Neo-paganism - WorldStudiesClass

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Neo-paganism
N
eo-paganism encompasses several religious traditions. It does so in
the same way that Christianity refers to a diverse body of sects, or
subgroups, such as Catholicism, Lutheranism, Methodism, and many
others, that share certain fundamental beliefs. The prefix neo-, meaning
‘‘new,’’ implies that an ancient belief, practice, or custom has been rediscovered and adapted to the modern era. The word pagan, though, is
harder to define. It generally refers to any ancient, pre-Christian set of
religious beliefs, gods, symbols, rituals, and practices. Neo-paganism,
then, is not the name of a specific religion. Instead, it is a descriptive
term applied to any modern religious movement that tries to reconstruct
ancient religious practices, primarily those from northern and western
Europe.
One complication with the word pagan is that it is open to many different interpretations. Linguists, scholars who study the history and development of language, even debate the origins of the word. Most
believe that it comes from the Latin word paganus, generally thought to
mean a person who lives in a rural area, outside the city walls. City dwellers in the Roman Empire (31 BCE–476 CE) used the word to refer to unsophisticated rural people. After the Roman Empire converted to
Christianity in the fourth century, the term was applied to people in
the countryside who continued to follow religious beliefs that were
regarded as backward and superstitious.
Some scholars, or researchers, believe that the word meant something more like ‘‘civilian,’’ referring to those who were not ‘‘soldiers of
Christ,’’ or Christians. Still others argue that the term more generally referred to ‘‘outsiders,’’ those who were not part of the body of Christian
believers. Whatever the origins of the word, by the time Christianity had
spread throughout Europe, it branded any religious belief that was not
Christian as ‘‘pagan.’’ In addition, pagan practices were regarded as the
work of Satan. ( In Judeo-Christian and Islamic religions Satan is
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WORDS TO KNOW
Asatru: A neo-pagan religion based on worship
of the Norse (Scandanavian) gods.
Lughnasadh: Neo-pagan harvest festival on
August 1.
Beltane (Beltaine): Neo-pagan holiday on
Mabon: Neo-pagan celebration of the autumn
May 1 to celebrate spring flowerings and births.
equinox; the completion of the harvest season.
Celtic: A term referring to an ethnic group that
magick: The ability to focus mental and physical
spread throughout Europe, particularly the
British Isles, and is the source of many modern
neo-pagan movements.
coven: A group of neo-pagans, such as Wiccans.
Alternately referred to as circles, groves, kindreds, garths, hearths, and other terms.
druidism: A neo-pagan religion based in the
Celtic region of the British Isles.
equinox: Either of two points during the year
when the Sun crosses the equator and the
hours of day and night are equal. The spring, or
vernal, equinox occurs generally on March 21
and the autumn equinox occurs on or about
September 23.
Esbat: Wiccan celebration of the full Moon.
Goddess worship: Term that refers generally to
any neo-pagan practice that elevates the status
of goddesses over that of gods.
Imbolc: Neo-pagan holiday generally held on
February 2 to mark the lengthening of the
days and the emergence of the world from
winter.
energies to affect the natural world or to
achieve a goal.
mythology: The collected stories of a culture or religion, especially those dealing with the origins,
heroes, gods, and beliefs of a group of people.
Neo-paganism: A term referring to modern religions based on ancient pagan religions.
Ostara: Neo-pagan holiday held at the time of
the spring equinox.
Sabbat: Holidays practiced by Wiccans throughout the year, including the summer and winter
solstices, the vernal and autumnal equinoxes,
and four additional holidays between these
four.
Samhain (Samhuinn): Neo-pagan holiday celebrated on October 31.
solstice: The points in the year when the day is
longest (the summer solstice, generally on June
21) and the shortest (the winter solstice, generally on December 21).
Wicca: The name of a neo-pagan religion that
generally worships the God and the Goddess.
considered the chief spirit of evil.) In time many Christians came to regard any non-Christian religion, including the religions of Asia, such as
Buddhism, Shinto, and Hinduism, as pagan.
In the modern era pagan continues to be used as a negative and insulting term, implying something backward and vaguely evil. Pagans are
sometimes thought of as Satanists, members of secretive cults who take
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part in bizarre rituals involving blood sacrifice and ‘‘black magic,’’ or
magic practiced for selfish and bad purposes. Neo-paganists, however,
use the word pagan freely to refer to their religious beliefs. They resist stereotypes and emphasize that theirs is an Earth-centered religion whose
members find fulfillment in the cycles and rhythms of the natural world.
Estimating the number of neo-pagans is difficult. The groups tend
to be loosely organized. They avoid the structure and hierarchy (chain of
command) of more formal mainstream religions, making it nearly impossible to count their members. A further complication is that many
people who take part in neo-pagan activities also profess belief in
other religions such as Christianity. One group of neo-pagans called
Wicca, estimated that in 2000 there were some 768,000 neo-pagans,
including 750,000 Wiccans, in the United States, which would make it
the nation’s fifth-largest religion, as well as one of the nation’s fastestgrowing religions. Another estimate places the number of neo-pagans
in the United States and Canada at anywhere between one-half million
and ‘‘several’’ million.
Characteristics of neo-paganism
Neo-pagan religions are known by different names, depending on the
specific religious tradition from ancient times that a particular group
has reconstructed. Some of the terms used to refer to these groups overlap, making discussions of neo-paganism confusing. For example, three
terms often used in discussing neo-paganism are Wicca, witchcraft,
and magick. ( While the everyday word magic suggests parlor tricks and
stage shows, magick emphasizes the neo-pagan belief that humans can
focus their energies to influence natural forces.) Magick refers to a practice that many neo-pagans follow. Witchcraft, or the ability to communicate with past ancestors or use charms and spells to influence natural
events, is a generic word often attached to a subcategory of neo-paganism.
Wicca, on the other hand, refers to a specific group. While Wiccans practice witchcraft and magick, not all Wiccans are witches, and not all
witches are Wiccans.
Despite this complex mix of terms and labels, neo-pagan groups
tend to share a number of important characteristics:
Neo-pagan religions are reconstructed from ancient, pre-Christian
religions. Wicca, for example, was reconstructed from the beliefs
of the ancient Celts (pronounced ‘‘Kelts’’), an ethnic group found
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in western Europe and the British Isles. Celts worshipped the goddess of fertility and the god of the hunt. Other neo-pagans identify
themselves specifically as followers of Asatru, a god from ancient
Norse (Scandinavian) mythology, or as druids, another religion
based on ancient Celtic practices. ( Mythology is the collected stories of a culture or religion dealing with the origins, heroes, gods,
and beliefs of a group of people.) While many neo-pagan religions
have their roots in Celtic traditions, others have their origins in the
gods and goddesses of the Roman Empire (c. 31 BCE–476 CE).
Sometimes the Central and South American religions Vodou and
Santerı́a, which each combine aspects of ancient African religion
and Roman Catholocism, are classified as neo-pagan religions.
Neo-pagan religions are Earth-centered. Their followers seek salvation, or deliverance from sin and evil, and happiness by following
the cycles of the natural world. For this reason neo-pagan religions
have attracted many people who have lost faith in mainstream
Western religions. These people see Western religions as part of
a broader set of Western beliefs that have led to exploitation of
the natural world and damage to the environment. Neo-paganism,
for many, is a way to embrace a simpler, more natural way of life
that does not depend on the tools of modern technology and that
respects the natural world.
Because neo-pagans feel close to the cycles of nature, holy days tend
to include the first day of each of the four seasons: the summer and
winter solstices and the spring and autumn equinoxes. (The solstices are the points in the year when the day is the longest and shortest; the equinoxes are the points of the year when the hours of day
and night are equal.) This emphasis on seasonal changes reflects
the geographical origins of many neo-pagan religions.
Neo-pagan groups tend to have similar beliefs. They follow a belief
system that is either duotheistic (meaning belief in a god and a goddess, or two deities) or polytheistic (meaning belief in many deities).
Many neo-pagans are solitary practitioners. Alternatively, they may
practice in small groups, variously referred to as covens, circles,
groves, kindreds, garths, hearths, and other terms.
Neo-pagans groups have little, if any, hierarchical structure. That is,
no ruling body has authority over members. There is no class of
priests that enforce uniformity of belief. There is no officially
authorized text, sacred scripture, or body of teachings.
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About Neo-paganism
Belief. Most neo-pagans trace their reli-
gious views back to traditions used by
Celts and other European peoples before
missionaries brought Christianity into the
area. In general, they are polytheistic,
believing in more than one god and/or
goddess. They also generally respect the
divine in nature.
Followers. Estimates suggest that there
may be more than one million neopagans around the world today, with
the majority in Europe and North
America.
Name of God. The divinities of neo-
paganism are called by a variety of
names. Prominent among them are the
Goddess (worshipped in many different
aspects) and the God (also worshipped in
many different aspects). Other neopagan groups worship the pantheon, or
group, of ancient Norse mythology or the
forces of nature.
Symbols. The Goddess’s symbols include
the Moon and many other objects representing the feminine: the cup, flowers,
mirrors, seashells, and jewels. The God’s
symbols include the hunt, the Sun, the
sword, horns, the spear, the knife, the
magic wand, the arrow, the sickle (a
curved blade), and precious metals.
Worship. In general, forms of worship are
left to the individual believer or
practitioner.
Dress. Neo-pagans have no standard
costume or form of dress, although
some dress in robes and others worship
naked.
Texts. Asatruars honor the sagas that re-
late ancient Norse myths, but neo-pagans
as a whole have no defined texts or
scriptures.
Sites. Neo-pagans have no particular sites
sacred to their religion. Alternatively, because many celebrate the divine in nature, all sites may be considered holy.
Observances. In general, neo-pagans
observe four festivals taken from Celtic
tradition that mark the seasons of the
year: Samhain, Imbolc, Beltaine, and
Lughnasad.
Phrases. Neo-paganism has no particular
phrases associated with its system of
worship.
Most neo-pagans prefer to practice their rituals outdoors when they
can, consistent with their emphasis on nature. In the past many
practiced in secret, largely because many people associated neopaganism with Satan worship and accordingly persecuted or discriminated against them. As of the early twenty-first century this situation has improved, and neo-pagans feel somewhat freer to openly
acknowledge their beliefs.
All neo-pagans follow a code of behavior based on not doing harm to
others. Neo-pagans do not practice black arts, blood sacrifices, or
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Satan worship. They do not take part in bizarre sexual rituals. Some
groups have been accused of this because they practice rituals
‘‘skyclad,’’ meaning naked. This practice, however, is not widespread.
Neo-paganism includes a wide range of religious traditions. Other religious groups, such as Native American and African shamanism, hold
beliefs similar to neo-paganism. The term neo-pagan, however, generally
refers to religious traditions that originated in pre-Christian northern
and western Europe. Some of these traditions include Asatru, druidism,
Goddess worship, and Wicca.
Asatru
Asatru (often written as Ásatrú) is generally considered a neo-pagan religion, although its practitioners, called Asatruars, refer to themselves as
heathens rather than neo-pagans. (Heathen, like pagan, is a word that has
strong negative connotations, suggesting someone who is uncivilized.
The word, however, is related to the words heath and heather, referring
simply to an open field and to the low vegetation that covers it.) They
see themselves as part of a tradition separate from neo-paganism, or,
in their words, not a branch of the tree but a separate tree. Unlike
such religions as Wicca, Asatru is based on a surviving historical record.
The religion’s followers try to follow the beliefs contained in that record
as much as possible.
Asatru is a Norse religion, meaning that it is of Scandinavian origin.
(Scandinavia is a region that includes modern Denmark, Finland, Iceland,
Norway, and Sweden.) In the modern era the religion goes by a wide number of names: Forn Sior, meaning ‘‘ancient way or tradition’’; Forn sed, or
‘‘old custom’’; Hedensk sed, or ‘‘pagan custom’’; and Nordisk sed, or
‘‘Nordic custom.’’ Other names that appear in writings about the religion
include Norse heathenism, Germanic heathenism, the Elder Troth, the
Old Way, Vor Sior (‘‘our way’’), Odinism, and Folkish Asatru.
Little is known about the origins of Asatru. The Scandinavian religion
on which it is based was practiced in northern Europe during the first millennium (a period consisting of one thousand years) of the Common Era,
meaning the years from 1 through 1000 CE, until the countries in the region converted to Christianity. Its last major stronghold was Iceland,
which did not convert to Christianity until the start of the second millennium. In the modern era Asatru was officially recognized as a religion in
Iceland in 1972. Since then it has grown rapidly in Scandinavian countries,
as well as in the rest of Europe and in North America.
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In the twentieth century some of the beliefs
of Asatru were corrupted by the Nazi regime in
Germany. (The Nazi Party was the ruling political group in Germany from the 1930s to 1945.
It was responsible for the murder of millions of
Jews and other groups.) Nazis such as Heinrich
Himmler (1900–1945) and Rudolf Hess (1894–
1987) seized on the idea of a religion that predated Christianity (which they regarded as corrupted by Judaism) and that was ethnically
German in origin. They used concepts from
Asatru to support their beliefs in a racially
pure Aryan group. Some modern-day neoNazis claim to practice the religion. Asatru
firmly rejects these corruptions, and to counter
them developed a list of ‘‘Nine Noble Virtues’’:
Courage, Truth, Honor, Fidelity, Discipline,
Hospitality, Industriousness, Self-Reliance, and
Perseverance (determination). Asatruars reject
any form of racism, sexism, or other forms
of discrimination that divide people into
categories.
Asatru beliefs and practices Asatru is a polytheistic religion, meaning that it believes in more than one god. Specifically, Asatru believes in three classes of gods. The first are the Aesir,
the gods of the clan or tribe. These gods represent such concepts as
order and rule. The second are the Vanir, which are the gods of fertility
and the forces of nature. The third are the Jotnar, or giants that are in
constant conflict with the Aesir and represent destruction and chaos.
Within these classes are a number of specific gods and goddesses:
Thor, the Thunderer, who races across the sky in his chariot to
create thunder. Thor wields the divine hammer, called Mjollnir.
He is the god of weather and crops.
Odin, the one-eyed god, who gave up an eye to drink from the fountain of wisdom. Odin is the wise one, the magician, who acquired the
secrets of the northern European runic alphabet (also called runes)
by hanging for nine nights from the tree Yggdrasil.
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The Celtic goddess Bridgit,
or Brigit, was made a saint
by the Catholic Church. As
older religions in Europe
encountered newer ones like
Christianity, they each would
change and adapt to one
another. Christianity’s
influence often left the older
religions with much smaller
followings. Ó WERNER
FORMAN/CORBIS.
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Frey is the god of Yuletide (a celebration of the winter solstice) because
he was born on that day, which usually falls on December 21. Frey is
the god of plenty and of peace. He provides prosperity and fertility.
The goddess of love, sexuality, and beauty is Freya, or Freyja. She
is the leader of the Valkyries, the maidens of Odin who choose the
greatest warriors slain in battle and conduct them to Odin’s hall,
Valhalla.
Frigg, or Frigga, as Odin’s wife, is the patroness of married women
and of the household and hearth.
Skadi is the goddess of skiing, hunting, death, and independence.
Ostara is the goddess of fertility who is honored at the spring equinox. A variation of her name is Eostre, from which the word
Easter is derived. Her symbols include the egg and the hare (rabbit), common symbols of Easter in the West.
Asatru also honors the Landvaettir, or the land spirits that inhabit
the streams, Earth, and forests.
Asatru belief says that the universe was created when Muspelheim,
or the Land of Fire, and Niflheim, or the Land of Ice, moved toward
each other over an empty space called Ginnungigap. When they collided,
the universe was born. The earth was created when three brothers, Odin,
Vili, and Ve, killed a giant, whose body became the earth. These brothers
then created humanity from two trees. Another god, Rig, came to Earth
to create the social classes. The gods granted humans Od, or ecstasy, to
separate them from the animals and to provide them with a connection
to the gods. Asatruars believe that when they die, evil people are sent to a
realm of torment called Hifhel (or Hiflhel), while those who have lived
well are sent to a place of peace called Hel (which, oddly, is the word
from which the word hell is derived).
Asatru rituals are conducted by priests (Gothi) or priestesses
(Gythia). They can be conducted in permanent or temporary sites, as
long as the space is consecrated, or blessed. There is no canon, or official
group, of texts, although many Asatruars read the ancient Norse sagas
for their stories about the gods and goddesses. (Sagas are lengthy
poems about heroic and legendary figures in Scandinavia.) Holidays include celebration of the vernal equinox and the summer solstice; the
Charming of the Plow in February; Fogmoon, a celebration of the
dead in November; and the Blot ritual, a sacrificial offering to
the gods that consists of such items as fruit or grains. Sacred symbols
include the axe, Thor’s hammer, and the horns of Odin.
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Druidism
Historical information about druidism is very slight. While the religion is
often thought of as Celtic, some scholars believe that it was being practiced in northern and western Europe before the arrival of the Celts, who
spread throughout Europe over a period of thousands of years. The original Celts may have come out of the region around the Black Sea some
time around 4,000 BCE. From there, they migrated to southwestern Europe to contact the cultures of ancient Greece and Thrace and to northwestern Europe to form the Celtic cultures.
Evidence suggests that around 1,000 BCE a group of loosely linked
Celtic tribes occupied modern-day Slovakia. Over the next millennium
these tribes moved into Spain, northern Italy, central Turkey, then on
to much of France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and, in 200 BCE, the British
Isles. Other than these broad generalizations, however, little is known
about the ancient Celts and druidism. Druidism survived mainly through
oral rather than written traditions until Christianity absorbed, modified,
and finally stamped out Celtic beliefs. Celtic gods and goddesses were
often transformed into Christian saints. (A saint is a deceased person recognized for having led a virtuous and holy life.) The Celtic goddess Brigid
(or Brigit), for example, was canonized (made a saint) by the Catholic
Church. Brigid is a goddess of poetry, healing, and fertility. She continues
to be honored at thousands of springs and wells in Ireland. Further,
Catholic cathedrals were built on many Celtic religious sites. By the seventh century of the Common Era the druid religion practiced by the Celts
had been destroyed, and the few surviving practitioners were driven into
hiding.
Ancient druids organized their society around three classes of people. The Bards were given responsibility for the arts and philosophy.
They were the keepers of the people’s traditions and preservers of the
tribes’ memories. The Ovates were the healers, the ones responsible
for the processes of death and regeneration, or renewal. They were
also prophets because they could speak with ancestral spirits. Finally,
the druids and druidesses (who gave the religion its name) were the society’s professional class and included teachers, priests, astronomers, musicians, scientists, and judges. These were the specialists who conducted
public rituals. The word druid comes from the Indo-European words
drus, meaning ‘‘oak,’’ and wid, meaning ‘‘to know.’’ So a druid was one
who ‘‘knew the oak,’’ that is, could understand the mysteries of the ancient forests and could lead people in outdoor religious rituals.
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Druids celebrate Midsummer’s
Day, the start of summer,
with a ritual at Stonehenge,
England. Neo-pagan religions
are closely linked to nature,
and their holy days often
include the first day of the
start of the four seasons.
ARCHIVE PHOTOS/GETTY
IMAGES.
Druid beliefs and practices Druidism was a polytheistic religion prac-
ticed in many countries. Druids were never organized into a single
group but practiced their religion at the local, tribal level. The archaeological record shows that at least 374 different gods and goddesses were
worshipped. At least three hundred were probably local tribal gods.
The main group of gods and goddesses number perhaps thirty-three (a
sacred number among ancient Celts) and include Arawn, Brigid, Cerridwen, Danu, Herne, Lugh, Morgan, Rhiannon, and Taranis.
Modern druids work to reconstruct the myths and practices of ancient druidism, but they have few records from which to work. They
have determined that the ancient Celts had a ritual similar to baptism,
an initiation ceremony also found in Christianity, though some scholars
believe that references to this ritual were forgeries created by Christian
monks. The druids believed that the god Bile (also known as Bel or Belenus) transported the dead to the Otherworld, where life continued in
much the same way that it did on Earth. Believing that the soul was immortal, druids believed that after death the soul was reincarnated, or reborn, into the body of another living thing. After a soul learned what it
could from the ongoing cycle of reincarnation, it moved to a higher
realm, eventually arriving at the Source, the flame of existence of
which humans represent sparks.
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Current practitioners of druidism have also
reconstructed several ancient practices and symbols. They know that the ancient druids practiced
divination, or techniques designed to read into
the future. Some of these techniques included
interpreting dreams, examining the flights of
birds, meditation, and reading the pattern of
sticks scattered on the ground. They have also
rediscovered the Awen symbol (awen is Welsh
for ‘‘inspiration’’), consisting of three pillars with
the outer two sloped toward the one in the center.
Druids were fascinated with the number three.
Many goddesses were triune goddesses, represented as three sisters. Brigid is one of these triune goddesses. Another important symbol is
the triskele, consisting of three curved branches,
arms, or legs radiating from the center.
The chief practice of druidism, both ancient and modern, is the celebration of seasonal
days. These celebrations, which begin at sunset
and continue for three days, usually feature
large bonfires. The four festivals are:
The Druids and Stonehenge
About 2 miles (3 kilometers) west of the
town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, in southern
England stands a cluster of stone, wood, and
earth structures called Stonehenge. Both
archaeologists (scholars who study the physical
remains of ancient civilizations) and millions of
tourists stand before these structures in awe,
wondering who built them, when, and why.
They also wonder how the structure was built,
given that some of the massive stones were
transported from as far away as Wales.
Some people believe that the druids built
Stonehenge, likely as a religious shrine. The
fact is, though, that construction on Stonehenge began some time around 2,900 BCE and
was completed some time around 1,600 BCE,
more than one thousand years before the
arrival of the Celtic druids.
1. Samhain (or Samhuinn), the ‘‘end of the warm season.’’ This
festival, which begins on November 1, later evolved into the
secular (nonreligious) holiday of Halloween.
2. Imbolc, or ‘‘in the belly,’’ celebrates the return of light and the first
evidence of new life in the ground. It evolved into the secular
Groundhog Day.
3. Beltaine (or Bealteinne), celebrated on May 1, was the equivalent of
the modern May Day. It is a time to celebrate the blossoming of
flowers and the birth of domesticated animals.
4. Lughnasad (also Lughnasadh and Lamma), celebrated on August 1,
is the ‘‘Feast of Lugh,’’ the god of light, and marks the start of the
harvest season.
There are a number of modern druidic movements, primarily in
Great Britain and North America. The Order of Bards, Ovates, and
Druids (OBOD) was formed in the eighteenth century under the
name Ancient Order of Druids. This original group separated into
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A broom is used during
neo-pagan weddings, called
handfastings. The newly
married couple will jump over
a broom, which represents a
threshold. The couple often has
their hands bound with a
cord, explaining the term
‘‘handfasting.’’ Ó DAVID
HOFFMAN PHOTO LIBRARY/
ALAMY.
factions, of which one, the British Circle of Universal Bond, survived to
become the OBOD. Another movement is the British Druid Order,
founded in 1979 and claiming three thousand members. In the United
States the Reformed Druids of North America were formed in the late
1950s or early 1960s (the date is uncertain), and this movement gave
rise to a number of others, including Ar nDraiocht Fein, a movement
that emphasizes scholarly research and that has forty-three groves in
the United States and two in Canada. In Australia, the Druids Friendly
Society offers a health insurance plan to its members.
Goddess worship
The phrase Goddess worship does not refer to a particular religious group.
It refers to a set of religious beliefs that celebrate feminine characteristics
generally associated with women, like nurturing, child-bearing, sensitivity,
and gentleness. Some goddess worshippers are members of specific religious groups such as Wicca. Others worship goddesses independent of
any specific group.
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Throughout history many cultures, including the ancient Greeks,
Romans, and Egyptians, worshipped goddesses. The names of some of
these goddesses include Anat, Aphrodite, Aradia, Arianrhod, Artemis,
Astarte, Brigid, Ceres, Demeter, Diana, Eostre, Freya, Gaia, Hera, Ishtar,
Isis, Juno, Kali, Lilith, Maat, Mary, Minerva, Ostare, Persephone, Venus,
and Vesta. Some historians of religion would add Mary, the mother of
Jesus Christ (c. 6 BCE–c. 30 CE), to this list because Mary has been venerated, or highly respected, by many Christians throughout history. In
modern times the feminist movement has renewed interest in Goddess
worship. Feminists want equal rights and treatment for women. They believe that Western culture and civilization have for too long been dominated by masculine principles, characteristics associated with men, such
as aggression. Feminism and Goddess worship restore a balance by placing greater emphasis on feminine principles.
Many anthropologists (scholars who study human cultures and behavior) and archaeologists believe that the earliest humans may have worshipped goddesses more often than they worshipped gods. They believe
that early people did not have a good understanding of men’s role in procreation (reproducing; having children). While these tribal peoples worshipped male gods, such as those associated with hunting, they also
worshipped female gods associated with birth, fertility, and procreation.
To ensure that the tribe survived, these people may have believed that
the goddesses required their worship in exchange for children (as well
as the birth of wild and domesticated animals and the emergence of
new crops in the spring). Many of these earliest cultures were matrilineal,
meaning that the family tree was traced through the mother’s, rather than
the father’s, ancestors.
Adaption and absorption of Goddess worship Goddess worshippers
and feminists believe that monotheistic religions (those that believe in
one God), such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, suppressed feminine
values and elevated masculine ones. Gods, kings, priests, and fathers grew
in importance at the expense of goddesses, queens, priestesses, and mothers. In some branches of Judaism and Christianity, for instance, women
are not allowed to serve as priests. The merger of masculine and feminine
in time gave rise to a number of pagan religions in Europe, religions that
absorbed the new male gods but continued to include goddesses.
The modern world has reinvented some of these religions. Modern
believers in these movements value the balance between masculine and
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feminine that such religions provide or they value the promotion of feminine deities over masculine ones. In elevating goddesses, neo-pagans tend
to see the Goddess in three aspects, represented by the waxing moon, the
full moon, and the waning moon. The waxing (or growing) moon is the
Goddess in her youth and vitality. She is the Maiden whose sexuality is
just emerging. The Mother, represented by the full moon, symbolizes nurturing, procreation, and feminine power. The Crone, represented by the
waning moon, symbolizes wisdom and experience. It is the Crone who
guides humans toward death and the afterlife.
Wicca
Wicca is one of the most prominent neo-pagan religions, and one that
elevates the Goddess to a stature equal to that of the God. It is a form
of modern witchcraft. Not all people who call themselves witches are
Wiccans. The word witchcraft causes confusion because in the JudeoChristian tradition, witchcraft is usually associated with Satan. Over the
past two thousand years the Christian church has persecuted many people
for witchcraft and for practicing ‘‘black arts.’’
Modern practitioners of witchcraft, though, strongly deny that they
worship evil or engage in strange practices. They maintain that witchcraft
as practiced by Wiccans and other groups sees the divine in the natural
world, including the cycle of the seasons and the phases of the Moon.
Most such groups have a strict code of behavior based on not doing
harm to others. Wiccans also obey the Law of Threefold Return, meaning
that anything one does, such as a good deed (or a bad deed) will return to
them threefold (multiplied by three).
The emergence of Wicca as a modern religious movement can be
traced to the 1950s in England and the efforts of a British civil servant
and amateur anthropologist named Gerald Gardner (1884–1964).
Gardner wrote extensively on witchcraft in two widely read books, Witchcraft Today and The Meaning of Witchcraft. Practitioners of Wicca as Gardner
described it are often referred to as Gardnerian Wiccans. Considerable
controversy has surrounded Gardner and his writings. He claimed that
the religion had been revealed to him by a woman named Dorothy Clutterbuck, a well-known local witch in England. Later students of Wicca
have disputed this claim, arguing that Gardner formulated the religion
on the basis of nineteenth-century occult practices combined with
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Magic in Wicca
It’s common knowledge even among the masses
that Witches practice magic. They may have
misguided ideas concerning the type of magic
performed, but the Witch is firmly linked in
popular thought with the magical arts.
Wicca is . . . a religion that embraces magic as
one of its basic concepts. This isn’t unusual. In
fact, it’s often difficult to discern [determine]
where religion ends and magic begins in any
faith.
Still, magic plays a special role in Wicca. It allows
us to improve our lives and return energy to our
ravaged [damaged] planet. Wiccans also develop special relationships with the Goddess and
God through magic. . . . Through working with
the powers which the God and the Goddess
embody [represent], we grow close to them.
Calling upon their names and visualizing their
presence during spells and rites creates a bond
between Deity and human. Thus, in Wicca,
magic is a religious practice. . . .
Magic is the projection of natural energies to
produce needed effects.
There are three main sources of this energy—
personal power, Earth power and divine power.
Personal power is the life force that sustains our
earthly existences. It powers our bodies. We
absorb energy from the Moon and Sun, from
water and food. We release it during movement,
exercise, sex and childbirth. Even exhaling
releases some power, though we recoup [get
back] the loss through inhaling. . . .
Earth power is that which resides within our
planet and in its natural products. Stones, trees,
wind, flames, water, crystals and scents all possess unique, specific powers which can be used
during magical ritual. . . .
Both person power and Earth power are manifestations [expressions] of divine power. This is
the energy that exists within the Goddess and
God—the life force, the source of universal
power which created everything in existence.
Wiccans invoke [call upon] the Goddess and
God to bless their magic with power. During
ritual they may direct personal power to the
deities, asking that a specific need be met. This is
truly religious magic.
And so, magic is a process in which Wiccans
work in harmony with the universal power
source which we envision as the Goddess and
God, as well as with personal and Earth energies,
to improve our lives and lend energy to the
Earth.
Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: A Guide for The
Solitary Practitioner. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Publications, 1999: pages 19–20.
elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, and his own imagination. Some Wiccans credited Gardner with keeping the ancient religion alive. Others
accused him of revealing secret wisdom that should have been kept secret
among initiates into the religion.
Wiccan beliefs and practices In 1974 a number of Wiccans gathered in
Minneapolis, Minnesota, where they drafted a statement containing the
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principles of Wiccan belief. The following list summarizes some of the
most important principles.
Wiccans practice rites attuned to the ‘‘natural rhythm of life forces.’’
Its rituals follow both the astronomical year, marked by the movement of the Sun, and the waxing and waning of the Moon.
Because they believe that the divine manifests itself in all creation,
Wiccans advocate responsibility toward the environment. Many
are involved with environmental protection activities and oppose
destruction of the natural world.
Wiccans believe that a great depth of power exists in the world that is
not noticeable to the average person. Although Wiccans take part
in formal rituals, they regard the natural world, such as the blossom of a flower or a fertile field, as having the power to instill feelings of awe and mystery.
A key belief of Wiccans has to do with the nature of the divine.
Wicca is a duotheistic religion (a religion of two gods) that emphasizes the creative power of both the masculine and the feminine
deities. The (usually unnamed) Goddess is the mother, the source
of fertility, abundance, love, and growth. Her chief symbol is the
Moon. Her other symbols include the cup, flowers, mirrors, seashells, and jewels. The God is associated with the hunt and is
regarded as the source of all life. His symbols include not only
the life-giving Sun but also the sword, horns, the spear, the
knife, the magic wand, the arrow, the sickle, and precious metals.
Note that these symbols have marked sexual connotations, suggesting the merger of male and female into one to create and affirm life. One branch of Wicca, however, called Dianic Wicca
after the Roman goddess Diana, places nearly all of its emphasis
on the Goddess.
Wiccans do not recognize a hierarchy of authority, or chain of command. Every practitioner can be his or her own priest or priestess,
performing rituals without the assistance of a class of specialists.
When they do participate with groups, Wiccans believe that the
ideal size of a coven is thirteen members. When a coven grows
larger than thirteen, it splits, or ‘‘hives,’’ into two or more covens.
The covens remain associated as a larger unit called a grove.
Wiccans have the freedom to develop a number of ritual practices.
They start by accumulating ritual tools, which serve the same purpose as
ritual objects in other religions. They focus and guide the worshipper’s
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The pentacle is a popular
symbol of the Wiccan religion.
The five-pointed star’s
geometric shape represents
wisdom and and balance. The
circle surrounding it symbolizes
unity. Ó REBECCA MCENTEE/
CORBIS SYGMA.
thoughts and energies. These tools are used in rituals conducted on
altars positioned within a sacred circle. Some common Wiccan tools
include:
The broom, typically used at the beginning of rituals to both physically
and spiritually cleanse the place where rituals will be conducted. At
Wiccan weddings, called handfastings, the newly married couple
often leaps over the broom. The broom has become a stereotype
of witchcraft, but it is a stereotype based on an element of fact.
The magic wand, which can be made of any material, gives the worshipper a sense of energy and power.
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The censer, or incense burner, and the incense burned in it represent
the element of air. Watching the smoke curl into the air can sometimes create a trancelike state.
The cauldron is seen as a vessel in which magical transformations
take place. It is a clear symbol of the Goddess, representing fertility
and femininity, and a symbol of water, inspiration, and reincarnation. During springtime rituals it is often filled with flowers and
water. In wintertime rituals fires are built within the cauldron to
symbolize the heat and light of the Sun. Related to the cauldron
is the cup, which contains beverages drunk during rituals.
The crystal sphere is used in divination ( predicting the future) and
promotes contemplation. As a sphere, it is symbolic of the
Goddess.
The bell is a feminine symbol used to invoke, or call, the Goddess
during rituals.
The Book of Shadows is the closest thing that Wicca has to a sacred
scripture, though it is more in the nature of a workbook or manual.
Each Book of Shadows is compiled by the individual practitioner,
but such books are often passed from Wiccan to Wiccan. They
contain not rules but suggestions about Wiccan practice, including
invocations and rituals.
The pentacle is one of the most visible symbols of Wicca. It consists
of a five-pointed star surrounded by a circle. Contrary to popular
belief, it is not a Satanic symbol. Rather, the star’s geometric shape
symbolizes wisdom and balance, while the circle symbolizes unity
and eternity.
The Wiccan calendar is quite similar to that of other neo-pagan religions, especially druidism. It follows the cycles of the Moon, the Sun, and
the natural world. Wiccans celebrate thirteen Esbats, or full Moons, each
year. Wiccans also mark a number of days called Sabbats throughout the
cycle of the year. Four Sabbats mark the beginning of seasons, and four
more occur about midway between the seasonal days. The cycle begins
with Yule, the shortest day of the year and the start of winter, when
Wiccans ask the Sun to return. Imbolc, on February 2, marks the lengthening of the days and the emergence of the world from winter. It is a time
when many people are ritually initiated into covens. Ostara, around
March 21, is the spring equinox, when light overtakes darkness (at the
moment of the equinox, the hours of day and night are precisely
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Duality in Religion
Male and female representations can be found in
all religions. For instance, the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter Fatima plays an important role
in the early development of Islam, just as Mary,
the mother of Christiantiy’s founder Jesus Christ,
has a special place in Christianity. Additionally,
there are many female goddesses that are worshipped in Hinduism. In some religions, the male
and female elements make up a central belief or
understanding about the religion. This is the case
both for some neo-pagan religions, such as
Wicca, and for faiths like Daoism.
Neo-pagans may believe in one Supreme Being
or in many gods and goddesses. One of the
central teachings of many neo-pagan religions
is that the divine is a part of all things. Some
worship both the God and the Goddess, a
duality of male and feminine aspects. The male
aspects are represented by certain characteristics, such as power, ripe harvests, and wild
animals. Female aspects are represented by
other characteristics, such as fertility, wisdom,
and love. The Goddess in Wicca, for example,
is associated with the Moon, while the God is
associated with the Sun.
The same is true in the religion of Daoism. Male
and female forces are represented by yin and
yang. Yin is the feminine. It is dark, open, flexible,
and soft. Yang is the male. It is light and controlling, hard, unbending. These characteristics
are opposites of each other, yet each are needed
to create a balance in existence. The Daoist depiction of yin and yang is of two halves of a circle.
One half is white and one is black. Each of the
sides are curling into the other and each contain a
speck of the other.
Yin and yang work in harmony, or agreement,
together. Dark and light, or female and male,
are constantly adjusted between the two to
keep these elements in balance. One does not
operate without the other. Similarly, Wicca
considers its dual aspects of the God and the
Goddess to be equal and part of one whole.
Both religions believe that the divine, whether it
is God, Goddess, or Dao, is present in all things
at all times.
equal). This observance marks the beginning of spring, of planting, and
of reproduction.
The next Sabbat is Beltane (or Beltaine) on April 30. By now spring
is well under way. Beltane marks the return of vitality and passion into
the world, a process that continues through the summer solstice, around
June 21. During this period the world has been filled with the creative
power of the God and Goddess, concluding on August 1 with Lughnasadh, the harvest festival. On about September 21, Wiccans celebrate the
Mabon, the autumn equinox, and the completion of the harvest season.
Again, the hours of day and night are equal, but at this point in the cycle
darkness is overtaking the light. Finally, at Samhain, on October 31,
Wiccans bid the Sun goodbye and engage in a period of reflection
about the past year. With the new Yule, the cycle begins again.
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Neo-pagan observances: Samhain and Halloween
Halloween as celebrated in the United States is a blend of Christian and
pagan traditions. The word itself refers to the evening of the day preceding All Hallows’ Day, or All Saints Day as it is commonly called, a Christian feast first celebrated by the Catholic Church in the seventh century.
(The word hallow means ‘‘holy.’’)
In addition to these Christian roots, Halloween also has deep roots in
Celtic pagan practices. Modern Halloween corresponds with the pagan/
Wiccan holiday of Samhain (often spelled Samhuinn and pronounced
‘‘sow-in’’). Samhain marks the beginning of the cold season, just as Beltane six months earlier marks the beginning of the warm season. Samhain
is particularly important to pagans for at least two reasons. One is that it
was believed that at Samhain the boundary dividing this world from the
next was the thinnest. They saw this season as a time when a ‘‘crack’’
opened between the two worlds and it was possible to make contact
with ancestors, who could return and share their wisdom with the living.
Samhain was also important because it was believed that during the
Samhain season it was possible to foretell the future. This emphasis on
being able to see into the future was important to people living in the extreme cold of the north, where life promised to be uncertain during the
cold months of a long winter. Of particular concern was whether food
supplies for both humans and domesticated animals would last until
the following spring or summer.
Modern neo-pagans such as Wiccans have attempted to recreate the
observances surrounding Samhain as accurately as possible. Ceremonies typically begin with a ritual bath. Wiccans then consecrate (‘‘cast’’) a sacred circle
in which rituals are conducted. The altar within the circle is decorated with
gourds, pumpkins, pine cones, and autumn flowers. Rituals are performed to
foretell the future and to make contact with ancestral loved ones. After participants have shared food, such as cakes and wine or cider, the sacred circle
is ‘‘banished’’ (or ‘‘grounded’’), and the ritual ends.
Neo-paganism in the modern world
Neo-pagans acknowledge that as more people have become familiar with
their religious beliefs, discrimination and incidents of outright persecution (mistreatment) have sharply reduced. In 1984 a district court in Virginia ruled that Wicca was a legally protected religion, a ruling that was
affirmed in 1985 by a Federal Court of Appeals. Nonetheless, neo-pagans
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are still often ridiculed. The term ‘‘fluffy bunny’’ has entered the language
to refer to members of neo-pagan religious groups. It suggests a belief
that neo-pagans emphasize emotion and the more soothing, uplifting
aspects of religion. Many neo-pagans refer to themselves as ‘‘fluffy bunnies’’ as a tongue-in-cheek way to acknowledge this perception and to
persuade other neo-pagans not to take themselves too seriously.
In the view of many people, neo-paganism is not a serious religion
but rather a form of ‘‘feel-good’’ social protest, especially among the
young. According to this view, people adopt neo-pagan beliefs as a way
of rejecting the values of modern technological society. The beliefs of
neo-pagan religions, however, have endured through ancient times and
retain their appeal. Neo-paganism continues to attract believers around
the world in the twenty-first century.
For More Information
BOOKS
Grimassi, Raven. Encyclopedia of Wicca and Witchcraft. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Publications, 2000.
Higginbotham, Joyce. Paganism: An Introduction to Earth-centered Religions. St. Paul,
MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2002.
O’Hara, Gwydion. Pagan Ways: Finding the Spirituality in Nature. St. Paul, MN:
Llewellyn Publications, 2002.
Pennick, Nigel. The Pagan Book of Days: A Guide to the Festivals, Traditions, and
Sacred Days of the Year, 2nd ed. Rochester, VT.: Destiny Books, 2001.
WEB SITES
Junker, Karen. ‘‘Druids.’’ Religious Movements Homepage. http://religiousmovements.
lib.virginia.edu/nrms/drud.html (accessed on June 5, 2006).
‘‘A Pagan Primer.’’ About.com. http://altreligion.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.
htm?zi=1/XJ&sdn=altreligion&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecauldron.
com%2Fnewpagan.php (accessed on June 5, 2006).
Robinson, B. A. ‘‘Neo-Pagan—Pagan Religious Traditions.’’ Ontario Consultants on
Religious Tolerance. http://www.religioustolerance.org/neo_paga.htm (accessed
on June 5, 2006).
Robinson, B. A. ‘‘Wicca: A Neo-Pagan, Earth-Centered Religion.’’ Ontario Consultants
on Religious Tolerance. http://www.religioustolerance.org/witchcra.htm (accessed
on June 5, 2006).
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