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HAUSA Cultural Orientation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: PROFILE ................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
Area and Topography .............................................................................................................. 2
Climate..................................................................................................................................... 2
Rivers ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Niger ................................................................................................................................. 3
Benue ................................................................................................................................ 4
Cities of Northern Nigeria ....................................................................................................... 4
Kano ................................................................................................................................. 4
Kaduna .............................................................................................................................. 5
Regional History ...................................................................................................................... 6
The Hausa ......................................................................................................................... 7
Slavery .............................................................................................................................. 8
The British Conquest ........................................................................................................ 9
North and South .............................................................................................................. 11
Independence .................................................................................................................. 12
Government ........................................................................................................................... 13
Media ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Economy ................................................................................................................................ 15
Oil ................................................................................................................................... 15
Northern Nigeria ............................................................................................................. 16
Nollywood and Kanywood ............................................................................................. 18
Scam Culture .................................................................................................................. 19
Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................................................ 20
Hausa-Fulani................................................................................................................... 21
Yoruba ............................................................................................................................ 22
Igbo ................................................................................................................................. 23
Ijaw ................................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter 1 Assessment ............................................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER 2: RELIGION ............................................................................................................ 26
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 26
Major Religions ..................................................................................................................... 26
Islam ............................................................................................................................... 26
Indigenous Religions ...................................................................................................... 28
Christianity ..................................................................................................................... 29
Religion and Government ...................................................................................................... 30
Influence of Religion on Daily Life....................................................................................... 31
Gender Relations and Religion .............................................................................................. 33
Religious Holidays and Celebrations..................................................................................... 34
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Ramadan ......................................................................................................................... 34
Buildings of Worship ............................................................................................................. 34
Behavior in Buildings of Worship ......................................................................................... 35
Mosques .......................................................................................................................... 35
Churches ......................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 3: TRADITIONS ....................................................................................................... 39
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 39
Greetings ................................................................................................................................ 39
Male-Female Interaction ........................................................................................................ 41
Hospitality and Gift Giving ................................................................................................... 42
Eating Habits and Types of Food .......................................................................................... 43
Types of Food ................................................................................................................. 43
Dining Etiquette.............................................................................................................. 44
Dress Codes ........................................................................................................................... 45
Non-Religious Celebrations................................................................................................... 46
Hausa Dance Festival ..................................................................................................... 46
Argungu Fish and Cultural Festival ............................................................................... 47
Dos and Don’ts ...................................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 4: URBAN LIFE ........................................................................................................ 50
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 50
Urbanization .......................................................................................................................... 51
Water and Sanitation ...................................................................................................... 51
Crime and Violence ........................................................................................................ 51
Pollution ......................................................................................................................... 52
Urban employment ......................................................................................................... 52
Healthcare .............................................................................................................................. 53
Education ............................................................................................................................... 55
Restaurants ............................................................................................................................. 56
Markets .................................................................................................................................. 59
Money, Credit Cards, and ATMs ................................................................................... 59
Traffic and Transportation ..................................................................................................... 60
Cars ................................................................................................................................. 61
Public Transportation ..................................................................................................... 61
Street Crime, Safety, and Solicitations .................................................................................. 62
Beggars ........................................................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER 5: RURAL LIFE ........................................................................................................ 66
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Introduction............................................................................................................................ 66
Land Tenure ........................................................................................................................... 66
Rural Economy ...................................................................................................................... 67
Ineffective Solutions ....................................................................................................... 69
Village Life ............................................................................................................................ 70
Healthcare .............................................................................................................................. 71
Rural Transportation .............................................................................................................. 73
Education ............................................................................................................................... 73
Checkpoints ........................................................................................................................... 75
ID Cards ................................................................................................................................. 76
Border Crossing ..................................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LIFE ...................................................................................................... 79
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 79
Courtship and Weddings........................................................................................................ 80
Funerals.................................................................................................................................. 81
Seclusion ................................................................................................................................ 82
Status of Children, Adolescents, and Elders .......................................................................... 82
Marriage and Divorce ............................................................................................................ 84
Marriage ......................................................................................................................... 84
Divorce ........................................................................................................................... 85
Naming Conventions ............................................................................................................. 86
FINAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 88
FURTHER READING ................................................................................................................. 91
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CHAPTER 1: PROFILE
Introduction
The area of West Africa now known as Nigeria once was defined
by natural borders: the Atlantic Ocean to the south; the arid
Sahel and Sahara to the north; the Niger and the Benue rivers
and the three regions they divide; and the near-impenetrable
rainforest just north of the ocean. 1 Three major ethnic groups
evolved within the three regions: the Yoruba in the southwest,
the Igbo in the southeast, and the Hausa in the north. 2
Centuries of European territorial and economic exploitation of
Africa led to the continent’s division in the late 1800s. Nigeria
became a British island among French and German colonies. 3
Many disparate ethnicities combined into an uneasy national enterprise, leaving Nigeria
with permanent rivalries, particularly the Muslim north versus the Christian south. A
chain of historical circumstances led to dominance of the country by northerners. 4
The discovery of major oil reserves in the Niger Delta in 1956 exacerbated divisions.
Much of the tremendous oil revenues disappear into the chasm of corrupt governance and
patronage; little goes toward infrastructure and development. 5 A staggering 61% of
Nigerians live in “absolute poverty”; it runs as high as 86% in the north. 6 Paradoxically,
Nigeria is one of Africa’s richest states and one of its poorest.
In 1999, Nigeria returned to civilian rule after years of northern-dominated military
governments. It remains a country challenged by its “oil curse,” its rapidly rising
population, and ethnic conflicts. 7
1
Patrick Karl O’Brien, ed., Atlas of World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007) 80–81.
Marcellina Ulunma Okehie-Offoha and Matthew N. O. Sadiku, eds., Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in
Nigeria (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 1996).
3
Peter Duignan and L. H. Gann, eds., “Africa in 1914,” in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, vol. 4,
The Economics of Colonialism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 65.
4
James Minahan, “Hausas,” in Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups
Around the World, vol. 2, D-K (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 713–718.
5
Tom O’Neill, “Nigerian Oil,” National Geographic, February 2007,
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text
6
BBC News, “Nigerians Living in Poverty Rise to Nearly 61%,” 13 February 2012,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17015873
7
Martin P. Mathews, Nigeria: Current Issues and Historical Background (Hauppauge, NY: Nova
Science Publishers, Inc., 2002).
2
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Area and Topography
Nigeria is one-third larger than Texas. It borders the
Republic of Benin for 773 km (480 mi); Niger, 1,497 km
(930 mi); Chad, 87 km (54 mi); and Cameroon, 1,690 km
(1050 mi). Its 774 km (481 mi) coast runs along the Gulf
of Guinea.
A hot, humid coastal band of mangrove swamp, as wide
as 96 km (60 mi), abuts a band of tropical rain forest and
oil palm ranging from 80–160 km (50–100 mi). A higher, drier central plateau region
with open woodland and savanna forms a third band. Semi-desert conditions distinguish
the drier north.
The Niger and Benue rivers shape Nigeria’s landscape. The Niger flows from far west in
Guinea, follows a long arc through Mali and Niger, and enters the northwest border of
Nigeria moving southeast. The Benue flows to the southwest from the Cameroon
highlands. The two rivers meet near Nigeria’s broad center. The united system flows
south into the Niger Delta, dispersing into the Gulf of Guinea. The river basins form
broad lowlands bisected by innumerable streams and rivers that flow through wide sandy
valleys. The lowlands extend across the coastal region.
The Niger and Benue form a Y that divides Nigeria into
three sections, within which are the high plateaus. The
central plateau, north of the rivers, covers nearly one-fifth
of the country. Its lower step, with an average elevation of
750 m (2,461 ft), is the High Plains of Hausaland, a broad
swath of sandy plains dotted by rock outcroppings. The
Jos Plateau rises above the southern central plateau
averaging 1,280 m (4,200 ft). It has numerous rocky peaks
in the Shere Hills; the highest is 1,829 m (6,001 ft). Many smaller hills appear “from the
ground like mushrooms.” 8
Nigeria’s highest elevations are in the mountainous eastern highlands; Chappal Waddi,
on the Cameroon border, rises 2,419 m (7,936 ft), Nigeria’s highest point. In the
southwest section lie the rugged Yoruba Highlands. 9, 10
Climate
Nigeria experiences the common West African warm and tropical climate, with relatively
high temperatures throughout the year and two main seasons. The rainy season lasts from
8
Total, “About Nigeria: Geography: Natural Influences: The Landscape, Geology, and Climate of
Nigeria,” n.d., http://www.ng.total.com/01_about_nigeria/0104_geography.htm
9
Eroarome Martin Aregheore, “Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Nigeria,” Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN, January 2009,
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/nigeria/nigeria.htm
10
Nigeria High Commission, London, “About Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.nigeriahc.org.uk/about-nigeria
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mid-March to November in the south, and May to October in the north. The “dry” season
runs the remaining months. Rainfall ceases altogether in the north; in the south, about
one-third of the annual rainfall drops in the “dry” months. Annual rainfall ranges from
379 cm (149 in) in the Niger Delta town of Brass to 63 cm (25 in) in the far northwest
town of Maiduguri (2001 ests.).
The temperature across Nigeria averages about 25°C (77°F), with highs of 35–38°C (95–
100°F). It becomes warmer, drier, and less humid as one moves northward. 11, 12
The tropical marine winds that blow north from the
Atlantic Ocean and the dry, dusty trade winds that blow
south from the Sahara from late November to midMarch influence the climate. The dry wind is called the
harmattan. It often brings a haze of fine dust particles
that blankets everything in its path. The harmattan’s
severity may be increasing as the Sahara encroaches—a
product of human settlement and deforestation. The
harmattan makes outdoor activity difficult and threatens transportation safety. 13 It creates
health problems ranging from respiratory ailments, to allergies, to the drying of skin and
eyes. 14
Rivers
Niger
The Niger River, at 4,200 km (2,610 mi), is Africa’s
third-longest river and traverses nine countries. Its basin
is home to more than 100 million people, a figure that
grows 3% annually. Nigeria has 28.3% of the
hydrologically active basin area, and 67.6 million
inhabitants (2004 est.), the most of the nine countries in
both categories. Nigeria’s basin inhabitants represent
60% of the country’s population. (The Benue River is
part of the basin complex and is reflected in the area and population statistics.)
Historically, the Niger linked the Gulf of Guinea with Timbuktu and other caravan hubs
11
Eroarome Martin Aregheore, “Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Nigeria,” Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN, January 2009,
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/nigeria/nigeria.htm
12
E. O. Ita, “Aquatic Plants and Wetland Wildlife Resources of Nigeria: Climate,” Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN, 1994, http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/T3660E/T3660E01.htm#ch1.1
13
Lateef Lawal, “Nigeria: NCAA Warns Pilots on Hazards of Harmattan Dust Haze,” Nigerian Aviation
News, 27 December 2011, http://nigerianaviationnews.blogspot.com/2010/12/ncaa-warns-pilotsairlines-onhazards-of.html
14
Christy Ajibade, “Nigeria: The Hazards of Harmattan,” AllAfrica.com, 31 January 2011,
http://allafrica.com/stories/201102010921.html
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in the Sahel. Today, the overburdened river is an economic lifeline to some of the world’s
poorest countries, providing power, irrigation, and navigation. 15
Benue
The Benue River, the Niger’s major tributary, travels 1,400 km (870 mi). Its headwaters
lie on the north slope of the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. During colonial days, it was
the main route to northern Cameroon. At Lokoja, where the Benue and Niger join, the
two rivers are approximately the same size, even though the Niger travels approximately
three times farther. 16
Cities of Northern Nigeria
Kano
Kano is the largest city in northern Nigeria with some 3
million people. It is the second most populous in the
country. 17 For centuries, it has been an important center
for trade and Islamic studies. In 1112, a wall was built to
keep out invaders. The wall crumbled, although most of
the gates survive. The formerly walled area (the Old City)
features numerous attractions including the Emir’s Palace,
the Great Mosque, the Gidan Makama Mosque, and the
Kofar Matar Dyeing Pits, where artful fabrics are produced in accordance with ancient
practices. 18 The large, all-seasons Kurmi Market, one of West Africa’s oldest, dates 500
years. 19
The population of the city is 90–95% Muslim, and perhaps 1% Christian. Traditionally,
the Christians lived in the Sabon Gari (Hausa for “foreigners’ town”). Such
neighborhoods are common in northern Nigerian cities. 20, 21
After civilian rule was restored to Nigeria in 1999, shari’a law was instituted. Kano’s
Sabon Gari, with bars, prostitution, and gambling, became a refuge and then a flashpoint
for violent Muslim-Christian conflict that continues. 22, 23, 24
15
Inger Andersen et al., The Niger River Basin: A Vision for Sustainable Management, ed. Katherin George
Golitzen (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2005).
16
Inger Andersen et al., The Niger River Basin: A Vision for Sustainable Management, ed. Katherin George
Golitzen (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2005).
17
Central Intelligence Agency, “Nigeria,” in The World Factbook, 15 August 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html
18
Come to Nigeria, “Kano City Travel Guide,” 5 April 2011, http://www.cometonigeria.com/nigeriancities-and-towns/kano
19
Tadaferua Ujorha, “Kano’s 500-Year-Old Market,” 9 April 2003,
http://news.biafranigeriaworld.com/archive/2003/apr/09/0301.html
20
BBC News, “Kano: Nigeria’s Ancient City-State,” 20 May 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3708309.stm
21
GlobalSecurity.org, “Nigerian Christian/Muslim Conflict,” 27 April 2005,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nigeria-1.htm
22
Eniwoke Ibagere, “The Sharia Effect?” BBC News, 1 October 2002,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2002/africalive/2290354.stm
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Kaduna
Kaduna, population 1.5 million, lies near the southern
edge of Hausaland, the area of northern Nigeria (and
southern Niger) where Hausa is spoken. The city
straddles the Kaduna River, a major tributary to the
Niger. Known as the crocodile city, Kaduna takes its
name from kada—Hausa for the crocodile. 25
Crocodiles can always be seen in Gamji Park, by the
river. 26
Kaduna is a railway junction and a major commercial center for northern Nigeria.
Industries thrive near the junction south of the river, ranging from heavy industry—
textile manufacturing, steel products, automobile assembly, construction—to agriculturesector services such as commodity collection and food production. An oil refinery is fed
by a 607-km (377-mi) pipeline from the Niger Delta.
Kaduna lies near the line dividing Nigeria’s Christian south and Muslim north. The city is
majority Muslim with a large Christian population. Like Kano, Kaduna has experienced
violent conflicts between Muslims and Christians since 1999. 27, 28
Sokoto
Sokoto lies in far northwest Nigeria, near the confluence of the Sokoto and Rima rivers.
The name is derived from the Arabic suq, meaning open-air market. 29 The town grew on
a traditional caravan route to the Sahara. It became well known for its leather crafts,
which are still a leading export. 30
The people are predominantly Muslim. During the 19th century, the town was the seat of
the Sokoto Caliphate, one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa. Sokoto
23
AbdulSalam Muhammad, “Bomb Explosion Hits Kano Again,” 15 April 2012,
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/04/bomb-explosion-hits-kano-again/
24
AbdulSalam Muhammad, “Insurgency: Military to Deploy More Troops to Kano,” 30 June 2012,
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/06/insurgency-military-to-deploy-more-troops-to-kano/
25
Daniel A. Ogbeifun, “Kaduna: The Nigerian Crocodile City,” Knoji, n.d., http://africa.knoji.com/kadunathe-nigerian-crocodile-city/
26
Lizzie Williams, Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide, 2nd ed. (Guilford, CT: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.,
2008), 292.
27
Dan Isaacs, “Kaduna: Nigeria’s Religious Flashpoint,” BBC News, 20 December 2002,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2579825.stm
28
BBC News, “Nigeria’s Boko Haram ‘Bombed Kaduna Churches,’” 18 June 2012,
29
National Bureau of Statistics, “Sokoto State Information,” 2011,
http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/information/details/Sokoto
30
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Sokoto,” n.d.,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/552796/Sokoto
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remains an important center of Islamic studies. The Sultan of Sokoto, whose title is now
largely ceremonial, is considered the spiritual leader of Nigerian Muslims. 31
Zaria
Almost midway between Kaduna and Kano lies the historic city
of Zaria. The formerly walled town, believed to have been
founded in 1536, was the capital of the Hausa state of Zazzau.
It was soon renamed after Queen Zaria, the successor to
Zazzau’s founder, Queen Amina. During the 19th century,
Zaria sat at the geographic center of the Sokoto Caliphate,
under the Sultan’s jurisdiction. 32
Today, Zaria is a transportation hub, where Nigeria’s main A2
highway crosses a central railway line. It is a major collecting
point for agricultural products. 33
Zaria is the educational center of the northern states, with numerous institutions. 34 In
1962, a number of colleges were reorganized as Ahmadu Bello University. It currently
has 82 academic departments and 35,000 students, making it the most extensive
university in sub-Saharan Africa. 35
Regional History
The development of camel caravans from the second to the
fifth centuries C.E. allowed travel across the Sahara and trade
of products and ideas. 36 Islam spread across North Africa late
in the first millennium, then south into West Africa. There was
great demand in the Muslim world for West African goods,
gold, ivory, and slaves; these were traded for manufactured
goods from the north. But camels could not endure the humid
savanna country, thus limiting the reach of the northerners. 37
The southern environmental zones allowed for different kinds
of agriculture—grain crops in the savanna, root and tree crops
31
National Bureau of Statistics, “Sokoto State Information,” 2011,
http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/information/details/Sokoto
32
Salma Khadra Jayyusi et al., The City in the Islamic World, vols, 1–2 (Leiden, The Netherlands:
Koninklijke Brill NV, 2008), 672–676, 1337.
33
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Zaria,” n.d.,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655972/Zaria
34
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Zaria,” n.d.,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655972/Zaria
35
Ahmadu Bello University, “About Us,” 2012, http://www.abu.edu.ng/info/about.php
36
Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1984).
37
Patrick Karl O’Brien, ed., Atlas of World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007) 80–81.
© D LI F L C | 6
in the rainforest—leading to indigenous trading networks independent of North Africa.
Transport of goods in the southernmost savanna and the dense, tsetse-ridden rainforest
was mostly limited to canoe travel on streams and rivers. 38
The peoples of the northern savanna and Sahel were perfectly situated, using donkeys as
pack animals, to bridge the gap between north and south. From 500–1600, their
commercial prosperity created a series of societies—states, empires, and city-states, all
monarchies—from the Atlantic Coast to Lake Chad (northeast Nigeria). 39 The Hausa
ethnic group emerged around the 10th century, an intermingling of farmers and desert
nomads in the area of modern northern Nigeria and southern Niger. 40
The Hausa
Much of the early history of the Hausa is derived from
the Kano Chronicle, an anonymous document of
unknown origin that traces the rulers of Kano,
Hausaland’s most important trans-Saharan trade center,
from 1000 C.E. to 1893 (the approximate date of the
existing version). 41, 42 The Chronicle mentions
Bayajidda, a prince of Baghdad who, according to
legend, cut off the head of a giant snake terrorizing the
town of Daura, and married the local princess as his
reward. Their grandson founded the seven city-states of Hausaland: Biram, Daura, Gabir,
Kano, Katsina, Rano, and Zazzau (Zaria). 43, 44 Historians disagree whether Bayajidda was
an actual person.
Parts of Hausaland converted to Islam as early as the 12th century. 45 According to the
Chronicle, traders from Mali brought Islam to Kano in the 14th century. 46 Acceptance
occurred more slowly in the countryside, where traditional beliefs held. Kano’s most
famous king, Mohammad Rumfa, ruler from 1463–99, established Islam in Kano for
38
Robert W. Strayer, Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources (Boston: Bedford/St.
Martin’s, 2011).
39
Martin’s, 2011).
40
Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, and Sharon La Boda, “Kano,” in International Dictionary of Historic
Places, vol. 4, Middle East and Africa, ed. Noelle Watson (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1996),
396–399.
41
John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford History of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
42
Toyin Falola and Ann Genova, “Kano Chronicle,” in Historical Dictionary of Nigeria, ed. Jon Woronoff
(Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009), 190–191.
43
C. Magbaily Fyle, Introduction to the History of African Civilization, vol. 1, Precolonial Africa
(Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 1999).
44
Dierk Lange, “The Pre-Islamic Dimension of Hausa History,” in Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa:
Africa-Centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives (Dettelbach, Germany: J.H. Röll Verlag GmbH,
2004), 161.
45
John A. Shoup, Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2011) 116–120.
46
John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford History of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
© D LI F L C | 7
good, and he adopted shari’a law. Kano became a center of Islamic learning, visited by
Arabic scholars. 47
Over the next 200 years, Hausaland was caught between two Islamic empires: the
Songhai to the west and the Bornu to the east. For many years, Hausa states were under
the rule of one or the other. 48
Fulani cattlemen had been moving into Hausaland for centuries. These strict Muslims
believed that the Hausa practice of Islam was corrupted by pagan beliefs. Also, they were
subjected to exorbitant taxation by the Hausa. Usman dan Fodio, a Fulani Muslim cleric,
ignited a jihad in 1804. By the end of the Fulani War in 1810, the Hausa states were ruled
by a Fulani minority and united under a single Islamic government, the Sokoto Caliphate,
which reigned until the colonial British conquest. 49
Slavery
Slavery in West Africa predates the transatlantic slave trade but it
never approached the scale seen in later years. 50, 51 Beginning in
the 16th century, for 400 years the transatlantic slave trade
exported some 12.5 million persons from Africa as slaves; 3.5
million (29%) embarked from the Bights of Benin and Biafra: the
coast of modern Nigeria. 52 For the first half of that era, most
slaves were raided from the coastal hinterland; after about 1750,
when demand exceeded supply, slaves were brought from
increasingly distant interior regions, and for less discriminating
reasons. 53 But relatively few Hausa were taken. Hausa traders had
little direct association with European slavers; they raided to the
south and traded their slaves with other Africans, who then transported the slaves to the
coast. 54
47
396–399.
48
396–399.
49
396–399.
50
Martin’s, 2011).
51
Martin’s, 2011).
52
Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, “Assessing the Slave Trade:
Estimates,” Emory University, 2009, http://slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces
53
Bonnie G. Smith et al., Crossroads and Cultures: A History of the World’s Peoples, vol. B, 500–
1750 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012), 606–607.
54
396–399.
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After the Fulani War brought about the Sokoto Caliphate, slavery became intertwined
with the rejuvenation of Islam. Leaders enslaved pagan populations and people who
resisted jihad; the Caliphate was hostile to the transatlantic trade because it enslaved free
Muslims; and annual tribute to the Sultan of Sokoto was paid with slaves. 55, 56 The
majority of the new slaves were kept within the Caliphate or sold to neighboring
countries. 57 In 1820, Kano was the center of the slave trade in West Africa. 58 From 1810–
70, the Caliphate and neighboring Bornu annually dispatched 3,000 to 6,000 slaves
across the Sahara. 59
By end of the 19th century, the Caliphate’s slave population was 30% to 50% of the total
population, and as high as 80% in major towns and along trade routes. 60 In an 1896
memoir, Hausaland, or, Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Soudan, Charles
Henry Robinson supplies a vivid description of the state of slavery in the region: Slaves
were used as much for currency as labor. A traveler might take slaves with him—to pay
for his expenses along the way. A master could legally mistreat his slaves to any extent
short of killing them. In the Kano slave market, the maximum price (converted to English
money) was 7–10 pounds for a 14-year-old girl; an 18-year-old male would fetch 6
pounds, with prices decreasing with greater age. Despite these circumstances, slave
revolts were rare. 61
The British Conquest
Englishman George Goldie formed the National African Company in 1879 to consolidate
British commercial interests in the Niger basin. 62 Hundreds of treaties were made with
local states and tribes (including those in Hausaland in the north) in which trading
interests were exchanged for protection. 63 During the Berlin Conference (1884–85),
European powers settled disputes regarding colonization in Africa, and Great Britain was
declared in control of the basin; but the Niger Navigation Act opened the big river to all
55
Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2011).
56
Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York:
Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1997).
57
58
396–399.
59
60
61
Charles Henry Robinson, Hausaland, or, Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Soudan
(London: Sampson Low, Marston and Company, 1896), 127–141.
62
Eric C. Loew, “Nigeria,” in Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, vol. 2, eds. James Stuart
Olson and Robert Shadle (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996), 812–813.
63
Charles Henry Robinson, Hausaland, or, Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Soudan (London:
Sampson Low, Marston and Company, 1896), 127–141.
© D LI F L C | 9
interests. 64 Recognizing that Goldie’s private company could not compete with France
and Germany, the British government granted Goldie a charter in 1886. 65 The renamed
Royal Niger Company ruled the northern regions as a surrogate British government
through 1899. 66 Goldie’s two decades of effort earned him the title “the founder of
Nigeria.” 67
Military campaigns against the Sokoto Caliphate were
initiated in 1897 to check French imperialism; their
ineffectiveness led to the establishment of the region as
a British colony in 1900, the Protectorate of Northern
Nigeria. (Northernmost Hausaland became part of the
French colony of Niger.) After 3 more years of
conflict, the overwhelming British firepower trumped
the larger Muslim armies. The Caliphate’s final defeat
came in 1903 when British forces killed the Sultan of Sokoto in the Battle of Burmi. 68
The abolition of slavery was the justification for the war. 69 Under British rule, the
institution of slavery was dismantled, gradually, to avoid massive social disruption. The
Slavery Proclamation of 1901 abolished new enslavements; the Proclamation of 1904
outlawed all transactions in slavery. 70 From 1900–10, vast numbers of emancipated
slaves from the cultivated lands of Sokoto, Kano, and Zaria returned to their homes. The
government encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such as cotton and peanuts in place
of the slave-based economy. 71
The British governed through “indirect rule,” which it had used in India. A small number
of British officials were the central authority, while local rule was held by the Fulani
minority, who continued the Caliphate’s Islamic practices. 72 British military superiority
64
Olayemi Akinwumi, The Colonial Contest for the Nigerian Region, 1884-1900: A History of the
German Participation (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002).
65
Barbara Harlow and Mia Carter, eds., “Royal Charter Granted to the National African Company,
Later Called the Royal Niger Company,” in Archives of Empire, vol. 2, The Scramble for Africa (Durham:
Duke University Press, 2003), 372–379.
66
Sir William Nevill Montgomerie Geary, Nigeria Under British Rule (London: Methuen & Co.
Ltd., 1965), 177–207.
67
Stephen Gwynn, “The Making of Nigeria: A Historical Introduction” in Sir George Goldie: Founder
of Nigeria, by Dorothy Violet Ashton Wellesley (New York: Arno Press Inc., 1977), 1–88.
68
Muhammad Sani Umar, Islam in Africa, vol. 5, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of
Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV,
2006), 20–22.
69
Eddie Enyeobi Okafor, “Biafra, Republic of,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1, eds. Kwame Anthony
Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 550–553.
70
2006), 45–46.
71
W. B. Morgan and J. C. Pugh, West Africa (London: Butler & Tanner Ltd., 1969), 172,
369.
72
Frank A. Salamone, The Hausa of Nigeria (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 2010).
© D LI F L C | 10
was understood to be the basis for colonial rule; resistance was met with swift brutality. 73
Indirect rule was effective enough that in 1910, there were 338 Europeans in Northern
Nigeria, 120 of whom were merchants—amid a population of 8 million.74
North and South
During the early years of British rule in Hausaland, Christian missionaries were restricted
to zones in the south and middle belt, because the proselytizing of Muslims was
considered a hindrance to smooth governance. This strengthened Islam in the north. After
the British conquest, the Hausa no longer viewed Islam as the Fulani religion, but as an
alternate civilization.75
During the same period the Christian movement flourished in the south. The construction
of roads and the completion of major railway lines (Lagos to Kano, 1911; Port Harcourt
to Kaduna, 1926), allowed easier penetration into the forested hinterlands. 76 Christian
schools, both Catholic and Protestant, taught reading, writing, and Bible study. The Igbo
in the southeast discovered that church membership shielded them against forced labor,
which was not abolished in the south until 1916. Tens of thousands abandoned their
native religions for Christianity. 77
The British had done little to unify the nation politically, believing it futile. 78 Through
decades of colonial rule, the country remained divided between the Muslim north and the
Christian south, and the Yoruba southwest and the Igbo southeast. The better-educated
southerners modernized while northerners remained traditional. Many southerners moved
into the north to take the administrative and clerical positions that northerners were illequipped for. 79
After World War II, the move toward independence began. Despite their disadvantages,
the northerners had two factors to help eventually dominate an independent Nigeria. The
Hausa-Fulani were the largest ethnic group in the country, and they dominated the
military. 80
The 1947 Richards Constitution intended to promote national unity. But by decentralizing
government into east, west, and north Regional Councils, it actually institutionalized
73
2006), 20–21.
74
75
76
Bengt Sundkler and Christopher Steed, “Nigeria,” in A History of the Church in Africa (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2000), 255.
77
Bengt Sundkler and Christopher Steed, “Nigeria,” in A History of the Church in Africa (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2000), 224–253.
78
Jimi Peters, The Nigerian Military and the State (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 48.
79
80
© D LI F L C | 11
regionally based politics and parochial nationalisms. 81 In 1947, Obafemi Awolowo, chief
of the Yoruba, argued a commonly held view: “There are no Nigerians. Nigeria is a mere
geographical expression.” As the country lurched toward independence in the 1950s, all
three regions seriously considered or threatened secession, and none more than the
north. 82 A 1953 compromise, intended to counter secessionist impulses, awarded the
north 50% representation in the national legislature. 83
Independence
The 1959 elections, to determine which parties would
control the government after independence, were won
by the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), which the
Hausa-Fulani dominated. The NPC was forced to form
a coalition government, and chose the southeastern
National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) as a
partner. 84 Nnamdi Azikiwe, co-founder of the NCNC,
became Nigeria’s Governor-General, then President in
1963. Azikiwe had been born in the north to Igbo parents, and his father had been a clerk
in the British colonial government. 85
The civilian government ruled until 1966, when a pair of military revolts left a northern
Christian, General Yakubu Gowon, in charge of a military government. From 1966 to
1999, Nigeria experienced only 4 years of civilian rule (1979–83, under Alhaji Shehu
Shagari, a Fulani). Northern domination extended through a series of military regimes.
Several of Nigeria’s leaders were Fulani; most were Muslim. 86
After the 1966 events led to the massacre of 30,000 Igbo in the north, 2 million surviving
easterners fled to Igboland, creating a refugee crisis. In 1967, the Igbos seceded to form
the Republic of Biafra, leading to 3 years of civil war before Nigeria reintegrated the
country. 87
81
Julius Omozuanvbo Ihonvbere and Timothy M. Shaw, Illusions of Power: Nigeria in
Transition (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 1998).
82
Martin P. Mathews, Nigeria: Current Issues and Historical Background (Hauppauge, NY: Nova
Science Publishers, Inc., 2002), 31–35.
83
John Boye Ejobowah, Competing Claims to Recognition in the Nigerian Public Sphere: A Liberal
Argument about Justice in Plural Societies (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2001), 63–64.
84
Eghosa E. Osaghae, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1998).
85
Bridgette Kasuka, ed., “Nnamdi Azikiwe,” in Prominent African Leaders Since Independence
(CreateSpace, 2012), 304–311.
86
Adrian Karatnycky, “Country Reports: Nigeria,” in Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of
Political Rights & Civil Liberties, 1999–2000 (New York: Freedom House, 2000), 364.
87
Eddie Enyeobi Okafor, “Biafra, Republic of,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1, eds. Kwame
Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 178–180.
© D LI F L C | 12
In five years of rule (1993–98), General Sani Abacha looted the treasury of billions
before dying in office. 88 His successor, Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar,
implemented rapid and dramatic reforms, transitioning the return to civilian rule. In
1999, Nigerians elected General Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba who had led the military
government from 1976–79 before yielding to civilian rule. He served two terms. 89 In
2007, Nigerians elected a Fulani candidate, Alhaji Umaru Yar’Adua. After he died in
office in 2010, his Vice President, Goodluck Jonathan, a Christian from the Niger Delta,
succeeded him. 90
Government
Nigeria became independent from British rule on 1
October 1960, and declared a federal republic in
1963. 91 The 1999 Constitution currently guides the
government and marks the transition from 33 years of
military rule to civilian governance. 92 The capital city
is Abuja, in the geographic center of the country.
The United States system is the model for Nigeria’s
governmental structure. 93 The popularly elected President heads the executive branch,
and the constitution limits the president to two 4-year terms. The President’s cabinet
includes the heads of 19 government ministries and representatives of all 36 of Nigeria’s
states. 94 The 109-seat Senate (three from each state plus one from Abuja) and the 360seat House of Representatives (representing constituencies of nearly equal population
within single states) compose the bicameral legislature. Legislators are popularly elected
to 4-year terms. 95
The judicial system comprises a Supreme Court, with up to 21 justices appointed by the
president, and state and federal lower courts. 96 Nigerian laws are a blend of English
88
Ted Dagne, “Nigeria in Political Transition,” in Politics And Economics of Africa, vol. 5, ed.
Olufemi Wusu (Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2007), 121–135.
89
Martin P. Mathews, Nigeria: Current Issues and Historical Background (Hauppauge, New York: Nova
Science Publishers, Inc., 2002).
90
BBC News, “Nigeria’s Goodluck Jonathan Sworn in as President,” 6 May 2010,
91
Charles Mwalimu, The Nigerian Legal System, vol. 1, Public Law (New York: Peter Lang Publishing,
Inc., 2005).
92
International Centre for Nigerian Law, “Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,” 1999,
http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm
93
Inc., 2005).
94
Commonwealth Network: Nigeria, “Government Ministries,” n.d., http://www.commonwealth-ofnations.org/Nigeria/Government/Government_Ministries
95
96
© D LI F L C | 13
common law and customary law, plus shari’a (Islamic) law in the 12 most northern
states. 97
Each of the 36 states has a Governor popularly elected to a 4-year term. A Deputy
Governor and commissioners assist the Governor. Each state has a unicameral legislature,
the State House of Assembly, with representatives from all local government areas. 98
Media
French watchdog group Reporters Without Borders
describes Nigeria’s print media as a “paradox.” The
country has numerous daily newspapers—some staterun, most privately owned—that reflect a diversity of
emphasis and opinion. Yet a recent 3-month survey
showed that reporters were under significant threat while
performing their duties: harassment, arrest, assault, and,
in one case, murder. Also, the press was subjected to
equipment seizures, offices were vandalized or closed, and charges were brought against
reporters and organizations. In most cases, perpetrators remain unidentified, which leaves
the motives for specific acts subject to speculation. Officials are suspected of wanting to
suppress coverage of the current instability in the country, while the Boko Haram terrorist
group openly threatens the media. Reporters Without Borders concludes that Nigeria is
“one of the most dangerous countries in Africa for journalists.” 99
Despite the large number of newspapers, Nigeria’s print media is suffering the same
decline seen around the world. In July 2009, an advertising industry consortium released
figures indicating that, of 150 dailies audited, the combined circulation was under
300,000—in a country with over 150 million inhabitants. Publishers, who base
advertising rates on circulation, complained loudly that subscriptions were not taken into
account. The disparity between the audit and industry figures was vast. The industry
lacks an independent audit bureau to settle the argument. 100, 101, 102
Of the broadcast media, radio remains the most popular. The state-run Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigeria operates 37 stations in 15 languages. About two dozen private
radio stations are licensed by the National Broadcasting Commission. 103, 104
97
Central Intelligence Agency, “Nigeria,” in The World Factbook, 25 June 2012,
98
Online Nigeria, “The State Government,” n.d., http://www.onlinenigeria.com/government/?blurb=142
99
Reporters Without Borders, “Daily Abuses Suffered by Nigeria’s Journalists,” 7 May 2012,
http://en.rsf.org/nigeria-daily-abuses-suffered-by-nigeria-s-07-05-2012,42570.html
100
Brandwork Nigeria, “Advertisers Body Releases Print Circulation Survey Report,” 23 July 2009,
http://www.brandworknigeria.com/newsdetail.php?id=157
101
Williams Popoola, “The Solution to the Dwindling Newspaper Circulation in Nigeria,” Wow! Effect
Communications, 20 August 2010, http://woweffectng.com/new/the-solution-to-the-dwindling-newspapercirculation-in-nigeria-2/
102
Nigerian Newspapers, “Top Nigerian Newspapers,” n.d., http://www.nigeriannewspapers.org.uk/
103
BBC News, “Nigeria Profile: Media,” 26 July 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13949549
© D LI F L C | 14
Nigeria has as many as 147 TV stations. Most are run by the state Nigerian Television
Authority. All 36 states operate stations. About 15 private stations are licensed. 105
Coverage is concentrated in urban areas. By law, foreign programming is limited, and
foreign news is banned. 106
Economy
Oil
Oil dominates the Nigerian national economy. The industry produces 2.5 million barrels a
day and exports 2.1 million barrels. Both figures rank Nigeria in the world’s top ten oil
producers. Oil provides 95% of the country’s export income. The amount fluctuates with
the global oil prices, but even when it dips, earnings dwarf all other Nigerian sectors
combined. The country has proven oil reserves of 37.2 billion barrels, enough for decades
to come. 107
What first appeared to be a boon to Nigeria’s impoverished population is now widely
considered a curse. Billions of dollars of income simply disappear every year through the
invisible fingers of government corruption. Much of it is distributed through patronage
networks, creating an entitled class. Little is spent for public works or improving the lives
of ordinary Nigerians. Having so much income from oil allows tax rates to be kept low,
but it also makes the government less accountable to its people. 108, 109
Oil’s big money tends to make other sectors of the economy irrelevant to the government.
The oil industry pushes up costs throughout the economy, thus reducing the international
competitiveness of other sectors. Conversely, with oil pumped directly into waiting
tankers, the industry fails to influence growth in outlying sectors. Oil employs far fewer
unskilled laborers than agriculture and manufacturing. 110 Ironically, because of a lack of
refining capacity, Nigeria imports oil for domestic energy use. 111
Oil extraction takes a heavy toll on the region’s inhabitants. There is little safe drinking
water, the land cannot be cultivated, fishing waters have deteriorated, and life expectancy
104
National Broadcasting Commission, “Radio: Private,” 2012,
http://www.nbc.gov.ng/broadcast.php?menu=2&submenu=3
105
National Broadcasting Commission, “TV: Private,” 2012,
http://www.nbc.gov.ng/broadcast.php?menu=1&submenu=3
106
BBC News, “Nigeria Profile: Media,” 26 July 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13949549
107
108
Tom O’Neill, “Nigerian Oil,” National Geographic, February 2007,
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text
109
Joel Brinkley, “Nigerian Governor Runs Against Entrenched Interest,” SFGate (San Francisco
Chronicle), 7 July 2012, http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/brinkley/article/Nigerian-governor-runs-againstentrenched-interest-3688771.php
110
Michael L. Ross, “Nigeria’s Oil Sector and the Poor,” United Kingdom Department for International
Development, 23 May 2003, http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/ross/NigeriaOil.pdf
111
Wayne Nafziger, “Chapter 3: The Economy,” in Nigeria: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz
(Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html
© D LI F L C | 15
is under 50. 112 Unemployment and poverty are the highest in the country. Inhabitants
who feel they have been undercompensated inflict damage (from sabotage to siphoning
oil) to the thousands of miles of pipelines that thread the region. Pipeline explosions,
often caused by tampering, kill thousands. 113 A militant group, the Movement for the
Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), attacks pipelines and holds oil industry
workers for ransom as means of rebellion. 114, 115 Because of such problems, the
government is actively seeking additional sources of oil in northern Nigeria. 116, 117
Northern Nigeria
From pre-colonial times to today, agriculture formed the
basis of the northern economy. Most crops are droughtresistant. Nigerian dietary staples are grains: millet, rice,
barley, corn, and a variety of sorghum known as guinea
corn. Legumes include soybeans and groundnuts
(peanuts). 118, 119 Nigeria is the world’s leading producer
of two nutritious root crops, cassava and yams, most of
which are grown in the broad middle belt of the country,
the tall grass savanna. 120, 121 Cotton is a leading
commercial crop of the north. 122
The north has produced more food than required for domestic needs, allowing the excess
to be exported to the south. With the additional labor capacity, the Hausa specialized in
crafts like leatherworking, silversmithing, weaving, and textile production. Trading is
often done in town markets. 123, 124, 125
112
Hilary Inyang, “Environmental Pollution of the Niger Delta: Challenges and Solutions,” National
Mirror (Nigeria), 23 February 2011, http://nationalmirroronline.net/features/6415.html
113
BBC News, “Niger Delta Oil Pipeline Sabotage ‘Increasing,’” 15 August 2010,
114
Janes’s World Insurgency and Terrorism, “Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta
(MEND),” 10 May 2012, http://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Insurgency-andTerrorism/Movement-for-the-Emancipation-of-the-Niger-Delta-MEND-Nigeria.html
115
Leadership (Nigeria), “MEND’s Threat Causes Panic in Niger Delta,” 17 April 2012,
http://www.leadership.ng/nga/articles/22191/2012/04/17/mends_threat_causes_panic_niger_delta.html
116
Economic Confidential, “Again Nigeria Searches for Oil in the North,” February 2011,
http://economicconfidential.net/new/news/national-news/598-again-nigeria-searches-for-oil-in-the-north
117
UPI, “Northern Nigeria’s ‘Huge’ Oil Reserves,” 7 July 2011,
http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Resources/2011/07/07/Northern-Nigerias-huge-oilreserves/UPI-91561310069770/
118
Deborah Pellow, “Hausa: Economy,” Countries and Their Cultures, n.d.,
http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Hausa-Economy.html
119
Ronald G. Parris, Hausa (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1996), 28–32.
120
Fidelis Mbah, “Celebrating Nigeria’s Yummy Yams,” BBC News, 22 September 2010,
121
Corporate Nigeria, “The Business, Trade and Investment Guide, 2010/11: Cassava—a Multi-Purpose
Plant,” 2011, http://www.corporate-nigeria.com/index/agriculture/cassava.html
122
Wayne Nafziger, “Chapter 3: The Economy,” in Nigeria: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz
123
Deborah Pellow, “Hausa: Economy,” Countries and Their Cultures, n.d.,
http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Hausa-Economy.html
© D LI F L C | 16
Raising livestock—cattle, pigs, donkeys, goats—occurs commonly in the northern half of
the country. 126, 127
Despite its strengths and traditions, the northern agricultural economy is in decline. The
oil industry is blamed for much of this. Northern political elites concentrate on securing
their share of oil allocations from the federal government while ignoring infrastructure
and development issues. Workers migrate to high-density southern cities such as Lagos
looking for higher incomes. Though once self-sufficient, Nigeria imports food for its
rapidly growing population. 128, 129
Roads, rail, water systems, electrical capacity, schools, and health facilities underserve
the north. 130 Unemployment rates are at 28% and poverty hovers around 74%, both
higher than the already-high national averages. 131
To make matters worse, the activities of the Boko Haram terrorist organization—
murders, bombings, and property destruction—wreak havoc on the northern economy.
An exodus of professionals and skilled labor to the south aroused concerns for the
northern economy. 132, 133 Real estate values plummeted and manufacturers pulled up
124
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Hausa,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/257081/Hausa
125
Ronald Cohen and Abe Goldman, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment,” in Nigeria: A Country
Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991),
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html
126
Mansur Ahmed, “Addressing Infrastructure Deficit in Northern Nigeria,” Infrastructure Concession
Regulatory Commission, March 2011, http://www.icrc.gov.ng/wpcontent/uploads/2011/03/Northern_Economic_Summit_ICRC_March11.pdf
127
Ronald G. Parris, Hausa (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1996), 28–32.
128
Washington Post, “Country Guides: Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/world/countries/nigeria.html?nav=el
129
Business Day (Nigeria), “The North Can Generate Revenue through other Means,” 9 April 2012,
http://www.businessdayonline.com/NG/index.php/analysis/commentary/35664-the-north-can-generaterevenue-through-other-means
130
Mansur Ahmed, “Addressing Infrastructure Deficit in Northern Nigeria,” Infrastructure Concession
Regulatory Commission, March 2011, http://www.icrc.gov.ng/wpcontent/uploads/2011/03/Northern_Economic_Summit_ICRC_March11.pdf
131
Abdulrazaq Magaji, “Nigeria: The Bitter Taste of Honey,” Pambazuka News, 5 July 2012,
132
Business Day (Nigeria), “Boko Haram: What Cost for the Northern Economy,” 18 April 2012,
http://www.businessdayonline.com/NG/index.php/news/latest/36159-boko-haram-what-cost-for-thenorthern-economy
133
IRIN Africa, “Nigeria: Violence, Curfews and Border Closures Hurt Livelihoods,” 5 July 2012,
http://www.irinnews.org/Report/95808/NIGERIA-Violence-curfews-and-border-closures-hurt-livelihoods
© D LI F L C | 17
stakes. 134 For example, Julius Berger, a major construction company since 1965,
suspended operations in northern Nigeria because of security concerns. 135, 136
Nollywood and Kanywood
Nollywood, the video film industry, has been a
surprising growth area in the economy and is one of
Nigeria’s largest private-sector employers. Lagos is the
Nollywood industry’s center. Movies are shot on
location; there are no studios or production hubs. Genres
range from comedies to historical epics to melodramatic
romances. 137
Nollywood now ranks second in number of features produced, behind Bollywood; and
third in revenues, behind Hollywood and Bollywood. Nollywood produces 1,000 to 2,000
films annually, with revenues of USD 250–500 million. 138, 139, 140
Nigeria has few cinemas left, and those tend to play American films. Most Nollywood
films are cheaply made (budgets around USD 25,000) with digital cameras, quickly
produced, distributed through street markets, and viewed at home on cheap
televisions. 141, 142 The low cost and speed are largely the response to Nigeria’s rampant
piracy. Filmmakers have 2 weeks to recoup expenses before counterfeit copies flood the
marketplace; copyright enforcement is nonexistent. 143 The low-cost, low-revenue model
hinders the capital investment that could create a visible film industry. 144 Yet a small
134
Chuka Uroko, Adeola Ajakaiye, and Blessing Olaifa, “Boko Haram Insurgence Crashes Property Prices
in the North,” Business Day (Nigeria), 19 March 2012,
http://www.businessdayonline.com/NG/index.php/news/76-hot-topic/34608-boko-haram-insurgencecrashes-property-prices-in-the-north
135
Business Day (Nigeria), “Julius Berger Put Operations on Hold in the North,” 23 June 2012,
http://www.businessdayonline.com/NG/index.php/news/76-hot-topic/40030-julius-berger-puts-operationson-hold-in-the-north
136
Julius Berger, “Our Profile,” n.d., http://www.julius-berger.com/about-us/our-profile/
137
Jonathan Haynes, “Nollywood in Lagos, Lagos in Nollywood Films,” Africa Today 54, no. 2 (Winter
2007), http://www.jstor.org/stable/27666895
138
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Nollywood Rivals Bollywood in Film/Video
Production,” 5 May 2009, http://www.unesco.org/en/creativity/dynamic-content-single-view-copy1/news/nollywood_rivals_bollywood_in_filmvideo_production/back/19123/cHash/f8233ace54/
139
Kunbi Tinuoye, “Welcome to ‘Nollywood’: Nigerian Film Industry Entices Hollywood Stars,” 27
January 2012, The Grio, http://thegrio.com/2012/01/27/welcome-to-nollywood-nigerian-film-industryentices-hollywood-stars/
140
Andrew Rice, “A Scorsese in Lagos: The Making of Nigeria’s Film Industry,” New York Times, 23
February 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/magazine/nollywood-movies.html?pagewanted=all
141
John C. McCall, “Nollywood Confidential: The Unlikely Rise of Nigerian Video Film,” Transition 95
(2004): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/3172435
142
Kunbi Tinuoye, “Welcome to ‘Nollywood’: Nigerian Film Industry Entices Hollywood Stars,” 27
January 2012, The Grio, http://thegrio.com/2012/01/27/welcome-to-nollywood-nigerian-film-industryentices-hollywood-stars/
143
Andrew Rice, “A Scorsese in Lagos: The Making of Nigeria’s Film Industry,” New York Times, 23
February 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/magazine/nollywood-movies.html?pagewanted=all
144
Jonathan Haynes, “Nollywood in Lagos, Lagos in Nollywood Films,” Africa Today 54, no. 2 (Winter
2007): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/27666895
© D LI F L C | 18
trend has begun in recent years toward films with bigger budgets (up to USD 500,000)
and higher production values. 145
English is the language for about 44% of Nollywood products. 146 The films are
increasingly popular in other African countries such as Kenya, Sierra Leone, and
Gambia. In the Congo, they are dubbed in native Lingala to be shown on television. For
countries such as Cameroon and Gabon, they are dubbed in French. The Englishlanguage films are popular among the African diaspora in Europe and North America. 147
Nigeria has a second film industry referred to as Kanywood because it is centered in
Kano. Kanywood is the Hausa video industry. Its emergence was inspired by the 1999
return to civilian rule and the subsequent religious revival in the north. Filmmakers
follow the same low-budget, straight-to-video model as Nollywood. Thousands of people
are employed. The films are consumed by Hausa audiences throughout West and Central
Africa. 148
Kanywood films are made in varied genres, but many have religious themes concerning
Islamic conversion. Indian films have been popular in northern Nigeria since Lebanese
exhibitors first imported them in the 1950s, so Kanywood films mimic the Bollywood
custom of including song-and-dance numbers, regardless of genre. 149
Scam Culture
Nigeria achieved worldwide notoriety for the depth of its
corruption. The nonpartisan group Transparency International
rates Nigeria in the bottom third (most corrupt) in its annual
Corruption Perceptions Index of nations. 150 Much of Nigeria’s
rating derives from the corrupting influence of oil money on the
government.
But Nigeria is also notorious for “419” email scams—named
after a section of the Nigerian criminal code. These schemes,
ostensibly on behalf of some wealthy individual needing help from abroad, lure naive
victims to expect a windfall—typically in return for paying out advance fees or handing
145
Santorri Chamley, “New Nollywood Cinema: From Home-Video Productions Back to the Big Screen,”
Cineaste, Summer 2012
146
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, “Nollywood Rivals Bollywood in Film/Video
Production,” 5 May 2009, http://www.unesco.org/en/creativity/dynamic-content-single-view-copy1/news/nollywood_rivals_bollywood_in_filmvideo_production/back/19123/cHash/f8233ace54/
147
Independent (UK), “Nigeria’s Nollywood Eclipsing Hollywood in Africa,” 15 May 2010,
http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/nigerias-nollywood-eclipsing-hollywood-in-africa1974087.html
148
Matthias Krings, “Conversion on Screen: A Glimpse at Popular Islamic Imaginations in Northern
Nigeria,” Africa Today 54, no. 4 (Summer 2008): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/27666930
149
Brian Larkin, “Indian Films and Nigerian Lovers: Media and the Creation of Parallel Modernities,”
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 67 (1997): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/1161182
150
Transparency International, “Corruption Perceptions Index,” 2012,
http://www.transparency.org/research/cpi/overview
© D LI F L C | 19
over bank account access for temporary use. Once hooked, victims are drained for all
they are worth. Though it is impossible to know the full revenues generated by 419 scams
because many victims are too embarrassed to report their losses, estimates in Great
Britain and the United States are in the USD hundreds of millions a year. 151, 152, 153
Within Nigeria, citizens universally distrust public institutions. Everyday corruption is
taken for granted. Invisible expenses pad business contracts. Quacks, charlatans, miracle
workers, native healers, and fake drugs infiltrate health services. International aid is
viewed as an opportunity for free money. Roadside checkpoints by police and military
hassle drivers. Fraud plagues elections. Government ministries, which are built on
patronage, are at best ineffective in solving these problems, and at worst complicit in
creating them. 154
In the Muslim northern states, shari’a law was instituted after the return to civilian rule in
1999 in part to combat the endemic crime and corruption. 155
Ethnic Groups
Estimates of distinctly identifiable ethnic groups within
Nigeria range upward of 250, and actively spoken
languages number 514. 156, 157 The larger groups dominate
broad areas of the country. Many of the smallest live
within areas of less than 10 km (6 mi) across, and
number under 1,000 individuals. 158
Negotiations between Africa’s colonizing powers—Great
Britain, Germany, and France—established Nigeria’s
151
Uwe Buse, “Spam Scams: Africa’s City of Cyber Gangsters,” Spiegel Online International, 7 November
2005, http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/spam-scams-africa-s-city-of-cyber-gangsters-a384317.html
152
BBC News, “Nigeria Scams ‘Cost UK Billions,’” 20 November 2006,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6163700.stm
153
Eric Rosenberg, Hearst Newspapers, “U.S. Internet Fraud at All-Time High/‘Nigerian’ Scam and Other
Crimes Cost $198.4 Million,” SFGate (San Francisco Chronicle), 31 March 2007,
http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/U-S-Internet-fraud-at-all-time-high-Nigerian-2576989.php
154
Daniel Jordan Smith, A Culture of Corruption: Everyday Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
155
William Wallis, “Sharia Pledge Raises Nigeria Unity Fears: Muslims are Delighted, Christians are
Worried, and Doubts about Cohesion Grow as Islamic law is to be Introduced in the North,” Financial
Times (UK), 22 June 2000
156
157
M. Paul Lewis, “Languages of Nigeria,” in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL
International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=NG
158
M. Paul Lewis, “Languages of Nigeria: Maps of Nigeria,” in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th
ed. (Dallas: SIL International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=NG
© D LI F L C | 20
national boundaries. Therefore, ethnic groups, particularly the larger ones, straddle
national boundaries. 159 The most populous groups within Nigeria are the Hausa-Fulani
(29%), Yoruba (21%), Igbo (18%), and Ijaw (10%). No other group constitutes over 4%
of the population. 160
Hausa-Fulani
The Hausa, the dominant ethnic group of northern Nigeria and
southern Niger, inhabit a large area called Hausaland.
Historically, Hausa states ruling from walled cities were
important in regional trading networks. 161, 162
The Fulani are pastoral, often nomadic, cattle-herders whose area
of habitation stretches from Senegal on Africa’s far western coast
to the Central African Republic in the center: a wide band that
overlaps Hausaland. The Fulani live as minorities in a number of
countries. 163
As the Fulani migrated east, they came under the jurisdiction of
regional powers such as the Hausa, whose rulers exacted taxes and other tributes. During
the 16th century, the Fulani adopted radical forms of Islam that preached rebellion
against unjust rulers and the institution of Islamic society under shari’a law. One of these
jihads, the 1804–10 Fulani War, brought down the loosely confederated Hausa states and
replaced them with the Sokoto Caliphate, the most powerful Fulani theocracy. 164 The
Caliphate fell to British conquest in 1903. 165
The Hausa and Fulani became so intermingled in Hausaland that they are often grouped
as the Hausa-Fulani. Today, the Hausa people and language dominate the region. About
half the Fulani speak their original Fula (or Fulfulde) language, while the other half speak
159
Toyin Falola and Ann Genova, Historical Dictionary of Nigeria (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
2009).
160
161
2009), 147–148.
162
Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., “Hausa States,” in Encyclopedia of Africa,
vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 551–554.
163
Yaa Pokua Afriyie Oppong, “Fulani,” in Encyclopedia of Africa , vol. 1, eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah
and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 495–496.
164
Yaa Pokua Afriyie Oppong, “Fulani,” in Encyclopedia of Africa vol. 1, eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah
and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 495–496.
165
2009), 147–148.
© D LI F L C | 21
Hausa. 166 The legacy of the Fulani jihad is the stronger adherence to Islam that arose in
Hausaland and continues to dominate northern Nigeria. 167
Yoruba
Nigeria’s second-largest ethnic group occupies the
southwest quarter of the country, west of the lower Niger
River. Smaller populations live across the borders of
Benin and Togo. 168
City-states in Yorubaland emerged as early as the sixth
century. In the 17th and 18th centuries, these walled
cities and their surrounding villages were united under
the Oyo Empire. 169 The Oyo dominated largely through their participation in the
transatlantic slave trade with European powers. The Yoruba were one of the largest
groups exported to the Americas as slaves. From the late 18th century, a philanthropic
repatriation movement began returning freed slaves to Sierra Leone; some made it back
to their homelands. 170 Returnees to Yorubaland (most of whom settled in Lagos to be
safe from re-enslavement) were among the first agents of a Protestant missionary
movement to spread Christianity and abolish slavery. 171
Over several centuries, the displacement of populations by the slave trade; internal
migrations provoked by warfare; and the influences of Islam, missionary Christianity,
and traditional religion combined to make ethnicity in Yorubaland a complex issue. It is
unclear when the greater population of the region began to identify as members of a
shared ethnicity. It has been suggested that repatriated slaves formed an educated elite
within colonial society and forged a stronger sense of pan-Yoruba identity than had
existed. 172
166
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Fulani,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/221697/Fulani
167
Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., “Hausa States,” in Encyclopedia of Africa
vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 551–554.
168
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Yoruba,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/653789/Yoruba
169
Natalia B. Kochakova, “Yoruba City-States (at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century),”
in The Early State, eds. Henry J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalník (The Hague, The Netherlands:
Mouton Publishers, 1978), 495–510.
Saheed Aderinto, “Back to Africa and Volta in Africa,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought
vol. 1, eds. F. Abiola Irele and Biodun Jeyifo (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2010),
123–124.
171
James Smoot Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1971), 93.
172
Olatunji Ojo, “The Root Is Also Here: The Nondiaspora Foundations of Yoruba Ethnicity,” in
Movements, Borders, and Identities in Africa, eds. Toyin Falola and Aribidesi Adisa Usman
(Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2009), 53–80.
170
© D LI F L C | 22
Igbo
The Igbo (also called “Ibo”) homeland covers both sides
of the lower Niger Delta, and the southeast corner of
Nigeria circumscribed by the Niger and Benue rivers.
The Igbo have a common culture and have lived in the
region for thousands of years. Bronze artifacts and
textiles have been dated from the ninth century. The Igbo
excel in metalwork, weaving, and woodcarving. 173
Traditionally, Igbo society was decentralized. In the precolonial era, they lived in villages
with complex social structures that blocked individuals from gaining disproportionate
power. The common political unit was the village; the largest units were village
federations with up to 5,000 people. Because of their organizational diffusion, the Igbo
lacked a sense of broader ethnic identity. 174 They never developed city-states and empires
or fought wars like their neighbors in Hausaland and Yorubaland. British colonists were
frustrated in their attempts to establish indirect rule in Igboland (in which most civic
arenas would be self-governed by natives); chiefs could not be identified. The cultural
openness of the Igbo served the purposes of European missionaries; today, most Igbo are
Christians. 175
Their high literacy rate led to a disproportionate number of Igbo serving as military
officers and civil servants in the emerging nation. They played a central role in the
independence movement. Nigeria’s first president, Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, was an
Igbo. 176 After independence, Igbo dispersed throughout the country to act as civil
servants and administrators. Colonization and the migration of the Igbo to urban areas,
where they became an upwardly mobile elite, could have created a sense of common
identity. 177
But in the 1960s, the discovery of major oil reserves in Igboland had tragic consequences.
Underlying the events were arguments over sharing oil revenues. A 1966 military coup
masterminded by an Igbo officer was seen in the west and north as an Igbo coup. In the
north, 30,000 Igbo civilians were killed. In 1967, under the leadership of a former
military governor of Igboland, the region seceded as the independent Republic of Biafra.
173
David P. Johnson, Jr., “Igbo,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1 eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry
Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 594–595.
174
Sun-Ki Chai, “Pan-Igbo Ethnicity in Nigeria,” in Choosing an Identity: A General Model of
Preference and Belief Formation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 205.
175
2009), 162–164.
176
Online Nigeria, “The Rt. Hon. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, P.C., GCFR,” n.d.,
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/zik.asp
177
David P. Johnson, Jr., “Igbo,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1 eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry
© D LI F L C | 23
The Nigerian Army enforced a total blockade of supplies into the region, leading to
widespread famine. Surrender and reintegration came about in 1970. 178
Ijaw
For many centuries, the Ijaw inhabited the tidal area of the
Niger Delta. Fishing and farming the scattered patches of arable
land make up their economy. The swampy land is threaded with
numerous streams; many settlements can only be reached by
water. 179 The challenges of the environment may explain why
the Ijaw maintain a separate identity—other groups were simply
unable to penetrate the area. 180
Salt was an important commodity in sub-Saharan Africa, most
of it brought from the Sahara. But the Ijaw produced significant
quantities by evaporating seawater, and became experienced as
traders. 181 After contact with Europeans in the 15th century, the Ijaw became brokers in
the transatlantic slave trade. 182 At the trade’s 18th-century peak, major Ijaw villages
became slave-trading centers with populations from 5,000 to 10,000. 183 These “citystates” were powerful enough to prevent Europeans from trading directly with inlanders.
With the decline of the slave trade, the Ijaw supplied Europeans with palm oil. 184
The discovery of oil in the delta in 1956 changed the region. The oil economy now
dominates the region and the country. For the Ijaw, it means polluted land and water; the
destruction of traditional economies; unemployment among the current Ijaw population
of 8 to 15 million; and financial neglect, because little of the oil revenues are returned to
the area that produces them. Since 1998, a youth-oriented militancy has opposed the oil
regime with tactics ranging from protest to sabotage to kidnapping. 185, 186
178
Eddie Enyeobi Okafor, “Biafra, Republic of” in Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1, eds. Kwame
Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 178–180.
179
Philip E. Leis, “Palm Oil, Illicit Gin, and the Moral Order of the Ijaw,” American Anthropologist 66, no.
4 (August 1964): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/668179
180
John A. Shoup, Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2011) 129–131.
181
Ari Nave, “Salt Trade,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1, eds. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry
182
Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., “Ijaw,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1
(New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 596.
183
Paul E. Lovejoy, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting,” in Nigeria: A Country Study, ed. Helen Chapin Metz
184
Philip E. Leis, “Palm Oil, Illicit Gin, and the Moral Order of the Ijaw,” American Anthropologist 66, no.
4 (August 1964):, http://www.jstor.org/stable/668179
185
2009), 164–165.
186
Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds., “Ijaw,” in Encyclopedia of Africa, vol. 1
(New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2010), 596.
© D LI F L C | 24
Chapter 1 Assessment
1. The introduction of camels brought trans-Saharan trade into the savanna.
False
Camels are suitable for desert areas, but cannot endure the humid savanna.
2. Slavery was common in Hausaland.
True
The use of slaves, particularly as agricultural laborers, predates the transatlantic
slave trade.
3. Usman dan Fodio led a jihad against Christian colonial powers.
False
Usman dan Fodio was a Fulani who believed that the Hausa practice of Islam was
corrupted by pagan beliefs. His jihad against the Hausa resulted in a caliphate that
ruled until British colonial conquest.
4. The discovery of oil reserves in the Niger Delta brought about long-term
reductions in poverty.
False
Little of the nation’s oil revenues are used for development, and Nigeria has a
high rate of poverty, particularly in the north.
5. The United States is a model for the Nigerian government.
True
Many aspects of Nigeria’s governmental structure were copied from the
Constitution of the United States.
© D LI F L C | 25
CHAPTER 2: RELIGION
Introduction
The two main religions in Nigeria are Islam and
Christianity. Approximately half of all Nigerians are
Muslim; 40% are Christian; the remaining 10% practice
indigenous religions. 187 Most of the country’s Muslims
live in the north, and most Christians live in the
southern regions. In the middle part of the country, the
two religious groups attempt a peaceful coexistence. 188
Tensions between Islam and Christianity were held in
check by the military who ruled the country until 1999.
Tensions have flared since the election of a civilian government and as freedom of speech
and religion expanded. Since 2001, at least 10,000 people have died because of ethnic
and religious violence. 189, 190
Religious tensions are ongoing. In August 2012, the militant Islamist group, Boko
Haram, demanded that Nigeria’s president, Goodluck Jonathan, convert to Islam or resign
his post. This group routinely targets Christians in Nigeria’s largely Islamic north with
attacks that include bombings and vows to remove all Christians from the region. 191 Boko
Haram’s demand of Goodluck Jonathan followed a series of church bombings by a
radical Islamic sect in Kaduna state; 50 people were killed. Other deadly attacks occur,
mostly on major Christian holidays. 192, 193
Major Religions
Islam
The majority of people in northern Nigeria are Muslim. 194, 195, 196 Among the Hausa,
nearly 90% are Muslims, most of them Sunnis who follow the Maliki school of religious
187
Central Intelligence Agency, “Nigeria: People and Society,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
188
Meg Handley, “The Violence in Nigeria: What’s Behind the Conflict?” Time World, 10 March 2010,
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1971010,00.html
189
190
John Blake, “Religious Hatred Simmers in Terror Suspect’s Homeland,” CNN World, 30 December
2009, http://articles.cnn.com/2009-12-30/world/Nigeria.violence_1_nigerian-muslims-religious-violencenigerian-christians?_s=PM:WORLD
191
Catholic Online, “Terrorists Tell Nigerian President to ‘Convert or Resign’,” 13 August 2012,
http://www.catholic.org/international/international_story.php?id=47239
192
Associated Press, “Nigeria: Dozens Killed in Christian-Muslim Strife,” CBS News, 18 June 2012,
http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57455562/nigeria-dozens-killed-in-christian-muslim-strife/
193
Ibrahim Garba, “Christians Retaliate After Three More Churches Bombed in Nigeria,” Christian
Science Monitor, 17 June 2012, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2012/0617/Christians-retaliateafter-three-more-churches-bombed-in-Nigeria
194
© D LI F L C | 26
law. 197, 198 Islam was brought to Nigeria in the 9th century but was not widely accepted
among the Hausa until the 14th century. It was primarily popular among the wealthy
urban class until 1810. 199, 200, 201, 202 Although most Hausa are Sunni Muslims, more
radical and fundamentalists sects such as the Wahhabis exist.203, 204, 205 The principles and
proscriptions of Islam dominate virtually every aspect of life, including dress, food,
housing, and art. 206, 207
Hausa Muslims follow the Pillars of Islam as a part of their
faith. The first of these is the shahada, the declaration of faith
that “There is no god but God and Muhammad is God’s
messenger.” The salat is the requirement to pray five times a
day. Sawm is the required fast during the month of Ramadan.
Zakat is the expectation that Muslims should be generous and
share their wealth. The fifth pillar is the hajj, which requires all
able Muslims to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in
their lives. 208
Islam among the Hausa can take a variety of forms. Some are
195
Seth Kaplan, “Nigeria’s Potential for Sectarian Conflict,” Fragile States Resource Center, 29 January
2012, http://www.fragilestates.org/2012/01/29/nigerias-potential-for-sectarian-conflict/
196
Refworld, “2011Report on International Religious Freedom: Nigeria,” U.S. Department of State, 30 July
2012, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,NGA,,50210598c,0.html
197
Countries and Their Cultures, “Hausa: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2012,
http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Hausa-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html
198
Council on Foreign Relations, “Islamic Law in Nigeria [Rush Transcript; Federal News Service, Inc],”
23 February 2006, http://www.cfr.org/nigeria/islamic-law-nigeria-rush-transcript-federal-news-serviceinc/p9994
199
R. Lobban, “Hausa,” in Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, Timothy L. Gall and
Jeneen Hobby, eds., vol. 1 (Detroit, MI: Cengage Gale Learning, 2009), 273.
200
Renee Montagne, “Religious Mix a Source of Tension in Nigeria,” National Public Radio, 16 March
2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5283227
201
Global Security, “Nigeria Christian/Muslim Conflict,” 11 July 2011,
202
Katja Werthmann, “The Example of Nana Asma’u,” Magazine for Development and Cooperation,
(March 2005) http://www3.giz.de/E+Z/content/archive-eng/03-2005/foc_art3.html
203
204
205
Coleen Walsh, “Exploring Islam in Nigeria: Panel Discussion Precedes Visit by Sultan of Sokota,”
Harvard Gazette, 27 September 2011, http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/09/exploring-islam-innigeria/
206
207
Moses Ochonu, “Colonialism Within Colonialism: The Hausa-Caliphate Imaginary and the British
Colonial Administration of the Nigerian Middle Belt,” African Studies Quarterly: The Online Journal for
African Studies 10, nos. 2 and 3 (Fall 2008), http://www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v10/v10i2a5.htm
208
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Pillars of Islam,” 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295625/Pillars-of-Islam
© D LI F L C | 27
syncretic, mixing elements of traditional indigenous practices with Islamic practices. 209,
210
More traditional forms of Islam are followed in the major urban centers. Among the
70% of Hausa living in the rural areas, Islamic and animist practices meld into a set of
practices unique to Hausa culture. 211, 212, 213 For example, Muslim holy men make amulets
and manipulate sand patterns to predict the future. 214 According to data from 2010,
approximately 25% of Muslims believe in the evil eye; 13% believe that sacred objects
and shrines provide protection; 37% have used traditional religious healers. 215
Indigenous Religions
Some Hausa follow the indigenous Hausa religions, which
emphasize the importance of spirits, especially those of ancestors.
Prayers and rituals placate these spirits and reinforce community
values. Spirits can be either good or bad, offering either protection
or bringing misfortune. Shamans practice the art of divination or
fortune telling. 216, 217
Maguzawa is the name given to non-Muslim Hausas.
Predominantly rural, Maguzawa do not pray. Instead, they worship
spirits, called bori or iskoki. 218, 219 The iskoki are the spirits or gods
of specific clans; each clan’s chief acts as priest for the
community. Sometimes, the iskoki is a spirit unrelated to the
village and is there to create mischief. 220
209
210
Kari Bergstrom, “Legacies of Colonialism and Islam for Hausa Women: An Historical Analysis, 1804–
1960,” (paper, International Center, Michigan State University, 2002), 4–5,
http://gencen.isp.msu.edu/documents/Working_Papers/WP276.pdf
211
212
Esther Moses, “The Hausa People,” 2010, http://blackethics.com/477/the-hausa-people/
213
Eric Holmlund, “The Hausa of Nigeria,” Prayway, 2005,
http://www.prayway.com/unreached/peoplegroups/279.html
214
Mariko Namba Walter and Eva Jane Neumann Fridmann, “Hausa Shamanistic Practices,” in
Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABCCLIO, 2004), 923–4.
215
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan
Africa; Nigeria,” 15 April 2010, http://features.pewforum.org/africa/country.php?c=160
216
University of Kent, “Society: Hausa,” n.d., http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/ethnoatlas/hmar/cult_dir/culture.7844
217
Franke A. Salomone, “Hausa Concepts of Masculinity and the ‘Yan Daudu,” Journal of Men,
Masculinities, and Spirituality 1, no. 1 (2007), http://www.jmmsweb.org/issues/volume1/number1/pp45-54
218
Jerome H. Barkow, “Muslims and Maguzawa in North Central State, Nigeria: An Ethnographic
Comparison,” Canadian Journal of African Studies VII, no. 1 (1973), 59,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/483750
219
220
http://www.jstor.org/stable/483750?seq=11
© D LI F L C | 28
Most Maguzawa villages will have some kind of an altar, often made from stone.
Sacrifices, some involving wine and animal blood, are made at these sites to please the
gods. During religious ceremonies, Hausas consume large amounts of a local alcoholic
beverage called burukutu. 221, 222 Itinerant sorcerers, or boka, travel to villages, offering
herbal concoctions for relief from various ailments. The bokas are male initiates of the
bori cult, which focuses on spirit possession and exorcism.223, 224
Christianity
Roman Catholicism was first brought by missionaries
to Nigeria in the 15th century. By 2005, the Roman
Catholic Church in Nigeria had approximately 19
million members, mostly in the south. 225 Christian
churches in Nigeria today range from Roman Catholic
and Anglican to many smaller Protestant
denominations. 226, 227, 228 Most of Nigeria’s Christians
are Protestant. 229, 230 The most successful churches are
those able to blend African spiritual beliefs with Protestant traditions and practice. 231, 232
221
Paul Bush, “Report on the Maguzawa,” n.d.,
http://www.revivalfire.org/nigeria/report_on_the_maguzawa_people_gr.htm
222
223
Comparison,” Canadian Journal of African Studies VII, no. 1 (1973), 70–72,
224
225
BBC, “Factfile: Roman Catholics Around the World,” 1 April 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4243727.stm
226
Global Security, “Nigerian Christian/Muslim Conflict,” 11 July 2011,
227
World Council of Churches, “Methodist Church in Nigeria,” 1 January 2006,
http://www.oikoumene.org/gr/member-churches/regions/africa/nigeria/methodist-church-nigeria.html
228
Renee Montagne, “Religious Mix a Source of Tension in Nigeria,” National Public Radio, 16 March
2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5283227
229
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of
the World’s Christian Population,” 19 December 2011, http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/GlobalChristianity-protestant.aspx
230
BBC, “Factfile: Roman Catholics Around the World,” 1 April 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4243727.stm
231
Somini Sengupta and Larry Rohter, “Where Faith Grows, Fired by Pentecostalism,” New York Times,
14 October 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/14/world/where-faith-grows-fired-bypentecostalism.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm
232
Donatus Pius Ukpong, “The Presence and Impact of Pentecostalism in Nigeria,” n.d., 11–14,
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=20&ved=0CFEQFjAJOAo&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.glopent.net%2FMembers%2Ffrdona%2Fpresence-and-impact-of-pentecostalism-innigeria.pdf&ei=BzgpUJStAuL7iwLys4HgCQ&usg=AFQjCNEfOE_qMXaDM_sLyACigPupe8L1hQ&sig
2=7A5QM8LjqXCnR4mDSrxB6A
© D LI F L C | 29
Anglicanism was first established in Nigeria by British missionaries in 1842. Anglican
Church membership has grown steadily since. By the 1970s, membership was about 5
million. Proselytizing efforts in the late 1980s and 1990s saw membership expand to 18
million members, and membership is projected to double by 2025. As of 2012, the
Anglican Church has nearly 150 dioceses, many in the northern states. 233, 234 But recent
bombings have reduced church attendance by nearly 30% in the state of Kaduna. 235
Beginning in the 1980s, Pentecostal churches saw an explosion in growth. By 2006,
about 60% of Nigerian Protestants were members of either Pentecostal or charismatic
churches; 30% of Roman Catholics belonged to charismatic churches. 236 The ability of
the Pentecostal churches to link their beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs and
traditions is at the core of their success, especially among Nigeria’s poor. 237, 238 The
strength and success of Pentecostalism in Nigeria rely greatly on traditions of African
nationalism, shamanism, and Western materialism. 239
Religion and Government
Nigeria is a secular nation with freedom of religion
guaranteed by its constitution. At the same time, each
state has the power to establish its own court system,
which is problematic because Islam rejects the
separation of religious and political powers. Among the
twelve northern states, where most Hausa reside, the
courts operate under Islamic shari’a law. Not all states
within the northern regions, however, apply Islamic law
233
Philip Jenkins, “Defender of the Faith,” The Atlantic, November 2003,
http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200311/jenkins
234
Anglican Communion, “Provincial Directory: The Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion), 2012,
http://www.anglicancommunion.org/tour/province.cfm?ID=N
235
Christiana T. Alabi, “Nigeria: Insecurity- Church Attendance Drops by 30 Percent,” Daily Trust, 13
August 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201208130453.html
236
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “Historical Overview of Pentecostalism in Nigeria,” 5 October
2006, http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Evangelical-Protestant-Churches/Historical-Overview-ofPentecostalism-in-Nigeria.aspx
237
Somini Sengupta and Larry Rohter, “Where Faith Grows, Fired by Pentecostalism,” New York Times,
14 October 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/14/world/where-faith-grows-fired-bypentecostalism.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm
238
239
© D LI F L C | 30
with equal force. In states such as Kano and Kaduna, application of shari’a law is more
restricted; in other states, such as Zamfara, shari’a principles are more widely
embraced. 240, 241
The government generally respects religious freedom, but Christian and Muslim groups
must register with the Corporate Affairs Commission if they plan to construct churches or
mosques. Although there are no allegations against the federal government regarding the
abuse of religious freedoms, such allegations against local governments are not
uncommon. 242 The Nigerian Christian Pilgrims Commission and the National Hajj
Commission provides logistical arrangements for religious pilgrims, Christian or
Muslim. 243
The federal constitution prohibits individual states from limiting religious activity or
otherwise imposing on religious freedom. Nevertheless, restrictions on the registration of
imams, denials of permits to construct religious buildings, and the destruction of existing
religious structures have occurred under local state authority. Shari’a law does not apply
to non-Muslims, but certain practices, including the public segregation of sexes, have
been applied to all residents in some of the northern states. Sentences for non-Muslims in
Islamic criminal courts are often perceived as being harsher than for Muslims. The state
governments fund Hisbah (shari’a religious police) who, even among non-Muslims,
enforce Muslim prohibitions against alcohol and regulations regarding public
transportation for women. 244
Influence of Religion on Daily Life
Nigerians are a deeply religious people, and they generally do not believe in a separation
of religious and secular life. Public events are accompanied by opening and closing
prayers. Virtually all that happens in the nation is attributed to divine intervention. 245
Christians and Muslims in Nigeria share a common mistrust of each other; violence and
intolerance characterize relations between the two groups. 246, 247, 248
240
241
242
243
Refworld, “2011Report on International Religious Freedom: Nigeria,” U.S. Department of State, 30
July 2012, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,NGA,,50210598c,0.html
244
245
John Campbell, Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,
2011), 43.
246
Buck Sexton, “Is Nigeria on the Brink of a Muslim vs. Christian Civil War?” The Blaze, 10 January
2012, http://www.theblaze.com/stories/is-nigeria-on-the-brink-of-a-muslim-vs-christian-civil-war/
247
Associated Press, “Nigeria Sect Kills 15: Christians Vow Defense,” Fox News, 7 January 2012,
http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/01/07/nigeria-christians-to-defend-against-muslim-sect/
248
Ibrahim Garba, “Christians Retaliate After Three More Churches Bombed in Nigeria,” Christian
Science Monitor, 17 June 2012, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2012/0617/Christians-retaliateafter-three-more-churches-bombed-in-Nigeria
© D LI F L C | 31
Islam is a dynamic presence in the lives of the faithful, affecting virtually every aspect of
daily life. Muslims do not eat pork or drink alcohol. Pork is not served in restaurants, and
alcohol is only rarely available. 249 Islamic art forms, motifs, and patterns strongly
influence Hausa art. 250 In some states, businesses must close during prayer times. 251
Muslims dress in accordance with Islamic principles. Men wear long flowing gowns
(baba riga) along with a robe (jalabia). Women wear brightly colored wraps and blouses,
shawls, and head scarves (hijab). 252, 253 In Kano, all private-school students, regardless of
religion, must wear Islamic clothing and veils. 254
Islam, as practiced in Nigeria, requires segregation of the sexes (purdah). Women must
remain indoors and must wear the hijab when they go out of the home. On some
occasions, they must also be escorted by a male guardian. Among the Hausa, these
practices are central to Islamic identity. The enforcement of purdah, however, is less
likely to occur in rural areas, where economic realities make it necessary for women to go
outside the home to participate in economic activities. 255
Traditional animist religious practices are also evident in
daily life. Hausa often consult diviners to learn about the
future; they visit traditional healers; and they partake in
prayers and rituals for ancestral spirits. These practices
are not limited to the small number of Hausa who
practice indigenous religions. Many Christians and
Muslims engage in these practices as well. 256, 257, 258
249
John Campbell, Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,
2011), 44.
250
251
BBC News, “‘New Sharia Law’ in Nigeria State,” 28 April 2004,
252
Esther Moses, “The Hausa People,” 2010, http://blackethics.com/477/the-hausa-people/
253
“A Dressing Down: The Perils of Wearing Supposedly Indecent Clothes,” Economist, 11 October 2007,
http://www.economist.com/node/9946878
254
Tunde Adelakun, “Controversies Over Islamic Dress Codes in Northern Nigeria,” Helium, 9 July 2007,
http://www.helium.com/items/447193-controversies-over-islamic-dress-codes-in-northern-nigeria
255
Nicola Hugo, “Purdah: Separation of the Sexes in Northern Nigeria,” Country Africa Intelligence, 4
June 2012,
http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1035:purdahseparation-of-the-sexes-in-northern-nigeria-&catid=59:gender-issues-discussion-papers&Itemid=267
256
Mariko Namba Walter and Eva Jane Neumann Fridmann, “Hausa Shamanistic Practices,” in
Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABCCLIO, 2004), 923–4.
257
Franke A. Salamone, “Hausa Concepts of Masculinity and the ‘Yan Daudu,” Journal of Men,
Masculinities, and Spirituality 1, no. 1 (2007), http://www.jmmsweb.org/issues/volume1/number1/pp45-54
258
Ulrika Andersson, “Working with Spirits Among Muslim Hausa in Nigeria: A Study of Bori in Jos,”
(field study report, Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, Upsala University, Sweden,
2002), 5, 22–26,
http://www.antro.uu.se/FileManager/Dokument/Working%20with%20Spirits%20among%20Muslim%20H
ausa%20in%20Nigeria.pdf
© D LI F L C | 32
Gender Relations and Religion
Nigerian society is patriarchal and the country’s religious
traditions regard men as superior to women. 259 An
increasing number of Muslim Nigerian women wear the
hijab; few wear the full-body coverings. 260 But in some
states, the hijab has become compulsory for
schoolgirls. 261 Nevertheless, in Kano, the most
conservative state in Hausaland, women drive cars and
are permitted to vote. They are educated and take part in
the economy.
In many West African Muslim communities, women dress as their pre-Islamic ancestors
did. A growing number of Nigeria’s Muslims also practice a form of strict purdah
(female seclusion) in which women seldom venture outside the home, and then only
when fully covered. 262, 263 For some women a life of seclusion may be more attractive
than performing hard labor in the fields. 264
Segregation by sex begins early for Hausa children. By the age of 6, young girls must
wear appropriate Muslim attire, and boys are prohibited from the women’s quarters in
homes. Some Hausa Muslims engage in especially strict segregation, such as in the city
of Kanuri where women almost never go outside their homes. In the states of Kano,
Zamfara, and Kaduna, segregation by gender limits what jobs Hausa women may seek.
Under shari’a law, women are at a disadvantage in matters of inheritance and child
custody. 265
In rural areas where subsistence farming predominates, economics force most women out
of the family compound. Those from poorer households have no choice but to seek
seasonal work harvesting and threshing crops. Maintaining seclusion is difficult for
259
Celestina Omoso Isiramen, “Women in Nigeria: Religion, Culture and the AIDS Epidemic, ”
International Humanist and Ethical Union, 1 November 2003, http://www.iheu.org/node/979
260
Associated Press, “In Kano, Women-only Tricycle Taxis a Symbol of Compromise,” Nigerian Village
Square, 7 April 2007, http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/newsflash/in-kano-women-only-tricycle-taxisa-symbol-of-compromise.html
261
Anita Little, “Unveiling Oppression in Northern Nigeria,” MS. Blog, 8 March 2011,
http://msmagazine.com/blog/blog/2011/03/08/unveiling-oppression-in-northern-nigeria/
262
Emory University, “West Africa,” n.d., http://www.law.emory.edu/IFL/region/westafrica.html
263
Anita Little, “Unveiling Oppression in Northern Nigeria,” MS. Blog, 8 March 2011,
264
Nicola Hugo, “Purdah: Separation of the Sexes in Northern Nigeria,” Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 4
June 2012,
265
Law School, Emory University, “West Africa,” n.d.,
http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/region/westafrica.html
© D LI F L C | 33
women living in urban slums where unrelated families are often forced to share housing
compounds. 266
Religious Holidays and Celebrations
Nigeria celebrates a number of religious holidays, both
Muslim and Christian. Eid al-Moulud commemorates
the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad. The other two
major Islamic holidays are Eid al-Fitr (celebrating the
end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (the Feast of
Sacrifice) which occurs near the time of the hajj.
Nigerian Muslims commemorate these holidays by
slaughtering a ram, feasting, and exchanging gifts with
family members. 267, 268 Christian religious holidays include Good Friday, Easter Monday,
and Christmas Day. 269
Ramadan
Ramadan, the third pillar of Islam, takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic
calendar. This month-long fasting period is a time of reflection and honors the time when
Allah revealed the Quran to his Prophet Muhammad. Only the sick, pregnant women,
lactating mothers, and the infirm are exempt from fasting during the daylight hours. 270
Members of the Hisbah (religious police) patrol the streets to make sure that Muslims
obey the fasting requirements. Those who do not obey requirements can and have been
arrested. 271
Buildings of Worship
There are both Christian churches and Muslim mosques in the Hausa region of northern
Nigeria. Churches and mosques, however, have been the site of much of the religious
violence engulfing the nation in recent years. 272, 273, 274
266
Yakubu Zakaria, “Entrepreneurs at Home: Secluded Muslim Women and Hidden Economic Activities
in Northern Nigeria,” Nordic Journal of African Studies 10, no.1 (2001): 112,
http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol10num1/yakubu.pdf
267
Q++ Studio, “Nigeria Public Holidays 2012,” http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/nigeria.htm
268
269
Q++ Studio, “Nigeria Public Holidays 2012,” http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/nigeria.htm
270
Colorado State University, “Islamic Holidays and Observances,” n.d.,
http://www.colostate.edu/orgs/MSA/events/Ramadan.html
271
ThisAfrica.com, “Ramadan: 20 Arrested for Refusing to Fast in Kano,” 8 August 2012,
http://thisafrica.com/ramadan-20-arrested-for-refusing-to-fast-in-kano-2/
272
Drew Hinshaw, “Nigeria Torn by Rising Religious Violence,” Wall Street Journal, 12 January, 2012,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203436904577154894235988620.html
273
“Religious Violence Claims 52 Livens in Nigeria,” Russia Today, 18 June 2012,
http://www.rt.com/news/nigeria-christian-muslim-violence-051/
274
Associated Press, “Religious Violence Increases Despite Curfews in Nigeria,” New York Times, 20 June
2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/21/world/africa/curfews-fail-to-curb-religious-violence-innigeria.html
© D LI F L C | 34
The original Great Mosque of Kano, built in the late 15th century, was destroyed in the
1950s. It was constructed of mud and was the first tower-type mosque in West Africa.
This mosque lacked minarets and a formal staircase. After its destruction in the 1950s,
the British built the Central Mosque of Kano as a sign of appreciation for Nigeria’s role
in World War II. 275 This mosque is closed to non-Muslims.276
Exchange 1: May I take photographs?
Soldier:
May I take photographs
inside the mosque?
Local:
No.
zan eya dawkan hotnaa a
chekey masalaachanko?
aa-aa
Located in the city of Abuja, the National Mosque is a large complex that includes a main
prayer hall, a library, a conference hall, a religious school, and a gold anodized,
aluminum-shingled dome. 277 Built in the 1980s, this national monument is not open to
non-Muslims. 278, 279
The first Christian church in northern Nigeria is at Wusasa in the
state of Kaduna. Built in 1929 in the traditional architectural of
the Hausa, this red-mud church is a major tourist attraction for
Christians visiting the Nigerian city of Zaria. 280 The
interdenominational National Church of Nigeria in Abuja is also a
tourist attraction. Begun in 1984, the neo-gothic church was not
completed until 2005. St. Joseph’s Catholic Cathedral, with
61,000 members, is located in Kaduna City in the state of
Kaduna. Built in 1934, the church became a cathedral in 1953. 281
Behavior in Buildings of Worship
Mosques
Most Nigerians adhere to the Maliki school of Islam. 282, 283 Women are generally not
welcome in Nigerian mosques, especially during prayers. 284 Do not enter a mosque
275
ArchNet, “Great Mosque of Kano,” n.d., http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7729
World66, “Central Mosque,” n.d., http://www.world66.com/africa/nigeria/kano/sights/
277
ArchNet, “Abuja National Mosque,” n.d., http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=936
278
Adeymr Adisa, “National Mosque, Abuja,” 2011, http://www.cometonigeria.com/wheretogo/nationalmosque-abuja
279
Tripmondo, “Explore Abuja in Nigeria: Sightseeing and Attractions,” 2012,
http://www.tripmondo.com/nigeria/abuja-federal-capital-territory/abuja/
280
Moses Alao, “Behold! First Church in Northern Nigeria: Established 1929,” Christ Apostolic Church
France, n.d., http://www.cacfrance.org/behold-first-church-in-northern-nigeria-bullestablished-in1929.html
281
St Joseph’s Catholic Cathedral Church, Kaduna, “St Joseph’s Catholic Cathedral Church,” 2011,
http://www.stjosephcatholiccathedralkaduna.org/
282
Council on Foreign Relations, “Islamic Law in Nigeria [Rush Transcript; Federal News Service, Inc],”
283
Omar Bakri Muhammad, “The Role of the Mosque,” (paper, n.d.), 27,
http://www.izharudeen.com/uploads/4/1/2/2/4122615/role_of_mosque_www.izharudeen.com.pdf
276
© D LI F L C | 35
without first asking a local if there are any specific requirements pertaining to the mosque
you want to visit.
Exchange 2: May I enter the mosque?
Soldier:
May I enter the mosque?
Local:
Yes.
zan eyshga masalaachan?
ey
It is not acceptable to enter a mosque when prayers are
being conducted. Once inside, the basic rules of etiquette
for attending most religious or sacred institutions apply.
Speak softly and respectfully and do not disturb those at
prayer. 285 Do not walk in front of someone praying;
doing so will invalidate his prayer. 286
Shoes must be removed and left outside. Men should
wear loose-fitting pants, a loose- fitting shirt, and clean
socks. Women should wear a long, loose skirt and a loose, long- sleeved top that reaches
the thighs. Women should also cover their hair with a scarf. 287
Exchange 3: Do I need to wear a hijab?
Soldier:
Do I need to wear a hijab?
Local:
Yes.
Exchange 4: When do you pray?
Soldier:
When do you pray?
Local:
I pray at noon.
naa bukaatran saka
hijaabee?
ey
Yawsha kakey salah?
na sala da azahar
Sit cross-legged; sitting with outstretched legs is considered disrespectful. 288
Churches
Catholic churches generally welcome visitors. Most Catholic women wear a chapel veil
in church. Avoid eating, chewing gum, or smoking while inside a church building or
cathedral. Turn off cell phones. Wear clothing that is modest, clean, and neat. 289 If
attending a mass, Protestants should not take part in the communion service, known as
284
Lizzie Williams, Nigeria, 2nd ed. (Bucks, England: Bradt Travel Guides, Ltd, 2008), 83,
Hounslow Jamia Masjid and Islamic Centre, “Etiquettes of Visiting a Mosque,” 2009,
http://www.hounslowmasjid.co.uk/page2/page10/page30/page30.html
286
287
288
Andrew Smith, “How to Act in a Mosque,” eHow, n.d., http://www.ehow.com/how_4443297_actmosque.html
289
Catholic Church Tours, “Etiquette,” 2012,
http://www.catholicchurchtours.com/tours/etiquette/index.html
285
© D LI F L C | 36
the Eucharist. 290 Most Catholics will bless themselves with holy water and make the sign
of the cross. Non-Catholics are not obligated to do so. 291
Similar rules apply for Protestant churches. Visitors
should dress conservatively. Women should avoid tank
tops and tight-fitting clothing. 292 Men should remove
their hats. 293 It is inappropriate to eat, chew gum, or
smoke in church buildings. Be silent and respectful,
especially during a mass, and turn off all cell
phones. 294, 295
290
Andrew Kar, “What to Do When Visiting A different Christian Church,”, Examiner, 20 June 2009,
http://www.examiner.com/protestant-in-kansas-city/what-to-do-when-visiting-a-different-christian-church
291
Suzanne Molino Singleton, “Church Etiquette Review,” Catholic Online, 13 April 2006,
http://www.catholic.org/hf/family/story.php?id=19458
292
Suzanne Molino Singleton, “Church Etiquette Review,” Catholic Online, 13 April 2006,
http://www.catholic.org/hf/family/story.php?id=19458
293
Fisheaters, “Attire and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.fisheaters.com/TLMetiquette.html
294
Fisheaters, “Attire and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.fisheaters.com/TLMetiquette.html
295
William Saunders, “Appropriate Behavior in Church,” Catholic Education Resource Center, 2003,
http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/religion/re0065.html
© D LI F L C | 37
1. Indigenous beliefs were completely wiped out as the Muslim and Christian faiths took
root in Nigeria.
False
Animist religions retain a substantial number of adherents. Many Muslims and Christians
also openly engage in practices associated with indigenous beliefs.
2. Most Muslim Nigerians are Shi’a.
False
Most Muslim Nigerians are Sunni.
3. The Nigerian constitution supports shari’a criminal code.
False
Shari’a criminal code represents a challenge to the constitutionally mandated separation
of church and state.
4. Some mosques in Nigeria do not permit non-Muslims.
True
Most Nigerians adhere to the Maliki school of Islam religious law, which prohibits nonMuslims from entering mosques.
5. Most of Nigeria’s Muslims live in the nation’s northern states.
True
The majority of people in northern Nigeria are Muslim.
© D LI F L C | 38
CHAPTER 3: TRADITIONS
Introduction
The Hausa, West Africa and Nigeria’s largest ethnic
group, live predominantly in rural areas of northern
Nigeria. 296, 297, 298 The Hausa language is spoken by 40
to 50 million people throughout western and central
Africa. 299 A combination of occupation, family origins,
and political rank (commoner, administrator, chief)
forms the basis of the complex and hierarchical system
of Hausa social organization. 300, 301 Approximately 90%
of Nigerian Hausa are Sunni Muslims; most adhere to the Maliki school of Islam. 302, 303
In general, Hausa people are reserved and quiet in public; they value the quality known as
fara’a (calm and stoic pleasantness, no matter what the situation). The Hausa also value
the ability to deny personal needs in public and endure hardship and pain without
complaint. 304 Hausa greatly respect their parents and have a high regard for elders. Most
maintain their communal values. Traditional Hausa culture and
Islamic religious beliefs make the Hausa hospitable and
generous to those in need, and kind to strangers. 305
Greetings
Friendly and prolonged greetings are typical among the Hausa.
Failing to greet someone is seen as disrespectful, and shaking
hands is common. 306 Men often prolong a handshake
throughout initial conversation and inquiries about each
296
297
Kari Bergstrom, “Legacies of Colonialism and Islam for Hausa Women: An Historical Analysis, 1804–
1960” (paper, Women and International Development Program, Michigan State University, 2002), 17,
http://gencen.isp.msu.edu/documents/Working_Papers/WP276.pdf
298
National Population Commission, Federal Republic of Nigeria, “Nigeria Demographic and Health
Survey, 2008,” November 2009, 31–32, http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/Fr222/Fr222.pdf
299
Accredited Language Services, “Hausa,” 2012, http://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/Hausa/
300
University of Kent, “Society: Hausa,” n.d., http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/ethnoatlas/hmar/cult_dir/culture.7844
301
302
Countries and Their Cultures, “Hausa: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2012,
http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Hausa-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html
303
Council on Foreign Relations, “Islamic Law in Nigeria [Rush Transcript; Federal News Service, Inc.],”
304
Robert Alan LeVine, Culture, Behavior, and Personality: An Introduction to the Comparative Study of
Psychosocial Adaption, 2nd ed. (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2009), 27.
305
O. Otitie, “Nigeria’s Identifiable Ethnic Groups,” n.d., http://www.onlinenigeria.com/tribes/tribes.asp
306
“Nigeria,” CultureGrams Online Edition, ProQuest, 2012.
© D LI F L C | 39
other’s health. If there is a difference in status between the two individuals, greetings are
usually initiated by the senior person. Men often place their left hand on the other
person’s shoulder as they shake hands. 307, 308 In the northern regions, a clenched fist in
front of the chest is also common. 309 Upon departing, it is usual to shake hands again. 310
Exchange 5: Good morning!
Soldier:
Good morning!
Local:
Good morning!
barka da asbah!
barka da asbah!
Exchange 6: Good afternoon!
Soldier:
Good afternoon!
Local:
Good afternoon!
barka da raanaa!
barka da raanaa!
Shaking hands is also usual between women, particularly when first meeting. But for
Muslims, physical contact between the sexes, including handshakes, is inappropriate.
Close friends and family members sometimes greet each other with a kiss on the cheek or
with a hug. 311
Exchange 7: How are you?
Soldier:
Local:
How are you?
Fine, very well.
Yaqaya kakay?
laafeeya kalo
The appropriateness of eye contact depends on the
situation. Hausa women, especially if they are Muslim,
do not make eye contact with men during conversations.
On the other hand, eye contact is usual and appropriate
between members of the same sex. But persons of lower
status should not make direct eye contact with those of
higher status. Doing so is likely to be seen not only as
rude but also as confrontational. 312
Exchange 8: Good evening!
Soldier:
Good evening!
Local:
Good evening!
barka de Yamaa!
barka de Yamaa!
307
Culture Crossing, “Nigeria: Greetings,” n.d.,
http://www.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student_details.php?Id=7&CID=151
308
Kwintessential, “Nigeria: Meeting People,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/globaletiquette/nigeria.html
309
310
Vayama, “Nigerian Etiquette Tips,” 2012, http://www.vayama.com/etiquette/nigeria/
311
312
Culture Crossing, “Nigeria: Eye Contact,” n.d.,
© D LI F L C | 40
Exchange 9: Good night!
Soldier:
Local:
Good night!
Good night!
a kwaana lapeeya!
a taashey lapeeya!
Rules of politeness suggest that people, especially if they do not know each other, should
address one another by title and surname. Close friends often address each other using
first names or surnames only. 313 It is best to wait for permission before addressing
someone by first name. 314
Exchange 10: Hi, Mr. Garba!
Soldier:
Hi, Mr. Garba!
Local:
Hello!
Soldier:
Are you doing well?
Local:
Yes.
barka, malam garba!
barka!
kana lapeeya?
lapeeya kalo
Nigerians require less personal space than most Westerners and commonly stand less
than an arm’s length apart. Among the Muslim Hausa, more distance is appropriate
between men and women. Members of the same sex often touch each other during
conversations. Men frequently walk hand in hand down the street. Touching can also
indicate status. For example, a man who is senior to another will place a hand on the
other person’s shoulder to reinforce the differential in status. 315
Male-Female Interaction
Hausa culture is patriarchal, and men are the household
heads. Women have a lower status than the men who
exercise control over them. 316, 317 Some Nigerian Hausa
Muslims practice a strict form of wife seclusion (kulle).
Under this system, women remain at home, unless
accompanied by a male guardian. Women may, in
extreme cases such as a medical emergency or funeral
attendance, leave their homes with their husband’s
permission. 318 Such seclusion is less likely to be practiced in rural areas where women
are needed for subsistence labor on family farms. 319 Segregation of the sexes begins
313
Kwintessential, “Nigeria: Meeting People,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/globaletiquette/nigeria.html
314
Culture Crossing, “Nigeria: Titles and Business Cards,” n.d.,
315
Culture Crossing, “Nigeria: Personal Space and Touching,” n.d.,
316
Catherine Coles and Beverly Mack, “Women in Twentieth-Century Hausa Society,” in Hausa Women in
the Twentieth Century, Catherine Coles and Beverly Mack, eds. (Madison, WI: The University of
Wisconsin Press, 1991), 12–15, http://www.scribd.com/doc/93051818/Hausa-Women-in-the-20th-Century
317
Frank A. Salamone, The Hausa of Nigeria (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 2010), 139.
318
Ibrahim Khaleel, “The Hausa,” in Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Nigeria, Marcellina U. OkehieOffoha and Matthew N. O. Dadiku, eds. (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc, 1996), 49.
© D LI F L C | 41
early, usually by the age of 7 or 8. By age 10, boys leave the female living quarters and
sleep and live among the men. 320
Hospitality and Gift Giving
Although the Hausa people are friendly and visiting is an
important part of the culture, foreigners are unlikely to be
invited to a Nigerian home. 321 Most professional
socializing in cities takes place in restaurants and night
clubs. 322 Guests invited to a Nigerian home are not
required to bring gifts, but gifts are nonetheless
appreciated. 323 When presenting a gift to Muslim hosts,
always do so with the right hand. Gifts should always be
wrapped; a gift is not necessarily opened in front of the giver. Appropriate gifts include
fruit, nuts, chocolates, or small items for any children in the household. 324
Exchange 11: I really appreciate your hospitality.
Soldier:
I really appreciate your
hospitality.
Local:
It is nothing.
na Yaba da karimchinkaa
ba komay
Guests do not need to arrive on time, even for planned activities, but they should not
arrive earlier than the specified time. Because houses are often small, larger gatherings
are often held in the road in front where people live. 325, 326 Once a meal is over, guests
should leave in a timely fashion, usually within half an hour. 327
319
Catherine Coles and Beverly Mack, “Women in Twentieth-Century Hausa Society,” in Hausa Women in
the Twentieth Century, Catherine Coles and Beverly Mack, eds. (Madison, WI: The University of
Wisconsin Press, 1991), 8, http://www.scribd.com/doc/93051818/Hausa-Women-in-the-20th-Century
320
Law School, Emory University, “West Africa,” n.d.,
http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/region/westafrica.html
321
322
iExplore, “Nigeria Travel Guide: Social Conventions,” 2012, http://www.iexplore.com/travelguides/africa/nigeria/travel-tips
323
iExplore, “Nigeria Travel Guide: Social Conventions,” 2012, http://www.iexplore.com/travelguides/africa/nigeria/travel-tips
324
Kwintessential, “Nigeria: Gift Giving Etiquette,” n.d.,
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/nigeria.html
325
326
Culture Crossing, “Nigeria: Views of Time,” n.d.,
327
© D LI F L C | 42
Eating Habits and Types of Food
Types of Food
Beans, sorghum, dairy products, and rice make up the Muslim Hausa diet. Hausa enjoy
meat, including lamb and goat. 328, 329 Breakfast is eaten early, often around 5 a.m., and
typically consists of rice and mangoes or a dish of stewed soybeans and sometimes fried
plantains (dodo). Bean cakes (kosai) are another favorite, as is funkaso, made from wheat
flour soaked overnight and then fried with sugar. Porridge, or coco, is also commonly
served at breakfast. 330, 331
Exchange 12: What is the name of this dish?
Soldier:
What is the name of this
dish?
Local:
This is tuwo shinkafa.
wanawan irin abinchey
nee?
tuwan shankafaa nee
The main Hausa meal is midday lunch, normally eaten
around 11 a.m. When possible, Hausa prefer to eat this
meal together. 332, 333 Favorite dishes include stew (efo) or
steamed Nigerian bean cakes wrapped in banana leaves
(moin-moin). 334, 335, 336 Soups are also usual at lunchtime;
they are eaten with cupped hands rather than with
utensils. Egusi, a spicy soup containing meat, chilies,
ground dried shrimp, and available greens, is popular.
Another favorite is tuwo da miya, a thick porridge resembling a stew made with meat,
chilies, tomatoes, and onions. 337, 338 Gari, a dish made from cassava, often accompanies
soups. 339
328
Food in Every Country, “Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-SouthAfrica/Nigeria.html
329
Richard Williams, “A Little Culture and Food Tradition of the Hausa of Nigeria,” Yahoo! Voices, 31
December 2008, http://voices.yahoo.com/a-little-culture-food-tradition-hausa-of-2370042.html?cat=22
330
331
332
333
334
Kitchen Butterfly, “Moin-Moin: Steamed Nigerian Bean Cake,” n.d.,
http://www.kitchenbutterfly.com/2010/09/23/moin-moin-steamed-nigerian-bean-cake/
335
336
337
338
339
Kitchen Butterfly, “Moin-Moin: Steamed Nigerian Bean Cake,” n.d.,
http://www.kitchenbutterfly.com/2010/09/23/moin-moin-steamed-nigerian-bean-cake/
© D LI F L C | 43
Exchange 13: What type of meat is this?
Soldier:
What type of meat is this?
Local:
Lamb.
wanan waney irin naama
nee?
naaman ragoo nee
Dinner is generally late and often consists of the same foods served during the midday
meal. 340 Dinner may include two types of tuwo da miya and soups made with okra,
spinach, and pumpkin. 341
Typically, Nigerians do not drink during meals. After a meal, tea is served in three
rounds. For the first round, the tea is unsweetened; for the second, a little sugar is added.
For the final round, the tea is very sweet. This pattern signifies the development of
friendship. Never refuse an offer of tea and never pour your own drink. 342
Dining Etiquette
Lunch and dinner are often served on communal plates.
Food is shared according to gender and age. Young
children often eat from their mother’s plate. Men and
women and children over the age of 7 or 8 dine separately.
The oldest male (or guest if present) is served first,
followed by the other men, then women, and finally the
children. 343, 344
In many Muslim Hausa households, people sit on the floor and eat meals placed on a mat
or low table. Because utensils are not used for eating, a basin for washing may be brought
out before the meal. Never use the left hand to scoop food from the plate, to pass food, or
to receive food. If utensils are available, hold them in the right hand only and keep the
left hand away from the table and the food. Small burps at the end of the meal are an
appropriate indication of satisfaction. 345, 346
340
341
342
Etiquette Scholar, “International Etiquette” Nigeria,” n.d.,
http://www.etiquettescholar.com/dining_etiquette/tableetiquette/africa_west_dinner_etiquette/nigerian.html
343
344
345
346
© D LI F L C | 44
The Hausa believe that eating is a serious and important activity that should not be
trivialized in any way. They do not normally make small talk or lighthearted remarks,
even those complimenting the cook, during a meal. Doing so while eating is known as
santi and is considered boorish. 347, 348, 349
Dress Codes
Dress in the north, especially among the Muslims, is
conservative and modest. 350 Many Muslim women
wear the hijab. 351 Rather than Western-style clothing
worn in the south, Hausa prefer traditional attire that is
colorful and often decorated with elaborate
embroidery. 352 A woman’s typical outfit is a wrapped
skirt (madauri), a blouse (rigarmataor buba), and a
head scarf (adiko). 353, 354, 355 A loose ankle-length dress
may also be worn. 356 Muslim women in the north usually dress far more colorfully than
their southern counterparts. 357
Hausa men often wear elaborate clothing, including long flowing embroidered gowns
(gare, babban, gida). 358, 359 Loose trousers with extra material around the top are worn
under these gowns. These trousers, called agbada, are tied at the waist, and the extra
material is folded across the shoulders in layers. Most men complete the outfit with a
brightly colored embroidered cap (huluna). Men of rank may also wear heavy and
elaborate turbans. 360, 361, 362
347
University of California, Los Angeles, “Mai Jidda Commits Santi!” n.d.,
http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/aflang/Hausa%20culture/culture_frame.html
348
University of California, Los Angeles, “What is ‘Santi’?” n.d.,
http://aflang.humnet.ucla.edu/Hausa%20culture/Eating/santi_explanation.html
349
University of California, Los Angeles, “Answers to Questions about ‘Santi’,” n.d.,
http://aflang.humnet.ucla.edu/Hausa%20culture/Eating/santi_answers.html
350
351
Anita Little, “Unveiling Oppression in Northern Nigeria,” Ms. Blog, 8 March 2011,
352
Ronald G. Parris, Hausa (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1996), 49.
353
Ronald G. Parris, Hausa (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1996), 49.
354
MapsofWorld, “Nigerian Clothing,” 2011, http://www.mapsofworld.com/nigeria/culture/clothing.html
355
Misty Showalter, “Seun Gele: Master of Nigeria’s Gravity-Defying Headgear,” CNN World, 16 June
2010, http://articles.cnn.com/2010-07-16/world/segun.gele.nigeria.headgear_1_nigerian-special-occasionswedding?_s=PM:WORLD
356
Culture Vision, Nigerian: Dress,” 2011,
http://nwmemorial.crculturevision.com/subscribers/groups.aspx?gid=56&cid=55
357
Lizzie Williams, Nigeria, 3rd ed. (Bucks, England: Bradt Travel Guides Ltd., April 2012), 49.
358
Countries and Their Cultures, “Hausa,” 2012, http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-toNigeria/Hausa.html
359
Nigerian-blog, “History of Nigeria,” 2012, http://nigerian-blog.wikispaces.com/
360
National Geographic Traveler, “Nigeria,” n.d., http://traveler.nationalgeographic.com/shoppingguide/africa-text/10
361
Countries and Their Cultures, “Hausa,” 2012, http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-toNigeria/Hausa.html
362
© D LI F L C | 45
Exchange 14: How should I dress?
Soldier:
How should I dress?
Local:
Wear loose-fitting clothes
that cover your body.
wan irin kaaya Ya kamaata
in sakaa?
ka sa kaaya may walwalaa
da zay rufee jikinka
Men and women visiting Nigeria should dress conservatively. 363 Women should avoid
wearing pants. Arms, shoulders, and legs should be covered. Shorts are appropriate only
at beach resorts and for sporting events. 364, 365
Non-Religious Celebrations
Secular holidays celebrated throughout Nigeria include
New Year’s Day (1 January), Labor Day (1 May),
Democracy Day (29 May), National Day (1 October),
and Boxing Day (26 December). 366 Nigerian National
Day marks the nation’s independence, established in
1960. Schools and businesses close so people can attend
some of the many celebrations. Labor Day celebrations
include parades and special seminars and displays of
solidarity with workers around the world. 367 Democracy Day commemorates the nation’s
return to democratic civilian rule. 368, 369 Boxing Day has its origins in Britain where the
wealthy gave gifts to those who worked for them throughout the year. 370 It is a day for
friends, families, and organizations to exchange gifts. 371
Hausa Dance Festival
The Hausa festival of dance is a popular form of village entertainment. Invitations are
issued in the form of kola nuts, which villagers distribute to one another. Drummers use a
different beat to signal each farmer who stands up, shouts loudly, and then breaks into a
363
World Business Culture, “Nigerian Dress Code,” n.d., http://www.worldbusinessculture.com/NigerianBusiness-Dress-Style.html
364
World Travels, “Nigerian Travel Information,” n.d.,
http://www.wordtravels.com/Travelguide/Countries/Nigeria/Basics
365
AbujaCity, “Dress and Social Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.abujacity.com/abuja_and_beyond/dress-andsocial-etiquette.html
366
Q++ Studio, “Nigeria Public Holidays 2012,” 2011,
http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2012/nigeria.htm
367
Nigeria Labour Congress, “May Day! Is Workers [sic] Day!,” n.d.,
http://www.nlcng.org/search_details.php?id=254
368
AllAfrica, “Nigeria: Democracy Day: Balarabe, Ngige, Others Score Jonathan Low,” Moment, 29 May
2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201205290649.html
369
AllAfrica, “Nigeria: Democracy Day: Little Joy, Some Sadness,” Daily Trust, 29 May 2012,
370
Debbie DeSpirit, “Origin of boxing Day,” Suite 101, 5 December 2006,
http://suite101.com/article/origin-of-boxing-day-a10068
371
Comfort Onche, “Nigeria: Boxing Day: Nyanya-Gwandara Residents in Fisticuffs,” AllAfrica, 31
December 2007, http://allafrica.com/stories/200801020235.html
© D LI F L C | 46
song of gratitude. If he knows any magical tricks, he performs them for onlookers. This
celebration provides entertainment and strengthens relationships between villagers who
attend each other’s dance festivals. 372
Argungu Fish and Cultural Festival
This four-day cultural event is held on the banks of the
Sokoto River and represents a celebration of Nigeria’s
cultural heritage. The highlight of the festival occurs
when hundreds of fishermen jump into the river and for
the next hour try to scoop the largest fish for a big cash
prize. Other events at the festival include camel and
donkey racing, a motor rally, musicals, and cultural
dancing. 373, 374
Durbar festivals are also held in northern Nigeria. Once a military celebration showing
loyalty to the emirates, these events come at the end of Eid al-Fitr and the Eid al-Adha
feasts. Prayers begin early in the morning, after which horsemen parade into the public
square. Groups, including the emir and his entourage, then race on horseback across the
square at full gallop with swords drawn. 375, 376
Dos and Don’ts
Do show respect for those older than you, even if their professional status is lower.
Do ask before taking anyone’s photograph.
Do lower your eyes when meeting a senior or elder person as a sign of respect.
Do address people by their titles as a sign of respect.
Don’t use your left hand in dealings with Muslims.
Don’t discuss intimate matters.
Don’t clean your plate; doing so means you want more food. Leaving a little food on the
plate indicates that you are satisfied and have had enough to eat.
372
SIM, “Hausa,” 2012, http://www.sim.org/index.php/content/hausa
BBC News, “Nigeria Bans Fish Festival,” 7 December 2006,
374
Benjamine Chijioke Asogwa, Joseph Chinedu Umeh, and Victoria Ada Okwoche, “The Sociological
and Cultural Significance of the Argungu International Fishing And Cultural Festival in Nigeria,”
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2, no. 11 (June 2012): 243–45,
http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_11_June_2012/27.pdf
375
OnlineNigeria, “Festival in Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.onlinenigeria.com/festivals/
376
CNN, “Kano Durbar Festival in Northern Nigeria,” YouTube, 23 November 2010,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXszmEP7wTw
373
© D LI F L C | 47
Don’t push the palm of your hand forward and spread the fingers; doing so is considered
vulgar.
Don’t raise trivial matters during meal conversation with Hausa.
Don’t rush greetings. Take time to inquire about the person’s well-being.
Don’t mistreat religious symbols, especially the Quran.
© D LI F L C | 48
1. A guest in a Nigerian home is served first.
True
A guest in Nigerian home is served first, followed by the oldest male. If no guest
is present, the oldest male is served first, followed by other men, then women,
then children.
2. The Hausa frequently eat pork .
False
The Hausa are Muslim and do not eat pork. They do eat kebabs made of beef or
goat.
3. The Hausa are quick to show their emotions in public.
False
Hausa people are reserved and quiet in public and value the quality of fara’a
(calm and stoic pleasantness no matter what the situation).
4. Prolonged handshakes are common among the Hausa.
True
Friendly and prolonged greetings are a typical part of Hausa culture. Men often
prolong a handshake throughout initial conversation and inquiries about each
other’s health.
5. Persons of lower status normally avoid direct eye contact with superiors.
True
Persons of lower status should not make direct eye contact with those of higher
status. Doing so is likely to be seen not only as rude but also as confrontational.
© D LI F L C | 49
CHAPTER 4: URBAN LIFE
Introduction
Nigeria is one of the most urbanized African nations.
Nearly half of all Nigerians live in cities. 377, 378
Nigeria’s urban growth rate is one of the fastest in the
world and is not concentrated in a single city or
geographic area. Nearly a dozen cities have
populations over one million people. 379, 380 Many of
these rapidly expanding urban centers, including Kano,
Kaduna, Maiduguri, and Zaria, are in the northern
regions where the Hausa live. 381, 382
Much of Nigeria’s urban growth occurred in the 1970s when millions of rural Nigerians
moved to the cities in search of better jobs and a better life. Unfortunately, many of these
aspirations went unfulfilled, and migrants found that life in the city was not necessarily
better than the rural life they had abandoned. 383 Unprecedented urban growth has created
major environmental, social, and infrastructural problems for the nation. Planning and
development lag far behind growth and demand; poverty rates are high; and adequate
housing is not available. 384, 385
377
C. A. Ayedun, O. D. Duroda, and O. A. Akinjare, “Towards Ensuring Sustainable Urban Growth and
Development in Nigeria: Challenges and Strategies,” Business Management Dynamics 1, no. 2 (August
2011): 102, http://bmdynamics.com/issue_pdf/99_104.pdf
378
379
380
John L. S. Alkali, “Planning Sustainable Urban Growth in Nigeria: Challenges and Strategies”
(presentation at the United Nations Conference on Planning Growth and Sustainable Architecture, 6 June
2005), 2–3, http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/meetings/2005/docs/Alkali.pdf
381
Geonames, “Nigeria: Largest Cities,” n.d., http://www.geonames.org/NG/largest-cities-in-nigeria.html
382
Jamila Abdullahi et al., “Rural-Urban Migration of the Nigerian Work Populace and Climate Change
Effects on Food Supply: A Case Study of Kaduna City in Northern Nigeria” (paper, Fifth Urban
Symposium, 2009), 3,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/3363871256566800920/6505269-1268260567624/Abdullahi.pdf
383
384
John L. S. Alkali, “Planning Sustainable Urban Growth in Nigeria: Challenges and Strategies”
(presentation at the United Nations Conference on Planning Growth and Sustainable Architecture, 6 June
2005), 2, http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/meetings/2005/docs/Alkali.pdf
385
Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, “Chapter 2: Issues and Challenges of Urban and Regional Planning
in Nigeria” (State of Planning Report, 2010), 3, http://www.nitpng.com/pdf%20docs/soplanning.pdf
© D LI F L C | 50
Urbanization
The problems of environmental degradation, poor
infrastructure, and too few jobs will worsen. The
population in the north is growing much faster than in
the south. In northern Nigeria, many women have their
first child by the age of 18, and the average woman has
nearly 7 children. 386 Recently, the U.S. Ambassador to
Nigeria suggested that the high rate of sectarian violence
erupting in the north is directly related to poor
infrastructure and a low standard of living. 387
Water and Sanitation
Access to safe potable water is a major problem in Nigeria. In 2008, only 48% of urban
residents had access to safe water. 388 Nationwide, over one-third of city residents get
their water from tube wells or bore holes. Only about 7% have piped-in water. In the
northern city of Maiduguri, 39% of residents must purchase water from vendors. 389
Access to basic sanitation facilities is also problematic. In 2009, nearly 68% of those
living in Maiduguri relied on pit latrines. 390 Poor water supplies contribute to significant
numbers of deaths from waterborne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, malaria, and
schistosomiasis. 391 Reliable solid-waste collection is almost nonexistent. People dump
refuse wherever space allows. 392
Crime and Violence
Urban crime and violence are linked to high unemployment and poverty. Other factors
contributing to crime are poorly planned and poorly serviced roads. Unmarked and unlit
streets make police response slow and difficult. 393
Militant Islamist groups, most notably the Boko Haram, carry out much of the violence in
the north. Attacks against Christians became especially bloody in 2011 and 2012.
386
Schuyler Null, “Nigeria’s Future Clouded by Oil, Climate Change, and Scarcity [Part Two, The Sahel],”
New Security Beat, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 19 November 2010,
http://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2010/11/nigerias-future-clouded-by-oil-climate-change-and-scarcity-parttwo-the-sahel/
387
James Morrison, “Embassy Row: New York and Nigeria,” Washington Times, 19 July 2012,
http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jul/19/embassy-row-new-york-and-nigeria/?page=all
388
Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, “Water and Sanitation in Nigeria’s Urban Settlements” (State of
Planning Report, 2010), 129, http://www.nitpng.com/pdf%20docs/soplanning.pdf
389
Planning Report, 2010), 126–28, http://www.nitpng.com/pdf%20docs/soplanning.pdf
390
391
392
UN Habitat, “Country Programme Document 2008–2009: Nigeria” (report, 2008), 8,
http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2703
393
UN Habitat, “Country Programme Document 2008–2009: Nigeria” (report, 2008), 6–7,
http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2703
© D LI F L C | 51
Reprisals against the Muslim population have further escalated the violence. 394, 395, 396
The city of Maiduguri, in the state of Borno, is the center of the fighting between security
forces and the Boko Haram. Frequent and sometimes prolonged battles between the two
groups have been ongoing since the latter part of 2011. The Boko Haram are also
particularly active in the cities of Kaduna and Kano. 397
Pollution
Air pollution, largely caused by vehicle traffic, is a
growing problem. Residents must often cover their eyes
and noses to lessen irritation from the high levels of
pollution. Respiratory problems and eye irritations are
common. The worst levels of pollution are in the north,
particularly in Kano, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Bauchi, and
Kaduna. 398, 399
Water pollution is increasing. Uncollected solid waste dumped in streets creates breeding
grounds for disease. The unsafe disposal of industrial toxins lowers groundwater quality.
For example, heavy metals from improperly disposed-of lead batteries leach into soil and
contaminate groundwater. Contamination extends into peri-urban areas and affects
produce grown on urban farms. 400, 401
Urban employment
In 2011, urban unemployment was around 17%, according to Nigeria’s National Bureau
of Statistics. Nearly 42% of young workers (age 15–24) are unemployed; this figure
represents nearly 67% of all the urban unemployed. 402, 403 Youth unemployment, aside
394
Zachary Fillingham, “Terrorism Hits Nigeria,” Geopolitical Monitor, 3 August 2009,
http://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/africa-terrorism-hits-northern-nigeria-august-3-2009-2448/
395
Russia Today, “Religious Violence Claims 52 Lives in Nigeria,” 18 June 2012,
http://rt.com/news/nigeria-christian-muslim-violence-051/
396
Victor Ulasi, “More Clashes in Northern Nigeria After Violence Kills 101,” Google News, 20 June
2012,
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hkNqRSpTQaHEtbb9Uxx9N0UOD2ig?docId=CN
G.03a07b9823792a080c03447fb210148d.21
397
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Government of Canada, “Travel Report: Nigeria,” 17
August 2012, http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=218000
398
S. I. Efe, “Spatial Distribution of Particulate Air Pollution in Nigerian Cities: Implications for Human
Health,” Journal of Environmental Health Research 7, no. 2 (2008),
http://www.cieh.org/jehr/jehr3.aspx?id=14688
399
O. Oguntoke and A. S. Yussef, “Air Pollution Arising From Vehicular Emissions and the Associated
Human Health Problems in Abeokuta Metropolis, Nigeria,” Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Sciences,
Environment, and Technology 8, no. 2 (2008):121,
http://www.unaab.edu.ng/journal/index.php/Agriculture_Environment/article/view/55/59
400
O. T. Oyeku and A. O. Eludoyin, “Heavy Metal Contamination of Groundwater Resources in a Nigerian
Urban Settlement,” African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 4, no. 4 (April 2010): 201,
206, http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajest/article/viewFile/56352/44790
401
Roy Maconachie, “Surface Water Quality and Periurban Food Production in Kano, Nigeria,” Urban
Agriculture Magazine, no. 20 (September 2008), 22–24,
http://www.ruaf.org/sites/default/files/UAM%2020%20-%20pagina%2022-24.pdf
402
Emeka Emmanuel Okafor, “Youth Unemployment and Implications for Stability of Democracy in
Nigeria,” Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 13, no. 1 (2011): 363, http://www.jsd© D LI F L C | 52
from the obvious economic losses and difficulties, is a concern because many turn to
crime as a way of making a living. Unemployed youth are vulnerable to recruitment by
various political and religious entities. In the northern states, this age group may
represent a serious destabilizing force. 404
The growing preference of Nigeria’s young workers for more desirable white-collar jobs
has further escalated unemployment. 405 Because high-skill professional jobs are scarce,
increasing numbers of university graduates often settle for low-skill jobs, which makes it
difficult for those with less education to find meaningful work. 406 A weakening and
collapsing manufacturing sector in the urban area offers little hope of employment or of
economic recovery, especially in the near term. 407
Healthcare
Northern Nigeria’s poor healthcare infrastructure results in substandard care, which gives
patients little confidence in the medical system. National life expectancy is 52 years;
expectancy for women is slightly higher than for men, 55 and 49 years, respectively. 408
Only 15 countries have higher infant mortality rates and only 9 rank lower in maternal
mortality. 409 Diseases such as tetanus, cholera, and polio (under control in most parts of
the world) kill many Nigerians yearly. 410, 411, 412, 413
africa.com/Jsda/V13No1_Spring2011_A/PDF/Youth%20Unemployment%20and%20Implications%20For
%20Stability%20of%20Democracy%20%28Okafor%29.pdf
403
House Foreign Assistance Committee, Subcommittee on African Affairs, “U.S. Policy Toward Nigeria:
West Africa’s Troubled Titan” (Testimony of U.S. Agency for International Development, Assistant
Administrator for Africa, Earl Gast, 10 July 2012), http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/HHRG-112-FA16WState-GastE-20120710.pdf
404
Nigeria,” Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 13, no. 1 (2011): 367–8, http://www.jsdafrica.com/Jsda/V13No1_Spring2011_A/PDF/Youth%20Unemployment%20and%20Implications%20For
405
Business Day, “Survey Shows Nigeria’s Unemployment Rate at 23.9% in 2011,” 25 January 2012,
http://businessdayonline.com/NG/index.php/economic-watch/32204-survey-shows-nigeriasunemployment-rate-at-239-in-2011406
Vincent Ochonma, “Nigeria’s Unemployment Challenge,” The Tide, 16 February 2011,
http://www.thetidenewsonline.com/2011/02/16/nigeria%E2%80%99s-unemployment-challenge/
407
Nigeria,” Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 13, no. 1 (2011): 364–5, http://www.jsdafrica.com/Jsda/V13No1_Spring2011_A/PDF/Youth%20Unemployment%20and%20Implications%20For
408
409
410
Jennifer G. Cooke and Farha Tahir, “Polio in Nigeria: The Race to Eradication” (report for Center for
Strategic and International Studies Global Health Policy Center, February 2012), 1,
http://csis.org/files/publication/120210_Cooke_PolioNigeria_Web.pdf
411
HSBC Expat, “Healthcare in Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.expatarrivals.com/nigeria/healthcare-in-nigeria
412
United States Government Interagency Team, “Nigeria Global Health Initiative Strategy: 2010–2015”
(report, 2011), 9, http://www.ghi.gov/documents/organization/175543.pdf
413
Africa on the Blog, “Healthcare in Nigeria: Medicine in a Container Clinic,” 6 July 2012,
http://www.africaontheblog.com/healthcare-in-nigeria-medicine-in-a-container-clinic/
© D LI F L C | 53
Public healthcare offered through the National Health Insurance
Scheme is inadequate, so private hospitals provide most
healthcare (70%). 414, 415 Northern Nigerians, including the
Hausa, have less access to healthcare than southern residents. 416,
417
Healthcare standards in hospitals and clinics are low. Staff
members are poorly trained, equipment is lacking, and sanitation
conditions (particularly sterilization of equipment and supplies)
are poor. Hospitals require payment in cash at the time services
are rendered. 418, 419 Hospitals, doctors, and nurses cluster near
urban centers. 420
It is difficult to get safe and reliable medications, even prescription medications, in
Nigeria. Counterfeit drugs often find their way into the supply chain. Travelers should
bring their own supplies of over-the-counter medicines, including aspirin and cold
medications, along with any necessary prescription medications, and avoid trying to get
them in Nigeria. 421
Exchange 15: Is there a hospital nearby?
Soldier:
Is there a hospital nearby?
Local:
Yes, in the center of town.
akwey asibitee nan kusaa?
akwey, chan TSakiyar
garee
Religious sensitivities hinder some preventive measures. For example, in 2003 the World
Health Organization campaign came to Kano to vaccinate children against polio. The
city’s Muslim religious leaders claimed doctors contaminated the vaccine with drugs that
would make African women, particularly Muslims, infertile. 422, 423
414
AllAfrica, “Nigeria: Experts Score Healthcare System Low on World Health Day,” 7 April 2012,
415
National Health Insurance Scheme, Government of Nigeria, “What Is NHIS?” 2012,
http://www.nhis.gov.ng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46:national-health-insurancescheme&catid=34:home
416
BBC, “Nigeria: A Nation Divided,” 4 April 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12893448
417
Olanrewaju Olaniyan and Akanni O. Lawanson, “Health Expenditure and Health Status in Northern and
Southern Nigeria: A Comparative Analysis Using NHA Framework” (paper presented at the 2010 CSAE
Conference, St. Catherine College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, march 2010), 2–3, 6–7,
http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/conferences/2010-EDiA/papers/451-Lawanson.pdf
418
Overseas Security Advisory Council, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department of State, “Nigeria
2012 OSAC Crime and Safety Report: Abuja,” 16 February 2012,
https://www.osac.gov/pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=12004
419
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U. S. Department of State, “Nigeria: Country Specific Information,” 16 July
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#medical
420
United States Government Interagency Team, “Nigeria Global Health Initiative Strategy: 2010–2015,”
(report, 2011), 11, http://www.ghi.gov/documents/organization/175543.pdf
421
422
BBC News, “Kano: Nigeria’s Ancient City-State,” 20 May 2004,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3708309.stm
© D LI F L C | 54
Education
Few northern Nigerians are well educated. In eight
northern states, the illiteracy rate for men is 54%. Female
illiteracy in these states averages 80% but soars to 94% in
the state of Jigawa. More than 67% of women 15 to 19
years old are unable to read a sentence. 424 In 2004, to
address the alarming rates of illiteracy and provide free
education to all children in the nation, the government
passed the Universal Basic Education act. Nine years of
education are compulsory (six years of primary school and three years of secondary
school). In spite of recent attempts, only about 70% of children complete primary school;
about 46% continue on to secondary school, but fewer than 30% actually complete it. 425,
426, 427
Northern Nigeria has the lowest rates of school attendance in the country; 40% to 50% of
children do not attend any school. 428 Throughout Nigeria, girls are less likely to attend
school. In the north, this trend is even more severe, with 60% of all school-age girls not
going to school. 429, 430, 431 Of those who do attend, only 3% complete secondary
school. 432
Urban children, regardless of sex, are more likely to attend secondary schools than their
rural counterparts, even though there are severe shortages of schools and teachers in the
423
Schuyler Null, “Nigeria’s Future Clouded by Oil, Climate Change, and Scarcity [Part Two, The Sahel],”
NewSecurityBeat, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 19 November 2010,
http://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2010/11/nigerias-future-clouded-by-oil-climate-change-and-scarcity-parttwo-the-sahel/
424
Department for International Development, “Operational Plan 2011–2015: Nigeria Operational Plan
Annex; Gender Strategy” (report, updated June 2012), 1 (of Annex),
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/documents/publications1/op/nigeria-2011.pdf
425
Osei Tutu Agyeman, “ICT for Education in Nigeria” (survey, Nigeria country report, June 2007), 3,
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CGUQFjAD&url=http%3
A%2F%2Fwww.infodev.org%2Fen%2FDocument.422.pdf&ei=VGIuUJbZFZTYyAHHoYGACA&usg=A
FQjCNGyj6zkHVOpj9VQO6OGt6uHqJCHNQ&sig2=MjTd1cOBDvbNdjqtkG0vVQ
426
UNICEF, “Nigeria: Education,” n.d., http://www.unicef.org/nigeria/children_1937.html
427
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, “Global Education Digest 2011: Comparing Education Statistics
Across the World” (report, 2011), 19, 23, 48, http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/ged-2011en.pdf
428
Nasir Mohammed Baba, “Islamic Schools, The Ulama, and the State in Educational Development of
Northern Nigeria,” Bulletin de l’APAD, 33 (2011): 1, http://apad.revues.org/4092
429
430
Across the World” (report, 2011), 48, 110, 130, 140, http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/ged2011-en.pdf
431
Department for International Development, “Operational Plan 2011–2015: DFID Nigeria” (report,
updated June 2012), 2, http://www.dfid.gov.uk/documents/publications1/op/nigeria-2011.pdf
432
Department for International Development, “Operational Plan 2011–2015: Nigeria Operational Plan
Annex; Gender Strategy” (report, updated June 2012), 1,
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/documents/publications1/op/nigeria-2011.pdf
© D LI F L C | 55
cities. 433 These shortages, in combination with a crisis of confidence in state-sponsored
education, have, however, prompted considerable growth in the numbers of Quranic
schools.. 434, 435, 436
Secular subjects such as science, education, and languages make up 70% of the Nigerian
national curriculum; 30% of the curriculum focuses on Arab/Islamic education. In the
Quranic schools, the situation is reversed: 70% of the curriculum is dedicated to
Arabic/Islamic study, with emphasis on creating a strong Islamic identity. 437, 438 Many of
the students reported as being non-attendees in public schools may be enrolled in these
religious schools. 439 In some cases, the curriculum of the Quranic schools is combined
with the traditional Hausa folk beliefs to justify jihadist political agendas that include not
enrolling in state schools, rejection of modern medical treatment such as immunization,
and denial of children’s and women’s rights. 440
Restaurants
Most restaurants in northern Nigeria serve local fare
rather than international cuisine, although Chinese,
Indian, Arabic and Turkish meals are available. 441, 442
Nigerian fast-food chains serve fried chicken,
hamburgers, and meat pies. Bakeries often sell cold
beverages, ice cream, and meat pies, in addition to the
expected bread and cakes. 443
433
Across the World” (report, 2011), 19, 23, 48, http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/ged-2011en.pdf
434
435
Muhammad S. Umar, “Profiles of New Islamic Schools in Northern Nigeria” (paper, Department of
Religious Studies, Arizona State University, n.d.), 1–3,
http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/Profiles_of_Islamic_Schools.pdf
436
Northern Nigeria,” Bulletin de l’APAD, 33(2011):14–15, http://apad.revues.org/4092
437
Religious Studies, Arizona State University, n.d.), 17, 21,
438
Religious Studies, Arizona State University, n.d.), 14–17,
439
440
441
442
JourneyMart, Nigeria: Eating Out in Nigeria,” 2012, http://www.journeymart.com/de/nigeria/eatingout/default.aspx
443
© D LI F L C | 56
Exchange 16: I would like coffee or tea.
Soldier:
I would like coffee or tea.
Local:
Sure.
Exchange 17: Are you still serving breakfast?
Soldier:
Are you still serving
breakfast?
Local:
Yes.
inaa son gahaawa ko
shaayee
to
har Yanz akwaree karin
kumalo?
ey
Although prohibited under shari’a law, alcohol is available at some hotels and bars in
urban centers. Establishments on federal property can also sell alcohol, and there are bars
in many of the national parks. 444
Exchange 18: What ingredients are used to make tsiren?
Soldier:
What ingredients are used
da me akey yin TSiren?
to make tsiren?
Local:
Meat, chilies, tomato and
naman rago da akey
coriander.
hadawa da Yajee, albasa da
gishiree
Exchange 19: The meal was very good.
Soldier:
The meal was very good.
Local:
Next time the food will be
better.
abinchin Yayee dadee
abinchin na gaba maa zay
fowanan dadee
When ready to leave a restaurant, customers should inform the waiter by discreetly
raising a hand or making eye contact. It is impolite to call waiters by their names or wave
to get their attention. 445 On busy nights, waiters may bring the bill before it is
requested. 446 Sharing a table with strangers is common practice. Do not feel obligated to
start a conversation with tablemates. Act as if you are seated at a private table.
Exchange 20: I’d like some hot soup.
Soldier:
I’d like some hot soup.
Local:
Sure.
inaa son roman sha may
zaapee
to
444
Etiquette Scholar, “International Dining Etiquette: Nigeria,” 2011,
446
Punch, “Eating Out and Its Rules,” 8 July 2012, http://www.punchng.com/spice/etiquette/eating-outand-its-rules/
445
© D LI F L C | 57
Exchange 21: Do you have a dessert?
Soldier:
Do you have a dessert?
Local:
Yes, we have fura and
nono.
kana da kwalama?
akwey puraa da nunoo
The person extending an invitation to dine out is expected to pick up the tab. 447 A tip of
10% is acceptable; make sure that this amount is not already included in the bill. 448
Exchange 22: May I have a glass of water?
Soldier:
May I have a glass of
water?
Local:
Yes, sir!
Exchange 23: Can I have my total bill, please?
Soldier:
Can I have my total bill,
please?
Local:
Yes, sir!
ko zan samu gilaashin
rowan sha?
za asaamu, meygira!
zaaka gayamin ko nawa
nee kudin da zan beeya
bakee daya?
ey, meygira!
Roadside stalls (buka) are the best place for finding good Nigerian food, especially suya,
which is meat roasted with oil, onions, and salt on an open heat basin. 449, 450 Few
individuals make suya at home because the Suya people, from the Hausa tribe, make it so
well. 451
Exchange 24: Put this all on one bill.
Soldier:
Put this all on one bill.
Local:
Okay.
Exchange 25: Where is your restroom?
Soldier:
Where is your restroom?
Local:
That room to your left,
over there.
za abya duk wana a hadee
nee.
ey, Yayee dadee
inaa awrin bahayarku?
wanchan dakin nee, daga
geypin hagu
447
Etiquette Scholar, “International Dining Etiquette: Nigeria,” 2011,
448
iExplore, “Nigeria Travel Guide: Tipping,” 2012, http://www.iexplore.com/travelguide/africa/nigeria/culture
449
Edward Popoola, “Nigerian Suya,” Global Voices, 20 September 2005,
http://www.globalvoicesonline.org/2005/09/20/nigerian-suya/
450
Margo Hermann and Roma Patel, “Nigeria,” n.d., http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~rpatel/
451
Chloe Diski, “Nigerian Culture Revolves Around Food,” Guardian, 10 June 2001,
http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,502663,00.html
© D LI F L C | 58
Markets
Northern Nigeria is full of markets, rather than shopping malls. Shoppers can buy
virtually anything from street vendors on nearly everywhere. Some malls and upscale
shopping centers have opened up, mostly in southern Nigeria or in the capital of
Abuja. 452
Exchange 26: How much longer will you be here?
Soldier:
How much longer will you
be here?
Local:
Three more hours.
zaaka dadee ana?
zan kaara aawa ukoo
Shoppers should bargain except in shops where the
prices are fixed. The Hausa have their own culturally
accepted methods of bargaining. Typically, Hausa sellers
expect buyers to start with a price equal to about onethird of the asking price; both parties then go back and
forth until they agree. If a deal cannot be struck, a buyer
walks away. 453
Shops usually open around 8 a.m. and close around 5 p.m., Monday to Friday. A few may
be open limited hours on Saturday. Local markets are open longer hours, from 8 a.m. to 7
p.m., and there are night markets that do not close until midnight. Friday is the Muslim
day of rest, but Christian-run businesses frequently stay open on Friday. 454
Exchange 27: May I examine this close up?
Soldier:
May I examine this close
up?
Sure.
zan ey duba wanan da kil?
sosey manaa
Exchange 28: Can I buy a carpet with this much money?
Soldier:
Can I buy a carpet with this wanan kudin zey eya saya
much money?
min dar dooma?
Local:
No.
aa-aa
Money, Credit Cards, and ATMs
Nigeria’s currency is the naira (currency symbol N). In
August 2012, one USD was equal to approximately N
157. 455 Foreign currency other than U.S. dollars is
relatively difficult to exchange at banks. Trading money
on the black market, or at unofficial exchange facilities,
452
Lizzie Williams, Nigeria, 3rd ed. (Bucks, England: Bradt Travel Guides Ltd., April 2012), 102–3.
454
455
Oanda, “Currency Converter,” 16 August 2012, http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/
453
© D LI F L C | 59
is illegal but mostly tolerated. Money changers are likely to be Hausa. Large hotels can
also change money. 456, 457
Exchange 29: Do you accept U.S. currency?
Soldier:
Do you accept U.S.
currency?
Local:
No, we only accept naira.
Exchange 30: Can you give me change for this?
Soldier:
Can you give me change
for this?
Local:
No.
kuna karbar kudin amurka?
aa-aa, naira ko muk karba
zaaka ey chanja min wana?
aa-aa
ATMs are available in Nigerian cities. Some work with VISA cards, but using the
machines is not advised because of the high rates of credit card fraud. Credit cards are not
widely accepted. 458, 459
Exchange 31: Is the market nearby?
Soldier:
Is the market nearby?
Local:
Yes, over there on the
right.
Exchange 32: Please, buy something from me.
Local:
Please, buy something
from me.
Soldier:
Sorry, I have no money
left.
kasuwar bajey kolin tana
kusaa?
ey, a chen daga daama
don alah, zo ka sey wanaa
abu daga wurinaa
key hakuree kudina Yaa
kaaree
Traffic and Transportation
Although buses, minibuses, and taxis operate in urban
centers, Nigeria’s transportation remains
underdeveloped. 460, 461 The government is working to
improve and expand the public transportation
infrastructure. In 2010 a mass transit project of N 10
456
Lonely Planet, “Nigeria: Money and Costs,” 2012, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/nigeria/practicalinformation/money-costs
458
iExplore, “Nigerian Travel Guide: Shopping,” http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/Nigeria/Shopping
459
460
Embassy of Nigeria, “Embassy Homepage: Public Transport in Nigeria,” 2012,
http://nigeria.embassyhomepage.com/nigerian_railway_nigeria_bus_abuja_airport_taxi_nigeria_domestic_
airports_nigeria_ferries_nigerian_motorway.htm
461
Lonely Planet, “Nigeria: Getting There and Around,” 2012,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/nigeria/transport/getting-around
457
© D LI F L C | 60
billion was launched. 462
Cars
Drivers in Nigeria must have a Nigerian driver’s license. The police do not recognize
international driving licenses. Driving throughout Nigeria is unsafe. Police seldom
enforce traffic laws, roads are in a state of general disrepair, and traffic signals often fail
to work.
Exchange 33: Where can I rent a car?
Soldier:
Where can I rent a car?
Local:
Downtown.
inaa zan saamoo hayar
mota?
a tikin garee
There are about 400 traffic fatalities every month. Many accidents involve buses and
commercial vehicles. Gridlock in urban areas is common. Chronic fuel shortages
frequently cause long lines at gasoline stations. Travel by car should always take place
during daylight hours, even in cities. Drivers stopped for violations may be subject to
bribes demanded by traffic officers. 463, 464
Exchange 34: Which road leads to the airport?
Soldier:
Which road leads to the
airport?
Local:
The road heading east.
wacha haanya ke zuwa
pilin jirgin sama?
haanyar da tayee gabas
Public Transportation
Various forms of public transportation, including buses
and motorbike taxis (okadas), exist but should be avoided
because of safety concerns. Taxi passengers have been
driven to isolated locations and then robbed or beaten. 465,
466
462
Chinemne Okafor, “Nigeria: N10 Billion Public Mass Transit Programme Takes Off,” AllAfrica, 28
September 2010, http://allafrica.com/stories/201009290347.html
463
464
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Nigeria: Country Specific Information,” 16 July
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#traffic_safety
465
466
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#traffic_safety
© D LI F L C | 61
Exchange 35: Can I share this cab with you?
Soldier:
Can I share this cab with
you?
Local:
No, wait for another.
zaamu eya shiga taksee din
taarida key?
aa-aa, ka jira wata motar
Exchange 36: Can you take me there?
Soldier:
Can you take me there?
Local:
Yes, I can.
zaaka ey key nee cha?
ey, zan ya
In the predominantly Muslim states, taxis and buses must be designated as being for men
or women. Taxis for women are identified by the pictures of veiled women on the
sides. 467
Plane travel also has an unsafe history. Several plane crashes and near misses have killed
hundreds of travelers in recent years. Although improvements have been made, security
at airfields and airports remains poor. 468
Street Crime, Safety, and Solicitations
Crime rates throughout Nigeria are extremely high.
Kidnappings, murder, armed robbery, carjackings, and
home invasions are common. Potential victims in such
situations should not resist. Attackers are known to
resort to violence. Foreign nationals are often targets of
criminal behavior and should be particularly vigilant. 469
Because of ongoing and escalating violence, travelers
are advised to avoid most of the northern region. 470, 471
Criminal and terrorist groups make frequent threats in the northern states of Gombe,
Yobe, Bauchi, Borno, and Kano. The militant Jihadist group, Boko Haram, is currently
carrying out violence against Christians and is credited with a number of suicide
bombings and fatal attacks at a series of churches and markets. 472, 473, 474
467
Alaine S. Hutson, “Gender, Mobility, and Shari’a,” ISIM Newsletter November 2002,
https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16821/ISIM_11_Gender_Mobility_and_Sharica.pdf
?sequence=1
468
469
470
471
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#safety
472
Paul Ohia and John Shiklam, “Nigeria: Boko Haram in Possible Talks with Government,” AllAfrica, 15
August 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201208150298.html
© D LI F L C | 62
Both individuals and gangs engage in violent crimes. There are reports of criminals
masquerading as uniformed police and military personnel. Police respond slowly, if at all,
to reports of criminal activity and have been known to shake down Nigerian locals and
provide little to no help to expatriate victims. 475
Exchange 37: Did these people threaten you?
Soldier:
Did these people threaten
you?
Local:
No.
wadanan mutaanin sun yee
makaa barazaana nee?
aa-aa
Be aware that special permission is required to videotape or photograph any bridges,
government buildings, and airports. Persons taking photos can be arrested and detained
even though restricted sites may not be marked. Penalties and criminal charges can be
leveled even against individuals with prior authorization from the Nigerian State Security
Services. 476
Beggars
In recent years, the number of beggars on the streets of the
northern Nigeria has grown dramatically. Beggars frequent
markets, religious centers, and intersections. 477 Many of the
beggars in the Islamic north are children. Some are students in
Quranic schools, sent out to beg by teachers who do not have
enough money to feed them. 478, 479, 480 Statistics show that 30% of
Nigerian children under the age of 14 are street beggars. 481 Not all
beggars are children, however. Some are actually opportunistic
criminals looking for a chance to commit a crime. Others are well473
CNN, “At Least 50 Dead in Three Nigeria Church Bombings, Reprisal Attacks,” 17 June 2012,
http://articles.cnn.com/2012-06-17/africa/world_africa_nigeria-church-bombings_1_car-bomb-bokoharam-church-bombings?_s=PM:AFRICA
474
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#safety
475
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#crime
476
2012, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_987.html#special_circumstance
477
David Victor Ogunkan, “Begging and Almsgiving in Nigeria: The Islamic Perspective,” International
Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 3, no. 4 (April 2011): 128,
http://www.academicjournals.org/ijsa/PDF/pdf2011/April/Victor.pdf
478
Abdullahi Muhammed, “The Almajiris: Nigeria’s Child Beggars,” African Outlook Online, 2011,
http://www.africanoutlookonline.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2942:thealmajiris-nigerias-child-beggars&catid=96:allcomers&Itemid=54
479
BBC, “Child Beggars of Nigeria’s Koranic Schools,” 23 December 2008,
480
Hassana Zubairu Dagona, “Beggars Life in the Society (Almajiranci),” Desert Herald, 9 May 2012,
http://desertherald.com/?p=1285
481
Hassan Ibrahim, “Unending Plight of the Almajiri,” Nigerian Tribune, 20 April 2012,
http://odili.net/news/source/2012/apr/20/604.html
© D LI F L C | 63
dressed individuals for whom begging is a profession. 482, 483 Most of the beggars are
Muslims and many are Hausa who see begging as an acceptable way of life. 484
Exchange 38: Give me money.
Local:
Give me money.
Soldier:
I don’t have any.
baanu kudee
baana da kudee
Because there are few Western tourists in Nigeria, begging is generally aimed at other
Nigerians. 485 Individual responses to beggars vary. Pious Muslims believe it a religious
duty to give alms to the needy. Others simply give bothersome beggars a small sum to get
them to go away. 486, 487
482
O. A. Fawole, D. V. Ogunkan, and A. Omoruan, “The Menace of Begging in Nigerian Cities: A
Sociological Analysis,” International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 3, no. 1, (January 2011): 10–
11,
http://www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/fawoleoa/The%20menace%20of%20begging%20in%20Nigerian
%20cities%20fawole%20et%20al.pdf
483
Aliyu A. Ammani, “Street Begging: Exposing the Bankruptcy of Blatant Paying of Lip Service,” Gamji,
n.d., http://www.gamji.com/article8000/NEWS8196.htm
484
485
486
487
© D LI F L C | 64
1. Nigeria is one of the most urbanized African nations.
True
Nigeria is one of the most urbanized African nations. Nearly half of all Nigerians
live in cities. Many urban centers, including Kano, Kaduna, Maiduguri, and
Zaria, are located in the northern regions where the Hausa live.
2. Fewer than half of Nigeria’s city residents have access to safe water.
True
Access to safe water and basic sanitation facilities is a problem in Nigeria. In
2008, only 48% of urban residents had access to safe water.
3. Healthcare in urban areas is generally of good quality.
False
Standards of healthcare in hospitals and clinics are well below Western standards.
Staff members are poorly trained, equipment is lacking, and sanitation is poor.
4. Since the passage of the Universal Basic Education act in 2004, more than half of
Nigeria’s children complete secondary school.
False
In spite of these attempts to improve educational access and reduce illiteracy, only
about 70% of Nigeria’s children complete primary school requirements; 46%
continue on to secondary school, but fewer than 30% actually complete it.
5. The Hausa have an established way of bargaining.
True
The Hausa have their own culturally accepted methods of bargaining. Typically,
Hausa sellers expect buyers to start with a price equal to about one-third of the
asking price; both parties then go back and forth until they agree.
© D LI F L C | 65
CHAPTER 5: RURAL LIFE
Introduction
Hausaland’s rural population engages in traditional ways
of life. The Hausa’s strict habits closely follow Muslim
precepts. 488 They live in age-old villages surrounded by
constellations of smallholder farms. Extended families
work the land for subsistence, and sell their excess crops
for cash. Men toil in the fields while women, following
Muslim rules of seclusion, prepare food and maintain the
households. 489
As the population exploded, farmers clung to traditional—and inefficient—agricultural
practices. 490 Now they struggle to produce enough to support their laborers and their
families. School attendance is extremely low in the rural north, and schools are
predominantly Quranic: they teach religion but not occupational knowledge. 491
Government efforts to promote agricultural modernization have been ineffective,
mismanaged, or undermined by corruption. 492 Thus, in spite of possessing expanses of
arable land, the nation is forced to import billions of dollars of food every year. 493
The decreasing viability of the smallholder farm has led to a long-term migration of
workers, generally young, from the country to the city. 494 The north is a land of gigantic,
dusty cities amidst a withering rural landscape.
Land Tenure
The history of land tenure in northern Nigeria is complex and incompletely understood.
Practices based on disparate bodies of law have evolved through distinct historical eras;
and concepts of property and ownership differ in Hausa and Western traditions. 495, 496
488
Polly Hill, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (London: Cambridge University Press, 1972).
490
Akinwumi Adesina, “Unlocking the Potential of Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Nigeria’s
Transformation Agenda for Agriculture” (paper presented at Symposium on “Growing Food: New Places,
New Technologies,” Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, 17 April 2012): ,
http://www.sais-jhu.edu/agriculture/Presentation%203_Akin%20Adesina_SSA.pdf
491
Joe A. McIntyre, “An Overview of Education in Northern Nigeria: Attempted from the Perspective of
Qur’anic Education,” Afrika Spectrum 17, no. 1 (1982): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/40174051
492
David Hecht, “Little Holds Nigeria Back from Food Crisis,” Washington Post, 2 August 2009,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/02/AR2009080202091.html
493
Malachy Agbo, “How Nigeria Can Make Agriculture Blossom,” This Day Live, 4 Dec 2011,
http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/how-nigeria-can-make-agriculture-blossom/104218/
494
Steve Onyeiwu, Eric Pallant, and Meredith Hanlon, “Sustainable and Unsustainable Agriculture in
Ghana and Nigeria: 1960–2009,” in Ecosystems and Sustainable Development 8, eds. Y. Villacampa and C.
A. Brebbia (Ashurst, Southampton, UK: WIT Press, 2011), 211–222.
495
Steven Pierce, Farmers and the State in Colonial Kano: Land Tenure and the Legal Imagination
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 81.
489
© D LI F L C | 66
Under the Muslim law observed by the Sokoto Caliphate, land belonged to the emir, and
occupants effectively paid taxes in the form of tribute. 497 The British sought to substitute
the Crown for the emir, and received protests from the natives. In effect, land remained
community property and the rights of ordinary farmers remained unchanged. 498
Under one theory, the abolition of slavery in Hausaland
in the early years of colonial rule spurred a transition
from large slave-labor plantations to the smaller family
farm model that still predominates. 499, 500 Increasing
populations also led to the progressive subdivision of
farms. 501
The Nigerian government has revised the land tenure
law twice since independence (1962 and 1978). 502, 503 Under the current system, land
remains community property but occupants hold long-term leases of up to 99 years. 504
Rural Economy
In 1960, at independence, Nigeria’s population was 45 million. It was a major exporter of
agricultural products: peanuts, palm oil, cotton, and cocoa. 505, 506 The current population
496
Abdul Raufu Mustapha and Kate Meagher, “Agrarian Production, Public Policy and the State in Kano
Region, 1900–2000,” Drylands Research, 2000,
http://www.drylandsresearch.org.uk/pdfs/WP_Mustapha_Policy.pdf
497
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).
498
Polly Hill, “From Slavery to Freedom: The Case of Farm-Slavery in Nigerian Hausaland,” Comparative
Studies in Society and History 18, no. 3 (July 1976): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/178344
499
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 54.
500
Abdul Raufu Mustapha and Kate Meagher, “Agrarian Production, Public Policy and the State in Kano
Region, 1900–2000,” Drylands Research, 2000,
http://www.drylandsresearch.org.uk/pdfs/WP_Mustapha_Policy.pdf
501
David W. Norman, David H. Pryor, and Christopher J. N. Gibbs, “Technical Change and the Small
Farmer in Hausaland, Northern Nigeria,” African Rural Economy Paper No. 21, African Rural Economy
Program, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1979,
http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Working%20Papers/AREP/AREP21/AREP21.pdf
502
Online Nigeria, “Land Use Policies Since 1960,” n.d., http://www.onlinenigeria.com/land/?blurb=529
503
C. M. McDowell, “The Interpretation of the Land Tenure Law of Northern Nigeria,” Journal of African
Law 14, no. 3 (Autumn 1970): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/744582
504
David W. Norman, David H. Pryor and Christopher J. N. Gibbs, “Technical Change and the Small
Farmer in Hausaland, Northern Nigeria,” African Rural Economy Paper No. 21, African Rural Economy
Program, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1979,
http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Working%20Papers/AREP/AREP21/AREP21.pdf
505
Trading Economics, “Nigeria Population,” August 2012,
http://www.tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/population
506
© D LI F L C | 67
of 170 million is projected to double by 2050. 507, 508 But agricultural productivity has
stagnated or declined since the 1960s. 509 Despite an abundance of arable land, Nigeria
imports USD $8 billion of food a year (principally wheat, rice, sugar, and fish), an
amount that grew by an unsustainable 11% in one year. 510
Numerous reasons account for the continuing decline of
the agricultural sector. Nigeria’s soils are not conducive
to productive agriculture; overfarming and overgrazing
eroded the land. Rainfall is irregular, particularly in the
more agricultural north. The rainy season is shortening
and total rainfall is declining, while the intensity of
rainfalls is increasing and contributing to soil erosion. 511
The biggest shortcoming is Nigeria’s failure to
modernize. About 90% of Nigeria’s agricultural output comes from inefficient small
farms of 3 acres or less. 512, 513 Farmers still employ organic farming and rotation of crops
and plots, which are time-honored and time-consuming methods that no longer generate
enough income to support the requisite labor force, and often does not produce enough
food to feed the laborers’ families. This fueled long-term migration to urban areas. In
1961, 83% of Nigeria’s population lived in rural areas; as of 2010, only 50% did. 514, 515
Exchange 39: Where do you work, sir?
Soldier:
Where do you work, sir?
Local:
I am a farmer, sir.
aa inaa kakey aaykee?
nee manomee nee
Nigeria lags in most measures of agricultural competiveness. Yield per hectare, a
standard metric, is 20% to 50% of that in similar developing nations; its annual growth
507
508
Crusoe Osagie, “Nigeria May Not Survive 2050 Projected Population Explosion,” This Day Live
(Nigeria), 28 August 2012, http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigeria-may-not-survive-2050-projectedpopulation-explosion/123356/
509
New Technologies,” Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, 17 April 2012,):
, http://www.sais-jhu.edu/agriculture/Presentation%203_Akin%20Adesina_SSA.pdf
510
Heather Murdock, “Nigeria Seeks to Become Food Exporter,” Voice of America, 29 April 2012,
http://www.voanews.com/content/nigeria-seeks-to-become-food-exporter-149510825/370441.html
511
512
David Hecht, “Little Holds Nigeria Back from Food Crisis,” Washington Post, 2 August 2009,
513
514
515
© D LI F L C | 68
rate in yield from 1961–2008 was an abysmal 1.2%. Nigeria’s 10 tractors per 1,000
hectares is a tiny fraction of Indonesia’s 241. Only 0.8% of Nigeria’s arable land is
irrigated, compared to 28% in Thailand. Nigerian farmers utilize 13 kg of fertilizer per
hectare, and 5% of their seeds are modern varieties, whereas those rates for Asia are 150
kg and 60%. 516
Ineffective Solutions
The federal government underfunds initiatives that are
also ineffective. 517 For example, construction of the Zobe
Dam in northern Katsina State, a USD $122 million
project to provide drinking water and irrigation for
farming, began in the late 1970s. Irrigation from the dam
would have compensated for erratic rainfall, but the dam
remains uncompleted. Because of its underutilization,
uncompleted channels have begun to collapse, iron
structures are rusting, and the site has been “taken over by
reptiles.” 518, 519
Corruption infects government initiatives. In 2008, Governor Sambo, of northern Kaduna
State, purchased 70,000 tons of soil fertilizer for direct sale to smallholder farmers at a
subsidized price. But most of the fertilizer fell into the hands of state officials, political
party chiefs, and campaign managers; from there, it went to the farms of these individuals
or onto the open market at triple the subsidized price. 520
In theory, Nigeria would evolve a large-scale, modern agribusiness commensurate with
its growing population. The government has backed big farm ventures, but without
success. 521 Inadequate infrastructure and a lack of big-business management talent have
choked progress. 522 When Nigeria’s agricultural output has increased, it has been through
farming more land rather than employing modern techniques. 523
516
517
David Hecht, “Little Holds Nigeria Back From Food Crisis,” Washington Post, 2 August 2009,
518
Salisu Na’inna Dambatta, “Obasanjo Revisits Zobe Dam,” Daily Trust (Nigeria), 25 March 2003,
http://news.biafranigeriaworld.com/archive/2003/mar/25/0060.html
519
Yusha’u A. Ibrahim, “Nigeria: Katsina Farmers Urge FG to Complete Zobe Dam,” Daily Trust
(Nigeria), 21 August 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201208210319.html
520
Ephraims Sheyin, “Kaduna Farmers Grumble, as Politicians Hijack Fertiliser Allocation,” Nation
(Nigeria), 18 July 2008, http://www.thenationonlineng.net/archive2/tblnews_Detail.php?id=56238
521
David Hecht, “Little Holds Nigeria Back From Food Crisis,” Washington Post, 2 August 2009,
522
Malachy Agbo, “How Nigeria Can Make Agriculture Blossom,” This Day Live (Nigeria), 4 Dec 2011,
http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/how-nigeria-can-make-agriculture-blossom/104218/
523
© D LI F L C | 69
Village Life
A leading researcher of the region noted, “The concept of
a typical Hausa village is necessarily absurd.” The
characteristics of any village vary with its proximity to
natural resources such as rivers, watersheds, or
marshland, or to large cities. 524 But some generalizations
can be made.
Villages often began as towns walled for security,
although their walls have long since collapsed. The area of the old town is a set of walled
or fenced compounds known as a gari; each compound is a gida. A mosque sits at the
town center, because these towns observe the dictates of strict Islam, including daily
prayer. Buildings for the school, which is usually Quranic, are centrally located. A
network of narrow streets runs between the walled compounds. A market convenes every
few days. Numerous small farms, typically under 3 acres, surround the gari and form the
greater village. 525, 526
Two parallel structures of authority run the village: the secular and the religious, with
occasional friction. 527
Exchange 40: Can you take me to your leader?
Soldier:
Can you take me to your
leader?
Local:
Yes.
ko daaka key nee wurin
shugaban naaku?
ey
Exchange 41: Respected leader, we need your help/advice/opinion.
Soldier:
Respected leader, we need may girma, shugabaa,
your help/advice/opinion.
muna bukaatar
tamakonka/shaawararka/raayinka
Local:
Yes.
to
Each gida is organized around a male head, a mai gida.
His sons live on the premises; when they start their
families, they live in attached quarters, or establish their
own households if space is limited. (The gari tends
toward overcrowding.) Sons inherit their fathers’
property, so it is not unusual for a gida to be headed by
brothers. Polygamy is widespread. The Quran allows up
524
525
526
527
John A. Wiseman, “Structural and Ideological Tensions in a Rural Hausa Village,” African Studies
Review 22, no. 2 (September 1979): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/523809
© D LI F L C | 70
to four wives, as long as they are treated equally; Nigerian law does not intrude. In a
gida, the mai gida has separate quarters, as does each wife. Women of child-bearing age
live under strict Muslim seclusion; wives are never seen in public with their husbands. 528,
529
Farming, typically of grains and tubers, is at the heart of economic activity. Granaries are
often part of the compound. The husband provides the family with grain and meat. The
wives bargain for additional ingredients with other secluded women. 530
Modern trends are breaking down the old ways. Ambitious individuals, impatient with
the slow pace of change, leave the village for urban centers, never to return. 531 Also, the
increasing monetization of the rural economy creates the alternative of wage labor; young
men achieve economic independence at an earlier age, and the extended family structure
diminishes. 532 Villages become increasingly populated by older people, who are too weak
to work long hours, thus leading to decreases in productivity. 533
Healthcare
The government of Nigeria, in response to the poor
condition of the nation’s health services, launched the
National Health Insurance Scheme in 2005. A universal
coverage program, it aimed to provide affordable
healthcare to all Nigerians. 534 A November 2011
investigation into the program by the federal House of
Representatives found that only 5 million citizens had
signed up, and the majority were federal government
employees and their families; it declared the program “a national embarrassment, disaster
and colossal failure.” 535
528
Inc., 2005).
530
531
John A. Wiseman, “Structural and Ideological Tensions in a Rural Hausa Village,” African Studies
Review 22, no. 2 (September 1979): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/523809
532
H. A. Yusuf et al., “Socio-Economic Characteristics Influencing Farm Household Participation in
Gandu System in Charanchi Local Government Area of Katsina State, Nigeria,” Journal of Agricultural
Extension and Rural Development 3, no. 12 (November 2011): ,
http://www.academicjournals.org/jaerd/PDF/Pdf%202011/Nov/Yusuf%20et%20al.pdf
533
Steve Onyeiwu, Eric Pallant and Meredith Hanlon, “Sustainable and Unsustainable Agriculture in
A. Brebbia (Ashurst, Southampton, UK: WIT Press, 2011), 217.
534
National Health Insurance Scheme, “Welcome Note from Executive Secretary,” 2012,
http://www.nhis.gov.ng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47:welcome-note-fromexecutive-secretary&catid=34:home
535
Taiwo Olanrewaju, “National Health Insurance Scheme: Of What Benefit to Nigerian Masses?”
Nigerian Tribune, 21 November 2011, http://www.tribune.com.ng/index.php/features/31498-nationalhealth-insurance-scheme-of-what-benefit-to-nigerian-masses
529
© D LI F L C | 71
The densely-populated Kano State, in the central north, provides insight into the status of
healthcare in the country. There are approximately 26 government-run hospitals located
in urban environments, and more than 1,000 health centers overall. 536 Despite that,
distant villages still suffer from a lack of services. 537
Exchange 42: Is there a medical clinic nearby?
Soldier:
Is there a medical clinic
nearby?
Local:
Yes, over there.
akwey karmar asibtee nan
kusaa?
ey, gaata chan
In northern Nigeria, traditional beliefs come into conflict with the approaches of modern
medicine. Traditional medicine, which Nigerians consider safer than Western medicine,
continues to be practiced in the north. Herbalists and spiritualists treat many ailments
with plants. The diversity of treatments varies with local tradition. Leaves, roots, bark,
fruits, bulbs, and other parts are used to treat skin cancer, chest pains, septic wounds,
arthritis, hernia, bites, stings, leukemia, allergic reactions, and other ailments. 538
Exchange 43: My arm is broken, doctor, can you help me?
Soldier:
My arm is broken, doctor,
hanoona Ya karee, likeeta,
can you help me?
zaaka eya taymaka min?
Local:
Yes, I can help you.
ey, zan eya taymakonka
Among much of the population, family planning is taboo;
women achieve family and community status from a high
birthrate, and mothers having 10 or more children are not
unusual. Traditional beliefs combined with inadequate
healthcare give Nigeria, particularly the north, some of
the highest birthrates and infant mortality rates in the
world. 539, 540 Additionally, 50% of girls in the northwest
are married by age 15, and 80% by 18. Young and
uneducated, they hold false ideas about the risks of HIV/AIDS, contributing to the spread
of the disease and the lowering of overall life expectancy. 541
536
Kano Online, “Hospitals,” n.d., http://www.kanoonline.com/hospitals.html
Maggie Fick, “The Main Causes of Maternal Death in Nigeria can be Avoided,” Poverty Matters Blog,
Guardian (UK), 5 May 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/povertymatters/2011/may/05/maternal-health-northern-nigeria-kano
538
M. S. Abubakar et al., “The Perception and Practice of Traditional Medicine in the Treatment of
Cancers and Inflammations by the Hausa and Fulani Tribes of Northern Nigeria,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 111 (2007): , http://ww1.abu.edu.ng/publications/2011-09-29-211120_4675.pdf
539
Mark Tuschman, “Women’s Reproductive Health Care in Northern Nigeria,” Photo Philanthropy, 2010,
http://photophilanthropy.org/gallery-posts/womens-reproductive-health-care-in-northern-nigeria-2/
540
Maggie Fick, “The Main Causes of Maternal Death in Nigeria can be Avoided,” Poverty Matters Blog,
Guardian (UK), 5 May 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/povertymatters/2011/may/05/maternal-health-northern-nigeria-kano
541
Avert, “HIV and AIDS in Nigeria,” 2011, http://www.avert.org/aids-nigeria.htm
537
© D LI F L C | 72
Nigeria is one of four countries that still has endemic polio. It is common in Kano. Open
sewers and poor sanitary conditions contribute to the problem. During a 2003 outbreak,
religious and government leaders opposed a vaccination program, interpreting it as a
Western conspiracy to make Muslims infertile. As a result, infections rose and the disease
spread to neighboring countries. The leadership withdrew opposition after 11 months, but
superstitions linger among the populace. 542, 543
Rural Transportation
Only 15% of Nigeria’s roads are paved, with most of
those in urban areas. Most rural roads suffer from neglect.
They are unpaved, narrow, circuitous, uneven, and
potholed. During the rainy season, they are barely
passable, if at all. Bridges are of low quality and subject
to being swept away by floods. 544, 545
The once robust railway system fell into disrepair. Since
2009, a major rehabilitation effort has been underway on Nigeria’s 3,505 km (2,178 mi)
of narrow-gauge track. 546, 547 The rail network passes through a number of northern cities,
including Minna, Kaduna, Zaria, Kano, Jos, and Maiduguri. 548
In many rural areas, the bicycle is the preferred mode of transportation. It is immune to
gasoline shortages and bad roads; it can carry heavy loads and as many as four people. 549
Education
In colonial times, the British policy of indirect rule in the Muslim north allowed the
centuries-old institution of Quranic education to continue without interference. The
introduction of Western education came later, but emerged steadily throughout the 20th
century and led to two separate school systems. In 1974, the federal government began
542
Voice of America, “Nigeria Still Fighting False Rumors about Polio Vaccine,” 2 November 2009,
http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-02-17-voa48-68672337/408600.html
543
BBC News, “Polio in Nigeria ‘Shows Big Increase,’” 21 November 2011,
544
Central Intelligence Agency, “Nigeria,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
545
A. J. Aderamo and S. A. Magaji, “Rural Transportation and the Distribution of Public Facilities in
Nigeria: A Case of Edu Local Government Area of Kwara State,” Journal of Human Ecology 29, no. 3
(2010): , http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-29-0-000-10-Web/JHE-29-3-000-10-AbstPDF/JHE-29-3-171-10-2024-Aderamo-A-J/JHE-29-3-171-10-2024-Aderamo-A-J-Tt.pdf
546
This Day Live (Nigeria), “Nigerians Take to the Tracks, as Railway Chugs Back to Life,” 1 January
2012, http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigerians-take-to-the-tracks-as-railway-chugs-back-tolife/106192/
547
Central Intelligence Agency, “Nigeria,” in The World Factbook, 31 July 2012,
548
Maps of World, “Nigeria Rail Map,” 2012, http://www.mapsofworld.com/nigeria/rail-map.html
549
Sam Olukoya, “Two Wheels Good in Rural Nigeria,” BBC News, 2 April 2001,
© D LI F L C | 73
efforts toward integrating the two systems. 550 Low investment in education hinders
progress, and Quranic schools remain dominant in the north. 551
School enrollment in the north is low. For example, in
Jigawa State, the urban enrollment rate is 58%, but only
27% in rural environments, and lower for girls than for
boys. Lagos State, in the south, has close to 80%
enrollment in all categories. 552
Household or farm obligations delimit when the education
of rural children is possible, and it is further limited to the
hot season, when their labor is least required. 553 For poor rural children, there are many
other impediments to education. Schools may be distant; families may not be able to
afford uniforms and textbooks. 554 Most rural schools lack electricity, water, and toilets.
Recruitment of teachers to rural areas is difficult, and pay is at poverty level. 555
For most rural students, limited access to public schools leaves Quranic schools as the
only choice for their parents. 556 These schools concentrate on study and memorization of
the Quran, and ignore critical-thinking skills. 557 In traditional Hausa families, boys follow
in their fathers’ footsteps, so the Quranic schools provide no occupational training. 558 For
these reasons, students from Quranic schools are ill-equipped for a modern workforce
that requires diverse skills.
Poor rural families from all over northern Nigeria send
their children to the cities to live the harsh life of
almajiri—roughly translated as companions of Prophet
Muhammad. Almajiri live at Quranic boarding schools.
After 5 a.m. prayers, they loudly beg door-to-door for
550
Qur’anic Education,” Africa Spectrum 17, no. 1 (1982): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/40174051
551
552
Alice Akunga and Ian Attfield, “Northern Nigeria: Approaches to Enrolling Girls in School and
Providing a Meaningful Education to Empower Change,” UN Girls’ Education Initiative, 17 May 2010,
http://www.e4conference.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/06en.pdf
553
554
555
Alice Akunga and Ian Attfield, “Northern Nigeria: Approaches to Enrolling Girls in School and
Providing a Meaningful Education to Empower Change,” UN Girls’ Education Initiative, 17 May 2010,
http://www.e4conference.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/06en.pdf
556
Nasir Mohammed Baba, “Islamic Schools, the Ulama, and the State in the Educational Development of
Northern Nigeria,” Bulletin de l’APAD (Euro-African Association for the Anthropology of Social Change
and Development) 33 (2011): 1, http://apad.revues.org/4092
557
Lantana Usman, “Rural Nomadic Fulbe Boys’ Primary Schooling: Assessing Repertoires of Practice in
Nigeria,” McGill Journal of Education 41, no. 2 (Spring 2006): ,
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/chr_old/indigenous/documents/Nigeria/Report/Rural%20Nomadic%20Fulbe%20B
oysPrimary%20Schooling%20Assessing%20Repertoires%20Of%20Practice%20In%20Nigeria.pdf
558
Qur’anic Education,” Africa Spectrum 17, no. 1 (1982): , http://www.jstor.org/stable/40174051
© D LI F L C | 74
food and money. They eat the food; most of the money goes to their mallams—teachers.
The begging expedition happens three times a day. Between meals, the students further
their religious studies. The number of almajiri is estimated in the millions. A UNICEF
researcher estimated that 60% of them never return home. 559, 560
Checkpoints
Police checkpoints were common throughout Nigeria
and used primarily to extort money from motorists. 561
Side effects included traffic bottlenecks, traffic
accidents, and extrajudicial killings resulting from
confrontations between police and motorists. 562
Exchange 44: Where is the nearest checkpoint?
Soldier:
Where is the nearest
checkpoint?
Local:
It’s two kilometers.
inaa ne wurin binchka
abubuwan hawa mapee
kusaa?
kamar keelomeeta byoo
daga nan
In January 2012, President Goodluck Jonathan ordered a complete overhaul of the
nation’s police in order to fight corruption. The overhaul included the elimination of
police checkpoints. 563 Nigerians were skeptical at first, but after several months the
crackdown appears to have mostly succeeded. One businesswoman noted, “Recently, my
husband and I drove from Lagos to Benin City [approximately 250 km (155 mi)].
Although the road wasn’t in good shape, we spent just 4 hours on the road as opposed to
6 hours or more if we have [sic] had to stop at every police checkpoint.” 564, 565
559
Christian Purefoy, “Nigeria’s Almajiri Children Learning a Life of Poverty and Violence,” CNN, 7
January 2010, http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-07/world/nigeria.children.radicalization_1_religiousviolence-religious-clashes-kano?_s=PM:WORLD
560
Charles Kumolu, “Almajiri Education: Modern Gang Up Against Ancient Tradition?” Vanguard
(Nigeria), 26 April 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/04/almajiri-education-modern-gang-upagainst-ancient-tradition/
561
Camillus Eboh, “Nigeria Police Chief Says Own Officers are Corrupt Killers,” Reuters, 14 February
2012, http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/nigeria-police-chief-says-own-officers-are-corrupt-killers
562
Comfort Oseghale, “Gains, Losses of Ban on Police Checkpoints,” Punch (Nigeria), 26 May 2012,
http://www.punchng.com/feature/crime-digest/gains-losses-of-ban-on-police-checkpoints/
563
Camillus Eboh, “Nigeria Police Chief Says Own Officers are Corrupt Killers,” Reuters, 14 February
2012, http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/nigeria-police-chief-says-own-officers-are-corrupt-killers
564
Vanguard (Nigeria), “Nigeria: Check Points—Investigations Reveal High Compliance with Inspector
General’s Order,” 27 February 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201202271391.html
565
Comfort Oseghale, “Gains, Losses of Ban on Police Checkpoints,” Punch (Nigeria), 26 May 2012,
http://www.punchng.com/feature/crime-digest/gains-losses-of-ban-on-police-checkpoints/
© D LI F L C | 75
Exchange 45: Please get out of the car.
Soldier:
Please get out of the car.
Local:
OK.
Exchange 46: Show us the car registration.
Soldier:
Show us the car
registration.
Local:
OK.
dan alah, ka pito daga
motar
to
noonaa manaa takrdur
rajistar motar
to
ID Cards
In February 2003, Nigeria instituted a national ID card program. The cards include
biometrics (fingerprints, photographs, and height) as well as name, address, occupation,
and state of birth. The program was implemented to assist in planning for the country’s
booming population, to control access to government programs, to identify aliens, and to
curtail fraud and corruption. 566
Obtaining the card is voluntary. In the north, participation in the program is weak. 567
Arguments over the true size of regional populations, which a vigorous card program
might settle, factor into this and other political issues. Some southerners claim that the
northern population is much lower than official estimates. 568
As of May 2012, only about one-third of eligible participants received cards and were
represented in the national identification database. 569 President Goodluck Jonathan set a
goal of registering all eligible citizens by 2015. 570
Exchange 47: Is this all the ID you have?
Soldier:
Is this all the ID you have?
Local:
Yes.
wanan ney toy takardan
sheydan da kakey da she?
ey
566
BBC News, “Nigerian ID Scheme Kicks Off,” 18 February 2003,
567
Bala Muhammad Makosa, “Nigeria Begins Distributing ID Cards: Program Sees Low Turnout for
Collection,” Ohmy News (Korea), 24 May 2006,
http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?menu=c10400&no=293789&rel_no=1
568
BBC News, “Nigerian ID Scheme Kicks Off,” 18 February 2003,
569
Vanguard (Nigeria), “Over 100m Nigerians Have No Official Identity—NIMC,” 9 May 2012,
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/over-100m-nigerians-have-no-official-identity-nimc/
570
Channels Television, “Every Nigerian Must Have a National Identity Card by 2015—Jonathan,” 26 June
2012, http://www.channelstv.com/home/2012/06/26/every-nigerian-must-have-national-identity-card-by2015-jonathan/
© D LI F L C | 76
Border Crossing
If one is not a member of the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS), crossing into Nigeria
requires a passport and visa. Europeans or Americans not
traveling with a Nigerian will probably be shaken down
for bribes. Exhaustive searches of luggage may be made
by each participating agency, such as Immigration and
Customs. 571
Criminals and smugglers thwart border control in their efforts to bring weapons and
contraband into the country, making the Immigration and Customs Service officers wary
of potential violations. 572 Travelers should not become belligerent, because the response
can be severe. 573
Exchange 48: Are you carrying any guns?
Soldier:
Are you carrying any
guns?
Local:
Yes.
kanaa dawkey da wasu
bindigogee?
ey
571
Trip Advisor, “Nigeria: Crossing the Border,” n.d., http://www.tripadvisor.com/Travel-g293824s602/Nigeria:Crossing.The.Border.html
572
Adelani Adepegba and Leke Baiyewu, “Nigeria, US, Chad Seal Pact on Counter-Terrorism,” Punch
(Nigeria), 19 August 2012, http://www.punchng.com/news/nigeria-us-chad-seal-pact-on-counter-terrorism/
573
Trip Advisor, “Nigeria: Crossing the Border,” n.d., http://www.tripadvisor.com/Travel-g293824s602/Nigeria:Crossing.The.Border.html
© D LI F L C | 77
1. As Nigeria’s population increases, so does its agricultural output.
False
Nigerian farming has not adopted modern techniques that would allow it to keep
pace with population growth.
2. A typical Hausa village has a single authority structure.
False
Villages have separate civil and religious authorities, who occasionally come into
conflict.
3. In Hausa villages, each wife has her own quarters within the compound.
True
Hausa Muslims may have up to four wives and each wife resides in private
quarters.
4. Police checkpoints are a major source on inefficiency on Nigerian roads.
False
Checkpoints were a major problem in the past but, as of January 2012, they were
abolished, with apparent success.
5. Identity cards are mandatory in Nigeria.
False
Though it is not obligatory for an adult to have an identity card, it is necessary for
those seeking government services.
© D LI F L C | 78
CHAPTER 6: FAMILY LIFE
Introduction
The Hausa favor large, extended families, with most members tied to the male head of
the household, the mai gida, by blood, marriage, or adoption. The mai gida, his sons, and
other male members, are responsible for cultivating the land and feeding the extended
family. His wives are responsible for cooking, housecleaning, and child care.
Exchange 49: Do you have any brothers?
Soldier:
Do you have any brothers?
Local:
Yes.
kanaa da enwaa mazaa?
ey
Exchange 50: Are these people part of your family?
Soldier:
Are these people part of
your family?
Local:
No.
wadanan mutanan suna
chinka eyaalinka?
aa-aa
Wives are expected to live together harmoniously, especially since
they divide the household work among themselves. When sons
marry, their families join the extended family and live in
dwellings attached to their father’s compound, until such time as
they branch out on their own. Daughters marry young, just after
puberty, and join their husband’s family. 574, 575, 576, 577, 578
Exchange 51: Are these your children?
Soldier:
Are these your children?
Local:
Yes.
wadanan Yaayanka ney?
ey
574
Polly Hill, Dry Grain Farming Families: Hausaland (Nigeria) and Karnataka (India) Compared
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 59–60.
575
Steven Pierce, “Identity, Performance, and Secrecy: Gendered Life and the ‘Modern’ in Northern
Nigeria,” Feminist Studies, Fall 2007, http://www.sss.ias.edu/files/pdfs/Pierce-IdentityPerformance.pdf
576
Luigi M. Solivetti, “Family, Marriage and Divorce in a Hausa Community: A Sociological Model,”
Africa, 1994, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1160983
577
Frank A. Salamone, “Hausa Concepts of Masculinity and the ‘Yan Daudu” in African Masculinities:
Men in Africa from the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present, Lahoucine Ouzgane and Robert
Morrell, eds. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 77–83.
578
Polly Hill, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (London: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 18–27.
© D LI F L C | 79
Courtship and Weddings
The practice of arranged marriages is dying out. When an
arranged marriage does occur, the daughter has some
input into the selection of a husband, but ultimately she
must follow her father’s wishes. 579 These days, the
courtship follows stages prescribed by religion. In order
to obtain consent to marry, a man visits the girl’s house,
talks with her, and exchanges gifts. At some point, since
marriage is a contract between the couple’s guardians, the
man’s parents offer presents to the girl’s parents. By accepting, they consent to the
marriage. Relatives and friends are informed of the betrothal. An imam leads a betrothal
ceremony; the bride-price is paid. A month later, a wedding date is set. The wedding
ceremony can last anywhere from three to eight days. 580
Exchange 52: Congratulations on your wedding!
Soldier:
Congratulations on your
wedding!
Local:
We are honored you could
attend.
inaa tayaa ka murnar
awrenka!
munji dadee da ka sa
modaman zuwa
Exchange 53: Is this your wife?
Soldier:
Is this your wife?
Local:
Yes.
wana matarka chi?
ey
In Hausa culture, the idea of falling in love against the family wishes is considered a
highly selfish act; marriage is a contribution to the welfare of the extended family. In
Hausa folklore, lovers are not heroes and heroines; usually they are tragic figures. 581
Exchange 54: I wish you both happiness.
Soldier:
I wish you both happiness.
Local:
We are honored.
inaa eyo wa koo beyan
paatar alheree
mun godee
Women are not welcome at Hausa weddings, not even the bride. The groom attends—if it
is the bride’s first wedding. In a woman-only ceremony, the bride receives guests and
579
580
Toyin Falola, Culture and Customs of Nigeria (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group,
Inc., 2001).
581
© D LI F L C | 80
gifts at her father’s home. She recites verses from the Quran. The female guests take
cakes and treats home with them to spread news of the wedding. 582
Exchange 55: Are you married?
Soldier:
Are you married?
Local:
No.
kanaa da awree?
aa-aa
If the husband discovers that his new bride is not a virgin, he may beat her, complain to
her parents, and hang a broken calabash (gourd) by their house. 583
Funerals
The Hausa mostly follow Muslim burial practices. When
a Hausa man dies, his wife may wash his body, and vice
versa. She dresses the body, covers it with a white cloth,
and the body is transported on a stretcher to a place of
prayer. An imam recites verses from the Quran. The
corpse is buried with the head pointing to the south and
the feet to the north. The face is turned east toward
Mecca. After the burial, prayers are said. The burial and
prayers are performed only by men. After the burial, the family receives well-wishers for
three days. 584
Exchange 56: Please be strong.
Soldier:
Please be strong.
Local:
We will try.
kada ka karayaa
zama yooko karee
When a man dies, his wives mourn for four months and ten days; any concubines or
divorced wives he had children with mourn for half the period. During the mourning
period, the widow can sing dirges. She sleeps on the floor to express her sense of loss.
Custom prohibits her from wearing fancy clothes. A Muslim man who loses his wife will
mourn her death, but he needs only to stay indoors for eight days. 585
582
Frank A. Salamone, “Islam and the Conventions of Friendship: The Example of the Muslim Hausa,” in
Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Volume 2: Family, Law and Politics, Suad Joseph, ed.
(Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2005), 196–97.
583
Man Singh Das, ed., The Family in Africa (New Delhi: M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1993), 19–22.
584
Zainab Jerrett, “Funerary Practices: Sub-Saharan Africa: West Africa,” in Encyclopedia of Women &
Islamic Cultures: Volume 3: Family, Body, Sexuality and Health, Suad Joseph, ed. (Leiden, The
Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2006), 125–27.
585
Zainab Jerrett, “Funerary Practices: Sub-Saharan Africa: West Africa,” in Encyclopedia of Women &
Islamic Cultures: Volume 3: Family, Body, Sexuality and Health, Suad Joseph, ed. (Leiden, The
Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2006), 125–27.
© D LI F L C | 81
Exchange 57: I would like to give my condolences to you and your family.
Soldier:
I would like to give my
inaa son inya maka jaajee,
condolences to you and
key da eyaalinkaa
your family.
Local:
We are grateful.
mun godee
Seclusion
Purdah is the Islamic practice of female seclusion. In northern
Nigeria, strict enforcement of purdah dates to the Sokoto jihad in
the early 19th century and the rejuvenation of Islam. Under
purdah, the aim of which is to create a chaste society, married
women remain indoors, out of public view. They may venture
forth for special occasions such as a wedding, or to visit a doctor
or relatives. In these instances, they cover themselves with a
hijab, and in some cases, they are escorted by a man. 586 Usually,
the precise terms of the seclusion are agreed upon before the
marriage. 587
In the West, purdah is viewed as a form of oppression. In northern Nigeria, Hausa
women consider it an expression of Muslim identity. Purdah also signifies high social
status, because it shows that the man can afford a wife who works in the home. In poor
rural Muslim households, women must work the fields; for them, purdah is an enviable
luxury. 588
Status of Children, Adolescents, and Elders
On Hausa family farms, historically, children must work four days a week. 589 School
attendance is scheduled around their farm obligations. Far more boys than girls attend
school. Education is often cut short for girls, since marriage and seclusion begins soon
586
June 2012,
http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10
35:purdah-separation-of-the-sexes-in-northern-nigeria-&catid=59:gender-issuesdiscussion-papers&Itemid=267
587
Nigeria,” Feminist Studies, Fall 2007, http://www.sss.ias.edu/files/pdfs/Pierce-Identity-
Performance.pdf
588
June 2012,
589
Adelaja Odutola Odukoya, “Child Labor in Nigeria: Historical Perspective” in The World of Child
Labor: An Historical and Regional Survey, Hugh D. Hindman, ed. (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe,
Inc., 2009), 232.
© D LI F L C | 82
after puberty. 590 Because Western education is considered a threat to prevailing customs,
Quranic schools are favored by many.
Hausa women frequently engage in trading activity.
Because the custom of purdah keeps them secluded
within their homes, they use children as messengers and
intermediaries for the trading of food, household items, or
crafts. Thus children have an unusual degree of freedom.
They learn to set up their own trading businesses,
typically selling snacks to other children. The women
may keep their profits. 591, 592, 593
Exchange 58: Does your family live here?
Soldier:
Does your family live
here?
Local:
Yes.
a nan eyaalinka sukey
zoney?
ey
Because of the cultural practice of kunya, or modesty, many parents do not talk to their
first child, or address their children by name. Some children grow up not knowing which
of their father’s wives is their mother. Kunya also inhibits parents from instructing their
children about sex. A limited form of sex education is taught in Quranic schools. But
many Hausa boys, and most Hausa girls, leave school before reaching the age at which it
is taught. 594 Thus Hausa children learn about sex primarily from their peers, media, and
films. 595
Both boys and girls gain full adult status upon marriage, which cuts childhood short for
girls, who marry just after puberty. 596, 597 Boys wait until they are older. Typically, they
590
Elsbeth Robson, “Exploring Dimensions of Sustainability in Nigeria” in Sustainability: Life Chances
and Livelihoods, Michael Redclift, ed. (New York: Routledge, 2000), 134–36.
591
Loretta Elizabeth Bass, Child Labor in Sub-Saharan Africa (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner
Publishers, Inc., 2004), 28–30.
592
William A. Corsaro, The Sociology of Childhood, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage
Publications, Inc., 2005), 33–35.
593
Sam Lucy, “The Archaeology of Age” in The Archaeology of Identity: Approaches to Gender, Age,
Status, Ethnicity and Religion (New York: Routledge, 2005), 57.
594
Mairo V. Bello, Rakiya Booth and Bilkisu Yusuf, “Knowledge and Education about Sexuality: B.
Sexuality Among the Hausa” in The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality,
Robert T. Francoeur and Raymond J. Noonan, eds. (New York: The Continuum
International Publishing Group Inc., 2004), 758–59.
595
Uwem Edimo Esiet and Foyin Oyebola, “Knowledge and Education about Sexuality: A. Sexuality
Education” in The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, Robert T. Francoeur
and Raymond J. Noonan, eds. (New York: The Continuum International Publishing
Group Inc., 2004), 757–58.
596
Morrell, eds. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 77.
© D LI F L C | 83
follow their fathers and learn the business of farming. They marry when their economic
status is sufficient to support a wife. 598
In Hausa society, the elderly are revered for their experience and wisdom, and they are
treated with respect, deference, and obedience. 599 They serve as an advisory group on
village matters. 600
Marriage and Divorce
Marriage
Among the Hausa, marriage is an important institution, which
virtually every person undertakes. Marriage is a manifestation of
the needs of the greater extended family, not a reflection of the
couple’s desire. 601Women typically marry just after puberty, when
they are 12 to 14 years old. Large families are an economic
necessity, and a woman’s birthing capacity a resource to be fully
utilized. Early marriage for girls usually results their dropping out
of school. 602 Men first marry at an older age, usually in their
twenties, when they have accumulated enough capital to afford
the bride-price paid the betrothed’s family. Only upon marrying
does a man achieve full adult status.
Most Hausa men have multiple wives. A man may have up to four, in accordance with
the Quran, but he must be able to financially support his wives equally. Large families,
made possible by multiple wives, increase the pool of laborers for the family farm. 603
597
Performance.pdf
598
Morrell, eds. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 77.
599
Sam Lucy, “The Archaeology of Age” in The Archaeology of Identity: Approaches to Gender, Age,
Status, Ethnicity and Religion (New York: Routledge, 2005), 57.
600
Wilbur H. Watson, Stress and Old Age (New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1980), 2.
601
Performance.pdf
602
British Council, “Gender in Nigeria: Report 2012: Improving the Lives of Girls and Women in Nigeria,”
2012, http://www.britishcouncil.org/africa-ng-gender-report-2012-full.pdf
603
Nigeria,” Feminist Studies, Fall 2007, http://www.sss.ias.edu/files/pdfs/Pierce-Identity-Performance.pdf
© D LI F L C | 84
Exchange 59: Is this your entire family?
Soldier:
Is this your entire family?
Local:
Yes.
wanan sunee eyakachin
eyaalinkaa bakey daya?
ey
Husbands and wives limit daily interactions. Husbands rarely enter their wives’ quarters.
Husbands and wives avoid visible intimacy. Wives do not address their husbands by
name. They do not eat with their husbands. The Hausa view married life as two people
holding complementary positions. The distance between the husband and his wives is
thought to help manage the complexities of polygamous life. Any favoritism displayed
might lead to household discord. 604, 605
Notwithstanding the above generalizations, Hausa marriages vary in accordance with the
habits and personalities of the individuals involved. 606
Divorce
Given the strict moral codes the Hausa live under, one
might expect their marriages to last until “till death do
them part.” On the contrary, divorce is a surprisingly
common event in Hausa society. Between 30 and 50%
of marriages end in divorce. The average Hausa woman
may be married up to four times before menopause, after
which her value as a wife greatly diminishes; for a man,
the number of marriages may be higher. 607 The
prevalence of divorce reflects the complexities of
polygamy. 608 An unwanted or unhappy wife can be removed from the extended family in
service of the greater harmony. 609
Under Islamic law, divorce is a simple procedure that only the man can initiate. He does
this by repeating an Arabic formula in the presence of witnesses. The strategy for a
woman wanting divorce is to provoke the husband into taking that step. 610 Under other
circumstances, the man must make a written statement listing cause, whereas the wife
must show cause in court. Valid causes may include physical abuse, refusal of
604
605
606
607
Man Singh Das, ed., The Family in Africa (New Delhi: M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1993).
608
609
610
© D LI F L C | 85
companionship, prolonged absence, failure to support, lack of religiousness, leprosy,
impotence, or madness. Whatever the cause, child custody remains the prerogative of the
father’s family, as long as the children can do without their mother’s care. 611
Tradition dictates divorcées (or widows) who are still fertile should marry again. If they
resist, their peers regard them as prostitutes. 612
Naming Conventions
Hausa children receive their names seven days after
birth in a special naming ceremony, the Muslim bikin
suna. Men convene at the mosque in the early morning.
The baby receives its name, a ram is slaughtered, and
prayers are said. 613 Later in the morning, women
convene for a loud and festive party that lasts the rest of
the day. There is music, and women dance with each
other. Men perform ceremonial drumming, despite the
usual rules of female seclusion (purdah). 614
Hausa names are usually Arabic. Sometimes they indicate the gender of the child and the
day of birth: Lantana (Monday child, female); Danjuma (Friday child, male). They may
be Biblical: Musa (Moses); Yusef (Joseph); Adamu (Adam). Names may refer to Islam:
Khadijah (wife of prophet Muhammad); Bilal (companion of the prophet). They may
describe some quality of character: Faisal (decisive); Nabilah (noble). 615
611
612
613
Philip J. Jaggar, Hausa (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001),
36.
614
615
Motherland Nigeria, “Names and Origins: Hausa Names,” n.d.,
http://www.motherlandnigeria.com/names.html#Hausa
© D LI F L C | 86
1. The Hausa favor large, extended families.
True
Extended families include parents, adult children, their spouses, grandchildren,
and other relatives; all live under one roof or within one compound.
2. Nigerian law prevents women from marrying before age 15.
False
Most girls marry just after puberty, when they are 12 to 14 years old.
3. Divorce is rare in Hausa society.
False
Divorce is commonplace. It is thought to help manage the complexities of
polygamous life.
4. Most Hausa children receive names that are African in origin.
False
Most Hausa names are Arabic in origin; indigenous names are seldom given.
5. Hausa children have an unusual degree of freedom.
True
Secluded Hausa women frequently engage in trading activities; they need the
children of their households to act as intermediaries and messengers.
© D LI F L C | 87
FINAL ASSESSMENT
1. The discovery of oil in the Niger Delta has made the native Ijaw the country’s
wealthiest ethnic group.
True / False
2. The 19th-century Sokoto Caliphate came about when the Hausa defeated the
minority Fulani in a jihad.
True / False
3. Nollywood, Nigeria’s largest film industry, has sparked an explosion in new
theater construction.
True / False
4. The unification of Nigeria as a single British colony resulted in the immediate
abolition of slavery.
True / False
5. Hausaland is home to the largest university in sub-Saharan Africa.
True / False
6. Non-Muslim Hausa are referred to as Maguzawa.
True / False
7. Most of Nigeria’s Christians are Roman Catholic.
True / False
8. Nigerians, regardless of their religion, are quite religious.
True / False
9. Hausa Muslims generally do not practice purdah, segregation of the sexes
True / False
10. Violence between the Christians and Muslims in Nigeria is subsiding.
True / False
11. Gifts should always be wrapped.
True / False
12. The Hausa enjoy making small talk during meals.
True / False
© D LI F L C | 88
13. For the Hausa, evening dinner is the main meal of the day.
True / False
14. Titles followed by first names should normally be used to address Hausa
individuals.
True / False
15. The Hausa prefer to wear their traditional clothing rather than Western-style
clothing.
True / False
16. The curriculum in the Quranic schools essentially parallels the national
curriculum.
True / False
17. It is easy to exchange currency at banks in Nigeria.
True / False
18. Public transportation is generally regarded as unsafe and should be avoided.
True / False
19. Native Nigerians rarely give beggars money or food.
True / False
20. Terrorist activities carried out by the Boko Haram represent a serious safety
concern in the cities of northern Nigeria.
True / False
21. Nigerian farmers have made significant increases in agricultural output through
the use of fertilizer.
True / False
22. Nigeria imports USD 8 billion in food annually.
True / False
23. Quranic schools in the north tailor their curriculum for agricultural occupations.
True / False
24. In 2009, Nigeria became the final nation to eradicate endemic polio.
True / False
25. In northern Nigeria, the bicycle is the preferred form of transportation.
True / False
© D LI F L C | 89
26. Weddings are the only events at which Hausa men and women mingle.
True / False
27. For Hausa children, farmwork takes priority over school.
True / False
28. Falling in love is highly regarded in Hausa society.
True / False
29. Most Hausa women view their strictly secluded lives as a form of oppression.
True / False
30. Many Hausa women do not pursue education because of early marriage.
True / False
© D LI F L C | 90
FURTHER READING
Lemieux, Diane. Nigeria-Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs and Culture.
Minneapolis: Kuperard, 2011.
Salamone, Frank A. The Hausa of Nigeria. Landam, MD: University Press of America,
2010.
Shaihua, Maalam. Hausa Folk-Lore: Customs, Proverbs, Etc. Charleston, SC: Forgotten
Books, 2007.
Forafricanart.com. “Yoruba: Nigeria.” 2006.
http://www.forafricanart.com/Yoruba_ep_35-1.html
Williams, Richard. “A Little Culture and Food Tradition of the Hausa of Nigeria.” 31
December 2008.
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1317414/a_little_culture_and_food_tra
dition.html?cat=22
PowerHouseMuseum.com. Hausa Man’s Embroidered Tunic, West Africa.” ND
http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=198484
Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. “Nigeria: Levirate Marriage Practices among
the Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa-Fulani; Consequences for a Man or Woman who
Refuses to Participate in the Marriage; Availability of State Protection.” 16 March
2006.
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,469f2ea82,45f1478811,0.html
© D LI F L C | 91

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