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Author(s)
Tunable single-site ruthenium catalysts for ecient water
oxidation
Bernet, Lucille; Lalrempuia, Ralte; Ghattas, Wadih; MüllerBunz, Helge; Vigara, Laura; Llobet, Antoni; Albrecht, Martin
Publication
date
2011-06-16
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Chemical Communications, 2011 (47): 8058-8060
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Link to online http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C1CC12615F
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Tunable single-site ruthenium catalysts for efficient water oxidation†
Lucile Bernet,a Ralte Lalrempuia,a Wadih Ghattas,a Helge Mueller-Bunz,a Laura Vigara,b Antoni
Llobet*b and Martin Albrecht*a
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DOI: 10.1039/b000000x [DO NOT ALTER/DELETE THIS TEXT]
The catalytic water oxidation activity of mononuclear ruthenium
complexes comprising a pyridine-functionalized abnormal
triazolylidene ligand can be adjusted by modifcation of the
triazolylidene substituents, which is readily achieved through
click-type cycloaddition chemistry, affording some of the most
active ruthenium catalyst known thus far for water oxidation
(TONs > 400, TOFs close to 7000 h–1).
Efficient water splitting is one of the grand challenges in current
chemical research, aiming at disclosing new fuel technologies for
covering the increasingly growing global energy needs.1 While
catalysts for water reduction have been available for long time,
efficient water oxidizing methodologies are much rarer.2 This lack
is in part due to the high potential and molecular complexity that
need to be overcome in order to accomplish the 4-electron transfer
required to generate O2 from H2O.
The natural evolution of O2 at the Mn4 core of photosystem II3
has provided much stimulation for synthetic advances.4
Multimetallic systems,5 including clusters,6 have been implemented
in an attempt to distribute the multielectron transfer over several
active sites, thus lowering the number of accessible oxidation states
needed for a given metal center. Monometallic complexes, which
may offer advantages such as facile ligand tunability and the
deduction of structure-activity relationships, have only recently
been reported to be active in water oxidation.7 While in some cases,
the accessibility of less usual oxidation states has been proposed,7,8
other systems introduced ligand cooperativity in order to
accommodate the extra charges (and holes) during the catalytic
cycle.9 Abnormal carbenes such as 1,2,3-triazol-5-ylidenes10 may
be particularly suitable for such cooperative behavior, as these
ligands feature a pronounced mesoionic resonance contribution that
entails simultaneously electron accepting and donating properties.
The recent application of this ligand in the ruthenium-catalyzed
base-free oxidation of alcohols may underpin this concept.11
Moreover, mononuclear iridium triazolylidene complexes have
shown to be highly active in water oxidation, reaching turnover
numbers (TONs) around 10,000.12 Here we report on the expansion
of this approach to monometallic ruthenium complexes containing
an easily tunable chelating triazolylidene ligand functionalized with
a pyridyl donor. Tailoring of the catalytic activity, still rare in water
oxidation catalysis, is readily achieved by appropriate modification
of the substituent at the triazolylidene nitrogens.
The triazolium salts used as carbene precursors were readily
† Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) available: Experimental
procedures for ligands 1, and complexes 2 and 3, details on catalytic
experiments, and crystallographic details for complexes 2a, 2b, 2c, 3a,
3b, 3c, 3d, 4, and 5. See http://www.rsc.org/suppdata/xx/b0/b000000x/
* martin.albrecht@ucd.ie; allobet@iciq.es
This journal © Royal Society of Chemistry
N
R–N3 +
a R = Me
b
Et
c
i-Pr
d
Ph
i), ii)
OTf
X–
R N
N
iii)
Cl
1
iv)
Ru
N
+
N N
R N
N N
2
NCMe
(OTf)2
MeCN
NCMe
Ru
R
N
N
N
N N
C
Me
3
Scheme 1 Reagents and conditions: i) CuSO4, Na-ascorbate, THF/H2O
(1:1), 100°C, microwave for 30 min (82–95%); ii) MeOTf, CH2 Cl2 , 0°C
for 30 min (22–25%) iii) Ag2O, [Ru(cym)Cl2] 2, MeCN, 35°C for 2 d (38–
54%); iv) AgOTf, MeCN, reflux, 18 h (73–89%).
accessible via Cu-mediated [3+2] cycloaddition of azides and
alkynes,13 and subsequent methylation at the triazole N3 position
(Scheme 1).‡ The ruthenium complexes 2 were prepared from the
corresponding pyridine-substituted triazolium salts 1 with Ag2O
and subsequent transmetalation using [Ru(cymene)Cl2]2. Halide
abstraction from 2 with AgOTf and thermal cymene dissociation in
refluxing MeCN afforded the dicationic solvento complexes 3 in
appreciable yields.14 The formation of the triazolylidene complexes
2 was indicated by NMR spectroscopy, which revealed the
disappearance of the resonance around δH 8.5 assigned to the
triazolium proton in 1 (CD3CN solution). In the 13C NMR
spectrum, the ruthenium-bound carbon appears around 172 ppm,
corresponding to an approximate 20 ppm downfield shift as
compared to the ligand precursor. The exact chemical shift is
dependent on the substitutent at nitrogen (δC 174.1, 172.9, 172.4,
and 174.0 for 2a–2d, respectively), pointing to a moderate
tunability of the electron density at this carbon via wingtip
substitution.15 Chelation of the pyridine unit in solution is
supported by the highfield resonance of the proton in the pyridine
ortho position, which shifted from δH 8.4 in 1 to 9.4. The
corresponding dicationic acetonitrile complexes 3 displayed similar
spectroscopic characteristics for the bidentate triazolylidene ligand.
Most diagnostic is the absence of the resonances due to the cymene
ligand, and the upfield shift of the ortho-pyridine H to δH 9.1. In the
13
C NMR spectrum, the ruthenium-bound carbon experiences a
slight yet noticeable shift. In particular, the different sequence (δC
176.3, 174.5, 172.3, and 168.4 for 3a–3d, respectively) suggests
some flexibility of the ligand in responding to the altered electronic
environment at the ruthenium center in cationic 2 and dicationic 3.
Evidence for the connectivity pattern in complexes 2 and 3 was
obtained by X-ray crystallographic analyses.† The molecular
structures of complexes 2a and 3a are representative and confirm
the C,N-bidentate chelation of the ligand as deduced from solution
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Table 1 Electrochemical dataa and water oxidation activityb of 2–5
Complex
2a
2b
2c
2d
3a
3b
3c
3d
4
5
Fig. 1 ORTEP representation of complex 2a (a) and complex 3a (b; 50%
probability ellipsoids, non-coordinating anions and hydrogens omitted for
clarity). Selected bond lengths (Å) and angles (°) for 2a: Ru–C1 2.032(1),
Ru–N4 2.126(1), Ru–Cl 2.4036(3), C1–Ru–N4 76.53(4); for 3a: Ru–C7
1.9922(13), Ru–N1 2.0954(11), Ru–N5 2.1166(12), Ru–N6 2.0315(11),
C7–Ru–N1 78.34(5).
studies (Fig. 1). While the Ru–C bond lengths fall within the
expected 2.0–2.1 Å range,16 subtle differences have been noted. In
the dicationic complexes 3, the Ru–C bond distance is 1.999(6) Å
and hence significantly shorter than in the monocationic complexes
2 (Ru–Ctriazolylidene 2.028(7) Å). Likewise, the Ru–pyridine distance
shrinks from 2.129(7) Å in 2 to 2.092(3) Å in 3. As a consequence
of these bond length variations, the ligand bite angle is slightly
larger (78.6(12) in 3 vs 76.59(6) in 2), though it remains rather
acute. In complexes 3, the Ru–NMeCN bond lengths trans to the
triazolylidene ligand average to 2.114(7) Å and are thus about 0.08
Å longer than the analogous bonds trans to the pyridine ligand
(Ru–N 2.032(2) Å), reflecting the markedly stronger trans
influence of the triazolyidene ligand as compared to pyridine.
Electrochemical analyses of the complexes revealed a quasireversible oxidation at 1.42 V (vs. SCE) for complexes 2 and at
slightly lower potential for complexes 3 (Table 1). Analysis of the
oxidation potentials demonstrates a close correlation between
electron donor ability of the wingtip group and the ruthenium
oxidation potential. Thus, complex 2d comprising a withdrawing
Ph substituent displays the highest oxidation potential (E1/2 = 1.445
V) and this potential decreases with increasing donor ability of the
substituent R (E1/2 = 1.433 V for R = Me, 1.427 for R = Et, and
1.425 for R = i-Pr). A different trend was observed in the dicationic
complexes 3 with the oxidation potential increasing from Me < i-Pr
< Et << Ph.§ Possibly, stereoelectronic effects may become more
dominant in these formally octahedral complexes. Accordingly,
bulky substituents at the triazole nitrogen may interfere with the cis
coordinating MeCN ligand, resulting in significant distortion from
ideal octahedral geometry and thus reducing the ligands’ donor
ability into relevant d orbitals. Such a model is further supported by
solid-state analyses, which reveal that the angle between the pyridyl
nitrogen and the trans coordinated MeCN (i.e. cis to the
triazolylidene) deviates more distinctively in 3b and 3c than in 3a.
Complexes 2 and 3 were all active in the oxidation of water
using CeIV as sacrificial oxidant (Table 1). The cymene-containing
complexes 2 generated substantial amounts of CO2 along with O2
according to mass spectrometric analysis of the products. The
relative CO2 portion gradually increased over time, and was
considerably higher with bulkier N-substituent, increasing in the
order Me < Et < i-Pr < Ph. In contrast the corresponding dicationic
complexes 3 produced O2 exclusively. We therefore assume that
cymene rather than the carbene ligand is sensitive towards
2 | [JOURNAL], 200X, 00, 0000
E1/2 (V)
+1.433
+1.427
+1.425
+1.445
+1.358
+1.368
+1.363
+1.42 e
+1.500
n.a.
rel O2 (%) c
99
98
83
66
>99.5
>99.5
>99.5
99
97
97
rel CO2 (%) c
1
2
17
34
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
1
3
3
TOF1000s (h–1)d
198
144
21
25
1080
612
576
216
7
7
TON
18
11
1.0
2.0
19
14
13
10
2.4
13
a
Potentials from differential pulse voltammetry using Bu4NPF6 as
supporting electrolyte and referenced to SCE using Fc+/Fc as internal
standard; complexes 2 measured in CH2Cl2 (Fc+/Fc +0.46 vs SCE),
complexes 3–4 in MeNO2 (Fc+/Fc +0.35 vs SCE). b Catalytic runs
performed with catalyst (1 mM), oxidant (100 mM) in triflic acid solution
(0.1 M, pH = 1.0; 2.0 mL). c relative O2 and CO2 concentrations measured
by MS after 100 s. d TOF1000s is the turnover frequency after 1000 s. e
broad oxidation and reduction peaks.
oxidation. Bulky wingtip groups induce steric congestion and thus
tend to facilitate cymene dissociation.
The dicationic complexes 3 are oxidatively stable, producing
essentially no detectable CO2, and showing appreciable activity
towards O2 formation. Complex 3d is an exception and revealed
small but noticeable quantities of CO2, which may be related to the
propensity of N-bound phenyl groups to undergo cyclometalation.15
Complex 3a as the most active catalyst precursor of the series was
further evaluated under different reaction conditions. At a 1:100
catalyst/oxidant ratio (1 mM catalyst), a marked reduction of
catalyst performance was observed after about 10 turnovers,
perhaps due to the formation of catalytically inactive dimeric
species at high ruthenium concentrations. At a 1:10,000
catalysts/oxidant ratio (0.025 mM catalyst), the turnover numbers
(TONs) increased substantially, reaching 105 mols O2 per mol
ruthenium after 45 min (i.e. 420 turnovers), and oxidation activity
was still ongoing. Hence, catalyst deactivation is efficiently
suppressed under dilute reaction conditions.
Catalytic runs at different concentrations indicate a linear
relationship between the concentration and the initial turnover
frequency, thus supporting homogeneous O2 production at
molecular catalytic sites rather than at aggregates. At an 8 mM
complex concentration (1:100 catalyst/oxidant), initial turnover
frequencies as high as 6660 h–1 were observed. These initial rates
are amongst the highest for mono- and dimetallic ruthenium
complexes reported to date.17 In particular the methyl-substituted
complexes 3a is about 100 times more active than previously tested
pyridine- and phthalazine-based mononuclear ruthenium
complexes.5,7 The overall TONs seem to correlate with the
stereoelectronic effects deduced from electrochemical analyses and
thus point to the relevance of electron donating groups for
providing easy access to higher oxidation states.
Comparison of complex 3a with the homologous and sterically
similar complex 4 comprising a normal imidazol-2-ylidene NHC
ligand (Fig. 2) showed the latter complex to be a poor catalyst,
providing significant quantities of CO2 as well as low TONs and
TOFs. These activity differences thus underline the advantageous
role of the abnormal triazolylidene scaffold. Possibly,
triazolylidene ligands may cooperatively assist bond cleavage and
oxidation processes through reversible tautomerization of the
mesoionic triazolylidene ruthenium aqua complex A to a carbeneThis journal © Royal Society of Chemistry
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2
3
4
5
Fig. 2 Schematic drawing and ORTEP plots of monometallic complex 4
comprising a normal carbene ligand and its dimetallic homologue 5.
R
N N
N
OH2
RuII
R
N N
N
OH2
RuII
A
R
6
OH
N N
N
H
RuII
B
Scheme 2 Possible ligand-cooperative water activation imparted by the
strong mesoionic resonance contribution in abnormal carbenes.
type hydroxide complex B (Scheme 2), thus transforming the
neutral water ligand into an anionic hydroxide without formally
changing the metal oxidation state. Further support for a different
(and less efficient) pathway for water oxidation with normal
carbene ruthenium complexes may be deduced from the higher
TONs accomplished with the dimetallic species 5 compared to the
monometallic analogue 4, though also the bimetallic system
produces considerably more CO2 and is kinetically less competent
than the triazolylidene complexes 3.
In summary, a new and simple family of ruthenium-based water
oxidation catalysts has been developed. The complexes are readily
accessible, and the core triazolylidene ligand is broadly tunable via
flexible click-type [3+2] cycloaddition synthesis. The catalytic
activity is remarkable, in particular when considering the low
complexity of the ligand system, which may become useful for
designing synthetic devices for efficient water splitting.
We thank the European Research Council (ERC-StG 208651)
and Science Foundation Ireland, in parts under the Solar Energy
Conversion Strategic Research Cluster, for funding.
Lucile Bernet,a Ralte Lalrempuia,a Wadih Ghattas,a Helge MuellerBunz,a Laura Vigara,b Antoni Llobet*b and Martin Albrecht*a
a
School of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, University College Dublin,
Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Fax: +353 1716 2501; Tel: +353 1716 2504;
E-mail: martin.albrecht@ucd.ie
b
Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ), Av. Paisos Catalans
16, E-43007 Tarragona, Spain. Fax: +34 977 920228; Tel: +34 977
920815; E-mail: allobet@iciq.es
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Notes and references
‡ The reaction of the pyridine-functionalized triazole with MeOTf was
not chemoselective and gave mixtures of the triazolium and the
pyridinium salt, indicated by the 1H NMR shift of the pertinent
heterocyclic protons; they were separated by preparative TLC.
§ The DPV data for complex 3d suggest a more complex process than
simple reversible metal oxidation.
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This journal © Royal Society of Chemistry
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for Table of Contents entry only
Tunable single-site ruthenium catalysts for efficient water
oxidation
Lucile Bernet,a Ralte Lalrempuia,a Wadih Ghattas,a Helge MuellerBunz,a Laura Vigara,b Antoni Llobet*b and Martin Albrecht*a
Ruthenium complexes comprising a broadly tunable triazolylidene
ligand are efficient and robust water oxidation catalysts, producing
O2 exclusively and essentially no CO2.
4 | [JOURNAL], 200X, 00, 0000
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