by a loop in the process,
"floating" on the cutting block. We can introduce the 2D spatial movement of item a, item a
base with coordinates [x, y, 1] of matrix geometry. Added to the unit vector dimension 3x1,
so that on need to be multiplied by the transformation matrix. RT. Where for item a X-axis,
we have coordinates Δh; Δy; Δz :-( 0.05; 0.02; 0 mm).
0 0
1

RT  0
1 0 ;
(8)
x y 1
Transformation matrix Rt, is necessary for translation of the configuration matrix C in the
specified direction to move the x-axis. Therefore ask the equation for the configuration
matrix C * after translation: С*= С.RT ;
(9)
If you ask the indicative values for errors geometric deviation of the tolerance band
of the workpiece , (errors of roundness -: Δx;-Δx '; Δy;-Δy'). Cutting turning clean, we can
simulate the translational motion of the quoted axis for the second round cutting plate
floating cutting unit in 2D space. By generating a transformation matrix C * with the help of
the software MATLAB.
Of (fig.3) is shown a plan - a projection of the movement of "floating" cutting block in
its initial position, aligned coordinate system (Δx '; Δy'; Δ0), the edges of which coincide
with the coordinates quoted in section A-axis x '; he performed with translation DATUM.
(0.05 ", 0.02, 1) mm, along the axis x '≡ x. A starting coordinate system (Δh; Δy; Δ0) we
have reciprocating translation in x with DATUM. (-0.05 ', -0.01', 1) mm.
Make to Δx = 0.05 mm;-Δx '=-0.05mm;
Δy = 0.02 mm;-Δy '= -0.01 mm.
After substituting in (9),
292
0
0 
1 0  0.05  1



C*  0 1  0.01.0
1
0  ;
0 0
1  0.05 0.02 1 
1 0  0.05 
C  0 1  0.01 ;
0 0
1 
We obtain:
Разпределение на допусковото поле пo линеен закон
след трансормационната матрица Rt по ос y
B = [1 0 -0.05; 0 1 -0.01; 0 0 1]*[1 0 0; 0 1 0; 0.05 0.02 1]
Уравнение на конфигурационната матрица С*
1.2
1
B(:,1)
B(:,2)
B(:,3)
1
B = 0.9975 -0.0010 -0.0500
-0.0005 0.9998 -0.0100
0.0500 0.0200 1.0000
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
Fig.3. Transformation matrix of
the equation C *.
0.6
0.6
Graphical presentation of virtual
axial distribution along the axis
# 2 (second axis aligned with
the established second cutting
blade), has a total tolerance
zone as derived from geometric
error inaccurate. Deviations from
circularity are: (± Δx; (Δ0.05 –
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
X: 2
Y: -0.01
0
0.1
-0.2
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
Координатни оси на разпределение на матрицата С*
- ос #2 приведена за втората пластина
2.8
3
0
Δ0.05); ± Δy; (-Δ0.01). Not regulated constructive geometric deviations. Causing minimal
oscillators incremental linear movement (sailing), the floating cutting block.
Kinematics’ plan - transition in the second cutting blade plate.
The floating cutter block done freely, forced relocation from the time of incision the
first incision until the second round cutting plate. Important factors for forced displacement
under the action of cutting forces are:
 The adapted coefficient of sliding friction in the guide of the bearing block - μtr.;
 Submission - s mm.;
 angular frequency of rotation of the blank - n - mm / rev.;
 torque of the blank - M m / s.;
 speed - V m / min;
 Equal current force - Frasul.
Trailing unit out of its equilibrium position forced to imposed aggregate global
coordinate system (0, x '; y'), oriented point A from (fig.4). Where a system is not strength
the movement takes place in low resistance environment (conducive ILO), with relatively
small displacements, (within the limits of the geometric tolerances of accuracy (roundness,
surf pier) of tolerance band sawing. For generalized angular coordinate, we choose the
angle of deviation q (Move) the floating block Rights in August = L the equilibrium position
(fig.3).
The system is conservative, and is subjected to a small coercive movements
(oscillations) caused by harmonic interference forces, (ΔFx '; ΔFp'; ΔFc '), under
"Navigation" in the area of the incision. Introduced a dynamic transmission plan - a scheme
for angular orientation of the end-points of contact in relative motion by sailing FCB.
293
4
1
y
y'
2
3
AC=p
C V'C
h
q
NFC1 0'
VB A
VA
L
FC
VC
 
FX
VD
FR
x= x
B
Fig.4.
Transmission
dynamic plan - a
scheme for the angular
orientation
of
the
contact points of the
floating cutter block
(FCB) in the second
cutting blade plate.
NFC2
n
For this purpose it is necessary to determine the kinetic energy in the cut-out of the second
cutting insert. So it made reciprocating - translational motion for the kinetic energy of the
floating cutting unit record [3]:
1
1
1
2
2
2
ЕK  .m1.VA  .m2 .VC  .m3 .VB ;
2
2
2
(10)
In this case:
(11)
VA  p.q ;
Where:
AC = p - bearing arm (in length from the point of cutting to the front of the bearing block);
α - angle actively move locked in the area of the sail (which is a function of field up to
trigger the work piece);
q - Angle of the moving coordinate system, the transmission function of angle α;
θ0 - base angle of displacement to the main coordinate system;
h - Shoulder cross (equidistant), a dynamo metric knife;
.
And because of the symmetry of the floating cutter block, we have: VC  p.q ;
(12)
Introducing an angle α, and using a projected velocity at point A and B of (fig.3), we
find:
VB . cos   VA . sin(0  q   ) ;
Whence it follows that:
(13)
.
VB  p.q. sin(0  q)  p. q . cos(0  q).td ;
From Figure 3 it can be established that after transformation, we have:
h  p. sin( 0  q)
tg 
;
2
L2  h  p. sin(0  q)
(14)
(15)
After substituting (14) in (15), we get:
.
h  p. sin(0  q)

VB  p.sin(0  q)  xos (0  q).
q;
(16)
L2  h  p. sin(0  q) 2
Having put in (9), the expressions (10) and (11) and taking into account that:
m1 = m2 = m, we find the kinetic energy:


294
2
.


h  p. sin( 0 q)
1

 .m3 . p 2 . q 2 ;
(17)
EK  2m1, 2  sin( 0  q)  cos(0  q).
2
2
2


L

h

p
.
sin(


q
)
0



To get the kinetic energy of motion (floating) floating cutting unit to the smallest
quantities, where q> 0 º, for EK have finally:


2


h  p. sin  0
1
 .m3 . p 2 .q 2
EK  .2m1, 2  sin  0  cos  0 .
2
2
;
2

L  (h  p. sin  0 ) 
(18)
Therefore, the inertia ratio of displacement (drift) of the cutting unit is:
2


h  p. sin 0
 .m3 . p 2 . ;
a  2m1, 2  sin 0  cos 0 .
(19)
2
2

L  (h  p. sin 0 ) 
To find the potential energy of the PG total weight of the floating cutting unit aligned
with the mechanical coordinate system, translation of the block (fig.5) should record:
ПGI  mi .g T .R 0 CI ;
(20)
ПGi  (2m1, 2  m3 ).g. cos 0 .RCI ;
0
4
1
y
y'
(21)
2
3
AC=p
C V'C
h
q
NFC1 0
VB A
VA
L
n
B
FC
VC
 
FX
VD
FR
D (xD;yD;zD)
x= x
NFC2
G
Fig.5. Defining a
reference mass center
G,
to
bring
the
coordinate system 0
'(x'; y '; z').
From
(fig.4)
shows the name of the
individual elements of
the floating bearing unit
are:
• m 1,2 - tables dynamo
metric knife;
• m3 - mass of the
Bearing plate to the cutting unit; • g - vector of gravitational acceleration in the reference
coordinate system; •1 - dynamo metric knife;• 2 - dynamo metric knife; • 3 - base plate of
the cutting block;• 4 - preparation; • RCi - vector position of the center of gravity in the
reference coordinate system; • Ri0 - matrix of transition in translation between coordinate
systems 0 '(x'; y '; z') [1];
 xVB 0 


0
R i   yVA 0  ;
(22)


 zVC 0 
To find the natural frequency of small movements (oscillations) of the floating cutter
block (PRB), the area of the incision to the established work of the supporting block, we
can write:
295

ПGI

(23)
 2m1, 2  m3 .g. cos  0 .RCi
0
;
(24)
2



h  p. sin  0


 .m3 p 2
2
m

sin


cos

 1, 2
0
0
2
2



L  (h  p. sin  0  


Presented its own frequency ω of small displacements in the area of the incision of the first
to the second cutting blade is a basic fragment. It justifies and kinematics fragmentation
(The movement of points in a closed loop), giving fragment and most - small
displacements in the zone of established work of FCB.
a
;
Dynamic transition process by suddenly applied constant force Fresul.val
area cut in the second round cutting plate.
Find the forces of sliding friction, Tpl. to guide the floating block considerations!




N RC1  N RC 2 VB
VB
(25)
T  .mn .N RCi .g.  ;
T   тр. .(m1  m2  m3 ).
.g .  ;

2
V
V
A
(26)
A
As a result of the imposed force field in the area of the incision, equal force, the forces
applied on the floating cutter block is the following:

 
(27)
Fр  T  G  N RCI ;

Since such movement (floating) is conducted in the horizontal plane perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the work piece, It follows that the forces are balanced with each other,
i.e. . Consequently, substitution of (1) and (25) to (26), we obtain:



  N  RCI  N  RCI 2
Fр  T1  G 
 0;
(28)
2
Floating cutter block is a vibrating system located under the influence of the amount
of random disturbing force which is a function of time t:
1
(29)
q  nq  k 2 .q(t )  .Q
( FX (t ) ; FP (t ) ; FC (t ) ) ;
а  FI
Wherein;
a - summary inertia constant floating cutting unit; QΣ Fi = Fresult. - Summary intimidating
force (resultant) arbitrary function of Wren t;
Dynamic behavior of a system is characterized by the so-called coefficient dynamics
representing the relationship dynamic to static deflection, expressed as a non dimensional
parameter in the following form [2]:
q

;
λ - Coefficient of dynamic;
(30)
qst.
n
ν - Non-dimensional coefficient of resistance;
(31)
 ;
k
  k.t ;
 - Non-dimensional time factor;
(32)
Amplitude - frequency response is no dimensional form and is given by the formula:
1

;
(33)
2 2
(1  z )  4v 2 .z 2
296
These formulas are empirical and are important for the visual presentation of
mathematical theory, by MATLAB software for small displacements (sailing) the Floating
cutting block into three separate areas: cut, set work, and exit area. Composed virtual
program MATLAB, generating mode file - function "prehod" transition process of small
displacements of the floating cutting block, suddenly applied constant force: F = 1687 N.
Strength value is indicative and is aligned with the current equal force Fresul ...
Fig. 5. Amplitude - frequency characteristic of
a transition process in small displacements of
the floating cutter block. The resulting curve
with coordinates (x = η = 4.3.; Y: 1.134). It is
the underlying trend generating average
frequency at small displacements (sailing),
between the first and second plates, prepared
in a coefficient of dynamic 1 - Ms.
Преходен процес при внезапно приложена сила Fрав. = 1687 N
Коефициент на динамичност  = q/qst
2
2
1.8
1.9
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.7
X: 4.3
Y: 1.134
1.2
1.6
1
1.5
0.8
1.4
0.6
1.3
0.4
1.2
0.2
1.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Времеви коефициент  = k.t
7
8
9
1
data1
data2
data3
data4
data5
data6
data7
data8
data9
data10
data11
data12
data13
data14
data15
data16
data17
data18
data19
data20
data21
data22
data23
v =0.5
data25
data26
data27
data28
data29
data30
Theoretically, we can assume that the time
factor η = 0.043 minutes, is a Time taken until the breakout of the second to the first cutting
blade for a quick move.
The movement of the floating cutting unit can be viewed as non-recurring linear
motion under the influence of forced (drums) loads in three zones: - Cut - down operation starting zones. Therefore, as the process of "floating" is firmly established (constructive),
without the support systems and mechanisms for reducing (damping) of the impact
velocity of the cutting plates to the machined surface. It is this "sailing" can define it as
conditional! Then we can assume that the floating cutter block is a vibrating system,
located under the influence of the amount of random disturbing force which is a function of
time t.
REFERENCES
[1]. Angelov, I. Sofia 2011. Matrix mechanics dynamics.
[2]. Tonchev, J. Sofia 2008. MT lab 6-7 Part II .Publishing equipment
[3]. Todorov. M.; Partinov. P. Ruse 1986. Theoretical Mechanics Parts II Dynamic.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mag.eng. Ivaylo Kirilov Angelov, RU „Angel Kunchev― - Ruse, str. Studentska #7;
Bulgaria, E-mail: pif_1974@abv.bg ;
297
DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY AND FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR
TRACTORS TRANSPORTATION
Chavdar Vezirov, Atanas Atanasov,
Hristo Hristov, Veselin Lashev, Vladut Valentin.
Abstract: A method for determination of tractor and trailer capacity and fuel consumption in advance
is proposed. It is based on force, power and time balances for any possible combination between tractor,
trailer, terrain, hauled goods, and distances. First optimal speeds and hourly fuel consumption are computing
as a function of engine load and gear ration. Then time for movement with and without goods is calculating.
Duration of some specific operation for each cycle of transportation like loading, uploading is taking from
tables or determinate as a function of lifting machinery main characteristics.
Key words: Capacity, Fuel consumption, Tractor and trailer unit, Transportation in Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
Determination of tractor and trailer units capacity and fuel consumption in advance is
necessary for activities planning, stimulation of their timely realization and fuel saving.
There are a lot of collections of such recommended information for tractors and trucks
vehicles, lifting machinery - [1], [7], [14] and also for manually load and uploading of
trailers, cars and self-propelled chassis – [8]. The number of such data is proportional to
the number of eligible combinations of tractors and trailers, terrains, distances, goods,
methods and technical means for loading and uploading. Even for situations with little
number of tractors and trailers brands, models and modifications which were in some East
European countries three decades ago this required not less than 200 or more pages.
Moreover not every time was taken into account using of normal or additional trailers side
panels. In order to reduce the number of data about capacity and fuel consumption:
 Loading and uploadind are classified in four groups as combinations between
manually and mechanized operations,
 Goods are classified in four groups according to its volume density, type of
packaging and trailer body volume usage rate,
 Terrain is classified in three groups: first – asphalted, dry field roads in good
condition, second – coated with gravel, paved, filed roads after rain, stubble and
lawn field, third – with deep ruts, in the spring after warming, in the fall before
freezing, field after plowing or harvesting roots, off-road,
 Some time instead information about brands, models and modifications trailers are
presented only by theirs carrying capacity,
 Distance for varied intervals between their averages: in case of short distance
range is shorter.
Unfortunately this approach don‘t take into account such important road
characteristics as width, maximum speed, transverse and longitudinal slope, radius or
curvature. Furthermore the path may include part for one-way traffic and short parts for
waiting of tractor and trailer unit.
One possible solution of this problem is using of so called electronic normative or
prescriptions for expected capacity and fuel consumption for transportation by tractor
aggregates. Users input information about terrain, distance, goods, type of loading and
uploading, carrying capacity and received as of output necessity capacity and fuel
consumption for a shift time or for an hour and for a transportation measure unit – tons,
kilometers, tonkilometrs. More detailed this approach is described in [3] and [6], also for
other agricultural aggregates.
298
Although transportation in agriculture has some features like off-road movement,
speed restriction because important requirements of fruit, vegetable damage prevention, of
tractor driver comfort, it is not enough studied. Usually such its aspects are considered as
roads net, trucks and trailers, loaders [17]. There is a lot of information in some handbooks
or standards, i.e. [15] about tractors and implements, but not about trailers and agricultural
goods transportation.
Therefore a method for determination of capacity and fuel consumption in carriage of
goods in agriculture by tractor and trailer units will be considered below.
METHOD AND PROCEDURE
A simulation of interaction between tractor, trailer, terrain and goods is chosen in
order main characteristics of transportation to be determined. This approach allows having
practically infinity number of solution for agricultural product haulage for any combination
of tractor aggregate, distance, etc. Moreover there are a lot of application packages by
which to automate such labor intensive and long time consumption calculation process.
The essence of the method is described in details in [2] and [4]. Especially for tractor
and trailer unit tc - time for a cycle (round trip, to-and-fro, both ways) is
tc = L/Vt + L/Vb + tlu +tao,
where L is the distance between starting point (inception, origin) and destination,
Vt – speed of unit there, Vb – speed of unit back (usually with and without goods),
tlu – time for loading and uploading depending on the their type: manually and
mechanized, capacity of lifting machinery,
tao – time for additional operations like weighing the cargo, preparation of travel
documents, etc.
Then normative capacity of vehicle can be calculated by
Hp = (T05 – trp – tpf) * Q /tc,
where T05 is duration of a shift,
trp – time for rest and physiological needs in a shift,
tpf – preparatory and final time in a shift,
Q - loading capacity.
Fuel consumption for the same shift is
Fc = ∑ (Tt * Gt),
where Tt is duration of each part t of time shift,
Gt – fuel consumption for each part of shift time. For diesel fuel [15]
Gt = [2,84*X +3,91 - 0,203 * (738 * X +173)´] * γ * Pe,
where X is the ratio of Pe - equivalent PTO power required by transportation to that
maximum available from the PTO,
γ – fuel density.
The coefficients are for Pe in kW, γ in kg/l.
For example usually during the weighing the cargo and preparation of travel
documents Gt = Go. For diesel engine Go is a minimal fuel consumption for engine idling
and throttle-back (throttle down).
Gt depends on engine loading manly because of motion (rolling) resistance of tractor,
force on trailer at tractor drawbar, perpendicular to the ground surface speed reduction
(wheel slip, slippage), in particular on cargo amount, tires‘ type and dimensions, their
deflection, terrain characteristics, gear ratio, velocity, etc
The above mentioned parameters have significant effect also on tractor and trailer
unit forward speed Vt and Vb, hence on vehicle normative capacity Hp. Consequently it is
important primarily to known weight of vehicle and its cargo and motion resistance.
Vehicle weight includes besides its own weight and this of the cargo. The last one
299
depends on trailer carrying capacity, tires code (especially about maximum load and
speed), volume density (therefore type of product package), height of side panels (normal,
additional blind, additional grid).
More complicated is determination of motion resistance. Approximately it can be
calculate by using of empirical table data about different type and dimension tires, different
terrain, i.e. filed after plowing or harvesting of cereals, roots, after cultivation, before
sowing, etc. Unfortunately some times it can be associated with great error, especially if
such soil characteristics like moisture, internal friction are not taken in account.
Another way to determine in advance specific motion resistance is by using the Cone
index – CI. In such case ρ - specific rolling resistance or coefficient of rolling resistance
can be calculated [15], [18]
ρ = 1/Bn + 0,04 + 0,5 * δ / Bn´,
where δ is speed reduction,
Bn – mobility number, dimensionless ratio.
Bn = (CI * b * d / W) * {[1 + 5 * (1 - ε)] / (1 + 3 * b / d)},
where W is dynamic wheel load force normal to the terrain,
b – unloaded tire section width,
d – unloaded overall tire diameter,
ε – coefficient of tire deflection (ratio of tire deflection and height of tire section
height).
The quantity in first pair of brackets is known also as wheel numeric, dimensionless
ratio Cn, i.e.
Cn = CI * b * d / W.
Cone index is approximately for hard soil 1800, firm soil – 1200, tilled soil – 900, soft
or sandy soil – 450 kPa.
Practically all above described parameters easy can be measured or calculated. This
information can be used to calculate δ - speed reduction too (presuming flat road).
δ = [1 / (0,3 * Cn)] * ln {0,75 / [0,75 – (Fт /W + 1, 2 / Cn + 0,079)]},
where Fт is net draw pull,
ln – natural logarithm.
Wheel slip can be computed using other formulas and coefficients [5], [16].
Now it is simple to evaluate motion resistance and after this – forward speed Vt, Vb
and hourly fuel consumption Gt.
The next step in determination of normative capacity and fuel consumption is
specifying of each part of shift time with their essence and duration.
trp is regulated by official recommendation and for most agricultural tractors is
approximately 25 minutes. tlu depends on type of loading - manually or mechanized (with
conveyor, front loader, grab or lifting crane, etc., and their capacity), type of the goods, and
carrying capacity of the trailer. Time for mechanized uploading depends mainly of number
of sides for uploading (more sides – les time for maneuvering) and type of uploading
mechanism – by hydraulic cylinder, auger (screw) conveyor, high lift, etc.
tao for additional operations includes weighing the cargo, preparation of travel
documents, hooking and unhooking trailer, locking and unlocking of side panels, cleaning
of trailer platform, cargo binding and unbinding, maneuvering before loading and
uploading. Some times the process lasts 20 or 25 minutes.
tpf includes such times like refueling, each shift maintenance actions, adjustment,
periodical checking of main tractor and trailer indices, reception and transmission of the
vehicle at the beginning and at the finishing of shift, etc. It lasts not less than 20 minutes
up to 50 minutes for big tractors and high cargo capacity trailers.
300
When the normative capacity and fuel consumption data have to be used for a lot of
possible situation, result is presented in tables like this below.
Part of the table
Normative capacity and fuel consumption for transportation by tractor Lamborghini
R3 EVO 85 and trailer with carrying capacity 4 tons for I category roads
Cargo category
I
II
III
IV
Distance,
km
Hp
gp
Hp
gp
Hp
gp
Hp
gp
t/shift
kg/t
t/shift
kg/t
t/shift
kg/t
t/shift
kg/t
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Mechanized loading and uploading
to 3
45,8
0,65
35,6
0,82
24,0
1,17
14,0
1,96
3 to 6
34,3
1,33
26,7
1,67
18,2
2,33
10,7
3,83
6 to 9
27,4
2,01
21,3
2,52
14,7
3,49
8,7
5,71
9 to 12
22,8
2,69
17,7
3,37
12,3
4,65
7,3
7,59
12 to 15
19,5
3,37
15,2
4,23
10,6
5,81
6,3
9,47
………
….
….
….
….
….
….
….
….
gp is fuel consumption per ton transported goods. First category cargo means 100%
using of carrying capacity, II – 80%. III – 60%, IV – 40%.
First important question when we have to determine such normative data is their
authenticity. It is not possible to evaluate them only by comparing with real capacity and
fuel consumption, because there is a lot factors influenced on them. That‘s why to answer
the question we measure duration of all kinds of activities included in sift time. Other
important quantities that are tight related with capacity and energy demands are vehicle
speed and fuel expenditure. It is simple to check tractor velocity i.e. by measure of
distance and time taken to travel it. More complicated is measure of spent fuel. Only a few
farmers have fuel gauges. Instead of this they can use as an alternative of petrol tank a
small measured cylinder or container for liquids. The difference of fuel volume or weight
before and after travel has to be divided to time or corresponding distance.
Second question concerns levels of the normative data. In the table above the step
for distance change is identical and equal to three kilometers. If that equidistance is
smaller the difference between predicted and actual possible values will be less significant.
The step-change for distance has to make equivalent change in Hp and gp enough greater
than errors in Vt, Vb, and Gt. Another good approach for selecting of step-change is to
guarantee equal difference between Hp or gp – absolutely or relatively. Unfortunately it is
a complicate procedure especially if it has to get desired result for both.
Third question refers to requirement normative date to stimulate engaged staff. There
are enough ways tractor drivers to reduce duration of some activities like checking and
maintenance. Furthermore operators can select appropriate gear ratios and throttle
position in order to guarantee the best combination between productivity and energy
expenditure.
CONCLUSIONS
The above presented procedure for determination of tractor and trailer capacity and
fuel consumption in advance allows in short time a lot of normative data to be derived. By
it the effect of main factors such as tractor and trailer parameters, goods, terrain, and
distance on working speed, energy expenditure and time utilization is reproducing.
Application of spreadsheets makes the process easier, quicker and well-founded.
301
REFERENCES
[1]. Official normative for capacity and fuel consumption of tractor vehicles in agriculture.
1992. (In Bulgarian)
[2]. Vezirov Ch. Resources using in agriculture. 2013. (In Bulgarian)
[3]. Vezirov Ch., St. Gatsova. Electronic normative for agriculture – possibility and
usefulness. Proceeding of Conference. NIMESS, Sofia, 1996. (In Bulgarian)
[4]. Vezirov Ch. et al. Using and service of farm machinery. 2009. (In Bulgarian)
[5]. Vezirov Ch. Manual for agricultural aggregates and technological complexes. 1989.
(In Bulgarian)
[6]. Gatsova St., Vezirov Ch. et al. A new approach for fuel consumption norming in field
crop cultivation. Mechanization of agriculture, № 4, 1986. (In Bulgarian)
[7]. Unified normative for mechanized loading and unloading. 1978. (In Bulgarian)
[8]. Unified normative for manual loading and unloading. 1978. (In Bulgarian)
[9]. Levi S. Manual for design in machines, tractors and trucks fleet exploitation. 1976. (In
Bulgarian)
[10]. Lutsenko A. V. Mathematical modeling of dynamic processes of wheeled vehicles
movement on deformable grounds. 2007. (In Russian)
[11]. Instructions for practical training on „Creating of more detailed normative for capacity
and
fuel
consumption
for
field
mechanized
operations.
2006.
http://www.csaa.ru/mu/EMTP/diff.pdf (In Russian)
[12]. Presnyakov V. Design, calculation and consumer properties of automobiles.
http://abc.vvsu.ru/Books/svoystvaauto/page0001.asp (In Russian)
[13]. Stoyanov Hr. et al. Mechanization and management of agricultural transportation.
1974. (In Bulgarian)
[14]. Exemplary normative for capacity and fuel consumption of tractor transport in
agriculture. 1989. (In Russian)
[15]. ASAE D497.4. Agricultural Machinery Management Data.
[16]. Chakravorty, A., Karmakar, S. Software for performance prediction and matching of
tractor-implement system. Emerging Trends and Applications in Computer Science
(NCETACS), 2012 3rd National Conference.
[17]. CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume III. Plant Production
Engineering. 1999.
[18]. Macmillan R. H. The Mechanics of Tractor – Implement Performance.
http://bsesrv214.bse.vt.edu/Hop/Papers/Mechanics-Tractor-Implement.pdf
[19]. Naderi M. et al. Assessment of Dynamic Load Equations through Drive Wheel Slip
Measurement. http://www.idosi.org/aejaes/jaes3%285%29/18.pdf
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Chavdar Vezirov, Angel Kanchev University of Ruse, 8 Studentska Street 7017 Ruse,
Bulgaria, E-mail: vezirov@uni-ruse.bg,
Atanas Zdravkov Atanasov, Angel Kanchev University of Ruse, 8 Studentska Street
7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: aatanasov@uni-ruse.bg,
Hristo Yankov Hristov, Angel Kanchev University of Ruse, 8 Studentska Street 7017
Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail: hyhristov@uni-ruse.bg,
Veselin Lashev, Angel Kanchev University of Ruse, 8 Studentska Street 7017 Ruse,
Bulgaria, E-mail: t601@abv.bg.
V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, Email: vladut@inma.ro;
302
MATHEMATICAL MODELING IN DESIGN OF TRANSPORT
VEHICLES
Cârdei P.1), 2)Atanasov At., Ciupercă R.1), Muraru V.1), Sfîru R.1)
1)
INMA Bucharest; 2)University of Rousse
Abstract: The paper presents results related to comparing the behavior of different mathematical
models for components of some classic transport vehicles. Agricultural trailers or semi-trailers high capacity
have been more than two - three decades into the focus of researchers and designers for multiple purposes:
increasing transport capacity and displacement speed, increasing work safety, optimizing specific qualities,
etc. To address these problems it is necessary mathematical modeling of the real structures. This may be
more or less complex. Complexity of the models depends on the desired results. It is important for economic
reasons to work with models more simple and not refer directly to complex models involving a large number
of hypotheses, which require numerous experimental verifications. The illustration of these issues is the aim
of the article.
Key words: model, transport, vehicle, agricultural
INTRODUCTION
Mathematical modeling in the structural analysis is an extremely large field, due to
the complexity that can be achieved. A basic direction in which appears firstly the problem
of models complexity is that of their geometric representation (geometric model).
Geometric model can be very simple, 1 or 2 dimensional, discretized with 1 or 2dimensional finite element, but can also be very complex, 3-dimensional model discretized
with three-dimensional finite elements. There are also, higher levels of complexity, hybrid
in which physical entities modeled occur as ideal entities of different geometric
dimensions.
The model geometry thus opens a wide field of mathematical modeling complexity,
but it is not the only one. Another area which may increase the complexity of the
mathematical models is the mathematical modeling of materials rheological properties,
properties that give the behavior of materials under certain loading conditions: elastic,
elasto–plastic and elasto-visco-plastic materials, linear or nonlinear, composites, etc..
Another source of mathematical models complication is the coupling of various
phenomena: mechanical and thermal, fluid flowing and mechanical, mechanical and
electro-magnetic, etc..
The main problem must to limit the complication of mathematical models, is that, any
element that complicates a model requires one or more new hypotheses to be found and
tested experimentally. A second problem that limits the complication of the model consists
in its testing, which again requiring validation experiences. The third problem that prevents
excessively complication of mathematical models is economy of intellectual and
computational effort, problem that should not be neglected.
On the other hand, gradual complication of models must to give a measure of its
profitability, ie the ratio between new results obtained toward the basic model and their
price in intellectual, experimental and calculation effort. This paper will try to exemplify
these aspects, regarding the new results that can be obtained on more complicated
models, and, in the same time, highlighting necessary efforts to obtain them. The paper
does not refer to experiments, because, mathematical models used do not involve
assumptions which require such validations.
The structure given as example in this article is the chassis of a trailer and its axle. It
will illustrate gradual complexity of the model. It will start on an apparent logical direction,
303
but which does not ensure passing through the shortest path. Obviously, elementary
checking would be done starting with the simple element, the axle, for which there are
classical, theoretical and test formulas, ie. the control of model functioning. The drawing
provided by the designer appears in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 - Technical design of the axle
M1- The axle elementary model as a bar with constant section
According to the designer‘s specifications, the simplest model is that, taken from
specialized resistance books, which represents the axle as a straight beam (BernoulliEuler type model, [12] or [13]) of constant section with the opening equal with the distance
between the supporting areas centers of the axle on bearings and loaded in the centers of
the two symmetrical loading areas (pattern assigned as M1).
Such a model appears in many treaties of materials strength, eg [1], [3], [11], [15],
[16], [17], [18] or by machine parts, [14]. The scheme and the model formulas are given in
Fig. 2. The bar is articulated in two bearing points.
M max  Fa
umax 
(1)

Fa 3l 2  4a 2

24 EI
(2)
Fig. 2 - Geometry, bearing and loading of the axle modeled within the M1 model
In formulas (1) and (2), Mmax is the maximum moment, F is half of the axle total
loading force that acting, a and l are geometric characteristics, E is the elasticity modulus
of the material from which the axle is built, I is the geometric inertia moment of the bar
cross section, that shapes the axle and Umax is the maximum relative displacement along
the bar on its axis.
For the axle model in Fig. 2, the bar cross-section is constant with full square side of
80 mm, the material which the bar was built being OLC 45 (E=2.1·1011 Pa, the Poisson
coefficient, ν = 0.3, mass density, ρ= 7850 kg/m3).
M2, 1-dimensional finite element model
Nearest mathematical model with finite element toward the previous model that was
solved purely analytically (with simple or elementary formulas), but which also respects the
real geometric shape of the bearing areas, with bearings in one single point in each
bearing area is given in Fig. 3.
The axle geometric model is an elementary one: straight bar (reduced to symmetry
axis) with section of full square on the central area (square with side of 80 mm) and with
circular section in the supporting areas (diameter of 75 mm). The areas at the ends,
304
including two finite elements each, bordered by three nodes are the axle supporting areas
on the bearings.
Discretization is done with 1-dimensional elements of BEAM3D type, found in the
finite elements library of the structural analisys program used, [4]. The bearing is done by
canceling translational displacements (ux, uy, uz relative displacements) and rotational
movement around its own axis of the axle (relative rotation, rx). Free rotations around the
Oy and Oz axis remain free.
Bearing described above is done in one single node, considering that, the bearing
area is very limited and the system in which the bearing is mounted is bearing on elastic
elements (wheels). The similar stifftening in the two other nodes in each of the two
bearing areas leads to increases the tension in axle, which is not consistent with reality.
This bearing mode leads to results in agreement with literature specific in the field of
materials resistance, [1]. The model with finite elements given in Fig. 3 and described
above is denoted further with M2.
Fig. 3 - The elementary model with finite elements of the axle (geometry, bearing and
loading, M2)
Fig. 4 - The map of relative displacement resultant in the M2 model of the axle, under the
circumstances above, given vectorial on the deformed shape of the body. Values are given
in m
Fig. 5 - The equivalent tension map in the M2 model of the axle, under the circumstances
of loading specified above. Values are given in Pa (N/m 2)
Distribution of the relative displacement resultant and the equivalent tension in the
M2 axle model is given through the map in graphic form in Fig. 4 and 5. The axle
fundamental frequency is 71.76 Hz and the corresponding deformation is a bending one.
Their own frequencies are: 287.06, 645.818, 794.115, 1148.01, 1794.06, 2381.24,
2584.35, 3517.98, 3965.05 Hz. The reaction force in each bearing points has the value of
37,500 points N, ie. half of the total load applied to the axle.
305
The problem of axle bearing generates a large number of possible models. The way
which the axle is placed on the bearing, size and shape of the contact surfaces is unknown
and changes over time, faster at the begining, according to loading. Changing the bearing
conditions at the M2 mathematical model of finite elements leads to three different models
which give results, that differ substantially from those of M1 and M2 models.
Geometry, discretization and load of M2 model variants will be denoted M21, M22
and M23. For each of these models, the bearing area is discretized into two elements and
three nodes that limit them. The nodes at the ends of the two bars that limit the bar and the
bearing area will be called external nodes. The nodes of the two areas situated towards
the center of the axle, which are located at the axle section changing border will be called
internal nodes of the bearing area.
The nodes located on the centers of the bearing zones will be called the central nodes.
With these specifications can be defined, for differentiation, the models derived from M2
- The M2 model has the bearing only in the central nodes, ux=0, only the left,
uy=uz=0;
- The M21model, maintain the bearing of the M2 model, addition, in the extreme
nodes: uy=uz=0
- The M22 model, maintain the bearing of the M2 model, addition, in the interior
nodes: uy=uz=0;
- The M23 model, maintain the bearing of the M2 model, addition, in the extreme and
interior nodes: uy=uz=0.
The main results of the M2 models and their derivatives appear in Table 1.
As a result of many possible bearing assumptions, one can imagine many mathematical
models with finite element, which have a higher level of complexity than a simple onedimensional bar bearing on the ends.
One of these is that whose geometry, loading and bearing are given in Fig. 6. The
model will be called M3. Rectangles on which the axle bearing directly (Fig. 6, a), shape
rims of the wheels, and rectangles being in their extension shape tires, that represents the
axle elastic bearing. These geometric entities are discretized with 2-dimensional finite
elements by the SHELL3 type from the program with finite elements library [4].
Because in this model interests only the axle behavior, the rim and the tire models
are not models with high fidelity to reality. The rims and the tires play in this model only the
role of elastic bearings. Under these conditions, the results must be carefully interpreted.
The resultant relative displacement of the axle is calculated by the difference
between its value on the entire structure at the middle of the axle and the value of the
same field in the central node of the bearing. The value of this difference is about 4.98
mm. The maximum equivalent tension is located in the axle in the central part between the
nodes in which the load is applied. Its value is 134.7 MPa.
The first ten own frequencies of the M3 model are: 0.0026, 12.181, 18.916, 19.432,
28.392, 79.147, 115.744, 116.681, 321.564, 335.12 Hz.
a)
b)
Fig. 6 - Geometry (a), discretization, bearing and loading (b) of the M3 model
The chassis structural model, M4
306
The gradual complexity of the model continues with the chassis structural model, that
bearings in the back on the axle and in the front part on the tractor coupling point. The
basic structural model of the chassis, that will further be denoted with M4 is built
exclusively with finite elements type BEAM3D, found in the finite elements library of the
structural analysis program wherewith worked. In Fig. 9 The structural model of chassis
appears, used for analysis in this calculation.
Fig. 7 - Distribution of the relative
displacement field resultant in the M3 nodel.
The values are given in m
Fig. 8 - Equivalent tension distribution in the
M3 model. The values are given in MPa
Were used for bearing the cancellation
conditions of the three translational
relative displacements in the front of the
chassis (the one that connects to the
tractor, ux=uy=uz=0 and cancellation of
vertical and lateral translations in the axle
bearing points of the chassis (uy=uz=0).
The loading has been done with a
total force of 7500 daN, in six points,
according to the designer‘s indications,
equally loaded, so 1250 daN in each
Fig. 9 - (M4) basic model with finite
loading point (red arrows in Fig. 9).
elements of the trailer chassis - geometry,
According to the designer‘s indications,
discretization, bearings and loading
the two longerons were made of U
180x80x5 mm profile, as the traverse behind the trailer and the penultimate traverse from
U 120x80x5 mm profile.
The first two traverses have been considered from steel with square pipe profile of
100x6 mm. The material is L42 steel for longerons (250 MPa yield limit), back and central
traverse, S275 JR to ear hitch, OLT 35 front traverse (230 MPa yield limit). It took for all
steel E = 2.1 ·1011 Pa, ν = 0.3, respectively 7850 kg/m3 density.
The analysis has been performed by the finite element method, obtaining the
resultant relative displacement and the equivalent tension field in the structure, as is grafic
represented in Fig. 10 and 11.
307
Fig. 10 - The relative displacement field
distribution resulting in the structure, in the
bearing and loading conditions specified
above. Distribution is given on the structure
deformed shape. The values are given in m
Fig. 11 - The equivalent tension field in the
trailer chassis structure on the undeformed
shape. The values are given in Pa (N/m2)
It is noted that, the arrow in the structure has a maximum value of about 2 mm
(1.9794 mm), in the loading and bearing conditions specified, a value very small compared
with the structure scale. The maximum tension in the structure components built from L42
steel is 94.31 MPa and the structure components made of OLT 35 is about 42 MPa.
The own fundamental frequency of the chassis, thus bearing is set to 50.98 Hz and
the structure deformed shape is grafic represented in Fig. 12.
In fig. 13 are given the reactions in the chassis bearing points, the values being by
26465.7 N, on each of the bearing points on the axle and by 11053.9 N on each of the
front bearing points from the hitch. Their sum exceeds the loading value with a force of 38 N,
which is due to discretization calculation errors, but this error is only 0.05% of the total load.
Fig. 12 - The structure deformed shape
when it vibrating in the vibration
fundamental mode
Fig. 13 - The reactions in the bearing points,
26465.7 N on each of the bearing points on the
axle and by 11053.9 N on each of the two
bearing points from hitch
The mass of the analyzed chassis model is 148.6 kg, the mass center in coordinate
system given in Fig. 4 has xG=1.376 m, yG=-0.003545 m, zG= 0.00 m coordinates. All the
results above were calculated ignoring gravity loads generated by the own weight of the
structure.
If it takes into account the gravitational load, the maximum relative displacement
value becomes 1.9987 mm, and the maximum equivalent tension reaches the value of
95,703 MPa, ie minimal changes, negligible. Due to the model simplifications, a series of
connecting and strengthening elements (plates, ears, etc..) located on the chassis, are not
represented in the structural model, reason way, the value of its mass is less than the
value obtained by weighing the real model.
Chassis structural model with axle and wheels, M5
308
Fig. 14 - The structural model of the
chassis with axle, M4
Fig. 15 - The resultant relative displacement
distribution in the submodel consists of chassis
and axle, as well as in connecting elements
between them
This model is obtained by coupling M3 and M4 models. The chassis structural model
with axle and wheels is represented in Fig. 14. The bearing is done bottom of wheels and
on the chassis front ears. The loading is the same as for the M4 model (by 1250 daN)
each loading point marked by red arrows in Fig. 14.
The model response to loads and bearing are given in Fig. 15 and 16. The first ten
model fundamental frequencies are: 12,739, 13,459, 29,107, 45,837, 55,267, 66,358,
79,003, 86,442, 129,129, 139,729 Hz.
The M5 model highlights complex issues characteristic of large structures. These
results show the effects of considering natural application or closer to reality of the loads. It
is changing not only the maximum values of relative displacement of the fields and
equivalent tension, but also, the peaks location.
For the M1 model, with data: a = 0.3085 m, l = 1.617 m, F = 37500 N, we obtain the
results: Mmax = 11568.75 Nm, Umax = 0.0050 m, respectively maximum tension in the axle,
σ = 135.57 MPa, the last has been obtained using Navier's formula, [1] page 317, or [2]
page 122, for example, the maximum tension obtained on the exterior fibers of the axle.
For the same data above, according with [3], for example, the axle fundamental frequency
is 71,759 Hz. The M1 model, also gives the reactions in the bearing points, each equal
with F. The model with finite elements, M2, with the same distance between bearings and
the same distance between the points of force application, model whose characteristics
are given in Fig. 3, has a bearing (border conditions) chosen, so as to obtain results as
close to those given by the M1 model, which appears in the literature [1], [2]. The axle
arrow (maximum resultant relative displacement) is localized in the middle of the axle, with
a value of about 5 mm (Fig. 4). This value coincides with that calculated by conventional
formulas given in [2] and is small in relation to axle length between bearings, 1617 mm.
The resultant relative displacement, practically coincides with the absolute value of vertical
displacement (Oy axis), because loading is static. Maximum equivalent tension is localized
in the central area, with the value 135,571 MPa classical calculation by [2] giving
practically the same value. The fundamental frequency of vibration is practically the same
as that given by the M1 model, 71.76 Hz. The M2 model gives in each of the bearing
points a reaction force equal to half of the total load applied to the axle. Reactions can be
used to calculate the crushing effort in bearing. The main results of the M2 model and its
derivative models appear in Table 1. The M3 structural model is the trailer chassis separat
model.
Table 1 - The main results relative only to the axle of the M1 - M5 models
309
Model
M1
M2
M21
M22
M23
M3
M4
M5
σmax, MPa
umax, mm
5.005
5.016
8.790
7.290
7.230
4.980
0.700
135.570
135.571
219.091
214.869
215.199
134.700
102.000
Fundamental own
frequency, Hz
71.759
71.762
153.544
164.251
164.731
115 – 335
143 – 250
Due to differences in results provided by the models, two important conclusions
detach. The first conclusion is that, physical experiences are the only ones able to validate
or to select a most faithful model from a collection of models proposed.
In the absence of experimental data, the reference results for axle modeling are
those of the model used for a long time in designing, M1. Such models are used
successfully for over a century and gave good results in major European and global industry.
Most of the proposed models give the same deformation of the axle, located in the
middle of it, ranging from 5 to 9 mm. However, all these models which give similar values
of the deformation in the axle, are loaded with independent forces. A value less than 10
times of the axle deformation indicates the most complex model, M5. This result is due to
special loading toward the other models, loading with a force numerically equal, but with
the aid of a rigid frame.
Regarding the maximum equivalent tension in the structure, the study main objective
- axle – the reference model gives a value which overestimates with about 25% its
maximum value. In addition, if the M1 - M3 models locates the maximum value of the
equivalent tension to the middle of the axle, while the M5 complex model locates it on the
axle in the vecinity of the chassis catching points and in the chassis frame.
It is noted that, the model results [1], although more different than those of the M5
complex model are enough, which explains the proper functioning of the axles in a very
long operating time. Reality seems to validate this complex model, [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10].
Firmer conclusions in regard to the recommendation of using complex models, that would
lead to structures more flexible, lighter, more efficient, we can issue after we have enough data.
REFERENCES
[1] Comănescu A., Suciu I., Weber Fr., Comănescu D., Mănescu T., Grecu B., Mikloş I.,
Mechanics, Strength of materials and machine parts, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing
House, Bucharest, 1982
[2] Drobotă V., Strength of materials, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1982;
[3] Buzdugan Gh., Fetcu L., Radeş M., Mechanical vibrations, Didactic and Pedagogic
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1982;
[4] Structural analysis with finite elements program documentation COSMOS / M 2.8;
[5] Klinger C., Bettge D., Hacker R., Heckel T., Gohlke D., Klingbeil D., Failure Analysis on
a Broken ICE3 Railway Axle, Bundesanstalt fur Materialforschung und –prufung, ESIS
TC24 Railway Structures, 11.Oct.2010;
[6] Kendall C.C., Halimunanda D., Failure Analysis of Introduction Hardened Automotive
Axles, J Fail. Anal. And Preven., 2008;
[7] Transportation Safety Board of Canada, Railway investigation report R07T0240, 2007;
310
[8] Asi O., Fatigue failure of a rear axle shaft of an automobile, Engeineering Failure
Analysis 13 (2006) 1293-1302;
[9] Transportation Safety Board of Canada, Railway investigation report R04V0173, 2004;
[10]
LVVTA
Tech
Team,
Magnum
Axle
Safety
Warning,
2012,
http://lvvta.proboards.com/index.cgi? board=general&action=display&thread=274;
[11] Sofonea G., Pascu A. M., Strength of materials,, „Lucian Blaga‖ University, Sibiu, 2007
[12] Radeş M., Finite element analysis, 2006;
[13] Marin C., Hadăr A., Popa F., I., Albu L., Finite element modeling of mechanical
structures, Romanian Academy Publishing House, AGIR Publishing House, 2002;
[14] Tudor A., Machine parts, Polytechnic University of Bucharest, 2004;
[15] Dupen B., Applied Strength of Materials for Engineering Technology, National Center
for Educational Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 2012;
[16] Bansal R. K., A Textbook of Strength of Materials, revised fourth edition, Laxmi
Publications
(P)
LTD,
2010,
http://books.google.ro/books?id=2IHEqp8dNWwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_
ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false;
[17] Morley A., Strength of Materials, fourth edition, Logmans, Greeen and CO. 39,
London, 1916;
[18] Buzdugan Gh., Strength of Materials, Technical Publishing house, 1980.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
P. Cârdei, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
cardei@inma.ro;
A. Atanasov, University of Rousse, 8 ―Studentska‖ St, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria, E-mail:
aatanasov@uni-ruse.bg
R. Ciupercă, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
ciuperca@inma.ro;
V. Muraru, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
vmuraru@inma.ro;
R. Sfîru, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
sfiru@inma.ro
311
RESULTS OF THE FIRST ENERGETIC WILLOW CROP IN ROMANIA
L. Mihaescu, A.Domokos, I. Pisa I. Oprea, S. Bartha
Abstract The paper presents the results of the first crop of the energetic willow in Romania:
productivity, harvesting, energetic characteristics and utilization possibilities. The culture of the energetic
willow in Romania has beginning in 2008-2009. Today the total surface cultivated is about 1000 ha, with a
great territorial dispersion. The first mechanical harvesting was made in Poian village, Covasna County, in
February 2013, under a 40 ha, using John Deere high yield technology. The culture was a 4 years old and
was obtained a production of 50t/ha, with a high humidity of (50-51)%. The chopped willow was storage up in
the open air in order to be taken by the customers. The chopped willow obtained by partial harvesting was
burned until 2012 in ERPEK boilers with a thermal power of (24÷1000) kW.
Key words: Energetic willow, Biomass, Combustion
INTRODUCTION
In Romania, the energetic willow growing has started in 2008 as an alternative to the
forests protection. Over 600 hectares are cultivated in Covasna, Hargita and other
Romanian counties. In Harghita was developed a culture of cuttings for seeding. In 2013,
February, was performed the first mechanical harvesting with John Deere equipment,
7050 series, in Covasna county, Poian village. The willow of Viminalis species, Tordis
variety, was harvested after 4 years due to the economical reasons [1]. The total
harvested area was 20 hectares and the average quantity was about 50 t/ha. The
harvesting has involved an important truck support doe to the low bulk weight. Figure 1
shows the willow crop before the harvesting.
Fig. 1. Willow crop
The willow height was 6-6.5 meters after 2-3 years of growth and about 9 meters
after 4 years. The space between two willow rows was imposed by the harvesting
equipment. The harvesting equipment was a Klass multifunctional harvester equipped with
a harvesting head, John Deere type, designed especially for willow. In the first phase, the
John Deere equipment has had a productivity of 1 hectare to 1 hour of work. The willow
was leaned first by a fork and then was chopped by a horizontal and vertical knives
system, as is shown in Figure 2.
312
Fig. 2. Aspect of harvesting willow
After chopping the willow was loaded by means of a pneumatic system. Usually the
harvesting is done in the winter months, when the willow vegetation is stopped, and the
frost contributes to the wood drying. The willow chopped aspect is shown in figure 3 during
the drying period. The chopped dimensions were characterized by the following scalpers:
10% on the 20 mm and 0 on the 30 mm shakers
Fig. 3. The chopped willow
WILLOW PHYSICAL AND ENERGETICALLY CHARACTERISTICS
The wet willow sample was analyzed in the Classical and Nuclear Thermo
Mechanical Equipment Department laboratory of the Politehnica University of Bucharest.
The average moisture of harvested material was about 51-50 % and the amount of ash
was between 0.6 - 0.8 %. Dry periods are the most recommended for harvesting.
Large amount of material harvested (wood chips) imposed the storage on an open
platform. However, a small amount was deposited on a covered platform. The analyses
performed in the laboratory revealed the variation of the energetically characteristics of
willow chips, as are shown in figures 4, 5 and 6. The drying process was made in
enclosure space. In comparison with the harvesting density of 250 kg/m3 the density has
decreased to a value of 160 kg/m3, corresponding to an admissible wetness of 20-22% for
burning process. The density is also very important for transport equipments and storage
volume. The low heat value was for this wetness, 16500-17000 kJ/kg.
313
Fig. 4. Variation of the wetness in time
Fig. 5. Density variation in function of moisture
Fig. 6. Low heat value vs. moisture
The willow chips are valorized in appropriate combustion installations (boilers). In
Covasna county is located a boiler manufacturing company (ERPEK Company) which
manufacture thermal boilers (power between 30-1000 kWt). These boilers can burn wood
chips and energetic willow with smaller moisture, obvious (usually, between 14 and 22 %).
First experience with energetic willow was done in 2013 with willow chips manually
harvested in 2011. The combustion part of the boiler is equipped with mobile grates for
burning chips willow.
Burning chopped willow tests were accomplished in Politehnica University of
Bucharest laboratory, equipped with low thermal power boilers of 40 kW made in Romania
by ERPEK (figure 7). The boiler has an integrated system for fuel fluidizing. Two serial
feed screws ensure the boiler feeding, as is shown in figure 8. The chopped willow
314
wetness was 14% and the LHC 17500 kJ/kg. The burning process was very intensive; in
figure 9 is presented the image of the flame inside the boiler furnace. The pollutant
emissions were under the regulated limits.
Fig. 7. The 40 kW thermal boilers view
Fig. 8. The serial screw feeding system
Fig. 9. The image of the combustion in furnace
CONCLUSIONS
The first harvesting of energetic willow was a real success.
The chopped willow LHW was very high and from this point of view is an efficient
renewable fuel.
The burning experiments indicate a wetness of the chopped willow under 30%, but
the maximum efficiency imposes a wetness of 20-22%.
REFERENCES
[1] Domokos A., Mihăescu,L., et al 2013 First achievement regarding cultivation and
exploitation energetic willow, 2-nd International Conference on thermal equipment,
renewable energy and rural development, Baile Olanesti, Romania, 20-22, June 2013
(accepted for publication).
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mihaescu L., Pisa I., Oprea I., professors, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Splaiul
Independentei nr. 313, sector 6, Bucuresti, Romania, PC RO-060042, E-mails
lmihaescu@caz.mecen.pub.ro, ipisa@caz.mecen.pub.ro; oprea@caz.mecen.pub.ro
Domokos A, vice-president Green Energy Association, E-mail greenenergy55@gmail.com
Bartha S., vice-president Green Energy Association, rep SC ERPEK SA
315
TECHNOLOGY FOR MECHANIZATION OF SOIL TILLAGE IN
THE ARABLE SUBSTRATE
Croitoru Şt.1), Vlăduţ V.2), Atanasov At. 3), Constantin N.2), Biriş S.4),
Bungescu S.5), Caba I.5), Matache M.2), Voicea I.2), Ludig M.2)
1)
University of Craiova; 2)INMA Bucharest; 3)University of Rousse; 4)P.U. Bucharest;
5)
USAMVB Timişoara
Abstract: Soil tillage techniques are important agro-technical measures that follow the complex effects
that they have on the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. The tillage ensures:
accumulation and retention of the entire quantity of water from precipitation in summer and autumn in the
soil; accumulation in soil of a large quantity of nitrate, due to nitrification process intensification, resulting in a
layer of loose soil, yet placed to ensure good plant rooting and to avoid the „shoe off” process, obtaining a
lump-free seedbed so that the seeds can take a more intimate contact with the ground, in order to rise in the
shortest time possible. This paper presents an inovative soil tillage technology using a new equipment that
allows good substrate for arable land.
Key words: soil, equipment, technology, arable
INTRODUCTION
Tillage methods have evolved at different times in relation to the material basis of
agriculture and although there are many researches conducted in Romania and around
the world, the problem is always present. Regardless of the method of soil tillage for good
growth and development, crop need to achieve an optimal balance between the capillary
and non-capillary porosity in the soil , and a favorable regime in water, air and food.
Arable substrate controls the soil water regime. He is responsible for collecting rainfall
in wet periods of the year and then make them available to plants during dry periods.
If the arable substrate by its physico-chemical characteristics, is not able to fulfill this
role, there is a disturbance of the water regime, which affects plant growth. water puddles
Appear successively on the surface or in contrast a lack of water, from excess or
deficiency of moisture, both lead to lower yields.
This phenomenon affects mainly soils with a fine texture, coupled with strong compaction on
the whole profile or just the upper horizon.
The combination of those two characteristics result in the appearance of a series of
adverse physical properties as follows:
- a deficit in the aeration most of the year;
- high mechanical strength, which prevents the penetration of deep root system of plants
and limit the soil layer thickness in which plants take their food and water;
- lower interval of available moisture, which causes the precipitation-free periods to
rapidly deplete the water resources of plants;
- very low permeability, sometimes virtually zero, which prevents the penetration of rain
water into the ground, much of it drains stays at the surface, causing erosion and
preventing normal tillage.
Changing negative characteristics of these soils can be done through a generic set of
measures contained within ―agropedoameliorative‖ measures such as leveling, shaping,
drainage, deep loosening, subsoiling, irrigation, culture system fertilization, etc.
Some of these, by loosening or deep subsoiling aim to achieve a radical change in
the characteristics of the soil in the compact horizon, compacted and waterproof, thus
increasing water storage capacity, creating the conditions for normal ventilation and
heating the soil and stimulating biological processes in the soil. Through deep loosening,
316
the pore volume inside the soil increases which allows rapid drainage of water, to
accelerate the flow of water on the surface. reducing compactness and cohesion Under
the arable layer, favorable conditions are created for plant root penetration, increasing
their feeding area and increasing their drought resistance capacity, according to the
diagram in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 – Un-compaction and aeration, in depth, of poor soils,
compared to conventional tillage variant [10]
Romania faces a degree of deterioration of soil quality through erosion, acidification,
alkalinization, excess moisture or drought, saturation, compaction etc. The main process
of soil degradation by extension and socio-economic impact is the erosion by water, along
with landslides include over 7 million ha of agricultural land. The second important factor in
soil degradation is periodically excess moisture affecting 3.8 million hectares of agricultural
land and 0.6 million forest lands, frequent and excessive droughts taking place on approx.
7.1 million hectares of agricultural land and 0.2 million hectares of forest land. A primary
and natural process that is met, is salinization, which is greatly enhanced by some
improperly applied improvement techniques such as damming, drainage and irrigation. An
important role in soil degradation occupies the anthropic soil compaction and crust
formation. Compaction is found on approx. 1.3 million ha arable land and are caused
317
mainly by weight and/or too frequent use of agricultural machinery, especially in humid
conditions unsuitable soil or on soils that are too dry or too wet; The last one is mainly a
result of higher tractor load on the arable surface. Crusting and clogging of soil pores (2.2
million ha) occurs mostly dusty and clayey soils with low organic matter content, with
higher horizontal structure destroyed as a result of intensive tillage and repeatedly made
improper moisture conditions, with poor vegetation cover that allows maximum impact of
raindrops.
Excess moisture on the surface due to existence (from depths of 35 to 40 cm) of a
layer that is scarcely permeable to water and air (B clay-iluvial horizon), to the fine texture
of the deposits which have formed soils (ex. humus soils poor black and brown clay,
compact verti-soils).
On the other hand, by intensive use of soil, in a mechanized agriculture and
chemicalized they undergo during progressive compaction processes. In the majority of
cultivated soils at different depths, a layer of 15 to 20 cm of compact hard permeable to
water and air is formed, which favors the expansion of the upper layers excess moisture,
while the water volume due to the plants in the soil is reduced, with the occurring of
pedological drought in the years with less precipitation.
Given the conditions in our country, where rainfall is unevenly distributed throughout
the year, these soils suffer a strong alternative excess moisture and aeration deficit in
spring and a moisture deficit in summer.
To prevent and remove the deficiencies pointed out, but in the same time increasing
the efficiency of land improvements necessary to apply a set of measures agroimprovement in which deep loosening of the soil has a particular importance.
In terms of soil, soil deep loosening interested in loosening belong to the following
main types and subtypes:
podzolic clay, alluvial, usually pseudo-gleyed;
brown forest soils, podzolic often pseudo-gleyed;
some reddish-brown forest soils;
vertical land (Smolna);
some clay „lăcovişti‖ and Solonetzs;
some chernozems leachate (clay).
The surface area of our country soils with high soil quality deterioration is about
19.8% of the total agricultural area. Emergency order to implement improvement tillage
was established by Agropedology specialists, taking into account the intensity of
expression of negative characteristics of the soil, the expected efficiency of the work, slope
of the land, management, possibilities of mechanization etc. From this point of view that
the first emergency lies on an area of about a 1.3 million ha, spread across 36 counties.
Pedological characterization of soils requiring deep loosening
That soils that need to be loose are generally cooler, heavier snow melts harder and
is characterized by washing the calcium on profile, sometimes characterised by almost
total disappearance of the calcium accumulation on the horizon.
Also on podzolic humus, a reduction of the washing is taking place, which reduces
soil fertility.
Humus cleaning processes, clay and calcium in the upper portion leading to lump
damage of the soil structure, at the separation of silica which gives a whitish-gray
appearance to the soil from a2 horizon and clay accumulation in the b horizon from 40 to
50 cm , creating one or more higher compact, compacted, impermeable layers.
Destruction of soil structure and compaction of the arable layer in depth by clay build
reduces the water storage capacity at soil aeration prevention, ruins aerohidric balance,
aerobic microbiological processes replacing anaerobic processes harmful to plant life. This
318
is because soil compaction, lack of air and triggering anaerobic processes leading to plant
asphyxiation. The soil compaction in depth due to pedogenesis causes, shown above, plus
mechanical compaction of soil in the upper layers due to repeated passage of work
machinery that has a negative impact on soil with excessive humidity.
Deep loosening (Fig. 2) aims to achieve a radical change in the soil compact horizon
structure, compacted and impermeable, thus increasing water storage capacity, creating
the conditions for normal ventilation and heating soil and for soil biological processes
activation.
Through soil deep loosening, the pore volume increases, the lacunar space increases
that allows rapid water drainage and surface water flow speed increase, which makes the
soil to aerate quicker during spring.
Also, by loosening compacted layers of arable substrate, favorable conditions for
plant root penetration are created, increasing their feeding area and thus increasing their
ability to resist drought.
During the deep loosening due to tensions created in the mass of the substrates, and
a failure to achieve a partial disruption spreads across an area that depends on the depth
at which the plow-share act, the width of the angle of the coulter and cracking occurs and
moving the substrates under the action of the coulter and on the working speed, etc.
Fig. 2 - Tillage by deep loosening [10]
It was established that loosening job efficiency is obvious on the soils with compacted
layers that have the following characteristics:
Apparent density greater than 1,40 g/cm3;
Aeration porosity under 20%;
Resistance to penetration over 200 daN/cm2.
Deep soil improvement by loosening is part of a complex of measures comprising the
following phases:
Mobilization of compacted soil layers;
Soil loosening stabilization;
Loose land maintenance.
Choosing land requiring deep loosening jobs is based on a number of criteria such as
pedological, climatic, geomorphological, lithological, hydrogeological etc. If one of these
criteria is not satisfied, he becomes restrictive to perform deep surface loosening.
From the pedological point of view soils affected by excess moisture such as rain and
with a degree of compaction of over 10% and a low permeability to water and air have
319
priority. For example, the first category includes compact clay soils, the podzolic reddishbrown and so on, and in the second category those with clay content of over 30%.
From a climate perspective, deep loosening is necessary and possible in areas with
normal water balance surplus in October-March and normally deficient in July-September.
From a geomorphological perspective, the land must have a slope less than 15%, to allow
the technical equipment to perform raising activity. In terms of lithology, land must have a
substrate and a slope that does not promote landslides.
From the hydrogeological point of view, it is necessary for the soils not to be affected
by the depth of groundwater loosening influences in periods with excess moisture.
From the hydrological point of view, it is necessary that the soil not to be affected by
groundwater on the loosening depth, during excessive humid periods:
- Case 1. When low permeability clay layer is relatively thin and is the basis of the land surface
to a depth of up to 0.6 ’ 0.8 m, so it can be fully mobilized by loosening machines deep.
From the diagram shown in Fig. 3 follows that in these cases the soil deep loosening
entirely solves the issues of water puddles on the ground surface in wet periods of the year.
a
b
Fig. 3 - deep loosening Effect on heavy clay soil shallow layer scarcely permeable located at:
a) before loosening b) after loosening [10]
- Case 2. When low permeability clay layer is thicker than 0.6 ’ 0.8 m and cannot be fully
pierced with deep loosening existing machines because exceeding their maximum
operating depth (fig. 4).
Under these conditions, shown schematically in FIG. 4 deep loosening of soil,
performed singular, solves the problem of excess water and in maximum precipitation
limits and directly related to tilling depth.
320
a
b
Fig. 4 - Effect of deep loosening on heavy soil with scarcely permeable thick clay layer:
a) before loosening b) after loosening [10]
On these grounds, in addition to works agroameliorative and pedoameliorative, that
attempt to restore soil structure, increase its permeability, increase water storage capacity
and aeration porosity on a greater depth profile, water exhaust systems are often needed
and surface or buried channels. Sometimes situations where the active parts of the deep
loosening of soil can be attached pins, draining (mole) to accomplish a ground network of
drainage channels, towards collection and disposal systems, as shown in diagrams of Fig.
4 and 6.
Fig. 5 - Deep loosening effect on land with hard clay permeable layer
Of great thickness (after loosening and drainage) [10]
Fig. 6 - Implementation of mole drainage while deep loosening of the soil, on a land equipped
with drainage channels [10]
321
The meanings of the notations in Fig. 3, 4 and 5 are:
P - amount of precipitation;
Et - evapotranspiration;
s - drained water from land surface;
i - infiltrated water in depth;
Na - a seasonal ground water level, accumulated over the low permeability layer that
can reach even the land surface;
 NA - permanent groundwater level, located in permeable layers consisting of sand and
gravel formations;
 dc - mole drain;
 Dc - drain tube collector.
When rainfall exceeds water consumption volume through evapotranspiration,
surface drainage and infiltration possibilities in subarable deeper layers are formed in the
soil profile, above the horizon low permeability illuviated clay, an accumulation of water
that saturates the plant root zone, in surface ponds.
Given the above considerations to achieve optimal mechanization technology, high
productivity on the arable soil substrate with requirements related to improvement of
aeration, water permeability, rainfall storage capacity and promote development a deeper
root system and an increase in biological activity in the crop soil, technical equipment
which will perform the work without turning arable soil substrate and eliminate swath
impermeable layer of soil - hardpan, with a working width of 2.3 m will need an energy
source driving the 180-240 hp. Technical equipment includes new solutions that concern
the frame, the active bodies working under the safety device and the devices for grinding
and easy leveling.





Fig. 7 - Technical equipment in transport position / driven during tests on the untilled stubble [10]
High productivity mechanized technology, regarding the arable tilled substrate soil
applied with a machine, is designed to improve the conditions of aeration, water
permeability, storage of rainfall, and encouraging the development of a deeper root system
and an increase in biological activity of the plowed substrate field flat soil culture with a
slope up to 6°, on the compacted soil types. In compliance with the new technology, the
tillage conditions will be performed with fuel-consumption per unit area and low labor and
within the optimum working time.
The machinery underlying the techniques performed by the wheeled 180-240 hp
tractors equipped with five active organs chisel-type knife and two reversible rollers with
claw incorporates several solutions, such:
 claw organs may copy micro bumps in the longitudinal plane through original solutions;
322


reversible chisel indexing system with original solutions;
engaging active bodies in the soil and increased light transmission.
REFERENCES
[1]. Allmaras R. - Conservation Tillage in the Northern most Central U.S., Conservation
Tillage in Temperate Agrosistems, Edited by M. Carter, SUA, 1994;
[2]. Budoi Gh., Penescu A. - Agrotechnics. Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest 1996;
[3]. Budoi Gh, Marin D., Ciontu C. - soil tillage - basic component of soil conservation system.
Symposium "Alternative tillage", vol. I, Cluj Napoca, 1997;
[4]. Butorac A. - Conservation Tillage in Eastern Europe, Conservation Tillage in
Temperate Agrosistems, Edited by M. Carter, SUA, 1994;
[5]. Căproiu St. etc. - Agricultural machinery for tillage, sowing and crop maintenance.
Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1982;
[6]. Cârdei P., I. Cojocaru, R. Sfâru, Muraru V., Ticu T. - Analysis of key structural
elements and machine parts used in the construction of agricultural machinery,Modeling
business processes of agricultural machinery to optimize the shape and speed of the
machines for soil tilling, the plow and other agricultural machinery. Scientific Papers INMA
Bucharest, 1998;
[7]. Cojocaru I., Neacşu F., Morosanu V. - Machinery and equipment for systems with
reduced tillage performed in Romania. Scientific Communication International Conference
on Agricultural Mechanization themes, Kiev / Glevakha, Ukraine, 1996;
[8]. Cojocaru I., Gângu V., Moroşanu V., Neacşu F. - INMA Bucharest recent
achievements and perspectives in the field of agricultural machinery for soil, planting, crop
maintenance and pest and disease control. Scientific Communication at the Symposium
"AGROUTIL" Constanţa, 1996;
[9]. Pirnă I., Moroşanu V., Cojocaru I., Constantin N., Catrinoiu I. - New agricultural
machinery technologies for tillage and seedbed preparation by INMA Bucharest, Craiova
Scientific Communication, 2001;
[10]. Constantin N., ş.a. - Creating and promoting ET for un-compaction and aeration, in
depth, poor soils, in parallel with nutrient management for high power tractors, Study INMA Bucharest, 2007.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Şt. Croitoru, University of Craiova, Romania, E-mail: vladut@inma.ro;
V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
vladut@inma.ro;
aatanasov@uni-ruse.bg;
N. Constantin, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
constantin@inma.ro;
S. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail:
sorinstefanbiris@yahoo.com;
S. Bungescu, USAMVB Timişoara, 119 Calea Aradului, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail:
sobungi@yahoo.com;
M. Matache, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
gabimatache@yahoo.com;
I. Voicea, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
voicea_iulian@yahoo.com;
M. Ludig, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: fruity_mail
323
SOIL TILLAGE OPTIMIZATION BY UN-COMPACTION AND AERATION
OF DEFICIENT DEEP SOILS
Vlăduţ V.1), Croitoru Şt.2), Constantin N.1), Paraschiv G.3), Voicu Gh.3), Biriş S.3), Bungescu
S.4), Caba I.4), Ludig M.1), Atanasov At.5), Molder (Brencu) L.2)
1)
INMA Bucharest; 2)University of Craiova; 3)P.U. Bucharest; 4)USAMVB Timişoara
5)
University of Rousse
Abstract: Soil tillage has particular importance because of the long-term physical, chemical and
biological effects on the soil. It depends very much on the way the tillage is done, for the degree of sprouting
of the new culture (determined by the accumulation of water in the soil due to an appropriate tillage), for
obtaining a layer of loose soil to ensure good plant rooting and to prevent the „shoe off” process, for
obtaining a free lump seedbed and finally for the quality of the crop. This paper presents the results obtained
using specialized equipment designed for high power tractors that achieve deep un-compaction and
aeration in a single pass, for poor soils, in parallel with the use of nutrients.
Key words: un-compaction, aeration, soil, arable
INTRODUCTION
Soil tillage is a complex of agro-technical measures which have a particular
importance due to the complex effects that they have on the physical, chemical and biological
soil properties. The tillage ensures:
accumulation and retention in the soil of the entire quantity of water from precipitation in
summer and autumn;
soil accumulation of a large quantity of nitrate through the nitrification process
intensification;
obtaining a layer of loose soil, also placed to ensure a good plant rooting and to
prevent the „shoe off‖ process;
obtain a lump-free seedbed so that the seed can make intimate contact with the
ground, in order to rise in the shortest possible time.
Tillage methods have evolved at different stages in relation to the material basis of
agriculture and although there are many researches conducted in the country and around
the world, the problem is always present. Regardless of the method of soil tillage for good
growth and development, grown plants need an optimal balance between the capillary and
non-capillary porosity in the soil, and a favorable regime of water, air and food.
Statistics show that only two districts in Romania namely Constanta and Tulcea, do
not currently have agricultural land that needs to be deep loosen. The first places are
Arges, Olt, Satu Mare and Teleorman, which have land that requires deep loosening and
these land represent more than 40% of total agricultural land. Large areas of land requiring
such measures are in Timis, Arad and Ilfov.
Professional studies show that outside these areas that currently due to their natural
characteristics, require deep loosening, and in the future this procedure will also become
necessary for any other cultivated land, as a result of continued growth in terms of soil
compactness and considering the existence of modern agriculture, which will become
more intensive, mechanized and irrigated.
The equipment used for experiments in order to determine the success of the uncompaction and poor depth soil aeration processes, along with the administration of
nutrients in a single pass, is DECOM-FERTI type and is designed for tractors with power
324
ranging between 140 ... 176 kW (190 ... 240 hp) on the wheels, tilling the ground while
removing the waterproof layer (hardpan) and the arable substrate.
The DECOM-FERTI Equipment (Fig. 1) consists of two main devices: DECOM
technical equipment (chassis, active bodies with reversible chisel blades, roller with claws
depth adjustable plowing wheel) and equipment used to administer FERTI nutrients (a
crate with the nutrient management system, hydraulic system, gear platform and access
ladder)
Fig. 1 - DECOM-FERTI Equipment in working / transport position
Structural and functional characteristics:
 Number of loosening organs:
5
 Number of crushing bodies:
2
 Maximum operating depth:
60 cm
 Working width:
230 cm
 Phosphorus and potassium administration standards:
70...120 kg/ha
 Mass, kg
2040.
Field tests using the DECOM-FERTI equipment were performed on Pelendava and
Craiova farmland, LEU Farm, using a 143 kW (195 hp) type ZIMBRU tractor. Figure 2 shows
the DECOM-FERTI machinery tilling the land.
Fig. 2 - ZIMBRU tractor running the DECOM-FERTI machinery and tilling the land
In order to determine the qualitative working indices, the following measuring and
control equipment was used:
Mechanical chronometer;
Measuring tape 15 m long;
RW 10 P Weighing Platform (fig. 3), of 300-10.000 kg weighing domain;
325
Fig. 3 - Weighing platform with RW10P data display
Device for determining the fuel consumption;
METTLER PM6000 Electronic Balance;
0-150 kg Mechanical Weighing;
Device for measuring the wheel speed;
Beacons, pickets, metric frame
Capsules for moisture sample;
Plastic Bags.
Field experiments were conducted under the following conditions:
Soil type
cambic chernozem;
Previous crop
corn and rye;
Plant remains height
9-16 cm.
-
Field experiments (Fig. 4) were performed using the 143 kW (195 hp) ZIMBRU
tractor, on the cambic chernozem type loam clay soil (deep soil with well differentiated
horizons), agricultural land in Pelendava town in Craiova, at the LEU farm. The main
physical properties of the soil on which the tests were carried out are shown in Table 1,
according to the existing soil mapping
In determining the working conditions, according to data from Table 1, a great
importance has the degree of soil compaction. This is because the deep loosening of soil
is defined as shown earlier, the agropedoameliorative operation carried out by mechanical
means, amending soil physical condition, including in the arable layer, reducing its degree
of natural or acquired compaction.
The degree of soil compaction is calculated using the relation:
GT 
Pmn  Pe
100 (%)
Pmn
where:
Pmn - The minimum porosity of a soil suitable for cultivation in percent,
Pe
- The effective total soil porosity, in percent.
From the above relation follows that the degree of compaction of the soil that determines
the need for loosening is a feature of the physical condition of the soil at any given time.
Table 1
Working conditions
Horizon
Ap
Am
A/B
Depth
(cm)
0-24
24-42
42-57
Fine sand Dust
(% g/g)
(% g/g)
32.0
32.8
29.7
30.8
27.1
31.8
Clay
(% g/g)
33.7
38.5
39.8
326
DA3
g/cm3
1.44
1.48
1.52
PT
(% V/V)
46
44
43
GT
(% V/V)
9.5
13.8
15.9
Rp
kPa
3400
3100
3400
DA – apparent density;
PT – total porosity;
GT – compaction degree;
RP – resistance to penetration.
In contrast, the degree of aeration is an agrotechnical indicator for assessing the
quality of soil loosening at the initial level, determined by:
i n
hi

a
Gas  i 1 i x100% 
n
where:
hi – is the ground level height measured in cm;
ai – is the height measured from ground level to the bottom of the furrow before
loosening in cm.
So, the degree of aeration is a magnitude directly related to the performance of
tillage.
The data in Table 2 show that the land on which tests were carried out was
characterized by a hard degree of compaction in the upper horizon and emphasized in the
deep horizons.




Table 2
Soil characteristics on which experiments were carried out
Horizon
Depth
[cm]
pH H2O
Hummu
T
Clay [%]
s [%]
[me/100 g]
V
[%]
Ntot
[%]
Pmobil
Kmobil
Ap
0’20
5.7
2.8
38
23.0
84.1
0.161
29.0
174.0
Am
24’42
5.9
2.6
36
24.0
86.3
0.137
12.0
234.0
A/B
42’57
6.2
1.9
32
24.8
91.0
-
-
-






pH- soil reaction;
T - cation exchange capacity;
V - degree of base saturation;
N - nitrogen content in soil;
P - phosphorus content in soil;
K - potassium content in soil.
In general, depending on the physical qualities of the land on which tests have been
carried out it is a middle soil, with average loosening requirements. From the data
presented it appears that the soil reaction is slightly acidic towards neutral in the upper
horizons and neutral towards alkaline in depth. The humus content medium in the arable
layer and reduced in the lower horizons. The supply status of the main elements of
nutrition in soil is average for nitrogen, and average-weak for phosphorus and good for
potassium
Determinations of soil moisture on layers showed the following values:
Depth, cm
Moisture, %
0’5
5.8
5’10
13.6
10’15
14.5
15’20
15.4
30’40
16.6
40’50
17.4
50’60
19.8
327
The data presented show that the soil moisture was on average 14.7% when
samples were taken, the optimum limit value that is allowed for raising the soil. Laboratory
tests were performed according to the established methodology, where quality indices
were determined in three repetitions. Quality indices values for field experiments are
shown in Table 3
Table 3
Quality indices
Working depth
[cm]
0
25’30
50’60
Loosening degree
[%]
19.4’22.5
15.3’18.6
Apparent density
[kg/m3]
1.5.103
1.0.103
1.2.103
Soil resistance to
penetration [daN/m2]
3.106
1.5.106
2.106
Within these experiments it appeares that the degree of loosening on the zone
processed by the active organs ranged from 15.3...22.5%. The apparent density of the soil
decreased from 1.5103 kg/m3 in the sub-arable layer before passing the active body, to
1.0103 kg/m3 on the loosened soil profile. Soil resistance to penetration, measured in a
cross section in the direction of tilling, was up to 2106 daN/m2 for the zone loosened by
the active organs at a depth of 50...60 cm and up 1,5.10 6 at a depth of 25...30, in contrast
to more than 3106 daN/m2 of the compacted under the arable soil.
Attempts to administer FERTI nutritive elements with specialised equipment were
carried out with superphosphate (Table 4 and 5)
Table 4
The physical properties of the fertilizer (superphosphate)
Feature name
Moisture
Volumic mass
Granulation:
≤1 mm
1’2.5 mm
2.5’4 mm
≥ 4 mm
Degree of agglomeration
Unit
%
kg/dm3
superphosphate
1.9
1.088
12
71
16
1
un-agglomerated
%
-
Table 5
Working conditions during field experiments
Spindle
speed for
fertilizer
distribution
Unit
rev/min
143
Superphosphate
245
Type of
fertilizers
Fertilizer
norm
Deviation
from
average
kg/ha
70
120
%
1.4
1.6
Instability
Distribution
distribution
non-uniformity
norm
%
5.4
5.8
%
2.5
3.2
The equipment used provides nutritive elements at hydraulic motors speed of 150
rev/min, minimum norm of 70 kg/ha and at the speed of 260 rev/min, the maximum norm
of 120kg/ha, with a deviation from the mean between 1.4...1.6%. Distribution unevenness
norm of chemical fertilizers, has values ranging from 5.4 to 5.8%, and distribution norm
instability ranges between 5.4...5.8%. The values of these indicators comply with the
agrotechnical requirements imposed by the chemical fertilizer type.
328
For the determination of the energy indices, space measuring devices were used,
volumetric device for determining the fuel consumption, and a dynamometric frame for
measuring tensile forces. The determined work and energy indices are as following:
 Working depth (m);
 Movement speed (m/s);
 Tractive force (daN);
 Tractor slippage (%);
 Pullpower (kW);
Fig. 4 - DECOM-FERTI Technical equipment - during tests on a not tilled stubble
The results of the field experiments using DECOM-FERTI equipment with the 143 kW
(195 hp) ZIMBRU tractor are presented in Table 6
Table 6
Measured characteristics during the experiments
Working
depth [m]
0.25
0.30
0.50
0.55
0.60
Movement
Tractive
Tractor
speed [m/s] force [daN] slippage [%]
1.78
1st gear
1.70
1st gear
0.66
1st gear
0.63
1st gear
0.60
1st gear
Traction
power
[CP]
4.580
16.3
73.2
5.950
18.2
82.9
10.800
18.7
153.3
11.560
23.2
158.7
12.440
24.7
163.8
With tractor
Active
organs
(pieces)
ZIMBRU
(195 HP)
5
ZIMBRU
(195 HP)
3
The results show that at a working depth of 0.25...0.30 m, the traction power required
was on average 53.8...61 kW (73.2...82.9 HP) and it could work with the DECOM-FERTI
equipment using five active organs together with the ZIMBRU tractor and at working
depths of 0.50...0.60 m, the traction power required was on average 153.3 ’ 163.8 HP and
could work only with three active organs of the technical equipment, with the same tractor.
Depending on the depth and tractive force, it has had values between 4580 ... 12400
daN and wheels‘s sliding was in the range 16.3 ... 24.7%, values obtained in gear 1.
329



The results show that the DECOM-FERTI equipment can work:
With five active working organs with 50 cm distance between each other,
accomplishing working depths of 0.25 ’ 0.30 m and executing "subsoiling soil"
(loosening the soil, in A2 horizon, without tipping the processed slices)
With three active working bodies with 100 cm distance between each other,
accomplishing working depths of 0.50 ’ 0.60 m running tillage (soil scarification in the
horizon B1) in arable substrate without turning the furrow and removing the
impermeable soil layer.
The hardpan between the arable layer and the arable substrate to allow water
infiltration from the superior horisons.
REFERENCES
[1]. Cojocaru I., Neacşu F., Moroşanu V. - Machinery and equipment for systems width
small tillage manufactured in Romania. Scientific Communication at the International
Conference regarding Agricultural Mechanization topics, Kiev/Glevaha, Ukraine, 1996;
[2]. Cojocaru I., Gângu V., Moroşanu V., Neacşu F. - Recent achievements obtained by
INMA Bucharest and perspectives in the field of agricultural machinery for soil tillage,
seeding, crop maintenance, pest and disease control. Scientific Communication at
„AGROUTIL‖, Symposium
Constanţa, 1996;
[3]. Constantin N., ş.a. - Creating and promoting of an ET for poor soil un-compaction and
aeration, in depth, while administering nutrients, designed for high power tractors, Study INMA Bucharest, 2007;
[4]. Constantin N., ş.a. - Creating and promoting of an ET for poor soil un-compaction and
aeration, in depth, while administering nutrients, designed for high power tractors, Test
report - INMA Bucharest, 2008;
[5]. Pirnă I., Moroşanu V., Cojocaru I., Constantin N., Catrinoiu I. - New agricultural
machinery in tillage technologies and seedbed preparation by INMA BUCUREŞTI,
Scientific Communication in Craiova, 2001.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
V. Vlăduţ, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
vladut@inma.ro;
Şt. Croitoru, University of Craiova, Romania, E-mail: valentin_vladut@yahoo.com;
N. Constantin, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
constantin@inma.ro;
G. Paraschiv, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail:
paraschiv2005@yahoo.com;
G. Voicu, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail:
ghvoicu_2005@yahoo.com;
S. Biriş, P.U. Bucharest, 319 Splaiul Independenţei Bd., Bucharest Romania, E-mail:
sorinstefanbiris@yahoo.com;
S. Bungescu, USAMVB Timişoara, 119 Calea Aradului, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail:
sobungi@yahoo.com;
M. Ludig, INMA Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail:
fruity_mail@yahoo.com;
aatanasov@uni-ruse.bg.
330
ASPECTS REGARDING THE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE GRIST FRACTIONS AT THE FIRST
PLANSIFTER COMPARTMENT FROM THE REDUCTION PHASE OF A
WHEAT MILLING PLANT
G.Al. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, E.M. Stefan, P.Voicu, C. Carp-Ciocârdia
Abstract Physical properties of the intermediate grist products are influencing the choice of functional
and constructive characteristics of equipments located on the technological flow of a wheat milling plant. In
the paper is presented the results of some experimental research on the physical properties of grist (static
friction coefficient, natural slope angle, bulk density, specific surface, porosity, density, mean diameter) at the
plansifter compartment of the first reduction roller mill for a wheat milling plant of 4.2 t/h. It is presented also,
the particle size distribution of the grist that comes from the grinding rolls, but also the five grist fractions in which it is
divided into plansifter compartment of respectively passage . The data presented in this paper can be useful to the
milling industry experts.
Key words: wheat milling, grist, plansifter compartment, particle size distribution, physical properties,
reduction phase, first reduction roller mill.
INTRODUCTION
Physical properties influence both the working parameters of the equipments from the
technological flow of a milling plant and the appropriate choice of sifting sieve fabrics of
plansifters and semolina machinery. The coefficient of static friction and the angle of
natural slope of grist intervene in the movement of grist particles on different sifting
surfaces in the process of sorting on fractions and its characterization, [3].
Also, the physical properties of wheat seeds and of grist intermediate products
(particles size and shape, mechanical properties, bulk density, density and hardness of
wheat seeds) influence the milling and sifting process, as described in [5, 7]. Wheat seed
hardness imposes the functional and constructive characteristics of milling cylinders and
size and shape of grist particles which influence the choice of sieves on which is made the
sifting. Porosity of grist and wheat seeds presents a practical importance in the process of
drying, ventilating, heating and cooling in the process of modeling air stream through the
mass of particulate matter, and in the effective fill of the storage places (especially at
wheat seeds and final products of the milling process), [9]. At the same time we can say
that the material porosity and particle density influences the stratification of grist on frames
from inside of plansifter compartments.
In the milling plant the grinding and sifting are complementary operations after each
stage of break / grinding being done a sorting on fractions (sifting) of grist in a plansifter
compartment. Thus the size distribution of grist is particularly significant and varies with
the size, rigidity and variety of wheat seed, [12], on one hand, but also with the working
regime adopted at each pair of grinding cylinders (grinding conditions, type of equipment,
speed of working bodies), on the other hand, [6, 8]. Grist sifting process in the milling
plants is affected by many factors, among them the most important are: particles size and
shape, characteristics of the sifting sieve, plansifter revolution, the character of relative
motion of material particles on the sieve surface and the amount of material that reaches
on the sieve, [1, 10, 14, 15].This paper is aimed at experimental research of the physical
properties of the separated fractions at the plansifter compartment of 1-th reduction in a
milling plant of 4.2 t/h.
Samples used in the experimental determinations of the physical characteristics of
grist were collected from the flow sheet of a milling plant from Romania. Was determined:
the coefficient of static friction, angle of natural slope, bulk density, density, porosity and
331
specific surface of grist fractions at plansifter compartment C1 in the grinding (reduction)
phase. In fig. 1 is presented the flow diagram for the grinding phase of the milling plant
mentioned.
For technological diagram of analyzed mill, equivalence between sieve number and
aperture dimensions, as they are specified in fig.1, is shown in table 1.
C1
C4
C2
C3
C5
C6
C2
Fig. 1. The flow
diagram of the
wheat grinding
phase in a
milling plant
with the
capacity of
4.2t/hr, [16].
C1–C6 –
plansifter
compartments;
Break 1–5 –
break rolls;
MG1, MG2 –
semolina
machines;
M1A, M1B,
M2–M6 –
grinding rolls; F
– F3 – flour.
Table 1.
Equivalence between the mesh number and sieve mesh size
Mesh number
Mesh size [mm]
18 20
26
36
40
46
48
50
54
56
60 VIII IX
X
XI
1.17 1.05 0.78 0.52 0.47 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13
Bulk density of a granular mixture is considered one of the basic quality indices using
in determining of flour extraction, [4]. Density is the ratio between the sample mass and
volume of the particles from it. Determination of density of grist fractions were done by
pycnometric method using xylene as the working fluid (ρx=825.44 kg/m3), [2, 11]. Grist
finesse, assessed by average diameter dm of grinded particles, determined by particle size
analysis with sieve shaker, was calculated with the relation:
 pi  di
[mm]
(1)
dm 
 pi
where: pi represents percentage of material on the sieve of the sieve shaker (i = 0, 1, 2,…,
5); pi = 100 – sum of the percentages of material on sieves; di – average particle size of
each intermediate fractions, considered as an arithmetic mean of sieves size apertures
surrounding the respective fraction di = (li+li+1)/2. Classifier sieves were chosen to meet the
estimated relationship li 1  2  li , from the topper to the lower sieve.
Knowing the average diameter of newly formed particles, specific surface of them
was evaluated with the relation:
6
[m2/kg]
(2)
S e.m =
 dm
where  is the density of analyzed fraction, determined with the pynometer.
The porosity of granular materials was calculated knowing the bulk density values
332
and density of grist, [2, 11]:
  
  1  v  100
 

[%]
(3)
The angle of the natural slope was determined using the cone of material described
in the paper [2]. The coefficient of static friction was determined using the method of
inclined plane, [13]. There were performed two sets of measurements on three types of
surface: glossy glass fiber, steel sheet and cotton canvas.
Experimental data characterizing the grist physical properties obtained at first
reduction roll of milling plant and sorted in plansifter compartment C1 are shown in table 2
and 3. All grist fractions sorted at plansifter compartment C1 were analyzed and were
determined the coefficient of static friction and the angle of natural slope (table 2)
Table 2.
Values of: coefficient of static friction and angle of natural slope.
Grist fraction
C1 Entrance
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
Steel sheet
0.612’0.776
0.482’0.682
0.458’0.676
0.600’0.894
0.800’1.111
0.710’0.988
Coefficient of static friction, μ
Cotton canvas
Fiber glass
1.740’>1.760
0.964’1.500
>1.760’>1.760
0.482’1.029
1.252’>1.760
0.476’1.105
>1.760’>1.760
0.652’1.129
>1.760’>1.760
1.005’1.447
1.717’>1.760
0.894’1.341
Angle of natural
slope, ψ
39.580
37.480
39.100
39.020
42.950
41.400
Based on the experimental values from Table 2 were drawn charts of variation of the
average values for the coefficient of static friction also for the angle of natural slope for the
six grist fractions analyzed using MS Excel program version 12 (fig. 2).
Steel sheet
Cotton canvas
45
Glossy fiberglass
Angle of natural slope, ψ [ ]
Static friction coefficient, μ
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
C1 Entrance
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
Grist fractions
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
C1 Intrare
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
Grist fractions
Fig. 2 Variations of the average values of static friction coefficient for six grist fractions, on
3 types of surface (steel sheet, cotton canvas and fiber glass) and of natural slope angle.
According to the technological diagram, wheat semolina grinded at first reduction roll
are classified on fractions inside compartment C1 (see fig. 1), composed of five packets
containing frames with metal or plastic fabrics, with sieve aperture dimensions in
correlation with the fraction particles dimensions (see table 1). From the analysis of fig. 1 is
found that the first five sieves, arranged in a package, with no. 50 (0.35 mm aperture size),
submit the package refusal to reduction roll M3, while the sifter grist is directed to second
package, with four sieve frame and fabric no. 60 (0.28 mm aperture size). Refusal of the
second packet is directed to reduction roll M1B, while sifted material is transmitted to third
package with seven sieve frames, having the aperture size of 0.17 mm (flour sieves). The
fourth package of frames (also flour sieves) has two sieve frames with 0.15 mm aperture
size. Sifted material from the sieves of packages 3 and 4 are evacuated from compartment
as flour, and their refusal move to the fifth package with five frame no. VIII (flour sieve),
333
with aperture size of 0.18 mm. Grist sifted on these frames is semolina flour and is
evacuated as such, while the refusal of the package is re-routed at reduction roll M2.
Table 3.
Values of: density, bulk density, specific surface, porosity and average diameter for grist
fractions resulting at C1 compartment (from technological diagram)
Grist fraction
C1 Entrance
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
Average
diameter
[mm]
0.30
0.60
0.34
0.25
0.10
0.17
Bulk density
3
Density
3
[g/dm ]
533.750
446.250
505.000
442.500
520.000
550.000
[g/dm ]
1048.257
1169.566
1077.030
1242.390
1381.794
1313.336
Specific surface
3
2
x 10 [m /kg]
19.079
8.550
16.385
19.318
43.422
26.784
Porosity
[%]
49.082
61.844
53.111
64.383
62.367
58.121
60
500
50
400
Porosity, ε [%]
Bulk Density, ρ v [g/dm3 ]
Based on the data obtained and presented in Table 3, were drawn, graphic,
variations of bulk density, density, specific surface and porosity for the grist intermediate
products analyzed. As can be seen from the analysis of table 3 and the charts from fig. 3,
bulk density of fractions resulted from grist sorting in plansifter compartment C1 has a
variation that depends on the type of sieve frame fabric and the aperture size of frames,
but also on the initial granulation of the grist or on the adherent shell content on semolina
particles subjected to grinding. Also, with the separation on fractions of the grist, porosity
of each fraction changes, and these will influence the bulk density of the resulting material.
300
200
100
40
30
20
10
0
0
C1 Entrance
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
Specific surface, Ss [m2 /kg]
1000
800
600
400
200
0
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
45
1200
C1
Entrance
C1 M3
Grist fraction
Grist fraction
1400
Density, ρ [g/dm3 ]
C1 Entrance
C1 Fgrif
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
C1 Entrance
C1 M3
C1 M1B
C1 M2
C1 F
C1 Fgrif
Grist fraction
Grist fraction
Fig. 3 Variations of bulk density, porosity, density and specific surface values, depending
on six grist fractions analyzed
However, it is noticed that the two fractions of flour extracted from the compartment,
obtained at the package with flour sieve (see fig. 1), have the highest bulk density value
(520 kg/m3 for flour C1F, and 550 kg/m3 for semolina flour C1 Fgrif ). It is noted, though,
that flour porosity has relatively high values in the inverse relationship with bulk density
(about 62.4% for C1F, and 53.1% for C1 Fgrif).
334
It is noted that the fraction C1 M3, with a high content of shell, has a high porosity
due to granulation and size of shell particles This fraction has a low bulk density in the
same inverse relationship as the other fractions of compartment. It is also noted that the
fraction with the lowest bulk density (fraction C1 M2, is a dust), presents the higher
porosity (having 442 kg/m3 bulk density and 64.4% porosity). Regarding the specific
surface of grist fractions sorted at C1 compartment of the first reduction roll, is found that
the two fractions of flour had the highest values (43.4% for C1F, and 26.8% for C1 Fgrif). It
is noted that fraction C1 M3 (with a high content of shell) has a low specific surface (8.5
m2/kg), even if the porosity is high, but this is correlated with bulk density which has a low
value. Regarding fractions C1 M1B and C1 M2 classified as dust, they have a specific
surface, with the values 16.4 m2/kg, and 19.3 m2/kg, in the linear relationship with porosity
of the material. It is also noted that the flours (composed of the endosperm of wheat
seeds) have high values of density with values over 1313 kg/m 3.
The physical characteristics of grist intermediate products determine the functional
characteristics of equipments from technological passages (of break or reduction) of
milling plant. From the analysis and interpretation of data obtained for the 6 samples that
come from input and 5 outputs of plansifter compartment C1 (fig. 1) shows the follow:
 Semolina flour draw at this compartment (C1 Fgrif) has the highest bulk density (550
g/dm3);
 fractions C1 M3 and C1 M2, having a high content of shell (bran), compared to other
analyzed fractions which have a higher content of endosperm, have a lower bulk
density (446.25 kg/m3 for C1 M3 and 442.5 kg/m3 for C1 M2);
 also can see that although mass of grist mixture that feeds the plansifter compartment
C1 has a porosity of 49.082 %, after the fractions are sorted from the initial mass,
porosity increases considerably reaching 62.37 % for flour fraction (C1 F) and 64.38%
for dust which feed the reduction roll M2 (fraction C1 M2).
For all plansifter compartments of a milling plant, from reduction phase is important to
know the average particle size of fractions separated, particle size distribution and physical
composition thereof, because it re-enters in the grinding process, and the constructive
characteristics of the reduction rolls, as well as functional parameters of them would need
to be related to them.
The data presented can be important for all specialists and workers in the field of
milling wheat, for the second stage of the technological process, that of reduction.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been funded by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007-2013 of the Romanian Ministry of Labour, Family and
Social Protection through the Financial Agreement POSDRU/107/1.5/S.76903.
REFERENCES
[1]. Allen, T., 2003. Particle size analysis by sieving. Powder Sampling and Particle Size
Determination, Elsevier, p. 208 – 250, Ch. 4;
[2]. Căsăndroiu T., David L., 1994. Utilaje pentru prelucrarea primară şi păstrarea
produselor agricole. Îndrumar pentru lucrări de laborator. Universitatea Politehnica
Bucureşti;
[3]. Coskuner, Y., Karababa, E.. 2007. Physical properties of coriander seeds
(Coriandrum Sativum L.). Journal of Food Engineering, Volume 80, Issue 2, p.: 408-416;
[4]. Costin, I., 1988. Cartea morarului. Editura Tehnică, București;
335
[5]. Dziki, D., Laskowsky, J., 2005. Wheat kernel physical properties and milling process.
Acta Agrophysica. 6(1), p: 59-71;
[6]. Headley V., Pfost H., 1968 – A comminution equation relating energy to surface area
by log probability method, Transactions of the ASAE, 11 (3), p. 331 – 334 şi 338;
[7]. Henderson, S., Hansen R., 1968 – Farm grain comminution: Hammer mill and burr
mill performance analyzed, Transactions of the ASAE, 11 (3), p. 339 – 402;
[8]. Henderson, S.M., Perry, R.L., 1976;. Agricultural Process Engineering. 3rd ed.
Westport, Conn.: AVI Publishing
[9]. Karimi, M., Kheiralipour, K., Tabatabaeefar, A., Khoubakht, G., Naderi, M.,
Heidarbeigi, K. , 2009. The effect of moisture content on physical properties of wheat.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 8 (1), p.: 90-95;
[10]. KeShun Liu, 2009 - Some factors affecting sieving performance and efficiency.
Powder Technology. 193, p.: 208-213;
[11]. Mohsenin, N.N., 1970. Physical properties of plant and animal materials, vol. I
(Structure, physical characteristics and mechanical properties). Gordon and Breach
Science publishers, N.Y.;
[12]. Muhamad, I.I., Fang, C., Campbell, G.M., 2008. Prediction of breakage during roller
milling of mixtures of wheat kernels, based on single kernel measurements. Jurnal
Teknologi. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 48 (F), p.:75-83;
[13]. Orăşanu, N., Voicu, Gh., Ungureanu, N., 2009. Determination of the static and
dynamic friction coefficients for the milling products and their variation with respect to
some parameters. Modelling and optimization in the machines building field, MOCM. Vol.
15/3, p.: 44-50.
[14]. Standish, N., 1985. The kinetics of batch sieving. Powder Technology. 41, p. 57 – 67;
[15]. Sultanbawa, F.M., Owens, W.G., Pandiela, S.S., 2001. A new approach to the
prediction of particle separation by sieving in flour milling. Transactions of IchemE. 79
(Part C), p. 201-218;
[16]. Voicu, Gh., Biriș, S.S., Ștefan, E.M., Constantin G.A., Ungureanu N., 2012. Grinding
characteristics of wheat in industrial mills. Chapter 15 in Food Industry Book, Edited by
InTech
Europe,
University
Campus
STeP
Ri,
Rijeka,
Croatia,
http://www.intechopen.com/books/food-industry . ISBN 978-953-51-0911-2, p.: 323-354.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
G. Al. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, E. M. Ștefan, P. Voicu, C. Carp-Ciocârdia - ‖Politehnica‖
University of Bucharest, Spl. Independenței, nr.313, sect.6, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail:
gabriel_alex99@yahoo.com,
ghvoicu_2005@yahoo.com,
tudosie_elenamadalina@yahoo.com, paulavoicu85 @yahoo.com, craita.carp@gmail.com.
336
ASPECTS REGARDING DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GRIST
PRODUCTS IN REDUCTION PHASE IN A MILLING PLANT WITH
CAPACITY OF 4.2 T/H
Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, E.M. Stefan, E. Maican, S. Marcu
Abstract: After obtaining semolina and grist fractions, in breakage phase of wheat, with fluted
cylinders, these are grinded further in the grinding technological phase of any milling plant. In the paper is
presented the flow (circulation) of grist products in grinding technological phase of a wheat milling plant with
capacity of 4.2 t/h (from south-east of Romania The milling plant is provided with six technological passages
in this phase, composed of six plansifter compartments, in which the products grinded with smooth cylinders
are divided into fractions with particle sizes becoming smaller As the products are grinded, on the
technological flow are extracted flow and bran, while the other fractions are returned to the grinding process.
Based on particle size analysis of each fraction obtained at plansifter compartment of the second
reduction passage, in the paper, is made a discussion on the size limits between falling the particles of each
fraction, and their visual appearance (after the percentage of shell particles in each fraction and their
dimensions).
Analysis undertaken in this paper may be used for establishing sifting frames fabrics of the
compartments, respectively in determining the degree of flour extraction.
Key words: wheat milling, sifting, grist, plansifter compartment, particle size distribution
INTRODUCTION
In industrial milling plant grinding and sieving are complementary operations, after
each grinding operation is performed a sorting on fractions operation (sifting) of grists.
Whit the sorting on fraction operation intervene a number of variables (stratification of grist
products on sieve, the relative velocity of particles on sifting surface, revolution of
actuation mechanism, etc.) that can lead to erroneous data concerning the assessment of
this process [8, 12].
Moreover, the stretching of fabric wires influence the sifting yield. Fabric that moves
freely (are not stretched enough) tend to tire and break due to solicitations, [11]. If the
fabric is not tensioned, so as to lie flat, the grist layer velocity is low, the cleaning system is
not sufficiently effective, the degree of separation is low and the risk of particles to block
the apertures is big, [3, 11]. In these circumstances, the sifting particles that will not be
screened will lead to a decrease in flour extraction, [5]. In the paper [9], authors analyze
the stretching of fabric wires on the sifting frames, determining that in the breakage phase
the tension value of fabric is up to a value of 4,7 N/cm ± 2,0 %, and in the reduction phase
to 5,7 N/cm ± 0,5 %.
In the wheat mills, the particle size distribution of grist after the first break passage is
generally characterized by the Rosin-Rammler distribution law as described in the papers
[1, 4, 10, 14], in which were tested particle size distribution laws: normal type, power, lognormal, Schuhman, Gaudin-Meloy or exponential distribution law. Also, in paper [2],
authors tested several distribution laws for particles of grist fraction from plansifter
compartment of second break phase, showing that the best law is the law of Gaussian
distribution, with a correlation coefficient R2 ≥ 0.979 for all fractions. Moreover, the density
and specific surface was determined by the fraction of the grist obtaining values of
approximately 1040 kg/m3 for density and 7.035 m2/kg for specific surface of the grist
fraction which feed the plansifter compartment (grist that comes from the milling cylinders),
respectively 1123.7 kg/m3 and 44.5 m2/kg for flour fraction extracted at this compartment.
337
Samples used in the experimental granulometric measurements of grist were taken
from the technological flow of the milling plant S.C. Spicul S.A., Roşiorii de Vede,
Romania. In fig.1 is presented the flow diagram of reduction (grinding) phase in mentioned
milling plant, and in table 1 is shown the equivalence between mesh number and mesh
size sieve.
C1
C3
C2
C5
C4
C6
C2
Fig. 1. The flow
diagram of the
wheat grinding
phase in a
milling plant
with the
capacity of
4.2t/hr, [13].
C1–C6 –
plansifter
compartments;
Break 1–5 –
break rolls;
MG1, MG2 –
semolina
machines;
M1A, M1B,
M2–M6 –
grinding rolls; F
– F3 – flour.
Table 1.
Equivalence between mesh number and sieve mesh size
Mesh number
Mesh size [mm]
18 20
26
36
40
46
48
50
54
56
60
VIII IX
X
XI
1.17 1.05 0.78 0.52 0.47 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13
In the paper was performed the particle size distribution of each grist fraction,
obtained at plansifter compartment C1 (fig. 1), with a sieve shaker Analysette 3 Spartan,
fraction finesse being assessed by the mean diameter dm of material particles:
 pi  di
[mm]
(1)
dm 
 pi
where: pi represents percentage of material on the sieve of the sieve shaker (i = 0, 1, 2,…,
5); pi = 100 – sum of the percentages of material on sieves; di – average particle size of
each intermediate fractions, considered as an arithmetic mean of sieves size apertures
surrounding the respective fraction di = (li+li+1)/2. Classifier sieves were chosen to meet the
estimated relationship li 1  2  li , from the topper to the lower sieve.
For particle size distribution of grist fraction obtained at plansifter compartment C1 of
reduction roll M1A (fig. 1) were used samples of 100 grams taken from input and output of
compartment. These were sifted on a set of five overlapping sieves entrained in movement
of vibration with an amplitude of 2 mm, time of sifting being 3 minutes. T. Căsăndroiu e.a.,
in 2002 [1], and Gh. Voicu e.a., in 2003 [15], detailing the methodology, used also in this
paper.
Based on results from particle size analysis for the cumulative percentage of material
338
separated by sieve apertures were drawn by nonlinear regression analysis on the
computer in Microcal Origin verse. 7.0, the curves of variation for undersized material
(sifted by sieve) T(x) and for oversized material (refused by sieve) R(x). The distribution
law Rosin-Rammler, applied in regression analysis is based on mathematical statistical
method of small particles for grinded biological materials [6, 7] being give by relations:
 

(2)
T x   100  1  e  x 



(3)
Rx   100  e  x
where T(x) – represents mass percentage share of the fraction with particles smaller than
x (passed through the sieve with size x); and R(x) – mass percentage share of the fraction
with particles bigger than x (don‘t pass through the sieve with size x); x - apertures size
sieve by which particles have passed; α and β – experimental coefficients.
In Table 2 are presented the results of particle size analysis for grist sorted in
plansifter compartment C1 (see fig. 1) and size of sieves used in sieve shaker.
Table 2.Weight values pi (%) of grist on sieve of classifier and weight values T i (%) for grist
products collected at input and the five outputs of plansifter compartment of reduction roll
M1A
x C1 Entrance
x C1M3
x C1M1B
x C1M2
x C1F
x C1Fgrif
(mm) p(%) T(%) (mm) p (%) T(%) (mm) p(%) T(%) (mm) p(%) T(%) (mm) p(%) T(%) (mm) p(%) T(%)
0.0000 6.30
0.1251 7.90
0.180220.90
0.250325.60
0.315428.50
0.450510.80
dm
0.00
6.30
14.20
35.10
60.70
89.20
0.000
0.200
0.280
0.400
0.500
0.800
0.30
0.10
10.90
23.40
54.10
11.20
0.00
0.30
0.40
11.30
34.70
88.80
d1E=0.30 mm d1M3=0.60 mm
0.000
0.125
0.180
0.250
0.315
0.400
0.60
3.50
5.50
19.70
62.20
8.50
0.00
0.60
4.10
9.60
29.30
91.50
d1M1B=0.34 mm
0.000
0.080
0.100
0.160
0.200
0.315
0.40
0.60
4.20
21.10
63.40
10.30
0.00
0.40
1.00
5.20
26.30
89.70
0.000
0.040
0.050
0.071
0.100
0.140
1.20
5.90
18.60
33.90
31.40
9.00
0.00
1.20
7.10
25.70
59.60
91.00
d1M2 = 0.25 mm d1F=0.10 mm
0.000
0.050
0.071
0.100
0.140
0.200
0.70
1.90
6.20
8.50
69.20
13.50
0.00
0.70
2.60
8.80
17.30
86.50
d1Fgrif = 0.17 mm
From analyze of sieve aperture size (Table 2) and of percentage of material remained
on each sieve of classifier is found that grist reaching at plansifter compartment C1 of
reduction technological passage M1A is a mixture of different particles, most values being
above 0.25 mm (about 65%), representing both types of semolina (middle semolina –
about 10.8% and small semolina – about 28.5%), and dust (rough dust – about 25.6%). In
the initial mixture there are particle sizes less than 0.18 mm (about 14%) represented, in
the main, of fractions C1F and C1Fgrif. By sifting and sorting in plansifter compartment C1,
resulting fractions have average size of particles corresponding to Table 2 from the paper,
however, and these in turn are mixtures of very different particle sizes within categories
mentioned.
The first fraction withdrawn from plansifter compartment C1 represents a refusal with
high content of shell, the average size of particles being of 0.6 mm, but within this fraction
about 65% of the particles have a size greater than 0.5 mm. This fraction reenters in the
grinding process at reduction roll M3.
The second fraction extracted from the compartment is also a refusal (of the second
sieve package) with an average size particles of 0.34 mm, with a high content of
endosperm and with a percentage of more than 70% of particles more than 0.315 mm.
This fraction reenters in the grinding process at reduction roll M1B.
The third fraction resulted at plansifter compartment C1 is also a refusal (of the last
sieve package) falling within product type dust, with most of the particles (over 73%) larger
than 0.2 mm. And this fraction is directed to grinding within reduction roll M2 of milling
339
plant, having a high content of endosperm. The average particle size of the fraction C1M2
is of 0.25 mm, value calculated with relation (1).
The two flours extracted from the compartment (grist sifted within package 3 and 4 of
the compartment) have an average particle size of 0.1 mm (C1F), respectively by 0.17 mm
(C1Fgrif). Fraction C1Fgrif is semolina flour and has the largest part of particles (over
82%) with dimension more than 0.14 mm.
Table 3. Coefficient values of Rosin-Rammler distribution function  and , from relations
(2) and (3) and of correlation coefficient R2 with experimental data


R2
24.801
5.617
2609.186
561.361
39806.2
1776.761
2.898
3.912
7.661
4.740
6.166
3.306
0.992
0.997
0.994
0.998
0.994
0.995
Grist fractions
C1 Entrance
C1M3
C1M1B
C1M2
C1F
C1Fgrif
R(x), T(x)
R(x), T(x)
R(x), T(x)
R(x), T(x)
R(x), T(x)
R(x), T(x)
Correlation degree of Rosin-Rammler function with experimental data (as for the
material that passed through the classifier sieve and for that who was refused by sieves) is
appreciated by the values of R2 coefficient, shown in Table 3, together with the coefficients
of the equations (2) and (3) that depend on the type of fabric and the revolution of
actuating mechanism of plansifter.
80
100
Sifted and refused material (cumulative), %
100
C1 Intrare
R2 = 0.992
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
C1 M3
80
R2 = 0.997
60
40
20
0
0.5
0.0
0.2
Oriffice aperture li, mm
C1 M1B
R2 = 0.994
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.8
0.1
0.2
0.3
C1 M2
80
R2 = 0.998
60
40
20
0
0.00
0.4
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
100
100
0.6
100
100
80
0.4
C1 F
80
R2 = 0.994
60
40
20
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
C1 Fgrif
80
R2 = 0.995
60
40
20
0
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
340
0.12
0.14
Fig. 2. Size distribution curves given by equations (2) and (3) in correlation with
experimental data for grist fractions from plansifter compartment C1, afferent to reduction
roll M1A, at a milling plant of 4.2 t/h; (______ - R(x); – – – - T(x))
As can be seen from the charts of Figure 2, there are fractions that have most
particles with sizes similar to minimum size of classifier sieve aperture, but there are
particles with average size close to maximum value of the sieve aperture used in the
particle size analysis (most of experimental points to the left or right of curve).
Allure of regression curve is in correlation with obtained experimental data,
depending on the amount of material collected on each sieve of classifier.
In the case of the first technological passage of the reduction phase in a milling plant,
particle size distribution can be described, in all cases, with the best results by RosinRammler law, (R2 ≥ 0.991).
Coefficient  from equations (2) and (3) is a coefficient that indicates the degree of
non-uniformity of grist particle. It can be seen that the values fall, however, within a range
relatively small for distribution law presented, which means that the fractions analyzed
were fairly uniform in size of the particles.
Particle size distribution law used in paper shows a very good correlation with
experimental data regarding particle size of fractions in the entrance and outputs of the
plansifter compartment C1 in wheat reduction phase. Knowing the average size and
distribution by size, as well as the other physical characteristics of particle from grist
fractions constitutes, at the same time, requirements in choosing sifting frames fabric of
plansifter compartment, from input to output of each grist fractions from the compartment.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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by log probability method. Transactions of the ASAE, 11 (3), p. 331 – 334 and 338;
341
[7]. Henderson, S., Hansen R., 1968. Farm grain comminution: Hammer mill and burr mill
performance analysed, Transactions of the ASAE, 11 (3), p. 339 – 402;
[8]. KeShun Liu, 2009. Some factors affecting sieving performance and efficiency.
Powder Technology. 193, p.: 208-213;
[9]. Miller, R.A., Gwirtz, J.A., 2009. Efect of sieve tension in Quadrumat Senior
Laboratory Milling, Cereal Chemistry vol. 86, no. 6, p.: 665-668;
[10]. Pasikatan, M.C., Steele, J.L., Miliken, G.A., Spillman, C.K., Haque, E. , 1999. Particle
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[12]. Sultanbawa, F.M., Owens, W.G., Pandiela, S.S., 2001. A new approach to the
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(Part C), p. 201-218;
[13]. Voicu, Gh., Biris, S.S., Stefan, E.M., Constantin G.A., Ungureanu N.,2012. Grinding
characteristics of wheat in industrial mills. Chapter 15 in Food Industry Book, Edited by
InTech
Europe,
University
Campus
STeP
Ri,
Rijeka,
Croația,
http://www.intechopen.com/books/food-industry. ISBN 978-953-51-0911-2, p.: 323-354.
[14]. Voicu, Gh., Căsăndroiu, T., Târcolea C., Tudosie, E.M., Voicu, P., 2010.
Experimental research on the physical characteristics of products obtained from wheat
milling. Proceedings of the 38th International symposium on agricultural engineering
“Actual Tasks on agricultural engineering”. Opatija, Croatian: 399- 410;
[15]. Voicu, Gh., Căsăndroiu, T., Ţuţuianu, G.D., 2003. Aspects regarding the
granulometric properties of wheat grists. Proceedings International Symposium „EuroAliment 2003”, Galati, Romania:p.: 201-205.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, E.M. Stefan, E. Maican, S. Marcu - ‖Politehnica‖
University of Bucharest, Spl. Independenței, nr.313, sect.6, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail:
ghvoicu_2005@yahoo.com,
gabriel_alex99@yahoo.com,
tudosie_elenamadalina@yahoo.com, e.maican@gmail.com.
342
RESULTS OF THE EXPLOITATION TRIALS OF CLASSIC PRESSES AND
BIG ROLL BALLERS FOR HAY PREPARATION IN THE
AGROECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF TOPLICA COUNTY
S. Barac, A. Vukovic, A. Djikic, M. Biberdzic, M. Aksic and D. Djokic
Abstract: This paper presents the results of testing the four presses for bales forming of alfalfa hay
after the gathering in the conditions of Toplica county. The aim of our study was to determine the effects of
different types of presses, depending on the defined parameters. The lowest have been obtained on the
presses for small square bales Lifam RSGV 4.21%, and the highest in round bales press Rolant 44 which
have been 10.19%. In the area investigated, the best results on small farms show small square rectangular
bales presses, while the presses for round bales are recommended on middle size farms.
Key words: losses,efficiency, classic press, big roll baler.
INTRODUCTION
Gathering of bulky mass (hay and straw), is being done in different ways.
Preparation of hay in bulk is much more preferred, having in mind low productivity and
high costs, of gathering the bulk, storage, livestock feeding and handling the bulky mass
as well. The importance of hay and straw pressing reflects primarily in benefits compared
to other ways of sorting plant remains, related to transportation, handling and storage.
Numerous technologies of preparation of pressed hay conditioned and imposed various
operations and construction of presses for forming bales of different shapes and sizes.
Basically, the difference is related to the way of hay compression, hay striking and
compressing the action of the piston and related to the way of making hay bale, all over
the bale, due to moving of bales in the pressing bale chamber. According to the form of
pressed bales, presses may be performed as a classical (forming small cuboid bales),
roller presses (forming medium and large roll bales) and big balers (formed cuboid bales of
medium and large masses). Problems of preparing and gathering of hay has been topic of
research at a large number of researchers. Thus, Matthias (2001) states that the modern
presses for the formation of large cylindrical and cuboid bales, are equipped with built-in
device for chopping of mass, where a knives are fixed, and reverse knives are positioned
spiral, and these are ― feeding'' the presses. According to the same author, at the same
time it is getting a bigger density of bales of 10-15%, which is perfect for storing of silage
and haylage. Waszkiewicz and Kostyra (2003) analyze problems of mass compaction in
gathering of hay bay hay baler, and give a conclusion that the mass compaction of the
mass gathered with a hay-baler with constant chamber represents a significant parameter
that characterizes the work of baler. Djevic et al. (2003) point out that the roll baler had an
efficiency of 9.66 t h-1 with 2.57% losses, with the binder consumption increased by 20%
compared to allowed quantity. The same authors state that in the morning when the
moisture of mass is higher (about 55%), speed should be lower (about 9 km h -1), with
decreasing moisture below 50%, the speed can be increased to reduce falling of leaves.
Baling of hay with the appropriate moisture content is important to reduce losses and
improve storage after harvest. For low density bales (small cuboid and big roll bales), it is
recommended to perform baling of hay when moisture content is about 18% (Rotz, 2003).
The same author states that the more compressed bales (large cuboid), and recommend
moisture level in baling of hay as 12-14%. When making big baler, Fürll (2005) points out
that the trend is as follows: width of bales 1.2 m, and height of bales from 0.7 to 1.3 m.
For easier handling of these bales in animal feed company "krone" suggests "multi" bales,
consisted of 6 small bales. Brüser (2006), states that the trend for roll bale presses is to
propose getting smaller diameter bales. With fixed chamber it is 85% of users requests, for
343
the bale diameter of 1.3 m, and approximately 60% of requests for roll presses variable
volume chamber bale diameter smaller than 1.6 m. Gottfried (2008), states that for
gathering of hay it is increasing production and offer of hay collectors, with a working
width over than 10 m. Ponjiţan and Korenko (2008) suggest that the development of roll
presses, goes towards getting a bales of smaller diameters up to 160 cm, due to easier
manipulation. Radonjic (2008), states that in terms of hay pressing, now there are two
basic principles and concepts of machines with translational and rotational moving of the
working tools, with a tendency of further improvement and automation. In doing so, the
choice of optimum configurations for specific conditions and needs, should be based on
objective criteria, evaluation of production and safety performance. Potkonjak et al (2010)
examined five types of pick-up presses (three types of roll presses, presses and classic
big baler) and conclude that the maximum operating speed achieved with big baler (about
7 km h-1), which resulted in the biggest effects in pressing of alfalfa hay (average 4.19 ha
h-1 and 28.2 t h-1). The same authors state that the lowest losses in hay baling have been
achieved with Big Baler (3.02% of the hay yield), then classical presses (3.76%), while the
rolling bale presses (roll presses) achieved significantly higher losses (6.41 to 10.74%).
Gach et al (2010) state that for gathering of forage mass can be used presses which form
a bales of various shapes, cylindrical, square, big balers. Potkonjak et al (2010) suggest
that in the pressing of alfalfa, press'' Farmer'' RP-320 achieved average performance of
33.52 bales/h dimensions Ø160 x 125 cm. Average weight of bales was 648.83 kg, the
yield of alfalfa was up to 3.719 t ha-1 and 44.75% mass moisture. According to the same
authors there have been achieved losses were within the tolerant values.
The climatic and soil conditions of Toplica county (N 43 017'47'' E 21017'28''), have
been performed, exploiting tests of four presses in the gathering of alfalfa hay. In the trials
there have been treated two classical presses for small cuboid bales (LIFAM RSGV and
PBS-F98) and two roll bales presses (Claas 150S-constant chamber with ribbons, R-KKT
and Rolant 44-constant chamber with rollers R-KKV). Presses were operating in aggregate
with tractors 29.5; 34.5; 46.5 and 47 kW. The test method came up from the trials
objective. Tests have been done in two phases. In the first phase have been established
working conditions, and in the second phase it have been established parameters of the
tested presses. Yield has been determined by 1 m 2 in three replicates per pitch diagonal,
and then converted to an area of 1 ha. On this basis, it has been calculated that the
average yield of alfalfa hay was 3462; 3248; 3150 and 2987 kg ha-1 (dry cropping), which
can be explained by the somewhat unfavorable climatic conditions. The temperature
during the test ranged from 23 0C (in the morning) up to 34 0C during the day, while the air
humidity was in the range of 44-90%. Hay moisture has been determined by drying the
samples in the laboratory by determining of leaves moisture, and stem moisture, and
moisture and final moisture calculation has been done as arithmetic mean. Working speed
unit has been measured by chronometer. Surface effect has been obtained by calculation
on the basis of known speed values, working width and coefficient of efficiency. Losses of
hay in hay baling have been evaluated by capturing the total weight of hay that fell from
presses, by fabric for a period of 30‘‘ 5-6 times. The losses that have been created when
binding and ejecting of bales, have been investigated by the same way. The losses behind
pick-up device have been determined by collecting and measuring the mass of nongathered alfalfa hay, with a length of 5 m and width after the presses, in 5 replicates for
each bale. In the tests we have used a stopwatch, measuring tape, flagpole, bags and
other tools. For the applied methodology it can be concluded that it is standard for the
344
preparation of this issue, and refers to the field-testing, laboratory and exploitation tests for
the machinery for sorting up bulky mass.
Table 1 shows the basic data about the conditions of testing and working regime of
the tested presses. Based on the results shown in table 1 it can be seen that the presses
were operating in similar conditions considering to yields and moisture of alfalfa hay.
Alfalfa yield varied in the range from 2987 to 3462 kg ha-1, while the hay moisture was in
the range of 21.54-24.38%.Operating speed of presses was in the range of 1.18 to 1.50 m
s-1.
Table 1
The characteristics of pick-up balers and conditions of research
Parameter
Types of the tested Press
Classic press for cuboid bales
Roll press for big bales
1
2
Lifam
PBS
CCT
CCR
RSGV
F98
Welger 150S Rolant 44)
Average hay moisture
(%)
21.54
22.87
24.38
24.10
Hay yeld
(kg ha-1)
3462
3248
3150
2.987
-1
Operating speed
(m s )
1.18
1.21
1.28
1.50
Vary of opperating speed
0.99-1.44
1.15-1.38
1.20-1.36
1.28-1.72
Working widht
(m)
1.42
1.45
1.25
1.20
Requested power
(kW)
20
25
40
40
Rpm PTO
(min-1)
540
540
540
540
Mass
(kg)
1375
1400
1650
1600
1
CCT -Constant chamber with tapes; 2CCR- constant chamber with rollers
Table 2 shows the values of the actual effects of the tested presses depending on
the defined parameters.
Table 2.
Achieved efficiency of pick-up balers
Parameter
Type of tested press
Classic press for cuboid bales Roll presses for big bales
1
2
Lifam
PBS
CCT
CCR
RSGV
F98
Welger 150S (Rolant 44)
Number of bales per ha
204.90
198.27
5.93
4.65
Average mass of bale (kg)
14
15
475
532
ha h-1
1.45
1.50
1.46
1.65
Realized efficiency
t h-1
4.159
4.381
4.386
4.120
1
KKT - CCT -Constant chamber with tapes; 2CCR- constant chamber with rollers
Analyzing the results of the actual effects of the tested presses, it can be concluded
that the presses achieved different effects. The lowest effect has been achieved with a
machine for small cuboid bales LIFAM RSGV and 1.45 ha h-1 (4.159 t h-1), and the highest
with the hay baling machine for roll bales, with constant chamber with 1.65 ha h-1. Press
for small rectacuboid bales PBS-F98, has achieved the effect of 1.50 ha h -1 (4.381 t h-1),
with the average bale weight of 15 kg, and the number of bales per hectare 198.27. Roll
presses with constant chamber with ribbons achieved slightly lower values of surface
effect and it was 1.42 ha h-1 (4.386 t h-1), with 5.93 bales per hectare, with the average
weight of bales of 475 kg.
345
The average values of losses in alfalfa hay baling presses tested, are presented in
the table 3. The results show that the lowest total losses have been measured with
presses for small cuboid bales LIFAM-RSGV and 4.21%, or 145.75 kg ha-1. According to
structure, the highest share in total losses have been noted losses shaping of bundles
3.42% (118.40 kg ha-1), than losses on a pick-up device 0.74% (25.62 kg ha-1), while
losses incurred in tying and ejecting of bales negligible. The highest values of total losses
obtained during the press work in relation to the yield of alfalfa hay which has been
measured in forming of roll bales with a press with a constant chamber with rollers Rolant
44.Total losses amounted to 10.19% and 267.26 kg ha-1. When the structure is elaborated,
there are with this press too the highest losses have been measured in shaping of bales
and it was 6.98% (208.49 kg ha-1), while with the pick-up device 1.54% (45.93 kg ha-1),
and at the tying and ejecting of bale device it has been measured losses of 0.43% (12.84
kg ha-1).
Table 3
Average losses of alfalfa hay at tested baling presses
Type of
Average Losses in press operating per ha, related to
Total loss
baler
hay
the alfalfa ha yield (%)
from the
yields
yield
Losses at
Losses in
Losses in tying
pick-up
shaping the and ejecting the
(kg ha-1)
(%)
device
bales
bales
kg ha-1 %
kg ha-1
%
kg ha-1
%
kg ha-1 %
Lifam - RSGV
3.462 25.62 0.74 118.40 3.42
1.73
0.05 145.75 4.21
PBS - F98
3.248 27.61 0.85 121.48 3.74
3.25
0.10 152.33 4.69
1
CCT-Welger 150 3.150 51.98 1.65 156.55 4.97 11.03 0.35 219.56 6.97
2
CC -Rolant 44
2.987 45.93 1.54 208.49 6.98 12.84 0.43 267.26 10.19
1
CCT -Constant chamber with tapes; 2CCR- constant chamber with rollers
Elaborating the second tested press for small cuboid bales PBS-F98, it can be
noticed the generated total losses of 4.69%, or 152.33 kg ha-1, of which the shaping of
bales 3.74% (121.48 kg ha-1), in pick-up device 0.85% (27.61 kg ha-1), while losses to
tying and ejecting the bales were negligible. Roll press for round bales with constant
chamber with ribbons Welger 150S generated total losses of 6.97%, or 219.56 kg ha -1.
Analyzing realized losses on certain parts of presses, or the structure, it can be concluded
that the highest share of the total losses are losses incurred in shaping the bales 4.97%
(156.55 kg ha-1), followed by losses in pick-up device 1.65% (51.98 kg ha-1), and in
shaping and and tying bales 0.35% (11.03 kg ha-1).
Based on the obtained results it can be concluded that the presses have being
operated in similar production conditions. Alfalfa yield varied in the range from 2987 to
3462 kg ha-1, while the hay moisture has been in the range of 21.54-24.38%. The lowest
effect has been achieved with a machine for small cuboid bales LIFAM RSGV and it was
1.45 ha h-1 (4.159 t h-1), and the highest in the hay baling machine for roll bales with a
constant chamber with rollers 1.65 ha h-1. The results show that the lowest total losses
generated presses for small cuboid bales LIFAM-RSGV and 4.21% or 145.75 kg ha-1, and
the highest with the values of 10.19% or 267.26 kg ha-1, press for round bales with a
constant chamber with rollers Rolant 44. In the area investigated, the best results on small
farms show small square rectangular bales presses, while the presses for round bales are
recommended on middle size farms.
346
REFERENCES
[1]. Brüser C. 2006. Crop Preservation. Yearbook Agricultural Engineering, Band 18.
DLGVerlag, Frankfurt am Main: pp. 134-141.
[2]. Đeviš M., Miodragoviš R., Mileusniš Z., Mratiniš B. 2003. Biomass collecting
technology-technical system. Contemporary agricultural engineering. Vol. 29, No.1-2, pp.
41-50.
[3]. Fürll C. 2005. Crop Preservation. Yearbook Agricultural Engineering, Band
Landwirtschafsverlag GmbH, Münster: pp. 126-131.
[4]. Gach S., Piotrowska Eva, Skonieczny I. 2010. Foil consumption in wrapping of the
single green forage bales . Annals of Warsaw University- SGGW. Agriculture No 56
(Agricultural and Forest Engineering), pp 13–19.
[5]. Gottfried E. 2008. Zum Fürchten.Magazin für professionalle Agrertechnik (1): pp.3033.
[6]. Matthias J. 2001.Trends bei der Technik für die Futterernte. Landtehnik 56 (6):368371.
[7]. Ponjiţan J.,Korenko M. 2008. Stroje pre rastlinnu vyrobu. Slovenska
polnohospodarska univerzita v Nitre: 248.
[8]. Potkonjak V., AnŤelkoviš S., Zoranoviš M. 2010. Exploitation parameters of balers for
alfalfa hay preparation. Contemporary agricultural engineering. Vol. 36, No. 1, pp 47-52.
[9]. Potkonjak V., Zoranoviš M., AnŤelkoviš S. 2010. Technical exploitation parameters of
machines for haylage preparation. Tractors and power machines. Vol.15.No.4., pp.26-32.
[10]. Radonjic R. 2008. Comparative investigation of modern system to hay preparation.
Tractors and power machines. VoI.13.No.2.pp.20-26.
[11]. Rotz C.A. 2003. Effectiveness of equipment to speed hay drying. Pennsylvania
Grazing and Forage Conference Proceedings. pp. 17-22.
[12]. Waszkiewicz C., Kostyra K. 2003. Compaction of harvested material as a significant
parameter characterizing the work of rolling baler. Annals of Warsaw University – SGGW .
Agriculture (Agricultural Engineering), No 44., pp 43-54.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Barac, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street
Kopaoniţka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: sbarac@eunet.rs
M. Biberdzic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street
Kopaoniţka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: mbiberdzic@gmail.com
Aleksandar Vukovic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak,
Street Kopaoniţka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: stojankav@open.telekom.rs
A. Djikic, Faculty of Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street
Kopaoniţka bb, 38219 Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: amerika@vektor.net
M. Aksic , Agriculture Pristina, Kosovska Mitrovica - Lesak, Street Kopaoniţka bb, 38219
Lesak, Serbia, E-mail: miroljub.aksic@gmail.com
D. Djokic, Institute for Forage Crops - Krusevac, Globoder, 37000 Krusevac, Serbia,
E-mail: dragoslav.djokic@ikbks.com
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The results of research were made by funding the Ministry of Science and
Technology, Government of the Republic of Serbia. The project "Improvement of
biotechnological processes in the function of the rational use of energy,
increase productivity and quality of agricultural products ", registration number 31051st.
347
THERMAL TREATMENTS OF CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS
M. Lupu, V. Pădureanu
Abstract: A hamburger, also called a hamburger sandwich, is a sandwich consisting of a cooked patty
of ground meat usually placed inside a sliced bread roll. The hamburger is one of the most consumed
convenience food. Convenience food is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption.
Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, as roomtemperature, ready-to-eat dishes, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen products that require
minimal preparation (typically just heating).
The present paper is intended to find the value of the hamburger heat transfer coefficient with the
environment. This research is necessary to improve the quality and the safety of the consumer alimentation.
Key words: heat temperature, thermocouple, oven temperature.
INTRODUCTION
Convenience foods are products serving to reduce the cooking time, to reduce the
cost on food spoilage and reduce costs by avoiding the purchase of additional products
used in food preparation.
These types of products require a minimum food preparation; usually it is necessary
to let them only a few minutes in the oven at a certain temperature and they have a long
shelf life. Although these products can be kept longer, on the validity period don‘t lose too
much the nutritional value or the flavor. These products have been developed especially to
preserve agricultural surplus available at harvest in order to stabilize the food market in
developed countries.
In the last period, a big attention was given to the research of the fabrication and
preparation process for the hamburger because the hamburger consumption is increasing.
The quality of the hamburger is affected by a combination of several factors, like
thermo-physical properties and geometry of the product, cooking time and temperature.
Experiments were run to measure the temperature in certain points in hamburger and
in the oven, to have a global view of the temperature during heating.
The two experiments was made on two peace of a Polyamide 6 material, because
the surface heat transfer coefficient is not depend on what type of material we used. It
depends on the conditions and environment (air velocity, etc.).
Table 1
Typical properties of Polyamide 6
Property
Value
Property
Value
3
Density (g/cm )
1.14
Flammability UL94
HB
Surface Hardness
SD75
Volume Resistivity (logohm.cm)
14
Tensile Strength(MPa)
40
Dielectric Strength (MV/m)
25
Flexural Modulus(GPa)
1
Dissipation Factor 1kHz
0.2
Notched Izod (kJ/m)
0.25
Dielectric Constant 1kHz
8
Linear Expansion(/°C x 10-5)
10
HDT 0.45 MPa (°C)
200
Elongation at Break (%)
60
HDT 1.80 MPa (°C)
80
Strain at Yield (%)
4.5
Material. Drying (°C)
3 -95
Max. Operating Temp. (°C)
80
Melting Temp. Range (°C)
230-280
Water Absorption (%)
1.5
Mould Temp. Range (°C)
40 - 60
Oxygen Index (%)
22
Mould Shrinkage (%)
1.2
Those two pieces of Polyamide 6 had the same shape and height like a usual burger.
348
Fig. 1. The synthetic burger
Fig. 2. The three thermocouples
The materials used for the experiments were:
 Three thermocouples which were connected to the data logger.
 The data logger
 The oven
The data logger used was a model from AGILENT type 34970A.
This data logger is useful for the measuring and for the storage of the temperature
values. This device came with its own software for downloading the measurements on the
computer.
Fig. 3. The data logger
The model of the oven is Whirlpool, type AKP235/IX.
The purpose of those experiments is to obtain true information‘s about the cooking
temperature inside the oven and also inside the hamburger.
To find these, for the beginning, in the synthetic hamburger were made two small
holes were the thermocouples were introduced.
349
Fig. 4. The position of the thermocouples inside the synthetic hamburger
Inside the hamburger was introduced two thermocouples and another thermocouple
was introduced in the oven. The third thermocouple is important to see the exactly
temperature of the heat process.
All the temperatures inside the hamburger will be registered by the Data Logger, at
every 5 seconds.
The experiments was carried out for Static function of the oven at the temperatures
50, 75, 100 and 125 °C. All the experiments were made in the same way for both of the
synthetic hamburgers.
After the experiment was completed and data were recorded by the Data Logger, the
results were transferred in the computer and relocated with Excel software.
Because we had two synthetic hamburgers, we will take into consideration only the
measurements made on hamburger A, because the values are almost the same, in both A
and B samples.
Fig.5. Comparison of 50°C, 75°C, 100°C, 125°C temperatures from the oven
350
If we take a look to figure 5, we can observe, mainly, that all 4 diagrams are having a
resembling evolution, the difference is noticed only regarding the processing period
because of time variation. The period of the heating process varies in inverse ratio with
the temperature. This means, that the period of the heating process (duration of coupling auto trip cycles) decreases with the temperature growth.
There can be seen a linear correspondence between all the temperature variations
from the oven because of the coupling - auto trip process of the oven heating. The
temperature variation inside the oven is obvious in the 125 °C temperature curve.
Fig.6. Comparison of the temperatures inside the hamburger (50°C; 75°C ;100°C; 125°C)
Analysing the graph with the temperature inside the hamburger, it is observable that
thermocouple B is heating faster than thermocouple A because the B thermocouple is
placed closer to the exterior, unlike the thermocouple A placed in the center of the
hamburger.
This fact is physical accountable because the heat is diffused from the exterior to the
interior, the heat is radiated from the oven, and the exterior side of the hamburger is
heated first and then the heat is diffused gradually into the interior of the hamburger. On
the exterior it will have a higher temperature.
The temperature growth is relatively linear in this case too.
The starting temperatures of the experiments aren‘t equivalent, because, the
hamburgers used didn‘t have the same temperature when they were put into the oven.
The heat starting temperatures were between 21°C and 25°C.
The velocity of the temperature growth is higher in the oven compared with the
hamburger inside because the thermocouple inside the oven is in direct contact with the
hot air, while the thermocouple inside the hamburger is measuring only the temperature
inside the hamburger which does not increase as quickly as the temperature inside the
oven.
To find the surface heat transfer coefficient, first of all, we need to know what type
of convection we have. To find this we have to calculate Reynolds Criteria. Because we
351
don‘t know the velocity of heat transmission, we will impose it. We will calculated Reynolds
for the following velocity: v = 0,5 m/s; v = 1 m/s; v = 5 m/s; v = 10 m/s ,so, we will have for
cases.
Table 2
The surface heat transfer coefficient at the velocity of 0,5 m/s; 1 m/s; 5 m/s; 10 m/s
Temperature
hl
Temperature
hl
50°C
14,34
50°C
45,39
75°C
14,24
75°C
45,00
v = 0,5 m/s
v = 5 m/s
100°C
14,12
100°C
44,65
125°C
13,82
125°C
43,8
50°C
20,28
50°C
64,12
75°C
20,15
75°C
63,75
v = 1 m/s
v = 10 m/s
100°C
19,98
100°C
63,13
125°C
19,62
125°C
61,81
CONCLUSIONS
All the experimental research and simulations were made to find the surface heat
transfer coefficient.
Tacking account of the forced convection, after the experiments and simulation it can
be concluded that the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient is 50 W / m 2  K .
REFERENCES
[1] INCROPERA, F.P. and DE WITT, D. P. 2002. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer. John Wileg & Sons, USA. P. 981.
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transfer for convection cooking of chicken patties. Journal of food Engineering.42, 139-146
[3] OROSZVARI, B. K., BAYOD, E., SJOHOLM, I. and TORNBERG, E. 2006. The
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
M. LUPU, Food and Tourism Management and Engineering Department, University
Transilvania Brasov, Romania. E-mail: lupu.mirabela@unitbv.ro
V. PĂDUREANU, Food and Tourism Management and Engineering Department,
University Transilvania Brasov, Romania. E-mail: padu@unitbv.ro
352
ASPECTS REGARDING RESISTANCE MECHANICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGETIC PLANT STALK (MISCANTHUS)
G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, P. Voicu
Abstract: The most important characteristics of energetic plants on the mechanical processing
technologic flow are linked. Numerous researchers from different countries realized experimental researches
in order to estimate mechanical behavior both for one single type of energetic plant mechanical tension on
different categories, and for complex tensions, which summarize multiple simple mechanical tensions. Our
paper is a review on these characteristics for some energetic plants, including our researches on the
Miscanthus energetic plant stalk.
Keywords: energetic plants, mechanical behaviour, miscanthus, mechanical process.
INTRODUCTION
Due to a high potential to deliver fuel and energy comparable with fossil fuels,
biomass is considered the best alternative regarding renewable energy. For designing and
realization of plant cutting and grinding equipment, the knowledge regarding resistance
and mechanical behavior during preparation is necessary, which varies with the plant
biological characteristics and harvest conditions [5]. Cutting and grinding equipments can
be very diverse, but the working principle varies very little from one apparatus to another.
In paper [10] Tavakoli and the other authors investigated shearing mechanical
behavior, respectively at bending stresses of two types of rice straws with high humidity
(70.8-71.6%), for the first three internodes from the ear of the plants. It has been seen that
rice straws shearing resistance was of 8.56-13.08 MPa and that the shearing energy rises
from the superior internode to the inferior one. (from 122.76 mJ to 236.06 mJ, at one of the
breeds). Thus, Young‘s module and shearing resistance drop from the superior internode
to the third (from aprox. 1.2 GPa, to 0.4 GPa).
In paper [9], Kronberg and his collaborators researched the mechanical
characteristics of reed at cutting by two methods (with an unsharpened blade and a
sharpened one at 20º), both for one stalk, as well as for flattened stalks, in two or three
layers. It has been seen that at cutting one plant there are no significant differences,
referring to the two methods, but, at cutting the layered material the energy consumption
rises two times when an unsharpened knife is used in comparison to the sharpened knife
at 20º.
This part of the paper uses as bibliographic sources a variety od articles and studies
taken from our research. After studying a series of articles in the field of energetic plants
we conducted experimental tests that concluded in scientific articles published in a variety
of journals. In order to determine the miscanthus stalk mechanical behavior at
compression stresses at small and high loads (with sample crushing), at shearing and
cutting with V shaped blades with different angle openings or mechanical behavior at
gross grinding, samples were processed from miscanthus stalks.
The samples were taken from the majority of plant internodes with lengths of 33mm
with a cut that does not affect the stalk outer layer. Tests were made with the Hounsfield
mechanical tests apparatus using proper accessories to each type of determination (for
compression, shearing and cutting). General plant humidity (the same for all stalks) was of
8.8-9.0%. Sample diameter (in two perpendicular plants) and sample mass were
determined each time.
353
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
From determinations regarding compression behavior under small loads realized on
a laboratory stand, specially conceived for this purpose, the following conclusions were
outlined:
- for deformation to crushing miscanthus plants at transversal compression stresses,
static loads larger thn 2.56 daN are necessary;
- during the compression process the stalks gets deformed, the deformation
remained at a certain value after stopping the stress load;
- mischantus stalks have an elastic-plastic behavior during the process of
compression, which assumes an energy quantity accumulated in the plant without
crushing it (breaking);
- miscanthus samples absolute deformation was between the limits of 0.11 – 0.45
mm for stalk diameters between 6.07 – 8.35 mm;
- deformation stress had values between 219.1 – 481.5 N/mm while the Young
elasticity module had values between large limits (3892 – 31000 N/mm);
- lost energy at compression by high tensions of loading-discharging, depend on the
plant mechanical properties;
- mechanical properties remembered earlier vary on plant height(from interned to
internode) with stalk diameter and its layer thickness;
Fig. 1. Deformation-tension curve, found at solid biological bodies (a) and
mischantus stalk transversal deformation (b); Lp – proportionality limit, PC-bio-flow point, Rrupture point, A- contact area; P- load (stress), [1,7];
2.5
2.5
Sample 2
Sample 5
2
2
Loading
Loading
Unloading
1.5
Load, kg
Load, kg
Unloading
y = 19.615.x
R2 = 0.9778
1
1.5
y = 6.9593.x
R2 = 0.9707
1
0.5
0.5
y = 19.247x - 4.0139
R2 = 0.9701
y = 34.926.x - 1.6622
R2 = 0.9686
0
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Deformation, mm
0.1
0.12
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
Deformation, mm
Fig. 2. Loading-discharging curves for small compression stresses [7]
Researches regarding miscanthus plant behavior at compression stresses under high
loads (until flattening) have been done during papers [1,2]. Determinations have been
354
done with Hounsfield apparatus, equipped with a 34 mm diameter and 8mm width adapter,
working speed being established on the basis of specific literature data at 500 mm/min.
For determining stalk elasticity module in this case a variation- tension-relative deformation
graph was made (ζ-ε) on the ascending area of the compression tension from the
apparatus curve (force-deformation). On this area the linear regression analysis was done
on a computer and the line curve represented the elasticity module value.
Fig. 3. Force deformation curve and curve line for the relative deformation curve [2]
a.
b.
Fig. 4. Scattering degree of the elasticity modulus in correlation with the average
diameter (a), compression force (b), for miscanthus stalk samples [3]
In paper [1,6] 20 experiments for 10 internodes were done, average diameter for
samples being between 5.95-8.43 mm (from top to bottom), crushing force recorded by the
apparatus for the 20 samples had values between 54.4 – 236.8 N; bio-flow point was
recorded for some samples long before rupture point. Plant relative deformation had
values between 0.102 and 0.277 for contact areas with values between 154.3-306.1 mm2.
Also, compression pressure had values between 2.9-10.4 kPa. From the conclusions of
the paper we can outline:
- The fact that for miscanthus sample crushing realization relatively high compression
forces is necessary;
- The fact that miscanthus stalk physical properties are manifested differently from
one interned to another, their variation being arbitrary;
- The fact that at high sample diameters the compression necessary force has high
values. So, for a 5.95mm diameter the compression force until crushing had values of
63.3N while for a diameter of 8.09mm the compression force was of 194.4N;
- The Young elasticity module was in this situation at values between 0.4-2.0 MPa,
values much higher than those presented in the anterior paper.
355
Results regarding shearing tests on miscanthus stalks were presented in paper [4]
experiments were done on stalk samples with dimensions and masses known with a
shearing blade with 30,50,60, 75º openings and 3mm width. On the testing apparatus the
force deformation graphs were drawn and on these graphs values were taken regarding
bio-flow point, rupture point, proportionality limit. Some of the values obtained are
presented in table 1.
Table 1. Date measured and results obtained during shearing experimental tests
regarding miscanthus plants behavior by using shearing plates of different opening angles
[1,4]
Intenod
1
4
Length
(mm)
20.89
22.59
21.66
21.47
20.88
19.51
20.79
21.92
Medium
diameter
(mm)
7.70
7.67
7.43
7.95
6.96
7.22
7.50
6.75
Mass (g)
0.318
0.342
0.347
0.342
0.210
0.209
0.285
0.220
Stalk wall
Blade
width
Force (N)
angle (o)
(mm)
0.98
30
669
0.86
50
869
0.97
60
766
0.92
75
633.8
0.70
30
711
0.59
50
826
0.78
60
94.60
0.59
75
533.25
Extension
(mm)
Energy
(J)
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.7
30.6
30.8
18.0
31.2
4.003
2.530
1.934
2.095
2.429
2.395
2.451
1.215
Force in
the flow
point (N)
794
803.3
216
152.3
504
173
262.5
184
From the analyzed data obtained from experimentation the following conclusions
were drawn:
- values of the rupture forces, regardless of the working plate angle, as well as the
necessary energy at shearing or of bio-flow force is between relatively large limits;
- for small lengths of cellulose layer, the deformations are higher until sample rupture
point, due to a higher elasticity given by the stalk elastic core;
a.
b.
Fig 5. a. Sample displacement during tests; b. Force – deformation curve for shear
stress behavior using steel blades with an angle of 30 degrees [1,4]
-
variation of energy and shearing force with the plant diameter presented an
exponential variation rising from 0.31 J for a diameter of 4.29 mm at aprox. 2.32 J
for a diameter of 7.95 mm.
shearing tension of miscanthus samples have values between (2.8 – 6.5)*10-5 MPa;
the bigger the values of average diameter and stalk wall width, the larger the
shearing force value: for a diameter of 8.19mm and wall width of 1.5 mm, the
356
shearing force was of 850 N while for a diameter of 6.7mm and wall width of 0.89
mm the shearing force was of approximate 432 N;
- variations in large limits of stalk mechanical characteristics were due mainly to the
biological characteristics heterogeneity and to internodes from where the samples
were collected.
Researches regarding miscanthus behavior at cutting were done, through V shaped
shearing, with different opening angles (30, 50, 75) and different sharpening angles (10,
20, 30, 40, 50), using the same apparatus for mechanical stresses Hounsfield. On the
basis of resulted values from the deformation force curves recorded by the apparatus for
force and energy of cutting, the variation curves were drawn according to the position of
stalk internodes. These are graphically presented in figure 5. For the blade with 30º
opening and the average of values for cutting angles.
a.
b.
Fig. 6. Miscanthus stalk force and cutting energy according to the interned position on
plant length [8]
From the data analysis presented we can see that both the force as well as the
cutting energy drop from the base of the plant to its top, once with the drop in the average
diameter of stalks. For plants subjected to cutting experiments the average values of
cutting forces dropped from 600 N to lower internode at 245 N for internode 7, the variation
curve of the cutting force presenting a decreasing exponential variation. Also, the average
cutting energy dropped from 4.7 mJ at the first interned to 1.2 J at internode 7, presenting
a decreasing variation after a power type distribution type.
The presented analysis during papers refers to the plant individual behavior for
working lengths equal to stalk diameter. For situations in which the stresses are done for
layered stalks (higher widths than the diameter of a single plant) both the forces as well as
the used energy presenting substantially higher values.
CONCLUSIONS
Using lab equipments for mechanical testing it is given the possibility for obtaining
some preliminary data regarding energetic plant behavior during the loads from the
manufacturing process. These equipments records for each load the force – extension
curve and gives data regarding the applied force, the energy consumed, rupture point,
bioyield point, and even the elasticity modulus for stalks. A plant characteristic varies from
an internode to another and from a plant to other plant. Miscanthus plant behavior
subjected to mechanical loads was influenced by the physical characteristics of
miscanthus culture. Ascending force – deformation curves slope obtained through
compression shows a growth relatively proportional to deformation with pressure force.
Force and energy parameters variation, diverse not only from an internode to another but
from plant to plant also even if we have the same type of distribution law. Knowing
357
miscanthus stalk mechanical characteristics is necessary for designing, creating and
picking the right parameters for the work regime of the machines used for processing from
harvesting to pellets used in thermal plants.
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
Social Protection through the Financial Agreement POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61178.
REFERENCES
[1]. Moiceanu G., 2012. Research Regarding Energetic Plant Behavior During
Mechanical Operation of Cutting and Grinding‖, PhD. Thesis, University ―Politehnica‖
from Bucharest;
[2]. Moiceanu G., Voicu Gh., Ipate G., Voicu P., 2011. Researches regarding crushing
behavior and Mechanical Characteristics of Miscanthus Energetic Plant; 33th
International Symposiums of Section IV of CIGR, OS 212, vol. 13;
[3]. Moiceanu G., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Poenaru C.I., Biris S.S., 2012. Mechanical
characteristics of Miscanthus Stalks Obtained by Compression Tests, Actual tasks on
agricultural engineering, vol.40, Opatija, Croatia, 507-516
[4]. Moiceanu G., Voicu Gh., David L., Voicu P., 2011. Tension-deformation curves for
stalks of miscanthus energy plant at shear, cutting tensions and the work process of
cylinder type grinding machinery, Third International Conference Research people
and actual tasks on multidisciplinary science, Lozenec, Bulgaria, vol.2, 80-84;
[5]. Moiceanu G., Voicu Gh., Paraschiv G., Poenaru I.C., Pirnă I., 2012. Some physical –
biological characteristics of miscanthus energetic plant stalks, INMATEH Agricultural
Engineering, 38(3), 53-58;
[6]. Voicu Gh., Moiceanu G., Sandu M., Poenaru I.C., Voicu P., 2011. Experiments
regarding mechanical behaviour of the energetic plant miscanthus to crushing and
shear stress 10th International Scientific Conference „Engineering for Rural
Development‖, vol.10, Jelgava, Letonia, 490-495;
[7]. Voicu Gh., Moiceanu G., Biris S.St., Rusanescu C.O., 2011. Researches regarding
Miscanthus Stalk behaviour during crushing stress under small loads, Actual tasks on
agricultural engineering, vol.39, Opatija, Croatia, 153-160;
[8]. Voicu Gh., Moiceanu G., Paraschiv G., 2013. Miscanthus Stalk Behavior at Shear
Cutting with V Cutting Blades, at Different Sharpenning Angles, Scientific Buletin of
UPB, (in print);
[9]. Kronbergs E., Smits M., 2009. Cutting properties of common reed biomass,
Engineering for Rural Development, Jelgava, Latvia, vol.8, 207-211;
[10]. Tavakoli M., H. Tavakoli H., Azizi M.H., Haghayegh G.H., 2010. Comparison of
mechanical properties between two varieties of rice straw, Advance Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 2(1), 50-54.
358
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF OSCILLATION
FREQUENCY ON SEED LOSES FOR AN OSCILLATING CONICAL SIEVE
D. Stoica, Gh. Voicu, G.Al. Constantin, C. Carp-Ciocârdia
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering
Abstract: Removal of foreign bodies from the seed mixtures, for industrial processing, is performed
using sieves with oscillatory motion. A vertical conical sieve suspended in three points with elastic wires
(both at the top and bottom), with oscillatory motion on the horizontal was used to clean the impurities of
rape seeds immediately after harvesting. In the paper is presented the variation of seed losses, the
oscillation frequency of the sieve (for three values thereof) and with supply flow.
The results may be of interest to specialists in the operation of such equipment designed for cleaning
seed (grain or technical plants) before they reach the technological flow of processing.
Key words: suspended conical sieve, oscillation frequency, impurities separation, seed losses.
INTRODUCTION
Separation of impurities from the mixture of seeds, immediately after harvesting, is
performed very often by sieving on sieves with oscillating movement. Oscillating
movement of sieves is obtained, generally, with mechanisms of very varied construction.
Sifting and separation phenomenon through sieves aperture occurs only when there
is relative motion of the material on the separation surface, which is influenced by the
amplitude and frequency of sieve oscillation. Also, separation process on sieves is
influenced by other parameters: inclination of sieve, angle of internal friction, the external
friction angle, sieve apertures size, seed sizes [1,3,4].
Mechanical separation of seeds on sieves with oscillatory motion is not a complete
separation because in the unseparated material will be whenever a certain percentage
from the seeds or particles of material that should have separate, with size smaller than
sieve apertures, but which did not meet the conditions for separation [2].
Sieves oscillation motion parameters have a direct influence on the separation
process of impurities from seed mass, through imprinted movement of the material which
has to travel from feed point of the sieve to discharge zone of its, where it is collected
material particles larger than the sieve apertures [6,7].
In this paper was studied the influence of kinematic parameters of a conical
suspended three points sieve (both above and below) on the process of separation of
impurities from a mixture of canola seed. Scheme of the experimental stand is shown in
Figure 1.
The experiments were performed with a content of big straw impurities of 3%, 3-4
mm in size which have not put problems with the purity of the collected material under the
sieve, so that the main indicator of the quality of separation was the loss of seeds and the
degree of separation across sieve.
Diameter of conical sieve, at the bottom of it, is of 430 mm, and the density of the
circular apertures on the separation surface is 2.25 orificii / cm 2 (living surface of the sieve
is about 31%). Length of the suspension wire was l 1 = 240 mm (above sieve) and l2 = 180
mm (to the bottom), [5,7].
359
2
1
Fig. 1. Scheme of the experimental stand with suspended conical sieve
1. conical sieve with circular apertures; 2. feed hopper; 3. actuator mechanism with worm wheel
and oscillatory coulisse; 3’. oscillatory coulisse arm; 4. separated material collecting box; 5. metal
cables for suspending; 6. spherical joint; 7. radial arm for connecting the actuator mechanism with
sieve
In order to feed the sieve was used a feeding hopper provided with outlet opening of
diameter 25 mm, at the top of sieve cone, on the vertical axis of it, with the possibility of
adjusting the height of the funnel in order to change the ring section of flow between sieve
and the bottom of the outlet and, consequently, of feed flow.
Collection box of sieve presented the following collecting diameters: 80, 140; 200,
260, 320, 410 and 460 mm.
Changed parameters, during the research, was oscillation frequency of the sieve,
through revolutions of actuator mechanism with oscillatory coulisse, and the amplitude of
the oscillation, through position of the arm joint that link mechanism with sieve(distance d,
fig.1).
Assessment of the working process of sieve was made through the separation curve
based on the radius of the sieve (collecting of its being accomplished in concentric ring
boxes under the sieve). Beyond the bottom of the sieve were collected seeds that have not
met the conditions to pass through the apertures and to separate.
For experiments were used canola seeds with humidity of 7.65-8.05 %, humidity of
straw parts being 8.35-8.70%. Seeds had a size between 1.5-2.5 mm, (in a percentage of
more than 90%), determined by sifting by sieve with the apertures side 150 μm, respective
250 μm (from the set of sieve of the classifier).
The sample of the material was composed of 0.5 kg of seeds, in addition with 15
grams (3%) from big foreign bodies consisting of parts of canola plant stalk.
For three adjustable distance of the feed funnel to sieve, the feed rate had values:
0.020 kg/s, 0.033 kg/s and 0.042 kg/s.
During the experimental measurements was found that straw impurities in seed mass
totally exceeded the bottom edge of the sieve, at all samples performed.
For ease of data processing and plotting of experimental curves representative of
workflow, mass of material collected in each box under the sieve has been reported at
seed mass of the sample, the results are presented as a percentage of it.
Based on percentages of seed separated at different radius of collecting of the sieve
were traced curves of separating intensity, ie the relative distribution of material separated
on radius of the base circle of the sieve cone, and separation cumulative curves,
representative for separation of granular materials on sieve.
360
In the experiments were pursued, in the main, amount of canona seeds that have
passed beyond the bottom edge of the sieve together with the straw parties and which
were constituted in loss of seed, but also distribution of the seed separated on the sieve
diameter.
In the Table 1 are presented losses of canona seeds depending on the oscillation
frequency of the sieve, for three values of the amplitude of the oscillation of sieve and
three values of the material feed rate.On basis of the data in Table 1 were drawn graphical
seed loss variation based on the frequency of oscillation of the three feed rates.
From those observed in experiments, seeds loses was, generally, lower in particular
at low flow rates feed, thus increasing with the increasing of flow rate and with decreasing
of oscillation frequency, what makes us to assume that at a more pronounced agitation of
the material on the sieve, seeds are driven faster in passing through apertures,
phenomenon correlated, in fact, and with difference between the sizes of the sieve
apertures and those of separated seeds.
From the analysis of curves in Figure 2 and of data in Table 1, it is found that the
minimum losses of seeds are obtained for frequency of 520 osc/min, regardless of the
oscillation amplitude and the feed rate, it being at values of about 3.2-8.6% for a high feed
rate (0.042 kg/s), seeds not having time to pass through material layer and then through
sieve apertures to separate.
Table 1.
The loss of seed according to the frequency of oscillation and feed rate to different
amplitudes of oscillation of sieve
g
%
g
%
g
%
F1 =250 osc/min
F2 = 520 osc/min
F3 = 790 osc/min
Q1 =0.020 Kg/s
A1
A2
A3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Q2 =0.033 Kg/s
A1
A2
A3
0
0
1
0
0
0.2
0
20
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Q3 =0.042 Kg/s
A1
A2
A3
18
30
43
3.6
6
8.6
16
25
28
3.2
5
5.6
30
27
23
6
5.4
4.6
In Table 2 are presented the weighted values of seeds collected under the sieve, on
the diameter of it, for the feed rate Q1 = 0.02 kg/s, pentru cele trei frecvenţe de oscilaţie, at
the three amplitude of sieve oscillation. Based on the values given in this table, have been
drawn through points the cumulative curves of variation of seeds which have been
separated through apertures (Figure 3).
10,0
A1
9,0
A2
8,0
A3
7,0
p [%]
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
f [osc/min]
Fig.2. Variation of the seed loss with oscillation frequency and amplitude of oscillation.
361
It is noted, however, that at small amplitudes of oscillation the seed losses are lower
at lower values of oscillation frequency, but at higher values of its, losses at small
amplitudes grow over loss amounts at the others amplitudes (see fig.2).
Table 2. Amount of material collected under the sieve (%),for the feed rate Q 1=0.042 kg/s
at different oscillation frequencies
Q1=0,02 kg/s; Mp= 500 g
Nr crt Amplitude of
oscillations
1
2
Sieve range on which are collected seeds (m)
Frequency of
oscillations
A1= 3,58 mm
0,04
0,07
0,1
0,13
0,16 0,205
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
g
%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
140
28
100
20
142
28.4
115
23
114
22.8
128
25.6
105
21
115
23
134
26.8
170
34
134
26.8
167
33.4
141
28.2
141
28.2
166
33.2
118
23,6
155
31
176
35.2
89
17.8
97
19.4
103
20.6
92
18.4
90
18
95
19
99
19.8
90
18
81
16.2
47
9.4
86
17.2
49
9.8
59
11.8
70
14
45
9
66
13.2
59
11.8
48
9.6
23
4.6
54
10.8
9
1.8
42
8.4
39
7.8
30
6
52
10.4
34
6.8
26
5.2
F2=520 osc/min
F3=790 osc/min
4
F1=250 osc/min
A2= 3,74mm
F2=520 osc/min
6
F3=790 osc/min
7
F1=250 osc/min
8
0
F1=250 osc/min
3
5
Separated
seeds
A3= 4,10 mm
9
F2=520 osc/min
F3=790 osc/min
F1=250 osc/min
F2=520 osc/min
F3=790 osc/min
80
60
40
20
0
13
2.6
13
2.6
0
0
21
4.2
21
4.2
9
1.8
17
3.4
19
3.8
12
2.4
F1=250 osc/min
F2=520 osc/min
F3=790 osc/min
100
Separated seeds, [%]
100
Over
sieve
80
60
40
20
0
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,00
Sieve collecting radius, [m]
100
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
F1=250 osc/min
F2=520 osc/min
F3=790 osc/min
80
60
40
20
0
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
Fig.3. Variation of cumulative weights of seeds separated on sieve diameter, with
frequency and amplitude of the oscillations, at feed flow rate Q 1=0.020 kg/s
362
18
3.6
16
3.2
30
6
30
6
25
5
27
5.4
43
8.6
28
5.6
23
4.6
In order to estimate by calculation the loss of seed on radius of the collection of
sieve, and distribution of seeds collected on sieve diameter (in the horizontal plane), was
performed regression analysis with Rosin-Rammler distribution law:
(1)
p x (%)  100(1  e bx )
in which: px (%) – cumulatively percentage share of the material separated on a particular
area of sieve (measured from the inside to the outside); b, n – regression coefficients of
the equation taking into account the physical characteristics of the material, its travel
speed on the sieve, the thickness of the material on the sieve surface, respectively the
degree of uniformity of the material on the separation surface.
There is an symmetrical distribution of seeds collected on radius of the sieve,
especially, for small amplitudes and low oscillation frequency, at this flow seeds are
separating completely before edge of the sieve (losses are zero).
Regression performed showed in all analyzed cases a very good correlation of
experimental data with Rosin-Rammler distribution law, proved by the correlation
coefficient R2 which had, in most cases, values over 0.85.
Values of regression coefficients b and n, and correlation coefficient values 2 and R2
together with the regression curves obtained on the computer are shown in fig.3.
If it is desired the seed loss estimation of a conical sieve separation equipment
similar to the one used in our experiments, may be used the calculation formula RosinRammler in which are introduced coefficients b and n from fig.3, and related equipment
radius for the similar work conditions.
n
Table 3. The correlation of experimental data with regression function Rosin-Rammler
(ec.1), for the cumulative distribution of the sifted material, regarding the influence of sieve
oscillation frequency, at flow rate Q3 = 0.042 kg/s and for the three different oscillation
amplitudes, on the loss of seeds
Rosin-Rammler function
No. of samples
2
a
b
c
χ
34.788
25.199
34.772
27.252
25.543
32.256
23.727
29.558
35.297
464.410
199.813
426.469
287.065
103.634
245.632
204.211
346.918
512.498
0.066
0.085
0.067
0.073
0.0245
0.0289
0.082
0.072
0.065
18.746
20.811
12.580
26.058
9.082
12.914
20.659
23.807
21.235
R
2
Working regime
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A1 = 3.58 mm
A2 = 3.74mm
A3 = 4.10 mm
F1 = 250 osc/min
F2 = 520 osc/min
F3 = 790 osc/min
F1 = 250 osc/min
F2 = 520 osc/min
F3 = 790 osc/min
F1 = 250 osc/min
F2 = 520 osc/min
F3 = 790 osc/min
0.928
0.855
0.957
0.834
0.929
0.938
0.832
0.872
0.918
From observations made after experimental tests there is a better sifting in the zone
opposite to actuation, where separated seeds values are higher to the top of the sieve and
lower to the base of the sieve. In order to avoid inefficient sifting areas must be introduced
restrictions on regards of connecting of sieve or a symmetrical actuation.
To analyze the influence of kinematic parameters on a conical sieve with outer profile
was conceived, designed and built, an experimental installation equipped with oscillatory
coulisse mechanism for actuating of the sieve in plane circular oscillation motion.
It was found that the Rosin-Rammler distribution function correlates very well the
experimental data, correlation coefficient R2 having in most analyzed cases values above
0.85%.
363
An effective separation of seeds through sieve apertures occurs at a frequency of
oscillation between 250 – 520 osc/min and at average amplitude of sieve movement on
the direction of actuator arm (considered in the direction tangential to the base circle of the
sieve).
Sieve may also be successfully used, as cleaning of impurities from seeds, as well as
for sorting them by size, if parameters of working regime are chosen properly.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
[1]. Elfverson, C., Regnér, S. 2000. Comparative precision of grain sieving and
pneumatic classification on a single kernel level, Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 16(5),
537-541;
[2]. Harrison, H. P., Blecha, A., 1983. Screen oscillation and aperture size – Sliding only,
Transactions of the ASAE, 343-348;
[3]. Jun-xia Yan, Chu-sheng Liu, La-la Zhao, 2010. Dynamic characteristics of vibrating
screen with determinate structure and statistically indeterminate structure, Applied
mechanics and materials, vols.34-35, 1850-1854;
[4]. Kichkar I. Yu., 2010. Analysis of an assigned oscillatory trajectory of a vibratory
drilling screen, Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Vol.46, Nos.1–2, p.69-71;
[5]. Stoica D., Voicu Gh., Ungureanu N., Voicu P., Carp-Ciocardia C., 2011. Influence of
oscillations amplitude of sieve on the screening process for a conical sieve with oscillatory
circular motion, Journal of Engineering Studies and Research, 17(1), Univ. ―V. Alecsandri‖
Bacau, 83-89;
[6]. Voicu Gh., D. Stoica, N. Ungureanu, 2011. Influence of Oscillation Frequency of a
Sieve on the Screening Process for a Conical Sieve with Oscillatory Circular Motion,
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology B, 1(8B), USA, 1224-1231;
[7]. Voicu Gh., D. Stoica, N. Ungureanu, B. Plosceanu, 2011. Workflow and on the
efficiency of a conical suspended sieve with swinging movement, Third International
Conference Research people and actual tasks on multidisciplinary science, Lozenec,
Bulgaria, 8-10 June 2011, vol.2, 34-38.
364
TRENDS IN TIRE CONSTRUCTION FOR HEAVY AGRICULTURAL
VEHICLES
Biriş S.Şt., Ungureanu N., Ionescu M., Atanasov A., Bungescu S.
Abstract: Heavy agricultural vehicles are becoming more prevalent in agricultural exploitations, as
they have to carry out works or groups of works with a minimum number of passes on agricultural soil in
order to preserve it and to avoid the risk of artificial soil compaction. The link between vehicle and soil is
represented by the wheel tire. Proper choice of the tire is extremely important for agricultural vehicles.
Various tire manufacturing companies are providing a wide range of tires to the manufacturers of land
vehicles. In this paper is presented an analysis of the current trends in tire construction of heavy agricultural
vehicles which can be useful for manufacturers and to those who exploit these vehicles for proper choice of
these tires.
Key words: Vehicle, Tire, Soil, Compaction.
INTRODUCTION
The structural characteristics of tire wheels and physical-mechanical properties of
tires used for the wheels of agricultural vehicles have a direct influence on the ability of
traction and braking, on motion stability and also on passing ability of the vehicle [4].
Agricultural vehicle wheels are designed to take the entire weight of the loaded vehicle
(equipped with carried and semi-mounted agricultural machinery), to establish contact with
the rolling track and to absorb some of the oscillations of the agricultural mobile unit. The
main requirements imposed in tire wheel construction are: high resistance to loads and
high durability in exploitation, the possibility of easily mounting and dismounting the tire on
the rim, low weight, low costs.
The carcass, which is the tire frame, takes the highest loads during exploitation. The
carcass consists in a number of special fabric layers (plies), named cord plies. The cord
can be made of various materials: cotton; glass fiber; polyamidic fiber; metallic threads.
Cord threads are encased in a rubber compound. Layer thickness is 1-1,5 mm, and the
diameter of the threads is 0,6-0,8 mm. Assessment of the resistance of various tires is
done using equivalent plies (Ply Rating-P.R.) which is the conventional number of network
of cords layers. The carcass has an even number of rubbered cord layers, each cord layer
having the threads oriented in the opposite direction to the next layer.
Fig. 1. Radial Tires
Fig. 2. Bias Tires
To ensure the elasticity of the tire, resistance and shock absorption in terms of
repeated deformation, the threads of cord layer are laid at a certain angle in relation to the
median plane of the tire. Depending on this angle, there are two types of tire
construction, namely:
• tire with carcass in bias construction (Fig. 5.3.a) where the arrangement angle of
cord threads is 38o-45o. These tires have the advantage of good axial stability, an
acceptable coefficient of rolling resistance, but they have the disadvantage of a high lateral
stiffness;
365
• tires with carcass in radial construction (Fig. 5.4.b) where the arrangement angle
of cord threads is 90o. By increasing this angle is obtained a higher radial elasticity and a
low coefficient of rolling resistance at low speeds of movement. Due to a higher durability
and productivity, radial tires are widely used in comparison with bias tires.
TRENDS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF RADIAL TIRES
For heavy tractors and agricultural machinery (Fig. 3), the most common solutions of
radial tires are presented in Fig. 5. The contact surface with the soil must be larger (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3. Heavy agricultural tractor
Fig. 4. Contact patch
To enhance performance in wet field operations, radial construction tires shows 45°
extra deep traction bars for extra traction in wet soil. Radial construction puts down longer
footprint with less slippage in comparison with bias construction. Wide tread and large
footprint result in minimized slippage on loose and firm soils. Durable radial construction
with high angle stabilizer belt plies helps minimize bar movement.
Radial drive wheel tractor tire is benefic for traction, durability and road wear. Flatter
tread contour with proven 23° long bar/long bar tread design provide excellent traction,
long even wear, and smooth ride. The combination of an increased number of lugs with
open center design results in optimized wear and traction, while providing resistance to
vibration. Radial body construction is provided with high angle stabilizing belts for fuel
economy, long wear and positive traction. Dual rubber compounds provide long-wearing,
tear resistant tread and resistance to cracking and weathering in the sidewall.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 5. Radial tires for large agricultural vehicles [1]
e)
Figure 5.a presents a radial tire with less soil compaction due to flat tread contour
and larger footprint. Figure 5.b presents a radial tire with low soil disturbance due to the
advanced design of lug shape. Figure 5.c presents a radial tire with more even wear and
longer tread life with following characteristics: optimized stress-relieved carcass concept,
wider footprint with larger contact patch, cut-resistant construction with long-life compound
366
technology. Figure 5.d presents a radial tire with excellent traction in the field due to
optimized lug design proven in independent trials. Figure 5.e presents a radial tire with
excellent self-cleaning due to optimised shape lug design.
All these constructions ensure improved comfort of the driver due to: less vibration
on road and field due to flattened crown profile, special belt construction and tread pattern;
reduced road noise from improved pitch sequence and lug profile.
New range of Firestone tires, ―Maxi Traction‖ type, brings superior traction in the field
due to its unique ―Dual angle technology‖ (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Lug cut section [1]
Fig. 7. Increase of the contact
area on traction side
Due to the Firestone unique Dual-angle lug design, these tires deliver superior
traction, great self-cleaning and low soil disturbance, more traction (4,2% increase in lug
traction side contact area) (Fig. 7).
All tires presented in Figure 5 are designed to meet the requirements of highpowered tractors, which carry heavy loads and develop significant torque levels. The
variable curved lug increases the contact area and thus decreases soil compaction,
increases traction power capacity, harmonizes rolling and therefore minimizes vibration.
Due to the reinforced lug base, there is an excellent resistance to lug tearing. Bead rim
protector is designed to prevent soil from being trapped between the rim flange and tire
bead.
Graphic variation of the dependence between the unloaded section width of the tire
and the overall diameter unloaded for the radial tire of agricultural tractors is presented in
Figure 8, and Figure 9 presents the similar variation for the tires of agricultural harvesters.
Fig. 8. Geometric characteristics of radial tires for tractors
367
Fig. 9. Geometric characteristics of radial tires for harvesters
TRENDS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BIAS TIRES
For heavy tractors and agricultural machinery, the most common modern solutions of
bias tires are presented in Figure 10.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 10. Bias tires for heavy agricultural vehicles [1]
Figure 10.a presents a traditional bias tire with the following characteristics: variable
width, reinforced lugs for excellent traction on all surfaces, 45° lug design for good lateral
stability, especially important on hillsides, nylon carcass for greater shock and impact
resistance. Figure 10.b presents a power axle tractor tire that gives good performance in
the field or on the road, with excellent traction characteristics (23° lug design to give
increased drawbar pull for maximum traction in the field, nylon cord body for durability and
long life). Figure 10.c presents a Firestone bias tire, type Super all Traction 23° which
delivers unmatched levels of wear, traction and vibration resistance. The latter tire has the
following characteristics: increased number of lugs combined with open center design
which optimizes wear and traction, while providing resistance to vibration; flatter tread
contour with proven 23° long bar/long bar tread design for excellent traction, long even
wear and smooth ride; dual rubber compounds provide long-wearing, tear resistant tread
and resistance to cracking and weathering in the sidewall; bead rim protector designed to
prevent soil from being trapped between the rim flange and tire bead. Graphic variation of
the dependence between the unloaded section width of the tire and the overall diameter
unloaded for bias tires for agricultural tractors is presented in Figure 11.
368
Fig. 11. Geometric characteristics of bias tires for heavy tractors
TRENDS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOTATION TIRES
The newest concept regarding the tire for heavy agricultural vehicles (Fig. 12) is
flotation tire. These tires present some advantages, such as: large air volume permits low
inflation pressure; very large tire tread ensures comfort and stability; 23° lugs produce
excellent traction power.
Fig. 12. Flotation tires for heavy agricultural tractors
Fig. 13. Various designs of flotation tires for large agricultural tractors
Graphic variation of the dependence between the unloaded section width of the tire
and the overall diameter unloaded of flotation tires for large agricultural tractors is
presented in Figure 14.
369
Fig. 14. Geometric characteristics of flotation tires for heavy tractors
1. Performance reached in the field of tire construction for heavy agricultural vehicles
are considerable.
2. Choosing the right tire and proper exploitation is very important for the agricultural
unit to work correctly in terms of energy and soil compaction.
3. The challenge with the tires for heavy agricultural vehicles is the achievement of
―adaptive tires‖ or ―intelligent tires‖ which allow the automatic adjustment of the
geometrical and functional characteristics to the characteristics of the track.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by POSDRU based on POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62557 financing
program.
REFERENCES
[1]. * * 2011, Firestone, Technical data –Agricultural Tyres, Bridgestone Europe NV/SA.
[2]. Bulgakov V. and Ivanovs S. 2009, Mathematical Simulation of Oscilations of Towed
Agricultural Agregates. Engineering for Rural Development, Jelgava, pp. 93-99
[3]. Popescu S. and Sutru N. 2009, Contribution to the Study of the Dynamics of
Agricultural Tractors Equipped with Front-end Loader and Rear Forklift Loader.
Engineering for Rural Development, Jelgava, pp. 165-170
[4]. Urdarescu T., et al. 1987, Propulsia si circulatia autovehiculelor cu roti. Editura
Stiintifica si Enciclopedica Bucuresti.
[5]. Wang I.Y. 1993. Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley and Sons, New York
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S.St. Biris, ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042
Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: biris.sorinstefan@gmail.com
N. Ungureanu, ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei
060042 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: nicoletaung@yahoo.com
M. Ionescu, ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042
Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: maneamaryana@yahoo.com
A. Atanasov, ―A. Kunchev‖ University of Rousse, 8 Studentska Str. 7017, Rousse,
Bulgaria, E-mail: aatanasov@uni-ruse. bg
S. Bungescu, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Banat
Timisoara, 119 Calea Aradului, Timişoara, Romania, E-mail: sobungi@yahoo.com
370
Plenary paper
STUDY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ADAPTIVE TIRE FOR
AGRICULTURAL TRAILERS
Biriş S.Şt., Ungureanu N., Vladut V., Ganea I.
Abstract: In this paper was developed a theoretical study, underpinning a solution which can be
patented, for an adaptive tire, different from the conventional one, which provides, on arable soil, the
advantages of a larger contact surface, with quite uniform pressure distribution in the contact patch, such as
for rubber belt track. On public roads, this tire is capable to adapt so that the area of contact patch to be
minimum and rolling resistance to be minimum. In tire construction is provided a piezoelectric material, which
ensures the required energy to power a pressure sensor, located inside the tire and which monitors tire air
pressure. Although the estimated cost of achieving such a tire is significantly higher compared to
conventional tires, especially if tire production is not of large series, results obtained by simulation and
numeric analysis using Finite Element Method are encouraging and they justify the need of such adaptive
tire for agricultural trailers.
Key words: wheel, tire, agricultural land vehicle, agricultural trailer, contact area, FEM.
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural trailers are technical equipments widely used, which can work in
aggregate with agricultural tractors, harvesters or trucks. These trailers (Fig. 1) are
designed to transport agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, cereals, flour, etc.),
biomass, amendments, chemical fertilizers, agricultural machinery and equipments, etc.
Traditionally, agricultural trailers are equipped with standard tires (Fig. 2). Since
agricultural trailers must operate on agricultural lands, as well as on roads and public
roads requires that their tires have the capacity to adapt to these specific conditions.
In this context, in recent years, there have been a number of studies and ideas, some
of them patented, about the possibility to develop some adaptive tires for agricultural land
vehicles, and particularly for agricultural trailers [1, 3, 4, 6]. There were developed tires
whose footprint shape is controlled and adapted depending on weight per wheel [6]. Also,
there were realized and patented some active and adaptive systems for tires, which
comprises a tire and an active material configured to alter at least one characteristic of the
tire in response to at least one condition [4].
Fig. 1. Monoax agricultural trailer TR2000
Fig. 2. Agr. tire 10.00/75-15.3
12PR
Even more recently (2011) was patented a dynamic tire-pressure sensor, a control
unit, and a built-in air compressor. The pressure sensor can be mounted on a wheel rim
associated with a tire for detecting a tire pressure with respect to each wheel [3]. The built371
in compressor mounted on the wheel compresses air through an electronic valve from a
reservoir to the tire when the tire pressure detected by the pressure sensor is below a
predetermined value. The control unit regulates the sensed air pressure from the sensor
and controls the operations of the compressor.
There are also worth appreciated the ideas patented in 2008, referring to a tire
monitor who includes a first device having at least one piezoelectric matrix element, and a
first sensing layer that includes at least one rectifier and a processor element [8]. The first
device is capable of sensing a deflection in a layer of material, and is capable of
processing the sensed deflection. This first device is capable of wirelessly transmitting an
indication on a condition of the material.
Data on soil behavior at the interaction with tires of agricultural vehicles are found in a
variety of well known papers (Gill and Vandenberg, 1968), (Koolen and Kuipers, 1983),
(Mohseninmanesh and Ward, 2007), (Upadhyaya and Wulfsohn, 1990), (Wulfsohn, 2009).
In this paper, we propose a patentable solution of an adaptive tire to equip
agricultural trailers, tire which would have the possibility to modify the surface of contact
patch depending on the nature of the rolling track. Thus, for rolling on the road, the surface
of contact patch would be as small as possible (high air pressure in the tire) (Figure 3.b),
and for rolling on arable land, surface of contact patch would be as large as possible so
that the pressure applied on the soil would be as small as possible (reduced air pressure
in the tire) (Figure 3.a). Adaptive tire (Figure 3) consists of the tread (1) formed of a thick
layer of rubber, disk (2), chamber with adjustable air pressure (3), valve connected to the
compressed air supply system (4), pressure sensor (5), piezoelectric materials (6‘ and 6‖)
which generate the electric voltage required for operation of pressure sensors and for
transmitting data to the central system.
a)
b)
Fig. 3. Adaptive tire for agricultural trailer
The analysis was developed for the tire in Figure 3 using finite element method. The
model of interaction between the adaptive tire and agricultural soil is presented in Figure 4.
The tire is made of rubber, which is generally considered to be a non-linear,
incompressible or nearly incompressible, hyper-elastic material, which often experiences
very large deformations upon loading [7]. The element selected for analysing the rubber
material was HYPER185, which was used in conjunction with the two-term Mooney-Rivlin
material model [7]. Quick Field Students v5.6 program was used to analyze the plane
model of tires section in „plane strain‖ mode.
372
The input parameters for the constitutive model of the agricultural soil are [7]:
cohesion of soil (c): 18.12 kPa; internal friction angle of soil (θ): 30; soil density (γw): 1270
kg/m3; Poisson‘s ratio s: 0.329; Young‘s modulus E: 3000 kPa
Fig. 4. Analysis model for the adaptive tire-soil interaction
For the analysis of stress in the adaptive tire and in the agricultural soil using finite
element method, were taken into account the geometrical symmetry and the load
presented by the model of interaction (Figure 3), and thus was adopted a ―half‖ model.
There were considered two different situations. First, the tire is inflated at high pressure (3
bar), specific to rolling on road, and secondly, the adaptive tire is inflated at small pressure
(1 bar), specific to rolling on agricultural soil. In both situations, was analyzed the behavior
of the tire under these conditions, and also the behavior of agricultural soil at the
interaction with the adaptive tire.
Figure 5 presents the distribution of equivalent stresses by Von Mises criterion in the
adaptive tire in the contact area with the rolling track for the two situations (for the two
pressures). There is also traced the outline of the tire after the strain, due to the application
of the external load. Figure 6 presents the distribution of total displacement in the tire in
the same section and the graphical variation of those displacements on the outline of the
analyzed axis-symmetric model. Figures 5 and 6 allow the identification of the proper
position of the piezoelectric material inserted in the tread or in the carcass of the adaptive
tire. Figure 7 presents a comparative analysis of the distribution of equivalent stresses in
agricultural soil at the interaction with the adaptive tire for the two situations of tire
373
operation (namely, high pressure and small pressure).
Fig. 5. Distribution of equivalent stresses
in the adaptive tirein the contact area
with the rolling track
Fig. 6. Distribution of total displacements
in the adaptive tire in the contact area
with the rolling track
Fig. 7. Comparative analysis of distribution of equivalent stresses in agricultural soil
for the two situations of adaptive tire operation
374
Fig. 8. Graphical variation of equivalent stresses in agricultural soil with depth, for the
two situations of adaptive tire operation
Figure 8 shows the graphical variation of the equivalent stresses with depth in
agricultural soil on the vertical axis of symmetry of interaction model tire-soil. From figures
7 and 8 it can be noticed that in the case when the adaptive tire provides a larger contact
surface with the soil, in the second case the equivalent stresses in the soil are more
reduced and the probability of artificial soil compaction is considerably reduced. If tire air
pressure is high, corresponding to easily rolling on the road, and the vehicle enters on
arable land, equivalent stresses in soil are much higher and they facilitate the apparition of
artificial soil compaction phenomena.
1. From the bibliographic study and from the numerical analysis using finite element
method it results more obvious that the action that is required to be done in the field of
agricultural tires, considering the diversity of rolling track conditions, is to design and
implement technical solutions of adaptive tires.
2. Considerable deformations and equivalent stresses of tire carcass (Fig. 6 and 7)
allow the adoption of some technical solutions which require the insertion of piezoelectric
materials in the tire carcass, which would produce the electric energy required to supply
the pressure sensor from the tire and also wireless data transmission to the central system
mounted on the tractor.
3. Although the cost of such adaptive tire is higher than the cost of classic tire, the
positive effects related to the phenomena of artificial soil compaction and also to the
reduction of energy consumption for proper rolling on roads and public roads justifies the
implementation of such technical solutions of tires to equip agricultural vehicles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by POSDRU based on POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62557 financing
program.
REFERENCES
[1]. Burns A.R., 2007, Tyre. United States Patent, No. 20070215259 A1.
375
[2]. Gill W.R., Vandenberg G.E., 1968, Soil Dynamics in Tillage and Traction. U.S.A.
Department of Agriculture, Handbook 316, USA, Washington D.C.
[3]. Hinojosa Jr.J., Coronado A.C., 2011, Automatic tire pressure control and monitoring
system and method. United States Patent, No. 20110203710 A1.
[4]. Jongsma J., Theuss H., 2012, Active and adaptive tire systems. United States
Patent, No. 8,234,918 B2.
[5]. K o o l e n A.J., K u i p e r s H., 1983, Agricultural Soil Mechanics. Advanced Series in
Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 13. Springer, Heidelberg, pg. 241.
[6]. M a n n e P . M . , e t a l . , 2 0 0 3 , Pneumatic tire having a load dependent adaptive
footprint shape. United States Patent, No. 6,564,839 B1.
[7]. M o h s e n i n m a n e s h A ., Ward S.M., 2007, Tractor tyre-road and tyre-soil
interactions model using ANSYS. Biosystems Engineering Research Review. University
College Dublin, pg. 33-137.
[8]. O f l a z O ., 2008, Piezoelectric tire sensor and method. United States Patent, No.
7,343,787 B2.
[9]. S o r n i o t t i A . , V i g l i a n i A . , 2 0 0 6 , Numerical models for tyres simulation.
International Conference on Tribology AITC-AIT, 20-22 September, Parma, Italy.
[10]. U p a d h y a y a S . K . , W u l f s o h n D . , 1 9 9 0 , Relationship between Tire Deflection
Characteristics and 2-D Tire Contact Area. Transactions of ASAE, Vol. 33(1), pg. 25-30.
[11]. W a l k e r P ., 1996, Agricultural tires and wheel assemblies therefore. United States
Patent, No. 5,533,793.
[12]. W u l f s o h n D . , 2 0 0 9 , Soil-Tire Contact Area. Advances in Soil Dynamics. ASABE,
Vol. 3, pg. 59-84.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S.St. Biris, ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei 060042
Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: biris.sorinstefan@gmail.com
N. Ungureanu, ―Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei
060042 Bucharest, Romania, E-mail: nicoletaung@yahoo.com
V. Vlăduţ, National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1,
Bucharest, Romania, valentin_vladut@yahoo.com
I. Ganea, National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations
Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry Bucharest, 6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad, sect. 1,
Bucharest, Romania, ganea007@yahoo.com
376
REFRIGERATING CHAIN
M.G. Mardare
Abstract: The quality of food products is defined by the physical, chemical and technological
assembly of them and the measure in which they can satisfy the consumer’s demands.
In the case of fruits and vegetables, the quality conditions become more complex because besides
the physical and chemical conditions the quality demand includes as well the agro-pedo-climatic conditions,
the capacity of resisting at transport, at keeping, to be uniformly pigmented, et.al.
Next, we will make an experiment related to the TTT concept on a sample of refrigerated carrots.
Key words: quality, the TTT concept, carrots, SEM, the refrigerating chain
INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of man‘s existence, he has been using cold in order to preserve
food.
He initially used natural ice but then he managed to produce artificial cooling on a
large scale.
The data in specialized literature reveal that most of the food included in the weekly
ratio of a person is subject to cooling.
Nevertheless, if wrongly used, cooling may damage the initial quality of products.
Therefore, it is vital that the refrigerating food chain is monitored throughout the
entire work flow, storage and dispatching process to the customer. This should be done
using an international specialized terminology.
The analysed samples are represented by the following agricultural product of the
carrot.
Monitoring the quality of food on the links of the refrigerating chain is made by using 2
concepts, that is, PPP (product, process, packing) and TTT (time, temperature, tolerance).
Next, we will make an experiment related to the TTT concept on a sample of
refrigerated,
This concept was applied for the first time by van Arsdel in 1957. The conclusions of
the experiment showed that there is a link between storage time and the time frame when,
at this temperature, the product undergoes quality changes.
In view of presenting these changes, the links of the refrigerating chain (fig.1) have
been reconstituted for a sample of carrot and strawberries subject to the freezing process
by fluidization.
377
taking samples (link 1) – freezing by fluidization (link 2) – refrigerated storage (link 3)
– transport 9 link 4) – supermarket commercialization (link 5) – transport (link 6) –
customer (link 7)
Fig.1 - The refrigerating chain
The samples taken from each link were prepared for quality testing.
These were selected so that we could establish the link between the number of
destroyed cells, the amount of exudates and daily losses during the period of freezing.
Fig.2 - Experimental results obtained by the electronic microscope
..
The evolution of the number of destroyed cells varies along with transiting the links of
the refrigerating chain. Due to the relation between the size of ice crystals and the
attributes of the food qualities, the proper selection of the storage and transport conditions
should ensure the desired qualities for most frozen food.The quality characteristic that
changes because of temperature fluctuations is the structural – textural firmness.
The calculation of the actual storage time is made for each and every link, as the
effects of quality damage continue to increase regardless of the number and sequence
order of various temperature levels.
The total decrease of points on all temperature levels throughout the refrigerating
chain can be observed in fig.2
378
Fig.2 – The total decrease of points
The frozen carrot sample has been evaluated on each link of the refrigerating chain
on a range of temperature between -10 and -30˚C.
The experimental results have indicated a decrease of the product‘s quality in time,
due to the increased number of cells destroyed by the ice crystals appeared during the
freezing process, as well as to the temperature fluctuations on the links of the refrigerating
chain.
Moreover, the graphic representation indicates that the damaging speed of the
product‘s quality can be set at two different temperatures by an interval of 5˚C.
The product can be accepted by the customer on condition that quality loss
throughout the length of the refrigerating chain is below 1.
Any changes of the structural – textural firmness that might appear are a result of the
increase of temperature fluctuation during the product‘s transport and exposure to selling.
Given that the transport time is generally low, its influence on the products‘ quality is also
insignificant, on condition that the unloading – loading operations are quickly performed
and the product is not kept in areas with temperature below -18 ˚C.
REFERENCES
[1]. Chirila,M.G. , 2008 – ―The study of the influence of the froude criterion and of the
thermal regime upon the quality of the granular frozen products by the process of
fluidization‖, Galaţi - Romania
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mihaela Gabriela Mardare – Ctat ‖Dumitru Motoc‖, Galati Romania
chrl_mihaela@yahoo.co.uk
379
SAVE FUEL – PERMANENT CONCERN OF FARMERS
I. L. Caba, S. T. Bungescu, R. Ilea, V. Vladut, A. Atanasov and S. Biris
Abstract: The global economic crisis, the alarming increase fuel prices on international markets,
accelerated global warming and I could go on with many other arguments, need to find viable solutions to
save fuel.
It is known that agriculture generally, self-propelled agricultural machines in particular, are large
consumers of fuel. These inputs can vary between very wide limits, from case to case, even though we
speak the same work performed with identical machines in similar working conditions.
Looking into large differences in fuel consumption, in most cases we find weaknesses in the
regulation and operation of agricultural machinery by mechanics.
In this paper we present some simple methods to saving fuel based on rational use of agricultural
machines without charges, without using expensive equipment.
Key words: Fuel save, Large fuel consumers, Methods to saving fuel.
INTRODUCTION
Generally speaking, from spring until late autumn the fields are full of tractors and
agricultural machinery rushing to end ask quickly as possible the seeding and harvesting
season. Unfortunately the weather does not always contribute to the optimum of these so
important works. In cases where weather conditions are not favorable, these field works
require
much
higher
fuel
consumption
compared
to
the
optimum.
Fuel prices in general and diesel in particular to show a rising trend, this follows from the
EU statistics.
In 2013, the government decided that the duty on diesel fuel will increase from 374
EUR / ton to 391 EUR / ton and in conjunction with a reference rate (4.5223 RON / EUR)
higher than the previous year, it results that we have a higher fuel cost. As is expected, the
oil companies will not incur additional costs but they will put you in the final price we will all
pay at the pump.
380
The trend increase in the price of diesel at the pump signifies data provided by the
European Union and for Romania reported on the time period starting 2000 to 2012.
I want to bring to the attention of farmers and to the vehicle operators some "tricks"
that can help save fuel. Whatever the make, model or engine capacity, there are a few
simple ways of saving fuel. You do not need anything else than special attention to service
and some specialized knowledge.
It seems incredible, but it is true, tractor operation with attention to detail can save up
to one-fifth of the fuel consumption.
It is not mandatory that the tractor is equipped with the latest generation engine,
when we want to reduce fuel consumption. There are lots of little tricks that can achieve
this goal.
The possibility of continuous optimal use of the tractors engine depends on the
number of revolutions. High RPM (revolutions per minute) causes increased fuel
consumption and energy losses due to friction and evacuation of combustion gases.
The heat generated by burning fuel increases the urgent need for engine cooling. In
this operating mode the cooling system is required to work at full capacity, as a result we
can be sure that this reduces engine power by at least 10%.
Saving fuel is in the power of the operator.
A specific consumption that is considered economical is calculated around 80% of
the total engine power (80% of its RPM).
Following studies on the exploitation of tractors during the work it was found that
most work at 60-70% of their maximum capacity. This is a rational exploitation of the
machine.
It is highly indicated to use the engine in the middle rpm range environments. Use higher
gears, but do not exaggerate with the accelerator pedal.
The newest engine specific fuel consumption curve shows three peaks called
"humps" in the speed range between 1500 - 1600 rev / min. To comply with NOx exhaust
emissions established by the manufacturer, engine electronic injection is introducing a
timing offsets, what leads to a lower engine power and the engine to operate with a lower
efficiency. Compared to the old generation engines, the engine develops its maximum
power with lower fuel consumption, if operated at higher rpm. If the tractor has a gearbox
381
with an automated system that allows selection of variants after engine requirements
"power" or "economy", in this case the electronic will try to protect the engine, reducing
and maintaining its rpm below 1800 rev / min. This generates increased consumption in a
system operating at full power.
It is recommended to know and understand all of the sound signals emitted,
submitted by the engine for you to use in determining optimum operating regime, the
regime that achieve the minimum fuel consumption.
It is recommended to set up the transmissions settings professionally, whether it is a
automatic transmission or one with no gears. This way the reaction time of the gearbox
can be adjusted to the engines rpm, expressed as a percentage.
If you invested money in buying new tractors that can run speeds of 40 km / h, it is
recommended to verify the existence of the lever or button "economic". Under these
conditions the electronic speed limit of the tractor kicks in, limiting the tractor which may
have the opportunity to run up to 50 km / h because of transmission performance. The
advantage of this limitation is that the maximum travel speed is reached full gear at a low
rpm.
Increased fuel consumption due to wheel slip.
It is known that there is no traction on wheels with no slip. But it is very important to
know how much these wheels are spinning. On the fields is recommended to work with
slip below 15%. A higher rate of slippage leads to increased fuel consumption. If we
reduce the tire pressure, the result is increased contact area between tire and soil
meaning a increased contact surface and that increases traction power by 20%.
Modern tires have the ability to hold a large volume of air and allow the safe running at a
relatively low pressure of 0.8 bar.
In practice tractor tires are operating at constant pressure, constant pressure control
is an extra effort and perform sluggishly.
Use of monitoring and correcting tire pressure can provide extra comfort for the
operator. These devices purchased second hand (SH) costs between 500 and 10.000
EUR. You can use simple devices and rapid valve connection valve, the cost does not
exceed € 50 EUR and allow pressure control in a short time.On the roads higher tire
pressure is required for running higher speed with low resistance so the tire wear
decreases. On the fields instead it is required to reduce the pressure to increase
adherence and tensile capacity. It's worth the effort!
High tire pressure on the road
Some of the negative consequences of low pressure in the tires rolling on the road
are:
 Increases resistance to progressive
 Increased operating temperature
 Increased tire wear
Therefore, during tra

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