Perpetua and Felicity

Perpetua and Felicity
1
Perpetua and Felicity
"Perpetua" redirects here. For other uses, see Perpetua (disambiguation).
Saints Perpetua and Felicity
Stained-glass window of St Perpetua of Carthage (church of Notre-Dame of Vierzon, France, 19th century): martyrdom of St Perpetua and her
fellows in the stadium of Carthage; Saint Felicity on her left
Martyrs
Died
c. 203
Carthage, Roman Province of Africa (modern-day Tunisia)
Honored in
Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox
Churches, Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church
Canonized
Pre-Congregation
Feast
Roman Catholic Church:
•
•
7 March
6 March (1908–1969)
Eastern Orthodox Church:
[1][2]
• February 1
Patronage
Mothers, Expectant Mothers, ranchers, butchers, Carthage, Catalunya
Saints Perpetua and Felicity (believed to have died 203) are Christian martyrs of the 3rd century. Perpetua was a
married noblewoman, said to have been 22 years old at the time of her death, and mother of an infant she was
nursing. Felicity, her slave and pregnant at the time, was martyred with her. They were put to death along with others
at Carthage in the Roman province of Africa.
The Passion of St. Perpetua, St. Felicitas, and their Companions is one of the oldest and most notable early Christian
texts. It survives in both Latin and Greek forms, and purports to contain the actual prison diary of the young mother
and martyr Perpetua. Scholars generally believe that it is authentic although in the form we have it may have been
edited by others. The text also purports to contain, in his own words, the accounts of the visions of Saturus, another
Christian martyred with Perpetua. An editor who states he was an eyewitness has added accounts of the martyrs'
suffering and deaths.
According to the passion, a slave named Revocatus, his fellow slave Felicitas, the two free men Saturninus and
Secundulus, and Perpetua, who were catechumens, that is, Christians being instructed in the faith but not yet
Perpetua and Felicity
2
baptized,were arrested and executed at the military games in celebration of the Emperor Geta's birthday. To this
group was added a man named Saturus, who voluntarily went before the magistrate and proclaimed himself a
Christian.
Text and content
Summary of the Passion text
The traditional view has been that Perpetua, Felicity and the others were martyred owing to a decree of Roman
emperor Septimius Severus. This is based on a reference to a decree he is said to have issued forbidding conversions
to Judaism and Christianity but this decree is known only from one source, the Augustan History, an unreliable mix
of fact and fiction. :184 Early church historian Eusebius describes Severus as a persecutor, but the Christian apologist
Tertullian states that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician
and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from "the mob".:184 Eusebius'
description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred
during his reign,including those known in the Roman martyrology as the martyrs of Madaura as well as Perpetua and
Felicity in the Roman province of Africa, but these were probably as the result of local persecutions rather than
empire wide actions or decrees by Severus.:185
The details of the martyrdoms survive in both Latin and Greek texts (see below). Perpetua's account of events
leading to their deaths, apparently historical, is written in the first person. A brief introduction by the editor (chapters
i–ii) is followed by the narrative and visions of Perpetua (iii–ix), and the vision of Saturus (xi–xiii). The account of
their deaths, written by the editor who claims to be an eyewitness, is included at the end (xiv–xxi).
Perpetua’s account opens with conflict between her and her father, who wishes for her to recant her belief.[3]
Perpetua refuses, and is soon baptized before being moved to prison (iii). After the guards are bribed, she is allowed
to move to a better portion of the prison, where she nurses her child and gives its charge to her mother and brother
(iii), and the child is able to stay in prison with her for the time being (iii).
At the encouragement of her brother,
Perpetua asks for and receives a vision,
in which she climbs a dangerous ladder
to which various weapons are attached
(iv). At the foot of a ladder is a dragon,
which is faced first by Saturus and
later by Perpetua (iv). The dragon does
not harm her, and she ascends to a
garden (iv). At the conclusion of her
dream, Perpetua realizes that the
martyrs will suffer (iv).
Perpetua’s father visits her in prison
and pleads with her, but Perpetua
Painting showing the martyrdom of Perpetua, Felicitas, Revocatus, Saturninus and
remains steadfast in her faith (v). She
Secundulus, from the Menologion of Basil II (c. 1000 AD)
is brought to a hearing before the
governor Hilarianus and the martyrs
confess their Christian faith (vi). In a second vision, Perpetua sees her brother Dinocrates, who had died unbaptized
from cancer at the early age of seven (vii). She prayed for him and later had a vision of him happy and healthy, his
facial disfigurement reduced to a scar (viii). Perpetua’s father again visits the prison, and Pudens (the warden) shows
the martyrs honor (ix).
Perpetua and Felicity
The day before her martyrdom, Perpetua envisions herself defeating a savage Egyptian and interprets this to mean
that she would have to do battle not merely with wild beasts but with the Devil himself (x).
Saturus, who is also said to have recorded his own vision, sees himself and Perpetua transported eastward by four
angels to a beautiful garden, where they meet Jocundus, Saturninus, Hinda, Artaius, and Dennis Quinntus, four other
Christians who are burnt alive during the same persecution (xi-xii). He also sees Bishop Optatus of Carthage and the
priest Aspasius, who beseech the martyrs to reconcile the conflicts between them (xiii).
As the editor resumes the story, Secundulus is said to have died in prison (xiv). The slave Felicitas gives birth to a
daughter despite her initial concern that she would not be permitted to suffer martyrdom with the others, since the
law forbade the execution of pregnant women (xv). On the day of the games, the martyrs are led into the
amphitheatre (xviii). At the demand of the crowd they were first scourged before a line of gladiators; then a boar, a
bear, and a leopard were set on the men, and a wild cow on the women (xix). Wounded by the wild animals, they
gave each other the kiss of peace and were then put to the sword (xix). The text describes Perpetua’s death as
follows; "But Perpetua, that she might have some taste of pain, was pierced between the bones and shrieked out; and
when the swordsman's hand wandered still (for he was a novice), herself set it upon her own neck. Perchance so
great a woman could not else have been slain (being feared of the unclean spirit) had she not herself so willed it"
(xix). The text ends as the editor extols the acts of the martyrs.
Debate over authorship
The text Passio SS Perpetuae et Felicitatis claims to contain the personal account of Perpetua, and of Saturus’ vision
written in his own hand (ii and xi). An editor has included an introduction and conclusion to the text (ii and xi).
Scholars generally believe that the narrative was in fact, written by Perpetua.[4] If this is true, the text is important
because Perpetua is one of the first Christian female writers before the fourth century whose works have survived.[5]
The personal account of a female martyr is also rare, as the stories of other female martyrs were recorded
collectively.[4] Perpetua’s style is described as “emotional”, “personal”, “fragmented” and “colloquial”, which is fitting
with the circumstances under which she would have been writing. It should still be acknowledged that the style could
have been crafted to give the impression of a female martyr’s diary.[6]
Although some have suggested that the editor of the text is Tertullian, the editor’s identity remains uncertain.[7] The
writing style and content of the edited material do seem to suggest that the editor is male.[8]
Many scholars have examined the male modification and transmission of a female martyrdom story that challenged
power dynamics and gender hierarchies within the organized church.[9] This issue of gender may have influenced the
redaction tendencies of the editor. Brent Shaw argues that the editor of the story rewrites Perpetua’s experience in
such a way that affirms the technical value of her martyrdom while simultaneously presenting her actions as
unnatural.[10] Furthermore, the dream vision of Saturus is considered to be the result of editorial activity, unlikely to
have been written by Saturus himself because of its distinctive construction and impersonal bent.[11] If the editor is
male, he may have been seeking to show that men and women, rather than women alone, are responsible for the
dreams and visions received in the narrative. Others argue that Felicity may have been the initial source for the
dream, an attribution changed by the editor in order to circumvent the problematic implications of a female slave
who can receive visions.
Dating issues
The date of their martyrdom is traditionally given as 203 AD. The association of the martyrdom with a birthday
festival of the Emperor Geta, however, might seem to place it after 209, when Geta was made "Augustus" (having
held the junior title Caesar since 198 when his elder brother had been made "Augustus"), though before 211, when
he was assassinated. The Acta notes that the martyrdom occurred in the year when Minucius Timinianus was
proconsul in the Roman province of Africa, but as Timinianus is not otherwise attested in history, this information
does not clarify the date. The Golden Legend, however, places the martyrdom in 256, under the emperors Valerian
3
Perpetua and Felicity
and Gallienus.
Martyrdom
Martyrdom was intended to combine physical punishment with public humiliation and degradation, and understood
in context, the resultant cruelty and celebration of imperial tough power were neither unusual nor extraordinary.[12]
Ultimately, martyrdom symbolized obedience to the values represented by the church and reflected the belief that the
church can fulfill and commend itself by self-sacrifice and death.[5] As seen in the story of Perpetua and other North
African females, martyrdom became a means of self-empowerment for women in Christian circles.[4]
Christians challenging the traditions of the family within the text
In the Passion, Christian faith motivates the martyrs to reject family loyalties and acknowledge a higher authority.[13]
In the text, Perpetua’s relationship with her father is the most prominently featured of all her familial ties, and she
directly interacts with him four times (iii, v, vi, and ix).[14] Perpetua herself may have deemed this relationship to be
her most important, given what is known about its importance within Roman society.[15] Fathers expected that their
daughters would care for them, honor them, and enhance their family reputation through marriage. In becoming a
martyr, Perpetua failed to conform to society’s expectations.[16] Perpetua and Felicity also defer their roles as
mothers to remain loyal to Christ, leaving behind young children at the time of their death.[10]
Although the narrator does describe Perpetua as “honorably married”, no husband appears in the text.[17] Possible
explanations include that her husband was attempting to distance himself from the proceedings as a non-Christian,
that he was away on business, or that her mention of him was edited out. Because Perpetua was called the bride of
Christ, omission of her husband may have been intended to reduce any sexual implications (xviii).[18] Regardless, the
absence of a husband in the text leads Perpetua to assume new family loyalties and a new identity in relation to
Christ.[15]
Perpetua belonged to an aristocratic family with Roman citizenship, as indicated by her name Vibia Perpetua.[19]
Perpetua’s execution alongside slaves demonstrated Christianity’s ability to transcend social distinctions, in contrast
to the inequality that pervaded Roman religion and society.[20] As Perpetua and Felicity were equal in martyrdom
despite differences in class, they made the dramatic statement that Christianity transcended social structure.[21]
Evidence for Montanism in the text
Most scholars believe that The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity present a Montanist theology. Montanism
was a New Prophecy movement that arose in Phrygia, modern Turkey. The movement was founded by Montanus; a
recent convert to Christianity who had shared new prophecies with followers. The New Prophecy movement
emphasized a belief in the continuing presence of the Holy Spirit visible in the prophetic words of Christians.[22]
Perpetua and Saturus had received new dreams and prophesies within the text in accordance with the beliefs and
tenets of Montanism.[23] Further evidence for Montanism is that Perpetua and Felicity may have separated
themselves from their partners in accordance with Montanist teachings, which allowed and sometimes even
encouraged women to leave non-Christian husbands in favor of celibate lives devoted to preaching the Gospel.[24]
However, nothing in the text is explicitly Montanist. Opponents of the new prophecy accused its members of having
avoided martyrdom, which makes the identification of the Passio text as Montanist less likely.[25]
The editor’s additions may be an attempt to validate Montanist beliefs, praising prophecy and visionary gifts from
the spirit.[26] In the introduction for example, the editor includes a biblical reference to the sons and daughters who
shall prophesy in the last days (i). The editor also asserts the importance of acknowledging and honoring both “new
prophecies” and “new visions” (i).
4
Perpetua and Felicity
Veneration
In Carthage a magnificent basilica was afterwards erected over the
tomb of the martyrs, the Basilica Maiorum, where an ancient
inscription bearing the names of Perpetua and Felicitas has been found.
Saints Felicitas and Perpetua (mentioned in that order) are two of seven
women commemorated by name in the second part of the Canon of the
Mass. The Blessed Virgin Mary is commemorated in the first part.
The feast day of Saints Perpetua and Felicitas, 7 March, was celebrated
even outside Africa, and is entered in the Philocalian Calendar, the
4th-century calendar of martyrs venerated publicly at Rome. When
Saint Thomas Aquinas's feast was inserted into the Roman calendar,
for celebration on the same day, the two African saints were
thenceforth only commemorated. This was the situation in the
Tridentine Calendar established by Pope Pius V, and remained so until
the year 1908, when Pope Pius X brought the date for celebrating them
Mosaic of Saint Perpetua, Croatia.
forward to 6 March.[27] In the 1969 revision of the General Roman
Calendar the feast of Saint Thomas Aquinas was moved, and that of Saints Perpetua and Felicity was restored to
their traditional 7 March date.[28]
Other Churches, including the Lutheran Church and the Episcopal Church, commemorate these two martyrs on 7
March, never having altered the date to 6 March. The Anglican Church of Canada, however, commemorates them on
6 March (The Book of Common Prayer, 1962).
In the Eastern Orthodox Church the feast day of Saints Perpetua of Carthage and the catechumens Saturus,
Revocatus, Saturninus, Secundulus, and Felicitas is February 1.
Controversy over Dinocrates
The account of St Perpetua comforting her dead brother has been a point of controversy. The text specifically says
that the child had not been baptized. Renatus used this account to bolster his claim that unbaptized infants could
attain paradise, if not the kingdom of heaven. Augustine in turn proposed an explanation for how Dinocrates could
have been baptized but later estranged from Christ by his pagan father.[29]
In popular culture
The once-flowering rambling rose "Félicité et Perpétue" (R. sempervirens x 'Old Blush'[30]) with palest pinks buds
opening nearly white, was introduced by Robert Jacques[31] in 1828.[32]
Two historical fiction novels have been written from the point of view of Perpetua. Amy Peterson's Perpetua: A
Bride, A Martyr, A Passion (ISBN 978-0972927642) was published in 2004, and Malcolm Lyon's The Bronze
Ladder (ISBN 978-1905237517) in 2006.
5
Perpetua and Felicity
References
[1] Great Synaxaristes: Ἡ Ἁγία Περπέτουα ἡ Μάρτυς καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῇ (http:/ / www. synaxarion. gr/ gr/ sid/ 1978/ sxsaintinfo. aspx). 1
Φεβρουαρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ.
[2] Martyr Perpetua, a woman of Carthage (http:/ / ocafs. oca. org/ FeastSaintsViewer. asp?SID=4& ID=1& FSID=100398). OCA - Feasts and
Saints.
[3] Foley O.F.M., Leonard. Saint of the Day, (revised by Pat McCloskey O.F.M.), Franciscan Media, ISBN 978-0-86716-887-7 (http:/ / www.
americancatholic. org/ Features/ Saints/ saint. aspx?id=1315)
[4] Shaw, p.14.
[5] Ross, p.1048.
[6] Ross, p.1055.
[7] Shaw, p.30.
[8] Shaw, pp.30-31.
[9] Shaw, pp.33, 36.
[10] Shaw, p.36.
[11] Shaw, p.32.
[12] Shaw, pp.7, 10.
[13] Farina, pp.48-49.
[14] Farina, p.51.
[15] Salisbury, p.8.
[16] Shaw, p.25.
[17] Farina, p.52.
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
Shaw, p.31.
Shaw, pp.10-11.
Farina, p.49.
Salisbury, p.13.
Salisbury, p.156.
Farina, p.76.
Farina, pp.52-53.
Ross, p.1061.
Salisbury, p.158.
"Calendarium", p.89.
"Calendarium", p.119.
Church Fathers Volume 14 Augustin (http:/ / www. catholicfirst. com/ thefaith/ churchfathers/ volume14/ augustin1412. html)
Its French equivalent name is R. 'Noisette'.
Robert Jacques was director of horticulture for King Louis-Philippe.
Marie-Thérèse Haudebourg, Roses et jardins Hachette, ISBN 2-01-236947-2, p.177
Sources
• "Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969)
• Farina, William. Perpetua of Carthage: Portrait of a Third-Century Martyr, Jefferson, NC: McFarland &
Company, Inc, Publishers, 2009.
• Moss, Candida. The Myth of Persecution, New York: HarperCollins,2013.
• Ross, and Shira Lander, “Perpetua and Felicitas” in vol. 2 of The Early Christian World, ed. Philip Esler, New
York: Routledge, 2000.
• Salisbury, Joyce. Perpetua’s Passion: The Death and Memory of a Young Roman Woman, New York: Routledge,
1997
• Shaw, Brent. “The Passion of Perpetua,” Past and Present 139, (May 1993), JSTOR 30 (http://www.jstor.org/
stable/651089)
6
Perpetua and Felicity
7
Bibliography
Books and articles
• Butler, Rex: The New Prophecy and "New Visions": Evidence of Montanism in the Passion of Saints Perpetua
and Felicitas: Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press: 2006: ISBN 0-8132-1455-6
• Dronke, Peter. Women Writers of the Middle Ages. Cambridge, 1984.
• Logan, Barbara Ellen (2002). The Askesis of Abjection: The Ethics of Everyday Suffering in Early Christian
Martyrdoms (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Cruz).
• Maitland, Sara (introduction): The Martyrdom of Perpetua: Evesham: Arthur James: 1996: ISBN 0-85305-352-9
• Nolan, Edward: Cry Out and Write: A Feminine Poetics of Revelation: New York: Continuum: 1994: ISBN
0-8264-0684-X
• Robeck, Cecil: Prophecy in Carthage: Perpetua, Tertullian and Cyprian: Cleveland: Pilgrim Press: 1992: ISBN
0-8298-0924-4
• Ronsse, Erin Ann: Rhetoric of martyrs: Transmission and reception history of the "Passion of Saints Perpetua
and Felicitas". Ph.D. diss., University of Victoria (Canada), 2008, 438 pages; AAT NR40485
• Salisbury, Joyce: Perpetua's Passion: New York: Routledge: 1997:ISBN 0-415-91837-5
• von Franz, Marie-Louise: The Passion of Perpetua: A Psychological Interpretation of Her Visions: Toronto: Inner
City Books: 2004: ISBN 1-894574-11-7
Videography
• Perpetua: Early Church Martyr (2009) - documentary.
• Torchlighters: The Perpetua Story (2009) - animated DVD for children ages 8–12.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Perpetua.
• The Passion of St. Perpetua in the original Latin and Greek text (with dictionary lookup links). (http://www.
earlychurchtexts.com/main/perpetua/passio_of_perpetua_01.shtml) The complete text at
www.earlychurchtexts.com.
•
"Sts. Felicitas and Perpetua" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06029a.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia.
New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
• Early Christian Writings: Acts of Perpetua (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/actsperpetua.html)
• Medieval Sourcebook: The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity. (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/
perpetua.asp) From W.H. Shewring, trans. The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity, (London: 1931), modernized.
• Henry Wace, A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D. 1911
(http://www.ccel.org/ccel/wace/biodict.html)
• Episcopal Church Lectionary: Lessons for the Feast of Perpetua and Felicity (http://www.io.com/~kellywp/
LesserFF/Mar/Perpetua.html) page 223 of saint perpetua
• Martyrdom of Perpetua & Felicitas 2012 Translation & Audio Version (http://www.biblicalaudio.com/
perpetua.htm)
• Saints Perpetua and Felicity (http://www.christianiconography.info/perpetuaFelicity.html) at the Christian
Iconography (http://www.christianiconography.info) web site
• Perpetua and Felicity section (http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/saturnine.
html#otherSaturnine) of Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend #173, St. Saturninus
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Perpetua and Felicity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=623691901 Contributors: A ntv, ABShippee, AMC0712, AWCBoris, AidanP02, Airplaneman, Andycjp, Angeldeb82,
Angr, Anthony on Stilts, Arjayay, BCRW High, Baraqa1, Bearcat, Bearian, BethNaught, Biruitorul, Briaboru, Bucephalus, Buster7, Bwpach, Caesura, Calibanu, Carl.bunderson, Chasnor15,
Chrisadams, Christopher Kraus, Clarince63, ConservativeDC, Cuchullain, Cynwolfe, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DTOx, DanGraves, Daniel the Monk, Dawn Bard, Dcgomez, Delirium, Dickstracke,
Dimadick, Disneyfreak96, Dominics Fire, Drmies, Droll, Dylpickleh8, Ectweb, Edward321, EmilyBussFUS, Emperorbma, Enredados, Esoglou, Fastifex, Fayenatic london, Filipvr, First Light,
Flyer22, Foofy, Fraggle81, Friedfish, GTBacchus, Gadfium, Gamer401, Gilliam, Goldfritha, Grafen, Gundisalvuz, Hergilei, HiDrNick, Hlaufman, Hmains, Hu12, Hugo999, HuntPriest, Husond,
Hydriotaphia, InfernoXV, Isababa7, JASpencer, Jayarathina, Jbeans, John Carter, JonHarder, Jonathan Tweet, Joncaire, Jonel, Joshuabamgbose, Jpallan, Kendall-K1, King of Hearts,
Kinneyboy90, Kyriosity, Leoesb1032, Lima, Lugnuts, Macofe, Man vyi, Mannanan51, Manushand, Martarius, Maskilka, Materialscientist, Minna Sora no Shita, Mladifilozof, Mogism, MonoAV,
Nabla, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, NovakFreek, Oatmeal batman, Ollipopolli, Pastordavid, PaulGS, Peaceingalaxy, Pigman, Polylerus, Quickest, Randee15, Reach Out to the Truth,
ReformedArsenal, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RobinCarmody, RogDel, Roltz, RoyFocker, Rsrikanth05, SD5, SDC, Sct72, Shakko, Shropman, Sibeaster, Smeat75, Someone else,
Soumyasch, Spartacus007, Switchercat, Tachyon01, Teles, Tide rolls, Tijuana Brass, Toddsschneider, Tomi pro 2001, Traveler100, Ttwaring, Vanished user
ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Wetman, Willthacheerleader18, Woohookitty, ΙΣΧΣΝΙΚΑ-888, Тиверополник, 191 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Verrière de Sainte Perpétue (église Notre-Dame de Vierson, XIXe siècle).jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verrière_de_Sainte_Perpétue_(église_Notre-Dame_de_Vierson,_XIXe_siècle).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors:
Gaetan Poix
File:Perpetua, Felicitas, Revocatus, Saturninus and Secundulus (Menologion of Basil II).jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perpetua,_Felicitas,_Revocatus,_Saturninus_and_Secundulus_(Menologion_of_Basil_II).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: anonymous
File:Perpetua.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perpetua.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: onbekende Venetiaanse kunstenaar.
Image:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Anomie
Image:PD-icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex.muller, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, CBM, MBisanz,
PBS, Quadell, Rocket000, Strangerer, Timotheus Canens, 1 anonymous edits
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
8