njse nigerian journal of sociology of education
Transcription
njse nigerian journal of sociology of education
NJSE NIGERIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION NJSE 2012 ISSN: 1118-1784 VOLUME VI NUMBER 1,OCTOBER, 2012 1 Copyright, October, 2012 NJSE All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise without the written permission of the Editors of NJSE. ISSN: 1118-1784 DAN-SiL Press, No. 49 Murtala Mohammed Way, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. +234 (803) 4515 296 2 EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-chief: Dr. K.O. A. Noah Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University, Ojo. Managing Editor: Dr. M.N. Sule Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. Editors: J.O. Balogun Dr. Adesoji Oni Dr. G.M. Mahuta Dr. S.A. Dosunmu Consulting Editors: Prof. (Mrs) Uche Azikiwe Prof. C.O Daramola Prof. M.I. Junaid Prof. Emma Obasi Prof. C. C. Anadi Prof. (Mrs) Julia, Oti Omokhodion Prof. (Mrs) Oledinma P. Nwanna Nzewunwa 3 EDITORIAL NOTE Nigeran Journal of Sociology of Education(NJSE) is published by the Association of Sociologists of Education of Nigeria (ASEN) with the policy to produce at least one issue in a year. All articles are published basically for the promotion of scholarship while critique positions to any of them shall be welcomed and possibly published in subsequent editions of the journal. 4 NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted in triplicate to the Managing Editor. 2. Manuscripts must be typewritten, double spaced on quarto sheets, and typed on one side only. 3. They should be accompanied by abstracts of not more than 200 words in length. 4. Manuscripts, typewritten as indicated above should be between 10 and 15 pages in length excluding the abstract. 5. Details of reference to each work cited (including sources of tables and diagrams) must be given. 6. The journal has adopted the following referencing description of the APA style: a) Books I. Author’s surname first, then initials, followed by a bracket containing the year of publication. II. A full stop after the bracket. III. Title of the book to be italized and followed by a full stop. IV. If applicable, name of editors or translator, indicated as (“Ed”). V. Number of edition used (if not first) followed by a semi-colon(:). VI. Place of publication, followed by a colon and then name of publishers. b) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. 7. 8. 9. Periodicals Author’s name first, followed by the initial(s) and a comma. Title of the article in double quotation mark. Title of the periodical italized and followed by a comma. The volume in Arabic figures. The date of the issue or volume to which reference is made and followed by a comma. The number of the page(s) to which reference is made followed by full stop. Tables and figures should be kept to the barest minimum. Footnotes are not allowed. References should be arranged in alphabetical order according to the surnames of the authors. 10. Citations should be made in brackets within the text giving the name of the author, the year the work was published and the page number(s) where it is an indentation. 11. All correspondences should be addressed to: The Managing Editor, Nigerian Journal of sociology of Education, Department of Educational Foundatons, Faculty of Education, University of Jos, Jos- Nigeria. 5 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Magnus, C. A.: Department of Educational Administration, Abia State University, Uturu Azikiwe U. : National Universities Commission, Abuja Daramola, C.O. : Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. & Daramola, F.O. : Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Obasi e. : Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Owerri Olugbenga, A. : Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo Mahuta M. G. : Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. Soji, O. : Department of Educational Foundations, University of Lagos, Akoka -Yaba, Lagos. Sule M. N. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. Alexander O. I. : Arts & Social Sciences Education Department ,Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin. Okafor, I. P. L. : Arts & Social Sciences Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin Ahmed, Saliu: Kwara State Universal Education Board Ahmed, S. : Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. & Balogun, A. O. : National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, Osogbo Campus, Osun State. Njoku C. : Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. Bello, M. B. & Amali, I.O.O. : Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Education University of Ilorin, Nigeria Dienye, V. U.: Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt & Morrison, U. I. : Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt Osaat, D. S. : Institute of Education, University of Port Harcourt Okafor, G. O. : Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of Maiduguri & Ohia, N.: Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Jerome A., Ikiroma, B. & Amaechi L. N. : Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State University of Education Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt Igwesi, B. N. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State. Alufohai, E. A. : Faculty of Education, University of Lagos & Ezeana, P. C.: Faculty of Education, University of Lagos Mujil, D. J. : Department of Educational Foundation, College of Education, Gindiri, 6 Plateau State. Okoh, C. : Federal College of Education, Technical Omoku, Rivers State. Oyeyemi, S.O. : Department of Educational Foundations & Administration, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos. & Noah, A.O. : Department of Fine & Applied Arts, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos. Olajide, M.S. : Department of Computer Science, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo Afolabi, F.O. : Department of Educational Administration & Planning, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo Abidoye, J.A. : Department of Educational Technology, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo Olojo, J.O.: Department of Computer Science, College of Education, Ikere Ekiti Collins A. E. : Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education, Kano Bot J. I. C.: College of Education, , Gindiri, Plateau State Yusuf M. : Foundations Department, School of Education, Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, Kumbotso, Kano. Danjuma M.: Division of General Studies, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero Walu R. W. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. Rimfat S.A. : Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Universty of Jos. Dahiru, I. M. : Department of Education, Bayero University, Kano Olokede, N. O.: School of Education, Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun. Osun State Sarkinfada, H. : Educational Foundations Department, Faculty of Education and Extension Services, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto Umar M. R.: Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Title of page.......................................................................................................... Copy right page...................................................................................................... Editorial Board....................................................................................................... Editorial Note…………………………………………………………………… Note to Contributors.............................................................................................. Notes on Contributors........................................................................................... Table of Contents................................................................................................. i ii iii iv v vi-vii viii-x Education and the Quality of Leadership Magnus, C. A. ................................................................................................... 1-10 Mainstreaming Gender in Entrepreneurship: A Way to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Azikiwe U. ......................................................................................................... 11-20 Teacher Education: A Pathway to the Acquisition of Positive Societal Values and Skills in Nigeria Daramola, C.O. & Daramola, F.O................................................................... 21-27 Gender Access to University Education and Participation in Governance in Nigeria Obasi E................................................................................................................ 28-35 A Critical Analysis of Boko Haram Perspective on Western Education in the Nigerian Society Olugbenga, A…........................................................................................ 36-42 Education and Nation Building in Nigeria: Basic Considerations Mahuta M. G..................................................................................................... 43-50 Of Unlearned Graduates and Dysfunctional Society Members: The Challenges of Education and Development in Nigeria Soji, O................................................................................................................. 51-59 Curbing Global Unrest Through Education Sule M. N…........................................................................................................ 60-70 Attitude of Teachers Towards Women Leadership of Secondary Schools in Ilorin, Kwara State Alexander O. I…............................................................................. 71-77 Description of Strategies for Achieving National Stability in Nigerian Society as Expressed by Youths and Professionals in North-Central Nigeria Okafor, I. P. L.................................................................................................... 78-85 8 Parents’ and School Heads’ Perception of Effective School Security Strategies in Universal Basic Education Schools in Ilorin, Kwara State. Ahmed Saliu, Ahmed, S. & Balogun, A. O.............................................. 86-93 Values Re- orientation Among Primary/Secondary School Students in Nigeria: The Role of Social Studies Education Njoku C………….............................................................................................. 94-99 Character Education: A Solution to Developing Good Citizens in the Nigeria Society Bello, M. B. & Amali, I.O.O. .......................................................................... 100-106 Education for Value Orientation: A Strategy for Social Stability in Nigeria Dienye, V. U. & Morrison, U. I.................................................................... 107-112 Large Class Size and the Challenges for Quality of Instructional Process in Certificate Programme in Education in University of Portharcourt: Implication on the Society Osaat, D. S. ...................................................................................................... 113-119 Quality Assurance at the Primary Education Level Okafor, G. O. & Ohia, N. ........................................................................... 120-127 The Effects of Factors Militating Against the Education of Girls in Emohua LGA of Rivers State Jerome A., Ikiroma, B. & Amaechi L. N. .................................................. 128-139 Privatization and Commercialization of Education and Equal Educational Opportunity: The Role of a Democratic Government Igwesi, B. N. ................................................................................................. 140-148 The Relevance of Education for Social Change and Good Governance in Nigeria Alufohai, E. A. & Ezeana, P. C. ...................................................... 149-158 Citizenship Education for Nation BuildingNigerian Experience Mujil, D. J. ................................................................................................. 159-163 Assessing Teachers Awareness and Use of Communicative Language Teaching Approach in Primary Schools of Rivers State Okoh, C. ……............................................................................................... 164-17 1 Efficacy of Mobile Device Assisted Learning: A Flexible Instructional Tool. Oyeyemi, S.O. & Noah, A.O. .................................................................. 172-181 9 The Impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on The Teaching and Learning of Computer Appreciation Courses in Some Selected Tertiary Institutions in Ondo State. Olajide, M.S. , Afolabi, F.O., Abidoye, J.A., & Olojo, J.O. ..................... 182-188 Achieving the Goals of Secondary School Education in Contemporary Nigerian Society: The Place of Mobile Learning Collins A. E. ................................................................................................. 189-194 The Role Of Drama/Theatre In Enhancing Good Governance In The Nigerian Society. Bot J. I. C. .................................................................................................... 195-201 Re-Branding the Nigerian Society Through Moral Education Yusuf M. ...................................................................................................... 202-211 Ensuring Leadership Through Positive Student-Teacher Relationship in Schools: A Sociological View Danjuma M. ............................................................................................... 212-218 Achieving National Development Through Universal Basic Education Walu R. W. ............................................................................................... 219-224 The School as an Effective Instrument for Dispensing the Social Functions of Education in a Democratic Setting Rimfat S.A. ……............................................................................................ 225-230 Education and Societal Development: Challenges of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and the Way Forward Dahiru, I. M. ................................................................................................ 231-238 Tertiary Education ss Practical Measure of Enhancing Societal Development in Nigeria Olokede, N. O. …....................................................................................... 239-246 Prospects of Leadership and Good Governance in Teacher Education Sarkinfada, H. ............................................................................................ 247-251 Leadership for Sustainable Development Umar M. R. .............................................................................................. 252-259 10 EDUCATION AND THE QUALITY OF LEADERSHIP MAGNUS, C. A. Department of Educational Administration, Abia State University, Uturu Introduction Education is the bedrock of development; hence leadership in every nation must utilize it effectively to achieve its goals. It is the quality of leadership that is transformational in nature in Nigeria that could aim to produce globally relevant graduates that have entrepreneurial and international competitive spirit. The graduates from our tertiary institutions must make impact in the society and compete in the world labour market. The Asian first generation industrialized nations – South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong- achieved higher buoyant economies that are at par with. Britain, United States of America, France, and Japan through educational policies formulated by visionary high quality leaders. The leaders of Asian Tigers emphasized the importance of science and technology, free and compulsory primary education. The second generation newly industrialized economies (NIES) – Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia- are able to compete with the industrialized nations like United States of America, European Union ,(E.U), Japan, Canada, and Russia in the world market. This was as a result of emphasis laid on information communication technology (ICT), virtual library and life-long education and producing graduates that are relevant in the global economy by the visionary leaders. Reforms and innovations in the education sector were implemented with zeal and enthusiasm. In Nigeria, most educational policies were always jettisoned by the new minister of education because of lack of a blue print to work with. For example as minister of education, Aja Nwachukwu reversed reforms like private-public partnership in the management of unity schools, converted colleges of education and polytechnics to degree awarding institutions, initiated by his predecessor Oby Ezekwesili. The lack of continuity in educational policies and lack of the political will to implement them continue to militate against utilizing education to transform the nation. A visionary leader in the education sector must be consistent in the implementation of policies. Quality leadership must implement educational policies to its logical conclusion. Nigeria recently wants to abandon the 6-3-3-4 system of education. It must be stressed that it was the same 6-3-3-4 system that has sustained United States of America and Japan as the industrial giants of the entire world. The Concept: Education Education is the process through which individuals specifically the young members of the society acquire vital skills and knowledge necessary for effective living. Educational system is a vital mechanism for the selection of individuals for their future roles in the society. It acts to assign human resources within the role structure of the adult society. These schools, by examining and evaluating students, match their talents, skills and capacity to the jobs for which they are best suited. The school and education are the fundamental mechanism for role allocation. (Parson, 1965; Haralambos, 1980; Etuk, 2006). In the words of Mead (1965), education is the development of unity within the self and the ever expanding development of the self through social interaction. Furthermore to buttress this definition of the concept, education is the systematic socialization of the younger generation by which the 11 latter learn religious and moral beliefs, feelings of nationalism and collective opinion of all kinds (Durkheim, 1956; Blakermore and Cooksey, 1980). Hence education is the most powerful tool for the political, social and economic transformation of any nation. National development cannot take place in any nation devoid of Education. Consequently, leaders in Nigeria and every country in the world, have interest in the educational system. To buttress the strategic functions of education in the political and economic development, John Lock, Dewey, Rousseau, Hegel, Karl Marx, and others have treated Education as important part of their political philosophy. Also university education is a highly politicized issue because of its significance in determining access to society’s most strategic positions in Nigeria. (Becknett & O’ Connel 1977; Anuna; 2008). UNESCO (1975) defined education as organized and sustained communication designed to bring about change. In communication, there must be a relationship between two individuals – the teacher and the pupils. It is imperative that only quality leaders should be put in place to sustain education. Theories of Leadership Leadership is the most peculiar feature of human beings. Whenever and wherever a group of individuals come together, obviously a leader will emerge. Hence leadership is a function of group association and interaction. It is clear that the existence of followers is a prerequisite for leadership. There can be no leaders without followers. Leadership studies has shifted focus from leaders to leadership, that is, from individuals as leaders to the relationship between leaders and followers (Subordinates, Colleagues, Friends and Collaborators) (Ukeje, 1986; Anuna; 2003, Crosby, 2008; Pisapia, 2009). Study of leadership has shifted from the concept that has few exceptional individual leadership potentials to the idea that everyone might become a leader, depending on preparation and opportunity. If this is the assumption, the duty of leadership educators are to identify potential leaders. The emergence of a leader in every organization, particularly the education system is often caused by the need to work towards a general goal and a unified, coordinated and directed action to achieve the purpose. In line with the view, Ukeje (1986) said that leadership is the fundamental determinant of success in any group, enterprise or organization. It is what makes a difference in any organization between success and failure: in industry between profit and loss; in politics between stability; and instability, among nations between develop and undeveloped; in education acting as a catalyst for national development. It is leadership that makes or mar an organization. It is what determines and ensures effective harnessing of teachers, instructional materials and plant facilities in other to achieve the purpose of the educational system. Successful mobilization of human and material resources to enhance the effectiveness of education is hinged on quality of leadership, whether as minister of education, permanent secretary, commissioner of education, director of schools and principal. Most leadership studies focus on individuals, teams and the organization. For example, Kouzes and Posner (2003) stressed the importance of leaders being honest, future focused, competent and inspirational. Furthermore, attention has been focused also on the teams. In this aspect, the researches carried out by (Wheelan, 1999; Johnson & Johnson, 2003) indicate that interest is no more on a single in-charge leader to leader that share his roles with team members. This type of leadership is vital in Nigerian universities for organizational efficiency and effectiveness. 12 Strategic Leadership and Education in Nigeria For effective and successful management of education in Nigeria, the minister of education, commissioner of education, Vice-Chancellor, principal and headmaster as leaders must abandon over-reliance on the command and control (hierarchical) skills of the twentieth century, that have become obsolete in a globalised world. They should emphasize coordination and collaboration, as well as skills vital for effective management of educational institutions in contemporary times. Strategic leadership is now stressed for the effective management of firms and educational institutions. According to Pisapia (2009) strategic leadership is the ability as well as the wisdom to make consequential decisions about ends, actions and tactics in ambiguous environments. Strategic leadership integrates management with leadership, politics, with ethics and strategic intent with tactics and actions. In this aspect, the leaders role is directly tied to formal position in the organization. He further states that the strategic leaders achieve much by: a) Using a holistic learning approach; b) Managing and leading simultaneously; c) Understanding the omnipresent nature of politics and ethics in organization; d) Seeing as their primary goal the development of a high performing organization. It is obvious that even strategic leadership style is important for even a classroom teacher who perform the role of a leader and manager of teaching and learning in the classroom. One of the important features of strategic leadership must emanate at the micro-level, the classroom. Transformational Leadership and Education It is obvious that the successful transformation of the Nigerian education system depends on the role and decisions taken by the leaders. Transformational, visionary or strategic leadership entails specific leadership behaviours, decisions, actions, strategies and plans needed for radical transformation of the system – both primary secondary and tertiary levels (Luthan 1998; Kretchner & Kinicki, 1998; and Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson; 1998. The theory of strategic or transformational leadership does not derive from the conventional earlier leadership theories of influencing a group of individuals to achieve specified goals in a specific situation. Rather, the transformational theory of leadership tends to highlight the specific actions the leaders should undertake in order to transform the organization. The basic characteristics of transformation leadership as discussed by Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (1998); Kapur,( 2007) are: i) Personal commitment to the transformation. The leadership of the Nigerian education system must be committed to the transformation and the commitment must be visible to other organizational members – teachers, lecturers and students, and external stakeholders like parents, Nigerian Union of Teachers and Manpower Planning unit. ii) Firm, relentless and indisputable communication of the impossibility of maintaining the status quo. The leadership of our education in Nigeria must forcefully communicate the failure of the status quo. This must be implemented in such a manner that the bulk of the members will desire a change. Allowing all tertiary institutions to award degrees is imperative in other to enhance access to university education. Merger of tertiary institutions is the trend in every part of the world. iii) Clear and Enthusiastic communication of an inspiring vision of what the organization could become 13 The leadership of the Nigerian education, the minister of education must communicate a clear picture of the future of education in the country in a way that this vision is shared and upheld by parastatals – like NUC, NECO, Teachers Registration Council, and the Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council under her supervision iv) Timely establishment of a critical mass of support for the transformation. The leadership must identify the major players and stakeholders in the education system and in its operating environment, solict and obtain their support for the change. It is necessary to acknowledge their powers and the need to put away the status quo. The introduction of post-JAMB examination test was a decision taken by a minister of education with the consent of the committee of Vice Chancellors. The consent of Joint Admission and Matriculation Board, parents, lecturers and prospective candidate were never sought. This is the spirit of tranformational leadership. v) Acknowledging, and dealing with resistance to transformation: The leadership must acknowledge the resistance to the change and deal with it as a necessary stage in the process of abandoning the status quo and embracing the new vision with its beliefs and values. He must be willing to listen, tolerate others and exercise patience. This is applicable to the introduction of the new curriculum for senior secondary schools. vi) Defining and setting up an organization that can implement the vision: The leadership must design and put into action an organization that must be congruent with the new beliefs and values. Leadership must be willing to risk the introduction of structural changes and the acquisition and allocation of resources that will secure the competence and the commitment to the transformation work and will put into place appropriate system of organization for the transformation. The CEO of NERDC, Prof. G. Obioma introduced the new secondary school curriculum and alerted the nation on the favourable impact it will give to the students. Also, the NECO Registrar Prof. Okpala, initiated the concept of using University lecturers as exams monitors to achieve zero tolerance level for examination malpractice during senior secondary school examinations. vii) Regular communication of information: about progress and giving recognition and reward for achievement, the leadership must communicate to the organization how the transformation is progressing, announce and celebrate achievement, openly share setbacks and encourage the risk taking behaviour required to implement the decision. The NUC initiated the idea of giving awards to outstanding lecturers who supervised the best postgraduate students. Visionary Leadership and Education in Nigeria Vision is the ability to initiate ideas for the future, create a vision, visualize and realize it. Visionary leaders always have a strong sense of purpose and able to get their subordinates committed to that vision. Followers always share the vision of their leaders which is already embedded in their hearts. In Nigeria and any part of the world, the visionary leader must create goals, initiate activities, actions and enlist the participation of his followers in implementing the actions necessary for achieving the goals and projects. Also inspired by the pictures of what he desires the organization (education system) to become, the leaders must articulate the vision so that the subordinates would see the possibility of actualizing their own hopes, dreams, potentials and aspirations. (Bennis & Nanus, 1992; McLaughlin, 2001; Kapur, 2007). Visionary leaders do not adhere to tradition. They strongly believe in change, inspired with great passion to achieve result. They are known for self efficacy, perseverance and 14 commitment to their vision of what they want the education system to be. Most of the time in the words of Collins (2001) and Mclughlin (2001), they are reflective, follow their inner sense of direction and use themselves to initiate change. Furthermore they are incorruptible with power Visionary leadership are not corrupted by power, instead they exhibit moral leadership and commitment to humanity. Most of the times, visionary leaders are humble and unpretentious, expressing enthusiasm to accept change and ready to make sacrifices to achieve great results. Professors Adeniran and PAI Obayan as minister of education and pioneer director of Universal Basic Education respectively possessed these visionary attributes of moving the Nigerian education system to lofty heights. The visionary current minister of education is committed to implementation of the national education vision (FME 2008). She has expressed enthusiasm to tackle the three pillars of the inclusive education reform process, namely: access, equity and quality. She has tried to monitor the task team report on education, economy and competitiveness; curriculum instruction and teacher quality; reform of the federal ministry of education and its parastals; Information and communication technology (ICT) physical infrastructure; politics and finance Development of education. (National Report, 2008). The reforms she has expressed enthusiasm to implement include challenges in early childhood/pre-school, basic, post-basic and secondary education, tertiary, open and distance learning, special needs, like nomadic and migrant fishermen education, the gifted and the physically challenged youths. Visionary leaders must anticipate the needs of the society and citizens and make adequate provision to instill hope in them. In this aspect the minister of education, Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufai’i and the executive secretary of Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) will introduce a new curriculum from September 2011, that emphasize subject matter, content and standards. The new curriculum will cater for local neads of the Nigerian economy and at the same time prepare the student to participate in the global competitive economy. In the words of Professor Obioma, the new Secondary School Education Curriculum (SSCEC) would prepare the graduate for higher education and the same time impart in them the vital technical, vocational and entrepreneurship skills for their world of work (Alaneme, 2011). Visionary leaders need to know that reform in the Nigerian education new senior secondary school curriculum is feasible when the human capital (the teachers) are effective, not efficient. Effective teacher is feasible when there is general improvement in teacher’s condition of service in terms of higher remuneration and advances, more favourable working environment, greater chance to take part in decision making and opportunity for upward mobility in terms of promotion prospects (Anuna; 2002). Establishment of universities in Nigeria should not be politicized by any visionary leader. The University of Ife was a product of political maneuver, taking cognizance of the fact that it had to be established because of the government acceptance of the Ashby minority report; This was the beginning of establishing universities in Nigeria on mere political expedience and consideration, instead of the manpower needs of the nation. (Kosemani, 1982; Anuna, 2008). This trend has continued from 1960 to 2010 – 2011, when the president Goodluck Jonathan established universities in states without federal universities like Bayelsa, Ebonyi, Ekiti and Kogi. The most appropriate decision is for merger of federal universities with polytechnics and colleges of education in those existing area and providing excellent academic facilities. It is necessary to attract foreign renowned scholars and provide facilities for research. This 15 decision is appropriate because no Nigerian university is among the best five thousand universities in the world and the best fifty universities in Africa. Relationship between Education and Quality Leaders Quality leadership always stresses the significance of education for national development and achieving the goals of national development. Obafemi Awolowo and Nnamdi Azikiwe offered quality leadership through their various educational programmes in the first Republic. They strongly believed that quality leadership effectiveness is hinged on education and that qualitative education would enable the leadership to achieve development of Nigeria. Hence there is a symbiotic relationship between education and quality leadership. Visionary and transformational leaders like the governors Akpabio of Akwa Ibom, Amaechi of Rivers and Fashola of Lagos envisaged development through education. As visionary and transformational leaders, the governors highlighted above envisage education as a tool to tackle the task of development and eradicate poverty and under development. Hence in the words of Gardner (1990), Walker (2006); and Hean and Tin (2008); both foresight and conceptualization are intertwined with the idea of vision. Furthermore, they idealized fostering hope as a leader’s first and last task. In order to instill hope in their government and exhibit quality leadership the governors’ mentioned above have made allowing the citizens to have access to education their priority. Quality leadership which has affinity with authetic leadership as emphasized by Duignan, (1997) build, interpret and sustain vital national vision. The vision always emanates from the citizens beliefs, values aspirations and way of life. For example, Governor Amaechi Rotimi demonstrated quality leadership when he sent teachers in collaboration with British Council to Britain to acquire innovative, creative methods of teaching and impacting knowledge to pupils. Public primary and secondary schools were equipped to standards that were in existence in the 80’s and scholarships were offered to the citizens for studies in foreign universities. Academic courses like petroleum engineering, marine engineering and biotechnology were stressed. Godswill Akpabio demonstrated political will by rigidly implementing free and compulsory universal basic education. To Fashola, teachers welfare and maintenance of schools were the fundamental hallmark of his administration. These governors envisioned education as is the most strategic tool for development. Harnessing human resource for development is inevitable in Nigeria. The greatness of the Asian Tigers, Malaysia, South Korea Singapore, Hong Kong and Indonesia lie in visionary leaders utilizing education to achieve economic, social and political break through. As aptly illustrated by Hean and Tin (2008), in envisioning there was adoption of the practice of looking beyond short-term prospects towards having a long term view in charting direction. This government has the clarity of vision of what roles education would play in Nigeria. In every part of the world, quality leadership always stresses the importance of education in strategic development. The president of Nigeria Goodluck Ebele Jonathan has demonstrated transformational leadership by inaugurating the books project in the country. The essence of the programme was to bring back the reading culture in Nigeria. The only way a leader could demonstrate quality leadership is the level of his commitment to education. In United States of America, Bill Clinton, his state of the union address, committed himself to three goals: every eight-year old must be able to read; every 12 yearold must be able to log on to the internet; every 18 years-old must be able to go to college; 16 and every adult American must be able to keep on learning for a life-time. It implied that quality leaders always see education as the ultimate of human development. It was quality leadership in the Asian Tigers of Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea and Indonesia’s that emphasized education as the only vital key for economic, social and political development. The success in the education sector is therefore hinged on effective visionary leadership. In the words of Majasan (1998), the success of South Korea as an early industrial nation was as a result of education. While others were interested in industrialization, it emphasized investing in human capital through education which produced visionary transformational leadership, equality of income, domestic entrepreneurship and export development to West Africa markets by the arrival of Daewoo and Kia cars. It was the quality of leadership in South Korean that supervised the educational system, reorganized and revised the curriculum, textbooks were rewritten in the local South Korea language and the new curriculum stressed scientific and technical training for the growth of the economy. The visionary leadership rigidly implemented compulsory elementary school education in the 1950’s. Nigeria as a nation needs quality leaders that have vision of greatness of the vital strategic roles education should play in national development. Only transformational leaders can formulate and implement laudable educational policies. Oby Ezekwesili as minister of education tinkered with the idea of converting polytechnics and colleges of education into affiliates of proximate universities. In her words Ezekwesili (2007, p.35): The average number of candidates about 1.2 million seeking admission to enter universities, only 140,000 would ultimately be given admission. And inversely you have the combination of polytechnics and colleges of education and only 189,000 would seek to enter them. And when you take the exam only 132,000 would show up. So you have a serious dysfunctionality. 860 candidates are denied university admission. It is clear that only merger of all tertiary institutions would ensure admission for 80 per cent of candidates who apply for university admission instead of 18% admitted. What is necessary is consolidation of platform for admission and emphasizing specialization. Hence for minister of education, commissioners, governors and directors of schools to achieve their goals of making education relevant and functional, they must become agents of change and turn their followers, teachers and students into leaders. This has become necessary as in their various roles as transformation leaders, they must build commitment to the ministry of education’s objectives and empower the teachers to achieve these objectives (Yukl, 2002). Conclusion Education is necessary for the economic, political and social transformation of Nigeria. The Asian Tigers, South Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore owed their position as economic giants to qualitative education. Education development have been their priority. However, for education to achieve its purpose of accelerating economic development, depends on the quality of leadership. The leadership in control of managing the affairs of the state must be visionary leaders, who will not only turn the teachers and students into leaders but constitute agents of change themselves. The leadership which will see their ultimate goal as their followers sharing their vision of greatness and instill hope in the teachers. In some aspects, certain governors like Amaechi of Rivers State, Babatunde Fashola of lagos, 17 Akpabio of Akwa Ibom have demonstrated the political will to utilize education as tool for economic, political and social transformation. The most important aspect of transformational visionary leaders in Nigeria is to accept creative innovation, adopt new ideas and concepts that will position the nation effectively for the 21 st century. The leadership quality that will accept merger of tertiary institutions, stress life long education and technical education, retraining of teachers and motivate them to be effective not efficient is what the nation needs. Also, the transformation leaders in Nigeria need to accept the universities request for transfer of landed property. This is the trend globally. In the United States of America acres of land were given to colleges and universities. This was how land grant colleges like Texas Agricultural and Technical University, Southern Carolina Agricultural and Technical University and Southern University, Baton Rouge, Louisana came into existence. Rufai’i, the minister of education explained that the government has not approved the conversion of Yaba College of Technology (YABA TECH) and Kaduna Polytechnic (KADPOLY) to universities because of the establishment of the new federal universities. The nation urgently needs the technological and scientific skills from conversion of the two polytechnics to universities desperately. It is the conversion that will produce the scientific knowledge that will turn Nigeria into an industrial giant like Japan, Britain, China and United Stats of America, and at the same time enhance access to university education. References Alaneme, E. (2011). As Nigeria introduces new senor secondary curriculum. The Sunday special Champion. Anuna, M.C. (2002). The Nigerian educational system and the effective teacher. In T.N Ekpo; M.C Anuna; Okoli, G.C. (Eds) Contemporary issues and problems in the Nigerian Educational System. Anuna, M.C. (2008) Education and politics in Nigeria. In J.M Kosemani, & M.C Anuna (Eds). Politics of Education. The Nigerian Perspective. 2 nd edition. Enugu; Ernesco Pub. Co. Beckett, P. & O’Connel, J. (1977). Education and power in Nigeria. London: George, Stronghton Hodder. Bennis, W. & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Haper and Row Blakemore, K & Cooksey, B. (1980). A sociology for Africa. London: George Allen and Unwin. Clinton, B. (2005). My life. New York: Vintage Books. Random House Inc. Collins, J. (2001). Good to great. New York: Harp Business. 18 Crosby, B. (2008). Theoretical foundations of integrative leadership. Integral leadership review. Duignan, P.A. (1997). The Dance of leadership: At the still point of the turning world. Victoria, Australia: Australian Council. Khelin, E. (1956). Education and sociology. Glencoe: Free Press. Federal Ministry of Education (2008). The development of education. National Report of Nigeria. International Conference on Education (ICE)). Inclusive Education: The Way of the future. Geneva Switzerland. Rufai, R. (2011). Rufai identifies quality access in education as major issues to tackle. Sunday Sun, May, 29th. Etuk, G.K. (2006). Education Financial for colleges and universities. Uyo; Abaam Publishing Co. Ezekwesili, O. (2007). We must extinguish corruption from our education system. Guardian, April, 14-15. Gardner, J. (1990). On leadership. New York: The Free Press. Haralambos, S. & Heald R. (1980). Sociology. Themes and perspectives. London: University Tutorial Press. Hean, L.I. & Tin, L.G. (2008). Envisioning in school leadership preparation and practice. The case of Singapore. International studies in educational administration. 36, 1, 72-80. Heresy, P. Blanchard, K.H. & Johnson, D.E. (1998). Management of organizational behaviour (Utilising human resources). (7th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice hall. Johnson and Johnson (2003). Joining together: Group theory and group skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kapar, (2007). Eight principles of visionary leader? Retieved from http//ww.rediff.com. on May 16th, 2007. Kosemani, J.M. (1982). University education in Nigeria. The attempt at geo-political balance and integration. Journal of education in Developing Areas, 1, 1. Kouzes, J.M. & Posner, B.Z. (2002). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in organizations. San Francisco: Jessey – Bass. Kretchner, R. & Kinlcki, A. (1998). Organisational behaviour. (fourth edition). Boston: Urwin, McGraw - Hill 19 Luthan, F. (1998). Organizational behaviour. (8th ed.). Boston: Urwin, McGraw Hill Majasan, J.A. (1998). Qualitative education and development. Ibadan; Spectrum Books Limited. McLaughlin, C. (2001) Visionary leadership. Retrieved from http://www.visionary lead. Org. on 10th Dec. 2010. Mead, G.H. (1965). Mind, self and society. (13th ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press Parson, T. (1960). Structure and process in modern society. Chicago; The Free prss. Pisapia, J.R. (2009). The strategic leader: New tactics for a changing globalizing world. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing Ukeje, B.O. (1986). Higher education of the future. Management challenges. Port Harcourt. A Faculty of Education, seminar. UNESCO (2003). United nations Decade for sustainable development. Framework for a draft international implementation schemes, UNESCO. Walker, C.D. (2006). Fostering hope; a leader’s first and last task. Journal of educational administration. 44, 6, 54-569. Wheelan, S.A. (1999). Creating effective teams: A guide for members and leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organization (5th ed). Upper saddle River, New York; Prentice Hall 20 MAINSTREAMING GENDER IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A WAY TO ACHIEVE THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS. AZIKIWE U. National Universities Commission, Abuja. Abstract This paper hinges on the premise that he Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) underscore the problems of gender inequality. It draws attention to the fact that gender inequality, that causes exclusion of women from entrepreneurial ventures and activities, an obstacle to the achievement of the MDGs; and to raise the consciousness of the public and the government that women entrepreneurs abound but are not recognized and their potentials untapped. The paper also seeks to reveal that women’s non-involvement in business enterprises and their economic dependency on men impact negatively on job creation, basic literacy, healthcare, social cohesion, economic growth and national development, all of which are aspects of the millennium development goals. Also briefly discussed in this paper are: barriers to women’s involvement in entrepreneurship and the way forward; some areas in which to build entrepreneurial capacity of woman for their empowerment; and benefits of women in entrepreneurial ventures. Finally, the bottomline for this presentation is that effective involvement of women in entrepreneurship ventures is one of the ways that Nigeria could achieve some of the Milennium Development Goals in 2015. Introduction The concept ‘gender’ is as old as man. It is one social concept that has generated heated controversy whose end is not in sight. Gender is a social construct or socially given attributes. It is culture specific, and differentiated roles, responsibilities and obligations. Gender is defined by societal beliefs, norms, customs and practices, and hence may vary between and within cultures. Gender roles, norms and expectations also vary over the life cycle of men and women. Gender is also defined as a socio-cultural and psychological dimensions of maleness and femaleness and is more than biological differences between men and women. It includes the ways in which those differences, whether real or perceived, have been valued, used and relied upon to classify men and women, boys and girls, and to assign roles and expectations to them, (Azikiwe, 2001 and 2002). Gender from the foregoing cannot be a consequence of sex. Gender roles for women include: reproductive, productive, subordinate, weak, vulnerable, passive, to be lead, dependent, voiceless and caregiver, among others. While on the other hand, the roles for men include: provider, dominant, active, aggressive, invulnerable, strong, superior, leader, independent, and vocal, to mention but a few. Indeed, gender is not a consequence of sex and should not be equated as such. Gender and sex therefore, differ markedly and should not be used interchangeably. Sex is the biological differences between men and women. These sex differences are the same across the world. Sex is a fact of human biology and it does not change. On the other hand, gender is not a fact of human biology because it changes (Ansre, 2009). Arising there from is that there is no empirically established finding that goes to prove that the ability to lead is linked to a male chromosome. Neither is there any that proves that there is an intrinsic gene in a woman’s body that commands her to obey, to be seen and not heard, to avoid innovation and 21 risks. Rather a woman’s life is all about risks, and is full of risks which is a quality possessed by every successful entrepreneur. Indeed, there is no gene in a woman which hinders her from becoming a leader, a politician, a nuclear scientist or an entrepreneur. But rather a ‘bug’ which she contacted right from birth through the socialization process branded her a weaker sex, passive and dependent sex. Gender Inequality There is no society where men and women have equal basic rights which in sociological parlance is termed gender inequality. Inequality of gender has been entrenched in every aspect of human endeavour, as a result of patriarchy, which is transmitted from generation to generation through socialization. Consequently, gender disparity has become an established and also acceptable “fact and law” in society with its attendant problems in socio-economic development. Gender inequality has been identified as one of the root causes of underdevelopment such as poverty, infant mortality, maternal mortality, illiteracy, HIV/AIDS, and a host of others. World Bank (2001) reports that gender inequalities in developing countries inhabit economic growth; and hat there is a correlation between gender discrimination and greater poverty, slower economic growth, weaker governance, and a lower standard of living of people. Similarly, UNDP reports that there is a strong correlation between gender empowerment measures/gender-related development indices, and its Human development Index. Solutions to these societal problems hinge on gender equality. It is noteworthy to explain at this juncture that gender equality ahs been misconstrued by some people due to ignorance, bias and prejudices. It does not mean changing a woman to become a man or vice versa. It does not also mean that men and women should change their biological instincts. With gender equality, the woman is still the nurturing and caring mother and wife. Equality simply implies that she is enabled to better perform her roles of reproduction and production for social, economic and political development. It means that the woman is recognized as a normal human being with great potentials. The issue of gender inequality and its negative impact on development was brought to the front-burner in global discourse since the United Nation’s Decade for Women – 1975 to 1985. The world has been grappling with this developmental problem with many resolutions and the current one being the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which underscores the problems of gender inequality in development. The MDGs, eight in number, were adopted by 189 world leaders as part of Millennium Declaration which was signed in 2000. These leaders agreed to achieve the following goals by 2015: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Achieve universal primary education; Promote gender equality and empower women; Reduce child mortality; Improve maternal health; Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; Ensure environmental sustainability; and Develop a global partnership to development. These eight goals, each of which wears a woman’s face, cannot be achieved when women, who constitute about 50 percent of the population, die at childbirth, when they cannot read and write, when they are excluded from development programmes, when they are povertystriken, when they cannot contribute to decisions, even in matters affecting their live, when 22 they are voiceless and their potentials untapped. Gender inequality, which translates to women being placed in subordinate position, according to Ansre (2009), has negative impacts on development agenda. They have limited participation and recognition in formal development roles and politics, they are the poorest of the poor and have limited or no access to social services and resource. They are not adequately rewarded for goods and services produced. Their reproductive, nurturing and care-giving roles are not appreciated and remunerated, they are ill-equipped to perform their reproductive and productive roles. Women are indeed handicapped and this is crippling development. Entrepreneurship Okpara (2005) defines entrepreneurship as the willingness and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities, establish and run an enterprise successfully. The concept, he continues, has been associated with activities concerned with the establishment and operations of business enterprises. Furthermore, entrepreneurship is the ability to create and build something from practically nothing. It is risk-taking, and also the process of adding value to existing products or services in a bid to exploit an opportunity. Another view of entrepreneurship from Nwoye (2007) is that it refers to training and other support services incorporated within a structured program designed to assist individual and groups interested in becoming entrepreneurs and starting small businesses. Entrepreneurship also means the qualities and characteristics expected from successful entrepreneur (Nwoye, 2007). It refers to perception of new economic opportunities, taking initiatives, creativity and innovation, turning resources and situation into practical account and acknowledging the possibility of failure. Entrepreneurship and innovation can be linked to the two sides of a coin because it is used in connection with innovative and creative business leaders (Okpara, 2000). The two concept cannot be separated. There is no gainsaying the fact that sustainable development, in any country, can only be achieved with the full participation of the female population. Since entrepreneurship has been identified as an agent of development, the question is how far do women, who constitute approximately 50% of Nigeria’s population, participate in it? We do not need any empirical data to conclude that women participation in development process has been rated as low. This low participation has been blamed for the high poverty level, and slow development in many third world countries, including Nigeria. Indeed, there is apparent feminization of poverty calling for policies and measures such as the Eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which specifically address the dire needs of women and girls. In Nigeria, lack of data is a major constraint to research, planning and development. Thus, there are no accurate data on women in entrepreneurial ventures, especially in the rural areas. However, IFC (2009) reports that women, in Nigeria, are estimated to own or manage 25-30% of registered businesses; and also that only an estimated 10-15% of tem have access to appropriate bank credit, thereby limiting their ability to develop and expand their businesses. Similarly, Oputu (2008) observed that most of the trades carried out on the west coast of Africa are handled by women, there are artificial obstacles placed on their part, which hamper their growth and development in entrepreneurship. Factors Militating Against Women Entrepreneurs Every woman has a hidden or God-given talent that needs to be utilized. Hence, Nigerian women have a great economic importance that should not b allowed to waste. Unfortunately, that is the bitter truth due to man-made constraints. Put differently, it has not 23 been scientifically proved that no one sex is more qualified than the other in enterprises. Rather he societal sex stereotyping associating men with entrepreneurship has influenced women to shy away from it, or made men exclude women from entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, many channels or programmes of economic production open their gates to men and limit theirs access to women. Many factors are responsible for the exclusion of women from entrepreneurship programmes. The barriers that hinder women’s involvement in entrepreneurial ventures, in the opinion of IIRR (2009) are gender biases, both explicit and implicit and actual or potential, which continue to limit women’s access to capital, training, skills and education. Furthermore, lack of entrepreneurial information, basic literacy and numeracy skills and other challenges restrict women’s capacities to participate effectively in entrepreneurial activities. In addition to the above factors, child bearing, child care and domestic work, are all socio-cultural issues that women have to contend with in the field of entrepreneurship. The point being made is that though women possess innate entrepreneurial potentials, they are constrained by many factors summarized into: lack of awareness; negative socio-cultural practices; religious restrictions/prohibitions; lack of self-esteem and confidence; multiple roles of women-reproduction, production, domestic, family-health; lack of resources and poverty; lack of knowledge, skills and illiteracy; unfriendly social institutions; negative media; lack of day-care facilities crèche; and malnutrition and ill-health. Furthermore, women are unable to engage in micro, small and medium enterprises because they: have limited access to education and training; earn less than men in the labour market even when they have the same qualification and work experiences; are grossly underrepresented at the policy and decision-making level; are the poorest of the poor; have limited access to credits, loans and facilities; are unable to control financial resource; and are constrained by traditional practices, which upon recently prevent them from taking part in some income generating activities such as auto mechanic, welding, cab/bus driving. Having identified these problems, what then is the way forward? To get women fully involved in entrepreneurial venture, International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR, 2009) suggests removing gender barriers, beefing up women’s capacities, and enabling men to support women in entrepreneurship the Institute believes that if the above are done, the community will reap the benefits of an improved and robust local economy. In addition, IIRR reveals that in order to increase women’s important to understand gender issues in micro-enterprise, that it is important to understand gender issues and their effects on women’s work, activities and their potential abilities. In their own submission, Marcone and Chavez (2008) believe that the way forward will be by creating adequate enabling environment for women entrepreneurship which addresses the gender gap and promotes women empowerment. To create the enabling environment will require strong public policies on: equal opportunities at the centre of economic policy; business and financial training for women; provision of free resources to support female entrepreneurship with dedicated financial programmes; enact gender sensitive legislation to break the cultural bias and make equal rights and equal opportunities for women and men real; promote access of women to innovative business sectors; and promote pro-women financial tools. Besides the above listed gender-friendly policies, a multi-stakeholders approach is required to ensure support to women entrepreneurship by NGOs, CBO’s, FBOs, economic actors, financial houses/banks, corporate bodies, cooperative organizations, donor agencies and international institutions. Mainstreaming gender equality in entrepreneurship development and approaches, and providing targeted approaches to women’s starting, 24 formalizing and growing their businesses is one way forward by ILO (2009). The organization in addition recommends: empowering women with knowledge of and skills in entrepreneurship; creating awareness on the benefits of entrepreneurial ventures by women; creating awareness on the need for values orientation to overcome social and cultural practices that inhibits women from participating in enterprise such as welding, mechanic, etc for those with basic education; using media campaigns, workshops and seminars and other promotional events to provide the few women entrepreneurs with a platform through which their voices will be heard, and thus use them as role models; improving ways for women to easily access micro-credit and facilities for their small scale businesses; and promoting policies and strategies to assist women in starting their business ventures. Furthermore, the government, individuals, non-governmental, faith-based and community-based organizations (NGOs, FBOs, CBOs) have also some roles to play in order to help women to overcome the barriers that constitute a set-back for women to be successful entrepreneurs. They are enjoined to do among others: counseling, networking and mentoring of women; gathering of gender-sensitive data which is needed to analyze the influence of national policies on both genders; and supporting, financial, morally, psychological and otherwise, the few women entrepreneurs to succeed, as motivation to others. Gender Mainstreaming Women entrepreneurs abound in every nook and cranny of the federation and they constitute large neglected and untapped potentials for socio-economic growth, job creation eradication of poverty and sustainable development. The realization of the impact of this neglect led to the agitation by international organizations and agencies for gender mainstreaming. The Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Chief Development (FMWA/CD, 2006), explains that gender mainstreaming is a process that recognizes that most institutions consciously and unconsciously serve the interests of men, and hence the advocacy to encourage institutions to adopt a positive-gender perspective in order to transform those institutions for the good of both men and women in the society. The process of gender mainstreaming is goal-oriented and it promotes the full participation of women in decision-making so that their needs move from the margins to the centre of development, planning, and resource allocation. FMWA/CD further states that mainstreaming gender is the integration of gender equality principles at all level of planning development programmes, implementing them as well as their evaluation. Nwoye (2007), defines gender mainstreaming, in an entrepreneurial economy, as the activities specifically designed to promote access by women and men to economically valued goods, opportunities, resources and rewards, including those that address access to loans, credits, raw material, information and technology. Mainstreaming gender, according to Azikiwe (2002), is the simultaneous mobilization of the capacities and abilities of males and females when planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating developmental policies and programmes. It is the systematic consideration of the differences of women’s and men’s conditions, situations, needs, and interests in every national programme. Furthermore, mainstreaming gender means the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes in any areas and at all levels. It is a developmental strategy for making the experiences and concerns of the women as well as men an integral part of the designing, budgeting, implementing, monitoring and evaluating policies and programmes, in all social, economic and political spheres, so that men and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated, ECOSOC in Nwoye (2007). 25 In the process of mainstreaming, from the foregoing, the focus is not women issues as it is being wrongly perceived, rather it is on the social, economic and political issues constraining development. Policies and institutional practices where gender is mainstreamed promote optimum utilization of the potentials and abilities of every stakeholder. Women are adequately empowered through mainstreaming strategy to participate in development process. Gender mainstreaming therefore targets the entire society and should not be seen as women affairs. It ensures that both men and women have equal access to skills, training, resources and services needed for individual and national growth and development. Indeed, gender mainstreaming specifically promotes and encourages equal access by every member of the society, irrespective of sex, to resources, services, opportunities, and rewards for equal participation in and contribution to development. Capacity Building in Entrepreneurial Ventures to Empower Women Studies have revealed that women entrepreneurs are ‘invisible’ as men dominate the entrepreneur field, and anything that deviates from this norm is seen as strange and unbecoming. It is also established that the underlying societal stereotypes associating entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics do have negative influence on women’s intention to pursue entrepreneurial ventures (Ferry, 2008; OECD, 2008). Little wonder the World Bank (2007) survey reports that women own less than 10 percent of enterprises in Nigeria. The survey also reveals that gender equality is a potent force for poverty alleviation and economic growth. Hence it becomes imperative that any responsible government, and the general public, put in place policies and programmes that should promote greater participation of women in entrepreneurship. Okpara (2005), categorized areas of entrepreneurial activities into Agro-Based, Service Industry, Agro-Allied, and Chemical and Allied Ventures. Some of the areas capacities of women can be built from the four categories are listed below. However, this list does not claim to be exhaustive. Agro-Based Poultry Service Industry Cleaning/Laundry Piggery Waste disposal Goat rearing Snail farming Day care/crèche Beauty salon hair dressing Cellphone repairs Dressmaking/Knitting Newspaper vendoring Food vendoring Outdoor catering Event management Vegetable garden Fish pond Rabbit breeding Agro-Allied Food processing and packaging Cold room for fish, meat storage Butcher shop Tooth pick making Chemical-Allied Ventures School chalk Palmoil mill Palm kernel crushing Vegetable oil Packaging spices Cassava, yamflour Corn, maize and other grains flour Toilet soap/ bar soap Polish remover Type-due Hair shampoo/ conditioner Body cream Polythene Shoe polish Scourying powder Detergent Interior décor Video covering Advantages of Mainstreaming Women into Entrepreneurship Women are by nature inventors and risk-takers for they create something out of nothing to take care of their children and families. By extension, therefore, women are natural entrepreneurs and should therefore be very active in the informal sector of the 26 economy. These abilities of women have to be recognized, appreciated and supported for greater participation and higher productivity that will grow local economy. Unfortunately, women are excluded at the decision making, planning, implementation monitoring and evaluation levels of any economic programmes. Consequently, their entrepreneurial potentials are untapped and their families, communities and society, at large, are the loosers. On the other hand, there are many advantages when entrepreneurial programmes target women. Their productivity and standard of living are enhanced, and they become empowered to accelerate development at both local and national levels. In view of what this paper is advocating for, making entrepreneurship programmes gender-sensitive and friendly, it aligns itself to the conclusions of the OECD (2008) reports. The studies find that if better use were made of the world’s female human capital; economic growth would increase in all countries; the number of people living with poverty would decline in all countries, fertility rates would decline in non-OECD countries, business performance and innovation would be enhanced, the cost-effectiveness of healthcare and social programmes would be raised; government policies would better respond to the needs of all citizens; and environmental damage from unsustainable activities would decrease. From the foregoing, the advantages arising from empowering women cannot be overemphasized since no development interventions can be effective, if again for emphasis, about half of the population is not fully engaged. It is an established fact that women are the driving force behind small businesses and local economies. This by implication means that for a nation to be seen as developed, its women population must be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (World Bank, 2007). In view of the foot-dragging by the society, there is therefore an urgent need to invoke affirmative action in entrepreneurship. This gender concept means measures targeted at a particular group and intended to eliminate and prevent discrimination or offset disadvantages arising from existing attitudes, behaviours and structures. There is also the need for professional associations such as NASE to serve as pressure groups that advocate for gender mainstreaming and thereby create the awareness of gender issues, and willingness to effect the necessary changes that will have positive impacts on issues and concerns of men and women in entrepreneurship. The benefits of empowering women through entrepreneurship are far-reaching. Nwoye (2007) opines that empowering women as economic actors in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is a powerful mechanism for economic development and consolidation of democracy. In his own contribution, Annan (2003) states categorically that the problem of under-development in Africa is as a result of women exclusion in policies and programmes. He confirms that study after study has shown that women do not play a central role, but adds that when they are fully involved, the benefits can be seen immediately. The benefits are: families are healthier and better fed, their income, savings and investment go up. The improvements in their families have ripple effects. Annan continued, because of the fact that what is true of families is also true of communities and, in the long run, of the whole country. In effect, this means that if women are involve in the economy of a nation, it will trigger off development in the society as a whole. Building the capacity of women in entrepreneurship will also yield positive results in the form of job creation and poverty alleviation or reduction. Indeed, women in entrepreneurship is a viable way out of poverty as well as a tool for women to gain increasing levels of rights, empowerment, and to occupy their rightful position in the development programmes. 27 In their own contribution, Marcone and Chavez (2008) are of the view that women entrepreneurs are becoming an increasingly important component of the world economy, its productivity growth, and its struggle against poverty. Hence, by investing in women, government at all levels have an opportunity to tap into the underutilized potentials of women. The authors further state that understanding and supporting the entrepreneurial behaviour of women will have positive repercussions on a country’s well-being and social equity. In the end, Marcone and Chavez reiterate that entrepreneurship empowers women and brings them into mainstream development thereby improving their economic status. This by implication means that enabling women to participate in entrepreneurial programmes will empower them to set up productive activities, increase their technical knowledge and skills and raise their income. The grand-norm of the MDGs is gender equality and each of the MDGs wears a woman’s face, consequently it might not be off the mark to believe that if women are fully mainstreamed into entrepreneurial programmes and other aspects of social institutionseducation, agriculture, commerce, politics, health, and technology in Nigeria, the country might be on the road to achieving some, if not all of the eight MDGs in 2015. Imagine the scenario where about 50% of the population, (i.e. women) is empowered, there is no doubt that through such aggressive women empowerment: Extreme poverty and hunger will be eradicated. Universal primary education, especially education of girls, will be achieved. Gender equality will be promoted. Rate of child mortality will go down. Maternal health will improve. Prevalence of HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases will be reduced. Environmental sustainability will be ensured. And partnerships for development will also be ensured. International Organisation of Employers (2008) reported that women entrepreneurs are increasingly becoming the driving force of many economies particularly in Africa. This revelation, by implication, means that any nation where women are not carried along in entrepreneurship will experience a snail-speed economic development. For rapid development in Nigeria, therefore, private and public policies and programmes should support women entrepreneurs. Supporting them will enhance the potentials to create employment, increase productivity, improve family health, reduce poverty, and promote development from the community level. These are worthwhile benefits and more the society will reap if women are availed of entrepreneurship education as well as encouraged to recognize and utilize their entrepreneurial potentials. It is an established fact that women are the driving force behind small businesses and local economies. This by implication means that for a nation to be seen as developed, its women population must be mainstreamed into every developmental policy, project, and programme (World Bank, 2007). In view of the neglect of the female population in Nigeria, there is therefore the need to invoke the implementation of the United Nations affirmative action in entrepreneurship. This gender concept interprets into employing measures targeted at a particular group, and in this case, girls and women, as well as intended to eliminate and prevent discrimination, or offset disadvantages arising from existing attitudes, behaviours and structures. Mainstreaming gender is a change agent for the entire society to ensure that every member of the society, irrespective of sex, has equal access to services and resources. It guarantees every individual equal participation in and contribution to the development process. Finally, mainstreaming enables everybody to benefit from the outcomes of development programmes and projects. Why this call to mainstream gender in 28 entrepreneurship education? The answer is: simple to empower women, which means appreciating their potentials and abilities, and building their capacity in order for them to make meaningful and effective contributions to development, to make purposeful decisions about their future, and also to derive benefits from common resources and opportunities that abound in the society. Women empowerment, therefore, aims at raising the voices and status of women to ensure gender equity. It also involves targeting women to achieve specific outcomes aimed at adequately equipping them to participate in the development process. The exclusion of women, with opportunities equal to those of men, in entrepreneurship education, seminars and workshops is in effect a deliberate exclusion of half of the population and a potential ingredient for development. It is not just the women that loose out, but rather their communities, their families and the entire nation. There is no gainsaying the fact that if men will join women, without any bias, to fight the battle for women empowerment and for practices, then gender inequality will become a thing of the past. Women cannot be left out in any development agenda; rather they should be targeted and carried along if Nigeria is to achieve the MDGs, EFA and Vision 202020 (i.e. being one of the twenty largest economies in the year 2020). Special programmes to target women should be organized governments, international agencies, NGOs, FBOs, CBOs and individuals. The call being made is for every hand to be on deck in Nigeria to mainstream gender and to also implement affirmative action which translates to setting aside 30 percent of places or positions for women in every aspect of life; education, politics, economic, labour force, entrepreneurship, business etc. Mainstreaming gender in development policies and programmes will guarantee gender equality and its benefits. Now is the time for us all to double our efforts to promote women’s economic self sufficiency, social empowerment and security. Gender has got to be mainstreamed into entrepreneurship education which Azikiwe (2008) has rightly branded a polyvalent agent of development, and for the achievement of the MDGs in 2015. References Annan, K. (2003). Address: International Women’s Day Celebration. New York: United Nations. Ansre, A. (2009). Gender on the agenda of West Africa Development. Paper presented at he Regional Training series, RTS-02, for Women Development and Gender Management held in Accra, Ghana, 24-26 June, 2009. Azikiwe, U. (2001). Mainstreaming gender in the curriculum for sustainable educational development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 9 (2), 106-115. Azikiwe, U. (2002). Gender ssues and the Universal Basic Education Programme. The Nigerian Universal Basic Education Journal, 1(2), 371-379. Azikiwe, U. (2008). Entrepreneurship: Key to Development. An Opening Address delivered on the 1st Youth Entrepreneurship Awards by Withworth Consultancy, London, held at Owerri, Imo State, Nov. 21, 2008. Federal Ministry of Women Affairs/Child Development (2006). National Gender 29 Policy: Situation Analysis and Framework, Vol. 1, Abuja: FMWA/CD. Feery, A.P. (2008) Study: Gender sterotypes persist. http://www.inc.com/news/articles /2008/05/gender.html. (6/6/2009) IFC (2009). IFC and Nigeria’s Access Bank Open Credit Line for Women Entrepreneurs. Reducing Poverty Improving Lives. http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainablity (14/8/2009). ILO (2009). Skill and entrepreneurship: Bridging the technology and gender divide. Gender equality at the heart of decent work. Geneva: ILO. International institute of rural reconstruction (2009). International course on gender and entrepreneurship www.iirr.org (6/62009) Marcone, S. & Charez, M.E. (2008). Women entrepreneurship development for economic growth. 5th ICA regional women forum. www.ica.coop/gender/activities/2008-apwomen-forum.pdf (6/62009). Nwoye, M. (2007). Gender responsive entrepreneurial economy of Nigeria: Enabling women in a disabling environment. Journal of International women’s Studies, 9(1), 1-2. http://www.bridgew.us/SOAS/JIWS/NOV07/MayNwoye.pdf. Okpara, E.O. (2005). The practice of entrepreneurship. Enugu, Nigeria: Precision Publishers Ltd. Okpara, F. O. (2000). Entrepreneurship: Text and case. Enugu, Nigeria: Precision Printers and Publishers. Oputu, H. (2008). Bank of industry and women in business. http://www.com/stories/ 20082080176/html (24/8/2009. Organisation of economic co-operation and development (OECD, 2008). Gender and sustainable development. OECD. The international organisation of employer (2008): Women entrepreneurs http://www.ioeemp.org/en/policy-areas/employment/women-entrepreneurship/index.htmt. World Bank (2007). Global monitoring report 2007:Millennium development goa Confron ting the challenges of gender equality and fragile state: Washing Yan, DC: World Bank. 30 TEACHER EDUCATION: A PATHWAY TO THE ACQUISITION OF POSITIVE SOCIETAL VALUES AND SKILLS IN NIGERIA DARAMOLA, C.O. Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education University of Ilorin, Ilorin. & DARAMOLA, F.O. Department of Science Education University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Abstract This paper examined the importance of teacher education in the transmission and acquisition of positive societal values and skills in Nigeria. Every society, whether primitive, developing or developed has her system of cultural transmission. Education, being a major factor in this process should inculcate in the teacher- trainees those societal values which will enable them to contribute meaningfully to the development of the society. The paper suggested that the curriculum of the Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education, where teachers are trained, should include courses like Citizenship Education, Civics etc. The paper concluded that preparing student-teachers to be effective citizens is explicitly recognized as an important part of the teacher- training institutions’ mission and not just citizenship as or general course. Introduction There are multitudes of theories on positive moral values, and there are equally many views on the role of education in moulding character of an individual. Some scholars believe that sc hools have appropriate settings for developing positive moral values in individuals because the main “goal of schools is to promote students’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor development, so that they can be functional members of the society (Bagudo, 2004). Also DeRoche and Williams (1998, p.96),echoed similar views thus: Two major purposes of schooling are cognitive-academic development and character formation….Cognitive-academic development contributes towards enhancing children’s and youth’s knowledge and intellectual skills. [While] Character formation helps shape their attitudes and behaviours reflected in such values as honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility, self-discipline, and reliability, ‘cognitive-academic’ and ‘character development’ prepare students for work. The development of any nation rests heavily on the education of its citizenry. This is because the purpose of education is to transmit the culture of the people, to initiate the young into their way of life, and to mould their character for the well-being of their immediate and entire community. Adiele in Bagudo (2004) defines education as a process that brings about desirable change in human behaviour, which goes beyond academics. It also involves the development of positive moral values in the pupils for their proper functioning in the society. In the education industry, teachers play a very significant role in the teaching / learning process. 31 For the overall development of the entire society, the importance of teachers cannot be over-emphasized, because it has been established that there is no society that can rise above her teachers. If teachers are so significant in the development of a nation, then the questions are, who are these teachers? how are they trained to be able to produce students who would be sound intellectually, acquire skills and develop socially desirable behaviour in the society? The answers to these questions constitute the main trust of this paper. Conceptual Clarification Teacher education Teacher education is an educational programme designed to prepare and equip teachers with academic training and professional skills required in the teaching-learning situation. It is a component part of an educational system, charged with training and production of teachers for all the levels of education. It helps to acquire skills and competencies of teaching for the improvement in the quality of teachers for the school system. In consonance with the above meaning, Ipaye (2000) in Adedeji and Bello (2008) defines teacher education as the process whereby the prospective teacher, pre-service teacher or intending teacher or aspirant teacher, is provided with the opportunity to develop cognitive perspectives, affective dispositions and psychomotor competencies which will endow him or her with the qualities, capacities and capabilities for teaching. Also Denga (2001) opines that teacher education is the process of preparing or developing individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills that will enable them to effectively direct learning situations. Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) has emphasized the aims and objectives of teacher education as contained in the National Policy on Education as follows: a. to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of education system; b. to encourage further, the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers; c. to help teachers to fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to enhance their commitment to national objectives; d. to provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and to make them adaptable to any change situation not only in the life of their country but in the wider world; e. to enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. Furthermore, Ukeje (1986) has also stressed that in addition to the objectives of teacher education stated in the National Policy on Education, the teacher education programme should aim at producing teachers who are able to: i. inspire the youth to develop national consciousness and sense of national unity; ii. inculcate in the youth the right type of values and attitudes for their individual progress and for the survival of the nation; and. iii. lead the youth to the development of their minds to the proper understanding of the world around them. If the above objectives of teacher education as stated in the National Policy on Education are to be achieved, then there is need to examine the vital role of teacher education programme in the production of teachers who are to impart positive social and moral values into the learners. 32 The concepts of positive values DeRoche and Williams (1998) see positive values as the ethical dimensions of the individual and society which examines how the standard of right and wrong are developed. Positive values is all about core moral values, such as honesty, responsibility, care, etc, and helps to raise morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. Bello (2006) states that positive moral values, like moral education involves teaching children and youths basic human values including honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, and respect. It aims at creating schools that foster ethical, responsible values, and caring for young people. Development of positive values is what the school teaches to help the youths to become ethnically mature adults, capable of moral thought and action. Hurn,(1987) defines positive values as moral character that creates justification for a person’s beliefs, decisions, and actions, including getting involved in corrupt activities. Teacher Education a Pathway to the acquisition of positive societal values and skills Adedeji and Bello (2000) observe that teacher education is specifically designed for individuals who are willing to become teachers to acquire skills, dispositions, knowledge, habits, attitudes, values , norms, ethics and professional competencies that prepare them to effectively influence the learning situation. It aims at producing efficient teachers for all levels of the Nigerian educational system. They went further to say that developing nations like Nigeria are confronted with the challenges of national integration/ nation building, economic development, and other related problems. They believe that through education, the sense of national unity, patriotism and loyalty can be transmitted from the older members of the society to the younger ones. The Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) and Bachelor Degree in Education (B.Ed, B.Sc. Ed & B.A. Ed.) programmes are designed for the training of teachers in various disciplines, dedicated teachers who have appropriate knowledge , skills and attitudes that would facilitate easy achievement of the national goals as spelt out in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004). By implication, teacher education, like any aspect of education, is expected to be an instrument for attaining these goals through teaching of positive moral values to its studentteachers who would also teach it to the end users, (i.e the learners). Positive values are good moral principles, standards that a society considers important. Teacher education, which is a structure or basis for equipping teachers and teacher educators, should be the centre for value-orientation and re-orientation on every aspect of societal life be it social, political, economic, personal etc. The environment in teacher education is discussed as a major mode for the development of values needed in the society. For any change to take place in the society , it starts from the school as the play ground and the teacher as the coach. If the teacher is well equipped and sound in positive values of due process, justice, patriotism, honesty, trustworthiness, loyalty etc, teacher educators can then transmit same into the learners. These could be achieved by: 1. Developing student- teachers in the three educational domains- cognitive, affective and the psycho-motor with special emphasis on the affective domain, which deals with feelings, desires, aspirations, attitudes, values, character/ behaviour, interest, moral disposition, passion and aesthetic sensibilities and appreciations. The affective domain is classified into five levels as: receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization by value or value complex. In developing student teachers in the affective domain for transformation of attitudes; citizenship education is offered as a compulsory course in Nigerian Colleges of 33 Education, where teacher-trainees are taught the values of honesty, respect, hardwork, tolerance, national integration, integrity, patriotism, loyalty etc. It is believed that when the affective domain of learners are emphasized, the learner will respond positively to what is being taught, value it, and organize it through conceptualization and develop value concept system according to priority. This is the fifth level of the affective domain which involves value system that represents one’s philosophy of life. This influences the character of the student teachers. Behaviours at this stage are consistent and the student teachers’ lives are in harmony with the value system (Piwuna, in Bello 2006). It is therefore advocated that Nigerian Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education in the Universities teach relevant courses that would make learning of values reach the highest levels of affective domain, so that the values can be part of the student teachers who will, in turn, transmit same to learners in primary and secondary schools. On the other hand, if these courses are not properly handled or taught, they will end up at the 1 st and 2 nd levels of receiving and responding respectively which can only be taken for granted and will not be internalized for change in attitudes and values that would enhance the attainment of teacher education objectives of development of positive character or behaviours needed for value change. 2. Effective evaluation of learning outcome in the affective domain: For proper assessment of what the student teachers have learnt in their various institutions of learning, effective evaluation process must be put in place to ensure that those values taught are understood and internalized. These can be done by using observation, rating scales, anecdotal records, sociometric system etc. Unfortunately, most assessments are done only on the cognitive domain. 3. Citizenship education: Citizenship education equips students with knowledge, norms, skills, values orientation, attitudes that would enable them become effective citizens and function in the society as effective members; it prepares them for democratic processes. As citizens, they are meant to learn the constitution of the country, to know their rights and obligations and that of other citizens of the country; and the restrictions on those rights. They also study the systems of government and leadership styles as well as the symbols for national unity. The NCCE (2002) minimum standard highlights some themes in citizenship education as follows: the constitution, federation, citizenship, constituted authority, government, arms of government , historical perspectives of Nigeria’s political and economic development, rights and obligations, national ethics and discipline in national life, Nigerian environment, and national identity. These themes are carefully broken down into sub-themes or topics and student teachers are all expected to study them under general studies education as a compulsory course through application of appropriate methods and instructional materials on these themes. The acquisition of positive moral values by the student teachers will not be limited as this will equip them as teachers with skills which will enhance national development. 4. Leadership style built into the curriculum of the teacher training institutions: Positive values can also be taught through the curriculum of the teacher trainees. Leadership is an important aspect of a teacher’s roles. The society depends on the teacher education to train and produce teachers who will train and produce leaders of tomorrow in the society. Hikimi, (2006) opines that it is in the school that the society can produce qualified business managers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals that would handle leadership roles in the society. The importance of effective leadership in the education sector therefore cannot be over-emphasized. However, for positive values to be acquired in teacher education, the provosts, rectors, vice chancellors and staff should adopt democratic leadership style in their 34 management and administration. In the theory of democratic leadership style, power and responsibilities are shared (between the school leaders and the staff and between the lecturers and student-teachers). The teacher’s managerial role in the classroom creates way for an effective working environment which is stimulating, supportive, unthreatening and effective for all members. Leadership values of justice, rule of law, efficiency, discipline, transparency, integrity and honesty should be demonstrated by the administrators, academics and nonacademic staff. When all these are available in the various institutions of learning, the environment will be friendly, loving, motivating and inspiring for teaching/ learning activities. The student teachers have a lot to learn from their various Colleges and Universities. Among these variables is the leadership which they are going to assume when they get to the larger society. Thus, democratic leadership in teacher training colleges breeds people with democratic principles for the society (Ibrahim, 2000). 5. Staff as Role Models of Emulation: It is pertinent to note that the personal qualities of academic staff in Nigerian Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education in the Universities can go a long way in influencing the teacher trainees. It shapes their behaviours or develops the philosophy of decency in them. The ethics of teaching profession as a yardstick for good conduct can influence student teachers’ lifestyles which invariably can be transferred to the larger society. Ryan in Bello (2008) stated that moral values are “caught not taught” and classroom life is saturated with moral meanings that shape students’ character and moral development. When student teachers are provided with good role models such as virtues of patriotism, hardwork, honesty, self-control, respect for superior, loyalty, integrity, justice, democratic behaviour, decency in speech and dressing, due-process etc. Then teacher education will be able to produce teachers who are not only qualified in knowledge of subject matter, skills of imparting knowledge but also upright in character. This means that the institutions will be able to produce individuals who have received all round education. When this is attained, the society will be better for it. Challenges hindering the acquisition of positive values in the provision of teachers: 1. Difficulty in the teaching of citizenship education: The teaching of citizenship education in teacher training institutions poses a lot of challenges, prominent among them is that there are many topics and not all of them can be taught within the stipulated semester. Also there is the problem of evaluating learning outcome in citizenship education since it deals with values, norms and attitude transformation. This is coupled with large class size experienced in most Education Faculties and Colleges of Education. The introduction of Computer Based Test (CBT) poses serious challenge to evaluation; this method has limited the evaluation of learners understanding to purely the cognitive domain to the detriment of affective and psychomotor domains. 2. Less involvement of student-teachers in school administration: Student teachers are not much involved in the school administration, this does not give room for the student teachers to acquire the needed skills and knowledge that will enable them function adequately in their various schools. 3. Bad Personality traits of teacher educators: The classroom and indeed the school community is directed by student teachers’ educators. The environment from where the teaching / learning process takes place must be conductive. The lecturers must prepare for their lectures as nobody can give what he/she does not have. Therefore, they must serve as role models for their students. The lectures’ attitudes to their work and their students will tell much about them outside their campuses. Therefore, bad personal traits on the part of the 35 lecturers must be curbed and reduced to the minimal by the college or the university authorities. 4. Bad Leadership style: if the leadership of any organization is weak or bad, the out-put of that organization will be minimal. The student teachers should imbibe the culture of good leadership right away from their various institutions of learning. Lecturers in the Nigerian Colleges of Education and Faculties of Education where teachers are produced should make the development of positive moral values their watch-word in their day to day activities in their various institutions of learning. Conclusion Nigeria, like any country in the world, has her cultural values which are transmitted from one generation to the other. Education has been seen as a means of transmitting these values, but because Nigerian society, like any other in the world is not static but dynamic. Therefore, her education system should be able to keep pace with all the changes that are occurring in all the sectors of the economy. For the effective teaching / learning of positive societal values and skills, the curriculum of the teacher- trainees should include courses like citizenship education, civics, skills and values, and they should be explicitly and systematically taught in the teacher training institutions and schools. It is important to note that preparing student teachers to be effective citizens is explicitly recognized as an important part of the teacher training institutions’ mission and not just citizenship education as a general course. References Adedeji, I.O. and Bello, M,B.(2008). An introduction to teacher education for NCE students and university undergraduates. Kaduna. Ultimate Printer. Bagudo, .A .A (2004). Philosophical analysis of educational concepts. Ibadan: Sam Bookman Publishers. Bello, M. B. (2006). An appraisal of school as a custodian of moral values: A case study of selected secondary schools in Sokoto Metropolis. Sokoto Educational Review. 8(2), 192-203. Bello, M.B. (2008). Tackling corruption through moral education for nation building.A paper presented at the 1 st National Conference of School Sciences Isa Kaita College of Education, Dutsin- ma, Katsina State at Education Room from 28th April – 2nd May. Denga, N.B. (2001). Introduction to teacher education. Kano: Jafe Associates Ltd. DeRoche. E. F & Williams, M. M. (1998). Educating hearts and minds: A comprehensive character education framework. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc. Federal Government of Nigeria National Commission on Colleges of Education (2002). Minimum standards for NCE Teachers. 3rd edition. Abuja. NCCE Press. 36 Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National policy on education. (4rth ed.) Lagos; NERDC Press. Hikim, M.W. (2006). Theories of leadership and their implication in school administration. Farfaru Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Studies: Special Conference edition. 1 ( I ), 88-93. Hurn, C. (1987). The limits and possibilities of schooling: An introduction to sociology of education .London: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Ibrahim, N. (2000). Patriotism in national service. Kaduna: Baraka Press and publishers Ltd. Tukur, M. (1999). Leadership and governance in Nigeria. Great Britain. Hodder Head line. Plc. Ukeje, B.O. (1986). Teacher education in Nigeria: Problems and Issues. In L.O. Ocho: & E.O. Fagbamiye (Eds). Issues and concerns in educational administration: The Nigerian case in international perspectives. Lagos: Macmillan Nig. Pub.Ltd. 37 GENDER ACCESS TO UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA OBASI E. Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Owerri Abstract This article examines the data on graduate output in Nigeria’s universities and participation in governance in Nigeria by gender to see how the global and national aspirations for gender parity in access to education and governance are being realized. The indication from the findings is that in spite of the fact that the population of Nigeria is evenly distributed between males and females, huge gender imbalances exist in access to university education and participation in governance in Nigeria. It is concluded that adopting a laissez-faire approach to gender development issues could hardly yield the desired global and national aspirations for the equalization of the participation rates for women and men both in university education and in governance. The pragmatic approach to adopt is to enunciate and enforce affirmative action plans that strictly guarantee equal gender quota in university admission and in the allocation of seats in the legislative and judicial chambers and in the appointments to executive offices in government. Introduction The place of education in role allocation in society is a recurring theme in Functionalist sociological analysis of the nexus between education and society (Karabel & Halsey, 1977, Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). Haralambos and Holborn (2004) contend that Functionalist sociologists see the educational system as a vital mechanism for the selection of individuals for their future roles in society. Schools, from the Functionalist stand point, accomplish the role allocation function by selecting, teaching and examining students to separate them for different occupational roles in society. Schools, according to the Functionalist school of thought, operate as meritocratic institutions where the same standards are applied to all students irrespective of ascribed characteristics like social class of origin, family background, race or gender. Hence, schools in admitting, testing and evaluating students, ascertain their different abilities measured by their academic performance and use that to channel them into different fields of study and subsequently into the occupations/ professions irrespective of gender. Going by the functionalist theory, one should expect that any observable proportions in the males and females access to university education should be somewhat reflected in the representation of men and women in governance. The expectation is predicated on the fact that governance recruits preponderantly from the class of educated elite. This should be more so since males and females are proportionately represented in the national population matrix, with females accounting for some 50 per cent of the country’s population of 140 million (see Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2008). Besides, one should also expect a correspondence between access to University education and participation in governance since the United Nations (1948) in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 endorsed every individuals right to participate both in education and governance irrespective of ethnicity, religion or gender. This article examines the available data on gender access to university education reflected in the university graduate output from Nigerian universities between 2000/200138 2004/2005 academic session for which disaggregated data by gender is available and compares it with data on gender participation in governance. The purpose is to see whether there is some correspondence between women’s access to university education and women’s participation in governance. The data used in the study is sourced principally from Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Discussion of Findings Table 1 presents the data on gender distribution of graduate output (Bachelor Degree, Postgraduate Diploma, Masters Degree and Doctorate Degree) in Nigeria’s Universities for the period 2000/2001 academic session up to the 2004/2005 academic session. We observe from the table that females account for 34.3 percent of the 69,390 total graduates output in Nigerian universities in 2000/2001. The proportion increased marginally to 35 percent of 80, 944 graduates in 2001/2002 and peaked at 38.2 percent of 90,579 graduates in 2002/2003. It stood at 38 percent of 69, 300 in 2003/2004 and dropped sharply to 36.3 percent of 39,506 graduates in 2004/2005. Table 1: Graduate Output (Bachelor Degree, Postgraduate Diploma, Masters Degree and Doctorate Degree) in Nigeria’s Universities 2000/2001 – 2004/2005 Academic Session) by Gender Disciplines 2000/2001 Engineering/Tech Env. Sci. Law Medicine Pharmacy Science Social Science Dentistry Vet. Medicine Others Total 2002/2003 2003/2004 Total % female Total % female Total % female 14078 2966 7645 10358 6497 1811 4398 2665 494 9060 18909 68 205 1790 35.5 30.6 44.5 46.8 12.8 25.6 44.1 29.1 31.2 36.2 32.8 32.4 34.9 28.6 19513 41 119 1255 % female 31 22.5 41.6 49 10.9 24.9 38.6 31.5 24.2 34.4 34.7 29.3 17.7 33.7 97 254 1649 35.1 35.6 49.3 47 14.2 32 47.4 37.1 41.3 40.6 38.4 30.9 25.2 30.1 12893 2869 6692 8363 5808 1822 3877 2644 710 8353 14122 79 118 950 39.7 34.4 47.1 52.7 14.1 26.7 42.4 32.8 39 35.7 37.3 27.9 27.1 28.3 69390 34.3 80944 35 90579 38.2 69300 38 Tota l Administration Agriculture Arts Education 2001/2002 14847 2247 6656 10520 5852 1787 2927 1921 355 9174 11689 3012 8743 10026 7227 2187 5896 2895 417 11308 17355 2004/2005 Tota % l female 8530 37.7 974 29.2 3829 45.1 5665 46.5 2012 09.3 1502 26.4 1681 38 732 38.8 42 40.5 6702 24 7283 42.7 Not Available 61 21.3 491 43 39506 2000/20012004/2005 Average (% female) 35.8 30.5 45.5 48.4 12.3 27.1 42.1 33.9 35.2 34.2 37.2 30.1 25.2 32.7 36.3 36.4 Source: Based on Federal Republic of Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics, 2009. The remarkable finding from the data is that females seriously lagged behind males in access to university education in Nigeria over the years. The female gender is lagging behind the males with a deficit of 11.8 percent at its best documented period (2002/2003) and a deficit of 15.7 percent at its worst documented period (2000/2001). The data when considered across the various fields of study at the university, shows that the under representation of females is pronounced in virtually all the professions, being highest in Engineering/Technology where females account for only 12.3 percent on the average during the period 2000/2001-2004/2005 and least in education where females accounted, on the average, for 48 percent of the graduate out put during the period. The overall under representation of the female gender in access to university education becomes disturbingly worrisome in view of the fact that females account for 50 percent share of the national population. 39 The continued under representation of females in university education in Nigeria should be unacceptable since education is fully recognized both globally and nationally not only as a fundamental human right but also as a veritable instrument for inculcating knowledge and competences which are critical to human development and improvements in standard of living. Besides, the situation should not be allowed to persist in view of the provisions in both the Beijing platform for action and the requirements in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 3 for achieving gender parity in all levels of the education system and empower women no later than the year 2015( United Nations, 2005 ). To see if there is any visible relationship between gender access to university education and participation in governance in Nigeria the data on gender participation rates in university education denoted by graduate out put presented in Table 1 is compared with the data on gender participation in governance presented in Table 2. The stark startling finding which is evident from Table 2 is that females are not just underrepresented in governance but are completely marginalized to the extent that their representation in governance can be described as being largely insignificant. The female participation rates in governance which is extremely low stood at an average of 4.2 percent; 12.5 percent, 8.7 percent and 3.8 percent for elected legislators at the senate, House of Representatives, state House of Assembly and Local Government council, respectively, during the unbroken period of democratic governance in Nigeria stretching from 1999 up to 2011 when the last national election were conducted. The situation is not too different in the judiciary where females account for only 11.8 percent and 31.8 percent of the justices in the supreme and Appeal courts, respectively, and 21.6 percent of High court judges. 40 Table 2: Gender Participation in Governance in Nigeria 1999-2011 Level of 1999 2003 2007 2011 1999-2011 Senate Senate Senate Senate Average Governme nt Federal % Female % female Male Female % female Male Female % female 4 106 3 2.8 105 109 109 House of Representatives 348 12 33.3 338 22 360 360 State House of Assembly 22.9 895 21 877 39 916 916 Local Government Chairpersons 3.7 101 8 7.3 106 3 2.8 4.2 587 7 1.2 693 12 594 705 Local Government Councilors 1.7 Male Total Total State Total Local Government Total 6532 Total Type of Court Federal High Court Total 80 6612 % Female Male 1.2 8454 12.3 8724 Female 270 109 334 6.1 109 26 35.8 348 360 12 3.3 12.5 56 6.2 978 990 12 1.2 8.7 226 237 11 4.6 765 774 9 1.2 2.2 3.1 1576 164 9.4 8667 143 1.6 3.8 3.8 1740 12.7 8810 2.0 6.3 360 853 4.3 909 Justices and Judges in Federal Courts 2000 Justices Male Supreme Total Appeal Total Female Female 15 2 17 44 14 58 Judges 40 11 % female 11.8 31.8 21.6 51 Source: Based on Federal Republic of Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics, 2009 *Data for 2011 is based on enquiries from different sources. The most disturbing aspect of the findings is that the hiatus between the females participation rate in university education which averaged 36.4 percent in the era 2000/20012004/2005 and the female participation rate in governance at all levels combined which averaged 6.3 percent during the period 1999-2011 is huge at 30.1 percentage difference. Much as virtually all the women in governance are university graduates, the findings would suggest that access to university education is not significantly reflected in the access to governance positions. The obvious indication is that the role allocation function of the education system in relation to sphere of governance is very weak. Otherwise, one would have expected that much as the female gender is underrepresented in university education that at the worst the extent of the proportion of female under representation in governance will be akin to what obtained in the proportion of female under representation in access to university education. But the situation, one feels saddened to note, is not just mere under representation in governance but is grave as to be deserving to be described as outright marginalization of females in governance in Nigeria. Worse still, rather than abate the situation is exacerbating. For instance, whereas in 1999 females accounted for 12.3 percent of 41 all elected positions at all levels of governance combined, the proportion dropped steeply to 3.8 percent in 2003. It rose to 12.7 percent in 2007 and dropped steeply to 2.0 percent in 2011. The gigantean difference, in proportions, between gender access to university education and gender access to governance could be explained by the operation of certain potent factors like cultural and religious restrictions, cash and carry politics, electioneering violence, politics of god fatherism and vote manipulation which work against women participation in governance. I shall briefly show how these factors operate to drastically limit women’s participation in governance. Cultural and Religious Restrictions. In the patriarchal culture that is widely prevalent in Nigeria, custom and tradition relegates women to lower positions in the social and political organization of society relative to the men. For instance, in the public arena a woman may by seen but not heard, as vital decisions on matters affecting the community are usually taken by men. Custom and tradition prescribes that a woman be subject to the authority of the husband, required to cook his meals, rear his children and keep his home and compound, irrespective of whether the woman is educated or not. Failure to conform to the cultural prescriptions could lead to the woman being looked down upon and possibly being returned back to her parents for lack of home training, insubordination and waywardness. The desire to avoid the humiliation of being bundled back to a women’s parents’ home, which for instance, in Igbo culture, amounts to a divorce, has worked to seriously limit women’s aspirations for governance. The women who feel so liberated and bold to compromise the domestic cultural roles in the pursuit of public governance roles or who strive to strike a balance may be taunted or even seen as morally loose thereby discouraging many women from venturing into politics and aspiring to positions of governance. The cultural restrictions is reinforced by both Islamic and Christian religions. Just as a woman in Islam is not expected to lead men in prayers in the mosque and usually required to be confined in purdah, Islam does not permit her to govern or assume authority over men. Christianity strictly forbids women exercising authority over men in the following words: “11.Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection. 12. But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence, 13. For Adam was first formed, then Eve” (Holy Bible, I Timothy chapter 2 verses 11-13). Cash And Carry Politics and God Fatherism In Nigeria, there is the prevalence of zero accountability, lack of transparency and pervasive corruption in governance (Obasi, 2000). Hence, participation in governance has been the surest and easiest route to quick wealth. This has turned politics into a huge investment where governance aspirants and their patrons/godfathers spend hugely to buy their way into governance in anticipation of the fast recouping of the money spent with enormous gains as soon as they are installed in office. This has meant that politics in Nigeria is a very expensive venture requiring a huge financial out lay need to open, maintain and run campaign offices and outfits as well as provide financial inducements to the preponderantly poor voters itching to grab their own share of the national loot from politician and other key players in the electoral process who seek favourable electoral outcome. The fact that women, generally, including the university graduates lack the huge financial resource outlay needed to carry through electioneering campaigns in the vote for the highest bidder syndrome characteristic of politics in Nigeria, drastically limits the scope for women’s participation in 42 politics is drastically reduced. This hugely constrains women’s ascendancy to governance positions. Electoral Violence The fast and enormous wealth which easily accrue to participants in governance through corrupt enrichment and the outrageously stupendous remunerations and other perquisites of office which they garner, has turned politics in Nigeria into a “do or die affair” occasioning multiplicity of horrendous electioneering violence which keeps of virtually all decent women of substance from aspiring into governance position thus limiting the number of women in governance. Vote Manipulation Part of the pervasive corruption in Nigeria is the manipulation of votes and election results through many devices including ballot box stuffing and ballot box snatching, vote rigging and falsification of election results through the connivance or collusion of some election officials, party agents and security personnel who easily succumb to the huge financial inducements that desperate politicians are willing to make to enable them ascend to the lucrative governance positions in Nigeria. The antics, intrigues, scheming and dare devil ruthlessness entailed in vote manipulations are such that most decent women could scarcely boast of. Sexual Discrimination and Harassment The fact that aspiration into governance positions and engaging in politics usually occasion several travels, late night and nocturnal meetings usually in hotels and secluded arenas in distant places and the fears of sexual discrimination and harassment by lecherous men, would scare most decent married women from participation. This is because, participation will not only create a serious conflict between their domestic private roles and political public roles which could prove difficult to resolve, but could also engender suspicions of infidelity by the husband of the women politicians. In a deeply religious society like Nigeria where the violation of the sanctity of the marriage relationship is viewed seriously, most women would prefer to stay out of politics and governance to keep their marriage. Implications of Findings and Recommendation The findings of this study are two fold. Firstly, it shows that females are grossly underrepresented in access to university education in Nigeria both in overall access to university education as well as in access to the different fields of study at the university with the females lagging far behind the males, except in education and the arts subjects where the gaps are narrowest. There are both the practical and theoretical implications of the situation. Since investment in education helps in poverty alleviation and in the advancement of economic and social development ( Schultz 1981; King and Hill, 1993 ) the huge gap in females and males participation in university education would suggest that a huge number of females in Nigeria left out of university education when compared with the male population will suffer huge disadvantages in the battle to reduce poverty and secure improvements in their wellbeing through the social, political and economic empowerment engendered by university education. The under representation, also works against the actualization of the MDG 3 which is the achievement of gender parity in all levels of education by 2015. At the 43 theoretical level it would suggest that adopting a laissez-fair approach to gender development issues which relies solely on the functionalist role allocation function of the educational system predicated on merit to produce correspondence between access to schooling and ,say , participation in governance could hardly yield the desired equalization of opportunities for males and females. Secondly, it shows that females are not only grossly underrepresented governance but are also grossly and gravely marginalized. The grave marginalization of the female segment of the population in Nigeria in governance when they account 50 percent of the national population does not augur well for the women in particular as women’s rights and issues have hardly received the desired attention in the patriarchal Nigerian society and women have scarcely complemented the males in setting the national development agenda including the prioritization of issues, policies and programmes in a balanced way that adequately protects the interest of females. It is an this note that it is imperative to equalize females participation rates in governance to not only broaden the democratization of society to promote good governance since females on the average are less likely to be involved in large scale corruption associated with the male directed polity but also to secure increased sensitivity and responsiveness to female related issues in legislation, policy and programme formulation and implementation which are very imperative in the deepening of democracy in Nigeria. Although human rights advocacy groups have consistently requested for some concessional female percentage share in governance ranging from 20 percent to 35 percent , the issues in achieving equality in access/participation transcends mere concessional arrangements. The way to reach the desired gender parity, it is recommended, is to adopt a legislation based on affirmative action plan which guarantees equal gender quota (50:50) in the allocation of seats in the legislative chambers and in the judicial and executive positions in governance to overcome the numerous hindrances which work against women’s competitiveness in society and limits women’s proportionate allocation to governance roles in spite of their attainments in education and share in the national population. References Ake, C. (2001). Democracy and development in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books, Ltd. Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Lagos: Federal Government Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009). Social statistics in Nigeria. Abuja: National Bureau of Statistics Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M (2004). Sociology themes and perspectives. London: HarperCollins Publishers Limited. Holy Bible, King James Version. Karabel, J. & Halsey, A. H. (1977). Power and ideology in education. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. 44 King, E. M & Hill, M. A. (Eds) (1993). Women’s education in developing countries. Baltimore & London: The John Hopkins Press. Nwabueze, B. O. (1993). Democratization. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Obasi, E. (1987). Understanding education and society in Nigeria. Owerri: KayBeeCee Publications Limited. Obasi, E. (2000). Social pathology and control in Nigeria. Mbaise: New Vision Publishers. Schutz, T. W. (1981). Investing in people: The economics of population quality. Berkely/London: University of California Press. United Nations (1948). Universal declaration of human rights. New York: United Nations. United Nations (2005). Towards development, security and human rights for all. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information. 45 A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF BOKO HARAM PERSPECTIVE ON WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OLUGBENGA, A. Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo Abstract This paper examined the perspective of Boko Haram insurgence on Western education in line with conflict theory on education. It examined the historical background of Boko Haram on Western Education in Nigeria and the security threat the perspective poses on the corporate existence of Nigeria as a nation through series of bombings which has claimed the lives of several innocent citizens and destruction of valuable property in Nigeria. The paper also examined the agitations of Boko Haram through the condemnation of Western Education as sinful and misleading to the adherents of Islam and the Islamic education. The analysis reveals that, the provisions and policy thrust in the National Policy on Education is discriminatory, bias and non-integrative because Islamic education is seen as appendage of Western education and culture. It is recommended that the provisions in the National Policy need review to pave way for the acquisition of knowledge and skills in Northern schools in line with Islamic injunctions and doctrines to create sense of belonging amongst the Northerners who value Islamic culture to reduce social inequality in the Nigeria educational system. It is also recommended that the Islalamiyah schools in the Northern part of Nigeria should be grant aided and made to function as specialized schools with adequate regulation, control and monitoring to ensure the objective and effective transmission of knowledge and skills in line with the provisions in the Islamic written liturgy to prevent radical approach attitudes and undue influence of fundamentalism and extremism. It is also recommended that Islamiyah schools should be free and compulsory to get rid of almajiris from the street with adequate welfare and care for the learners to enable them live meaningful life as citizens of the country. Introduction The Nigerian society has been experiencing a lot of agitations and destructions of lives and property as a result of the insurgences of Islamic fundamentalists and extremists who claimed that Western Education is evil, sinful and harmful. The threat to security situation in Nigeria has become worrisome and mind-burgling to President Goodluck’s administration to the extent that most of the progressive plans of the political class in Nigeria are at the verge of collapse due to non-implementation of the budget and the action plans of the transformation agenda of the present administration in Nigeria. The insecurity situation in Nigeria has also attracted the international community, most especially, the United States of America who has started proposing holistic plans to assist Nigeria in resolving the deadly sectarian crises in Nigeria. The labour unions championed by the Academic Staff Union of Nigerian Universities, had also issued a threat warning to embark on indefinite strike if the government refuses to find solutions to the lingering religious crises. It is the expectation of Nigerians that proactive and pragmatic strides are going to be taken to prevent the incessant loss of innocent souls, most especially children, students and corpers who are the hope and future of Nigeria. 46 Adegbite (2011) declared that Boko Haram’s war declaration against Nigeria could be resolved through security agents. The government should track them down, but at the end of the day, the whole thing has to end somewhere as every war ends with dialogue. For instance, in Afghanistan, for 11 years they avoided talking to the Taliban, now they are talking to them. Dialogue is not expected to be a precondition, the perpetrators need to be tracked down first before peace talks. For those of them who are peace loving, you draw them nearer; for those who are violent and continue to attack Nigeria, you are to deal with them. Okei-Odumakin (2011) opined that if care is not taken, the insurgence of Boko Haram could cause religious war. The insurgence of’ Boko Haram has given rise to the emergence of other religious groups; for instance, in Kaduna State, ‘Akhwat Akwop’ has emerged with the intention of retaliating in case Boko Haram carries out any attack on Christians. This development could cause attacks and counter-attacks. This is why it is essential for government to face the security challenge head long. It is essential that security agencies should be alive to their responsibilities so as to curb the bombing and killings that are being perpetrated by Boko Haram. It is a1so certain that some prominent Nigerians are behind the activities of the re1igious sect and the government must be ready to unveil these people and ensure that they are brought to book. Amone (2011) said in line with the signing of the Terrorism Prevention Act 2011 by Nigeria’s President on 6th June, 2011 that the police have become proactive about the situation of security in Nigeria. It was further explained that the Intelligence Unit of the Nigeria Police has gathered data on all the religious sects in Nigeria in order to forestall breakdown of law and order. It was gathered that the Shitte Movement based in Zaria has an estimated membership of 2 million to confront any military Junta. Similarly, Taliban based in Maiduguri had estimated membership of 200,000, which later metamorphosed into Boko Haram. Its members spread across some major Northern states and recruits into these sects are mainly university undergraduates between the ages of 20 and 30. Other sects include the Kano Jalawa, with an estimated membership of 50,000, the Darul Salam in Niger State, with an estimated membership of 3,000; the Karangiya in Kano State with an estimated members of 2,000; the Kala Kato, with an unknown membership; Jamartul Tajdidi, with an unknown members; and the Almajiri, with about 8 million estimated members. With the rise of Islamic fundamentalists in the Northern Nigeria, especially since 1999, one group that has become a tool for perpetrating non- state terrorism and violence is the Almajiri (Street Urchins). Even though it cannot be described as a sect, security agents believe that the Almajiri systems possess a growing potential for terrorism. Obasanjo in Ademiluyi (2011) commented that the nation requires adequate information on the action of Boro Haram sect, the motive behind their actions and the sponsors before the problem can be effectively addressed. The nation must not take this for granted as the lives of Nigerians are on the risk. The nation needs information to tackle the Boko Haram sect. Ademiluyi (2011) reported that the father of the late founder of the sect, Mallam Yusuf Muhammed sowed the seeds for the formation of the radical group. He espoused that, “Islam teaching says anyone who seeks Western Education would end in hell fire”. This teaching continued unhindered until the Maitasine riot broke out until its leader lost his life in a crossfire in the seventies. Muhammed Yusuf formed the Jamaatu Allis Sunna Lidda awaiti wal-jihu (people committed to the propagation of the prophets’ teachings and Jihad) as a staunch opponent of Western culture. The concept of the earth as a “sphere” is contrary to Islam and should be roundly rejected (Yusuf, 2004). A radical school and a mosque were set up in Maiduguri, which attracted many poor Muslims who enrolled their 47 children and wards. The political goal of the school was to establish an Islamic state, the school community to take their dastardly activities to the next level. In 2009, they had a deadly clash with policemen, which left about 200 people dead, including the founder of the school and sect. The instigator was killed under a rather questionable circumstance after being allegedly denied the opportunity to make a phone calls to some influential persons in Abuja. The death of Boko Haram leader heightened the violent acts of the group who started demanding for the resignation of the Governor of Borno State and the Inspector General of Police. This led to the bombing of the Police Headquarters Office (Olamilekan & Adepegba, 2011). The agenda of the Irish Republican Army, Mau Mau of Kenya, Fidel Castro of Cuba, Vladimir Illyich Ulyanov a.k.a Lenin, Leon Irotsky, etc. were known. In the Boko Haram case, what is the agenda, apart from the claim that Western Education is sinful and the fight for Jihad? Adepegba (2011) reported that the State Security Service arraigned eight Boko Haram members on two count charges of criminal felony and conspiracy. The subjects aged between 20 and 35 were accused of planting a bomb that killed 16 people at the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) office in Suleja, Niger State. They were also alleged to have planted another bomb that killed three persons at the All Christian Fellowship Church, also in Suleja. The suspect could not speak English, but could speak Hausa fluently. The eight suspects were also accused of’ conspiring to wit; planting and detonating explosives at different places which caused grievous bodily harm and killed 22 people at different places. One of the subjects is the supplier of cortex wire used in the detonation of explosive devices. The accused claimed that Boko Haram members were being recruited and trained under oath to revenge the killing of their ex-sect leader (Muhammed Yusuf). Tishua (2011) declared that Boko Haram was ready for negotiation with the Federal Government. In the interview granted the African Independent Television, the co-founder of Boko Haram sect declared that their aim is to spread Islam all over Nigeria. It was also revealed that the correct name of Boko Haram is Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati walJihad. It was also declared that those who called the sect Boko Haram do so to discredit the group and its ideas. It all started in 2004 when the government of Mauritania fell. It is similar to what happened in Libya, although it is slightly different. Some individuals from Mauritania come to Nigeria through some political leaders to recruit some youths as members of Joint Forces to overthrow the government in power. The then leader of Boko Haram assisted in recruiting youths to continue the struggle in Mauritania on the grounds that they were going for further Islamic Studies. Thereafter, there was disagreement between the sect and the political leaders on knowing that the youths were recruited on political grounds as mercenaries in Mauritania. The security agents started arresting the militants and not the leaders who recruited them for selfish interests. This led to the fracas between security agents and members of the groups who are fighting for the injustice in the activities of the security agents. In 2009, the disagreement developed into a crisis in areas where Boko Haram group was spreading Islamic ideals. Tishau (2011) further declared that politicians are the root cause of the political unrest in Nigeria. For instance, in Borno State the Governor sponsors a group of armed youths known as ECOMOG; in Gombe State, the Governor sponsors Kalari; in Bauchi State, there is the Tarafuka to fight political opponents. This led to the hijack of the circumstance by top politician in Nigeria to disregard the leadership and authorities of the present administration to execute their own agenda. However, the group claimed the bombing 48 of Police headquarters and army barracks because of loose statement of Inspector General of Police and indiscriminate killing of their members by the soldiers. Part of the demand of’ Boko Haram was that there should be a declaration of Sharia in those stales who desire Sharia and not throughout the country since Nigeria is a multi-religious state. Causes of Boko Haram Actions The core Northern parts of Nigeria hosts Hausa-Fulani people who are mainly Muslims with their belief-system solidly rooted in Islamic religion. This might be the major reason why there is strong agitation for Sharia Law to guide their way of life. The Western form of education is regarded as a way of christianizing them and also an utter strategy to erode their belief system through Western culture. Niamir (1990) explained that formal schools provide the literacy needed for modern times but their contents are too foreign to the needs and aspirations of the core Northerners. In most cases, Western education conflicts with the values of Islamic adherents in the core-Northern part of Nigeria. Umar (1990) also observed the lack of adequate social amenities in the communities of the Hausa-Fulani, thereby giving rise to hostilities and tension in most communities in the core-Northern part of Nigeria. The situation does not give room for their participation in most educational and political programmes in Nigeria. It was observed that most Hausa-Fulanis do not have a sense of belonging in the mainstream of national life. Tahir (2001) lamented inadequate enlightenment programmes to sensitize the populace in the core-Northern part of Nigeria to embrace formal education and the benefits that are derivable through Western education. Tahir (1991) also decried utter neglect of Islamic education in the national education policy, which paves way for the dominance of the educational system in Nigeria with Western ideology, which could be regarded as discrimination against Islamic education in the coreNorthern part of Nigeria. The volatile Islamic groups in the Core-Northern part of Nigeria regard, the educational structure in Nigeria as a way of undermining the rights and privileges of people in the core-Northern part of Nigeria which could he regarded as lack of fair deal to the Muslim faithfuls. Aminu (1991) claimed that educational planners have neglected the lifestyle, needs and aspirations, the religion and rich cultural heritage of the core-Northerners, which are serious impediments to the realization of the educational objectives of coreNortherners. The United Nations (2004) estimated the population of street-children worldwide at 150 million, with an estimated population of 98 million from the region of Africa and over 8 million from Nigeria. The children regarded as street children are of the age range from three to thirteen years without adequate care and control by their parents and the government. This situation sets them loose to become instruments for the politicians and religious fundamentalists to pursue their personal ambitions. UNICEF (2001) also observed that millions of Nigerian children face devastating challenges of disadvantage, discrimination, abuse and exploitation. These children are often exposed to appalling circumstances. These challenges do not only violate their rights of survival and create obstacles to the development of children but are also threats to their rights for survival, protection and meaningful existence. Theoretical Analysis of Boko Haram’s Perspective on Western Education The educational arrangements in the Nigerian society, which tend to favour Western system of education, to the detriment of other interest groups must have informed the condemnation of Western education as sinful. The policy thrust as regards education in 49 Nigeria is basically one-sided because the Western ideology dominates it without due consideration of the needs and aspirations of other interest groups in the Nigerian society. The other interest groups in the Nigeria society are deprived severely in the acquisition of relevant reading and writing skills which must have informed the agitations of several Islamic sects to secure their rights and privileges. An in-depth study and diagnosis of the provision and specifications in the National Policy on Education can attest to this fact. For instance, in the core-Northern part of Nigeria, where their culture is strongly rooted in Islamic doctrines and injunctions, the Islamiyah schools are gradually fading away and replaced by Universal Basic Education (UBE) schools where Western ideologies are being imparted, the certificates that were acquired in the Islamiyah schools are gradually losing recognition because it is now difficult to enter into the labour market with them. Whereas, in the time past, those certificates were of high value because most of the Islamiyah schools products used the certificates to occupy distinguished and honourable positions in the civil service and politics. All these and others create agitations in the minds of Muslims in the core-Northern part of Nigeria, which has given rise to the insurgence of several Islamic sects including the Boko Haram, causing very serious insecurity in Nigeria. There is need to address the perceived relative-deprivation and acute neglect of educational requirements in Norther Nigeria and this calls for urgent attention by stakeholders in the national economy. Hurn (1985) in Schaefer (2005) sees Western form of education as the source of conflict in the society through the promotion and establishment of hidden curriculum in schools to regulate learners’ standard of behaviour through obedience to bell and areas of activities in the school in line with Western culture. Credentialism, which is an increase in the lowest level of education needed to enter into labour market and professional fields, also favours Western education thereby creating social inequality in the society. The certificates obtained from Islamiyah schools nowadays in Nigeria no longer have desirable values as impetus to secure employment opportunities, which negate the principle of fairness and justice. The certificates from Islamiyah schools ought to have relevance in the Nigeria labour market through the creation of employment opportunities that favours Islamic education as it is done in Arab world. The Bestowal of Status, which is an increasing proportion of people obtaining high degrees and professional certificates to occupy high status in the society favours Western form of education, which also promotes conflict because there are no educational opportunities to widen the scope of Islamic form of education, except through the conventional school which is also a source of agitation by the Muslims. Moore (1945), in Schaefer (2005) declared that the society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions. It is through education that people are sorted into appropriate levels and courses of study that will prepare them for positions within the labour market. In the Nigerian society, the main source of sorting out people into social positions in the labour market, is through English language and certificates acquired through Western education which could be part of the worry of the Boko Haram. Another area of conflict is the tracking in the Nigerian educational system. Tracking is the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test scores and other criteria. Tracking in the Nigerian educational system is done on the basis of test scores in line with the knowledge and skills that are acquired through Western culture. As a matter of fact, the inability to write and communicate in English serves as serious and thorough threat to children from disadvantaged homes. The affluent who have the cultural capital advantage are seriously favoured through tracking. The core-Northerners value Arabic 50 as a medium of instruction in their schools not English. This development places them at disadvantaged group because their culture is rooted in Eastern (Islamic) form of education. Another area of con hid is treatment of women to education in the Nigerian society. There are several agitations by the female-folk in Nigeria that women are marginalized in the scheme of things. Fletcher (1943) and Flexner (1972) in Schaefer (2005) believed that the idea of women becoming wives and mothers in the home and not lawyers and intellectuals who could assist in the development of the society is discriminatory. This development favours Western education and Western culture. The teaming Muslims in the core-north do not want their wives to work in government establishments because of the inherent dangers it poses to family stability and morality. The agitation for Sharia to preserve the women culture in accordance with Islamic injunctions and the agitations of the Boko Haram who are fighting for the Muslim majority in the core-Northern part of Nigeria. Resolution of Boko Haram Conflict The Boko Haram, no doubt, has justification to demand for their rights in the Nigerian society but not through violence and criminal acts. This might be why majority of Nigerians, including many Muslims in the North, disassociate themselves from their approach. However, this conflict could be resolved through the following strategies: 1. Establishment of Islamiyah schools in the core-northern part of Nigeria with adequate provision of basic requirements for learning in line with what is obtainable in the Arab world. 2. Review of the National Policy on Education (NPE) to accommodate Islamiyah schools as specialized institutions from primary to tertiary levels with optional integration of part of western education culture to make products relevant in the contemporary world. 3. Ensure mandatory and compulsory Islamiyah education for the Almajiris (not Universal Basic Education (UBE) schools), with adequate provision for their social needs. 4. Creation of an enabling environment and job opportunities for the products of Islamiyah schools to secure their lives. 5. Support of the practice and full implementation of Sharia Law in the core-northern part of Nigeria to give them sense of belonging and integration into the Nigerian society. Conclusion and Recommendations The Boko Haram perspective on Western education as sinful may not be regarded as a reality if it could not be backed-up with the Islamic written liturgy (Holy Qur’an) which the members of the sect lay claim to be their guiding principles. It is also beyond human comprehension, knowledge and insight to measure the standard of God in determining who is a sinner, considering the ample opportunities God gave mankind to worship through several religious leaders in the world. There are many races in the world with divergent doctrines and injunctions apart from Islam, and the adherents could not be regarded as sinners. There are also several benefits derivable through Western form of education to make life comfortable and meaningful for human existence. The products of science, which were invented through Western education, may not be regarded as sinful because it has assisted in the survival of almost all social beings across societies of the world. This means, technology has become a necessary evil to human existence including the Boko Haram members and it could not be reasoned out that those technological inventions are part of what God will use to determine who is a sinner. 51 However, there are many social inequalities in the Nigeria society, which are being promoted through Western education ideologies. The argument of the Boko Haram Islamic religious sect is expected to be tailored towards addressing the social inequalities that are rampant in Northern Nigeria. There is benign neglect of the Islamic culture and promotion of Western culture as a result of structural assimilation, which is inevitable due to human interaction across the globe. The idea of addressing social inequality though violence is no longer fashionable because members of the society will resist the inherent dangers in it. That is why the political class is using force to curb the menace of Boko Haram, which can be regarded as wrong approach because it cannot generate enduring structure. It is highly recommended that intelligential approach through academic papers by scholars has the potential to bring about lasting solution to the sectarian crises rocking Nigeria. References Adegbite, A. (2011, August 23). Our Constitution is Fake. Sunday Punch. Ademiluyi, T. (2011, August 10). The boko haram imbroglio The Punch. Adepegba, A. (2011, September 14). Eight suspected boko haram bombers arraigned The Punch, p.8. Aminu, I. (1991). The evolution of nomadic education policy in Nigeria: Education and Pastoralism in Nigeria, Ibadan: De Ayo Publications. Amore, S. (2011, August 14). Judges scared to try Boko Haram: Security Agencies place 10 Fundamentalist Sect under watch Sunday Punch. Okei-Odumakin, J. (2011, July 31). Nigeria is showing symptoms of a Failed State. Sunday Tribune. Olamilekan, L. & Adepegba, A. (2011, August 28). UN Office Bombing: Concern over Jonathan’s Safety Sunday Punch. Shaefer, R.T. (2005). Sociology (9th ed) United States: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Tahir, G. (1991). Education and pastoralism in Nigeria. Ibadan: Agoro Publicity Company. Tishau, A. (2011, September 21). Boko haram’s co-founder opens up. The Punch. Umar, A. (1998). Readings in distance education for the pastoral nomads in Nigeria Open Broadcasting for Nomadic Pastoralists. Zaria: ABU Press Ltd. UNICEF (2001). The state of the world children 2000. New York: Authur. United Nations (2004). Conventions on the rights of the child United Nations General Assembly, 20th November 2004, New York: Authur. 52 EDUCATION AND NATION BUILDING IN NIGERIA: BASIC CONSIDERATIONS MAHUTA M. G. Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. Abstract The fundamental aim of education is to serve as an instrument for attaining sustainable development which includes nation building. An educated and enlightened citizenry is an important factor for social, economic and political development in any society. And unless everyone is developed to his full potential, the economy and even the society cannot be effective. Thus, this paper examines the role of education in promoting national integration in Nigeria. The theoretical framework upon which the paper is based is the functionalist approach. The paper recommends, among others that, a type of education should be evolved which will inculcate in the learners the ideals of national consciousness and awareness. This implies that the teaching of citizenship education in our schools and colleges should be made more functional and relevant at all levels of our educational system. Introduction Education is the bedrock of the development of any nation. In Nigeria it is not only a private enterprise, but a huge government venture since it has been adopted by the Federal Government of Nigeria as an instrument for effecting national development (FRN, 2004). Besides, education is regarded as a vital instrument for socialization and as a means of laying a solid and formidable foundation for a strong and virile nation, leading to nation building and development. Since education has been recognized as playing a sensitive and vital role in national development, Nigeria cannot afford to toy with the education of its citizens. This is because the wealth of a nation is a function of the available human resources and not the abundance of natural resources therein. This is why education has been accepted by all levels of government in Nigeria as an instrument for achieving social, economic, political, scientific technological development and national integration. The fundamental aim of education is therefore, to produce good citizens in the society. It is also an instrument with which a nation can develop. It is indeed, an inevitable tool for national sustainable development and social cohesion. Education comprises all efforts that are conscious and otherwise, incidental and indirect, which are made by a given society to accomplish certain aims and objectives considered desirable in terms of the individual’s needs as well as the needs of the society. It is also an instrument or tool for socio-cultural integration, economic emancipation, nation building and social cohesion. The role of education in nation building or national integration could be seen from two levels; namely, unity and cohesion of the citizens in the society as well as the development of the society in terms of the economy, polity, education and so on. A good system of education is fundamental to building any nation, the world over. It is the means by which young people are prepared to accept responsibilities for governing their country as citizens in the future. Therefore, education should be a priority in any society and should be aimed at providing the younger generations the necessary knowledge and skills that will make them valuable members of the community. Nations who lack a strong and vibrant educational system or have one that is of poor quality will inevitably suffer, as their citizens 53 will experience hardship due to lack of stability, expertise, and unity. It is therefore, against this background, that this paper examines the role of education and the extent to which it performs a vital role in nation building in Nigeria. It also highlights the challenges that an educational system can face in its attempt to fulfil its role of nation building. Theoretical Framework There are different sociological theories that are used to explain and interpret society. These theories are viewpoints or angles from which sociologists view, understand or interpret social issues. The functionalists approach view society as a living organism. An organism has its own identity, but it is composed of such mutually dependent parts such as the head, eyes, legs and so on. This means that each of these parts performs a separate function. Just as a body can die, so also can a society, and just as a body can not do without some of its parts, so does society. The functionalist approach to sociology is often identified with the consensus theory. This theory assumes that each part of society shares common values and that there is consensus or agreement between the parts. The approach may be contrasted with the conflict theory which examines society from a different angle. Consensus and conflict theorists both view society as a system of interrelated parts, but the difference is the point or extent to which each member of society benefits equally or unequally. The conflict theorists feel that the functionalists’ paid too much attention to the beneficial aspects of social organization, thereby neglecting the extent to which established social arrangement operate to the disadvantage of some groups. Education plays a role in this process. Education is an agent of social stratification; it assigns social roles to different groups and distributes greater rewards to some groups than others. To this end, according to functionalist theorists, education is an institution in society without which society cannot effectively function. In addition, it plays a fundamental and pivotal role in bringing about national unity and integration in society. It is upon this theoretical framework that this paper is based; it examines the role of education in nation building and national integration and cohesion. Role of Education in Nation Building The greatest challenge facing Nigeria today is the threat to its national unity. Such challenges as centrifugal tension, resource control and self determination are seeking to undermine national unity and cohesion. Besides, varying political and religious interests have constantly posed a number of challenges and have enveloped national consciousness. Since independence in 1960, national integration has been a top priority in Nigeria. The National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) scheme, the unity schools, the federal character principles, and state creation are examples of state policies intended to achieve this goal. It is becoming obvious that the outcomes of integration policies and programmes in Nigeria have fallen far below expectation, as far as the promotion of national unity is concerned since ethnic loyalties are still deep seated among Nigerians (Ibaba, 2009). However, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) posit that the principal goal of nation building is to promote the evolution from simpler and more localized forms of social organization to wider and more complex ones. Mechanical societies of the hunting type are being threatened by a wider process of economic development and social change, and ultimately will be replaced by organic societies. In this regard, the issues of horizontal and vertical integration come into play. Horizontal integration describes the unification of ethnic, racial, religious and linguistic groups, many of which inhabit distinct geographical areas. 54 While on the other hand, vertical integration describes the relationship between rulers and the ruled in a common network of communication, so that ideas and demands can flow upward and downward. Furthermore, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) maintain that, education promotes horizontal integration in four main ways, namely: i. The curriculum in which the importance of language is emphasized. Nations which composed of many ethnic groups have a corresponding multiplicity of languages. Thus, formal education usually promotes a common language, which permits communication between members of different ethnic groups. Most African countries have chosen to use a European language for official purposes. This is because internal rivalries may prevent the use of an indigenous language, while the European languages are considered neutral. ii. African countries have educational institutions in which pupils are selected by equal quota from different parts of the country. This policy is based on the idea that if pupils grow up together, they may become acquainted on a personal basis with people from other ethnic, racial, religious, and linguistic groups, and the fears and ignorance which underlies much discrimination will be avoided. This is the principle on which Nigeria’s Federal Government Colleges or unity schools are based. iii. Several African countries, including Nigeria operate national service schemes for school leavers. These schemes may be either voluntary or compulsory, but strong emphasis is always placed on national identification. In the case of Nigeria, the National Youths Service Scheme (NYSC) is compulsory for all University graduates. Participants usually perform activities such as community service, often outside their home areas, in order to foster the sprit of national unity and integration. These schemes have a strong educational bearing and function. iv. Educational projects often attempt to reduce regional imbalances, which frequently correspond to imbalances between ethnic and religious groups. This policy is often manifested in the universalization of education. For example, the Universal Primary Education of 1976 and the Universal Basic Education of 1999 in Nigeria. All these are meant to provide greater educational opportunities for all and sundry, thereby providing greater educational life chances without prejudices to sex, ethnicity, social, economics and cultural backgrounds However in the context of vertical integration, it is pertinent to consider two major ways in which education can promote national unity and integration. These ways are, as put forward by Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986) thus; i. Extension of literacy to all and sundry makes it possible for more citizens to read newspapers, books and reports. This may mean that the population becomes better informed and sensitised about local and national issues. ii. As education becomes more widespread, employment becomes more equal. Thus, where education reaches only a small group, it may encourage elitism. But if it is expanded, and more or all groups receive some education; then a greater proportion of the population can be placed on a more equal footing. Thus, as the functionalist view of the role of education in creating a more unified society becomes evident and clear. Nigeria’s population in 2007 was 148 million, having risen sharply from 30 million in 1950 (World Bank, 2008) UN Population Division (2001) maintains that Nigeria is now Africa’s most populous country. Furthermore, Bray, Clarke and Stephens (1986), posit that: Today with over 140 million citizens, Nigeria is considered the most populous country in Africa. It has also within over 250 ethnic groups, and though no 55 precise figure known (which is itself indicative of Nigeria’s problems), nearly 400 languages are spoken. Nigeria is a multi-religious society, with followers of religions such as Islam, Christianity as well as a wide diversity of indigenous or traditional religions. During the last three decades, Nigerian politics have been characterized more by division than by unity. The political parties of the 1950s developed along ethnic and religious lines and as recognized even in an official publication, the only common factor that united them was the struggle for independence. Once independence had been achieved in 1960, this common objective no longer existed (p. 31). However during the subsequent years, regional and ethnic disputes became increasingly serious and in 1967, the country was plunged into civil war following the secession of the self-styled Republic of Biafra. The war was won by the federal forces, and the military continued to form the government until 1979 (Bray, Clarke and Stephens, 1986). Thus, the memory of the civil war has made the Nigerian government to be conscious of the need for horizontal integration, and have placed considerable efforts in the institution of education to promote the much needed unity and integration in Nigeria. Nigeria as a nation is currently at cross roads. There is widespread inter religious crises, as well as inter and intra ethnic violence in the country. Among these crises are the Niger-Delta crisis, religious riots in the North, suspicion and distrust among the various ethnic groups (Omare, 1999). In addition, Nigeria has witnessed a number of crises such as the post-election violence in some Northern States and the recent ongoing “Boko-Haram” crisis. Quite a number of conscious efforts have been made by government to maintain peace, stability and unity in Nigeria, yet, not much has been achieved by way of security, the peace and stability of the nation. It is estimated that approximately 800,000 Nigerians were internally displaced as a result of “localized conflicts between 1999 and 2003 (Commission for Africa, 2005), while approximately 53,000 were killed from September, 2001 to May, 2004 in communal clashes (John, et al 2007). However, such clashes are attributed to numerous and overlapping factors related to political, religious, ethnic, or regional discord. Furthermore, the extent of religious and ethnic tensions is often attributed to lack of a strong national identity. Those who hold this view believe that individuals and groups may be more likely to assign blame for ineffective policies to ethnic or regional biases, regardless of the true reason for their failure. However, it can be stated that this situation is worsened and exacerbated by widespread corruption, frequent policy reversals and poor policy implementation, all of which make it difficult for Nigerians to trust governments and their capacity to implement good and consistent policies and programmes. In the light of this therefore, the role of education to ensure that Nigeria remains an indivisible entity becomes enormous, where every Nigerian will consider himself a Nigerian first, before seeing himself as Hausa, Igbo or Yoruba and so on. Thus, the idea of building a stable and united Nigeria through education is doubtless an enormous task. As mentioned elsewhere in this paper, Nigeria is a country that has found itself engulfed in different kinds of crises. In spite of this, there is more hope in getting Nigeria out of its present situation. Education remains one of the best means or tools for social reconstruction and integration; it is perhaps the most veritable means for social integration and nation building. Education has been the most effective instrument that has fostered national unity and integration in Nigeria over the years. In recent times, much attention has been devoted to the roles which the school is expected to play in the training of good citizens in Nigeria. The emphasis placed on education is borne out of the fact, as stated by the Federal Republic of 56 Nigeria (2004), that education is considered a potent instrument for change and development In spite of this, in recent times, national unity, social integration and democracy have come under threat and various kinds of tensions. It is therefore, timely to reconsider how education can be used to foster the much needed unity and social integration for the survival of the nation. Furthermore, Omare (1999) posits that there is need to introduce citizenship education as it relates to national consciousness, unity and social integration in Nigeria. This is capable of addressing the unfortunate inter-ethnic and religious clashes including political crises that have become common in Nigeria in the 21 st Century. In an attempt to foster national unity and integration through education, the Federal Government in the past has introduced the Universal Primary Education scheme in 1976. This was because government was conscious of the fact that much strife has been caused by unbalanced development in which there exists wide variations in school enrolment in different parts of the country. In the light of this, government has launched a number of educational projects and programmes, which seek to reduce imbalances. The UPE of 1976 was one of such programmes. In addition, the establishment of unity secondary schools or Federal Government Colleges, the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board and the like are aimed at reducing educational imbalances and thus, create unity and cohesion in Nigeria. Further to these, the widespread acceptance of a common language (English language), which is taught in schools, is also considered as a major factor in horizontal integration. English language is considered politically neutral and has been made the official language in Nigeria and it is used for instruction in schools and colleges in Nigeria. In addition, the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC) scheme has contributed immensely in fostering National Unity. It is crucial to note that the integration process in Nigeria anchors on the mobilization of citizens of the country to achieve set goals and this is enhanced by education. This is because education develops the mental capacity of individuals and as we all know; it is easier to mobilise a population whose individuals have an averagely enhanced mental capacity than otherwise. Education also makes man moral and productive, and thus endows him with the capacity to enhance the achievement of collective interest (Ibaba 2009). Education enhances the development of values and also defines the level of development for individual attitudes and enables progress. It is therefore evident that, unequal access to education creates unequal opportunities and uneven development, which in turn may, undermine the stability and development of a nation (Okowa, 2003). The education of a society is expected to inculcate in its people its societal values, cultural virtues, sound ideology, nationalistic pride and a feeling of common destiny. The philosophy of Nigerian education as contained in the NPE (2004) has five objectives and these were articulated towards building of a: free and democratic society just and egalitarian society. united, strong and self-reliant nation great and dynamic economic nation land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (p. 7). The issue of national unity is the concern of this paper and a number of issues have been noted that are lacking in this regard. First, there is the lack of ideological orientation that is capable of indoctrinating citizens. Secondly, there is the dearth of educational background that was widespread in the past. These rob the citizens of the knowledge that would have enabled them to understand each other in spite of the differences in ethnic groups and help to eliminate ethnic prejudices. Separate ethnic identities are also strengthened and depended by a number of other interrelated factors as identified by Okoly (2008): i. Religious based schools owned by Muslims and Christians established all over the country, 57 ii. The policy of indigenization of state in appointment of heads of tertiary institutions, staff recruitment, and students’ admissions. iii. Discrimination of individuals based on indigeneship by heads of tertiary institutions. iv. The quota system of admission into tertiary and unity schools that tend to regard ethnicity and undermine the spirit of academic excellence; this creates a feeling of rejection and deprivation. However, the point to note from the above is the curriculum content and educational administration in Nigeria that block the development of National consciousness, which is a fundamental requirement for national integration and nation building. Nigerian education is an obstacle to integration, and this is not because education cannot enhance integration, but simply because Nigeria’s education has not been adequately focussed to promote the integration of the different ethnic groups in the country. Relevance of Education in Nation Building As mentioned earlier in this paper, education generally involves or entails the acquisition of knowledge as well as skills that are deemed acceptable and useful to the society. Nation building means the implementation of processes that are geared towards recomposing the nation’s institutions, so that they can reflect the wishes, needs and aspirations of the wider society. This means that, since education is a pathway to national integration, it is capable of providing a good quantum of benefits to nation-building and these are examined below: i. The Creation of an Enlightened and Socialized Society: Education creates an enlightened as well as socialized society. This is a crucial prerequisite to nation building because the more a people became enlightened, the more they would refrain from doing practices that will endanger efforts towards nation building. For example, educated elites will always tend to be responsive and responsible citizens towards state laws and protection of public property (Kamara 2010). ii. Establishment of a Vibrant Democratic Society: Nation-building requires a “meritocratic” bureaucracy in order to make the state’s institution effective. It is only through education, that the country will have the best human resources that are competent enough to carry out the day-to-day affairs of the state. Most states collapse as a result of low level of education of its citizens. If human resource is weak, it becomes incapable of sustaining state institutions. But with education, this problem can be averted (Kamara, 2000). iii. It Helps to Provide the Required Manpower: The production of required manpower for running the political system of a society is also one major contribution of education in nation building. The institution of education through the school helps to provide people who would serve in the different political structures of the society. Education also provides the opportunity for the bureaucratisation process of the state. In addition, education is capable of providing an efficient and effective bureaucracy and the governance of the country. iv. It Helps to Provide National Unity and Cohesion: Education, through schooling, helps to create unity and cohesion amongst the citizens of a nation. In school, students or learners come into contact with each others from various socio-cultural, religious, and economic backgrounds. Through interactions at various levels, they will be able to love and appreciate the worth of one another. This helps in no small measure towards bringing harmony and understanding among the citizens of the country. The National Youths Service Corp (NYSC) in Nigeria is another agent of unity amongst the Nigerian youths. It is a scheme where graduates are posted to areas other than their areas of origin. This is with a view to provide 58 youths with the opportunity to learn and appreciate the different cultures of Nigeria. This is capable of paving ways for national integration, solidarity and consensus. Nigeria, which is a multi-cultural and multi-religious country, requires peaceful co-existence for a formidable economic and political development. National sustainable development – the provision of education can provide national sustainable development in two faces, namely, education to provide unity and cohesion in the context of the personal development of the individual and unity and cohesion in the context of general development of the society, in terms of political, education, banking and also improvement of health delivery, housing and food. Unity and cohesion through the establishment of unity schools and colleges. This helps to bring students from different socio-cultural backgrounds to interact in school, thereby paving the way for a significant degree of cooperation and understanding among people of diverse origins and cultures. Constraints against Functional National Integration through Education When we view the present educational set up in Nigeria, we are bound to ask; does it portray national character? If we take the census of students in all federal institutions, will it really portray national character? The criteria we use in admission of students in unity schools have destroyed national character in the sense that many qualified candidates are denied admission because they are not from catchment areas. Even when it boils down on merit, people are still denied. Now, if education can integrate this nation, why should the appointments of chief executives into tertiary institutions be localised? Real unity and integration through education can be meaningful when we embrace national character at all levels. If federal institutions are headed by people from outside ethnic groups where those institutions are sited, then children/students will see the reality of integration. All these need to be touched as constraints against the functional national integration of this nation through education. Recommendations 1. Education is made up of components that include the curriculum, the philosophy and the methods of teaching. The curriculum deals with what to teach. It is based on the philosophy of an educational system that the growth, development and objective realties of societies are captured. This means that curriculum reforms are based on established philosophies. In the context of National integration in Nigeria, the curriculum should be tailored towards creating an educated and morally sound individual. 2. Equal educational opportunities in education require making education accessible to all; irrespective of class, ethnic affiliation or other discriminatory factors. The need for national unity and stability is greater now in Nigeria than ever before, especially in view of the rampant ethnic violence and political crises. Education is a potent instrument that can be used to foster peace and unity. Based on this it is recommended that: i. A type of education should be evolved, that will inculcate in the learners the ideals of national consciousness and awareness. Essentially, Citizenship Education should be introduced at all levels of our educational system. ii. There should be proper monitoring of education by Federal, States and Local Government in the country. If this is intensified, it will promote the spirit of competition among Nigerians in the areas of education and to further enable them to have something to contribute to the development of the nation. 59 Conclusion Every country needs stability before any meaningful economic and political development can take place. It is when there is stability that we can talk of national development and integration. The role of education in providing political, social and economic stability that is necessary for nation building cannot be overemphasized. Even as illiteracy is widespread in most African countries and this has left detrimental effects on the infrastructure of most of these African states, education or a well educated citizenry can restore a sense of purpose and the confidence to pursue national development. This paper has demonstrated that education can serve as vehicle for national integration, and that Nigeria needs to adequately exploit education to promote national integration and achieve national development through the provision of equal opportunities and access to education by individuals through a curriculum, educational system and practices that are deeply rooted in national cohesion. Lastly, the paper emphatically concludes that until people see themselves as Nigerians first before being Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa, the issue of national integration will still be a need in Nigeria. References Bray, M.; Clarke, P. B.; Stephens, D. (1986). Education and society in Africa. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. Ibaba, S. I. (2009). Education and national integration in Nigeria. Journal of Research in National Development, 7 (2), 20 - 32. Kamara, A. T., (2010). Education for nation Building. Retrieved on July, 2011 from http://www.google.com/educationandnationbuilding Federal Government of Nigeria (2004), National Policy on Education. Lagos: Federal Government Press. Okoly, J. D. (2008). The Nigerian World view and it’s implication in education. Journal of Modern African Studies, 5 (3): 323 - 334. Retrieved from http//www goggle com/education and National Integration in Nigeria. Okowa, W. J. (2003). Education and mobilisation in the struggle for self-determination and resource control. Nigerian form of educational philosophy, 6 (1): 65 – 75. Retrieved from http goggle com/ education and national integration. Omare, A. (1999). Enhancing democracy in Nigeria through citizenship education. Nigeria Journal of Social Studies review, 8 (1), 33 - 39. Retrieved from http://www.google. com/edcuationand nationbuilding. Yusuf, A. (2009). Citizenship Education: An instrument for unity and stability in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, 8 (1), 23 - 36. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/educationand nationbuildinginnigeria. 60 OF UNLEARNED GRADUATES AND DYSFUNCTIONAL SOCIETY MEMBERS: THE CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA SOJI, O. Department of Educational Foundations University of Lagos, Akoka -Yaba, Lagos. Abstract This paper analyzes the concepts of education and development and the role they play in the "development" or "non-development" of Nigeria. The paper argued that due to imperialist tendencies that insist on conditioning Nigerians to think of "development" as the process of shedding off any traces of their traditions and cultural practices, most Nigerians have become schizophrenic members of a nation-state, which tries to nurture citizens who need to be Western but yet remain Nigerian. It also argued that Nigeria’s education system is more about schooling than learning and it is set to produce people who are incapable of fitting within their own social environments. These are people whose degrees and diplomas alienate them from the very societies that education should train them to be part of. Many receive an education devoid of the central ingredients that are crucial in making them active participants in their own sociocultural existence. The paper provided solutions on how education in Africa can be made more relevant to the socio-economic realities of Africa. Introduction Education is an important instrument in the development of a nation. It is a valued social artifact that has significant impact on the life chances of beneficiaries and thereby leads to consequential social advancement. This is sequel to the fact that education is an experience that brings about the transformation or permanent change in the behavior of individual who is the end product of education. According to Dasgupta (1993) “few would query the assertion that the output of education (knowledge, skills, acquired dispositions and others), unless under-utilized, is a durable capital asset.” The individual is expected to improve himself and the society. That is why the fundamental purpose of investment in education is to empower people with the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to improve their quality of life, enhance their productivity and their capacity to learn new skills, and enable them to participate more fully in development process. The foregoing, shows why education and development have often been seen as essential working partners in the modernization of the so-called developing countries. It is assumed that when people are undeveloped and backward they are lacking in many modern qualities, one of them being education. Thus, part of the remedy for their predicament is to be educated. There are different ways of defining education, but there seems to be a consensus that to be "educated" is to be "modern" and that to be "modern" is to be "developed" (Aghenta, 2002). Even our children articulate these issues in their everyday discourses in school, at home, and with their peers. Everybody is trying to acquire education because the main thing in Nigeria is "development". Politicians are even busy telling their people how they will bring development to them once elected to office. Here is an interesting case of how education and development can be mind-racking for our youth: Shola (not real name) received his Bachelor of Science degree in Chemical Engineering from one of Nigeria’s public universities in 2009. It is almost 2 years since his 61 graduation and he has not found a job. He started looking for job that could match his training. While his colleagues in the arts had started working as sales representatives for emerging companies in town, earning what they initially considered high school salaries because they had few alternatives. Who would then think that all those years of college would end up like this? Shola has now moved back to his rural home, where his parents live, following their retirement. He resorted to this after life in the city living with his uncle turned sour when it became difficult to feed another mouth that was not making any contribution towards the high city expenses. Shola has never stayed in their rural home for more than a week because his parents had been living in the city all his life. He is, thus, finding it hard to adjust to the social and geographical environment in his "new home". His age mates who dropped out at primary school now have families and are finding means of livelihood tending their small gardens in the village. They even have permanent housing and their kids are going to the local primary school. Shola is unable to walk into the local shopping centre where he is bound to meet some of his peers, who have previously offered to buy him a drink. He refused not because he does not drink but because with a university degree he felt he is above them and should be the one offering to buy them drinks. With this illustration we could see that Shola is a product of a system of education that trains for the sake of training with no tangible employment prospects for its graduates. And since he was never enculturated to regard his rural home as a place where he could actually find employment, he has fallen into self-pity and hopelessness. Ironically, a "developing" society does need the services of a Chemical Engineer but the socio-economic structures that would enable the country to absorb this kind of talent are lacking. Our education and economic systems have never been developed to cater for these needs. They are, however, modelled after Western models that have little, if any, relevance for our cultural, economic, political and other realities. This is the problem with our Western-oriented education that avoids teaching us about our cultures and their importance in our daily lives. It, indeed, teaches us to hate our cultures and consequently to hate ourselves. For instance, some of us had to wait until we were in the University before we started revisiting the crux and relevance of our own cultural heritage. Most of our schooling before then was geared towards making Western culture the central point of understanding our world. We learned more about the Mississippi river and the River Rhine than we did about Ogun River, Osun River and River Niger that are critical in the development of our country. And since all education is value-based, we were constantly taking in Western values that gradually replaced the few cultural values that we had learned at home from our parents and neighbours before joining formal school. As a result of this, many of us, indeed, regarded our own cultural practices as backward and inferior, and always clamouring to be Western. We were never taught to understand ourselves first and then appreciate other; cultures; we were taught that our cultural practices were backward and we had to do everything possible to dissociate ourselves from them. We were products of a system that was not relevant to our cultural orientation. I once watched a primary school programme on local Nigerian television where two schools debated on whether it was right for a woman to be a housewife. One student said that being a housewife was like staying in caves and wearing skins, which was a very backward thing to do. Two things are emergent in this observation; one, that the student realises that one can no longer be content with being a housewife and should be employed and independent; two, that being a housewife is living a life of the past comparable to that of 62 being in caves and wearing skins. Apparently, this student has been socialized and/or trained to think that living in a cave and wearing skins is backward. Indeed, this was part of the mission that Christian Missionaries were mandated to deal with in Africa. It was a mission to demonize all traditional African practices and sell Western ones through Christianity, education and colonialism. This legacy has lingered on many years after independence and our children are quick to identify with Western values rather than their own African values. Hence, this student was not taught to see that the lifestyle she calls "backward" is also a lifestyle like any other; a lifestyle where one can fend for self and family. She epitomizes what many of us have become; people who are quick to embrace an empty sense of modernity that deprives us of the basic ability to be human. We do not question this "modern" worldview and its values, but rather take it up in its entirety. This is what Moita and Gardner challenged in their preamble of a report on the Osotua Education Programme in Endulen Maasai village in Northern Tanzania as cited in Peterson (1999): Throughout the world, much of indigenous / traditional / local knowledge is seen us backward or outdated and no longer relevant for today’s society. Thus, the current (Tanzanian) education system is focused on teaching a new way of learning with its own values, norms, and language with which to interpret the world. Unfortunately, this language or interpretive framework has not been very successful in helping individuals from indigenous groups meet the needs of their communities and often alienates "educated" people from the rest of the society. We believe that it is important to broaden the concept of education to include all system of knowledge, with recognition of the value of indigenous or local knowledge within the education process (p.6). Indeed, not much has been done to challenge current conceptualizations of "modernity" and the ways in which such concepts as "education" and "development", which are constantly used in our social and national policies, are constructed. Some of our leaders have made some strides in defending indigenous knowledge, but have themselves fallen into the trap of ossifying that knowledge as if it were fixed and bounded. This paper is construed, therefore, to critically analyse, with examples from Nigeria, what the concepts of education and development mean and the role those meanings play in the "development" or "non-development" of Nigeria. The paper will argue how the imperialist tendencies conditioning Nigerians to think of "development" as the process of shedding off any traces of their traditions and cultural practices. How most Nigerians have become schizophrenic members of a nation-state, which tries to nurture citizens who need to be Western but yet remain Nigerian. It will also showcase how our education system is more about schooling than learning and it has produced people who are incapable of fitting within their own social environments that have not been developed to meet with the demands of the values learnt in school. The paper, specifically, describes these people whose degrees and diplomas have alienated from the very societies that education should train to be part of. And how many receive an education devoid of the central ingredients that are crucial in making them active participants in their own socio-cultural existence. Education and Development Education is an experience, event, process and system meant to give an all round development to an individual. The interaction of all stakeholders in the education industry is expected to lead to the attainment of the lofty aims and objectives of building mentally, physically, emotionally, and psychologically stable individuals. That is why, a lot of time 63 and other resources have been channeled into education despite die realization by many that the system needs a serious review. Several scholars have posited that education is the key to development, but it has never been explained what kind of education will unlock that mystical door to development nor the key to what kind of development defined by whom? Hence, one is left to wonder why with such a high level of education and a great many educated people in the country, we are still at the periphery of development. The most plausible explanation is that the kind of education our students received does not equip them with the necessary tools that would enhance development. This means that our education is not relevant to our developmental needs or that education is not a necessary ingredient for development. Thus, we may question our own perception of development: What is it to us? How do we perceive ourselves developing? In its regular usage, development describes a process through which the potentialities of an object or organism are released, until it reaches its natural, complete, fully-fledged form. Thus, as a human being, to be developed is to be able to go through a process that enables one to reach a complete and fully-fledged form that enables the attainment of human full potential. This has to do with one's ability to use one's environment successfully to reach that potential. It also has to do with meeting one's most basic needs of shelter, food, clothing and reproduction. Thus, the concept of development represents the application of the general idea of progress in the socio-economic and political spheres of the nation However, in the Nineteenth Century, following works by scientists particularly; Charles Darwin, development as a concept changed form denoting the transformation that moves toward the appropriate form, to denoting movement towards an ever more perfect form. It is during this period when evolution and development began to be used as interchangeable terms by scientists. This is the time when human communities were deemed as going through an inevitable process of evolution from low to high and when translated to development, there were those communities that were developed, while others were underdeveloped. Indeed, the West became developed, while the rest of the world was developing, undeveloped or undeveloped. It is this differential rate of development that brought forth colonialism that then went ahead to establish that kind of differentiation, propelled it, and also tried to remedy it. Thus, in 1932, for instance, the British government developed what it called the Law of Development and Welfare of the Colonies that sought to guarantee the natives minimum levels of nutrition, health, and education. Such a law was based on two assumptions: first, that the natives' nutrition, health, and education were lacking or undeveloped, and, second, that the colonial government had the mandate to change that condition. It was in 1949 that the fate of the concepts of "developed" and "undeveloped" was sealed following US President Harry Truman's inauguration speech, when he declared the Southern Hemisphere as underdeveloped. This declaration was not made in innocence but was made in order to provide a comforting vision of the world order where the US would naturally rank first. However, ever since the word "development" entered the world's vocabulary, it was loaded with eurocentric connotations that put the world in a hierarchy with the West ranking first. The West was considered to be the admirable example of people who have made it (developed) and thus, who need to be emulated. Indeed, the West through colonialism, Christianity, and imperialism became the dominant cultural practitioners whose values were emulated and embraced. Colonial governments thus sought to "assist" other countries to 64 achieve that state of development. The colonialists conquered and decimated local political systems and injected their own; the missionaries captured the souls and value systems of the colonized and made them Western or approximations of Western ones; and the social scientists provided in-depth accounts of how they worked or why they did not work so as to make colonization and evangelizing easier. Once colonialism and missionary work had made their breakthroughs, it was possible to let the colonies have political independence since they were already destined for economic and cultural dependence. However, our new democratic dispensation that ought to move Nigeria to greater heights of development appeared to worsen our efforts to development. In supporting this view, Ake, (1995) posited that: Most of Africa is not developing. Three decades of effort have yielded largely stagnation, regression, or worse. The tragic consequences of this are increasingly clear: a rising tide of poverty, decaying public utilities and collapsing infrastructure, social tensions and political turmoil, and now premonitions of inevitable drift into conflict and violence (p.1). It is clear that despite many years of attempts to develop Nigeria, the livelihood of Nigeria's population has become worse economically, culturally and politically. Why? This is as a result of development prescribed by the West and based on a Western diagnosis that does not reflect Nigeria's realities. Africa does not have the cultural framework necessary for adopting Western development concepts and processes. Until Africa develops a frame of economic, cultural and political institutions or systems that incorporate its own cultural framework, it will consistently remain a sorry shadow of the West because its own cultural orientation is African, not Western. The first step along this road to recovery is a review of the processes of self-reflection and how its youth are trained and equipped for the future. This all falls under the rubric of education. Much of Africa's education can be described as a process of westernization, developing a people who are keener on aping the West than learning from their own heritage and histories. Education, Schooling and Development A casual glance at Nigeria's education reveals that our school system is one that is more about "schooling" than "education" with very little positive influence on development. A clear understanding of the limitations of such a system begins with definitions of the three concepts of "schooling", "education", and "development" as used in this paper. 'Schooling' as a concept is used here to refer to the intended process of perpetuating and maintaining a society's existing power relations and the institutional structures that support those arrangements (Oni, 2003). While “Education" is the process through which values, aesthetics, spiritual beliefs, and all parts of a people's unique cultural orientation are transmitted from generation to the next (Nyerere, 1968; Bagudo, 2003). 'Development' as a concept, is taken to refer to a process through which a community, by using its knowledge and other resources, is able to confront and contain its world and environment for its own existence (Ayandele, 1998), How then can we integrate the seemingly related concepts into a cohesive framework that would be useful for us and our communities? One way is to realize that education and school are, indeed, compatible and that if positively blended they can make a good contribution to a community's or country's positive development. Indeed, they can be used positively to serve both the interests of diverse communities as well as those of a nation-state. Thus, our school and education systems should be able to do the following: 1. Foster the development of adequate skills in literacy, numeracy, the humanities, and technologies that are necessary to negotiate economic self-sufficiency in the country; 65 2. Instill citizenship skills based on realistic and thorough understanding of the political system, and support such citizenship skills by promoting questioning and critical thinking skills and teaching democratic values; 3. Provide historical overviews of the nation, the continent, and the world which accurately represent the contributions of all ethnic groups to the storehouse at knowledge (Babarinde :110). If all our school and education systems were based upon such principles, all our citizens would have full and equal participation in their respective communities, the nation, and the world at large. This kind of system would decentralize the basis of disseminating knowledge and the power of knowing in order to instil in our learners the fact that they and their own cultures did and do contribute to our being and existence. That way no culture would claim supremacy over the other and consequently no culture would negate the importance of its own existence in order to embrace another that is construed as better or "modern". This would be good education and each culture would equally contribute to both local and national development. Indeed, it is quite refreshing that this kind of thinking has started taking root in Africa through the concept of African renaissance where some of our leaders and thinkers according to Ayandele (1998) are going back to their local cultural practices to seek answers to current problems. It should be noted that some of these cultural practices were once sneered at in the quest to embrace Western ones. Thus, traditional methods of healing, ways of resolving conflicts, and farming strategies devoid of harmful inputs are once again being consulted in other to make sense of current social, economic and political problems. This should also be seen as a cue for invigorating our education system that would enable our children to cultivate skills that would give them an all-rounded sense of self and their daily contexts of livelihood. Until we do that, our education will remain just a process of schooling that dissociates our students form their own communities and hence making them dysfunctional members. It is no wonder, therefore, that some university students in Nigeria were not in a hurry to finish school as there were no jobs out there for them after graduating. This is because we have developed a culture that teaches our students that education is a means to an end, a passport to a job. Thus, rote learning and mechanized studying to pass examinations has replaced the all-necessary ethic of studying to get a deep understanding and mastery of one's life and environment. True education should give its practitioners life-giving and lifesustaining understanding that lead them to self-reliance. What we currently have is too much schooling and very little education. On Education and Relevance to Community Needs Sometimes I heard a primary school student from a community in Osun State telling her father that she spent the day learning Yoruba, English and Agriculture. English is the official language, Yoruba the national language and Agriculture the backbone of the country's economy; thus all are very crucial for a young person being trained to be a useful citizen. However, a perusal of the content or gist of the Agriculture course reveals a bias towards a farming culture. How then will this pastoral girl gain from learning Agriculture that does not allow her to understand her mode of life? If anything, this education will cause her to look down upon her own community's lifestyle. It is Nyerere who clearly shows the need for education to be relevant to the community involved when he says: 66 The educational system in different kinds of societies in the world have been, and are, very different in organisation and in content. They are different because the societies providing the education are different, and because education whether it be formal or informal, has a purpose. That purpose is to transmit from one generation to the next the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society, and to prepare the young people for their future membership of the society and their active participation in its maintenance or development (1968:44). There are two crucial issues raised here by Nyerere. First, that education should transmit a society's accumulated wisdom and knowledge to its children, and, second, that education is a preparation for their future membership in their society. This seems impossible in our countries today because we are torn between providing education to create national citizens and teaching an inappropriate curriculum designed by a few who have had Western formal training that tends to alienate students form their own culture. Inevitably, this system disregards the views and needs of local communities in its efforts to develop national citizens who are biased towards a lifestyle that is not necessarily relevant to their local living conditions. Students of such a system must be transformed in order to fully use their acquired education for practical living. There is nothing wrong with having an education that projects a national outlook, one that aspires to harmonize the population into a community of shared values. The problem is rather that the products of this schizophrenic system receive an education that encompasses little, if any, valuable tenets of cultural practices from the many communities that form the country's population and hence a weak foundation for building a national identity. This problem is clearly reflected in the calibre of graduates coming out of our educational institutions. With the increase in the numbers of Nigerians who have school certificates, diplomas and degrees, and the decrease in employment opportunities, the country is faced with a great challenge of dealing with a large population of a people who are illequipped to deal with a world that calls for life skills, not just academic credentials. Conclusion This paper addresses the relevance of our education to the cultural and socioeconomic realities of Nigeria today. Although many of us encounter school at different points in our lives, there is a tendency to enroll in formal school at the ages of six and seven. Prior to that we have been learning through watching, listening, and imitating our care-givers, be they parents, house helps, aunts, uncles, grand parents, or any other people with whom we associate in our daily activities as we grow up. During this time we are forming cultural orientations that are very crucial in our overall existence as humans. These orientations will introduce us to cognition, affection, and the road to understanding ourselves, our environment, and how we relate to it and to others around us. Our traditional orientations help in placing us within a local and historical context where peoples’ experiences and ways of solving problems are inculcated in us through day-to-day activities, taboos, songs, riddles, stories, etc. As Ayeni (2001) says, all societies must provide a means for their members to learn, develop, and maintain throughout their life cycles for participation in socially valued and controlled patterns of action. Although Ayeni makes these remarks in reference to African-American's education in society, its ramifications apply to much of the education offered in Africa. Thus, although the nation-state in Nigeria, for instance, did not aggressively structure the content and structure of education to reflect and support existing power relations created by colonialism, it did nothing to change them soon after independence. Indeed, the elite soon replaced the colonial administrators and fitted well in 67 their shoes. Thus, instead of transforming our education to reflect our own cultural realities, we continued to support an education system that was created to serve the colonial structure, hence giving us cultural orientations that compelled us to constantly strive to catch up with the West. Unfortunately, we have never been able to catch up and there is no such chance that we may meet up. Summary As earlier established in Oni (2003), is that Africa should be committed to building a society that is united, conscious of its heritage and proud of its culture, education and institutions. That is why there is the need to overhaul African educational system. Education must have all the ingredients for making every African a worthy citizen. The above can only be achieved if there are major innovations in the syllabuses, methodologies and learning situations, as well as more open and wide-ranging policies for teaching and using African languages as media of instructions and the use of indigenous technologies in our school laboratories for promotion of indigenous science and technology. What this means is that education remains a source of hope to the development and an instrument that can make Africa cope with change. This prescribed education will bring out areas of ignorance in the minds of Africans and at the same time makes us to be more conscious of our environment and more appreciative, and propagate our own cultures and heritage. References Aghenta, J.A. (2002). Educational management as a strategy for national development and integration in Nigeria. In R.C Ebenebe, & L. Akudolu (Eds.) Education for national development and integration. NAU Awka: Faculty of education. 7-20. Ayandele, E.A (1974). The educated elite in the Nigerian society. Nigeria. Ibadan University Press Ayandele, E.A. (1998). African renaissance: The cultural dimension. A paper presented at the symposium on the African renaissance to celebrate the 80th birthday of President Nelson Mandela. Ayeni, M.A (2003). Moral education and globalization. Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy. 1.(1),28-35 Ake, C. (1995). Socio-political approaches and policies for sustainable development in Afric. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings Symposium of the Africa development 5m. 23 May 1995. Abuja, Nigeria. Arendt, H.W. (1981). Economic development: A Semantic history in economic development and cultural change, Vol.26. Babarinde, Kola. (2001). Globalization and its challenges for educational theorizing in Africa. Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy. (Vol. VIII),( 1) 103 Bagudo, A.A. (2003). Technologies for global education and the challenges of enhanced educational Delivery in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy. Vol.10. No1. 79-87. 68 Esteva, G. (1992). Development in Wolfgang Sachs (Ed.) The Development dictionary: Zed Books. Nyerere, J.K. (1968). Freedom and socialism: A selection from writings and speeches (1965, p.6) Dares Salaam: Oxford University Press. Omolewa, M. (2001). The challenge of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press Oni, A. Adesoji (2003). Globalization: A menace to African values and education. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research. 15(1),52-61. Rodney.W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Bogle- L’Ouverture Publications, London. Snujaa, M.J. (1994). Education and schooling: You can have one without the other. In too much schooling tool little education: A Paradox of Black Life in White Societies (Ed.) Shujaa. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. 69 CURBING GLOBAL UNREST THROUGH EDUCATION SULE M. N. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. Abstract The paper is an exposition on the incidents of social unrest in the society. It articulated the concept of unrest at a global perspective and chronicled the events that are assumed to be unrest. Education was discussed as an instrument for the amelioration of social discontent. Some suggestions and recommendations were made for enhancing education to serve this purpose. Introduction The key component of this conference theme is “Global Unrest”. It is, therefore, expedient to provide an understanding of its meaning quite very early in the course of this discussion. To do so, an exposition on the concept of “Social Movement” that usually preludes it, will most apparently assist in illuminating the meaning and nature of “Global Unrest”. Hughes, Kroehler and Zanden (2002) stated that: Social Movement is a more or less persistent and organized effort on the part of a relatively large number of people to bring about or resist change (p.453). For instance, civil rights movement mobilized 200,000 people to march in Washington DC, in 1963 and also to demonstrate across the country. These demonstrations led to an end in the segregation of schools as well as other public facilities. Similarly, in the present day Nigeria society, women’s agitations have led to the formation of movements that have resulted in a transformed society where they work alongside men in all types of careers. Today in Nigeria, a woman, Justice Aloma Muktar has emerged as head of the judicial arm of the Federal Government. Obviously, persistent agitations have brought this honour to the women folk. Social movements usually emerge in times of rapid social change. Normally what gives rise to social change is mostly derived from external forces and processes but, essentially, internally triggered. Thus, social movement possesses a considerable measure of internal order and purposeful orientation. This organizational potential of a social system allows social movements to challenge established institutions. The act of challenging an established institution is usually depended on whether the institution is reflective of the current aspirations or demands of the social group. Usually, a social system is largely predicated on its value system and a social movement can either move to alter it or resist a change to alter it. Since every social system makes effort to maintain order based on its value system, the need to alter or not to alter its structure can also be seen as an effort to maintain orderliness. Thus, a social change can be effected in an orderly fashion without discontent, bordering on riotousness. Infact, the educational institution of society is charged with the responsibility of initiating social change through the ambience of the school curriculum. This is done through subtle means where character change as a result of learning is gradually achieved. 70 However, certain desires for change may be too sudden and abrupt while not conforming to a gradual process or wait for a curriculum output. These social changes may arise from social misery and, more particularly, in social and economic deprivation. This can be further explained through the theory of ‘relative deprivation’; which states that a social movement can emerge where a discontent associated with the gap between what people actually have and what they do expect and, indeed, feel to be due to them. This accounts for several cases of abrupt social changes following severe deprivations in rewards delivery. Another dimension of the ‘relative deprivation’ theory is that, it can be fostered under the characteristics of Davies’ (1974), “rise-and-drop” or “J-curve” hypothesis. He contended that revolutions are most likely to take place when a prolonged period of social and economic betterment is followed by a period of sharp reversal such as a salary cut in an austered economy. Thus, members of society fear that the gains they have achieved with great effort will be lost, and their mood becomes revolutionary. Social unrest is thus, a condition where disorderliness, disquiet or discontent is applied by a social movement to bring about or resist change. It usually disrupts the social organization or structure of society. An example is the upturn of a state and class structures of society. The above example carries the feature of a social revolution. This can be further explained and, of course, understood in the concept of terrorism which is the use of force or violence against persons or properties to intimidate or coerce a government or formal institution to achieve political, religious or social objectives. Without doubt, all forms of unrest in society are basically motivated by the desire to attract personal or collective gains. These may not always be necessarily based on absolute but relative objectivity when considered on the scale of rationality. For instance, an unrest may pursue objectives that aim to change society by challenging fundamental values while another may seek modifications within the framework of the existing value scheme. Thus, issues that pertain to unrest in society are those that challenge the existing values and requiring sudden changes. Quite a number of the cases have assumed a global dimension and are apparently predicated on similar causes. A Chronicle of Global Unrest Moments of social unrest are occurrences that have plagued the entire global community and thus, cannot be perceived within the horizon of a particular nation. Expectedly, the nature of these unrest have been similar in methods and procedures. This can be adduced to the state of globalization as well as the remarkable improvement in communication technology. Most global unrest are often predicated on the variables of polity, economy and social justice. Koba (2011), reported that economic uncertainty led to global unrest in London, where three nights of rioting poured hundreds of people into the streets, leaving several local neighbourhoods in shambles. In this, one man died, dozens were injured and arrested. The protest spread to other cities, with violence reported in parts of Birmingham, Liverpool and Bristol. The cause was basically due to global economic uncertainty and stock market volatility, although Police said the violence began during a vigil for a man, Mark Duggan, who had been killed. However, those on the streets said what happened went beyond one man’s death. The death was just an opportunity to press for issues that were economyoriented. Koba equally reported that in late June of the same year, half of the public schools in Britain were closed by a massive protest over public pension cuts. This mass movement comprised of some 750,000 people including three major teacher unions, customs and 71 immigration officers as well as air traffic controllers. Before the protest, it was perceived that discontent had simmered among Britain’s urban poor for years in neighbourhoods like Tottenham where the protests started. However, in response to the violence, Prime Minister David Cameron announced his government’s decision to maintain law and order by doubling the number of police officers on the streets and the institution of curfew for young adults. Generally, Cameron’s conservative government was accused of spending pension cuts meant for social welfare programmes to help reduce the country’s debt. CNBC (2011), while reporting of a major unrest in Israel, stated that some 250,000 people took to the streets of Tel Aviv on Saturday, 6th August to protest over the rising cost of living. Demonstrations actually started earlier when a few people set up tents in an expensive part of Tel Aviv to protest the rising property prices. Eventually, the protests moved to other cities in Israel where some 50,000 people rallied. The demonstrations turned into a major challenge for the government of Prime Minister Benjamin Natenyahu. Thus, the government announced a series of reforms including freeing up land for construction and offering tax breaks. This indeed is a sharp contrast to the response by David Cameron who instead doubled the number of police and imposed a curfew period. Instead of appeasing the people, the reforms rather generated further anger. Quite clearly, the protesters placed the following demands: - Increase personal tax brackets for top earners; - Enshrine the right to housing in the law; introduce rent controls; boost mortgage relief; - Stop further privatization of things such as health facilities; - Provide free education for all from the age of three months; and - Raise the minimum wage to 50 per cent of the average wage. Social unrests have equally featured in some European nations. Spain, Greece and Portugal have experienced protests and rioting in reaction to government austerity programmes and bad economic conditions. Koba (2011) reported that, in late June, riots broke out in Athens and other parts of Greece as the country’s parliament voted to approve severe cutbacks in government spending. This meant a drastic slash in welfare packages that would affect ordinary people. Dozens of people were hurt and businesses destroyed as police battled rioters with tear gas and night sticks. In an explanation, Greek lawmakers stated that the cuts were to enable the government receive more bailout money from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and European Union (EU) or rather run the risk of defaulting on their debts. In Spain, thousands of people, according to CNBC (2011), turned out in late May 2011, to protest the country’s 21% unemployment rate. They also demonstrated against corruption in government activities and austerity measures to reign in the country’s debt. Hundreds of people set up tents in a Madrid square and spent a week there in protest. Equally, Portugal saw massive strikes and protests in March, 2011 in response to government spending cuts where at least 200,000 people gathered in Lisbon. Information collected, analyzed and presented by CNBC indicated that thousands of workers took to the streets throughout the Philippines in May, 2011 to press for higher pay. They demanded for better wages in the light of rising inflation which included higher oil prices. President Benigno Aquino III was urged to do more to help protect jobs. In reaction, the government held job fairs as hundreds of workers were earlier laid off as the economy slumped. Inspite of this, the workers insisted that the effort had fallen far short of what they wanted. 72 The situation in Eastern China was quite similar, where nearly 1000 cab drivers blocked traffic and protested on August 1 st 2011 over fuel costs. It was indeed the latest signal of discontent about the country’s surging inflation. Inflation is hitting China hard with food prices recently increasing by 12%. Many Chinese officials are reported to be quite concerned that inflation, along with rising property prices, could lead to even more unrest. This is most worrisome as China is practicing communism and political as well as economic conditions should have been relatively stable. One classical example of unrest is to be found in the “Arab Spring” which literally means the Arab rebellion or the Arab Revolution. It is a revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world that began on the 18th of December, 2010. To date, rulers have been forced out of power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. Civil uprisings have erupted in Bahrain, Algeria, Jordan and Kuwait. The protests have similar techniques of mostly civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving strikes, demonstrations, marches and rallies, as well as the effective use of social media to organize, communicate and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression. Many demonstrations have met violent responses from authorities, as well as from pro-government militias and counter-demonstrators. Nevertheless, these attacks have been answered with violence from protesters in some cases. Some observers and commentators have drawn comparisons between the ‘Arab Spring’ movements and the pro-democratic, anti-communist revolutions of 1989 that swept through Eastern Europe and the communist world in terms of their scale and significance. The ‘Arab spring’ was sparked by the story of Mohammed Bouazizi, the street trader whose self-immolation on the morning of 18th January, 2011 ignited the revolution in Tunisia in protest of police corruption and ill-treatment. He could not get a job because, in a corrupt dictatorship, he lacked the right connection. As a street vendor, he earned 140 dollars a month from which he paid for his sister’s education. This unemployed graduate, who felt molested by the police, got himself burnt, consequently hospitalized and died. This led to massive unrest in Tunisia that eventually saw to the exit of President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali who fled to Saudi Arabia. Similar protests led to the falls of Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak, Libyan President Muammar Gaddafi, and Yemen President Ali Abdullah Saleh. During this period of the Arab regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at the end of their current terms. Sudanese President Omar al Bashir announced that he would not seek re-election in 2015, as did Iraqi Prime Minister, Nouri al-Maliki whose term ends in 2014. In another legacy from the ‘Arab spring’, protests and riots in Syria against the rule of President Bashar al-Assad have been going on for over five months now. It is estimated that at least 1,600 people have been killed by government forces in this unrest. These demonstrations are a combination of calls for economic as well as political changes. In response, Assad’s government has promised a package of reforms including higher wages, letting political parties exist, easing restrictions on the media, and a new anti-corruption drive. Surprisingly, these new measures have not been concretely placed to achieve the welldesired economic and political reforms. The tendency is that, the unrest may not only continue but may assume a complex dimension. Turning the search light of social unrest towards home, it is not difficult to illuminate also on issues that are hanging on polity, economy and social justice. Just after the attainment of political independence by the founding fathers of Nigeria, it went through a dark period of unrest that eventually culminated into the civil war that lasted for about three 73 years. This unrest was more or less triggered by ethnic suspicion based on presumed domination of one by another. It was obviously an unfortunate situation for a country that just emerged from the doldrums of colonialism to so experience socio-political uncertainty. Another post-independence discontent situation in Nigeria was the Niger Delta Militancy. This started as a protest against environmental degradation occasioned by oil exploration and the lopsided derivation principle. From historical antecedents, when substantial amount of oil was first pumped in Southern Nigeria in late 1960s, 50% of revenues from the oil were remitted back to the states where the oil installations were located. However, successive governments gradually decreased the derivation percentage until it fell to about 2% of the initial 50%. With the emergence of democratic government in 1999, sequel to very frantic agitations for improvement in the derivation percentage for oil producing states, it received an upward review of 13%. Those who notedably championed these agitations included Adaka Boro, leader of the Niger-Delta Volunteer Force, and Ken Saro-Wiwa who headed the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP). These were social movements but initially had no revolutionary tendencies. The movements and those that evolved along the line became violent in the pursuit of these demands. As a result of these crises, The News Magazine of the 9 th of July, 2012 reported that the Federal Government of Nigeria lost over N3trillion between 2008 and 2010. That when the hostilities in the Niger-Delta was on, crude oil exploration for export dropped from 2.3 million to 700,000 barrels per day. Recent developments have shown that, civil unrests associated with crude oil exploration and trading are still being recorded in Nigeria. From the Wires (2012) reported that unrest in the country is affecting the global oil market negatively. Series of unrest in the country ranging from fuel subsidy removal protests, bombings and oil spillage have reflected in the price of crude in the world market. According to the report, Brent’s Premium to United States crude reflected unrest in Nigeria, which is Africa’s top oil producer. Shell, the world’s largest energy company by market value, has suffered major losses due to incessant unrest in the oil rich regions of Nigeria. For instance, early this year (2012), an offshore oil spill in the Niger-Delta led to the shutting down of the Bonga field. This oil spill was considered the nation’s worst in more than a decade since Bonga field has the capacity to produce more than 200,000 barrels a day of crude oil and 150 million cubic feet of gas a day. Economic deprivations have led to discontentment accounting for widespread unrest in Nigerian oil rich region. Another major social unrest in Nigeria has been the “Boko Haram” insurgence. The sect has remained faceless and very little is known of its demands. It has been responsible for the death of over one thousand people since its emergence. With very sophisticated methods of attack, its grievances seem to be based on economic, political and religious dimensions. Since it has remained a faceless and inaccessible social movement, quite little is known of its concrete aspirations, not to talk of meeting them. A lot of efforts need to be made to unravel the mystery behind this continued unrest because its negative signal is fastly permeating and weakening the existing structures of the nation’s political and economic institutions. Pathogeneses of Global Unrest To understand the pathogeneses of social unrest, it is most beneficial to consider the factors below: 74 i) Political Factors: Politics means the science of government or its business. It entails moves or maneuvers that are concerned with the acquisition of power by an individual or group. The British sociologist Ralph Miliband (1969) sees power as being derived from wealth. This contention thus, rejects the pluralist view that in “democracies’ equal political rights give each member of the population equal power. Political equality is, therefore, a myth and even more difficult to realize in conditions of advanced capitalism because of the power of those who own and control the means of production. The Marxist perspectives similarly see power as concentrated in the hands of a minority in society. They stress that the powerful and the powerless have different interests and that these differences may lead to conflict in society which can degenerate to unrest. Unrest could be centered on a controversy between a powerful governmental force and a relatively powerless followership. For instance, Smith-Spark and Busari (2012) reported that Nigeria’s main trade union groups early this year (2012) called for a general strike and mass rallies over a controversial government decision to take away fuel subsidies. Union leaders said Nigerian workers were already experiencing unnecessary hardship as a result of the decision which they argued was affecting the cost of transportation, food, medication, rent and school fees. In response, government stated that, the removal of fuel subsidies would have a positive impact on the country’s economy. It explained that money saved would be used to invest elsewhere, such as, in the refurbishing of ailing refineries. Presently, Nigeria has no functioning refineries and has to import fuel. Despite these explanations by government to justify its political decisions, the mega unions in Nigeria embarked on strike to protect workers’ conditions by asking government to revert to the earlier pump price of 65 naira per litre. The unrest was settled through a concession by government in bringing the raised price down to 97 naira per litre. At the moment, monies accruing into the fuel subsidy accounts seem not to be properly accounted for. For instance, the Federal Government had budgeted N245billion for fuel subsidy last year (2011) but suddenly raised it to N2.19trillion without concrete explanations. All that is more heard of is the “sting operation” involving Hon. Farouk Lawan and Chief Femi Odetola of the alleged $620,000 USD bribe. It may not be too long before Nigerians who suspended the strike begin to ask questions on the agreed palliatives meant to address the pains created by the subsidy removal. This situation may just be another “time-bomb” to herald yet a major unrest in Nigeria. Thus, the political society, according to Antonio Gramsc (1891-1973), often represses the civil society. While the political society comprises of what is normally thought of as state, the civil society consists of those institutions normally thought of as private, particularly the church, trade unions, the mass media, and political parties. The political society often has its interests above those of the civil society, which often results in conflict that usually lead to social unrest. Those who constitute the political society are usually of the elitist group that belong to the privileged class. They, therefore, enjoy both political and economic advantages over those that belong to the civil society. Basically, the political society is vested with the responsibility of ensuring equitable distribution of our scarce material resources. This position can be further buttressed by the provision of the Nigerian Constitution in Section 17 sub-section 3(a) as follows: The state shall direct its policy towards ensuring that, all citizens without 75 discrimination on any group whatsoever, have the opportunity for securing adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure suitable employment. It, however, appears that, this is only a political statement that means very little to the political society itself. Rather, poverty, irregularity and injustices are highly prevalent in mostly developing societies like Nigeria. These have led to wealth gaps between individuals and groups, thus creating imbalances resulting into tensions and subsequently, unrest. ii) Economic Factors Economy is seen as the manner in which resources and money within a community or nation are organized. It also involves the method of the distribution of scarce material resources to members of society. Therefore, the production of goods and services holds the key to human happiness and fulfillment. However, not all members of society remain ever happy and fulfilled on the basis of the production of goods and services. In a capitalist economy, a small minority owns the means of production, while a majority that constitutes the work force remains largely alienated even from the goods it produces. Thus, happiness and fulfillment often remain with the minority than with the majority. No wonder, Haralambos, Holborn and Heald (2000), stated that capitalism is based on self-interest, avarice and greed. It is a system of cut-throat competition concerned with the maximization of profit rather than the satisfaction of real human needs. By these, capitalists and workers are often engaged in a struggle for survival and personal gains, a foundation for conflict. These gains are often the indices that confer political power on individuals or groups in society. Thus, Hughes, Khroehler and Zanden (2002) agreed that economic capacity renders political power on an individual or groups in society. Individuals or groups that control critical resources such as those pertaining to rewards, are able to dictate the way social life is ordered. The ordering of social life is by all means characterized by bias and lopsided considerations. These can be seen in the employment prospects of members of society where the least qualified are often considered over the more qualified. The bases of these are usually in terms of ethnicity, religion, and other primordial considerations. The concept of ‘godfatherism’ has been the most enterprising phenomenon for the consideration of leaders in Nigeria’s political process. Elections are in most cases rigged to give victories to favoured candidates by political “godfathers”. These can clearly be justified by the many up-turned so-called victory cases that were challenged at election tribunals and even at the Supreme Court. A major violent unrest in Nigeria was the post-election violence of 2011 where a colossal damage was done to properties and many lives lost. This followed the rejection of the outcome of the presidential election by some political parties and individuals which moved their supporters to go on rampage. Unfortunately, the many unemployed and out of school young individuals saw it as an opportunity to show their disenchantment with a government that has failed to offer them better livelihood. Economic poverty due to unemployment and ignorance created by illiteracy were certainly very crucial factors that generated the social unrest. 76 iii) Religious Factors One way to understanding religion is to see it in terms of the functions it performs for individuals or society. That is why Sherkat and Ellison (1999) stated that, essentially religion should be seen in its effects on health, the family and politics. Religion is often viewed as a major source of social solidarity. It provides believers with a common set of norms and values which constitutes an important source of social solidarity. Wuthnow (1988), asserted that, religious beliefs, rituals and bonds help to create a ‘moral community’ in which all members know how to behave towards one another. In recent years, the entire global religious society has embarked upon a fundamentalist revival. Religious fundamentalism has remained a major challenge to the global society. For instance, the Christian Protestant Movement opposes “modernist”, theology and seeks to conserve the basic principles underlying traditional Christianity. Equally, an example could be drawn from the Iranian revolution of 1979 when Ayatollah Khomeini, an Islamic religious leader overthrew the Shah, Mohammed Riza Phalavi. His monarchy was replaced with a theocratic regime rooted in Islamic traditions. This revolution ushered in nationalist and political expressions that were beyond religion. Islamic fundamentalists challenged several secular-oriented governments in NorthAfrica and the Middle East. This was targeted at dismantling western domination for the enshrinement of Islamic principles and ideas in government. The insurgencies in the Arab world and the spillover effects in some sub-saharan African countries including Nigeria are indeed clear examples for the realization of this ambition. However, underneath this agitation are the desires for economic emancipation and political power improvement. The ‘Arab Spring’ is an example of the need for social and economic betterments rather than religious demands. Religious crises or social unrest are often fueled and perpetrated by the unemployed and out of school who are always on the ‘wings’ to be used. Idleness and ignorance being the key elements that serve as drives. These obviously explain the menace of the “Boko Haram” insurgence in Nigeria. A high percentage of the perpetrators are teenagers who ought to be in school. Many are without worthwhile skills to be considered for paid jobs or have dropped out of school due to financial constraints. These are “frustrated teenagers” that are usually vulnerable and could easily be recruited for violence. iv) Leadership Factors: The global society has not experienced enough good leaders with sound dispositions for using the indices of economy, politics and religion for a stable global environment. There has been a significant ‘Leadership want” being the bane of social unrest globally. Most of those in leadership positions are covered in injustices based on ethnicity, religious and political biases. Applying Education for Curbing Global Unrest Education remains the most veritable tool for the actualization of social betterment, economic viability and political growth in all human societies. No wonder, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, in Section (18) subsection (1) says that government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels. Subsection (3) states that government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy by providing education freely to all categories of Nigerians without any bias. Government’s commitment has been further enunciated in the National Policy on Education (NPE) with 77 very laudable statements of objectives. These statements of objectives, where well pursued can foster the values for betterment, viability and growth of society. The values therefore have important functions in society as a whole. Education can be utilized as an instrument for social cohesion and for the amelioration of social discontent as follows: i) Access to Education Access to schooling by all society’s school aged individuals is not just a privilege but certainly a right. Wiley (2012) stated that, democratizing access to educational opportunity is a crucial step toward curbing global crises like, poverty, hunger, political turmoil and economic unrest. The idea of a totally tuition-free education is quite necessary for all people to have the chance to reach their intellectual potential. Currently in Nigeria, the Basic Education Programme of the Federal Government cannot be said to be totally free. Though, it is tuition-free, some basic necessities are still being paid for. The children still pay for or purchase school uniforms, writing materials, practical work materials and a host of others whose costs are enough to deny some categories of children full access to school. ii) Qualitative Education High educational standard is a prerequisite for a sound society premised on orderliness, justice and equity. Consequently, a sound society can guarantee a society devoid of incessant conflicts and unrest. Educational standard is a measure of the levels of skills acquisition, knowledge, competencies, ideas and principles endowed by the products of an educational system. Obviously, most products of our school system are highly bereft of the virtues outlined above. Many factors can be adduced to this phenomenon and which are teacher – quality dimension, funding, facilities and infrastructures. For instance, inspite of government’s huge investments in education, much is still desired. Many children in primary schools still sit on bare floor to be taught. Teachers more often than not go on strike to press home demands for unpaid salaries. Presently, primary school teachers in Plateau State are being owed three months of their salaries while those in tertiary institutions in the state are equally owed four months. This year, primary school teachers in the state have only taught for one and half months (1½ months), yet the children are expected to transit into the next classes and some into JS1 by September. Social unrest can be an indicator of the prevalence of high rate of school drop-out and poor school performance. The case of the fifteen years (15 years) old teenager who planted explosives in his body and detonated it at the palace of the Shehu of Bornu is quite worrisome. Probably, he was a school drop-out that had experienced severe frustration. Quality education is a basic requirement for job creation and placement without which a recipient of education is rendered idle. The need therefore is stressed for more proactive roles by government and stakeholders in education to exhibit more commitment to enhance its quality to its recipients. iii) Global Education Since social unrest has assumed a global dimension, it is also necessary to pursue education within a global focus. This idea can afford for a shared-valued-education within the entire global community. Education can assume a cross-cultural dimension while permeating all social values and norms. This will apparently and gradually moderate obnoxious cultures in different societies. The world will then reason commonly and perceive issues and situations 78 collectively. This might herald and then strengthen the need for inter-nation collaboration for better understanding. iv) Education for the reduction of illiteracy and ignorance Education must be seen as a mechanism to eradicate illiteracy and remedy the high level of ignorance, particularly in developing or emerging societies. Currently, Nigeria’s literacy rate is just above fifty percent (50%). This calls for an aggressive effort to ensure that it is raised to an appreciable level, otherwise many will continue to wallow in deep ignorance and be manipulated for social unrest. v) Education for the balancing of fundamental human rights Since most social unrest stem from human rights abuses and injustices in society, it is necessary that education systems and school curricular structures be substantially based on skills that can promote the basis for democratic living, and adherence to social justice principles. Currently, the rate of corruption in Nigeria seems to be alarming and exposes the nation to the preponderance of injustice. Corruption is considered by most Nigerians to be a way of life and indeed part of our acceptable norm. Thus, an individual is considered to be corrupt only where he decides not to either directly or indirectly engage in corrupt practices. The case of the Police Pension Fund official who hid two billion naira in his house while the pensioners in their numbers slumped and died could not have been a fair judgment. He lacked what it takes to be educated and accountable. Just an education which provides a balance of fundamental human rights is required. vi) Education Beyond Graduation The system of education in society should provide a compelling mechanism for continuous training and retraining. This is necessary because of the continuous rapid changes in society which at times are sophisticated and complex that require more recent ideas and principles. Ideally, education is meant to be a life-long process given the need to update knowledge and refine skills. Education should re-awaken and prepare us for complex challenges in society on a continuous basis. Conclusion That global social unrest is assuming a more complex and sophisticated dimension is the basic truth and a realistic statement. Man seems to be evolving more violent strategies to settle disputes and social discontent. The patterns of these unrest are apparently similar in nature and procedures. This can only be explained by the great improvement in communication technology as the world has fast become a “global village”. The only most veritable way to stem the tide of social unrest is by using the instrument of education. Education can change the value system of a group of people by inculcating in it new ones. The school curriculum is often the best tool to be used to achieve this. 79 References CNBC (2012). Employment/Europeanunion/recession/inflation/Portugal/Britain/Economy. http://www.cnbc.com Davies J (1974). Toward a theory of revolution. American Sociology Review, 53(1), 5-19. Federal Government of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria. Lagos: Federal Government Press. From the wires (Feb, 2, 2012). Nigeria Unrest affects world crude oil trading. Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. Manchester: Polity Press. Haralambos, M. Holborn, M. & Heald, R. (2000). Sociology: Themes and perspectives. London: Harper Collins. Hughes, M, Kroehler, C.J. & Zanden, M.W. (2002). Sociology: The core. New York: McGraw Hill. Koba, M. (2011). Economic uncertainty leading to global unrest. http://www.cnbc.com/id/44073673 Milliband, R. (1969). The state in capitalist society. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson. The News Magazine, vol 39 No. 01 9th, July, 2012. Wiley, D. (2012). http://wwwuopeople.org. 80 ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS WOMEN LEADERSHIP OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ILORIN, KWARA STATE ALEXANDER O. I. Arts & Social Sciences Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin. Abstract The study was a survey of secondary school teachers’ attitude towards women leadership of secondary schools in Ilorin Metropolis. The study population comprises of every public secondary school teacher in Ilorin Metropolis. From the population, random sampling technique was used to sample a total of 500 secondary school teachers across 20 randomly selected public secondary schools from the 56 located in the metropolis. The samples were further stratified on the basis of gender and year of experience. Data were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire titled Women School Leadership Questionnaire (WSLQ) and collected data were analyzed using percentages and the t-test statistic. Findings revealed that 35.4% secondary school teachers preferred women as Principals, 37.4% as Vice-Principals and just 9.8% never wanted women as school leaders. On the other hand, 81% of sampled respondents believed that women school leadership is characterized by financial prudence. 29.8% agreed women school leadership encouraged collaborative approach to school governance, 12% believed it led to domination of school activities by the women and 40.2% believed having women as principals made schools well organized. At the level of hypotheses testing, it was found out that secondary school teachers preference of women as principals did not differ on the basis of the gender of the teachers but differed on the length of teachers’ teaching experience. It was, therefore, concluded that appointing women as school principals may not be rejected by male and female subordinates as such appointment may even bring about financial prudence and organized school environment at secondary school level. Thus, it was recommended that more women should be encouraged and appointed to become principals in Nigerian secondary schools. Introduction School leadership is an integral part of school development. It is one of the factors that determines the progress of achieving educational goals. This is because, school leadership anchors policy formulation, implementation and assessment in educational institutions. In confirmation of the importance of school leadership in school achievement, a study revealed that many school staff believed that it is the leader of the school and not the subordinates that determine and guide the culture of school progress. Subordinates often believe that it is the responsibility of the school leaders to create the required kind of atmosphere where school staff and students can be happy and successful in the achievement of school goals (Luthan, 2005). No doubt, school leaders form the pedestal on which the school effectiveness is laid. Without good school leadership, the available school resources may not be adequately utilized for school development. Scholars have defined leadership in terms of group processes, personality, compliance, particular behaviours, persuasions, power, goal achievement, interaction, and role differentiation, initiation of structure, and combination of two or more of these (Edward, 2000; Deross, 2009). In their series of definitions, leadership and leadership effectiveness are not tied to gender quality or attributes nor are they seen as what is solely in the terrain of the 81 male. School leadership, in particular, is said to be attainable on the basis of structured organizational job promotion, years of service and qualification. The process of becoming a school leader, mostly in public schools, is open to all teachers. Thus, as teachers grow in years of experience and qualification in line with the stipulation of the nation’s Civil Service Law, so they move close to becoming school heads. However, in private secondary schools, school leadership often depends on ownership. Owners of private secondary schools, in most cases, transform to become the principals or in most cases exercise veto power to determine who becomes the school head. Many have asked whether women get a chance of becoming school heads in Nigerian primary and secondary schools. In a study conducted by Rayo (2010) in Nigeria, it was discovered that many primary and secondary schools in Nigeria are under the leadership of women. Rayo emphatically gave the percentage of primary schools where women are the Headmistress as 53%. This implies that women out numbered men in the leadership of Nigerian primary schools. A close observation, however, reveals that it is in the lower level of education that women are adequately represented as staff and leaders of educational institutions in Nigeria. For example, as indicated by Ayinla, Muhammed & Adeoye (2006), employment into and leadership of tertiary education in Nigerian universities is dominated by masculine folks. They indicated that only 13% of academic staff in Nigerian universities are women as compared to 33% in the United Kingdom. In addition to this, only 5% of all academic staff that occupy professorial posts are women in contrast to 7% in the United Kingdom. Societal view of women leadership may be influenced by people's perception of women in the cultural society. In most cases, women are not as favoured as men in social activities. The world itself is dominated by men and so many often see women as second fiddle irrespective of experience and qualification. Dauda, (2000) pointed out that women are often expected to be mere assistants to men and are not expected to take leadership roles. But in situations where women become leaders by virtue of official placement, what is likely to be the attitude of men and women subordinates towards them? Women leadership of educational institutions can be viewed in three ways. One way is to consider the numerical representation of women in leadership cadre, another is to consider their effectiveness, and yet another is to consider the attitude of staff under them (women school leaders) to their leadership principles and styles. In this study, the researcher finds out secondary school teachers' attitude towards women leadership of their schools. Specifically, the study was structured to identify preference of secondary school teachers for women school heads among male and female subordinates. The study also finds out teachers’ perceived effectiveness and features of women leaders of secondary schools in Ilorin metropolis. Theoretical Framework For the purpose of clarification and scope specification, researches are often anchored on theories. Having a theoretical framework helps shape researches and goes a long way in providing base for possible findings of the research. This study is therefore anchored on Social Identity Theory. The theory formed by, Tajfel (1982) assumes that human beings are motivated to positively evaluate their own groups and value them over other groups in order to maintain and enhance self-esteem when it comes to access to human and non-human resources and leadership opportunities. Horowitz & Bordens (1995) further explained that, fundamental to social identity theory is the notion of categorizing the other groups, 82 pigeonholing them by the use of stereotypes and specifying where and what authority they can claim in the society. In traditional African societies, women are already categorized to be incapable of positions that are privy of male members of the society (Luthan, 2005). In leadership for example, women are stereotyped to possess specific leadership attributes that may not make them fit for taking charge of some traditional and formal institutions. The stereotype often determines societal expectation of women in leadership and may even determine the attitude of people serving under women leaders towards their leadership. Research Questions The following research questions guided the conduct of this study: 1. Do secondary school teachers in Ilorin metropolis prefer women as school leaders? 2. What are the perceived attributes of women leadership among secondary school teachers in Ilorin metropolis? Resear ch H ypotheses The following null hypotheses were raised and tested in the process of conducting this study: H01: There is no significant difference in male and female teachers’ preference of leadership of women school heads in Ilorin metropolis. H02: There is no significant difference in experience and less experience teachers’ preference of leadership of women school heads in Ilorin metropolis. R es ea rch Methodo lo g y The study was a survey of secondary school teachers’ attitude towards women leadership of educational institutions in Nigeria. The population for the study comprises every public secondary school teacher in Ilorin Metropolis. From the population, random sampling technique was used to sample a total of 500 secondary school teachers (250 male teachers and 250 female teachers) across 20 randomly selected public secondary schools from the 56 located in the metropolis. The 500 sampled were further stratified on the basis of gender and length of experience. Data were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire titled Women School Leadership Questionnaire (WSLQ). The questionnaire had two sections. Section ‘A’ elicited respondents’ biographical data while Section `B' had two parts. Part I contained items testing teachers’ preference and perceived attributes of women school heads. The Part II of the Section ‘B’ contained items testing teachers’ general attitude towards women leadership of a school where they work. This part tested respondents’ readiness to obey, collaborate and reference women school leaders if they find themselves serving under such women. The validity of the instrument was determined using content and face validity approaches. On the other hand, test-re-test technique was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. Collected data were analyzed using percentages and the t-test statistic. Data Analysis and Result Research Question 1: Do secondary school teachers in Ilorin Metropolis prefer women as school leaders? 83 Table 1: Preference of women school leaders in secondary school Male Teachers 1 2 3 4 Prefer women as Principals Prefer women only as Vice-Principals Prefer women only as Head of Department Never want a woman as School Heads Female Teachers Total n % n % n % 98 103 33 16 39.2 41.2 13.2 6.4 79 84 56 31 31.6 33.6 22.4 12.4 177 187 89 47 35.4 37.4 17.8 9.8 Data on Table 1 indicate that out of the sampled 250 male teachers, 39.2% of them preferred women as principals, while out of the 250 sampled female teachers, 31.6% preferred women principals. Also, 41.2% of male teachers sample preferred women as only Vice-Principals and not as principals, while 33.6% of sampled female teachers would want women only as Vice Principals. Also, while 13.2% male respondents wanted women only as Heads of Department, 6.4% of them never even wanted women as school heads. However, 22.4% of sampled female respondents wanted women only as Heads of Department in schools and 12.4% never wanted women to head any aspect of school. Research Question 2: What are the perceived attributes of women leadership among secondary school teachers in Ilorin metropolis? Table 2: Perceived attribute of women school leadership 1 2 3 4 5 Financial Prudence Collaborative approach to school governance Domination of school activities Organized school (physical & policy) School indiscipline Male Teachers n % 199 79.6 87 34.8 26 10.4 103 41.2 17 6.8 Female Teachers n % 206 82.4 62 24.8 34 13.6 98 39.2 23 40 Total n 405 149 60 201 57 % 81 29.8 12 40.2 11.4 As shown on Table 2 above, 81 % of sampled male and female secondary school teachers agreed that whenever women are principals, there is always financial prudence in handling of school fund, 29.8% believed such women school leaders always adopt collaborative approach to school governance, 12% agreed that women school leaders dominate school activities, 40.2% agreed that when women lead school, the school is well organized physically and in term of school policy, and 11.4% agreed that women leadership of school is often characterized by school indiscipline. Research Testing H01: There is no significant difference in male and female teachers’ preference of leadership of women school heads Table 3: T-test Analysis of preference of women leadership of secondary schools on the basis of gender. X2 Teacher Male N 250 43.7 Sd 12.31 Female 250 44.2 13.11 Df t-cal t-crit 498 1.96 1.58 Data on Table 3 show that the calculated t-test value, 1.96 was higher than the t-test 84 critical value, 1.58 Therefore it was concluded that there was significant difference in male and female secondary school teachers’ preference of women school principals. H02: There is no significant difference in experience and less experience teachers’ preference of leadership of women school heads Table 4: T-test Analysis of preference of women leadership of secondary schools on the basis of experience. X2 Experience Long Term n 259 53.6 Sd 11.42 Short Term 241 51.4 12.51 df t.cal t.crit 498 2.11 1.96 Data on Table 4 show that the calculated t-test value, 2.11 is higher than the critical value, 1.96. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was rejected and it was concluded that there was no significant difference in experienced and less experienced secondary school teachers’ preference of women school principals. Discussion Secondary school education is an important level of education in Nigeria. It is a level of education that requires adequate and effective administrative efforts form Ministry of Education and stationed school leaders. Being a level of education that bridges students’ educational endeavour from elementary to tertiary stages of schooling, secondary schools remain the most vital aspect of Nigerian system of education, where school personnel are expected to display administrative principles and practices that can ensure productive utilization of human and non-human resources. Series of researches already revealed that this level of education is under the control of male and female school heads. It was however, revealed in Rayos (2000) that substantial percentage (48.4%) of secondary schools in Nigeria is under the headship of women in Nigeria. This implies that women are not segregated in terms of appointment as principals in Nigeria. Unfortunately, in Nigerian traditional societies, there are socio-cultural practices that often predetermined what people expect from women who are appointed as leaders, even outside the educational sector. As explained by Ageola (2003), Nigerians often believe that women are inferior to men and are incapable of making sound decisions or present a logical leadership attributes and strategies. Thus, there may be negative or unsupportive disposition towards women leadership. On this premise, it may be presumed that secondary school teachers may prefer men as principals to women. However, as shown in the findings of this study, many secondary school teachers preferred women to men as principals. Specifically, 39.2% of sampled male teachers within Ilorin metropolis preferred women as principals, while 31.6% of the sampled female teachers also preferred women as their principals. The findings also indicated that 41.2% of male sampled preferred male and 33.6% of male teachers wanted women only as Vice-Principals. In fact, only 9.8% of the total sampled 500 male and female teachers never wanted women as secondary school principals in the metropolis. These findings are significant as they point to the fact that male teachers, even prefer women principals more than the way female teachers wanted women principals. Many reasons for preference of women as principals may be deduced from the second 85 stage of the analysis of the findings of this study. At this stage, respondents were asked to indicate attributes of women school headship. Fortunately, 81% of male and female sampled teachers were of the opinion that where women serve as principals, there was always financial prudence. This implies that women leadership of secondary schools lead to careful decision making in the management of school fund. This is important as it will ensure adequate utilization of school funds for school growth than for personal aggrandizement. These findings may even point to the possibility of appointing women to correct financial anomalies in schools. In addition to this finding, 40.2% of sampled teachers agreed that secondary schools women govern are always well organized in term of physical and policy structuring. However, 11.4% of sampled respondents were of the opinion that women governance of secondary schools may lead to increase in school indiscipline. This is negative. The perception of the sampled teachers may be based on the cultural belief that women are soft in implementing and or sanctioning misapplication of rules and regulations (Faderera, 2002). Faderera asserts that in traditional society, people already assume women can not take firm decision that can prevent illogicalities and administrative errors. This may be what informed the sampled teachers to assume having women as school heads will lead to school indiscipline. In whatever form, the finding’s extol women as possible better leaders for Nigerian secondary schools. This fact is more pronounced with the fact that even sampled men were in support of the effective capacity of women as school leaders. Conclu sion Women can be effective leaders/heads of secondary schools in Nigeria. Their appointment will not be restricted by both male and female teachers. Many teachers in Ilorin metropolis will even promote appointment of women as principals as they believe such appointment could bring financial prudence, organized environment and collaborative approach to school governance in Nigerian schools. R eco mmen d atio n s Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended for the Nigerian system of education. 1. Government and other stakeholders in education industry should be encouraged to promote policies and practices that will lead to the appointment of women as school principals in Nigerian secondary schools. 2. Women appointed as school heads should be conscious of indiscipline among staff and students. They are to come up with clear rules, regulations and school management strategies that will help them step down cases of indiscipline that can undermine their authorities in school. R efer en c e Ageola, W.I. (2003). Cultural beliefs and gender authorities in Nigerian traditional societies: Journal of Cultural Studies in Africa. 3(4), 34-51 Ayinla, S.A; Muhammed, A.Y. & Adeoye, M.N. (2006). Education and regeneration of traditional values in Nigeria. Lagos: University of Lagos Press 86 Dauda, B.G. (2000). Value, roles and gender orientation in Nigerian communities. Abeokuta: Franco Media Deross, L. M. (2009). Organizational behaviour. Philadelphia: Westminister Press Edward, K. P. (2000). Social diversities and globalization. New York: Stage Publication Inc. Faderera, S.S. (2002). Women and leadership. Lagos: Olorogun. Publication and Art Impressions Luthan, F. (2005). Organizational behaviour. New York: McGraw Hill Rayo, D.E. (2010). Assessment of gender representation in Nigerian secondary and primary school leadership. Journal of National Association of Educational Administrators in Nigeria, 2(3). Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and group relations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press Horowitz, LA. & Bordens, K.S. (1995). Social psychology. Tokyo: Mayfield 87 DESCRIPTION OF STRATEGIES FOR ACHIEVING NATIONAL STABILITY IN NIGERIAN SOCIETY AS EXPRESSED BY YOUTHS AND PROFESSIONALS IN NORTH-CENTRAL NIGERIA OKAFOR, I. P. L. Arts & Social Sciences Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin Abstract The research adopted the Survey Descriptive Research type to find out what Nigerian youths and professionals identified as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability. These data was taken from the population of youths, teachers and security personnel in the country. Purposive Sampling Technique was used to sample a total number of 600 youths and professionals across the North-Central States of Nigeria. A researcher-made questionnaire titled Strategies for National Stability Questionnaire” (SNSQ) was used for data collection. The instrument’s validity and reliability co-efficient; 0.68, was determined using face/content validity approach and test-re-test approach. Collected data- were analyzed using percentages. Findings revealed that a high percentage of sampled youths and tertiary institution lecturers were in support of provision of employment opportunities as the major strategy Nigeria can use to achieve national stability. On the other hand, most of the sampled security personnel believed provision of infrastructure will be more effective than any other strategy. Fortunately, no category of sampled respondents saw the need to split Nigeria on ethnic line before national stability can be achieved. Based on these findings, it was recommended that Nigeria should intensify its employment generation efforts and make good its bid to provide adequate and functioning infrastructure. Introduction Nigeria is a developing nation created in 1898 through the Colonial Authority exercised by Lord Fredrick Lugard. The country was under the British Government until 1st October, 1960 when it got her independence and became a sovereign nation. The country Nigeria, officially known as the Federal Republic of Nigeria, borders the Gulf of Guinea on the South, Cameron on the East, Niger on the North and Benin on the West. Nigeria operates the Presidential System of Government with distinct but complementary arms of government. These arms of government are classified as the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. Having passed through series of military and democratic governance, the country has experienced some socioeconomic advancements and obstacles. At different point in her development, Nigeria witnessed several political and economic crises, many of which manifested in the claims and counter claims of her diverse ethnic groups. With 774 Local Government Areas in 36 states, the country had had to face upheavals from several ethnic groups that felt marginalized and thereby strived for political, economic and educational relevance in the affairs of the state. The Nigerian Civil War broke out on 6th July 1967. The war was the culmination of an uneasy peace and stability that had plagued the nation from independence in 1960. The situation had its genesis in the geography, history, culture and demography of Nigeria. The ethnic strives became a major civil war that threatened the country’s fragile unity and plunged the nation into an era of killing and economic woes until 15th January 1970 when the civil war was brought to an end. Till today, the country still faces several threats to her national stability. Series of 88 ethno- religious and economic crises shake the foundation of the country making her scamper for enduring solutions. National stability as used in this study means state of unity, peace and security in the co-ordination of the affairs of the state. It connotes ability of the country to remain united, peaceful and progressive. For several years now, the country has witnessed various threats to its survival. These threats often start as ethnic and religious crises. In July 1999, for example, many Nigerians were killed and property worth millions of naira was destroyed during ethno-religious crises involving Yoruba Traditional Religious worshipers and Hausas in Sagamu, Ogun State. Like what obtains in most communal crises, the traditional worshipers in the town unleashed terror on the non-worshipers mostly the Hausas. Also in February 2001, over 3,000 people lost their lives to deadly religious crises that erupted between Christians and Muslims in Kaduna, (Olukorede, 2002). Similarly, in September 2001, over 1,000 lives were lost and several property destroyed in another religious crisis in Jos (Ayinla, 2004). While several of these types of crises continue to be Nigeria in recent times has been witnessing a large scale terrorism, which has been described as being religiously and/or politically motivated (Woleosho, 2011). The new threat to the nation’s stability started during the last 2011 General Election. Immediately after the announcement of the result of the election by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), the Northern part of the country was engulfed in crises, which Mr. Hafiz Ringim, the Inspector-General of Police, said claimed the life of 520 persons in Kaduna and Niger States and also resulted in the wanton destruction of not less than 165 churches, 53 Mosques and 1442 houses (The Punch, June, 12th, 2012). After the post-general election crisis, came the Boko Harram terrorism, which is characterized with indiscriminate killings and bombing of important units of Nigeria. Boko Harram is a war insignia of a religious sect established in Northern Nigeria. Boko Haram is a religious sect that initially started by condemning western knowledge in Nigeria and blossomed into a terrorist group that had unleashed mayhem on unsuspecting victims. Boko Haram has killed over 1,200 people in Nigeria, including Christians and Muslims, and most internationally remembered was the bombing of the United Nations House in Abuja that killed about 23 people. These are people with no clear-cut ideology. The sect, founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002, set out seeking to impose a more strict form of Islamic law in Northern Nigeria and end corruption but became fully violent after the five days clashes in July 2009 between it and members of security forces in Borno, Yobe, Bauchi, and Kano States that left more than 800 people dead, including at least 30 Police Officers. During that unrest, the police captured and allegedly killed the Boko Haram leader Mohamamed Yusuf along with many of his followers in Maiduguri. Since then, the sect has been relentless in killings and destruction of churches and mosques. Property worth millions of naira was lost and lives were equally lost. With the resultant effect of loss of peace, tranquility, and business activities in most part of Northern Nigeria. This has further compounded the woes of the region hitherto regarded as home of poverty. This sect, who disdainfully condemned Western Education, laid claim to bombing of the Nigerian Police Force Headquarters and The United Nation Office, both in Abuja. Apart from these two places, the sect waged war against individuals and institutions through assassinations, selective kidnapping, suicide bombing, and emotional threats. Their activities have resulted to the death of thousands of people in the Northern states such as Gombe, Yobe, Bauchi, Niger and the country has lost quite a number of economic investment interest, of foreigners (The Punch, 2012). Aside these security threats, the country have also witnessed series of set backs in its 89 bid to advance its educational activities and achieve national stability. As at independence, Nigeria spends an average of 40% of her annual budget on Education; precisely to take care of her 15,703 Primary Schools, 883 Secondary Schools, 102 Federal Government Colleges, 315 Teacher Training Colleges and 29 Technical/Vocational Schools, 4 Polytechnics and 5 Universities (Olorogun, 2003). But unfortunately today, Nigeria spends an average of 8% of her annual budget to cater for its ever increasing number of schools which include 117 Universities, 2,300,034 3 junior and Senior Secondary Schools, and several Polytechnics and Colleges of Education across the country (Edward, 2010). There has been a drop in Nigeria’s financial commitment to educational sector and this has brought a total setback in the Education Sector. The sector has witnessed several cases of students’ poor academic performance and upsurge in indiscipline. In October 2006, Mrs. Oby Ezekwesili, the then Minister of Education alerted the nation on the need for concerted efforts to rescue the nation’s educational sector. She claimed that only 20% of students that sat for final examination conducted by the West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO) that year passed, and in another report, only two percent (2%) of students that sat for WAEC and NECO in 2009 was able to make five credits (Thisday, 2011). And according to the British Council Survey of Nigerian Education Sector in 2008, while 16 million students supposed to enroll in the nation’s secondary schools, only 5.8 million enrolled. At the tertiary level, the universities are said to be short of 33,000 Doctorate Degree Holders as lecturers and the teaching equipment are said to be obsolete. Unfortunately, these series of security and educational problems affect the Nations economic development. It is said that the graduates employed are no longer functioning adequately in the economic sector because of the quality of job training they were exposed to while in school (Wesley, 2009). The nation is threatened in terms of socio-economic development so much that, concerted efforts are needed to rescue it from collapse. Among what is needed to be done to ensure the national stability of the country is to research into the public opinions on the strategies that can be employed in making the nation overcome its many socio-economic problems. Finding out this will require asking the right persons. This study was therefore conducted to find out what Nigerian youths, teachers, and security agencies perceived as effective strategies with which to achieve Nigerian national stability. This study draws it samples from the North-Central states of Nigeria. The opinions of the youths were sourced because they form the crop of people that will take positions of leadership in leading the country to advancement in the future. The professionals were also sampled and as used in this study, the term means, teachers and security agents. Theoretical Framework This study is anchored on the Conflict Theory. The Conflict Theory posits that society is prone to tension and social instability which often result from fundamental differences of interest among contending social groups. The Conflict Theory sees society as consisting different social groups contesting for limited resources and that because of limited available resources and inequality in the acquisition power of the social group members to lay claim to the available resources, there is bound to be conflict and tension (Haralambos & Holborm, 2008). Conflict Theory goes further to uphold that tension and instability are common persistent features of the society, and not a temporary aberration in societal development. Thus, tension would always be part of societal development if appropriate strategies are not employed to prevent its escalation. 90 Research Questions The following research questions were raised to guide the study towards identifying the various strategies for ensuring national stability in Nigeria. 1. What did male and female Nigerian youths identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? 2. What did younger and older members of teaching profession identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? 3. What did younger and older members of security institutions identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? Methodology The research adopted the Survey Descriptive Research type to find out what Nigerian youths and professionals identified as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability. Specifically, the population for the study consisted of Nigerian youths below the age of thirty (30) years and professionals in the field of teaching and security. From the population, Purposive Sampling Technique was used to sample a total number of 600 youths and professionals across the North-Central States, Nigeria. The samples were drawn from clusters of youths in higher institutions, teachers in tertiary institutions, and from cluster of security personnel in barracks. The samples were stratified on the basis of age, except the sampled youths that were stratified on the basis of gender. Detail of the distribution of the samples on the basis of the variables of stratification is presented below: Table 1; Description of Sampled Respondents on Variables of Stratification. Youths Teachers Security Personnel Male Female Male Female Younger Older N % n % n % N % n % n % 110 18.3 90 15 100 16.6 100 16.6 105 17.5 95 15.83 As shown on the table, male youths formed the 18.3% of the total sample while female youths formed 15%. On the other hand, 100 male teachers and another 100 female teachers were sampled, each being 16.6% of the total sample. Also, among the total sample, 17.5% were young security personnel and 15.83% were older security personnel. A researcher-made questionnaire titled Strategies for National Stability Questionnaire (SNSQ) was used for data collection. The questionnaire has two sections. The Section ‘A’ has items that collected respondents biographical data and the Section B has items asking respondents to rank-order the provided possible strategies that can ensure Nigerian national stability based on their perceived -effectiveness. To determine the validity of the instrument, face and content validity approaches were used. The researcher gave the instrument to two Measurement and Evaluation experts in the University of llorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. They were asked to assess the adequacy of the items in the questionnaire for the purpose of data collection in the area of study. Also, test-re-test approach was used in determining the reliability of the instrument. Through this approach, a reliability co-efficient of 0.68 was derived and this was adjudged as adequate to make the instrument reliable for data collection. Collected data were analyzed using percentages. 91 Data Analysis and Result Research Question 1: What did male and female Nigerian youths identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? Table 2: Description of Youths’ Identified Strategies for National Stability National Stability Strategies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Youth Male N Intensify provision of security 19 and criminal justice Provision of infrastructural 27 facilities Employment opportunities 39 Provision of educational 20 opportunities Splitting Nigeria on ethnic line -Military government takeover 1 Electoral reforms 4 % 17.2 Female N 22 % 24.44 Total n 41 % 20.5 24.5 24 26.6 51 25.5 32.7 18.5 30 11 33.3 12.2 69 31 34.5 15.5 0 0.9 3.6 5 --- 5.5 0 0 5 1 4 2.5 0.5 2 As shown on Table 2 above, 20.5% of the sampled Nigerian youths ranked provision of security and criminal justice as the most effective strategy for achieving national stability in Nigeria. On the other hand, 25.5% ranked provision of infrastructural facilities as most effective, 34.5% of the youths ranked employment opportunities as most effective strategy for national stability, and 15.5% ranked provision of educational opportunities as the most effective. However, only 2.5% ranked splitting Nigeria on ethnic line as most effective strategy for achieving Nigerian national stability, 0.5% believed military takeover will ensure national stability while 2% of the sampled youths ranked electoral reform as the most effective strategy. Research Question 2: What did younger and older members of teaching profession identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? Table 3: Description of Teachers’ Identified Strategies for National Stability National Stability Strategies Teachers Younger Older Total N % n % n 1 Intensify provision of security 10 10 21 21 31 and criminal justice 2 Provision of infrastructural 17 17 21 26.6 38 facilities 3 Employment opportunities 42 42 36 36 78 4 Provision of educational 19 19 20 20 39 opportunities 5 Splitting Nigeria on ethnic 1 1 0 10 1 line 6 Military government takeover -0 -0 0 7 Electoral reforms 11 11 2 2 13 92 % 15.5 19 39 19.5 0.5 0 6.5 The data on Table 3 indicate that 15.5% of sampled lecturers believed that provision of security and criminal justice is the most effective means of ensuring national stability in Nigeria. On the other hand, 19% of them ranked provision of infrastructural facilities as the most effective strategy for national stability, 39% ranked employment opportunities as the effective strategy, 19.5% believed the first thing to be done is providing educational opportunities for all. However, only 0.5% of sampled teachers believed in splitting Nigeria on ethnic line can ensure national stability. While none support the idea of military takeover of government, 6.5% believed there is need for electoral reform. Research Question 3: What did younger and older members of security institutions identify as effective strategies that will ensure Nigerian national stability? 93 Table 4: Description of Teachers’ Identified National Stability Security Strategies Younger N 1 Intensify provision of 25 security and criminal justice 2 Provision of infrastructural 41 facilities 3 Employment opportunities 20 4 Provision of educational 11 opportunities 5 Splitting Nigeria on ethnic 1 line 6 Military government 7 takeover 7 Electoral reforms 0 Strategies for National Stability Agent: Older Total % n % n % 23.8 15 15.7 40 20 39.4 24 25.2 65 32.5 19.4 10.5 33 19 34.7 53 20 30 26.5 15 0.9 0 0 1 0.5 0.9 3 3.1 10 5 0 1 1.0 1 0.5 As shown on the Table 4 above, out of the sampled security personnel, 20% ranked intensified security effort as most effective strategy of achieving national stability in Nigeria, 32.5% ranked provision of infrastructure as the most effective strategy, while 26.5% said it is provision of employment opportunities. On the other hand, while 15% supported provision of educational opportunities, only 0.5% of the sampled security personnel believed in splitting the country in parts. However, only 5% of the sampled security personnel believed in military takeover, and only 0.5% saw electoral reform as the most effective strategy for achieving national stability. Discussion National stability is required in national development. Without peace, security and unity among diverse members of a society, nothing can be achieved in utilizing human and non-human resources for socio-economic development. Achieving this national stability has however been difficult in Nigeria. The country has been plagued with series of crises and economic woes. Yet, there are efforts at making the country compete in the world body politics and economy. The need to achieve this require finding out what strategies can be employed to ensure national stability in the country. Nigeria needs to be stabilized. The state of insecurity in the country is alarming. Without concerted efforts, the country may be in doom. Rescuing it from this dead end will also require that infrastructures are provided in the country. Many youths take to crime because there are no infrastructures they can utilize to become self-employed (Dauda, 2003). As suggested by the substantial percentage of sampled security personnel in this study, there is need to have policies geared towards making infrastructures available and functioning. Conclusion National stability is an inevitable attainment in Nigeria if there is need to advance and become respected in the committee of nations. Fortunately, national stability can be achieved most especially if the right strategies are used. 94 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended; 1. Government and other stakeholders should make employment opportunities abundant in the country, particularly for the youths. 2. There should be functioning infrastructures that can motivate self-employment and peaceful co-existence. 3. Concerted efforts should be made at the national levels to assess the applicability of the strategies identified in this study as effective in achieving national stability. References Akinroju, R. U. (2000). The nation Nigeria: A geo-science description of the development of Nigeria. Lagos: Rojas Publication Ayinla, S. A. (2004). Managing religious intolerance and violence in nigeria: problem and solutions. A paper presented at the national conference on social problems, development and challenges of globalization. Organized by the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Dauda, T. H. (2003). Nigeria as a cooperate entity. Lagos: Bold Text Publishing Company. Edward, S. H. (2009). Higher education in Nigeria: A review of progress and problems in Nigerian tertiary education. Lagos: Trinity Publication Nigeria Limited. Haralambos, M, & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Theories and perspectives. London: Collins. Ocholi, D. (2012 June,). Boko haram, Time to give peace a chance. The Punch. p.17. Olorogun, E.Y. (2003). A historical analysis of educational development in Nigeria between 1960 and 2000. Journal of Reviews in Educational Development. 3(1), 46-54. Olukorede, A. J. (2002). Security and nation building in the 20th Century. Kaduna: Rando Books. The Nation (2011). Wither the Nigerian economic plans? Lagos: The Nation Publishing Press Limited. Wesley, S. S. (2009). Employment prospects among Nigerian graduates. Journal of Social Works and Administration. Vol.2(4),58-67. Woleosho, R. P. (2011). Insecurity in Nigeria: Beyond religious strive and ethnic chauvinism. A Paper presented at the national conference of association of behavioural studies, held at the university of Benin, 22-25th. 95 PARENTS’ AND SCHOOL HEADS’ PERCEPTION OF EFFECTIVE SCHOOL SECURITY STRATEGIES IN UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION SCHOOLS IN ILORIN, KWARA STATE AHMED, SALIU Kwara State Universal Education Board AHMED, S. Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. & BALOGUN, A. O. National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, Osogbo Campus, Osun State. Abstract The study adopted the survey method of research to find out effective school security strategies as identified by parents and school heads. Two hundred (200) parents and 200 school heads were sampled using cluster sampling technique and random sampling technique respectively. Also, a researcher-made questionnaire titled School Security Questionnaire (SSQ) was used for data collection. The validity of the instrument was determined using content and face validity approaches and its reliability coefficient of 0.68 was obtained using test-re-test approach. Collected data were analyzed using frequency count, percentages and ttest statistics tools. Findings revealed that 92.5% of sampled parents and school heads identified parental surveillance as most effective school security strategies for UBE schools followed by safety education, which 84.75% of respondents identified as also effective. On the other hand, 19.5% identified using human and animal security personnel as effective, thus, making this strategy as the least effective. However, significant difference was found in parents and school heads’ perception of effective school security strategies. It was therefore concluded that while choices of school security strategy in school may differ based on parental and school leadership perception, it is important that parents are urged to be more vigilant in ensuring the safety of their children and wards to and from school. Apart from this, however, there is the need to provide adequate safety education to students, school staff, school security personnel and parents so as to keep them abreast of means of securing school life and property. Introduction Around the world today, parents, policy makers, and school officials have paid increasing attention to the issue of school crime. Many are getting worried about the safety of life and property on school premises. Particularly, concerned stakeholders are beginning to think of ways of making pupils of basic education safe because of their age and proneness to crime and violence. Because of extreme incidents of school violence, the problem of school crime has assumed national importance. In Nigeria today, barely is there a day that some major or minor school crime incidents are not reported in the mass media or the subject of a government report or investigation. School crime is however a complex issue. It is a broad phenomenon whose definition depends on the perception of the definer. According to Grossger (2000), there are different 96 ways to define school crime. Schools appear to be safe or dangerous, depending on what one counts as school crime. Definitions of school crime range from considering any threat or theft as a crime to considering only violent attacks that are reported to police as crimes. They differ, too, depending on whether or not crimes committed against children on their way to school or on school playgrounds as well as in school buildings are counted. They also differ in whether crimes are counted only during school hours or also before and after school. In what ever way, school crimes are becoming many and threatening. Many Nigerian schools are no longer safe. On daily basis, many experience series of threats to life of school staff, students and property. In October, 2010, at Ekeakpara in Aba, some kidnapers ambushed and kidnapped 15 school children of Abayi International School, Aba, while the pupils were being taken to school in their school bus. After the driver was pushed out of the bus, the pupils, some as young as 2 years old, were whisked into the bush and made to stay in the den of the kidnappers for 4 days until they were rescued by the Joint Task Force of Police and State Security Service on Thursday, September 30th 2010 (Saturday Punch, October 2, 2010). Similarly, it was reported that on 28th November, 2010, armed robbers invaded Owerri Girls Secondary School, Owerri, Imo State. The armed robbers consisted of 10 hoodlums. They attacked the girl’s hostel around 1.30 am in the night and for hours successfully assaulted the students (Nigerian Compass, November 30, 2010). In most cases, the crimes are perpetrated by students against students. In 2007, Adeola Adeosun, a female student of Government Secondary School, Garki, Abuja in 2007, was shot by two of her school mates, Audu Sanusi and Shokolo Sabo, with a pistol which the duo claimed they found along with one AK47 and 22 life ammunitions on their way to school (Sunday Punch, September 16, 2007). Similarly, in 2006 at Ajao Estate Grammar School, Isolo, Lagos State, seven male students were caught raping an 18 year old SS1 student inside one of the unused classrooms (The Punch, Monday, 31, 2006). These series of school insecurity give parents and school heads a lot of worries in Nigeria. However, unlike in advanced countries, much has not been done in conducting researches that will yield positive impact on the intensity of reducing school crimes in Nigeria. In advanced countries, such researches help them to project on cases of school security and come up with preventive policies. America, for example, has helped itself in the area of school safety policy formulation with the findings of a 1993 National Crime Victimization Survey, which indicated that about half the students in grade 6 through 12, witnessed victimization at school and about an eight had personally been victimized (Nolan et al., 1996). Another of such survey, conducted by the American School Health Association in 1989 helped the nation discover that among the sampled 11,000 students in grades eight through ten, 40 percent had been in a physical fight at school or on the school bus; 34 percent reported having been threatened; and 22 percent reported carrying a knife, gun, or other weapons. The intensity of crimes in schools have made parents and school heads come up with ideas on how to ensure secured school environment. For example, experts have argued for installation of electronic security devices that can place every human and non-human parts of the school premises under surveillance round the clock. Many have also advised schools to make security personnels available within school premises. Conklin, (2007) for example called for what he termed target hardening approach. This involves all efforts put in place to discourage students and staff chances of carrying out crimes. This may include putting all unused doors under lock and key. Target hardening also include making sure that all school 97 members obey the school rules and regulations. The idea behind Target Hardening is that if every school member is disciplined, incidence of crime will reduce. . Having this kind of research in Nigeria in the present age of high incidence of insecurity is necessary. It is important that the nation embarks on studies that will help detect insecurity and workable security strategies at the Universal Basic Education level of school. No doubt, ever since the Nigerian government enacted the Universal Basic Education Act 2004, and aimed at enforcing compulsory enrolment of all children of Primary and Junior Secondary School age in the country in Universal Basic Education school, there is the need to find means of securing the schools so as to attract enrolment and assure parents of the safety of their children and wards. One way of finding the means of securing schools for effective basic education is to ask parents and school heads. Asking these sets of people will provide adequate and rich information because they are the first stakeholders in child care. It is based on this background that this research was carried out to find out what parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis, Kwara State identify as effective strategies for sustaining school security in Universal Basic Education schools. Theoretical Framework This study is theoretically framed on the Situational Crime Prevention Theory (Conklin, 2007). This theory posits that crime can be controlled or out rightly eradicated if situations or environmental factors that encourage perpetration of crimes are prevented. The theory promotes security strategies that involve the management, design, or manipulation of the immediate environment to make it impossible for criminals to succeed in carrying out crimes. Situational Crime Prevention Theory (SCPT) posits that crime will become impossible through using techniques that increase the offenders’ efforts at committing crime, increase the offenders’ risk of committing crime and reduction in the offenders’ rewards from committing crime. Thus, adapting this theory suggest that school security can be improved through strategies that make crime difficult, risky and non profitable in and around school environment. Research Questions The following research questions were raised and answered to guide this study: 1. What are the identified effective school security strategies for Universal Basic Education schools by parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis? 2. Is there significant difference in identified school security strategies by parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis? 3. Do school security strategies identified by parents in Ilorin metropolis vary on the basis of gender? 4. Do school security strategies identified by school heads in Ilorin metropolis vary on the basis of years of school leadership experience? Research Hypotheses The following research hypotheses were raised and tested in the study: H01 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents and school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis H02 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis, on the basis of gender 98 H03 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of year of school leadership experience Methodology The study adopted the survey method of research. Cluster sampling technique was used to draw 200 samples from the accessible population of parents who were residents of Ilorin metropolis. Using random sampling technique, a total of 200 school heads consisted of Headmasters/Headmistress of Primary schools and Principals/Vice Principals of Junior Secondary Schools were sampled. In all, a total of 400 respondents were sampled for the study. To elicit the needed data from these samples, a researcher-made questionnaire titled School Security Questionnaire (SSQ) was used. The instrument has three (3) sections. Section ‘A’ elicited respondents’ biographical data such as gender and year of school leadership experience. The Section ‘B’ asked respondents to pick among the five (5) provided possible school security strategies those they believe will be effective if adopted to secure Universal Basic Education schools in Ilorin metropolis. The Section ‘C’ has 20 items eliciting respondents’ perceptions on the means of securing schools. The items were sub-divided under four categories namely: Adequate School Security Devices (ASSD), Involvement of Security Personnel (ISP), Parental Surveillance (PS) and Students’ Surveillance-Effort (SSE). Each of the sub-division has five items and each item has response options as following: Always Effective (AE), Sometime Effective (SE), Hardly Effective (HE) and Never Effective (NE). The validity of the instrument was determined using content and face validity approaches and its reliability coefficient of 0.68 was derived using test-re-test approach. Collected data were analyzed using percentages and t-test statistics. Analysis and Results Research Question 1: What are the identified effective school security strategies in Universal Basic Education schools by parents and school heads in Ilorin metropolis? Table 1: Identified Effective School Security Strategies School Security Strategies Parents n 1 Installation of electronic security devices in school 2 Using human and animal security personnel 3 Parental surveillance 98 4 Students’ surveillance-efforts 110 5 Safety education for UBE stakeholders 162 46 186 99 School Heads n % % 49 111 55.5 52.25 23 32 16 19.5 93 184 92 92.5 55 76 38 46.5 81 177 88.5 84.75 % Total n 209 78 370 186 339 As shown on Table 1, out of the sampled parents and school heads, 92.5% believed parental surveillance is an effective school security strategy at Universal Basic Education schools. 84.75% parents and school heads believed giving safety education to stakeholders will ensure UBE school security, 52.25% said the schools need to install electronic security devices to ensure security and only 19.5% was of the opinion that using human and animal security personnel will be effective in ensuring UBE school security. Hypothesis Testing H01 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents and school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis Table 2: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE Schools X n Sd df t.cal t.crit Parents 200 51.3 14.22 398 2.13 1.96 Sch. Heads 200 58.6 13.11 As shown on Table 2, the t-test calculated 2.13 is higher than the t-test critical value, 1.96. Thus, hypothesis 1 was rejected and it was concluded that significant difference existed in what parents and school heads identified as effective school security strategies in UBE school located in Ilorin metropolis. H02 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis, on the basis of gender Table 3: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE Schools X Parents n Sd df t.cal t.crit Male 110 62.4 11.61 198 1.87 1.96 Female 90 60.8 13.12 Data on Table 3 indicate that the t-test calculated value, 1.87 is less than the t-test critical value. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was accepted and it was concluded that there was no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by parents as effective in UBE School within Ilorin metropolis. H03 There is no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by school heads to be effective in UBE schools in Ilorin metropolis on the basis of year of school leadership experience 100 Table 3: T-test Analysis of Identified Effective School Security Strategies in UBE Schools X School Heads:n Sd df t.cal t.crit S.Experience 104 54.22 13.21 198 1.52 1.96 L.Experience 96 56.27 14.33 Key: S.Experience= Short years of teaching experience L.Experience= Long years of teaching experience The hypothesis 3 was also accepted because the t-test calculated value, 1.52 was less than the t-test critical value, 1.96. Invariably, it was concluded that there was no significant difference in the school security strategies identified by school heads as effective in UBE schools on the basis of their years of school leadership experience. Discussion Insecurity is an anti-educational development. It is a phenomenon that can step down the progress of education, threaten peaceful coexistence of school staff and students and render school management efforts ineffective. Situations of insecurity in school often start as upsurge in incidence of indiscipline. Conklin, (2007) writes that in situation of indiscipline, schools cannot maintain safety of life and property. This is because indiscipline often comes with break in school tranquility and infiltration of school physical and social boundaries. There is increase in cases of school insecurity in Nigeria. Recently, there are reports of kidnapping, theft, arson and sexual molestations involving staff and students. These incidences are becoming so rampant that parents and school staff are now concerned and geared towards finding lasting solution. This study, for example, sought parents and school heads’ perceived effective school security strategies for maintaining safety in Universal Basic Education (UBE) schools in Ilorin metropolis. Findings of the study revealed that parents and school heads’ identified effective school security strategies, as indicated on Table 1 above, 92.5% of sampled parents and school heads identified parental surveillance as the most effective school security strategy. By parental surveillance they mean that parents should be more vigilant in handling their children to and from school. Such vigilance includes making arrangement for safe transportation of their children and wards to and from school. In addition to this, 84.75% parents and school heads believed that giving adequate safety education to UBE stakeholders is another effective means of achieving secured school environment. Such education to stakeholders such as parents, students and school staff can go a long way to guide illogical involvements that can make UBE students prone to insecurity. Many of these strategies can help avert kidnapping of students, violence against school staff and destruction of school property. More also, the findings revealed that installation of electronic security devices in school can help in making school secure for teaching and learning activities; 52.25% of samled respondents were of this opinion. Using this strategy falls under what Ayorinde (2011) referred to as Formal strategies. Formal strategies according to him are official and registered crime control efforts activities of the police, the court and correctional institutions towards eradicating crime in the larger society. Informal Strategies are the reactions and efforts of individuals and non-governmental groups towards preventing occurrence of crime and towards taking proactive action to rescue 101 situations of crime directly or indirectly e.g. confronting criminals or calling for formal security help in situations of crime. Among the school security strategies that were not adjudged as effective by sampled parents and school heads is the use of human and animal security personnel. Only 19.55 of sampled parents and students were in support of this strategy. The reason for the unpopularity of this means of school security may be because of human error of distrust and abuse of closeness. Human beings have been found to be in guide of facilities and still become the link or source of information for organized criminals that would attack the facilities they guide. Thus, parents and school heads do not trust having security men at the school gate for example. As written by Ayorinde (2011), school crime can be controlled through having school-based institutionalized group, associations, and neighborhood and club efforts at making school and its environment safe. A school can maintain security of life and property within its environment by encouraging and empowering student groups such as: Man-OWar, Road Safety Club, Girls’ Guide, Boys Brigade, Boys Scout etc to provide security within school premises and surroundings. These school groups can as well complement the efforts of other institutions such as the police and neighborhood vigilante groups. Many formal school-based vigilance groups can help in traffic control at the school gate, can monitor and provide direction to school visitors, serve as school security intelligence group for school authority and can educate school staff and students on means of maintaining secured learning environment. Horowitz and Boardens (1995) write that joining associations such as Man-O-War, Road Safety Club, Girls’ Guide, Boys Brigade and Boys Scout can reduce youth restlessness and recklessness and can develop in youths the spirit of altruism in situation of crisis or disaster. As also revealed in this study, significant difference was found between what parents and school heads identified as effective school security strategies. However, such identified strategies did not significantly differ among male and female parents and not among school heads of short and long years of school leadership experience. The reason for the initial difference among parents and school heads’ perception may be as a result of background experiences of parents and school heads in child management. Parents are quite different from school heads in handling children while parents will act informally, school heads will act formally in child administration. Thus, their approaches are likely to differ. Conclusion School security is an integral aspect of school administration. It is one effort that can ensure productive school activities. As revealed in this study, school security require both formal and informal efforts that will make sure parents, staff and students are engaged in ensuring safe learning environment and movement from home to school. Also, it is been observed that the presence of security in the school could go in long way to curb students’ immoral behaviours to the barest minimal which could enhance effective school functioning. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended: 1. Adequate parental surveillance should be encouraged in other to promote safe school environment and encourage safety culture among students to and from school. 2. In addition to this, stakeholders in Universal Basic Education should be given safety education. Stakeholders such as parents, school staff and students and even security personnel 102 in the larger society need to be educated on issues of security that can make them security conscious. 3. Using human and animal security personnel should not be the major security plan of schools since such strategy may not be effective enough for achieving safe environment for teaching and learning activities. References Ayorinde, A.S. (2011). School crime and culture of academics in Nigerian tertiary Institutions. International Journal of School Criminologists. 4 (2), 32-46. Conklin, J.E. (2007). Criminology. New York: Pearson. Grossger, N.I. (2000). School development in a troubled society. Atlanta: GreenSave Paper Innovators. Horowits, I.A., & Borden, K.S. (1995). Social psychology. London: May Field Publishing Company. Nolen, T.H. et.al (1996) Social psychology. New York: Mayfield. Nigerian Compass, (November 30, 2010). Robbers invade Girls’ School. 3 (917). Abuja: Nigerian Compass Publication Ltd. Sunday Punch, (September 16, 2007). Shooting of school girl: Police file missing. 12 (896). Abuja: Punch Newspaper Nigerian Limited. 103 VALUES RE ORIENTATION AMONG PRIMARY/SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN NIGERIA: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION NJOKU C. Department of Curriculum Studies & Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. Abstract It is obvious that more effort is needed in value reorientation for our country to achieve a meaningful development. The Nigerian society is sometimes referred to as a permissive society which implies that something is ‘wrong’ in almost all the sectors of the society. Our children can no longer differentiate between the right and the wrong. This paper focused on how the Nigerian value reorientation can be instilled in the Nigerian child through social studies curriculum. Explored were the meaning of values, value system, and how we can achieve value reorientation through education. The paper also examined the role of Social Studies in the inculcation of good values. As recommendation the paper suggested that there is the need to overhaul the system in other to achieve total value reorientation. Introduction: No society is healthy, creative or strong unless that society has a set of common values that gives meaning and purpose to group life. In the civilized world, moral values and beliefs are generally accorded high importance. In Nigeria today, it is obvious that there is a gap between the aspirations and dreams of the founding fathers of the nation and the present situation. In a keynote address to the Nigerian Academy of Education, Nduka (2004) observed that Nigerians exhibit deplorable ethical attitudes in virtually every aspect of life. The basic institutions of the society which include the family, education and religion are established to lead children, adolescents and youths towards the values of the society. However, education is the major instrument for individual and societal development and also the major instrument to effect change in the society. The purpose of education should be to provide students with value system, a standard and a set of ideas. Education has always played a key role in any society’s progress. It is true that the purpose of education is to ensure that students are well prepared and are all well educated; this can be achieved when the educational system is designed to provide the students with a value system. Education is concerned with building the student’s character and preparing them for real life. The objective of education in a country like Nigeria which has a glorious heritage and can boast of diversity in geography, culture, values and beliefs, should be to educate a students and instil in them the right kind of a values which is indispensable for success in life. There have been lapses in the way we teach our value system. Our educational institutions have not been doing well in this area, that is why there is an increase in the area of students’ prostitution, indiscipline, lack of respect for law and order, attitude to work, stealing and fraud. Citizenship education which is taught through Social Studies, according to Ajose (2001), is one subject that is specifically designed in content and function to provide healthy, good and active citizens. Social Studies is a child of necessity, aimed at fulfilling certain missions for any society. By its peculiar nature and characteristics, it is taught in schools in line with the prevailing social values. It is value oriented in content. In Nigeria educational school system, it is a core subject at the pre-primary, primary and junior secondary education 104 levels. At these levels we believe that it is easier to guide and inculcate acceptable patterns of behaviour of the state rather than when their minds have already been made up. Besides, at the stage of adolescence, children are in a better position to understand the need for sociopersonal relationship, which is a very important skill for developing adequate value system. To provide a social studies program of excellence, one ingredient that is most often ignored yet important, is public commitment. This requires that the public receives all information that clearly shows the importance of Social Studies programs for the education of children. It also requires that the public recognize all that it takes to support excellence in Social Studies programs. Also Social Studies teachers must be committed to making use of variety of interactive Social Studies teaching methods which make students active participants and more importantly must embrace good values of life. Values/ Value System Values are the fabrics of any society. They influence the beliefs and morals of the people. Oxford dictionary online defined value as, the regard that something is held to deserve; the importance, worth and usefulness of something. It went further to define values as principles or standards of behaviour; ones judgement of what is important in life. On the other hand, business dictionary.com define values as important and enduring beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or desired and what is not. Values can be defined simply as important beliefs of an individual or culture. Types of values include; ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (Political, Religious) values, social values and aesthetic values. The values of any nation determine what is important to the people. They influence thoughts, words, actions and aspirations. Values give us a sense of community and a sense of identity as a nation. One’s values define ones character; they impact every aspect of one’s life including personal behaviours, interactions with family and friends, decision making process and the direction one takes in life. No matter the tradition one is brought up in, there are characteristics we value or cherish, these are: integrity, respect, loyalty, and responsibility. Integrity: This means trustworthiness, honesty and uprightness of character. We respect people of integrity because we know that they will always act honourably and will always do what is right. Respect: Respect means honouring the worth and dignity of all people. Those who respect others treat them with courtesy and also treat them the way they will be liked to be treated. Loyalty: Refers to faithfulness and commitment to a person or course. Those who are loyal to their country stand behind, support and defend it. Responsibility: Those who accept responsibility are dependable and reliable. They take responsibility for what they do and who they are. Value systems naturally guide us as a people. Without a value system, there is no right or wrong, people are justified to act in any manner they want. In the words of Nduka, (2001) no society has been able to live without rules and regulations and apparently the more complex the society, the greater is the need for a detailed description of behaviour which are permitted and those which are prescribed. Value Reorientation in the National Policy on Education Nigeria as a nation has a number of value reorientation statements in the National Policy on Education (NPE). Some of these statements are clearly stated in the first section of 105 the NPE which deals with nation’s philosophy. Education sector is geared towards the attainment of our national objectives, therefore we have to strive towards realizing the goals, hence the need to make concrete efforts in inculcating the national ideals which form the bedrock of our education system. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), in the National Policy on Education, stressed that the system of education would be geared towards making the individual an integral member of the society he belongs, so much so that he gives the maximum contribution expected of him towards the development of the society. Section 5 (b), of the NPE states: “Nigeria’s philosophy of education therefore, is based on… the full integration of the individual into the community.” In section 7 (b) of the NPE, the issue of value reorientation was elaborated. It states that the national education goals contained in the philosophy of Nigerian education can be achieved through “the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of individual and the Nigerian society.” Section 8 of the NPE explains the type of values needed for Nigerian society as inculcating the following values: (a) respect for the worth and dignity of the individual; (b) faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions; (c) moral and spiritual principle in inter personal and human relations; (d) shared responsibility for the common good of society; (e) promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all children; and (f) acquisition of competencies necessary for self reliance. Reassessing the Nigeria Value System Attempts have been made by government in several ways to redirect the Nigerian value system. This includes the conception and lunching of a number of policies, agencies and commissions such as: War Against Indiscipline (WAI) in 1984; National Orientation Agency (NOA) 1999; Ethical Revolution (ER) in 1983. Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) in 2002; and the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC). Also one observes the intensity of religious activities in the country, but still the value system is in a state of decay. The kind of value cherished by a nation greatly determines its level of development. Every Nigerian family will like to inculcate in their children the good virtues of hard work, honesty and patriotic zeal to defend the integrity of the family as well as the society at large. Sadly, the inordinate ambition to acquire wealth is gradually eroding these values. In Nigeria today, individuals are celebrated if they are smart enough to divert public funds to their private accounts. In fact, if you are a public office holder and after your service you do not own properties across the country, you will be mocked and looked down upon, even by members of your family. Those who are supposed to serve terms in jail are being respected and bestowed with chieftaincy titles, honorary degrees and even in Churches, with knighthood and ladyhood titles. Appointments into public offices are now seen as opportunities to share in the national cake. Despite the proliferation of Churches and Mosques, the extent of corruption and moral decadence is on the rise. The disparity between the ruling class and the governed is far apart. In spite of the efforts of National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) and that of Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON), fake drugs are continuously brought and sold to the public, and marketing sub-standard products are a thriving business in Nigeria. 106 Despite the abundant mineral resources in Nigeria, poverty rate is still high and the gap between the poor and the rich widen day by day. Quite a number of professionals leave the country by every means. Often when visas are secured to leave this country, it is celebrated The present political and economic situation has a multiplier effect on the value system. It is obvious that the younger generation is watching and copying. Corrupt society breeds corrupt citizens. The entire system needs to be overhauled through total reorientation of our value system. Social Studies Education and Value Inculcation Citizenship Education is one of the school subjects specifically aimed at inculcating national consciousness and unity as well as the right type of values and attitudes in the Nigerian child. To this extent, a core status was accorded the programme, through Social Studies, at the pre-primary, primary and junior secondary basic education levels. The Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC), in 1991, identify the objectives of Citizenship Education in Nigeria as follows: i. To create an awareness of the provisions of the Nigerian constitution and the need for democracy in Nigeria. ii. To create adequate and functional literacy amongst Nigerians; iii. To sensitize Nigerians to the functions and obligations of the government; iv. To make Nigerians fully aware of their rights and duties and to respect the rights of others; v. To assist in the production (raising) of responsible, well informed and self reliant Nigerian citizens; and vi. To inculcate the right values and attitudes for the development of the individual and the Nigerian society. Two main characteristics distinguish Social Studies as a field of study; it is designed to promote civic competence; and it is integrative, incorporating many fields of endeavour. According to National Council for Social Studies (NCSS), Social Studies program has as a major purpose; the promotion of civic competence, which is the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of students to be able to assume “the office of citizen”. Civic competence is not the only responsibility of Social Studies and also not exclusive to Social Studies but it is more central to Social Studies than any other subject in the schools. The question here is, how do we achieve excellence in Social Studies? How do we achieve this major vision of Social Studies, the vision of producing a citizen with the right values and attitudes that support the common good, that is, the general welfare of all individuals and groups within the community and the society at large? We know that each person experiences life in an individual way, responding to the world from a very personal perspective. People also share common perspectives as members of groups, communities, societies and nations. A well designed Social Studies curriculum will: 1. Help each learner construct a blend of personal, academic, pluralistic and global views of the human condition. Students will be helped to construct an academic perspective through study and application of Social Studies learning experiences. Concepts in Social Studies such as “democratic republic”, “citizen”, “common good” etc help learners to construct the meaning of ideals Nigerian citizens hold in common, while such concepts like “class”, “race”, “ethnicity”,” equal access” “diversity” etc help learners to know how to live in a society like Nigeria characterized by diversity. 107 2. Students will be helped to construct a pluralistic perspective based on diversity. This involves respect for difference of opinion and preference of; religion, gender, class and ethnicity and of culture in general. This should be based on the realisation that differences exist among individuals and to be convinced that the diversity can be positive and socially enriching. Students need to learn that the existences of cultural and philosophical differences are not “problems” to be solved but rather they are healthy and good qualities of democratic society life. 3. They will also be helped to construct a global perspective that includes knowledge, skills and commitments needed to live in a world that has limited resources and that is also characterised by cultural diversity. This will develop a sense of responsibility for the needs of all people and a commitment to finding just and peaceful solutions to global problems. Conclusion Education is made up of three components, these are: the curriculum, the philosophy and the methods of teaching. The curriculum deals with what to teach while the philosophy deals with why it should be taught (Joof & Mezieobi 1998). It is deducible that the curriculum is based on the philosophy and thus changes in the growth, development and objective realities of societies must be captured in the curriculum in form of reforms. This means that curriculum reforms are based on established philosophies (Alapini, 1984). Much emphasis has been placed on the collapse of economic systems while little is being done to revive the collapsed value system, which had largely precipitated the economic crises in Nigeria. We worship ‘money bags’ in Nigeria irrespective of the source of their wealth. Corruption and other economic crimes have thrived in Nigeria because of the collapse of the value system of old, when people of questionable sources of wealth were treated with contempt and disdain. What we must understand are the elements that would make any nation great. Economic reforms are good but not good enough to change a nation. Any nation that would be great must be established upon enduring national values that bind every individual in the society. National culture must be revisited as it influences national character and image. We always lament that corruption is the bane of development in Nigeria but we forget that it does not exist by itself. What we lack as a nation is a system of values No matter the amount of reforms undertaken by government, Nigeria will never be great until value reorientation is pursued vigorously. Our value system today is faulty and there can be no meaningful progress until it is revisited. We place little value on the life of fellow citizens and that informs our choices as a nation. Since money is valued more than every other thing, we embezzle public funds, we steal, we kill and assassinate easily because we place little value to life. To restore Nigeria, our youths must be taught how to value hard work, honesty, integrity and accountability over financial gains. Recommendations The objective of Nigerian Citizenship Education is the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society; thus the curriculum reform should capture this. Some values are obviously very central to our way of life and view of the common good; we need to develop student commitment to them through systematic social studies experiences. These values include: fundamental rights like, rights to life, liberty, individual dignity, justice, security, privacy, freedom of worship, thought, conscience etc. Most times 108 social studies focuses on how values are formed and how they influence human behaviour rather than building commitments to specific values. In conflict situations between or among desirable values, Social Studies should help students to weigh priorities. They can be helped to search for situations similar to the issues in both contemporary and historical settings. By learning ways others have responded to such dilemmas, students will begin to understand that the challenges they or the society face have been confronted by others in different times and places. Social Studies curriculum must be refurbished in other to achieve these objectives. References Alapini, O. (1994). Secondary school curriculum reforms in Nigeria system of education. In S. Adesina & S. Ogunsaju (Eds) Secondary Education in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: University of Ife press. Ajose, W. (2001). Challenges of citizenship education under a democratic government in Nigeria. A journal of school of part-time studies ACOED 4(1). Business dictionary .com. www.businessdictionary.com/definition/value.html Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National policy on education. Abuja, Nigeria:NERDC. Joof, G.W. & Mezieobi, K.A (1995) Democracy and education: The Nigerian experience. Nigerian journal of educational philosophy, 6 (1), 76-92. Nduka, O. (2004). Value education. A keynote address proceeding of the 19th annual conference of academy of education. Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) Abuja Nigeria. www.nerdc.org National Council for Social Studies (NCSS): An information resource for Social Studies teachers. www.socialstudies.org Oxford Dictionary online. www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/value 109 CHARACTER EDUCATION: A SOLUTION TO DEVELOPING GOOD CITIZENS IN THE NIGERIA SOCIETY BELLO, M. B. & AMALI, I.O.O. Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education Faculty of Educati on University of Ilorin, Nigeria Abstract This paper examines the place of character education in Nigeria education. Its objective is to highlight its values to the Nigerian society; its place in Nigeria education system and its contribution in the development of the individual and the society at large. Further it makes suggestions on how schools in Nigeria could provide the teaching and learning programme of character education. The paper recommends quality assurance through character education on the teacher training through which Nigerian teachers would learn and acquire good morals and ethical standard necessary to influence the lives of the learners in our schools and the society. The paper gives impetus to the entrenchment of ethical and moral values badly needed in the present Nigeria society. Introduction Moral education is not a new idea. It is, in fact, as old as education itself. Down through history, in countries all over the world, education has had as its goals: “help young people become academically sound and to help them become good citizen”. Good character is not automatic; it is developed over time through a sustained process of teaching, example, learning, and practice. It is developed through character education. The deliberate teaching of good character is particularly important in today’s society, since our youth face many life difficulties and problems unknown to earlier generations. Today, there are many negative influences that pose a great challenge to the character of our children. Also, the consequences of the day-to-day pressures infringing on the time that parents and children have together. Studies show that children spend only 38.5 minutes a week (33.4 hours a year) in meaningful conversation with their parents, while they spend 1,500 hours watching television (American family Research Council, 1990 & Harper’s November, 1999). Since children spend about 900 hours a year in school, it is essential that schools play a proactive role in assisting families and communities by developing caring and respectful environments where students learn core ethical values. In order to create a better society through schooling, schools should have their mission deeply embedded and rooted in the moral dimensions of teaching and learning. This paper suggests that teaching character should be just as important as any teaching academic subject. School education can be used as a way to significantly decrease moral decadence in the society. To do this, character education must use the school curriculum and include the school community which must reflect the culture of the people. It must be designed to promote core values in all phases of human life and would require proactive strategies and practices that would help children, not only to understand core ethical values, but to care about and act upon them. Ryan (1997, p.14) stated guidelines for the elements needed for effective, comprehensive character education as follows: Promotion of core ethical values; 110 Teaching of students to understand, care about and act upon these core ethical values; Encompassing all aspects of the school culture; Fostering a caring school community; Offering opportunities for moral action; Supporting academic achievement; Developing intrinsic motivation; Whole-staff involvement; Positive leadership of staff and students; Involving parents and community members; Assessing results and striving to improve on them. Abraham Lincoln, United State of America president, once stated that “a child is a person who is going to carry on what you have started. He is going to sit where you are sitting and, when you are gone, he would attend to those things which you think are important. You may adopt all the policies you please, but how they are carried out depends on him. He will assume control your cities, states and nations. He is going to move in and take over your churches, schools, universities, corporations. The fate of humanity is in his hands ”(Lickona, 2004). This quote adequately expresses the strong impact that teachers have on their students because they are entrusted with the development of their students. Given this information, should education exist without values? Conceptual Clarification Character Education: character is one of those concepts that are the subject of many disciplines from philosophy to theology and from psychology to sociology. It has many competing and conflicting theories. Character, as it relates to character education, is most often used to refer to how “good” a person is. In other words, a person who exhibits personal qualities which fit with those considered desirable by a society might be considered to have good character; developing such personal qualities is seen as a purpose of education (www.freewikipedia). According to Kolade (2011), character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children in a manner that will help them develop towards good moral conduct, civic responsibilities, good manner, healthy behaviours, non-bullying life style, healthy development, critical thinking, successful living and to be a socially acceptable beings. Education has always emphasised these values. Character education is integral to the educational enterprise. Chang (1994) described teaching as “moral by nature” and Sockett (1993) purported that “moral character matters in teaching.” Goodlad, Soder and Sirotnik (1990) contended that, “Teaching is a fundamentally moral enterprise in which adults ask and require children to change in directions chosen by adults.” The historic mission of education is emphasized by Doyle (1997) who noted that, “To abandon education’s historic mission to shape character… flies in the face of history and reason.” This was while Ginott wrote that “Reading, writing and arithmetic are important only if they serve to make our children more humane.” In the school setting, character education is an act of creating schools that foster ethical responsibility and providing the young good models and teaching them good character through emphasis on universal values that are designable for every member of the society to share. It should be the proactive effort of the schools to instill in their students, important core ethical values such as honesty, fair play, responsibility and respect for self and others. 111 Character education should not be a “quick fix.” Education provides long-term solutions that address moral, ethical and academic issues of growing concern to human society and adopted through the use of school curriculum (Kohn, 1997). This is why Ryan (1997) opines that character education is not only the cultivation of the minds, but should nurture the heart of the recipients. This implies that it should be a learning process of distinguishing between virtues and vices (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). This, in essence, would promote good customs (virtues), but also condemn bad customs (vices). Citizenship: Being a good citizen means going beyond our own interests and demonstrating a concern for the needs of others. Good citizens recognize their obligations to make their homes, schools, neighborhoods, communities, and country the best they can be. Good citizens learn that they can make a difference when they follow rules, voice opinions, vote, and work and play cooperatively with one another. They stay informed, listen, do their part for community endeavors, respect authority, and volunteer. Being a good citizen according to Ryan (2010) means: • Fulfilling your civic duties • Doing your share • Playing by the rules • Respecting authority and law • Attempting to pursue civic virtues Character education and production of good citizens needed for good leadership Character education, according to Ryan (2010) is aimed at developing students socially, ethically and academically by infusing character development into every aspect of the school culture and curriculum. To help students develop good character, it would require good teachers that are caring and acting upon core ethical values such as respect, responsibility, honesty, fairness and compassion needed for good and effective leadership. Importantly, the social, ethical and emotional development of young people is just as important as their academic development. As Roosevelt in Kolade (2011) stated: “To educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society.” After all, we know that good workers, citizens, parents and neighbours have their roots in good character. Therefore, it is critical to create schools that simultaneously foster character development and promote learning. In fact, character education promotes academic excellence for quality life because it lays a foundation for all learning that takes place in school. Research shows that character education should be in classrooms where students are ready to learn and where teachers are freer to teach (DeRoche & Williams, 1998). That is a formalized character education, which begins when the school, along with the broad involvement of community members, come together to determine the core ethical values needed to be shared as the basis for good education of the particular school. The values then become the foundation for all that the school does, such as the school curriculum, teaching strategies, school culture, extracurricular activities. Presides, character education is infused into the broader community objectives of the school. Ryan (1997) described character education as not an “add-on” but is instead a different way of teaching; it is a comprehensive approach that promotes core values in all phases of school life and permeates the entire school culture. It is not an imposition on already overburdened schools; rather, it helps educators fulfill their fundamental responsibility to prepare young children for the future by laying a foundation for learning through the creation of caring, respectful school environments. This was testified to by the 112 findings of Fraenkel in Ryan (1996) on the perception of the introduction of character education in the U.S, where it was discovered that more than 1/3 of the sampled school teachers affirmed to the fact that their jobs become easier with the implementation of character education as there are fewer disciplines and behavioral problems to detract from teaching time. It was on this premise that Kolade (2011) suggested that character education should take place throughout the entire school period in Nigeria and in schools at all levels. He further stressed that, administrators, teachers and other staff are presented with opportunities to model and teach positive character traits. And that character education should not be relegated to a “character education class” but should be infused throughout the structures and processes of the entire school curriculum and culture (Kolade, 2011). Although character education has always been of vital importance, schools often stray from proactive efforts to incorporate character development into their teaching programme. Ironically, this neglect came at a time when the need became greater, due to increased challenges in raising children, with moral ethical conduct. Arising from a number of factors, such as a weakening in guidance by some families and communities toward the end of the 21st century, the need for character education becomes obvious. This is why Lickona (2004) highlighted six core values defining character called, The Six Pillars of Character, which he maintained had resulted from a search for enduring moral truths that allow individuals to distinguish right from wrong and define the essence of ethics and good character. It makes sense that our communities benefit when people understand the importance of being involved and caring citizens and “doing the right thing.” An effective character education program encourages individuals to do the right thing by incorporating the following core ethical values in their daily lives: trustworthiness ,respect, responsibility, Fairness, caring citizenship These six pillars describe character and ethical behavior in ways an individual can understand how a person of character thinks and behaves. How school should promote the teaching of character education in Nigeria It is believed that character education will be an effective tool to tackle social problems in Nigerian today. This is because character education, if taught in schools, will help to educate the children and the youth and bring them up with positive thinking and skills. This is in line with Covey in Ryan, (1997) who asserted that, for development to take place in any human society, the people require “a new mind set, a new set of skills, a new set of tools and a new habit”. It thus requires that character education should be made compulsory in Nigerian schools. For effective war against societal problems in Nigeria, the proper strategy is to target the young and instill good character and morality in them while in school. Through good character education, the society would help the young develop good judgment, integrity, trustworthiness, and other essential virtues (Lickona, 2004). If the young ones are properly educated and if their minds and hearts are disabused from corruption, they will grow up knowing what is right and wrong, and become aware of their social responsibilities and limitations. The absence of good character education could be the cause of greed, selfishness and bad leadership. Although character education has always been an essential part of our schools’ mission in Nigeria education, since the introduction of western education by the missionaries, 113 it has continued to be an integral part of schooling and existed side by side with academics. The best way it can be taught successfully in Nigerian schools is when: a. The school sees the parents as primary educators: This is because development of good character is, first and foremost, a parental responsibility, but the task must also be shared with schools and the broader member of the community. As today’s society are faced with more and tougher challenges to raising ethical, responsible children, parents and communities are increasingly looking unto schools for assistance. Thus, the school may be the only place where some children are taught virtuous behavior because they live in homes where their families are not serving as positive role models and are not providing adequate character training. b. The school identifies all adult members of school as those involved in the teaching of character education. It is inherent that each and every adult in a school is a character educator by virtue of their exposure to students. Regardless of whether a school has formalized character education or not, all adults should serve as role models. Students constantly watch adults life and conduct in the school; such as teachers, administrators, counsellors, coaches, secretaries, cleaners, bus drivers and so on and their character is likely to be influenced by these people. They serve as models for character development. Beyond modeling, no matter what the academic subject or extracurricular activity, educators are afforded the opportunity of developing good character in their students on a daily basis by intentionally selecting character-based lessons and activities, either using, academic subjects or extra-curriculum activities of the school. Ryan (2010) has advocated the five Es as the best method teachers can adopt in the teaching of character to students in schools. These are Example, Explanation, Exhortation, Environment, and Experience. i. Example: this has to do with the good moral or character examples the teacher provides for their students in the classroom, as well as outside the classroom. ii. Explanation for definite meaning and purpose for the learners to understand the meaning of concepts. In this respect, Durkheim in Hurn (1987) maintained that, “to teach morality, is neither to preach nor to indoctrinate, it is to explain”. This shows that character education needs to be explained to children and youths and not simply to stuff student’s heads with the rules and regulations of society. This simply means Exhortation. iii. Environment has to do with good as well as students –teacher friendly and conducive school surrounding. iv. Also problem solving, discussion, and role play methods can also be adopted in developing good character in the youths. Good role modeling in and outside the classroom is important in moral education. Through role playing and discussions, students could see how their actions and decisions affect others in the society. Thus, it has been noted that morals are “caught, not taught,” and “classroom life is saturated with morals that shape students' character development ” Ryan (1997). In many developed societies, character education is introduced into the classroom through the study of heroes and heroines and special teachers are hired for the purpose. Those identified by the community as good role models are often invited by school authorities to visit local schools to address students. And the students would use the opportunity to examine the character traits personified in the speakers and aspire to emulate their good character and life. c. The government should formulate Legislation and policies to encourage the teaching of character education, such as including it in the education curriculum. DeRoche and Williams (1998) sees character education as being the best approach, local schools and communities could use to work together to identify the core values needed in the society. The school 114 would then provide particular approaches to teaching those values. States should encourage comprehensive approaches to develop character education that involve all aspects of societal culture required in the curriculum. d. Assessment of character education should not be based on cognitive format, rather, it should be on affective domain of education. e. Teacher education programmes need to be re-defined and re-focused on the training of character education in pre-service or students teacher training. This can result in the production of effective and well cultured teachers who would be able to serve as role models for the learners. Nigeria requires quality assurance and teacher can provide this with emphasis on character education. Conclusion If character education is taught in Nigeria schools, it will give the young good moral compass, set clear standards of behavior and enable them to acquire ethical values, such as honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility, self-discipline and reliability. Character and moral education will also provide the young and adults with ‘other essential virtues’ to enable them become good citizens and be successful in the rapidly changing and highly competitive global economy. Recommendations It is on this premise that this paper recommends that character education should to be taught in Nigeria schools. It is being used in developed countries like America to solve social problems and the training of their children into becoming functional and responsible citizens in the society. References Chang, F. Y. (1994). School teachers’ moral reasoning. In J.R. Rest & D. Narvaez (Eds), Moral development in the professions (pp.71- 83). Psychology and applied ethics. Hillsadale, NJ:Erlbaum. DeRoche. E. F & Williams, M.M (1998). Educating hearts and minds: A comprehensive character education framework. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc. Gandhi (2003) Corruption in developing countries. Retrieved from http://www.africaeconomicanalysis.org/articles/gen/corruptiondikehtm.htm Hurn, C (1987). The limits and possibilities of schooling: An introduction to sociology of education London : Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Kohn, A. (1997). Caring kids: The role of the schools. Cooperative learning in the classroom. PhiDelta Kappa Educational Foundation. Kolade, (2011).Character education a solution to societal problems. Retrieved from www.character-training%edu.htm . 115 Lickona ,W. L(2004). The ethics challenge in public service: A problem solving guide; retrieved 2/4/08 from www.LawrenceKohlberg's Ryan.K (1997). New moral. from http://wwweduAmerican andMorality.htm Ryan, K. (2010). The moral education of teachers. retrieved from www.moraleducation-teacher.education-htm. 116 EDUCATION FOR VALUE ORIENTATION: A STRATEGY FOR SOCIAL STABILITY IN NIGERIA DIENYE, V. U. Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt & MORRISON, U. I. Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt Abstract The multicultural nature of the Nigerian society and the prevailing political and social unrest characterized by anti-social behaviour of different kinds and magnitude are indicators of misappropriation of values in our society. The unity and progress of our society is threatened because, core values that promote respect for law and order, respect for elders, sanctity of human lives, brotherliness, honesty and tolerance are disoriented. The situation calls for urgent need for values orientation through our education system. Considering the place of education in societal development, it could be used to transform the society through values orientation to the teachers – the architects of the national development, leaders and the masses. This can be achieved through well articulated policies on values and education; and the incorporation of values education in the school curricula at all levels of education. Consequently, national and universal values emphasized against individual and ethnic values if progress must be made. Introduction The development of science and technology has turned the world to a global village. It therefore demands adequate knowledge of the basics of science in other to live and function well in human society. To this end, scientific literacy is much emphasized in virtually all societies the world over. In the developing countries, Nigeria in particular, education is directed towards a desirable level of scientific and technological literacy and competence without a matching emphasis on cultural values that would promote security of lives and property, peaceful co-existence, positive inter-personal relationship and social integration of diverse cultural groups in the society. Ironically, students are graduated from any institution of learning when found worthy in character and in learning. In recent years, the relative political unrest in many countries, including Nigeria, in particular, resulting in insecurity of lives and property, inter-ethnic clashes and in severe cases, records of civil wars, are pointers to a missing link between education and societal values. The Niger Delta militants, the South Eastern kidnappers and the nascent insurgency of the Boko Haram sect in the Northern part of the country help to widen the gap between education and society. The missing link is values education for peaceful co-existence. This paper explores the types of values that should be transmitted in the school/education system in a multicultural society and the dire need for adequate orientation to be given to learners who would transcend the school life into the larger society. Education and Society The essence of society is solidarity through cohesion of ideas (values) and mutual understanding. This ensures order, stability, peaceful relationship, continuity, development and sustainability. These can only be achieved by using education as an essential tool. It is in 117 the light of the above that the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) acknowledges education as an instrument per excellence for the actualization of her lofty goals. Kosemani (2003,1) sees education as “a universal practice or phenomenon engaged in by societies at all stages of development. It describes the total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, valuable skills developed and faculties trained.” In the view of Okoh (2003,13), education is “the activity of preserving, developing and transmitting the culture of a people from one generation to another.” From whichever angel one may view education, certain features are common. Such features are, man, society, behavior, values and transmission. It is in the light of this that Dosunmu (2006) posits that: whatever the case may be, the main goal of education is to prepare the right type of environment for the individual, to allow him grow physically, mentally and spiritually in order that he can develop harmoniously within himself and at the same time together with his fellow human beings. Education and society are inseparable. Society equips education with the values to be transmitted while education exposes each generation of young people to the existing beliefs, norms and values of their culture (Schafer, 2000). This demands a careful selection of the values that would help to integrate the society and promote mutual relationship between man and man and his environment. Education and Values Modern education systems are made up of people from different social classes, groups and cultural backgrounds. They are held together as a community by laid down rules and beliefs that guide, shape and direct the conduct of every member. The essence is to ensure harmonious relationships and peaceful coexistence among members in spite of their relative differences in social and cultural backgrounds. These cords of relationships are called values. According to Aggarwal (2006), values stand for ideas that men live by. In other words, values stand for the philosophy of life of a society. By extension. Values are simply beliefs or ideas which individuals consider dear and acceptable. They are part of life right from period of infancy to adulthood. To Kalusi (2006), values are essence of society. Education is a value laden enterprise directed to positively impact on the society practicing it. It is the heart of society. It prepares and feeds every facet of human endeavour with the needed personnel with appropriate skills and infrastructure needed (Dienye, 2004). It is necessary to note that education in itself is lifeless. It is the society that makes it lively. Thus, Maduagwu (1998) posits that society puts into education all that it (education) needs for effective transmission of the culture or values of the people. To him, whatever society puts into education, education gives back to society. Nigeria, conscious of its multicultural nature, postulates lofty goals and objectives and makes polices aimed at national unity and development. The same country cannot at the same time put into her education system bad values that would wreck the progress and effort of its founding fathers. Ironically, the civil unrest in the society, the rate of corruption, particularly by our leaders and public office holders, the insecurity of lives and properties, and the relative decay in moral discipline are indicators of values misappropriation. Religious, ethnic/tribal and personal interest seem to over shadow national interest. The situation begs the question: Why? A possible answer to such intriguing question is lack of value orientation for national unity and progress. 118 Education and Values Orientation Orientation, according to the New Webster Dictionary of the English Language, is to “adjust someone or something to the surrounding or situation… to turn or guide in a specified direction.” Roa (2003) sees values orientation as the process of directing the interest and passion of individuals to the desired socio-cultural values that promote societal development and good human relations. From the above, value orientation therefore is to influence people to adjust, turn to, or conform to specified values needed by the society. Every school curriculum contains set values expected to be transmitted to the younger generation: it is education system that does the transmission. Paradoxically, some of the values that promote honesty, transparency, tolerance and peaceful coexistence have no proper methods of transmission. This does not mean that such values should not be transmitted to the learners. A better way of disseminating the knowledge of such desired values is by creating awareness through enlightenment and interpretation of what the values stand for. That is orientation. There is yet to be formulated methods of teaching such values as peace, security, tolerance, sanctity of lives and peaceful coexistence. Orientation is the answer. There are a lot of jingles on radio, television and other media systems on the above but not much has been achieved. In the context of this work, considering the prevailing political atmosphere, value orientation has to do with the process of disabusing the hearts of people; particularly the youths, from seeing violence, fraud, corruption and other anti-social vices as the best ways of resolving issues and creating wealth for oneself. Education can be used as an instrument for the orientation of values that foster national unity, obedience to lay down rules, tolerance and development in Nigeria. These can be achieved through the following ways: (i) Values orientation through the school curriculum Gbamanja (1997) sees curriculum as the totality of the experiences the child (learner) acquires within the outside the school premises. Experiences acquired over time form solid knowledge. When knowledge is not passed on to the younger generation, each generation would be compelled to begin the life of man all over (Sulemen, 2009). The FRN (2004) emphasized the need for the inculcation of the right values for national development in the child. It is a policy statement that cannot be realized if not well incorporated in the school curricular - the bench-mark for the actualization of the above. Consequently, the school curricular should reflect the values needed for national transformation and development, and should be taught at all levels. To attain this, values education should be introduced and implemented in schools. (ii) Values orientation through leadership training Leadership in the context of this work refers to anyone who influences the activities of others; be it in politics, religion, family, school, etc. The principal problem of Nigeria as a society as acknowledged by Achebe (1983), is leadership. Many leaders have no proper understanding of their roles as leaders. Some have no proper knowledge of the right values needed for the advancement of society. Because of their ignorance of the position and role of leadership, such statement as ‘this is my turn’ and ‘lets share the national cake’ became their over ruling philosophy. Enu and Esu (2004) advocated for the reorientation of leaders for purposeful leadership. Leaders in our society should be given leadership education through 119 which, the right values expected and accepted by the society will be taught through enlightenment (orientation). This is necessary because one can only give what one has. (iii)Values orientation through educating the masses The introduction of Adult and Non-formal Education in our school system highlights the rate of illiteracy in our society. In fact, Okorosaye-Orubite (2008) notes the illiteracy rate of Nigeria to stand at 65%. That is, more than half the entire populations are illiterates. The problem is how many of these adult illiterates are willing to abandon their businesses and go to school? By implication, these set of people remain ignorant of the values needed for national development. What they expect from their leaders is self-driven needs that are ephemeral and inimical to the national policy on leadership. To reduce this level of ignorance, government should create room for educators to organize town hall meetings with the masses in their homes where they could be oriented on the right values needed for development and what they should expect from their leaders. (iv) Values orientation through retraining of teachers There is no doubt that non-professionals are in the teaching field. This probably informed the government on the need for the professionalization of the job which gave birth to the Teachers Registration Council (TRC). Gbamanja (1997) posits that an excellent teacher inspires, a good teacher teaches, a bad teacher cheats, while a non-teacher kills. Non teachers are not well informed on the values to be transmitted. Even when they know, they lack the integrity needed for the success of the job. Teachers prepare today the leaders of tomorrow. When teachers compromise the right values for leadership training for material gains, our future will be at stake. For instance, the monster of examination malpractice could not have come to stay without the support of teachers who trade the lofty values for selfish gains. There is therefore the dire need for teachers to be retrained in values education to enable them have a relative command and authority of the right values needed for national integration and development. Conclusion Nigeria as a society is noted for lofty developmental policies that ordinarily would have transformed the society to a developed nation. Regrettably, Nigeria is yet to find her way on this path of greatness. This is largely due to value disorientation. Good values that promote social integration, mutual understanding, sanctity of lives and security of lives and property are not adequately emphasized in our education system; even when it is emphasized, it is not practical. Theories on values cannot solve the social and insecurity problems in Nigeria. Leaders and public office holders project self interest rather than public interest. This is largely due to misappropriation of values. The resultant effect of this on the society is corruption. Corruption breads tribal sentiments, group conflict, religious conflict and outright moral decadence. If our leaders are not given values orientation on why they are where they are as leaders, the future of the nation would be at risk. No nation rises above the quality of its teachers. Teachers are the architects of any society. It is the teacher that prepares the child for the larger society. When the teacher lacks the knowledge of the right values necessary for the integration of the society, the unity of the society would be threatened. To get out of the woods, values that promote national unity and progress should be oriented to the masses. This can only be achieved through education. 120 Recommendations To ensure proper orientation of values through education, the following recommendations were made: 1. Educational institutions should be engaged in enlightenment campaign on the right values for national peace and progress, outside the school setting. If this is done, it will promote national peace and progress. 2. Values education should be introduced in our school system at all levels. When values that keep the society together are emphasized in the formal school system from the primary to the tertiary institution, the values would be part of the children when they grow older. 3. Compulsory leadership training should be given to prospective leaders before assuming any leadership role. This will help to disabuse the mindset of the prospective leader from seeing leadership role as an avenue for self aggradizement. 4. Citizenship and leadership training centres should be established along side educational institutions. This will adequately prepare the child for leadership role alongside academic achievement. References Achebe, C. (1983). The problem with Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Dienye, V. U. (2004). Sociology of education for education students. Port Harcourt: Amethyst and colleagues publishers. Dosunmu, S. (2006). Education and development: A conceptual anchorage. In A. O. K Noah. & Dosunmu Education and development. Georgia: Atricot Publishers. Enu D. B. an Esu A. E. O. (2004). Re-Engineering values education in Nigerian schools as a catalyst for national development. www.ccsenet.or/journal/index.php/article/download. Retrieved on 05/08/11. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Gbamanja, S. P. T. (1997). Curriculum development and implementation: New strategies for the years 2000 plus. Port Harcourt: Paragraphics. Kalusi (2000). Education as a fundamental human right, the case of Nigeria. In J. M. Kosemani. (Ed) Nigeria education: Matters arising, (Vol 1) Port Harcourt. Abe Publishers Corporation. Kosemani, J. M. (2002). Federal character principle and education in Nigeria in Kosemani J. M. (Ed.) Education in Nigeria: Matters arising. Port Harcourt: Abe Publishers. Maoduagwu, S. N. (1998). Education management in Nigeria: Concepts and issues. Nigeria: Fredsbary printers and publishers. Okoh, J. D. (2003). Philosophy of education (The basics). Port Harcourt: Port Harcourt Printing Press. 121 Okorosaye-Orubite (2008). From Universal Primary Education (UPE) to Universal Basic Education (UBE) what hope for Nigeria. School of Graduate Studies Seminar Series; Monograph No.1. Roa, B. B. (2003). Values in higher education. In B. G. T. Jandhyala (Ed). Education and development. National and international perspectives. New Delhi: APA Publishing Corporation. Schacfer, R. L. (2000). Sociology: A brief introduction. New York: McGraw Hill Company Inc. Suleman, I. (2009). Values orientation in the rebranding project in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 27th Annual Conference of Philosophy of Education of Nigeria on 6th9th October. 122 LARGE CLASS SIZE AND THE CHALLENGES FOR QUALITY OF INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS IN CERTIFICATE PROGRAMME IN EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITY OF PORTHARCOURT: IMPLICATION ON THE SOCIETY OSAAT, D. S. Institute of Education University of Port Harcourt Abstract The study examines the influence of large class size on quality instructional process of Certificate Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt. Two research questions and one hypothesis were posed for the study. The research design was descriptive survey. The population of the study comprised all the Certificate Programmes in Education in the University of Port Harcourt which has a total 1140 students. A sample of 285 students, which constitutes 25% of the total number of students, was drawn using proportionately stratified sampling. A 15-item structured questionnaire tagged Large Class Size and the Challenges for Quality of Instructional Process Student Questionnaire (LCSCQIPSQ) was designed by the researcher and used for data collection. It was based on the modified Likert Type scale weighted strongly agreed (4points), agreed (3points), disagreed (2points), and strongly disagreed (1point).To ensure its validity, the instrument was given to some experts for evaluation. To establish the reliability of the instrument, a test was carried on 10 students who were part of the population of the study but not part of the study sample. The Cronbach’s Alpha correlation coefficient was carried out and the result was highly positive with a correlation coefficient of 0.82. Mean was used to give answers to research questions while ANOVA, was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 significant level. Findings showed that large class size influenced quality instructional process in many ways, among which are, poor sitting accommodation, students standing outside the classroom during lectures, poor communication from teachers to students, and students not hearing the teachers well. The study therefore concluded that these challenges of quality instructional process could affect students’ academic performance. The study recommended among others that efforts should be made to provide public address system to help teachers speak to the hearing of all students. Introduction The ultimate goal of any teaching-learning process is to achieve effectiveness on the part of the teacher and academic achievement on the part of the students. This can be done through quality instructional process. Onyeamachi in Okoro (2011) defines instruction as the activity engaged in by the teacher and the learner to facilitate changes in the behavior of the learners. As rightly pointed out by the UNESCO (2003), teaching and learning is the vital arena, of human development and change, where the impacts of the curricular, time available for teaching and learning, teachers motivation to teach, teachers method/technology of teaching and learning, as well as learners motivation to learn are felt. In fact, according to Babalola (2011), once the process is right, the product is most likely to be right. Unfortunately most instructional processes of Certificate Programmes in Education in the University of Port Harcourt lack such vitality for quality teaching-learning to hold. As rightly stated in the Brochure for Certificate Programme and Post Graduate Diploma in Education the Federal Government has interest in making the Universal Basic 123 Education (UBE) scheme a success by the adoption of strategies that would yield rapid education and training of teachers at all levels through the active institutions in the country. As a result the University of Port Harcourt, as part of her interest, focuses on the attainment of professional education for teachers through the Faculties of Education. Unfortunately, the current trends in admission through JAMB for Teacher Education show a decline. Urgent measures therefore need to be taken to encourage prospective education students outside the JAMB framework. Thus, the need for Certificate Programmes in Education, whose objectives, among others, is to provide a one year programme for candidates who will take up a four year degree programme in education on the successful completion for the preparatory year. On the completion of the preparatory year, successful candidates with an average of 60% will be admitted into the Bachelors’ degree programme in education. This, one would think, is the right step in the right direction. The programmes not only attract the potential education students, but also those that cannot be admitted into other areas due to not meeting the JAMB cut off points. There is no doubt that the population of students in the programme increases every year and continuous increase in students’ enrolment over the years. This could result from the welfare aspect of education which Nigeria adopts the social demand approach as the overall network of educational planning (Enaohwo 1990). This led to the introduction of UPE and now the UBE. The introduction of this Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1976 and the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 2004 led to the enormous growth in students’ population in primary and secondary schools, which also influences the number of candidates looking for admission into tertiary institutions. This increase has continued to lead to overcrowded classrooms. In fact, in the words of Nwogu (2006), this explosive increase is overcrowded classes to the extent that teachers are made to teach between 50-100 students in a class. In tertiary institutions and in certificate programmes in particular, the number of students in a class is alarming. A lecturer handles more than 200-300 students in a particular class. The researcher therefore is of the view that these large and overcrowded classrooms could affect the quality of instructions and teaching-learning process. Based on this backdrop, the researcher sets out to investigate into the effects of large class size on the teachinglearning process in Certificate Programmes in Education at the University of Port Harcourt. Problem of the study For the learners to have quality learning that would lead to good academic performance, what happens in the classroom must be considered. The classroom is like a clinic where the problems of the students are diagnosed and treated. A moderate class size would definitely have possible effect on the learner but in most cases, especially in the Certificate Programmes, the class is so large that it is difficult to accept that quality teachinglearning process really exists. The past Certificate programme results, it is glaring, are characterized with mass failures. The numbers of those that emerge with fail results are often greater than those with good passes. Most students lament for not being able to pass and achieve the purpose for which they are in the programme. The researcher therefore holds the assumption that large classes could be a contributory factor to this poor quality performance of Certificate Students in University of Port Harcourt. As a result of lack of adequate classroom to accommodate the students most of them are found standing outside the class during lectures. Some of them do not hear the lecture well. Faulty teaching-learning process cannot lead to quality products. This researches therefore seeks to investigate the following areas of problem: ways large 124 classrooms affect quality instructional process and the ways to enhance quality instruction in Certificate Programmes at the University of Port Harcourt. Purpose of the Study The Study aims at achieving the following objectives: 1. Examine the ways large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate Programmes in University of Port Harcourt. 2. Examine the strategies of enhancing quality instructional process in Certificate Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt. Research Questions The following research questions were posed for the study: 1. In what ways does large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt? 2. What are the strategies for achieving quality instructional process in the face of large class size of Certificate Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt? Hypothesis There is no significant difference between/ among the mean scores of the opinion of students of the six groups of Certificate Programme in Education. Methodology The research design for the study was descriptive survey, while the population is made up of all 1140 registered students of Certificate Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt. The sample is made up of 285 students which is 25% of the population selected using proportionate stratified random sampling from various groups of certificate students which are EDM (206), EDF (24), EDP (20), EDC (16), Adult and non formal (11) and Human Kinectics (5). The instrument used for the study was a15-point item structured questionnaires named Large Class Size and Challenges for Quality of Instructional Process Student Questionnaire (LCSCQIPSQ). It was based on a modified likert type scale set against each of the items. The response options were weighted as strongly agreed (4 points), agreed (3 points), disagreed (2 points) and strongly disagreed (1 point). To ensure its validity the instrument was given to some experts for evaluation. To establish the reliability of the instrument, a test was carried on 10 students who were part of the population of the study but not part of the study sample. The Cronbach’s Alpha correlation coefficient was carried out and the result was highly positive with a correlation coefficient of 0.82.The data was analysed using means in giving answers to the research questions while ANOVA was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 significant level. Result Research question 1 In what ways does large class size affect quality instructional process in Certificate Programmes in Education in University of Port Harcourt? 125 Table 1: Mean Analysis of Students Scores on the Influence of Large Class Size on Quality Instruction in Certificate Programmes in University of Port Harcourt. S/N Items 1. Teachers are not audible enough to be heard clearly 2. The students are many and larger than normal classroom 3. Most students stand outside the class during lectures 4. Most students sit more than required in a seat 5. Most students cannot easily take down note during lectures 6. Most students do not hear the lecture well 7. Students do not sit comfortably on a seat 8. There is distraction due to poor sitting accommodation 9. Students do not hear themselves well during class interaction 10. Students are not often tested due to large class size SA 192 A 48 D 32 SD x 13 3.47 178 56 40 11 3.37 184 50 43 8 3.44 169 70 31 15 3.38 172 53 41 19 3.32 180 53 44 8 3.42 177 62 20 26 3.36 141 82 50 12 3.32 120 86 9 3.11 34 2.93 110 79 70 62 Results in table 1 show that all the items have mean scores of 3.47, 3.37, 3.44, 3.38, 3.32, 3.42, 3.36, 3.32, 3.11 and 2.93 which are above the criterion mean of 2.50. This indicates that the certificate students agreed that all the items as shown in the responses are the effects of large class size on quality teaching-learning process. The study revealed that all the ten components stated in the instrument are the ways large class size affects quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in University of Port Harcourt. The result confirmed that teachers not being audible enough to be heard clearly, poor sitting accommodation, standing outside the classroom to receive lectures, students not able to take note down well during lectures, distractions due to poor sitting accommodation, not hearing each other well during class interaction and students not often tested due to large class size are all influences of large class size on quality teaching in certificate programmes in University of Port Harcourt. This implies that, in the face of these challenges the teacher might find it difficult to implement effectively what he/she has for the students. This could also affect students’ learning. This agrees with Mkpa (2005) who laments that one of the challenges of implementing the curriculum is large class size which does not conform to the dearth of teachers. It also agrees with Arogundade (2009) who lists the factors that hinder teachers from managing the classroom effectively among which is large class size. Research question 2 What are the strategies for achieving quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt? 126 Table 2: Strategies to ensure Quality of Instructional Process in Certificate Programme in Education in the face of Large Class size S/N Items SA 1. Breaking each of the groups 193 Into more manageable groups 2. Employing more lecturers to handle 176 Each of the groups 3. Provision of public 187 Address system to enhance effective communication 4. Provision of more moderate 190 classrooms 5. Curtail the yearly intake in certificate 85 Programmes A 45 74 41 38 60 D 40 SD 5 x 3.48 30 5 3.47 32 25 32 25 3.38 100 2.49 45 3.36 Table 2 indicates that all the items have mean scores of 3.48, 3.47, 3.36, 3.38, and 2.49. All the means fell above the criterion mean of 2.50 except one. This shows that the certificate students agreed with all items as ways to enhance quality instructional process in the face of large class size except one, which is to curtail the yearly intake in Certificate Programme. From the study it was also found out that the following strategies should be employed to enhance quality instructional process in Certificate programme in Education in University of Education, in the face of large class size. These are breaking each of the groups into smaller groups, employing more teachers to handle each of the smaller groups, provision of public address system to enhance communication and the provision of more moderate classroom. On the issue of breaking the class into smaller groups, the implication is that teachers will be able to manage the class while the students perform academically well. The finding agrees with Arogundade (2009), who states that the class size should not be too large for teachers to manage so that they can teach effectively. It also agrees with studies such as Glass, Calen Smith and Filby (1982), Hedges and Stock (1983) and Obemeata (1995), which reveal that the smaller the class size, the better the students’ academic achievement. Test of Hypothesis There is no significant difference between/among the mean scores of the opinion of students of the six groups of Certificate Programme in Education on the influence of large class size on instructional process. Table 3: ANOVA Analysis on the Influence of Large Class Size on Instructional Process Source of variations Sum of Df mean F-ratio F-crit. Alpha Squares SS square Between groups 146.4424 5 29.28848 Within groups 498840.35 279 1787.9582 0.0163 2.259 0.05 Total 498986.79 284 127 Table 3, shows the analysis of variance on the responses of all the students of various groups of Certificate Programme in Education, to the questionnaire items on the ways large class size affects quality instructional process in University of Port Harcourt. The table shows the calculated f-ratio of 0.0163 which is less than the critical f-ratio of 2.259 at 0.05 significant level. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that there is no significant difference between/among the various groups of students on the effect of large class size on instructional process. Summary of Findings 1. Large class size affects quality instructional process in Certificate Programme in University of Port Harcourt in the following ways; that teachers not audible enough to be heard clearly, poor sitting accommodation, standing outside the classroom to receive lectures, students not able to take note down well during lectures, distractions due to poor sitting accommodation, not hearing each other well during class interaction and students not often tested due to large class size. 2. The strategies for achieving quality of instructional process in Certificate Programme in Education in University of Port Harcourt are; breaking each of the groups into smaller groups, employing more teachers to handle each of the smaller groups, provision of public address system to enhance communication and the provision of more moderate classrooms. 3. There is no significant difference between/among the various groups of students of certificate Programme in University of Port Harcourt on the effect of large class size on instructional process. Implications, Conclusions and Recommendations The findings of this study have a lot of implications on the society. Certificate Programmes in University of Port Harcourt is a preparatory programme for students who are willing to gain admission into the main stream of the University. In an attempt to do that, students are expected to meet up with every requirement including a good pass in the programme. Any attempt to deny them this opportunity would mean turning them back into the society to become nuisance not only to themselves, but to the society. If the students who have come to the university in the name of being taught and examined to enable them gain admission into the university, are not properly taken care of in terms of exposure to quality instructional process, and they tend to fail out of the programme, when they have already tasted being in university, would mean going back into the society to become more frustrated than never. The end result is becoming problems to themselves and to the society, especially turning to become armed robbers or prostitutes, when they have no choice. In the words of Madumere-Obike and Ukala (2010) they remark: Education enables people to develop their capacities to live a fulfilling and dignified life. Quality education helps people give meaning to their lives, placing them in the context of human and natural history and creating in them an awareness which should protect them from prostitution or from being victims and perpetrators of terrorism (p. 144). However, if they are empowered by exposing these students to quality teaching-learning process that will enable them to achieve and move forward, they would hardly be brain washed into such enumerated acts. The society therefore may be a better place free of society ills to a high extent. 128 Based on these, the following recommendations are made: 1. More class room blocks should be provided to accommodate smaller classes. 2. The large class should be broken into smaller units for easy management by lecturers 3. More lecturers should be employed and allocated to these small groups for students to learn better. 4. Management should make efforts to provide a public address system to enhance effective communication during lectures. 5. As a matter of fact the management should curtail the total yearly intake into Certificate Programmes to give room for manageable groups. References Arogundade , B. B. (2009). Classroom management in education. In J. B Babalola, & A Ayeni, A. (Eds).Educational management, theorists and tasks. Lagos. Babalola J. B. (2010). Quality assurance in education: Input, process and output. A lead paper presentation at the 2nd Annual Conference of the National Association for Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP), University of Port Harcourt. Enaohwo, J. O (1990). Economics of education and the planning challenge. New Delhi: Anmol Publication. Glass, G. V. , Calen, L. S. , Smith, M. L., & Filby, N. N. (1992). School class sizes, research and policy. California: Sage Beverly Hills Hedges, L. V., and Stock, w. (1983). The effects of class size. An examination of rival hypotheses. American Educational Research Journal. 20(1), 63-85. Maduagwu, S. N. & Nwogu, U. J. (2006). Resource allocation and management in education. Alakahia: Chidik Printing Press. Madumere-Obike, C. U. & Ukala, C. C. (2010). Women education: eradicating illiteracy and building a better society. Journal of International Gender Studies. (6),143-150 Mkpa, M. A. (2005). Challenges of implementing the school curriculum in Nigeria. Key note address presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Curriculum Organisation of Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of curriculum studies. 12(1),9-17. Obemeata, J. O. (1995). Education: an unprofitable industry in Nigeria. Post graduate school interdisciplinary research discourse. Ibadan: University of Ibadan. Okoro, I. F. (2011). Curriculum implementation: A driving force for achieving gender equity in education. Journal of International Gender Studies. UNESCO (2003). EFA global monitoring report 2003/4: Gender and education for all the levels to quality. Paris: UNESCO. University of Port Harcourt, Institute of Education (2011). Brochure for Certificate and PGD in Education. Port Harcourt Institute of Education. 129 QUALITY ASSURANCE AT THE PRIMARY EDUCATION LEVEL OKAFOR, G. O. Department of Sociology & Anthropology University of Maiduguri & OHIA, N. Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Abstract Education is a means to an end, on which all other developments depend. It is one of the most important institutions in the society because it is the springboard for socio-political, economic and cultural development. Infact, any government (military, civilian) that tries to halt or slow down the development of education will face national crisis. Therefore, there is need to be aware of the problems militating against qualitative education so that they can search out possible solution to these problems. For any education system to survive in its effort to serve the needs of the society, it must anchor on its ability to reflect on the aspiration of the society.The quality of education by all providers of education has become a matter of great concern to stakeholders in the education enterprise. This paper examines the concept and the strategies and mechanisms adapted by Nigeria for its sustenance. It also tries to determine the common elements affecting quality assurance strategy. Recommendations were made regarding how the Nigerian Primary Education could benefit from the experiences of other countries in the quality assurance policies and practices. Introduction and the Problem For more than five decades now, great concern has been shown by the government and the Nigerian populace on the quality of education in the country. Even the component states have equally shown some concern in education in order to make it more accessible to the Nigerian citizenry. The spate of criticisms and utterances in the media on the falling standard of education leaves one in no doubt that there is a problem with the country’s education system. Considering the heavy investments made in education by the government, individuals, and communities, the need for achieving high quality basic education becomes imperative. According to Webster’s New International Dictionary of the English language (1986) the word “quality” could be defined as: the peculiar and essential character of a thing; the degree of excellence;the degree of conformity to standards (as a product of workmanship); merit or superiority because of a combination of good characteristics, and finally, enduring good traits that make one same with superiors. From the above definition, it could be seen that quality deals with the good characteristics or traits of a thing that enhance excellence. Many educationists have noted that quality and quantity in education are not mutually exclusive (Thomas 1971; Yoloye, 1986; Nwagwu, 1983). According to Thomas,(1972) educational system is a function of the quantity and quality of inputs.He asserts that space, equipment, books, teaching materials, teachers, and administrative personnel should be significant inputs in achieving quality in the educational system. In the same vien, Yoloye (1976) is of the view that the factors that should be taken into consideration include quality of 130 the teachers, quality of facilities, quality of instruction, quality of evaluation, and quality of administration and management. Commenting on quality in the educational system, Nwagwu (1983) is of the opinion that the crisis of how to balance the quantitative and qualitative growth of the educational system simply is a management issue. It is basically an issue of how to make optimal use of the available human and material resources for education in order to ensure that children benefit from school attendance by engaging in rewarding and worth while learning activities. He listed four important factors in an attempt to balance the qualitative and quantitative growth of any basic educational system.These include the following: - the quality and numbers of students involved; - the quality, dedication and the number of teacher available; - the quality of the available infrastructure in the form of buildings, facilities and equipment; - the quality and number of managerial personnel such as school administrators, inspectors and supervisors. Another educationist, Fagbulu (1980), asserts that every form of education that is based on planned curriculum has quality built into it. What to be examined should be the education practices and the results of the particular system. Carnegic Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching in 1983, identified clearly stated goals,skill in written and oral use of English,staff development,educational technology,and school size as priority on which UBE schools must focus in order to achieve excellence in basic education.Reviewing the views of the Carnegic study, Awobcoga (1983), listed the following tasks that improve the qualitative merits of education which constitute the main pillars of qualitative development policies in education.These include 1. Measurement and standardization of academic attainments. 2. Evaluation of quality work during supervision. 3. Use of competent teachers and administrative/ supervisory personnel. 4. Dissemination of information to teachers and students. 5. Use of educational technology with a view of increasing the efficiency of teaching etc. From the above review, it is clear that quality in education deals with issues of relevance, validity, excellence and efficiency in the achievement of educational goals and priorities. Education input, often regarded as the indicator of educational quality, determines educational output and outcome. Recent studies that focus on the importance of education input in determining output led to the conclusions that both out-of-school variables – education of parents, socio-economic status, child-rearing patterns, nutrition, pre-school education and school variables such as teachers, number of pupils in the class and textbooks influence learning. Improving efficiency in learning therefore, implies improving quality of school input – curriculum, style and methods of teaching, qualification, materials and upgrading background factors such as health, nutrition and pre-school education. Qualitative Education Quality education is the extent to which learners are able to acquire knowledge and skills and use them to accomplish their developmental task. Education is thus deemed qualitative if learners exhibit the expected competence to solve relevant problems and carry out tasks that are designed for their educational and age levels.Quality education is also evident in the teaching- learning resources available in the right quantity, at the right time, for the right calibre of students, and are used correctly by teachers. Quality education is evident 131 when teachers are qualified to teach and are competent and efficient in the delivery system generally. Education is also deemed qualitative if the societal problems are effectively addressed and tackled by the education system. Finally, quality education manifests itself when the students perform efficiently in continuous and final assessments, with little or no recourse on the part of both pupils and teachers to some form of cheating behaviour or examination malpractice, to make up for deficiencies in learning and teaching. The Concept of Quality Assurance Quality assurance was developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a business methodology (ESIB, 2005).It was first used in industries in the Western world as a proof that a product met certain acclaimed standards. The purpose was to build consumer confidence on the products. The term quality is a guarantee which implies that all necessary precautions have been taken to manufacture a certain product to meet the needs, expectations and satisfaction of consumers. Quality as a judgmental concept helps the consumer to differentiate one product from another. Such judgment helps him to determine whether to continue to use a particular product or not. A major reason adduced for this is that improved teacher quality will promote quality assurance and better pupils’ performance in the school system. Therefore, there is need to match programmes with individual requirement for manpower. As primary education has been affected by globalization,quality assurance has become a yardstick by which the standard of programme run by primary schools are determined. The quality of global education and the need to compare the standard of one country’s education against another’s has brought to primary education a new emphasis on quality assurance. Quality assurance concerns itself with certain accepted criteria of minimum standard of quality that should be achieved in the production of goods and services. This means that certain procedures and techniques that ensure the quality of products are put in place (Lankard, 1992). Every product or outcome of an industry is a function of a variety of activities of inputs assumed to have a value input into the process. Education as a productive enterprise is also subject to those same assumptions. Quality assurance includes the provision and maintenance of the conditions determined to guarantee a standard of the outcomes and products of education. According to ESIB (2005), quality assurance is the guarantee of confidence and certainty by a programme of study given by an institution that “standards and quality are being maintained and enhanced”. By this understanding, it could be said that emphasis on quality assurance is the training of personnel (teachers) to enhance their performance in work places. Policy Thrust for Quality Assurance in Nigeria Education system in Nigeria has undergone series of metamorphosis in the educational programmes and policies of which the most recent is the Universal Basic Education (UBE). For instance, the Universal Primary Education (UPE) has metamorphised to be Universal Besic Education (UBE). This is seen as a policy measure aimed at curbing the fall-out of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) towards realizing its objectives in terms of providing suitable educational system for the Nigerian child. It also seeks to reinvigorate the educational system so as to improve equity and relevance, improve returns to education, produce adequate demand for schooling which jointly produce higher educational attainment in line with the demand of society. The principal goal of UBE is to bring education within the 132 reach of as many children as possible in order to produce enlightened citizens and a literate labour force that can learn new skills with ease. The Policy of Quality The overall responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Education is to ensure quality within the system, to encourage and initiate innovations, and to ensure that the schools maintain minimum standards of acceptable educational practice. The public perception is that the quality of education offered is low and that standards have dropped. These perceptions are based on lack of adherence to acceptable educational practice. Teacher qualifications are low, the learning environment does not promote effective learning, basic facilities- teaching and learning resources-are generally not available, teacher-pupil ratios are high, and general performance in examinations is poor. A detailed survey commissioned in partnership with UNICEF and UNESCO in 1997 also confirmed that the quality of education offered at the primary school level was low. Teacher qualification: Teacher qualifications also impacts directly on quality. There have been attempts to improve the level of qualification amongst teachers. The Grade II qualification is gradually been phased out as a minimum requirement for teaching. The number of teachers with Nigeria Certificate of Education has increased and the country seems to be moving towards achieving a goal of having the NCE as a minimum qualification for teaching in the primary schools. Curriculum Transformation The curriculum is centrally determined. It is based on the National Policy on Education guideline of 1981, and tends to be outdated in outlook. There is need for curriculum transformation that will have to take into consideration the availability of teaching and learning resources as well as the support facilities such as libraries, laboratories, and computer facilities. The essence of the policy is to achieve development of a sustainable economy and human development. The level of education acquired by the citizens of any nation determines the level of its development and the quality of life. This assertion is confirmed in one of the national objectives of education as documented in the National Policy on Education- “the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of the society (FRN 2004,p.8). The Federal Government of Nigeria, in order to ensure an effective programme, established the following bodies like Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC), State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) and Local Government Education Authority (LGEA). These bodies are saddled with the responsibility of coordinating and harmonizing human (teachers, students) and material (learning facilities) resources to achieve the stated goals.Another major role player is the National Primary Education Commission. Two major programmes have been identified and prioritized for implementation by the commission’s special project unit. The first is a short-term project – The “Catchment Area Based Planning,Management and Monitoring of Primary Schools Project”. The objective is to build capacity and empower people at the community level to initiate projects that would contribute to the improvement of the quality of primary education and to ensure access of all school age children to the schools. The second project Development of Skills Acquisition 133 Centres in Primary Schools, is a long term project. The primary objective is to encourage the craft production skills and a culture of entrepreneurship amongst the primary school children, in a schooling environment that is more interesting and functional. It is hoped that acquisition of skill in the early stages of development will address other social issues such as street begging, child street hawking, child prostitution, early marriage, child labour, and child abuse. The principal objective behind quality assurance is the decision of educational institution to train individuals to achieve competency in a given area of individual production function. The focus,therefore, is on the side of industry in the training of employees to prevent problems affecting organizational systems, and continually improving performances (ESIB, 2005). The recent concept of quality assurance is the ability of educational institutions to meet the needs of the user of manpower, in relation to the quality of skills acquired by products (students). The quality of an academic programme becomes a universal concern because the product of one school invariably becomes an employee in another school. Quality assurance has become an internalized concept. The first of such attempts at universalization of quality assurance in the primary education across the globe was published in 2004 based on the qualities of the teacher and teacher education. The National Philosophy (five cardinal principles) was fashioned to foster national growth and development. However, these cannot be achieved without giant steps taken towards teacher qualities. Hence the teacher is seen as the pivot on which any meaningful national development hangs. On this premise, there is the need for well trained, qualified, efficient, effective and dedicated teachers to perform this noble task. The Main Point for Quality Assurance in Nigeria The main point of quality assurance focuses on education for competence.It is seen as value added to the individual to acquire wealth and enhance the utilization of resources available to the society.This is so because education and competence are regarded as the capital on which we can expect returns in the form of economic growth.Since all the afore mentioned national values are to be taught within the four walls of the classroom by the teacher,it therefore becomes necessary for teachers to possess additional qualities apart from their academic qualifications.Therefore,Ukeje(2000, p.5) outlined the following qualities that a teacher must possesss: - He/she must be adaptable to change; - He/she must be flexible and dependable; - He/she must be honest,forceful,and enthusiastic; - He/she must be industrious and open minded. In Ukeje’s view,the teacher should not only be able to transmit knowledge and skills effectively and efficiently, but he/she should also be able to inspire his/her pupils or students to greater heights of achievement. In pursuance of the above,the government has made primary education free and universal by implementing UPE scheme in September 1976 and also prescribed the inculcation of literacy and numeracy, the study of science, the study of social norms and values of the local community and the country as a whole in the primary school. The implication of Ukeje’s view is that education is the only known instrument of social change. Therefore, both government and all the educational practitioners should maximize teacher quality for national development. In doing so, attention must be given to the following considerations: 134 Teaching practice: Teacher qualities receive lip service in many of our universities and colleges of Education. It is indeed a point of concern that teaching practice that forms the basis of teacher education has been bastardized or reduced to nothing by Universities and Colleges of Education because of their failure to provide satisfactory funds to the lecturers to carry out this noble exercise. In some of the Universities and Colleges of Education, the student teachers hardly spend more than three weeks of serious teaching practice and within this period, they hardly receive the critically necessary clinical supervision by their lecturers (Ukeje 2000, p.12). In addition, Maduabum (1991) cited in Ogbole (1999, p.49) observes that Teaching Practice (TP) which constitutes the programme of internship and one of the hallmarks of professional preparation for teaching is generally poorly supervised. This poses a lot of threat to the quality of teacher education in Nigeria. Proper training of Teachers Prior to the present dispensation, many people had engaged in the teaching enterprise without any formal training from the outset. Therefore, one year teaching programme is organized as “Post Graduate Diploma in Education”. This is not the best in the opinion of this paper. Its stand is based on the premise that one has to spend three solid years to obtain Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) and another three years for the same person to acquire a degree programme in order to maintain quality. One year programme cannot be sufficient enough to prepare the candidates of this category for teaching service. Admission process A major area of concern in our effort to produce qualified teachers for our school systems is the admission of unqualified candidates into our colleges of education to be trained as teachers. Although some colleges run pre-NCE Programme, Ogoble (1999) opines that it is doubtful if the programme that is run for one year can be sufficient to prepare these candidates for the rigorous three years NCE programme. Thus Maduabum (1991) cited in Ogbole (1999) declares that: It is indeed unfortunate to note that it is only in education that “failures” are given official candidacy among those who are to be prepared for teacher training programme. This pattern of thought has been endorsed by Ozoji (2006, p.152) when he declared that “the criterion of standards of admission for teachers in training raises problem of quality. It appears that teaching does not attract the best entrants in training”. Conclusion Quality assurance is a matter of global concern in primary education. It is the mechanism through which institutions can establish that their products are competitive and meet internationally accepted standards of quality and excellence. The increasingly global trend towards quality assurance seems to have shaped educational policy throughout the world. There are many diverse interpretations and use of quality assurance. It is a tool for accountability to stakeholders about value added to educational inputs. It has to do with institutional effectiveness. It is about enhancing the quality of the processes of teaching and learning. Being a complex issue, it should be seen as part of all the activities of an institution. The objective indices of quality assurance as set out in the scheme is a common feature of 135 most quality assurance efforts but the awareness of quality issues in teaching and learning amongst teachers is one of the benefits of the ongoing discourse on quality assurance. Recommendations The following recommendations are made in order to attain more qualitative education in the primary institutions in Nigeria. A more appropriate criteria should be adopted for the selection of teachers. The Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophy which is very effective in resolving many problems like teachers morale and low student performance should be adopted. The TQM begins with a quality policy statement and the establishment of framework in the system comprising of highly skilled, moderately and unskilled teachers. They all have quality as a target to reach as they teach within the system, other relevant players in the process of the system institutional delivery within the school also have same target. A consistent examination of their individual and collective input is a very good mechanism of assuring continued quality of the programme. Refrences ESIB (2005). Europe student hardbook on quality in higher education. Sponsored by ESIP hp://www.esib.org/project Fagbulu, A M (1980). Variability of the quality of education with significant qualitative expansion of schools. A paper presented at a national conference on quality education organized by Nigeria Education Research Council in Kano. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.) Lagos: NERDC Press. Maduabum, M. (1991). In Search of a feasible strategy for professionalizing teaching in Nigeria. A paper presented at the National seminar on philosophy of teacher education in Nigeria. University of Jos, Jos December, 7th-12 th”. Nwagwu, N.A. (1983). Trend in priorities in Nigeria education system:The case of Nigeria.In S. Adesina, I.K. Akenyemi, A. Ajayi, (Eds) (1983) Nigeria education: Trends and issues. (pp 198-214 Ogbole, D.M (1999). The teacher factor as it affects the quality of education. Pankshim Journal of Education 5 (2.) Ozoji, F.D. (2006). Professionalizing the teaching profession. In Akinmade, Nwoke & Charity (Eds). Innovation in the teaching profession. A Resource Manual for Today’s Teachers. Jos: Phoefivang Nig. Fender press. Thomas, J.A. (1971). The productive school: A system analysis approach to educational administration. New York: John Wiley. 136 Ukeje, B.O (2000). Teacher education in Nigeria. 21 st century challenges and strategies for improvement in T.O Akinmade, T.O Oyetunde, G. Akpa, O. Enoh & D. Ozoji (Eds). Improving Teachers Education in 21 st century Nigeria: challenges and strategies. Jos: Rohefwang Nig. Enterprises. UNESCO, (1997). Monitoring of learning achievement in Nigeria. Lagos. UNICEF. Webster New International Dictionary Yoloye, E.A (1976). Secondary education today and tomorrow.The Nigeria Principal Journal of ANCOPSS 1957-80, 10-15 137 THE EFFECTS OF FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN EMOHUA LGA OF RIVERS STATE JEROME A., IKIROMA, B. & AMAECHI L. N. Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State University of Education Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt Abstract This research attempted to find out the effects of factors militating against the education of girls in Emohua LGA of Rivers State. The main purpose of the research was to establish the magnitude of the effects of the factors that are known to militate against the education of girls. By simple random sampling technique, 565 senior secondary school students were drawn for the study. The instrument employed for the collection of data was an open and close ended questionnaire administered to all the participants. The instrument was face and content validated by two experts in educational measurement and evaluation and it had a reliability coefficient of 0.72 via test-retest method of estimating reliability. Five research questions were posed and answered in the study. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency count and simple percentages. The open responses were subjected to content analysis. The significant results of this research have shown that girls have low educational and occupational aspirations and that the greatest hindrance to their educational advancement is alleged to be pregnancy, followed by peer pressure, lack of school fees, lack of parental guidance and counselling, drug addiction and intimate boys/girls relationships. The study recommended the need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the importance of education, especially of the girl child. It is important to create well-maintained single gender boarding schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of sponsorship. Introduction It has been acknowledged that female education is one of the most important forces of development. King (1991) observes that an educated mother raises a smaller, healthier and better-educated family, and is herself more productive at home and at the work place. The researchers noted that there is a correlation between the narrowness of the gap of female education in countries worldwide and the level of development in such countries. However, more boys than girls, particularly in less industrialized countries of Africa, Nigeria included, continue to go to school and work their way up the educational ladder (Mueller, 1990). Female enrolment has been lower than that of males at all levels of education in Nigeria, and especially, at secondary and university levels. For instance, in 2008 girls at pre-primary level constituted 48.5%, primary 49.4% and at public secondary schools 30.5% (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2008). These overall enrolment figures seem to mask regional disparities. According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008), girls in Southern Nigeria constituted 52.2%, Northern region 40.1%, Eastern region 42.4%, Western 44%. This state of affairs is explained by the higher rate of dropout for girls resulting from sociocultural factors that underplay the importance of educating girls, biological factors that make girls vulnerable to unplanned motherhood, and economic constraints. Some respondents indicated that families who cannot afford to send both sons and daughters to school reckon that financial returns on expenditure for girls are less than those of boys meaning educating a 138 girl is not more profitable than educating a boy. The argument is that girls are transient since they will eventually leave their parents when they get married, thus their education is only a financial asset to the inlaws and not to blood relatives. In some cases, girls withdraw from school to join the labour market or to be married in order to raise money for school fees for their brothers. Since most of the general contributing factors leading to low participation of girls at all levels of education are known and fairly well researched on, this study focuses on the variables that impinge on the educational and occupational aspirations of girls, who survive in primary school and manage to embark on the secondary level of education. Researchers such as Pavalko (2001), Chivore (2009) and Kibera (2003) have supported the proposition that girls have lower educational and occupational aspirations than boys. Secondary school girls are targeted in this study. This is because the secondary cycle of education forms an important turning point in an individual’s educational and occupational options. As a minimum, it forms a foundation for higher education, which is closely linked with occupational choice. Bruce (2006) asserted that higher education, especially, university education, gives an individual a variety of occupational choices, and in particular white colour and professional fields. Statement of the problem It is important to find out why girls appear to be “unconcerned” about the glaring benefits of education. As long as the majority of girls fail to proceed with formal education beyond secondary level and as long as university level of education is used as a major criterion in the distribution of well-remunerated jobs and leadership positions, they will continue to be marginalized. In fact, lack of education or acquisition of limited education among women, who in Nigeria and most other countries, constitute over 50 per cent of the total population, leads to their unequal representation in all facets of the society including employment, politics, and inevitably in decision making organs like legislators. Several researches have been carried out about factors militating against the education of girls but these studies do not address directly the problem being investigated (Bruce, 2006). Therefore, this study was designed to find out the factors militating against the education of girls in Emohua LGA of Rivers State. Objectives of the study The following objectives guided the study: 1. To establish secondary school girls’ occupational aspirations. 2. To determine the relative effects of different variables that are associated with lower educational aspirations of girls. 3. To find out whether career aspirations of girls change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3. 4. To determine the factors behind the educational aspirations of girls at secondary school level of education. 5. To examine what occupational aspirations of males and female at secondary School level hold for their potential spouses. Research questions The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: 1. What are the occupational aspirations of secondary school girls’ in Emohua LGA? 2. What are the relative effects of different variables that are associated with lower educational aspirations of girls? 139 3. To what extent does career aspiration of girls change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3? 4. What are the factors behind the educational aspirations of girls at secondary school level of education? 5. What occupational aspirations of males and females at secondary School level hold for their potential spouses? Significance of the study The findings will help interventionists in the education of girls to locate where help is required most. The findings will help in emphasizing the need for equality, bearing in mind socio-cultural factors such as gender stereotypes, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and practices, patriarchal system and religious beliefs militating against the education of girls. It is also hoped that, the findings of this study will facilitate more researches in similar institutions in different set-ups. Methodology Research design The research design used in this study was descriptive survey. The study aimed at collecting information from respondents on their opinions in relation to the various factors impacting on the education of girls. The tool that was employed in the initial identification process was door-to -door survey in the purposely sampled schools. In an effort to establish the relative impact of the various factors impacting on the education of girls, the researchers used both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. Study location The study was carried out in Emohua LGA of Rivers State. The LGA was purposely selected because it is one of the largest LGA in the State and the factors investigated were perceived to be prevalent in the Local Government Area (LGA) of the state. Convenience Sampling was used to select the communities/villages/towns that participated in the study. The communities/villages/towns whose secondary school students were represented in the study included: Obelle, Oduaha, Ibaa, Emohua and Ndele. Target population The target population was all SS 1 and SS 3 students in government owned senior secondary schools in Emohua LGA of Rivers state. The students were drawn from the senior secondary schools located in the selected communities/villages/towns. SS 1 and SS 3 students were considered because the study intended to establish whether educational aspirations of the students will change as they move from SS 1 to SS 3. Sample size and sampling procedures A sample 565 students was used for the study. This consisted of 260 girls and 305 boys. Using simple random sampling technique which provides equal chance to every member in the population to be included in the study, the lottery system was used in which names of subjects were written on pieces of paper and placed in a container. The lottery was then drawn. This method helped to reduce biases or prejudices in selecting the samples. The respondents were sampled from SS 1 and SS 3 in order to establish whether educational aspirations of SS 1 were similar to those of SS 3. Towards enhancement of comparative dimension, boys in similar classes as girls were included in the study. 52 girls were selected 140 from each of the five schools, 26 from SS 1 and 26 from SS 3 similarly, 61 boys were selected from each of the five schools also, 30 SS 1 class and 31 SS 3 class. Thus, the sample had 260 girls and 305 boys which gave a total sample of 565 respondents. Instrumentation The questionnaire titled “Factors Militating against the Education of Girls Questionnaire” (FMEGQ) which was the main instrument used in this research, had questions that were both close and open ended. The questionnaires were used as tools for collecting data from the subjects. For these questionnaires there was an introductory letter for the study, the importance of the respondent’s contribution to it and the assurance that the information would be handled ethically. Filling in the name was left optional so as not to make any respondent shy off. The questionnaire administered to secondary school students, sought information about their demographic background, their ratings on the factors listed by the researchers militated against their educational advancement, or their educational and occupational aspirations. They also supplied data pertaining to their desire to attain a particular level of education. Validity of the Instrument The face-and-content validity of the instrument was established by two experts in educational measurement and evaluation of the Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, University of Port Harcourt. The instrument (FMEGQ) was presented to them (experts) with the objectives and research questions for the study. Comments and observations from the experts were considered and used to modify and correct the final copy of the instrument that was used for the collection of data. Reliability of the Instrument The reliability coefficient obtained using test-retest method was 0.72, which is high enough to guarantee the use of the instrument. The procedure involved the administration of the instrument (FMEGQ) to 50 respondents that are in SS 1 and SS 3 but who were not used as part of the sample for the study. After, three weeks the same instruments were administered to the same 50 respondents used initially for the pilot study. Then after, the scores from the first administration and that of the second administration were correlated using Pearson Product Moment correlation as statistical tool via SPSS package. The value of r (0.72) which is an indication of the reliability coefficient obtained is a measure of the stability of the instrument over time. Consequently, the reliability coefficient so obtained was high enough to guarantee the use of the instrument for the study. Data collection procedures The questionnaires were administered and collected by the researchers with two other research assistants who had been recruited by the researchers to assist in the collection of data. Table 1: Sample of Student Respondents by Gender and Class Class Male % Female % Total % SS 1 150 49.2 130 50.0 280 49.6 SS 3 155 50.8 130 50.0 285 50.4 Total 305 100 260 100 565 100 Source: Researchers computation. 141 Direct contact with schools allowed instructions on how to complete the questionnaires and assure the respondents the confidentiality of their responses. This personal involvement was an important factor in motivating the participating schools to respond more readily than if the questionnaires had been mailed to them. Secondary data were found from journals and books. Data analysis in table 1 contains the sample of students by gender and class. Data analysis procedures Descriptive Statistics were used in data analysis. All answers collected from the field were coded. The data was coded by categorization, quantification, and processing. It was tabulated using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Tables of frequency distribution were used to show the different patterns of data categories. Presentation of The Research Findings Student’s demographical information and location of the school The sample comprised 565 students, 305 of whom were males (54%) and 260 females (46%). Data analysis of the demographic information in the questionnaire showed that the students’ age range was between 15 and 19 years. Slightly over 21% attended all girls’ schools, 26% all-boys schools, and the rest 53% were in co-educational secondary schools. The marital status of the students’ parents was as follows: 88.9% were married, 4.4% divorced, and 7.7% were single parents. The majority of students (95.1 and 1.3%) were of Christian and Muslim faiths, the rest (3.6%) belonged to other faiths. The data of the schools attended by the respondent by towns and gender, geographical region is contained in Table 2 for more information. Data analysis regarding students’ social-economic status as indicated by their fathers’ and mothers’ level of education is presented below. It is evident that they generally come from low socio- economic status. In this study parents with post secondary diploma and university degree are few as indicated in the Table 3. Table 2: Respondent by District and Gender Town Male % Emohua 108 19.1 Obelle 58 10.3 Oduaha 62 11.0 Ibaa 38 6.7 Ndele 39 6.9 Total 305 46.0 Source: Researchers computation. Female 64 45 61 39 51 54.0 % 11.4 7.9 10.8 6.9 9.0 260 Table 3: Level of Education of Parents Educational level None Primary level Secondary Post secondary University Total Source: (Field work, 2011) Fathers 42 89 179 167 93 570 % 7.3 15.6 31.4 29.3 16.4 100 142 Mothers 52 158 210 124 26 570 % 9.1 27.7 36.8 21.8 4.6 100 Parents with post-secondary diploma and University degree correspond to middle and high socio-economic status. Those with secondary education and below are put in low socioeconomic category. Table 3 presents the educational levels of the students’ parents. Data analyzed in Table 3 have shown that fathers of the students targeted in this study were more educated than mothers at post-secondary and university level. Thus 7.3% of fathers have no formal schooling compared to 9.1% of the mothers. At primary, post secondary and university levels, fathers constituted 15.6, 31.4, 29.3, and 16.4% respectively. The corresponding percentages of mothers were 27.7, 36.8, 21.8, and 4.6%. These results are not surprising because women form over 60 per cent of the illiterates in Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2008). Determinants of girls’ educational advancement at secondary cycle of education: After analyzing and examining students’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics, attention was focused on the factors that negatively on the educational career of both girls and boys. With respect to the factors militating against the education of girls, pregnancy was rated first with 96.2%, followed by peer pressure with 85.8%, lack of school fees 79.2%, lack of parental guidance (77%), drug addiction (74.5%), intimate boy/girls relationship (73.4%), forced early marriages (68.9%), lack of interest and laziness in school work (65.8%), too much pocket money from parents (49.1%), cultural beliefs that do not value education of girls (42.3%), discouragement from teachers (31.6%), and fear of being in the same class with boys (9.2%).These results clearly show that pregnancy is one of the greatest impediments to girls’ educational career at secondary level of education. Indeed some 100 girls get pregnant each year (government of Nigeria and UNICEF, 2002). Most of these girls do not have opportunities to go back to school partly because they are bogged down by motherhood responsibilities and partly because their parents do not have resources to take care of the newly born children and also pay school fees for their other children. In fact, lack of school fees also interferes greatly with the advancement of girls’ education. In addition, when girls who have been pregnant go back to school, they are laughed at by peers and the public at large. This also discourages girls not to want to return to school after giving birth. The findings that pregnancy is considered to be a big threat to girls’ education mean that they need to be educated about management of their sexuality. Girls should also be empowered to resist peer pressure and drug addiction, for girls who succumb to drugs are more likely to become pregnant due to the fact that their judgment, not to engage in early sexual relationships, is easily impaired. With regards to the factors that impact unfavourably on the education aspirations of boys, peer pressure (with 87.5%) had the highest rating, followed by lack of school fees (77.3%),laziness and apathy (76.7%), lack of parental guidance (75.2%), drug addiction (62.9%), intimate boys and girls relationships (54.4%), forced marriages as a result of impregnating girls (50%), too much pocket money from parents (48.3%), and discouragement from teacher (30.3%). A comparison of the significance of various factors that impinge on educational career across gender lines such as peer pressure, laziness, apathy, lack of school fees, lack of parental guidance, drug addiction, intimate boy/girl relationship, forced early marriages, and too much pocket money from parents has revealed that girls’ education is likely to be more seriously affected than that of boys by all the above mentioned variables with an exception of peer pressure, laziness, and apathy. The next analysis centred on students’ educational aspiration. Students who indicated that they are contented with attaining SS 3 level of education were considered to have low aspirations, post secondary 143 diploma were considered to have moderate aspirations, and those who desired university education were associated with high educational aspirations. Data in Table 4 presents levels of education aspired by secondary school students. Table 4: Level of Education Preferred by Secondary School Students by Gender and Class Level of education Male Female SS 1 % SS 3 Post secondary diploma University Total Source: (Field work, 2011) 1 15 134 150 % 0.2 2.7 23.9 26.8 SS 3 1 17 135 153 0.2 3.0 24.1 27.3 % SS 1 1 8 111 120 % SS 3 0.2 1 0.2 1.4 33 5.9 19.8 103 18.4 21.4 137 24.5 According to results in Table 4 the same number of males (0.2%) and female (0.2%) in SS 1 and SS 3 said they were contented with obtaining SS 3 level of education. Notice, however, that a larger proportion of males in SS 1 (2.7%) and SS 3 (3.0%) than females in similar classes (1.4%) and (5.9%) respectively, wished to obtain post-secondary diploma qualification. The rest of the students (23.9%) of males in SS 1 and (24.1%) in SS 3 desired university education. According to the findings it would appear that aspirations for male students (SS 3) to achieve university education are slightly higher than those of their colleagues in SS 1. On the other hand, educational aspiration of girls in SS 1 is slightly higher than those of their fellow students in SS 3. Thus 19.8% of girls in SS 1 desired university education compared to 18.4% of girls in SS 3. Overall it is evident that male students have higher educational aspirations compared to female students. The findings are consistent with earlier ones of Chivore (2009); Kibera (2003) and Palvalko (2001). The results also show that Emohua (Rivers State) secondary school students have very high educational aspirations. This result is congruent with the Somerset (2004) and Kibera (2003). To get an insight into motives for students” desires to attain a particular level of education; they were required to provide reasons. Table 5 carries the results. Factors militating against educational advancement of secondary school students: Data analysis as illustrated in Table 5 shows that students and especially males aspired for a particular levels of education because they felt it would help them to build the nation. Thus 20.7% of males cited this reason. In contrast only 10.7% of the females gave the same reason. This finding is congruent with that of Kibera (2003). However, acquisition of a good job is mentioned as the next most important reason for aspiring to a particular level of education. It can be argued that an individual who is unemployed or one who does not get a well-paying job would find it difficult to have resources to contribute to nation building. By implication therefore, there is a relationship between receiving education in order to acquire a good job and the notion of nation building. The next factor cited is the desire to acquire knowledge. Around 25% of the sample 14.3% males and 10.2% females singled out this reason as motivating their educational endeavours. Other reasons that may impact on students’ educational goals are support for the family and success and prestige do not seem to be among them. 144 Table 5: Students’ Reasons for Aspiring for a particular Level of Education by Gender Reason Male % Females % Success and prestige 28 5.0 23 4.1 Obtain good job 80 14.3 57 10.2 Acquire knowledge 75 13.4 56 10.0 Support family 47 8.4 18 3.2 Build nation 116 20.7 60 10.7 Total 346 61.8 214 38.2 Source: (Field work, 2011) Table 6: Educational Aspirations Reasons for liking certain school subjects Male Contribute to my career Easy to understand Fascinating subject Does not require a lot of reading I like the subject teacher Total Source: (Field work, 2011) 252 23 14 6 5 300 % 84.0 7.7 4.7 2.0 1.6 100 Female 199 28 24 7 5 255 % 74.9 11.0 9.4 2.7 2.0 100 Overall only 11.6 and 9.1% of the students respectively mentioned support for the family and success and prestige as motives for desiring attainment of a particular level of education. In eliciting more information about educational aspirations, of the subject studied, the students were asked to state their favourite subject and to explain why they prefer them. The reason for having interest in certain school subjects are presented in Table 6. Data analysis in Table 6 clearly shows that students preferred one subject to another because of its perceived contribution to their career. Thus 84% males and 74.9% female students stated that their favourite subject would contribute towards their future careers. Other reasons such as my favourite subject is “easy to understand”, “it is a fascinating subject”, “it does not require a lot of reading”, and “I like the teacher of the subject”, were viewed as less important. Male and female students were also asked to indicate the specific occupation they desired most. Results of the analyses are contained in Table 7. 145 Table 7: Occupation Aspired to by Gender Occupation Male Doctor Engineer Accountant Lawyer Nurse Teacher Pilot Business person Journalist Air hostess Police Politician Farmer Secretary Manager Preacher Architect Surveyor Musician Tourists guide Salesperson Meteorologist Total Source: (Field work, 2011) 69 70 37 17 4 8 20 15 3 1 9 6 1 1 4 3 2 2 3 2 2 0 284 % 14.4 14.5 7.7 3.5 0.8 1.7 4.2 3.1 0.6 0.2 1.9 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.0 59.0 Female 57 18 27 17 26 12 0 3 8 9 1 2 0 5 2 2 3 2 1 1 0 1 197 % 11.9 3.7 5.6 3.5 5.4 2.5 0.0 0.6 1.7 1.9 0.2 0.4 0.0 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2 41.0 The data analysis in Table 7 shows that the most preferred occupations by male students are those of an engineer (with 14.6%), followed by doctor (14.3%), an accountant (7.7%), pilot (4.2%), and lawyer (3.5%). On the other hand, the most aspired occupations by female students are that of a doctor (with 11.7%), an accountant (5.6%), nurse (5.4%), an engineer (3.7%), and lawyer (3.5%). These results reveal that girls have lower occupational aspirations compared to their male counterparts. However, it is noted that although a good proportion of females still prefer traditional female designated occupations such as nursing, teaching, and air hostess, some females have substantial interest in male-dominated occupations such as engineering, medicine, and law. Further results in Table 7 reveal that both male and female students prefer white-collar occupations. None of the students wishes to enter manual technical oriented occupations such as carpentry, motor-mechanic, metal work, farming, and domestic work. These jobs are poorly remunerated and as a result they are disliked. In addition, girls on the whole require the use of the “hands” rather than the “brain”. By and large, Emohua students and the public at large distaste manual/ technical oriented occupations (Sifuna, 2006). It is noted that even though Emohua LGA is mainly an agriarian economy, only 1.3% of the students wish to be farmers. Indeed, none of the females wanted to be farmers. This is an interesting finding; women in Nigeria especially in the Northern and Eastern regions of the country perform over 80% of 146 the work on the farms (Ahmed, 2009).The non-preference of farming by female students may be attributed to the fact that they do not, as a rule, inherit land from their parents (Bola, 2003; Mba, 2004). In other words, women are not “farmers”; rather they provide labour on the farms owned either by their husbands or their brothers. Further, students were requested to indicate the type of occupations they preferred if they will be partners. Analysis of this information is presented in Table 8. Table 8: Occupations Preferred by Male and Female Students for their Future Spouses Occupation Male % Female % Doctor 51 11.0 52 11.2 Engineer 54 11.6 8 1.8 Accountant 54 11.6 1 0.2 Lawyer 27 5.8 18 3.9 Nursing 13 2.8 29 6.2 Secretary 4 0.9 37 8.0 Pilot 26 5.6 1 0.2 Business person 1 0.2 19 4.1 Air hostess 14 3.0 4 0.9 Manager 8 1.7 3 0.6 Farmer 1 0.2 10 2.2 Housewife person 6 1.3 0 0.0 Politician 5 1.2 0 0.0 Musician 0 0.0 4 0.9 Salesperson 3 0.6 0 0.0 Matron 1 0.2 1 0.2 Police 2 0.4 1 0.2 Cateress 0 0.0 0 0.0 Architect 1 0.2 0 0.2 Preacher 1 0.2 1 0.2 Driver 0 0.0 1 0.2 Designer 1 0.2 0 0.0 Total 274 58.0 191 41.1 Source: (Field work, 2011) The analysis in Table 8 has revealed that the majority of male respondents preferred their prospective spouses to enter “traditionally preserved” occupations for women. These occupations include those of a teacher, nurse, secretary, businesswoman, air hostess, farmer, and housewife. These results further show that male respondents” career choices for female students are similar to those aspired to by female students themselves. A closer look at data analysis in Table 8 also revealed that none of the male respondents wanted their spouse to be a politician or a policewoman, and a driver. In addition very few wished their female counterparts to become pilots, managers, saleswomen, architects, designers, and cateresses. Nonetheless, a substantial proportion of them wanted their female colleagues to be doctors, accountants, and lawyers. Similarly, data analysis in Table 8 shows that female respondents desired their potential spouse to join “male designated” careers. These careers comprise those of engineers, lawyers, pilots, accountants, and managers. It is important also to note that career aspirations for their male counterparts are congruent with those male respondents have 147 for themselves. From this finding, it can be inferred that females expect to gain the outcomes of good occupations in terms of remuneration and social status indirectly via their spouses and not directly through themselves. In an attempt to achieve gender parity in the occupational arena, it would be interesting to establish why girls shun male-dominated careers considering that they are better remunerated in addition to commanding high prestige and social status. Summary The findings of the study have reaffirmed that girls have lower educational aspirations as compared to the boys. It has also emerged that educational aspirations of females tend to decline compared to those of their male counterparts as they move up the educational ladder. As far as occupations are concerned, by and large girls prefer to join occupations traditionally preserved for women such as those of teachers, nurses, secretaries, business women, air hostesses, farmers, and housewives. Male respondents too desire these occupations for their female counterparts. Indeed they prefer females in such occupations to be their future spouses. In contrast, females manifest higher occupational aspirations for their male counterparts than for themselves. They desire men to be doctors, engineers, lawyers, pilots, and managers. These occupations are male-dominated and are associated with good remuneration and high social prestige. Finally, the major impediments against educational advancement of girls are identified as pregnancy, peer pressure, lack of school fees, and lack of parental guidance, drug addiction, intimate boy/girl relationships and forced early marriages. On the other hand boys’ educational career is affected mostly by peer pressure, followed by lack of school fees, laziness, apathy, lack of parental guidance, and drug addiction. Conclusions Given that the greatest danger to girls’ education at secondary level is perceived to emanate from pregnancy, every effort must be made by parents, teachers, mentors, and school counsellors to teach them about their sexuality and its management right from the age of reason. Indeed, this study has shown that lack of school fees is relatively less important in hampering girls’ education compared to pregnancy and peer pressure. General recommendations on girl child education The findings of the study show that generally there is need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the importance of education, especially the girl child. It is important to create well-maintained single-gender boarding schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of family life and sex education. There is need to create projects and programmes that will increase the family income hence result in material empowerment. This will help parents to generate more income. The fund may help in financing to get rid of the laws that prohibit negative practices such as early marriages, female genital mutilation and sexual harassment, leading to early and unplanned pregnancies. Equality should be emphasized bearing in mind socio-cultural factors such as gender stereotypes as gender roles, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and practices, patriarchal descent system, and religious beliefs. Further research in other institutions should be done. 148 Reference Ahmed, A. (2009). The economy of Nigeria: The Obasanjo era. New York: Oxford University Press. Bola, J. (2003). Facing the Nigerian mountain. Abuja: East African Literature Bureau. Bruce, K. (2006, 30th October). Academic ability higher education and occupation mobility. American Sociology Review, 735-746. Chivore, B. (2009) SSS I pupils’ perception and attitudes towards the teaching profession in Zamfara. Comparative education, 1(22), 252-258. Government of Nigeria & UNICEF (2002). Children and women in Nigeria: A Situation Analysis. Abuja: UNICEF, Nigeria Country Office. Kibera, W.L. (2003). Career aspirations and expectations of secondary school students of 8-4-4 system of education in Kiambu and Kajiado and Machakos Districts, Kenya: (Unpublished) Ph.D Thesis, Kenyatta University. King, E. (1991). Wide benefits seen from improved education for women. Washington economic reports. Nairobi: United States Information Agency No 4. Mba, P. (2004). Rural sociology and rural development; its application in Nigeria. Enugu: East African Literature Bureau Mueller, J. (1990). Literacy- human right not a privilege in development and cooperation. Berlin: German Foundation for International Development. Palvalko, R.M. (2001). Sociology of occupations and professions. Hossea Lions: F.E Peakcock Publishers, Inc. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008). Literacy survey. Abuja: Government Printing Press. Sifuna, D.N. (2006). Vocational education in schools, a historical survey of Nigeria. Abuja: East African Bureau. Somerset, H.C.A. (2004). A Survey on fourth form pupils on educational and occupational expectations. In Court and Dharam, Education,. society and development: New Perspectives from Kenya. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. 149 PRIVATIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF EDUCATION AND EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY: THE ROLE OF A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT IGWESI, B. N. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State . Abstract The main focus of this paper is privatization and commercialization of education and its implications for equal educational opportunities. The concepts of privatization and commercialization were explored in the paper, distinguishing between full and partial privatization and commercialization. The conflict perspective of society was used to explain the relationship between privatization of education and equal educational opportunities. Private schools serve the purpose of the rich because it is only they that have the economic power to establish private schools and also to send their children to such schools. The government plays a role in the privatization and commercialization of schools because they fail to carry out their responsibilities toward the public schools. Hence, people lose interest in these schools and resort to private ones. This gives the private sectors the opportunity to exploit members of the society. A democratic government, therefore, has the responsibility of ensuring that all citizens have access to equal educational opportunity in terms of both the quality and quantity of education provided. The paper recommended, among others, that a democratic government should provide adequate funds for the maintenance of public schools and also ensure that quality is not sacrificed for gain. Introduction Education performs a very important role of equipping an individual with skills and knowledge, which will help to transform the individual’s life and subsequently his society. It is also a global consensus that education is a viable tool to enhance the sustainable development of any country. It is in view of this that Enaibe and Imonivwerha (2007) stated the education is a necessary weapon that can be used to surmount ignorance, poverty and disease and to produce functional citizens with positive attitudes towards loving what they ought to love and hating what they ought to hate. Elucidating more on the importance of education, Amini-Philips and Victor-Ochonma (2009) succinctly stated that: Education enhances the capacity for the participation of people in economic, social, political and cultural activities in rapidly changing world. As a versatile tool, education can contribute to a wide range of areas, including conflict resolution, nutrition, healthcare, employment and livelihood, cultural expression and improved quality of life. It is also an instrument for social justice, especially for promoting gender equality discrimination and exclusion (p.145). From the foregoing submissions, it could be asserted that no individual or nation can achieve any sustainable development without going through the process of education, be it formal, informal or non-formal. In the study of the link between education and society, Parsons (1961) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) stated that the school acts as a bridge between the family and the society as a whole, preparing children for their adult role. He also saw the educational system as an important mechanism for selection of individuals for their 150 future role in society. In other words, education “ functions to allocate these human resources within the role-structure of adult society” (p. 601). Talcott Parson’s submission implies therefore that when people are not educated, they will not be able to find their proper place in the society. This will also lead to misplacement of roles in the society and subsequently hinder development. Education is therefore the key to developing individuals and in doing so, making social progress possible. Education had been and is still one of the social responsibilities of the government of any society. This is because every government recognizes the place and importance of education in national development. Reddy, Manchala and Amareswaran (2008) opined that education not only dispels ignorance, it is also the only wealth that cannot be robbed. Education is therefore needed by every member of the society because it equips individuals with knowledge and skill that will enable them to be useful both to themselves and to their society. Although education is needed by all, not all members of the society can afford the cost of education. This is because no society is egalitarian and since there are members of the society who may not be able to afford the high cost of education, the government takes it upon herself to provide it as a social product for all her citizens. In recent years, however, there has been an intense shift from government’s sole responsibility for the provision of education to the privatization and commercialization of education. Kishan & Balaramulu (2008) stressed that: Globalization, compulsion and paradigm shift in education are the main concepts in the system of education in the 21st century. Money rather than merit are the measure of available educational opportunity. Education under globalization is no more a social product for social consumption, rather it is a private product for private consumption (p.89). This shift in the provision of education is, therefore, a global problem ,which is not limited to Nigeria as a country. Moreover, there has been an intense debate on the issue of privatization globally, internationally and nationally. Both the privatization and commercialization of public enterprises generally, and education in particular, has not been accepted as a popular reform in Nigeria. For instance, the academic and labour unions non governmental organizations and individuals have constantly criticized governments move to privatize public enterprises. It appears, however, that the privatization and commercialization of education has attracted the most intense global debate. This paper therefore draws from the work of Kishan (2008) on privatization of education to consider the implications of privatization and commercialization of education in Nigeria on the one hand and equality of educational opportunities on the other. It will also consider the role of a democratic government in ensuring that equal educational opportunities are given to all members of the society. The paper does not, in any way, intend to take sides with any opinion, rather to consider how privatization and commercialization of schools may have implication for equal educational opportunities. Meaning of Privatization and Commercialization Privatization has to do with private ownership of businesses and industries in the society. The term privatization as defined by Sujatha, Reddy and Reddy (2008, p.63) means, “... shifting the delivery of services performed by public employees to private business”. This implies that privatization is the process of transferring the ownership of an organization or enterprise from the public sector to the private sector. For the purposes of education, privatization implies the withdrawal of the state intervention from this sector. Dayan and 151 Sambaiah (2008) also submitted that privatization in education means having lesser control and regulations of government. Kishan and Giridhar (2008) also defined privatization as a process of moving from less public ownership, financing and /or control to more private ownership, financing and /or control. They further stated that privatization is a complex and an ambiguous concept because three dimensions of change can be identified. These are ownership, financing and control. Citing Laitsch (2002), they emphasized that privatization encompasses three elements which are: 1. contracting out of services; 2. bringing in private companies to run schools; and 3. privatization of governance and funding. The aforementioned definitions or explanations of privatization show that when any of the dimensions of change in privatization which are ownership, financing and control are seen in any service, sector or company, privatization has taken place. The privatization and commercialization Act of 1988 and the Bureau of Public Enterprises Act 1993 also defined privatization as the relinquishment of part or all of the equity and other interests held by the Federal Government or any of its agencies to private enterprises, whether wholly or partly. The transfer of the ownership of those public enterprises owned and managed by Federal or State Governments to private individuals is therefore called privatization. Broadly defined, it is an umbrella term to describe a variety of policies, which encourage competition and emphasize the role of market forces in place of statutory restrictions and monopoly powers (Zayyad, n.d.).Commercialization as defined by Zayyad (n.d) is the re-organization of enterprises, wholly or partially owned by the government in which such commercial enterprises shall operate as profit-making commercial ventures without subvention from the government. The Oxford Dictionary, however, defined it as “manage or exploit in a way defined to make a profit”. Public enterprises can either be fully or partially privatized or commercialized. Zayyad (n.d.) noted that fully privatized or commercialized public enterprises are those which are already incorporated and which produce goods and those which are more “private” (consumptive) than public (essential) in nature. They would be owned 100% by the private sector. Examples of such public enterprises are insurance companies, foods and beverages companies, Nigeria Ports Authority, and National Insurance Corporation of Nigeria. Partially privatized or commercialized public enterprises on the other hand, are those which the government considers strategic because of the greater public nature of their goods. In this case, government would still exercise some influence over them to the extent of its representation on the board. In terms of accountability, management, profit, they would operate as the fully privatized enterprises. Examples of these are Cement companies, Development Banks, Ajaokuta steel Company Limited and Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation. Kalyani and Venkateswarlu (2008), therefore, opined that commercialization of education refers to the process of private ownership and management of educational institutions whereby investment takes place with a view to earn profit. Privatization therefore leads to commercialization. Privatization and Commercialization of Education: The Conflict Perspective. Karl Marx (1818-1883) is the proponent of the conflict theory of the society and social change. He regarded change as a much more explosive process resulting from inherent conflict within societies. In Marx’s Manifesto of the Communist Party, he stated that “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle”. This struggle, 152 according to Marx, is between the haves and the have nots or rather between the oppressors and the oppressed (O’Donnel, 1978; Salawu, 2003). Marx maintained that the fact that only a certain amount of wealth, power and other desired factors are available within the society makes conflict almost inevitable. Broom and Selznick (1977) stated that Marx believes that the most important aspect of social order is the domination of some groups by others, and that society is best understood as an arena of actual and potential conflict. Human societies (either in its primitive or relatively undifferentiated stage) has therefore remained fundamentally divided between classes (Coser, 1977). The privatization of schools in Nigeria presents a conflict of interests between groups in the Nigeria society. The poverty level of parents in Nigeria also constitutes one of the reasons for this conflict. This is because Marx identified scarcity of wealth as one of the reasons for conflict in societies. Similarly, Adebisi (2003) opined that conflict theorists believe that there are fundamental differences of interest between social groups and that those differences result in conflict being a common and persistent feature of society and not a temporary aberration. Max Weber’s view is that the interest groups, classes or status groups in the society may usually have political, economic, educational and religious interests that they want to promote and protect. Conflict perspectives are therefore based on the view that there is a conflict of interest between groups in society. The powerful are seen to gain at the expense of the less powerful. Thus, in a capitalist society, education largely serves the interest of the powerful, maintains their power, justifies their privilege and legitimizes their wealth (Haralambos & Holbon, 2008). Karl Marx, the proponent of the capitalist perspective of society also claimed that a constant expansion of the market is necessary for the development of capitalism. Rikowski (2002) cited in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) also argues that today’s globalization is essentially capitalist globalization and he sees education as part of this process. As a global commodity therefore, the driving force behind private educational institutions is the generation of profit. Most private schools at all levels of education in Nigeria are, therefore, driven by this desire. Thus, money rather than merit, are the measure of availing educational opportunity. Education under globalization is, therefore, no more a social product for social consumption, rather, it has become a private product for private consumption (Kishan & Balaramulu, 2008). The less privileged in the society are, therefore, denied access to quality education, which in recent times, can mostly be found among graduates of private institutions of learning, especially, at the primary and secondary school levels. Privatization and Equal Educational Opportunity Nigeria places a high premium on education. This is why her philosophy of education is based on the provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all her citizens at all levels of education, both inside and outside the formal system of education (F.R.N, 2004). Similarly, the objectives of the Education For All (EFA), an international commitment to education, which was first launched in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990 are to: - Expand and improve comprehensive childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. - Ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, those in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality. - Ensure that learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skill programmes. 153 - Achieve a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. - Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2015, and achieve gender equality in 2015 with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. - Improve all aspects of the quality of education and ensure excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) as stated by Enuku (2006) was also to achieve universal basic education, and to ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary education and junior secondary education. These reviews are both national and international commitments to equality of educational opportunities and demonstrate that education is a right of every member of the society. It also goes to show that it is the responsibility of the government, not only to ensure that equal educational opportunities are provided to all citizens, but also, to be responsible for the education of her citizens. This is because education is the primary need for all in the society. Nwoye (n.d) noted that the need to harness, rationally, the scarce resources to produce goods and services for economic improvement as well as the promotion of the welfare of the citizens led to the emergence of the public sector in Nigeria. Thus, the government became solely responsible for certain facilities in the society. These facilities include education, which cannot be left at the mercy of private individuals. She further stated, however, that privatization in Nigeria was formally introduced by the Privatization and Commercialization Act of 1988 with a mandate to privatize 111 public enterprises and commercialize34 others. This has led the privatization of some parastatals in Nigeria which had been solely managed and funded by the Government. Some of these parastatals had earlier been mentioned. Privatization and commercialization of public enterprises has not been a popular reform in that several arguments had risen against it. Some of them are that it will result in: - exploitation of consumer by the private sector; - perpetration of poverty, especially among the poor and vulnerable workforce; and - exploitation by capitalist countries. The education industry had also been privatized either directly or indirectly by the government. Poor infrastructure, poor learning environment and other related problems in public schools caused by inadequate funding by the government has contributed to the proliferation of private schools in Nigeria. The government is therefore subtly withdrawing from her social responsibility of providing her citizens with education by allowing private individuals to take over this responsibility. Kishan (2008) argued that the liberalization policy of government has led to the privatization of the education system. This has made education to become a private product for private consumption, rather than remaining a social product for social consumption. Kumar and Marreddy (2008, p.107) also stated some effects of privatization on education in Nigeria as: 1. Unplanned expansion 2. Discrepancy between the rich and the poor, and thus, likely to increase the gap between the rich and poor. There is a contradiction between the ideal of equal educational opportunity and the existence of the present education system in Nigeria. Privatization of some schools can limit the chances for those who have the interest and ability, but do not have the finance or socio154 economic chances of acquiring education. One of the pronounced direct attempt by the government of Nigeria to privatize schools was the contemplated privatization of unity schools in 2007. Abdullahi (2003) stated that the dire need to use education to develop in the Nigerian youths a sense of unity, patriotism and love of the nation, especially after the Nigerian independence, gave birth to the concept of Federal Government Colleges, otherwise called Unity Schools. He further stated that: The objective was to foster in the youths a sense of nation building. In this way, young pupils in their formative and impressionable years from all parts of the federation with different languages, ethnic and cultural backgrounds are given the opportunity to work, play and grow together learn to understand and tolerate one another and therefore develop a horizon of one strong Nigeria (p.101). Despite this laudable goal of establishing the unity schools in Nigeria, the Federal Government proposed in 2007 a Unity Schools Public-private Partnership initiative (PPP) as a solution to the problems of corruption and poor management of the schools. Abdullahi (2003) noted that if this initiative was carried out, it would change the government’s role from that of a school manager to that of: - enabler and facilitator of the system; - standard-setter through law, regulations and guidelines regarding policies, minimum standards, etc; - primary fund provider; - regulator and inspector to ensure maintenance of minimum standards; and - asset owner of land and physical infrastructure. The role of non-governmental partners is also expected to be that of: - Operator and manager of schools; - Mobilizer of non-government funding to augment resources provided by the Federal Government; and - Responsible for achievement of standards and goals. Though the Federal Government claimed that the PPP initiative is not an attempt to privatize the unity schools, Abdullahi (2006) saw it as Federal Government’s first essential step in the privatization of ownership of unity schools. The National Executive Council of the Academic Staff Union of Nigerian Universities (ASUU), through its president opposed the contemplated privatization of unity schools for some reasons, such as: 1. it will extend to tertiary education, if the experiment in unity schools succeeds; 2. it is an abdication of the Federal Government primary social responsibility; and 3. Parents cannot pay for the education of their children because over 100 million Nigerians are living on less than one United States Dollar a day. The intended privatization of unity schools in Nigeria was discussed to show that the general public is not well disposed towards the initiative in particular and the privatization and commercialization of education in general. Private schools (at different levels) are springing up in Nigeria because both Federal and State Governments, by their actions or attitudes towards issues concerning the education sector, have lost their commitment to providing this essential commodity and making it available and accessible to all citizens. Privatization and commercialization of schools is, therefore, contrary to the policy of equal educational opportunities because it will: 1. 2. 3. 4. affect access of the poor to education; lead to unhealthy competition among private school owners; make our education system to be at the mercy of profit making individuals or organizations; and affect job security of the teaching and non-teaching staff. 155 The role of a democratic government in the privatization and commercialization of schools and in ensuring equal educational opportunities. Education is the social responsibility of every democratic government. This is why the Federal Government recognized the importance of education in national development and thus stated in section 1, sub-section 9(a) of the National Policy on Education that: Education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans because education is the most important instrument of change; any fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded by an educational revolution (F.R.N. 2004,p. 8). However, the attitude of both Federal and State Governments towards the funding and general maintenance of educational institutions calls to question their commitment towards the provision of equal educational opportunities to the citizens. Chukwuneke (2009) has noted that in democracy, one of the cardinal principles is equality before the law. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the government to ensure equality in the provision of education. Bad governance, inept leadership, mismanagement of resources, and misplaced priorities have, however, been impeding development in most African countries, including Nigeria. It has been established that the effects of privatization on education in Nigeria includes unplanned expansion and more importantly, discrepancy between the rich and the poor. This is because most private schools charge exorbitant fees, which the poor masses in the society cannot afford. Some individuals might argue that education has not been privatized in Nigeria, but what happens when the government neglects her responsibilities towards the public schools? There will be dilapidation of structures, lack of adequate infrastructures, delay in payment of teachers’ salaries, poor funding and so on. These will impact negatively on the quality of education in public schools. Subsequently, this will lead to the emergence of more private schools, which will be funded by private individuals in Nigeria. As profit oriented organizations, the fees will be outside the reach of the lower class members of the society. If the rich have access to quality education and the poor to substandard education as result of differences in economic power, how then shall Nigerians in general or the government, lay claim to the provision of equal educational opportunities? Democracy has been defined as the government of the people, by the people and for the people, and before every election, aspirants make so many promises to the citizens, which they often fail to fulfill after they are voted into office. These promises include that of ensuring that education is accessible to all Nigerians, and also revamping the education sectors. However, “How many governments live up to these promises?”, is a question to be answered. Zayyad (n.d) noted that “ as government could no longer continue to support the monumental waste and inefficiency of the public enterprise, the programme of privatization and commercialization was developed to address the peculiar socio-economic and political conditions in Nigeria …” (p.2). This so called problem, which could be handled in a different way, had led to full or partial privatization and commercialization of many public enterprises in Nigeria, and though the government has not fully declared the privatization of the education sector, her activities towards it show that the sector had also been either fully or partially privatized and commercialized. What is our democratic government doing to ensure that the public primary schools, secondary schools and universities, which though cost less than the private schools, have the same quality as their counter parts? 156 It could, therefore, be argued that in terms of affordability (especially in the area of cost), there is equal educational opportunity. This is because the poor masses may afford to send their children and wards to the public schools, especially, with the introduction of free and compulsory education up to Basic 9. In the same vein, the rich can afford the high fees charged by private schools. However, when the quality of education is considered, the inequality between these classes becomes prominent. It should be remembered that private schools began to flourish as a result of parents’ dissatisfaction with the attitude of the government to the public schools and with the standard of education being given to their children. The government is highly responsible for the proliferation of private schools in Nigeria and the unequal educational opportunities being provided to the citizens of this country. It is the responsibility of Nigeria’s democratic government, therefore, to ensure that equal educational opportunity is provided to the citizens. Conclusion This paper has explored the concept of privatization and commercialization, distinguishing between full and partial privatization and commercialization. The main focus of the paper is privatization and commercialization of education. It was shown that privatization denies citizens equal educational opportunities, especially, when the quality of education provided is considered. The conflict perspective of society was used to explain the relationship between privatization of education and equal educational opportunities. Private schools serve the purpose of the rich because it is only the rich that have the economic power to establish private schools and also to send their children to such schools. The government plays a role in the privatization and commercialization of schools because they carry out their responsibilities towards the public schools. Hence, people lose interest in these schools and resort to private ones. This gives the private sector the opportunity to exploit the citizens. In view of these discourse, a democratic government has the responsibility of ensuring that all citizens have access to equal educational opportunity in terms of both the equality and the quantity of education provided. Recommendations: Deriving from the fore-going conclusion, it is hereby recommended that both the Federal and State government should: 1. Provide adequate funds for the maintenance of public schools. 2. Ensure adequate and prompt payment of teachers salaries. 3. Ensure that other conditions of service are favourable to the teachers 4. Set up machineries for the adequate supervision of public schools to ensure quality education. 5. Rehabilitate classrooms and other damaged structures in the schools. 6. Build classrooms, staff rooms, libraries, laboratories where they are either not existing or are insufficient. 7. Provide amenities such as electricity, pipe borne water, and health facilities in public schools. 8. Regulate the fees charged by private schools to make it accessible to all citizens. 9. Ensure adequate supervision of private schools to ensure that quality is not sacrificed for gain. 157 References Abdullahi, O.E. (2003). Secondary education in Nigeria. In J.O.O Abiri,(Ed). Perspectives on history of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Emola-jay communications. Abdullahi, S. (2006). ASUU’S position on the federal ministry of education stakeholders forum and the contemplated privatization of the unity schools. Abuja:National Execution Council (NEC) of ASUU. Adebisi, M.A. (2003). Reflections on theories of social change. In B. Salawu, (Ed.) Sociology: Concept and themes. Ilorin. Ahnour international publishers. Amini-Philips, C. & Victor- Ochonma, R. (2009). Some Variables influencing gender inequality in science & technology in higher education in Nigeria. Journal of International Gender Studies. June ,145-158 Broom, L., & Selznick, P. (1977). Sociology: A text with adapted readings (6th ed.) New York: Harper and row publishers Chukwuneke, B.U. (2009). Improving political and economic conditions of Nigerian women through education for gender equality and sustainable national development. Journal of International Gender Studies, June, 51-57. Coser, L.A. (1977). Master of sociological thought: Ideas, historical and social context (2 nd ed.) New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc. Dayan, & Sambaiah, P. (2008). Privatization of secondary education and social justice. In N.R. Kishan. Privatization of education.. New Delhi: A. P. H. Publishing corporation. Enaibe, P.U. & Imonivwerha, P.A. (2007). Meeting the educational needs of people in target groups. Ughelli:Eregha Publishers Enuku, U.E. (2006). Prison education and the millennium development goals in Nigeria. In A. Okediran, (Ed.). The adult education in Nigeria 1(12), 28-36 Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC. 158 THE RELEVANCE OF EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CHANGE AND GOOD GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA ALUFOHAI, E. A. Faculty of Educational Foundations, University of Lagos & EZEANA, P. C. Faculty of Educational Foundations, University of Lagos Abstract The emphasis for all people all over the world to have access to basic education is founded on the belief that education has been established to be the main key for social change both for the individual and the society. Education remains the foundation of growth and development of any nation as well as a major tool for bringing about desirable changes. Pointing out the role of literacy and education in overall human development, Patil (2009) held that literacy and education confer a wide set of benefits not only on individuals and families, but also on communities as a whole. Consequently, the need to utilize education as an authentic tool for social change and good governance in the Nigerian educational system cannot be overemphasized. To this end, this paper, examined the importance of education for social change and as a tool for good governance in Nigeria. The challenges of education in Nigeria alongside the trend of changes in the Nigerian educational system were also discussed. The paper concluded with the recommendation that education be made accessible to all, and citizenship education should be introduced and taught at all levels of our educational system for social change and good governance to be achieved. Introduction The importance of education to human development cannot be over emphasized. Education is recognized as a process by which individuals are perceived to assume their respective responsibilities within a social setting, thus, making it a tool for social reconstruction and national development (Sofolahan, 2000). Consequently, in every society today, education is seen as the main key to the social change of the individual and the society. This accounts for the emphasis, particularly in recent times, for all people all over the world to have access to basic education. The above is borne out of the fact that education performs functions both for the individual and the society. It is important to reiterate that one basic goal of Education for All (EFA) is ensuring that by 2015, all children have access to a complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality (United Nations, 2008). However, the conservative estimate of UNICEF (2002) was that some 45% of primary school age children were out of school in Nigeria. The literacy situation in Nigeria as analyzed by UNICEF indicated that the overall literacy rate declined from 57% in 1990 to 49% in 2001, and this compares very unfavourably with African countries such as South Africa (84%), Kenya (79%), Cameroon (72%) and Ghana (68%). Also, findings from educational sector analysis by Civil Society Action Coalition on Education for All (CSACEFA) (2008) confirmed the poor state of education in Nigeria. The national literacy rate according to the finding was 57 percent. Some 49 percent of the teaching force was not qualified. There were acute shortages of infrastructure and facilities at 159 all levels. Access to basic education was inhibited by gender issues and socio-cultural beliefs and practices among other factors. From the findings, it was very glaring that wide disparities persisted in educational standards and learning achievements, despite the irrefutable substantiation that education is fundamental to the improvement of the people and the nation. Consequently, Nigerian educational system leaves much to be desired in the mission to utilize education as an authentic tool for social change and good governance. Conceptual Framework This study draws from Charles Horton Cooley’s (1864-1929) Symbolic interactionism which focuses on how individuals influence and are influenced by society (Hobbs & Blank, 1975). It guides investigations into how the rules of society are re-created everyday through our interactions with one another. Socialization of members of any society is a crucial factor in attaining the ideals and goals of any society and is necessary for the maintenance of order in the society. With the process of socialization, members of the society are taught the benefits of conforming to acceptable standards of behaviour (Smah, 2000). The overall result of this conformity brings about social order. This makes the development of human society to hinge on values, norms, laws and methods of acquiring and transferring skills generally through socializations – a process by which we learn to become members of a society both by internalizing the norms and values of society, and by learning to perform our social roles in a group or in a society (Marshall, 1996). Group life having brought about so many new things among which was how people started possessing some accepted ways of behaviour, later culminated in the development of group culture. According to Adisa (2000) group period is a living period when man entered into a “social contract”. In his view, each person now has to sacrifice or surrender certain individual freedom in order to ensure collective security. This shows the origin and universality of social institutions through preoccupation with economic survival, government, sex and procreation (family), religion, legal/jurisprudence as well as education. Education as one of the social institutions stands out as an agent for deliberate and organized transmission of values and skills. For this to be made possible, schools are established to give formal learning to people. Formal learning complements the informal education received at home. Little wonder education is seen by some as the total experience of what happens to us from birth to death (Moore, 1982). Nduka (1964) viewed education as the formal process of transmitting culture from one generation to the next while socialization could be seen as the informal process of transmitting culture to the younger generation. Education as a social institution is therefore universally acknowledged as a vital instrument in the development process of any nation and is vital to liberating the people from ignorance alongside stimulating development. It also plays a significant role in transforming the lives of individuals, and consequently of the society in which they live. Thus, educational enterprise is a vehicle of social stability/order as well as an agent of social change (Aluko, 2000). As a result, the value attached to education becomes high. It could therefore be explained that involvement of education in the process of turning children into useful and responsible adults means that it is not concerned solely with knowledge as preparation for occupation, but to ensure that each generation shares a common set of values which dictates the ideas of right and wrong. The purpose of education must be to develop in every individual their full potential while giving them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow. This promising vision, however, does not unfold into reality. The reality, according to many 160 sociologists is that education works towards a larger goal than that of the individual and its purpose is to maintain social stability, through the social reproduction of inequality. What the goal of this stability is differs depending on which sociological perspective one uses. To this end, the formulation of ideas, their integration for national development, and the interaction of persons and ideas as aspects of education, must be well articulated to foster the worth and development of the individual, for each individual’s sake, and for the general development of the society. Education for Social Change Education remains the bedrock of growth and development of any nation and a major tool for bringing about desirable changes. Education provides individuals in a country the opportunity to be exposed to the cultures of other tribes in the country. When people learn about the cultures of others within the country, they develop appreciation and tolerance for one another. This exposure contributes a lot to the improvement of the individual as well as promoting peaceful co-existence which is linked to national integration. This is quite crucial as integration has been the problem of most developing countries. Given that education plays important roles by being an agent of integration and/or enabling the country to adopt a uniform way of life, the problem of integration can effectively be tackled through it. For instance, through education, a country with diverse cultures and languages like Nigeria can have a common language taught to all and a similar curriculum given to the growing children, who will through such shaped experiences develop a higher tendency to think more like members of the same country than of the various tribes which they come from. Education has contributed to changing the social structure of societies hence it is globally seen and accepted as the bed rock of the society. This is because of its intrinsic and extrinsic values, which make it instrumental in the development of persons for attainment of the good life and overall development of the society (Omolewa, 2001). In the same vein, once the individual is developed, he/she can access political education which is crucial for the sustenance of democracy. A direct way in which education serves as an instrument of social change is by enabling individuals to critically assess old values and where these no longer meet their aspirations, discard them and take on more appropriate ones. It is through education that individuals are able to know what is expected of them. They are able to engage in important discussions and contribute meaningfully to the growth of their society. They are able to critically examine policies put forward by their representatives in government. With education it is easy for positive change to be adopted. Literacy leads to good employment opportunities. Dukku (2009) opined that literacy empowers people economically and politically and that if the education system is not right at the basic level, it will affect the secondary and tertiary levels. If a country’s workforce is educated, skilled, organized as well as competitive and prepared to go ahead, no one can stop such an economy from being prosperous. Concisely, economic development depends on qualitative workforce and this qualitative workforce can be acquired by developing professional, social and communication skills through literacy and education. If the people of a country are educated, they will work much better to satisfy their needs. Simultaneously, the country’s economy will grow and develop. 161 Education for Good Governance Good governance has been defined by UNESCO (2006) as a form of governance that embodies eight specific characteristics, and can be seen as an ideal of governance. Good governance embodies processes that are participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follow the rule of law. 162 The Eight Characteristics of Good Governance CHARACTERISTIC Accountability DEFINITION Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only government institutions but also the private sector and civil society organisations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom varies, depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organisation or institution. In general, an organisation or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law. Consensus-oriented There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community. Effectiveness and Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet efficiency the needs of society while making the best use of the resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment. Equity and inclusiveness A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires that all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being. Participation Participation by both men and women is a cornerstone of good governance. Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. Representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision-making. Participation needs to be informed and organised, which requires freedom of association and expression and an organised civil society. Responsiveness Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe. Rule of law Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Transparency Transparency means that decisions made and their enforcement are achieved in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and media. Source: United Nations (2006) Good governance “assures that corruption is minimised, the views of minorities are taken into account, and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decisionmaking. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society”. Clearly, there is a close relation between good governance and respect for human rights. 163 In lieu of the above, there is need for functional education for the promotion of a progressive, united Nigeria. To achieve this, school programmes need to be relevant, practical and comprehensive, while interest and ability should be used to determine individuals’ direction in education. If literacy is high in a nation, it will not only increase the number of entrepreneurs and the flow of money, it will bring about positive social changes. If people are literate, then there will be minimum violence in the country. This scenario surely creates room for good governance. An educated country is a developed country. It is a country that is set for social change and good governance. If the issue of illiteracy must be addressed, the policy on education as an instrument par excellence for national development has to be properly implemented. This brings us to the challenges facing education in Nigeria. Challenges of Education in Nigeria Observing the importance of education for social change and national development, the United Nations (UN) advocates 26 percent of annual budgets to education. Similarly, the federal government of Nigeria recognizes the importance of education as a tool for development in the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004). Regrettably, so many years after the formulation of the National Policy, education in Nigeria has not been able to meet the stated aims. Education was commissioned to improve and widen access to primary education. But the budgetary allocation to education fell seriously short of the UNESCO prescribed 26 percent of the entire budgetary allocation. It only improved slightly when democracy came in 1999 as shown in the table on the next page. Table 1: Education Sector Share of Federal Budget 1989-2003 in millions. Year Annual Budget Allocation to % Total Education 1989 30,107,000 1,941.7 6.45 1990 40,660.7 2,204.7 5.45 1991 38,665.9 1,787.6 4.62 1992 52,036.4 2,392.9 4.00 1993 111,616.5 7,999.1 7.20 1994 69,200.0 10,283.4 14.86 1995 111,457.5 12,816.4 11.50 1996 121,221.9 15,351.7 10.81 1997 118,089.3 16,841.2 11.53 1998 246,342.4 23,668.1 9.61 1999 249,000.00 827,713.5 11.13 2000 No data No data No data 2001 894,200 62,600.0 7.0 2002 765,000 13,500 1.81 Sources: Education Sector Status Report (2003), Effective Funding & Quality Assurance in Nigerian Education System. Table 1 shows that the allocation to education in the federal budget fluctuated between 1989 and 2003. The percentage allocation was most ridiculous in 2003 when government budgeted 1.81% to education which is terribly far from the UNESCO recommendation of 26% for developing countries. The decreased sector allocation to education in the national budget also implied decreased funding for education in general, the 164 result of this decreased funding is that facilities and infrastructure declined in quality and quantity, thereby, contributing to the system’s inefficiency (Obanyan, 2006).. Table 2: Proportion of Federal Government Budget Allocated to Education (1990 – 2003) Year % of total budget allocated Year % of total budget to education allocated to education 1990 5.3 1997 11.5 1991 4.1 1998 9.6 1992 6.3 1999 11.1 1993 7.3 2000 10.1 1994 14.9 2001 12.2 1995 13.0 2002 10.5 1996 10.8 2003 11.0 Source: Okoli (2006:6) From the table, it is obviously clear that at no time has the allocation to the sector come near the 26% minimum recommended by UNESCO. The rationale for public spending on education is to equip people with the knowledge, skills and attitudes which will enhance the quality of lives of the citizens of the country. Trend of Changes in Nigerian Educational System Amidst the fact that the education system in Nigeria is supposed to be guided by the broad National objectives which are articulated in the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004), the state of education in Nigeria still leaves much to be desired. According to Soyinka (2007), in a recent study by the Federal Ministry of Education which is contained in a report titled ‘State of Nigeria public schools’, out of 140 million Nigerians 45% (63 million) are children from 0 to 15 years. Out of these 63 million, 42.1 million were eligible for primary school education but only 22.3 million were in primary schools with the public school system catering for 85%. So, 47% (19.8 million) Nigerian children that should have been in primary school were out of school and the major reason for this state of affairs was the inability of most parents to bear the cost of sending their children to school. Nevertheless, of all the levels of education, the primary education level remains the most important since it aims among other things at inculcating permanent literacy, numeracy and the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking. As a signatory in 2000 to the World Education Conference and the six Dakar Goals towards achieving Education for All (EFA), Government has also established a National EFA Coordination unit under the Federal Ministry of Education, mandated to prepare a National Action Plan for the delivery of EFA in Nigeria. However, the Nigerian educational system is witnessing difficulty in the context of declining resource inputs particularly from the government. This is because enrolments in schools are increasing and the needed resources to meet infrastructural and other requirements are dwindling. An example is the rapid expansion witnessed by the Nigerian formal education sector between 1975/76 section and 2005/2006 academic session. According to the National University Commission Report (NUC, 2005), growth and expansion in the tertiary sector has defied all projections. NUC reports that, Nigerian’s Federal University system grew by 12% annually and during the 1990s, it totalled 325,299 165 number of students (Okebukola, 2002). As at 2005 computing from NUC records, the total number of students in twenty five federally funded universities (excluding National Open University) had risen to 442,864 while that of the state university system totalled 265,166 (NUC, 2005). The primary and secondary schools were not left out. The World Bank report 2007 reveals an increase of 95.5 million enrolment in primary schools in 2000, and 102.9million in 2005. The secondary school enrolment in 2005 was 34.2 million (World Bank, 2009). With the uncontrolled expansion, the cost of running the schools totalled over $210 million in 1999. Recurrent allocation to education generally has been very low. The table below reveals the share of federal government budget to the educational sector between 1999 and 2010. Federal Government Budgetary Allocation to Education 1999 – 2010. Year Amount (n)billion Percentage (%) 1999 23.047 11.2% 2000 44.225 8.3% 2001 39.885 7.0% 2002 10.2 5.09% 2003 64.76 11.83% 2004 72.22 7.8% 2005 92.59 8.3% 2006 166.6 8.7% 2007 137.48 6.06% 2008 210 10% 2009 168.44 13% 2010 3.49 Source: Education Sector Status Report (2009). Apart from 2008 and 2009, when the budgetary allocation rose to 13 percent (N210 billion), the highest ever given to education, the government has not been forthcoming in improving the financial status of the sector. Although the 26 percent (26%) of the nation’s yearly fiscal budget recommended by UNESCO is a far cry in meeting the funding exigencies of the sector, yet the Federal Government has not been able to make it available in the past ten years. Recommendation Based on the above discussions, the following recommendations are hereby made: 1. Education should be made accessible to all if good governance must be achieved 2. For social change and good governance to take place in the Nigerian society, the curriculum should be geared towards producing educated and morally sound individuals. 3. Citizenship Education should be introduced and taught at all levels of our educational system for social change and good governance to be achieved. Conclusion Education is a very powerful, vehicle of social change and development. Social development is that force moving society from the simple, rural and agrarian form to a more sophisticated, urban, industrialized and technologically advanced form. For social change and good governance to be in place in Nigeria, teachers have great tasks to perform. Teachers 166 must not be contented with the socialization of the younger generation for the present culture alone, they should realize the need for them to make their own education functional to keep them abreast of future changes and developments. They need also to continue to review the school curriculum so that our education will develop to the point of specializing in mechanical and scientific discoveries which can bring useful changes to the lives of the individuals and the society. If education is to be of any use in social transformation, it obviously has to include both facts and values, both knowledge of the empirical and the essentials to foster the critical and the constructive mind. References Adisa, A.L. (2000). Social institutions. In Ogunbameru, Kunle & Rotimi, Wale (Eds.), Man and his social environment. (p. 99-112.) . Lagos: Cardinal Crest Limited. Aluko, M.A.O. (2000). Social organizations. In Ogunbameru, Kunle & Rotimi, Wale (Eds.), Man and his social environment (113-122.). Lagos: Cardinal Crest Limited Dukku, A. (2009). Federal government blames self for mass failure in unity schools. Retrieved June 20, 2011, from http://tribunengrworld.com /_FG_Blames_Self_For _Mass_Failure_In_Unity_ Schools-2516259.htm Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: Government Press. Hobbs, D. A. & Blank, S. J. (1975). Sciology and the human experience. New York: John Wiley & Son Inc. Marshal, G. (1996). The concise oxford dictionary of sociology. New York: Oxford Moore, S.Y. (1982). Youth AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. London: Routledge. Nduka, O. (2007). Western education and the Nigerian cultural background. Nigeria: Oxford University Press. NUC (2005). Institutional resource management, control and protection in Nigeria universities. A document released from the NUC Directorate of Academic Planning and Research to all Vice-chancellors of Nigerian Universities Obanyan, F. O. B. (2006). Educational financing: Principles, trends and strategies. Ilorin: Goslen Print. Okebukola, P. (2002). Issues in funding university education in Nigeria. Paper presented at the forum on cost and financing of education in Nigeria. Education Sector Analysis (ESA) September 17-19, Nigeria. 167 Okoli, J. C. (2006). Funding tertiary education in Nigeria: The perspective of national emergency. A paper presented at the 2006 conference of the National Association of Education Administration and Planning. Enugu: Enugu State University. Omolewa, M. (2001). The challenge of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press. Patil, P. (2009). Literacy boosts economic development. Retrieved on 10thJuly, 2011 from http//www.merinews.com/calful.jsp? article ID = 140894 Smah, S. (2000). Social deviance on a Nigerian university campus: The University of Jos, Nigeria. In Lebeau, Yann and Ogunsanya, Mobolaji. (Eds.). The dilemma of postcolonial universities. (p.123143). Ibadan: IFRA/AFRICAN Book Builders. Sofolahan, J. O. (2000). National policy issues in the state of education III. Nigeria. Abuja: UNESCO OFFICE Soyinka, A. (2007). One in every two Nigerian classrooms is bad. The Punch, Tuesday, 20, 3. UNESCO (2006). What is good governance? Retrieved on 17th October, 2011 from www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm UNESCO and ICQAHEA. (2008, September 1). UNICEF (2002). Humanitarian Action Burundi. Retrieved on 3rd July, 2011 from www.reliefweb.int/iw/rwbcnsf/db900SID/OCHA-64094? Open Document United Nations (2006). What is good governance? Retrieved on 15th February, 2012 from www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm (24 December 2006). World Bank (2009). Global monitoring report. Washington DC: World Bank. 168 CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FOR NATION BUILDING NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE MUJIL, D. J. Department of Educational Foundation, College of Education, Gindiri, Plateau State. Abstract This paper examined the imperative of citizenship education specifically in Nigeria. It is observed that within Nigeria as a nation, the issue of who is a citizen has always prompted problems, most especially, when a position is to be accorded to an individual. It is argued that in spite of the varied measures taken by past government to ensure unity and integration of the Nigerian citizens, no much positive impact has been reached. Since education is looked at as a tool for solving society's problems, the paper considered the need for the Nigerian citizenry to be properly informed about the role of the Nigerian citizens through citizenship education. Problems were identified through this process and solutions proferred. Introduction Citizenship means the totality of all rights and privileges accorded to all members of a given state (Okoli, 2003). Membership of any state carries some rights, duties and obligations. A citizen is an individual member of a given political society or state, and by extension, one who owes allegiance too may lawfully demand protection from the government of that state. Citizenship is commonly associated with the domestic or municipal law defining and guiding the relationship between the state and the individual. Citizenship refers to the legal right to belong to a particular country, society or a member of a state having a full status bestowed on him by being a full member of the community (Enejo, 2000). Citizenship education is that education meant to inculcate into the learners right values, attitudes, skills and knowledge that will make them socially, politically and economically relevant to themselves and society (Udoukpong, 1994). It is education given to the children in order to create' awareness of who they are, their relationship to the state, their rights, duties and obligations to the state and how these rights can be addressed through constitutional procedures (Waziri, 1999). It can, therefore, be deduced that citizenship education is that education which is centered on the state’s affairs and the individual in the state. It implies the teaching and training of the citizens towards the acquisition of rights and values which are essentially for the development of the state. Citizenship education, according to Uche (1980), is a process of preparing the child for social responsibility as well as being patriotic. It can also be looked at as the conscious effort being made to educate the youth on certain subject areas mostly with strong value emphasis on the issue of value, the society should be conscious of the type of value that can be inculcated into the youth. It is in relationship to this that (Mokunye, 1991) is of the view that, citizenship education should be a conscious process of inculcating certain values, habits, skills and attitudes which the society consider desirable and essential for its survival as a unit and for its development. Furthermore, Citizenship education is a process of educating the citizen towards developing the socially acceptable attitudes, values and feelings towards the society and other people and to appreciate the society's problem so as to form a value system 169 that is in keeping with the norms of the society (Mitchell, 1975). Agbenta (1987) contends that citizenship education is a civil course that empahsises the study of political institutions and progress as well as the development of good citizenship and that good citizenship implies among other things citizen's respect for law and order, loyalty, honesty, hard work and cooperation so that they will grow up to be active and politically effective. This means that citizenship education aims at improving .and equipping the citizens toward becoming politically, economically, morally and scientifically viable. It is against this backdrop that this paper discusses the historical perspective of citizenship education in Nigeria, the need for citizenship Education in Nigeria Educational system, functional citizenship and nation building identified problems, and how to promote citizenship Education in Nigeria. Historical Perspective of Citizenship Education in Nigeria At the global level, the advocation and introduction of citizenship education dates back to the 1930s in Britain, where there was a growing awareness for the need· to re-educate the society following the rise of totalitarian regime in Europe. There was the need to inculcate in the youth the values of democratic ideals which were among the hallmarks of Western civilization. The Philosophy of education at that time was geared toward education for world citizenship. In Nigeria, citizenship education was taught in the early 1940s and 1950s under various titles that were used interchangeably with emphasis on the combination of the traditional school subjects like Government, Civil History, Geography and Economics. With increase in political agitation for self-government in the 1950s, it become necessary to give this course a new dimension, with emphasis on mass literacy. Nigeria as a nation has passed through a lot of experiences, pleasant and unpleasant ones. In 1960, Nigeria became independent after years of colonial domination. The value system and the education system of the colonial masters still lingered on long after independence. Hence, the need for citizenship education to help redefine and orient the citizens. As pointed out by Iyamu (1992) who stated that the education inherited from the colonial master, instead of developing positive values in the society and the Nigerian child, tends to alienate him from the cultural environment. Due to criticism against the colonial system of education, the need for a new system that would take care of the short coming of the colonial type arose. That, the people may be aware of the change and be ready to accept, it requires citizenship education. As from 1960s, citizenship education has assumed a synonymous position with social studies, which was then gaining popularity and acceptance of citizenship education as part of social studies during that period, was in line with the tremendous social, economic and political transformation of the country. The Need for Citizenship Education in Nigerian Educational System The importance of citizenship education cannot be over-emphasis as it is a panacea for solving the societal problems. The idea of citizenship education .is geared toward creating awareness among the citizens on how to solve socio-political and socio-economic problems of their society and to contribute meaningfully to the development of their society. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). 170 Citizenship education helps in promoting all-round development of the individual. This must have been the reason for its inclusion in the National Certificate of Education (NCE) programmes by the NCCE in 1996. Through citizenship education, national unity can be achieved. This is because, this educational programme would produce citizens devoid of tribal sentiment, sectionalism, dishonesty and disobedience that have crippled the nation more than 50 years after independence. Citizenship education will produce dynamic, transparent and visionary leaders that will make this nation turn a new leaf. As a character moulder, citizenship education will train citizens in the direction that will make this nation a model. Through citizenship education, indiscipline, corruption and other social vices will highly be minimized if not eradicated. In this process citizens will highly be informed and educated to see the evil of these vices and what they have done to the present administration. It will charge the citizens to take their civic responsibilities more serious. Political stability can equally be attained through citizenship education. This system of education will usher in new ideas into our political system whereby politicians will' be educated to see the danger and evil of indiscriminate rigging that takes place during election; politician will be educated on how to avoid taking politics as a “do or die” affairs, as this will change their attitude toward politics thereby bringing about political stability in the country. Functional Citizenship Education and Nation Building Citizenship education in Nigeria is all about developing desirable attitudes and values such as honesty, patriotism, tolerance and obedience to constituted authorities. For effective nation building citizens of Nigeria must be ready to practicalize these desired values. These can be possible through the knowledge and skills acquire from citizenship education which are relevant in ensuring peace and unity. Functional citizenship education is required for nation building. It is important because it promotes national unity, inculcates the spirit of self-reliance, develops common ties among Nigerians and prepare the citizenry for social responsibility (Uche, 1980). Functional citizenship education is geared towards conscious process of inculcating certain values, habits, skills and attitudes which the society considers desirable and essential for its survival as a unit and for its development (Mokunye, 1991). Politically, citizenship education is inevitable in a democratic dispensation like Nigeria’s. It has the ability to educate the electorate and those who are interested in contesting for political offices, method of voting and the calibre of people to be voted for. It is important for the populace to be enlightened on how to cast their votes, shun money politics, avoid politians with questionable characters and to vote for the right people, (National Orientation Agency (1993)). Through functional citizenship education, Nigerians irrespective of their religious affiliations, interests, and beliefs learn to get along with each other. This helps in enhancing peace and harmony which allows for effective nation building. Functional citizenship education makes the citizens to be more alive to their responsibilities and obligation to themselves, fellow human being and the society at large. It also promotes value orientation as it inculcates good sense of judgment, moral and social responsibility. All these values are needed for nation building, especially in Nigeria of our time. 171 Problems of Citizenship Education in Nigeria In spite of the vital role of citizenship education in nation building, there are so many hindrances towards achieving desired objectives embedded in it. These hindrance are discussed below: Considering the heterogeneous nature of the Nigerian society with different cultural, social and political affiliation and lifestyle. Due to these facts, it becomes difficult to teach citizenship education successfully. Another major problem is that of ethnicity. There are diverse ethnic groups in Nigeria who would want to maintain their ethnic groups’ ideology, not wanting to depart from it; they adhere to their cultures instead of that of the nation. In a situation like that; it becomes difficult to teach citizenship education. This field of education lacks qualified personnel to properly handle this programme since it is, relatively, a new area. This makes it difficult for the programme to properly train the citizens adequately. The few teachers who are qualified/experts in this field have now become consultants in the area of politics. Towards Promoting Citizenship Education in Nigeria For the citizens of this country to be well educated and informed on their roles in promoting values that can bring about national unity and progress, necessary measures should be taken in order to solve the identified problems. This paper hereby offers the following recommendations: 1. Citizenship education should be properly integrated into the educational curriculum and taught as a compulsory course in both secondary and tertiary institutions. When it is properly incorporated in the educational curriculum and properly taught, they will be disposed to making more meaningful contributions to the nation, especially, now that there is more emphasis on self-reliance. Citizens must be well mobilized towards nation - building. 2. In order to create more awareness, more textbooks in this field should be published, institutions of learning in the country should be supplied with adequate textbooks in such areas. Publication of other related materials such as journals, magazines and periodicals on citizenship education should be encouraged, as this will create more awareness on the importance of citizenship- education to the citizens. 3. Regular workshops, conferences, seminars and campaigns should always be organized for citizens to meet and discuss issues, exchange ideas on how citizenship education can be promoted and be of importance to the citizens. These activities will help the citizens to be more patriotic towards the desired values of the society and inculcate into them good qualities of citizenship. 4. Materials that can aid in facilitating the understanding and application of citizenship education should be made available. Such materials include audio-visuals, computer sets and other related materials. These should be provided in schools in order to enhance the teaching and learning of citizenship education. 5. Citizenship education needs qualified personnel to properly handle this programme. More people should be trained in this field so that enough personnel can be made available to properly impart the required knowledge which can lead to a positive change in attitude of the citizens. 6. A laudable programme of citizenship education requires adequate government financial support. This is needed in order to facilitate activities and provide materials and personnel to carry out the programme toward the desired goals. 172 Conclusion Citizenship education is a good alternative for inculcating the desired values and attitudes needed for national integration and unity. Having examined its conceptual role in nation building, its problems and prospects, the Paper asserts that unless the citizens are properly educated against the evils of the social-vices of corruption, indiscipline, examination malpractice and a host of others, it will not succeed in its effort towards promoting development. Government should ensure that perpetrators of such vices are properly punished. This paper emphasises that, citizenship education should be properly incorporated in the educational curriculum and it should be made compulsory at all levels. References Aghenta, J. (1987). Education for citizenship. A paper presented at a conference of Social Studies Association of Nig. University of Benin. Enejo, M. (2000). The theory and practice of social problem.Makurdi: Ogneikwu Printing Division. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education.Lagos: Federal Government Press. Iyamu, E. (1992). Themes in citizenship education. Benin City: Iden Publication, Nigeria. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1996). Minimum standard for Nigeria certificate in education (Review Ed) Kaduna: NCCE. Mokwunye, U. (1991). Citizenship education: Reading in social studies Vol. 1 Benin City. National Orientation Agency (1993). Handbook on national orientation agency. Abuja: Author Waziri, A. (1999). Functional citizenship education. A tool for national building. (unpublished) Conference paper. Okoli, E. (2003). Foundation of government and politics. Onisha. Nigeria: Africana-Feb. Uche, U. (1980). The nature, objectives and teaching of social studies. Benin City: Ethiopia Publisher. Udoukpony, A. (1994). Citizenship education and nation building lecture note on citizenship education.Uyo: Department of social studies, university of Uyo. 173 ASSESSING TEACHERS AWARENESS AND USE OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE OKOH, C. Federal College of Education, Technical Omoku, Rivers State. Abstract This study examined teachers’ awareness and use of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach methodology in teaching English language in primary schools. The research design adopted was the descriptive survey design; the population of the study was all primary school teachers in Rivers State. Two thousand teachers in Rivers State attended the 2011 TKT training at Iriebe, organized by Rivers State Government. Out of this number, a sample of 500 teachers representing the teachers was drawn using purposive sampling technique. Two research questions guided the study. The instrument was a 16 item structured questionnaire titled Teachers Awareness/use of CLT Approach (TAOCLTA). The instrument was validated by two experts in measurement and evaluation, the reliability index was 0.86. Data obtained were analyzed using Mean (X) scores. The response were strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed. 2.50 was used as the criterion mean value. The result showed that most teachers were introduced to CLT at the training. In terms of using the method in the classroom, most of them have not. Based on the findings; it was recommended that primary school teachers should use this method in language teaching because it is an effective method in addressing language problems in Primary Schools. Introduction The importance of the teacher to the teaching and learning situation is expressed in the adage “No educational policy in its totality can ever expect to rise above the quality of its teachers”. Again, the teacher is central in the teaching-learning process. Emenanjo (1998) buttressed this fact in explaining that the role model teacher is expected to be many things rolled into one: an instructor, a facilitator, a motivator, an innovator, an experimenter, a guide, a researcher, a therapist, an effective communicator, an exemplary role model, a true humane being and a patriot. In addition to that, a teacher is a parent, a friend, an involver and a resource provider. In line with the multidimensional role of the teacher, the NPE (2004) enunciated the goals of teacher education as the production of highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of educational system. Accordingly, it aims to: encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers provide teachers with intellectual and professional backgrounds adequate for their assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations. To achieve the goals stated above, teachers should be exposed to different teaching methodologies from which to adopt and use for effective teaching and learning in the classroom. Again, Primary School teachers are expected to always update their knowledge in teaching English language, change their methods and techniques of teaching in line with the modern methods. Language teaching method has had a checkered history. It has witnessed the rise and fall of a variety of them, starting with the Grammar Translation Method, which emphasized the “chalk and talk” (Scrivener, 2005). From the 1970s, psycholinguistics studies in applied 174 linguistics attracted attention to the act of communication and its role in the acquisition of a second language. The traditional method, as the Grammar translation method is known, considered learning as an “accumulation of discrete elements in associative chains” (Igbokwe, 2008). Language experts criticized this method. According to them, this method lacked the use of dialogue in a language classroom, which requires interactive learning. According to Lightbrown and Spada (1993) the frequent failure of traditional grammar-based methods to produce fluency and accuracy in second language learners led to the development of communicative approach to teaching. Supporters of this CLT argue that language is not learned by the gradual accumulation of one item after another. Offorma (2005) notes that grammar-translation method is boring and demotivating. The modern method considers language not just as a system of human conceptualization and perception but also, as a means of communication in society. With this idea, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged. The CLT like the traditional method has several varieties. It is a combination of some principles of behaviourists’ theory, the innatist and the interactionsist theories. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was designed in line with psycholinguistic principles of language acquisition. The behaviourists theory for instance, believes that language is acquired by constant exposure and repetition of language items until language habits are developed. Also, according to them, language can be acquired step by step and that errors (i.e. bad habits) must be corrected immediately. This is a theory of First Language acquisition that has influenced thinking about how people learn foreign languages. The innatists claim that children are biologically programmed for language acquisition and that language develops in the children in just the same way that other biological functions develop (like learning how to walk) and that language acquisition inevitably takes place provided children are exposed to language rich environment where opportunity is given for interaction. Chomsky developed this theory in reaction to the behaviourists’ theory of learning which was based on imitation and habit formation. The interactionists’ theory is based on the belief that learners learn language through communicating with others when the main focus is on meaning rather than form. Their position is that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. The Communicative Language approach draws certain principles from the three learning theories. Johnson (1987) sees this approach as one which recognizes the teaching of communicative competence as its aim. It is on this level of aim that such language teaching distinguishes itself from more traditional approaches where the emphasis is heavily on the teaching of structural competence. The communicative approach therefore, is language teaching with emphasis on communicative competence. Three types of knowledge are involved in communicative competence; these are grammar, signification and use. In communicative approach, the teaching of use is the most important aim of language teaching. Some studies have been carried out to illustrate the effectiveness of communicative approach (Lightbrown and Spada 1993). Methods of language teaching play a vital role in language teaching and learning. Quite often, the success of learning outcomes is influenced by teaching strategies used by the teacher. To achieve success in classroom teaching and learning of English language in Primary Schools, learner centered approach is required. Learner centered approach considers the interest of the learners, it is activity oriented where learners will not only be fed with facts but will also have the opportunity to interact with the language in a language rich classroom. 175 Thus, the learner gains from such experiences because learning strategies which encourage learners to work on their language, think more about what it means to learn a language and to know how to use it will improve learner’s performance. The approach where learners can find out for themselves that they can act in a specific way by combining ideas with facts is recommended. A teacher’s job is to help the learner acquire needed skills, attitude, knowledge and values. Furthermore, the preparations, strategies and medium through which learning experiences are communicated must also be compatible with the needs of the learners (Awotua-Efebo 1999). In communicative approach, the learner participates actively in the learning experiences. This, according to Offorma, is one of the principles of effective learning. It brings the language home to the learners. Grammatical items can be taught through activities such as songs, drama and dialogue using situations experienced by the learners in their own environment. This method provides the opportunity for the pupils to be proficient in the language since they will learn both the oral and writing skills. They will also gain confidence in the use of the language. The role of the teacher is dynamic in CLT classes. He acts as a facilitator and a motivator in the learning process and by so doing challenges the intellect, personality and emotions of the learners. He provides materials, which encourage, motivate students, and at the same time manage both predictable and unpredictable situations. Some of the practices of communicative language teaching are; focus on language as a medium of communication use of classroom activities rehearsing real life situations in the classroom use of pair and group work collaborative learning use of teaching materials that relate to students lives use of authentic resources that are interesting and motivating use of visual stimuli encouragement of L1 – L2 transfer. Communicative Language teaching is used in language teaching all over the world. Statement of the Problem The state of language teaching and learning in Nigeria reveals the poor linguistic standard of pupils and students. It is probably against this backdrop that Rivers State Government initiated a training course to train all the Primary School teachers in Rivers State in the TKT (Teaching Knowledge Test) course. At the end of this course all the teachers should have acquired knowledge in teaching English language using the Communicative Language Approach, which is the basis of the TKT course. English language occupies a central place in the Nigerian education system. It is the language of instruction and is compulsory from primary school to the University levels. It is the determinant factor in academic achievement of students. Few studies have studied the teachers’ awareness and use of communicative language teaching in Primary Schools. Offorma (2005) stated that Communicative Approach and learner autonomy was not effectively used in teaching model in foreign language in Nigeria. This study therefore is to find out the level of awareness and use of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach by Rivers State Primary School teachers. 176 Research Questions Two research questions guided the study and they are: (1) To what extent are primary school teachers in Rivers State aware of the communicative language teaching practices? (2) To what extent do primary school teachers in Rivers State use communicative language teaching activities in classroom teaching? Research Method: A descriptive survey design was used to elicit information on Teachers’ Awareness and Use of Communicative Language Teaching activities. The population of this study consists of two thousand primary school teachers who attended the workshop at Iriebe in Rivers State. Out of this number 500 teachers were studied. Purposive sampling technique was used because they are typical sample of the population which satisfies the specific need of this research. Data was collected using a 16 item questionnaire designed by the researcher. It was a 4 point scale questionnaire of strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed and strongly disagreed with scores of 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively. The first part of the questionnaire elicited information on primary school teachers’ awareness of the Communicative Language Approach. The second part elicited information on primary school teachers use of the Communicative Language Activities in classroom teaching. The benchmark for the accepted value is 2.50 or above. So items with mean rating of 2.50 or above were regarded as relevant. The researcher with the help of four resource persons administered the questionnaire which was face validated by two experts in measurement and evaluation. Cronbach alpha was used to establish the reliability of the instrument. The positive value of 0.86 was recorded and so the instrument was suitable to be used for the study. Data collected were analysed using mean scores. 177 Result: Table 1: Mean score of Primary School Teachers’ Responses on awareness of CLT Approach. _ S/No. Item 1. Language rich environment is not provided in the classroom for teaching and learning. 2. Game and role play are not used during teaching 3. Use of pair and small group activity is not possible in Classroom teaching 4. Learners error are always corrected as soon as soon as it is noticed 5. Use of drills and repetition do not contribute to languages learning. 6. Discussion and brainstorming activities are not used in class. 7. Giving and receiving feedback during teaching does not enhance learning. 8. Peer assessment is not used in my class. 9. Monitoring learners’ progress is not important during teaching. 10. Giving information to the learners about their progress does not motivate learners to learn. 11. Learners are not motivated to learn. 12. Teachers should not encourage student interdependence. 13. Pupils’ needs and interest are the primary consideration in planning teaching activities. 14. Use of different teaching materials including ICT facilities facilitate learning 15. Fluency and accuracy are important in CLT approach 16. The four language skills should be emphasized Key: SA – Strongly Agree, D – Disagree. A – Agree. SD - Strongly Disagree. X Remarks 3.38 2.59 A A 2.57 A 3.73 SA 2.57 A 3.63 A 2.55 3.31 D A 2.75 D 2.40 2.53 D D 3.36 A 2.40 D 2.32 D 3.88 A 2.68 A Table 1 indicates the views of primary school teachers in CLT activities. Data in table I reveal the main scores of the various responses. The acceptance level is 2.5. Since the items are negative, it implies that not all primary school teachers are aware of some of the CLT Approach in the English language classroom. These activities are CLT activities. Research Question 2: To what extent do Primary School Teachers in Rivers State use Communicative Language Teaching Activities in the Classroom? 178 _ Table II Mean (X) scores of Teachers Responses on the use of Communicative Language Teaching. _______________________________________________ S/No. Questionnaire Items Mean Remarks _______________________________________________________ 1. Language rich environment is provided in the classroom for teaching and learning. 2.40 A 2. Game and role play are used during teaching 2.39 A 3. Use of pair and small group activity in Classroom teaching 2.45 A 4. Learners error are always corrected as soon as soon as it is noticed 3.73 SA 5. Use of drills and repetition contribute to language learning. 2.57 A 6. Discussion and brainstorming activities are used in class. 2.42 A 7. Giving and receiving feedback during teaching enhance learning. 2.53 A 8. Peer assessment is used in my class. 2.46 A 9. Monitoring learners’ progress is not important during teaching. 2.52 A 10. Giving information to the learners about their progress does not motivate learners to learn. 2.56 A 11. Learners are motivated to learn. 2. 50 A 12. Teachers should encourage student interdependence. 2.48 A 13. Pupils’ needs and interest are the primary consideration in planning teaching activities. 2.55 D 14. Use of different teaching materials including ICT facilities facilitate learning 2.72 D 15. Fluency and accuracy are important in CLT approach 3.88 A 16. The four language skills should be emphasized 2.68 A Key: SA – Strongly Agree, D – Disagree. A – Agree. SD - Strongly Disagree. Data presented in table 2 indicate that Primary School teachers use the traditional method of language teaching in the classroom as shown by their responses. The items that scored 2.50 or above are the traditional activities though some of these activities are also activities used in the CLT Approach. Discussion The tables show teachers’ responses to the items. The data show that some teachers are aware of the CLT activities but have not used them. This agrees with the verbal interaction the researcher had with the teachers. This finding is in line with Offorma (2005) 179 and Igbokwe & Eze (2008). In table I items 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16 are some of the activities in CLT method. The teachers indicate that they were not aware of the CLT before the training and so may not have been using some of the activities. However, items 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 14 are the activities teachers are conversant with and sometimes use. These activities are also used in CLT approach. Drills and repetitions are in line with behaviourist theory and are used to teach learners some language items such as pronunciation and language structures even in the traditional method. The use of drills, games/role plays and dialogue is to ensure that learners practice language use. Learner interdependence is a technique in CLT that promotes learner-centered approach. Chambers (1999) sees it as an approach that meets the various needs of different pupils in the language classroom but primary school Teachers do not use this method. Though some teachers claim to use some of the activities. Most of the teachers admit that they are not conversant with some of the activities which are CLT activities that enhance language learning in the classroom as shown by the mean scores in table II. The findings of this study reveal that some Rivers State primary school teachers have not started using Communicative Language teaching in the classroom as at the time of the study. They are still using the traditional method that has been found inadequate in language teaching. (Igbokwe and Eze 2008). It is expected that after the training mounted by the Rivers State Government for primary school teachers, the CLT approach in language teaching will be used in all the Primary Schools in Rivers State. Conclusion This study indicates that Primary School Teachers in Rivers State use the traditional teaching method with some activities in modern method in the Classroom teaching of English language. Though, some of the teachers are aware of the CLT Approach, they are not used to the activities involved in CLT and so rarely use them. It is expected with the training they have undergone, they have acquired the knowledge and so can apply CLT Approach in classroom teaching. This is expected to improve the linguistic performance of pupils in Primary School. Recommendations 1. Supervisor should always monitor teachers to ensure that teachers use CLT Approach in teaching. 2. Teachers should be encouraged to improvise materials for teaching in addition to the ones that the government will provide for them. 3. Teachers should be motivated from time to time by giving them allowance for training materials. 180 References Awtoua-Efebo, E. B. (1999). Effective teaching principles and practice. Port Harcourt: Paragraphics. Emenanjo, N. Training the Nigeria language teacher: An integrated approach, Vision and mission of education in Nigeria. In Isyaku, K. Akale M.D.G. and Maiyanga and Olokun, M. (ed) Vision and mission of education in Nigeria. Kaduna: NCCE. Igbokwe, U. L., & Eze, U. N. (2008). Innovative practices for effective teaching of english language for quality assurance in secondary Schools. In Nworgu (ed). Education in the information age. Global challenges and enhancement strategies. Proceedings of first international conference of the Faculty of Education, UNN. Lightbrown, P. & Spada, N. (1993). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. 4th edition. Yaba, Lagos: NERDC Press. Offorma, G. (2005). Techniques employed in modern foreign language teaching. Journal of Curriculum Organization of Nigeria 12 (2), 10-15 Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning and college teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers. 181 EFFICACY OF MOBILE DEVICE ASSISTED LEARNING: A FLEXIBLE INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL. OYEYEMI, S.O. Department of Educational Foundations & Administration, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos. & NOAH, A.O. Department of Fine & Applied Arts, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Otto/ Ijanikin, Lagos. Abstract This study sought to establish the efficacy of mobile device assisted learning, using cell phone features like mobile internet and text message (SMS). Questionnaire was administered on 100 students randomly selected, from four secondary schools in Ojo Local Education District of Lagos State. The data analysed revealed that mobile internet search engines, for instance Google, Teoma, Zworks, Mamma and so on can help to facilitate flexible learning in and outside the classroom environment . This would promote collaborative, discovery, interactive and innovative learning. Moreso, text message (SMS) is capable of helping students correct spelling mistakes through the use of mobile dictionary, improve their vocabulary, which enhance good communication skills. The research finally concluded that, Nigeria being a developing country, plagued with inadequate funding of the educational system and frequent power (electricity) outage, which possess a threat to the proper implementation of information and communication technology (ICT) in schools, should adopt cell phone as a considerable alternative, as regards information technology to promote effective teaching and learning. Background to the study Use of technology in education represents new opportunities for students to gain prior knowledge ahead of the classroom situation, which aids teaching and learning. Students prior knowledge about topics is always very vital to better comprehension and teaching effectiveness in an outside classroom situation (Samuel, 2005).Researchers have argued that prior knowledge is better facilitated by mobile assisted learning which is enhanced by wireless portable devices, like palmtops/handhelds, smartphones and mobile (Tangney, 2006). Mobile assisted learning is described as an approach to learning that is enhanced through the use of mobile devices such as mobile phones, MP3/MP4 players palmtops computers to support students learning. With mobile assisted learning, students are able to access content and communicate content with their teachers and peers at anytime, anywhere (Kukusha-Hulme, 2006). 182 Source: (www.wolverhamton.engage.net) Mobile assisted learning approach is flexible, as reflected in the diagram above shows that its usage is not limited to time and location, thus it promotes interactive, collaborative discovery and differentiation learning. Currently, mobile assisted learning through the use of cell phone provides the utilization and retention of newly acquired knowledge as a primary source of effective learning. (Klopfer 2002) identifies five properties of mobile assisted learning, which can provide effective classroom teaching and learning these are: i. Portability ii. Social interactivity iii. Content sensitivity iv. Connectivity v. Individuality Cell Phone as an Instructional Tool With the increase in the number of mobile subscribers in Nigeria today, cell phone has become powerful tools for communication across the country for both young and adult. As at October 2008, Nigeria tele-density was 42%, while with 61 million subscribers as at 2009, Nigeria was African’s largest telecommunication market (Babatobi, 2009). Today students adopt the use of cell phone for text messages (SMS), browsing via internet, chatting (facebook, Mocospace, Myspace, 2go, Nimbuz), playing video games, and occasionally, doing academic research using search engines like Google; Devil Finder, Mamma, Zworks and so on, (Chiluwa, 2008; Taiwo 2008). The acceptance of cell phone throughout the world as an instrument of sociability is obvious, but the pedagogical potentials has been neglected. Wang (2008) asserts that, like other communicating and computing devices, cell phone can be used to learn. With the great development of cell phones functions and features, learners and teachers can utilized the academic instructional potential of cell phones for effective learning within or outside the classroom. Some of these strategies to use cell phone in the classroom for effective teaching and learning are enumerated below: i. Downloading requires e-books, soft wares and dictionaries from mobile internet for reading that can help in solving the problem of aliteracy. 183 ii. Use of dictionary checking words meaning, spelling errors and improve vocabulary. iii. Capturing class notes by the means of mobile camera iv. Use of Opera-mini device via mobile internet to support, discover and acquire more knowledge on classroom topic and content after school hours v. Praticising word pronunciation by recoding audio-materials vi. Receiving text message from teachers with class content homework, assignment project and so on. vii. Using mobile games to develop problem solving and critical thinking skills. viii. Using word match games as a means of spelling practices If Nigeria is a developing country, indeed with the strategies enumerated above, the cost of affording a cell phone is significantly below the running cost of procuring a new or second-hand computer. Currently , most students in Nigeria have access to cell phones having the capacities like SMS, voice mail, recorders, still cameras, video games, audio and radio play back, colour screen that are capable of accessing the internet and e-mail (Olayinka, 2008). Thus, this study focuses on the efficacy and feasibility of cell phones in classroom teaching and learning, so as to acquaint, students with the academic potential of cell phone in learning, as opposed to immoral and non-academic inclined activities in the usage of cell phones. For instance playing video games, chatting, and watching of immoral pornographic sites via mobile internet all at the expense of their academics. If this uneducative activity is shun by students, it will improve the learning habit of learners which is opposed to aliteracy. Statement of the Problem Nigerian schools over the years have been plagued by the wrong notion attached to the use of cell phone within and outside the school system. Olayinka (2008) reported that, students are so much addicted to the use of phone, nowadays this has led to abuse and misuse of cell phone among students reflecting in these areas. i. Cell phone is a distraction, in class as ring tones may divert students’ attention from class. ii. Students misuse cell phones or cheat if they are allowed to use cell phones in the classroom during examination. iii. Students waste valuable and precious time on chatting on Facebook and playing video games on their cell phones instead of reading their books. iv. Students are bored reading printed materials but find it more convenient, to spend several hours reading from the screens of their cellphones. Thus, this study seeks to re-direct the drive of the students from unproductive and unacademic usage of cell phones, to educative usage and avail students of the academic potential of cell phones as regards learning. This would promote effective teaching and learning in and outside the classroom, using cell phone features like internet and text message (SMS). Moreso, learning due to the convenient and comfortable atmosphere created by the use of cell phone promote discovery, collaborative and differentiation learning among students. Purpose of the study This study seeks to examine the following aims as regards mobile device assisted learning and effective teaching and learnin: 1. The efficacy of cell phone usage in enhancing effective teaching and learning. 2. Create an awareness of the educational potential of cell phone usage as opposed to the 184 immoral and uneducational usage of among students. 3. To encourage students use of mobile web browser (mobile internet) to support classroom instruction in and outside the school. 4. Encourage student’s frequent use of SMS in order to enhance their communication skills and improve teaching and learning. Research Questions The following questions would be focused upon as the research questions for this study: 1 To what extent do the students use their cell phones for learning? 2 Are students aware of the enormous educational potentials of the cell phones? 3 Does the use of features like the cell phone web browser (opera-mini) facilitate effective teaching and learning? 4 Can the use of SMS through the cell phones enhance communication skills and improve effective teaching and learning? Research Hypotheses H1 : There will be no significant relationship between the use of mobile internet and effective teaching and learning. H2 : There will be no significant relationship between student usage of text messages (SMS) and improved communication skills. Methodology The research design is a descriptive survey. The instrument adopted for this study was a questionnaire called Mobile Assisted Questionnaire for learning effectiveness (MAQLE). The questionnaire contains 15 items drawn from the stated hypotheses. Respondents were requested to respond, by ticking either agreed, disagreed and undecided based on their feelings. The population of this study was made up of secondary school students in Ojo Local Education District of Lagos State. A sample of 100 students was drawn from four selected secondary schools, which were Adeniran Ogunsanya International School Ijanikin Lagos; Government Secondary School, Ijanikin Lagos; Lagos State Model College, Ojo and Adeniyi Goodwill Ijanikin. A test re-test method was used to determine the co-efficient of reliability of the instrument. The correlation co-efficient was computed and it gave reliability coefficient of 0.87 which was considered high enough to be used. The questionnaire was personally administered by the researcher. In order to test the formulated hypotheses for the study, the statistical tool used in data analysis was Chi-Square showing frequently counts and percentage of respondents 185 Academic Potential of Mobile Web Browser S/N ITEMS 1. Do i find reading printed books more boring compared to reading from the screen of your cell phone 2. I learn better when I read from my cell phone than books. 3. I enjoy checking my e-mail and chatting on face book via mobile internet 4. I rarely use my mobile internet study before and after classroom teaching 5 I enjoy learning from the internet through my cell phone, than the traditional chalk and talk method 6 I always use my phone web-browser to check for additional fact after classroom teaching. 7 Learning from web browser e.g. opera-mini leads to discovery learning A% 45% D% U% 35% 5% 60% 72% 25% 15% 20% 8% 62% 24% 14% 52% 35% 13% 24% 39% 37% 64% 25% 11% Hypothesis. H1: There will be no significant relationship between the use of mobile internet and effective teaching and learning. Table 1 Variable Frequency Mobile web browse Agreed academic potential Disagreed DF 3 Calculated value X2 138.15 Critical Value 7.013 Decision Rejected Results Using the Chi-square statistical model to analyze the data collected which were categorized on the basis of mobile internet academic usage and relevance of SMS towards improving communication skills. Statistically, the table above table revealed that, the calculated value x2 is 138.15, while the value is 7.013, based on this analysis the calculated value is greater than the critical value. The hypothesis is hereby rejected, which concludes that there is a significant relationship between the educational potential of mobile internet and effective teaching and learning. 186 SMS and improved communication skill S/N 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 15. ITEMS Collaborative learning is also facilitated by mobile devices Learning can be meaningful through the use of cell phones to support teaching and learning Answering SMS questions is more comfortable than face to face answer in the class I use SMS to send vital academic information on class assignment, group projects and home-works to my friends. SMS helps in improving my communication skills I easily detect spelling mistakes through SMS than writing on notebooks. SMS has helped in improving my vocabulary and grammatical efficiency. The use of SMS through cell phone is a supportive tool to teaching and learning A% 72% 71% D% 20% 24% U% 8% 5% 52% 30% 18% 45% 32% 23% 68% 56% 29% 20% 3% 24% 68% 29% 3% 52% 32% 16% Hypothesis H2: There will be no significant relationship between student usage of text messages (SMS) and improved communication skills. Table II Variable SMS academic potential Frequency Agreed DF Disagreed Calculated value X2 69.059 3 Critical Value 0.1376 Decision Rejected The data above revealed that the calculated value is 69.056, while the critical value is 0.1376. Therefore the stated hypothesis is rejected, which implies that there is a relationship between SMS usage and improved communication skills. Discussion of Findings A run through of the respondents’ views with regards the efficacy of mobile phones as an effective instructional tool reveals that in item one (1) based on the respondents views, students find reading printed materials like books, boring and cumbersome, this was indicated by 45% of the respondents supporting the notion, while 35% and 50% disagreed and were undecided. Respondents in item two (2) supports that they learn better while reading from the screen of their cell phones than printed materials, this was reflected in 60% agreed responses, 25% disagreeing while 15% remained undecided. However, the student rarely use mobile internet to study before and after classroom teaching, rather they prefer checking e-mails chatting and playing video games on their cell phones as indicated in item three (3) of which 60% agreed, 25% disagreed while 15% were undecided. The benefit of cell phone internet as regards discovery learning, differentiation learning and collaborative learning is stressed by item seven (7) and eight (8) of which most of the respondents agreed with the item, for instance in item eight, 72 agreed with the item, 20 disagreed and 8% were undecided. Thereby, justifying that mobile internet can facilitate effective teaching and learning. 187 In item nine (9), respondents commented that they feel more comfortable reading text messages from the screen of their cell phones, this was reflected in their responses of which 58% agreed with the assertion that 22% disagreed while 20% were undecided. Using SMS or text messages to send vital information on school works and other class assignments, revealed that, 45% agreed, 32% disagreed while 23% remained undecided. To justify that frequent use of SMS cell phone helps in improving students vocabulary and grammatical competence, 68% of the respondents agreed, disagreed responses were 29% while undecided were 3%. The efficacy of mobile phones as an effective instructional tool, for teaching and learning was reflected by the views of the respondents in item fifteen (15) of which 52% of the total; respondents agreed, while 32% and 16% disagreed and undecided respectively. However, cell phone is gradually becoming a tool in the Nigerian school system that possess pedagogical arsenal to assist students in effective teaching and learning by using cell phone features like mobile internet and SMS. Therefore, in order to solve the lingering educational problem of aliteracy, poor learning habit, spending valuable time on chatting, browsing the internet, playing video games watching of pornographic scenes on-line that has resulted in the slow and gradual decline in the nation’s educational standard. This research attempt to re-orientate the students about the academic potentials available in mobile internet search engine. The World Wide Web (www) This is the largest and fastest growing activities on the internet, over 75% of all information searching on the internet are handled through the means. The www incorporates almost every protocol available on the internet (e-mail, telnet). Today most chatting on Facebook, Myspace, Mocospace, Nimbuzz are done through this page. This internet facility also facilitates the downloadings of educational facts and all other materials be it social, cultural, economic, political and so on as long as the correct web address is known. Search Strategies for Educational Material on the Internet Given the vast resources available on the mobile internet and its non-central nature, searching or surfing for information can be tasking and frustrating. Accessing information is an important and essential skill in the use of mobile internet. Mobile internets offer several search tools/application that can assist a user to look for particular document or particular information on a given topic (Monero 2000). There are several tools/applications usually classified differently for mobile internet users convenience. Mobile Search Engines These are systems that can search the web using software robots/programmes for sites, read entire texts, of the site on the web, index them on the occurrence of the key word for each site and enter them on the data base. This research attempt to collect some of these search engines and they are presented below: i. Google (http://www.googlecom) ii. Teoma (http://www.teoma.com) iii. All the web (http://www.alltheweb.com) iv. Altavista (http://www.laltavista.com) v. Lycos (http://www.lycos.com) vi. Mamma (http://www.mamma.com) vii. Infoseek (http://www.infoseek.com) 188 viii. Excite (http://www.ask.com) ix. Northern Light (http://www.northern.com) Source: ( UCB Library, 2004) Mobile Meta Search Engines They are search engines that submit queries to several search engines and directories and then compile the result in a convenient display. Since it operates through multi search engines, they are usually slower example of Meta search engines are: i. Vivisimo (http://www.vivisimo.com) ii. Surf wax (http://www.surfwax.com) iii. Copernic agent (http://www.copernic.com) iv. Ixquick (http://www.ixquick.com) v. Hotpot (http://www.hotpot.com) vi. Dog pile (http://www.dogpile.com) Source: ( UCB Library 2004) Recommendations The following are recommended by this study as measures to enhance the efficacy of cell phones as effective instructional tools for teaching and learning, most especially its pedagogical values. Since cell phones are ubiquitous and easily portable, students and teachers are expected to maximize its educational potential. Thus it is recommended that the usage of cell phones on both internet and SMS based learning should be utilized to facilitate the following: 1. To provide opportunities for students to follow their own progress and promote learning in and outside the classroom environment. 2. Promote a condusive, relaxed and convenient learning environment that is more academically productive. 3. Create enjoyable classroom learning as opposed to the traditional classroom learning that generates boredom. 4. Cell phone should be used to facilitate differentiation, collaborative and discovery learning, of which all learner are fully involved in learning thereby learners can learn at their own pace 5. Moreso, teaching and learning through internet and SMS- based should be directed to promote interactive classroom, that foster innovative teaching, that is passive teacher activity and active students activity in the teaching and learning process. 6. Students would benefit immensely in verbal learning being provided from uniform access medium that prevent distorted facts. 7. A virtual classroom should also be facilitated without panic for electricity supply, since cell phone is wireless . 8. To cater for the shy and academically back ward students so as to help them remedy their academic deficiencies. 9. Finally the numerical and grammatical competence of the students would be improved which would improve their learning habit and facilitate educational development. Conclusion The aim of this study is to investigate the efficacy of cell phone as an instructional tool using features like mobile internet and SMS as indicators. It is obvious that if the nation 189 is to realise one of the cardinal goals of the National Policy on Education and the Millennium Development Goal of which information technology (ICT) is stated as one of the means, there is the need to tap the potential of wireless learning, facilitated by mobile assisted learning, enhanced by the use of cell phones, most especially considering the erratic power supply, and lack of funds to adequately provide computers and internet facilities to all schools. Thus cell phones now stand as a considerable alternative. References Alam, M.S. & Islam, L. M. (2008). Virtual interactive classroom (VIC) using Mobile Technology at the Bangladesh Open University (BOU).Retrieved from http://wikieducator.org/images/4/45/PID_563.pdf. Babatobi,.B. (2009). The intellectual and residential correlates of reading achievement in Nigerian secondary school. West African Journl of Education 20(2), 245 – 256. Chen, C. & Chung, C. (2007). Personalized mobile English vocabulary learning.Journal of Computers & Education, 5, (2), 624-647. Chen, Y. (2007). Extending family to school life: College students' use of mobile phone. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, TBA, San Francisco, CA. Chiluwa, I. (2008). SMS text-messaging and Nigerian christian context: Constructing values and sentiments. The International Journal of Language, Society and Culture, 24, 11 – 20. Chinnery. G. M. (2006). Emerging technologies going to the MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning & Technology Journal. 10(1), 9-16. Cui, G. & Wang, S. (2008). Adopting cell phones in EFI. Teaching and learning. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange. Vol. 1(1) Pg. 68-80. Debey. P. (2009). Mobile devices: Facing challenges and opportunities for learning. THE Journal. Retrieved from http://thejournal.com/articles/2009/03/19/mobile-devicesfacing-challenges-and-opportunities-for-learning.aspx. Dike, V.W. (2004). The role of the school libraries in implementing the curriculum. Nigerian School Library Journal 5(1), 21-28. Discourse analysis online. Retrieved October 2, 2004 from: http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/articles/vl/a3/thurlow2002003-paper.html Klopfer E, Squire, K & Jenkins. H. (2002). Environmental detectives: PDAs as a window into a virtual simulated world. Proceedings of IEEE International workshop on wireless and mobile technologies in education. Vaxjo, Sweden: IEEE Computer Society. 190 Kukulska- Hulme, A. & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction: Recall 30(3), 271289. Li, Chun.(2009).SMS-based vocabulary learning for ESL students( MCIS thesis). Retrieved from http://repositoryaut.Iconz.ac.nz/bitstream/10292/ 746/5/- a.pdf. Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 24(6). 515-525. Mahmud, A. (2006). Bringing information technology to rural Bangladesh by Boat. Council on library and information resowces (U.C.B). Washington, D.C. Monero, A. & Carvalho, A. (2000). Mobile learning with cells phones and mobile flickr: one experience in a secondary school. In Sanchez, Inmaculada Arnedillo (Eds.), IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning (mlearning) 2008. Algarve, Portugal, 216 – 220 NMSU Library (2003). Using the internet for academic research. Retrieved October 1st, 2003, from http://Lib.nmsu.edu/ital/research.html Olayinka, E. (2008). Playing poltics with the mobile phone in Nigeria: Civil Societies, Big Businesses and the State. Review of African Political Economy, 33 (107), 93 – 111. Samuels,, S. (2005).Reading habit promotion in ASEAN Libraries. 65 th IFLA Counci and General Conference, August 20 – 28, Bangkok, Thailand. Available: http://www.ifla.org Tangney, (2006). What can you learn from a cell phone ? Almost anything Journal of online education. Retrieved from http:// www. E- learningsource.info/. Taiwo, R. (2008). Linguistic forms and funtions of SMS text messages. In Sigrid Kelsey and Kirk St Armant (Eds.) The Handbook of Research in computer mediated communication. 969 – 982. Pennsylvania, USA: IGI GLOBAL 191 THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF COMPUTER APPRECIATION COURSES IN SOME SELECTED TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN ONDO STATE. OLAJIDE, M.S. Department of Computer Science, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo AFOLABI, F.O., Department of Educational Administration & Planning, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo ABIDOYE, J.A., Department of Educational Technology, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo & OLOJO, J.O. Department of Computer Science, College of Education, Ikere Ekiti Abstract Poor infrastructure, maintenance culture and lack of the political will on the part of leaders in the developing countries have led to the poor development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructures and opportunities for overall well-being of their citizenry. These, no doubt, have impacted negatively on the education sector, through defective and obsolete teaching and learning methods adopted in the schools. The conventional mode of instructional delivery has been replaced by the contemporary knowledge driven technology (ICT). Therefore, the need for computer appreciation courses in various institutions of higher learning. This paper takes a critical look at teaching and learning of computer appreciation courses in selected tertiary institutions in Ondo State. It examines the various factors contributing to the poor performances of the students in computer appreciation courses with a view to offering useful suggestions for his improvement.Keywords: ICT, instructional delivery, computer appreciation, teaching and learning methods. Introduction In the contemporary Nigerian society, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has proven to be the propelling force for which virtually all known human activities are driven. This technology affects the way the entire global population reasons, associates, learns and communicates. The Computer provides easy, convenient and speedy means of getting myriads of tasks done with little or without human intervention. Akinyokun (1996) sees computer as any machine which can accept data in a prescribed form, store and process the instruction in a specified format as information or as signals to control automatically some other machines or processes. Computer literacy according to Ogunbanjo (2008) is fast becoming a requirement for living in the modern societies. As a matter of fact, it assumes a veritable pedestal upon which developing countries of the world would realize the Millennium Development Goals as prescribed by United Nations’ Charter. Computer 192 Appreciation is a good starting point of introducing computer science to beginners in any discipline. Essentially, computer appreciation is a beginners’ course where various rudimentary aspects of computer science as critically appraised to acquaint the students with basic knowledge required of them to remain active players in the emerging ICT driven world. In any educational set up, the stakeholders, notably parents, governments at various levels and even the students are very important as they require a measure of computer appreciation knowledge. The conventional practice where policy planning and formulation of educational matters are being organized in the developing countries has been dethroned by the adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). In other words, educational sector in the past was managed exclusively with manual or analog technology. Most activities in teaching, methodology, assessment, evaluation and presentation of results were executed using available manual or analog devices. This method made learning rigid and cumbersome, most of the time, compared to the new trend. A new culture of learning has evolved from the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) gadgets. This trend presents the minimum knowledge of computer appreciation courses for acquiring appropriate skills that learners require to effectively cope with the new learning approach (Olajide et al, 2009). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined by Falaki, (2000) as the fusion of computer technology and telecommunication technology aimed at solving wide spectra of human problems. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) driven learning pedagogies make the teaching-learning process motivating, easy and captivating for enduring and lasting experiences. Indeed, it is a novel approach to learning in Nigeria. Teaching and learning have established robust relationship with computer technology in the new millennium more than ever before, both in size and in structure. Teachers and learners now depend on the scalability, reliability and applicability of the technology to enhance their traditional function. Lessons or Lectures are now being prepared using computer technology, via software packages that are well prepared for the purpose and also for evaluations (examinations), registration of courses, checking of results, allocation of dormitories and other educational services. Thus, a measure of educational programme is directly managed by computer appreciation and application knowledge. Consequently, a measure of skills in computer application that is computer appreciation is a sine qua non in meeting one of the cardinal objectives in education in the new millennium (Ogunbanjo, 2003). The curricula designed and implemented nowadays, have placed great emphasis on computer appreciation at all levels of education to impart the necessary computer skills in learners. However, there are a number of associated challenges facing the implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) policies. These include poor infrastructure, poor funding, epileptic power supply and lack of the political will on the part of the leaders. All these hindrances have impacted negatively on the teaching and learning of computer appreciation courses in most institutions in Nigeria. Moreover, there are several tertiary institution in Nigeria with inadequate number of qualified personnel teaching computer appreciation courses. Most often, Mathematicians are allocated computer appreciation courses because of the perceived affinity, which exists between computer and mathematics (Ogunbanjo, 2003). The few hands available in most cases are not enough for effective teaching delivery; rather, they concentrate on completing the syllabi placed before them. This, no doubt, is a major factor in the dwindling performances in these courses by students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The population 193 of students is usually on the high side compared to the available lecturers based on the U.N. prescribed ratio. Ojo (2005) explains that apart from the content achievement and cognitive development, laboratory activities help to develop skills in scientific thinking, computer are better appreciated when taught in the lecture rooms and supported with practical demonstration of skills acquired. The study therefore, sets out to critically examine the effects of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on the teaching and learning of computer appreciation courses in selected tertiary institutions in Ondo State using gender as a moderating variable. Research Questions The following three research questions were raised to guide the investigation: 1. Is inadequate supply of computer experts responsible for students’ poor academic performance in computer appreciation courses? 2. Is inadequate supply of appropriate hardware and software responsible for students’ poor academic performance in computer appreciation courses? 3. Are the poor infrastructure facilities, required for effective functioning of hardware and software, responsible for the students’ poor performances in computer appreciation courses? Methodology Population There are five tertiary institutions in Ondo State, out of which three were purposively selected for the study using the requisite conditions of the research. The population of the study consists of all students and lecturers in the three selected tertiary institutions in Ondo State. The respondents were selected to ascertain the effects of ICT on teaching and learning of computer appreciation course in tertiary institutions on them. Sixty students and eleven lecturers were randomly selected as samples in each of the three selected institutions making a total of 213 respondents for the study. Research Instrument The researcher used a structured questionnaire named, ICT Impact on Teaching and Learning Process (IITLP) which is divided into two sections. Section A consists of the personal data of the respondents while section B consists of ten structured questions to elicit responses on the effect of ICT on the teaching and learning of the computer appreciation courses. Basically, there are two sets of questionnaires. The first one was designed for the lecturers and the second one was designed for students. The respondents were assured of the confidentiality of their information supplied and also encouraged to express their genuine and independent opinions while responding to the questionnaire. Data Collection and Analysis The two sets of questionnaires were administered personally to the lecturers and students through the assistance of computer lecturers in three institutions. The collection of data lasted for twelve days. Analysis of data collected from the field centred on the determination of the effects of Information and Communication Technology on the teaching and learning of computer appreciation courses. 194 Results The results are presented and discussed in the order of presentation of the Hypotheses as follows: Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference in the appreciation levels of students who are male and female students that were exposed to computer appreciation training in (ICT) . Table I: A table of t-test level of significance showing the Differences in the Appreciation levels of students Group N Mean SD T-Critical F – DF Decision (0.05) Calculated Male 102 38.12 4.37 2.145 1.712 62 Accepted Female 111 41.31 6.538 Since the t-calculated 1.712 is less than the table value of 2.145 which was observed at a 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. Thus, there is a difference of significant level between male and female students in computer appreciation. Hypothesis Two: There is no significant difference in the level of computer appreciation between science and non-science based students in computer appreciation training of the (ICT) programme. Table II: T-test comparing science based and non-science based students in computer appreciation courses with the use of ICT facilities Group N Mean SD T-Critical F – Calculated DF Remarks (0.05) Science based 120 30 1.154 No students 2.1009 0.9258 18 significant Non-Science 80 20 1.825 based students Based on the study, it was noted that inadequate number of computer system for usage affected the academic achievement of the students. Also, epileptic power supply, poor management culture and poor infrastructure that is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities are also causes in poor achievement performance of the students. According to some respondents, the operation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities is a big problem amongst the students. To worsen the situation, inadequate provision of finance to address Information and Communication Technology facilities needs in the school visited has caused poor academic performance of students in computer appreciation courses. As a result of this, most respondents require extra training in other to make a maximum utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities in their teaching/learning of computer appreciation courses. In fact, about 77% of the respondents believed that providing adequate finance and enabling environment for academic achievement of students in computer appreciation courses will improve tremendously while 21% did not. Since the t-calculated (0.92580 is less than t-critical at (0.05), (2.1009) the null hypothesis was accepted which says that there is no significant difference in the science 195 based students in computer appreciation courses with the use of ICT facilities. This is in contrast to Akinlade (2009), that there is significant difference between the performance of science based and non-science based students. Hypothesis Three: There is no significant difference in the level of academic achievement of 100 level and 200 level students with the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities. 196 Table III: T-Test Comparing Academic Achievement of 100 Level and 200 Students in Computer Appreciation Courses. Level N Mean SD T-Critical F – Calculated DF (0.05) 100 72 49.8 17.62 200 88 30.2 17.67 1.9901 1.7491 18 Level Remarks No significant Since the t-calculated (1.7491) is less than t-critical at (0.05), (1.7491) the null hypothesis was accepted the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference 100 level and 200 level students. This view is supported by Ogunsiji (2008) that there is no significant difference in the academic achievement of 100 and 200 levels students. Discussion of Findings The findings revealed that female have flair and high proficiency on the usage of computer in computer appreciation courses and younger students have good skills in handling Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities in computer appreciation courses. The computer appreciation courses in tertiary institutions can be made more interesting, captivating and easy to pass by making ICT facilities available with enough qualified training personnel for effective utilization. Conclusion In this study, it was found out that there were some problems hindering academic performance of computer appreciation courses in the nation’s tertiary institutions. The contemporary world that we live require a measure of skills in computer appreciation courses in order to be able to manipulate Information and Communication (ICT) facilities. This position is premised by the fact that ICT now dictate a new direction to almost all human activities. However, the problem of grave concern here is the poor implementation of ICT policy where institutional barriers were not well addressed. The assumption made is that by providing few functional computers and other ICT facilities a better society is guaranteed for the future of our students. This has adversely affected the teaching and learning of computer appreciation courses. Recommendations In view of the problems of computer appreciation courses in education, it is therefore recommended that adequate fund be made available to procure Information and Information (ICT) facilities and other allied infrastructure. Enabling environments with highly skilled personnel are also required to improve the quality of teaching and practical training. These will also encourage the students to adopt new learning approaches to computer appreciation courses. Robust ICT policy must be developed and implemented by the government. Efforts should be geared toward periodic review and sustenance of continuity as evidenced in the developed world unlike the instability in government polices by the successive governments here in Nigeria. More so, government educational agencies should be created to support the existing ones. Funds must be made available to develop, promote and implement ICT policies in the educational sector to bring a concomitant improvement to ICT through computer appreciation courses taught in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. 197 References Akinlade, A.D.(2009). A study of effects of information communication technology in the teaching and learning of Physics (PGD Thesis) at the National Teachers’ Institute (NTI), Kaduna Akinyokun, O.C.(1999). Principles and practice of computing technology. International Publishers Ltd. Ibadan Elias, O.G., Olaleke, J.O., Olajide, M.S. and Olojo, O.J. (2009). Information and communication technology and learning in the contemporary world. ”The use of English Undergraduates”. Ojo & Ogunsiji(Eds. Ibadan: Alafa) Falaki, S.O. (2002). Information technology in Nigeria. Now or Never. Inaugural Lecture Series 29. Federal University of Technology, Akure Ogunbanjo, S.A.(2003). Essentials of computer studies, 2 nd edidtion. NIEPA(Nigeria) Printing Press, Ondo Ogunbanjo, S.A. (2008). Computer appreciation, 1st edition. Tomol Publishers, Ado Ekiti Ogunsiji, J.O. (2008). Gender as a factor of academic performance in computer science courses. PGDE project work, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife Ojo, M.O. (2005). Essentials of Physics techniques, 1 st edition. All Gold Publishers, Ibadan 198 ACHIEVING THE GOALS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY NIGERIAN SOCIETY: THE PLACE OF MOBILE LEARNING COLLINS A. E. Department of Educational Foundations Federal College of Education, Kano Abstract Mobile technology is becoming popular in the Nigerian society. The mobile cell is used in many sectors of the society. Its application to learning and the educational process has however remained untapped. This paper discusses the role of education in effecting personal as well as national progress. While narrowing its emphasis on secondary education, the paper examines the need for every child to be availed of the opportunity to quality education in the constantly changing contemporary society. The paper further discusses the meaning, segments, values, limitations and implications of mobile learning. On the basis of this, the paper finally recommended among others that educational theories that allow the incorporation of mobile learning in the educational process should be developed in order to realise the goals of secondary school education. Introduction Education is a philosophical as well as a sociological concept (Scott and Marshall, 2009). As a sociological concept, education is seen as the basic institution that provides members of society with knowledge about the basic facts of life, occupational skills, cultural norms and the necessary values that would equip them properly for their roles as members of society (Macionis, 2006). It is obvious that education is essential for human survival and societal progress. Hence, many nations recognize education as a potent instrument necessary for achieving progress as well as human and material development. A country that is unable to develop the skills and knowledge base of its citizenry would be lacking the necessary human resources (i.e., medical doctors, teachers, lawyers, engineers, clergy, etc). There is no doubting the fact that, education equips a country's labour force with the skills, attitude, behaviour and competencies that would enable it have the capacity to plan, organize and carry out activities that would lead to national progress and development. The United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) views education as a fundamental human right and a key factor in reducing poverty as well as in promoting sustainable development (Daramola, 2010). It is obvious that in most developing countries, education .is seen as public good. To this end, it is strongly believed that expanding educational opportunities for the benefit of a large proportion of the population would quicken the pace of national development (Ernest & Irekhaefe, 2011). As highlighted in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) education is adopted in Nigeria as "an instrument par excellence for effecting national development". The policy also states that educational opportunities shall be given to all Nigerian children irrespective of any real or imagined disabilities, each according to his or her ability. In demonstration of its commitment in ensuring adequate education for all its citizen, the government of Nigeria initiated a number of reforms in the education sector, some of which are: 1. Launching of the UBE in 1999. 2. Initiation of the Strategy for Accelerating Girls Education in Nigeria (SAGEN) in 2003. 3. Passing into law the Child's Rights Act in 2003 199 4. Enactment of the UBE law in 2004 5. Introduction of the Education Management Information Services and Education Data Bank (FMIS/Educ/DATA/BANK) 6. Introduction of Home Grown School Feeding Programme (HGSFP). As fantastic as these reforms may seem, our education experience has not been one that calls for celebration, particularly in the area of enrolment and participation of students in postprimary levels of education. The academic need of the number of students that enrol in many of our secondary schools cannot be met because of the existence of problems such as poor funding, shortage of qualified teachers, and infrastructural inadequacies. With the above in mind, it is succinct to state that, efforts should be made to avail every Nigerian child the opportunity to get quality formal education that would prepare him/her to face the complex needs associated with the fast changing world of today. It is on this basis that this paper focuses on examining the role that mobile learning should play in ensuring the achievement of the goals of secondary education in Nigeria. Objectives of Secondary Education in Nigeria The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) sees secondary education as the form of education children receive after primary school and before tertiary education. The objectives of secondary education are as follows: a) provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a higher level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background; b) offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future roles; c) provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at subprofessional grades; d) develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context of world's cultural heritage; e) inspire students with a desire for self improvement, and achievement of excellence; f) foster national unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity; g) raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values specified under our broad national goals and live as good citizens; and h) provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development (FGN, 2004:13-14). From the above stated objectives, it is pertinent that secondary school leavers should be creative, entrepreneurially developed, skillful and be able to embrace the learning opportunities that the changing technology of today offers. It is expected that the secondary school leaver should be resourceful and be able to carry out goal oriented activities, particularly those that ensures his/her personal as well as national wellbeing. It can be stated without any contradiction, that all things being equal, the Nigerian child has elements of creativity in him/her that is comparable to other children found in other parts of the world (Oduolowa, 2004). However, because the secondary school student is exposed to a limited amount of instructional opportunities caused by scarcity of learning materials, shortage of qualified teachers, dilapidated classrooms and poor learning environment, it is doubtful whether the Nigerian secondary school learner is capable of meeting the challenges and opportunities of 200 today's technologically driven world. We need to address these limitations urgently if secondary schools are to meet the challenges of producing students who are equipped with the latest knowledge that a changing world offers. One way of doing this is by incorporating mobile learning into the educational system particularly at the secondary school level. Understanding Mobile Learning That we are now in the mobile age is stating the .obvious. Mobile phones are carried every where by virtually everyone at almost every time of the day. Banks are accessed from holes in the wall, cars are becoming travelling offices, airplane seats are entertainment centres and computer games are handheld (Sharples, 2007). Although related to e-learning and distance education, mobile learning is distinct in its focus on learning across contexts and learning with mobile devices. Conceptually, the term 'mobile learning' or 'm-learning' has different meanings depending on the experiences, uses and backgrounds of those giving the definitions. This has led to a fertile proliferation of views and perspectives (Winters, 2007). Polsari (2003) sees mobile learning as a form of learning which has the network as its site of production, circulation and consumption. Another definition of m-learning is "any sort of learning that happens when the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or learning that happens when the learner takes advantage of the learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies" (O'Malley et al, 2003). The term covers learning with mobile technologies including but not limited to mobile phones, MP3 players and handheld computers. M-learning focuses on the mobility of the learner interacting with portable technologies, and learning that reflects a focus on how society and its institutions can accommodate and support an increasingly mobile population. Key Segments of Mobile Phones Related to Learning The cell phone provides the easiest and most accessible means of m-learning among the mobile technologies presently existing. Ofie (2011) highlighted some of the key segments of the cell phone that provide mobile learning. These include: i. Voice-Only. These are radios that pick up and send signals on certain predetermined frequencies. Through such a device, students can learn public speaking, writing languages, literature and even mathematics ii. Short Text Messages (SMS). The SMS is a common feature of the mobile phone that is been utilized by many users of mobile phones. As a learning device, SMS can be used for informational quizzes in practically all subjects. It can also provide timely reminders on key concepts to students so that they can become much more understandable to them. iii. Graphic Display. Through this device, meaningful amounts of educative texts can be displayed. Such displayed texts can also be accompanied with pictures and animation. iv. Internet Browsers. Most of the cell-phones presently produced have internet browsers built in them. Through such devices, students have access to a lot of information on key concepts related to the subjects they are studying. Many mobile phones also have cameras and video clips built in them. It is obvious that such devices are capable of helping students to document learning materials both within and outside the classroom. v. Downloadable Programmes. Cell phones also give students opportunity to download important learning materials which they got as they utilize the internet browsers built in them. This function is made possible because cell phones have memories that store information which can be easily down loaded whenever the need arises. 201 Values of M-Learning Ofie (2011) listed the values of m-learning to include: 1) Convenience and flexibility: Mobile learning can take place anywhere, at any time. This means that the learner can utilize it at the exact moment he/she requires to learn. 2) Learner control and freedom: The relationship between the use of mobile devices and learning especially informal learning is quite beneficial and motivating to the learners because they have the freedom to define tasks and relate activities to their own goals and control over their own goals. 3) Offers variety of learning styles: Through mobile technologies, learners have access to reading (text and graphics), listening to broadcasts, contributing to discussions (forms or SMS), researching on internet, working through decision trees and making use of animated materials. 4) Improves social learning: Mobile devices offer opportunities for learners to communicate easily with peers and teachers through SMS texts, knowledge showing forums and telephony. Such interaction is always done with fun and as such motivates learners to learn at their own pace. 5) Easily digestible learning: Given the fact that most mobile devices have small screens, this minimizes the amount of information that can be offered to a learner at any time. Such bit by bit information allows learners to learn gradually. 6) Useful to students with special needs: Depending on the learners' specific disabilities or difficulties, mobile learning can be a useful add-on tool for students with special needs (Savill, 2008). 7) Useful to disaffected students: Since handling mobile devices is fun, it can be used as a 'hook' or 'bait' to re-engage students who have lost interest in learning (Savill, 2008). 8) The mobile handset offers itself as an ideal conduit between school and home: This shift in sites of education means that, the responsibility of transferring knowledge and skills to learners is now a combined effort of both the school and the home (Dourish, 2004). Limitations of Mobile Learning Ofie (2011), notes the following limitations: 1. The small screens of mobile cells limit the amount of information that can be displayed on them. 2. Data can be lost if batteries are not charged regularly and properly. 3. Mobile devices are attractive to thieves. 4. Frequent changes in mobile models /functionality could be painful. 5. Hand cells and PDAs have limited memory storage capacities. 6. Security or piracy are challenging issues when accessing networks. 7. Existing applications are not easily integrated to the mobile technology. 8. Transmitting across different browsers and platforms is literally impossible. 9. Mobile cells are less robust than desktops. Implications of Mobile Learning by Secondary School Students In consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of mobile learning, some implications of this form of learning have been noted by Winters (2007) to include: i. Mobile learning applications are best viewed as mediating tools in the learning process. They are not ends in themselves. Therefore secondary school students should not be left with these applications alone but should be related to other learning tools that students and 202 teachers are already using, and/or other tools that have arisen as a result of technical developments. ii. Designing a mobile learning activity can be supported by addressing the following factors: a. learners and their relationships (i.e. peer groups, teachers, etc). b. what the learner is learning (topic, relationship to prior experience, etc). c. where and when are learners learning (i.e., the culture of the place, its ethics, access to information, etc). Conclusion and Recommendations Although the Nigerian society has increasingly become a mobile one, it is however obvious that many people lack the confidence in the efficacy of mobile technologies in ensuring meaningful teaching and learning activities. This is not peculiar to Nigeria alone. For example, Masters and Ng'ambi (2007) notes that, allowing students undue access to mobile cells especially in formal school learning environment can lead to the disruption of students' personal and academic lives. Also Sharples (2007) observes that, the belief of many is that allowing students access to mobile devices can lead to the loss of control by traditional classroom education/teachers over students learning activities. Thus, most schools and colleges forbid students to bring phones and personal computers into the classroom. Nevertheless, due to the fact that m-learning is gradually becoming popular in enhancing students’ learning capabilities in many schools in the developed countries, this paper recommends the following: i. Our secondary schools should also incorporate elements of m-learning. However, this should be done in a manner that considers our peculiarities, cultural and religious differences. ii. Considering the fact that allowing secondary school students undue access to mobile phones can lead to the disruption of their personal and academic lives, schools should adopt appropriate strategies that would help them to not only checkmate the adverse effects, but to also harness the benefits of teaching/learning through mobile technologies. iii. The burden of ensuring the success of m-learning should not be borne by the government and or schools alone. Thus, private individuals, non-governmental agencies and community leaders should be encouraged to participate in creating awareness of the benefits of mlearning. iv M-learning should be incorporated as a course of study in both pre-service and in-service teacher training programmes. Such a move would equip teachers with the much needed knowledge about the usefulness of m-learning in the provision of quality and equitable education to the generality of Nigerian secondary school students. v. Finally, in order to effectively incorporate m-learning into our educational experiences, we need to redefine our educational theories since they are amenable to changes. This view is in line with Papert’s (1994) assertion that: I believe that if we are to have new forms of learning, we need a very different kind of theory of learning. The theories that have been developed by educational psychologists and by academic psychologists in general, are matched to specific kind of learning. As long as these ways of thinking about learning remain dominant, it will be very hard to make a serious shift from the traditional form of school (p. 21). 203 References Daramola, C.O. (2010). Challenges facing the school in equalizing educational opportunities for the Nigerian girl-child: Implications for achieving the MDGs. Nigerian Journal of Sociology, of Education, IV (1), 17 Dourish, P. (2004). What we talk about when we talk about context. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 8, 19-30. Ernest, E. S., and Irekhaefe, M. C. (2011). Citizenship education for job creation and sustainable national development in Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Perspective, III, 458-459. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Abuja: NERDC Press. Maciounis, J.J. (2006). Sociology (10th ed.). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) PVT Ltd. Masters, K. & Ng'ambi, D. (2007). After the broadcast: Disrupting health sciences students’ lives with SMS. In: Proceedings of IADIS International Conference on Mobile Learning, Lisbon, pp.171-175. O' Malley, C., Vovoula, G., Glew, J, Taylor, J., Sharples, M. & Lafrere P. (2003). Guidelines for learning/teaching/tutoring in a mobile environment, Mobilearn project deliverable. Available from http://www.mobilearn.org/download/results/guidelines. pdf Last accessed 27th March 2006. Oduolowa, E. (2004). Teacher perception of creativity and the creative child. Ibadan Journal of Educational Studies. Ofie, L. (2011). Management of mobile learning in achieving qualitative education in Nigeria secondary schools. A paper presented at the 3rd Annual National Conference of Association for the promotion of Academic Excellence in Tertiary Institutions of Nigeria (APAETIN) held at F.C.E. Kano. Papert, S. (1994). The children's machine: rethinking school in the age of the computer. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Polsari, P. (2003). Network learning. In Nyiri, K. (ed.). Mobile learning essay on philosophy, psychology and education. Vienna: Passagen Verlay. Scott, J. & Marshall, G. (2009). Oxford dictionary of sociology (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sharples, M. (2007). How can we address the conflict between personal informal learning and traditional classroom education? In Sharples, M. (Ed.). Big issues in mobile learning: Reports of a workshop by the Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile Learning Initiative, P.23. Sharples, M. (Ed.) (2007). Big issues in mobile learning: Reports of a workshop by the Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile Learning Initiative, P.4. Winters, N. (2007). What is mobile learning? In Sharples, M. (Ed.). Big issues in mobile learning: Reports of a workshop by the Kaleidosecope Network of Excellence Mobile Learning Initiative, pp. 7-11 204 THE ROLE OF DRAMA/THEATRE IN ENHANCING GOOD GOVERNANCE IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY. BOT J. I. C. College of Education, Gindiri Plateau State Abstract This paper attempts to examine the role of dramatic/theatre arts in the society towards making good governance. Democratic leadership role(s) of dramatic/theatrical arts are given, and how they are used to function in a society with special consideration to the nation Nigeria. Different forms of performances that dramatists get involved in people-oriented programmes which are aimed at carrying along in the unity of the government and governed are discussed. Also, it shows drama/theatre as a means of ensuring good governance, as well as enlisting some expectations of the society to the performing artists. It gives recommendations for use and further researches. Introduction Putting aside the notion(s) that some people have of dramatic/theatrical arts products as being mundane, or not, drama/theatre is one of those ways endowed with some special techniques or skills of communicating ‘thoughts’ in a performative manner to and within the society, in form of educating, informing, involving and entertaining an ‘audience’, aimed at sensitizing, conscientizing and or, reawakening them on governmental issues and programmes, and vice versa. Drama/theatre has served humanity as an active intermediation within and outside the ‘societies’ right from the ancient era to the present and would go beyond into the future. It would not be an under or over statement to say that once an African child is born, to the time he /she takes a journey to the grave is in constant romance with drama. It goes further to mean the life crisis or rites of passage and the activities therein which are imitative, ritualized, and repetitive, at most times practically acted with demonstrations. These demonstrable imitations are either done with the child within a household, or within a neighborhood, but certainly within the child’s immediate environment. So, drama/theatre possesses those virtues for use in transmitting the needed messages intended for a targeted society in Nigeria. Drama /theatre is traced back to the activities of the Greeks, although it seemed to have started in Africa (Egypt) as far back as 3000 BC, materials in proof were scare and those found appeared unclear. As a result of this, Greece went ahead. According to Brockett (1969) For several centuries Greek drama was presented only in connection with this festivals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. Dionysus was killed, dismembered, and then resurrected. The myths which grew up around him were closely related to the life cycle and to seasonal changes: birth, growth, decay, death and rebirth; spring summer fall and winter . . . also represented many of the worlds irrational forces . . . the inclusion of such irrational forces within the sphere of religion illustrates well the Greek belief that the failure to give due honor to any part of nature might lead to destruction(p.56). However, drama was yet to emerge since all these activities did not portray it. The same author Brockett (1969) says that human’s efforts were to control these unknown and feared forces / powers, thus: 205 Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals. Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the rites mysteries. As man Progressed in knowledge, some rituals, such as those involving human sacrifice, were abandoned, but the stories later called myths, persisted and provided materials for drama.(p.55). Drama as it started during the ancient and primitive era was a communal activity in the Dionysian worship: a sacred duty, team spirit and involving philosophy of purpose. Consequent upon these, leadership was holy, democratic, goal targeted and creatively innovative. Through these their society was cleansed, progressed, free and friendly. Should drama in Nigeria take its past and purposeful roles, the proceeds of efficient and prudent governance for the benefit of all electorates or the down trodden masses would be enormous. Any society that the masses enjoy freedom, the top and upper classes stabilize. A crisis free leadership produce well mannered successors, while progress and prosperity become eminent, succulent and sumptuous. Definition of Operational Terms According to Akinwale (2001) Nigerian theatre has come of age. Its operations from 1945 to 1997 show that it has become an integral part of our society’s existence. Hence, it is not a part of our social life that can be ignored. From this, one could understand that theatre must have permeated nooks and crannies of both our society and individual minds. No wonder then that Zulu Sofola in Akinwale (2001) had to give in her defining what theatre is, gave a holistic perspective of it, thus: Theatre is a medium of artistic expression mirrored in a dynamic living form. A metaphorical image of reality. It reflects the total cosmic, moral and metaphysical order of life of the people. It is an arena where human beings are presented in a cosmic totality, acting and reacting to forces around them and within them, perceiving and being perceived by those inter acting with them, and by these in the audience who experience with them the enigma that is the common lot of humanity(p.24). While according to Adedokun (2001) that Phyllis Hartnoll having used and enjoyed the theatre, observed the theatre thus: But for the theatre as we understand it today three things are necessary: actors speaking or singing independently of the original unison chorus; an element of conflict conveyed in dialogue; and an audience emotionally involved in the action but not taking part in it (p.32). Theatre is used as a pedagogical tool, its exponents, as Augusto Boal (1972:4) and Paulo Freire (1972) used theatre to teach the audience what the societal life is. According to Boal (1972: 4) theatre is the production of ordered images of a world in perpetual change and transition, an aesthetic form through which we can perceive reality in the make-believe actions that actors present to an audience directly from stage. In an on going performance, many perceptions are tagged, as acquired influence to the human mind for a change in behavior by audience in form of the presented culture, religion, style, language etc. that is put on stage. However, it is the storyline or theme through the directorial concept that guides the actions, makeup, language for a specified thought of the playwright to the spectators for a supposed character change. 206 Drama /Theatre Leadership Roles And Good (Democratic) Governance The word theatre is used by several professions; in medicine, theatre is a surgical room, in education, it refers to a hall where lectures are received; in Drama, it refers to a place where audience see performance. This paper is based on the later concept, and it shall be our operational word. Theatre comes from a Greek word ‘theatron’, which means ‘a seeing place’ or ‘place of seeing’. Naturally the questions that may arise are what spectacles are being seen there? How is the seeing place? Who could be the seers? What lessons are learnt there? etc. Responses to these questions cannot get too far from performance; and teaching the audience about their conduct within and outside their society. To justify the usage of this word, Adedokun (2001) sees, Performance as a finished theatrical product manufactured from creative raw materials such as drama, music, dance, poetry, mime, pantomime etc by theatre artists and presented before a gathering of people (consumers) called audience at a given price and at a given location(p.30). To ethnicities, races, cultures and traditions, nations, religions etc drama had sources of inspiration as varied as these variables are. The Greeks playmaking was from the honouring of their god of harvest fertility and wine-Dionysus. From there came an outshoot of movements, speeches / dialogues, imitation, some kind of philosophy, team spirit and so on that were imbibed and carried to the stage or theatre as a way of enforcing, or by extension on a religious worship in a mild way for a more generalized audience / public. According to Brocket (1969: 56) Dionysian worship, as the god of wine and fertility, represented many of the world’s irrational forces . . . The inclusion of such irrational forces within the sphere of religion illustrates well the Greek belief that the failure to give due honor to any part of nature might lead to destruction. The Greeks constantly sought to achieve harmony among all the conflicting forces both within and outside themselves. This renowned dramatist O.G. Brockett captured this dramatic role amidst the Dionysian festival/worship to the society looking at what harmony/peace or otherwise conflict can do. For good (democratic) governance in any nation, inclusion of all irrational forces would create room for everyone to have a feeling or sense of belonging. The absence of peace paves ways to conflicts, crisis, intolerance, disunity etc and it ends in destructive tendencies, underdevelopment and poor governance. Dramatic actions in plays have roles of conveying to the audience of all sorts of thoughts/messages for harmonious co-existence as a nation. It does not start and end on dramas /plays, but the African uses his stories, to teach, tell of the exploits of the elders and draw moral lessons in every story so that the listener can learn some basic lessons of life from it. This concept is utilized effectively these days in what is loosely called intervention drama. There are dramas usually created as teaching pieces by writers using the format of the African story style. In some places, and at most times, they are referred to as enter-educate drama. Such plays were telecasted on air and were used to explain government programmes and policies. Among others we had the Hausa play the People’s court, “Magana jari ce” and the comedy of ‘masquerade’, which are used to entertain, as well as, educate. The late Hubert Ogunde’s television plays with his political satires and songs, while in the early sixties, were widely popular drama and served as a vehicle of change. Similarly, the “village Headmaster “concept was simple and effective, mirroring the societal attitude clearly seeking for positive social change. Enna (2004:96) on theatre and politics in pre-colonial Eggon society, drew from the role of Andakopo Ashum (priest) whose role doubles as director and actor in any 207 performance .He ensures that the person directly responsible for the accuracy of all the codes and performance aesthetics of the particular theatrical piece. Theatre in this community is considered a very serious business, hence the seriousness of Andakopo Ashum to zero tolerance on any inaccuracy. As a leader, for good and democratic governance the spirit of seriousness in governmental activities is eminent. Emphasizing further the role of Andakopo Ashum in council, Enna(2004:100) said, “the cult listen carefully to complaints emanating from all source …” Again, this theatrical tradition also reflects, refracts and mediates the ethos and pathos of the society. It also expresses, through its power of physicalization and dramatization, the corresponding exclusive social relations and values of the determinant mode of production(Enna 2004:30). In his own approach with the TIV Kwagh-hir, Hagher (1990:197) gave two sides of its operation: first, Nigeria, as well as other nations, who are in a similar situation can employ the theatre for conscientization and development drama as pedagogy, has been used to resist the oppressive neo-colonial situation, corrupt and irresponsible leadership. Secondly, on the other hand, a progressive government, that genuinely desires to uplift the poor condition of the deprived rural populace, can also use the theatre (Theatre for Community Development) for raising of popular government programmes. Every government, political party, or agency that is saddled with the responsibilities of governance has particular targets and goals to achieve. The overall good of the democratic governance for development project in Nigeria is to help develop the capacity of national and sub-national institutions, networks and processes, whether governmental or nongovernmental, as a contribution to the further entrenchment of democratic governance in Nigeria. In addition, a candid opinion given on how a civil society can benefit and get involved in working towards making good governance identified some responsible democratic institutions like the media, political parties and national and state parliaments, also the engagement of youths to help them maximize public participation and confidence in the outcome of government policies and programmes such as employing the use of community base theatre. Out of these institutions, to the performing artistes, the media seems to be the largest and most efficient as far as acting and viewing is concern. According to Head (1972) the media is usually undetached from mass, so mass-media or mass communication is approximately a simultaneous delivery of identical messages by high-speed reproduction and distribution to relatively large and undifferentiated numbers of people. Because of its quality of reproducing of dramatic show-casing using motion-pictures to audience on a still-warm seat, it serves as an effective tool for good governance being one of the main ways that quite a number of audience receive information and entertainment .Both drama\Theatre and massmedia play complimentary roles to each other. As drama produces direct motion-movements (stage actions) while the mass-media captures those movements into motion-pictures to reproduce and propagate in form of information and entertainment. In the process of making drama, the stage, media, youth, message(s), etc are needed to make it real. Out of these, actions become the most propelling force in facilitating and processing of raw data information into operational consumable products of change, followership, integration, socialization, man-power and so on. All that is desired of the youth for a purposeful service to the society is to have interest, be eager, and acquire relevant skills. 208 Expectations of the Society to the Performing Artistes Hornby (2000) defines society as a particular community of a people who share the same custom, laws etc; who are living together and having a common purpose. In a society there exists different professionals, experts, class status, varied activities, celebration, patterns of behaviors and the like. Still, within the society, there can be means, methods, techniques or systems of communication in every society. It is aimed at reaching all nooks and crannies of any society with ideas, information, education, principle etc towards improving and remodernizing, or even keeping and maintaining standards of the values or custom of such a community as possible. As dramatist, is also doubling as priest, as Brockett(1969) opines: priests usually assumed the task of the tribe. Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated men, animals or supernatural beings and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming of rain, the revival of the sun as an actor might” (p.55). The task of a dramatist \performer did neither start today nor to be in future. It was a responsibility even during the ancient times, shouldering much yearnings of the society, especially the aspect of keeping the populace well- informed. To communicate with the aim of touching or causing a change in the society,drama serves as a channel of conveyance. According to Udoakah (1998:1) in Dandaura (2005), drama: Is a process through which needs, emotions, desires, goals, and sentiments are expressed among human beings using codes, symbols and language understood by the parties involved in the process. Drama as a channel used for communication utilizes most of these variables (1). Udoakah enlisted. As a matter for discourse, words could be summed up as: drama needs entails a face-to-face interaction between the participants in the communication situation (Dandaura 2005:1).As such theatre should: i. Adequately inform the society to enable them realize and uphold their civic rights and responsibilities. ii. Ensure adequate entertainment and proper education towards transforming the society into peace makers and ambassadors in their communities for the promotion of a conflict free environment. iii. Help in facilitating any technical difficulties related to any duty, programme or plan that would have a direct bearing on the society. iv. Discourage and adopt zero tolerance for the use of any member of the society for violence or any negative vices by any pressure group. v. Help in addressing negative peer pressure and fear of violence and intimidation, rather, it should promote good virtues especially on the youths who are tomorrow’s leaders. dgd projects.ng@undp.org Web.ng.undp.org/procurement/2011_youth-4-youth.dox Theatre (Dramas) as a Means of Ensuring Good Governance Theatre is a form of democratic area or field of study, which stands for the people, by the people and to the same people. Having this, it relates with the roles of good (democratic) governance, particularly that both deal with the people by coming physically and directly in contact with their audience(s). Phyllis Hartnoll (1985) in Adedokun (2001) observes this: But for the theatre as we understand it today three things are necessary; actors speaking or singing independently of the original unison chorus; an element of conflict conveyed in dialogue; an audience emotionally involved in the action but not taking part in it(32). 209 Drama ensures effective communication through the use of different pedagogical processes. Theatre for development: is a complex social process that is dependent on man’s efforts to understand and take total control of his environment . . . economic, social, political and cultural realities within which man finds himself (Dandaura (2005:3). Foremost among advocates to human development perspective to development are Paulo Freire, Augusto Boal, J.S Illah, Iyorwuese Hagher, Ross Kidd, Walter Rodney and Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. As for Abah (1992:3) listed the types of theatres for development. He believes that the focus on the human person in the development process; and the need for him / her to participate in shaping his own reality lie at the base of the ethics and aesthetics of TIDE. These types of Theatre include: Theatre for Integrated Development (TIDE), Theatre for Development (TFD), Theatre for Integrated Rural Development (THIRD), and Community Theatre for Integrated Rural Development (CTHIRD). All these are referred in broad terms popular/ people theatre and function as the service of the disadvantaged rural and urban poor for the purpose of discussing and working out strategies for dealing with their socio-economic conditions. It is a well known fact that perpetrators of poor governance hate critics for the fear of exposing their unpopular activities. Drama or theatre, whose role is, to remind the audience, is seen as undue criticism and incitement against those in authority. Drama/ theatre can be used as vanguard that exhumes corrupt and bad tendencies. It showcases leaders as scavengers and exposes hidden practices and makes the stage intolerable arena / colosseum for social justice. A nation cannot have peace and good governance in the absence of justice. Leaders need drama / theatre for development among others. In one way, it propagates government programmes to the society while on the other hand, it gives a feed-back of policies and implementations reaching the society Conclusion Through dramas or plays actors come in contact with the audience on a stage. Theatre productions give a higher feeling and more lasting emotions that tend to have influence on human behavior. It can be achieved by the direct rendition, vibration of drums and movements, smelling of cosmetics and make-up on their bodies, emittance of physical light rays of lamps from the stage to the eyes. This contact holds and touches the desired thought. In such performance attention and retention of teachable concepts seem firmer in the minds of many. Furthermore, since drama/theatre is a form of skills adopted into the Nigerian culture, it becomes invariably an operational dimension that drama/theatre becomes a good and familiar tool to be used in projecting good societal virtues to correct abnormalies. Good characterization fashions out good people for good governance in Nigeria. To develop a society for good governance using drama would be a matter of organization of a suitable plot. Plays are to be used in publicity, maintenance of a culture, entertainment, creativity, education and information when adequately adopted. Recommendations In this context, this paper recommends the following: i. Theatre industry should be harnessed more in order to give publicity and education to the society. ii. Youths are to be involved in theatre performances in order to experience the feelings of reality as an actor/actress for the sake of on-coming generation and the ones yet unborn. 210 iii. The need for philanthropic organization to assist the industry to come up further should be without limits with particular reference to community based theatre. References Abah, O.S. (1992). Participatory theatre: Issues and cases. In, Hagher, I. H.(1990). Ed.The practice of community theatre in Nigeria.Lagos: Lobi Consortium Ltd. Akinwale, R.A. (2001). The Nigerian theater and economic viability; in Adedokun Adedokun,R.A. (2001). Theatre administration and management procedure; in, Adedokun, (Ed.) Arts administration in contemporary Nigeria. Lagos: Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization. Ibadan:Stirling-Horden Publishers(Nig.) Ltd. Boal, A. (1972). Theatre of the oppressed. London. Pluyo Brockett, O.G. (1969). The theater: An introduction, 2 nd, ed. New York: Winston. Inc. Holt. Rinehart and Dandaura, E.S. (2005). Development communication through theatre: Conceptual issues and strategies for effective utilization, in, communicator: A Journal of culture and media Arts, Abuja: Department of Theatre Arts, university of Abuja. (C) dgdprojects. Ng@ undp. Org web. Ng. undp. Org/procurement/2011-Grant-Youth-4Youth. Doc (A) El Teatro campesimo and the merry pranksters. Theatre and performance Art An Instrument of Social Charge Enna, M.D. (2004). Theatre and polities in pre-colonial Nigeria: The Case of Eggon Society. Ibadan : Oputoru Books. Ferire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmonds Worth: Penguin. (B)Quazen. Com/arts/theatre/using-drama-as-vehide-for-Charge. Hagher, I.H. (1990). The Tiv Kwagh-Hir, Lagos: Centre for black and African Arts and Civilization, National theatre. Ibadan: Shaneson C. I. Ltd Head, S.W. (1972). Broadcasting in America: A Surrey of Television and Radio, 2nd. ed, New York: Honghton Mifflin Company. Hornby, A.S. (2001). Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. 6 th ed., New York: Oxford university press. Udoakah, N. (1998). Development communication. Ibadan. Stirling Hordan. 211 RE-BRANDING THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY THROUGH MORAL EDUCATION YUSUF M. Foundations Department, School of Education, Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, Kumbotso, Kano. Abstract The paper starts by explaining the current negative trends in almost every aspect of our lives as manifested in immoral behaviours such as corruption, violent crime (including armed robbery, kidnapping etc), decadence in our educational institutions, business, politics and unpatriotic attitudes of many Nigerians. The paper agrees that there is an urgent need to rebrand Nigeria even though similar attempts to change Nigeria and Nigerians for better have failed. The paper argues that if Nigerians agree and believe that there is a need for change then that change can come through moral education. Moral education is basic to human survival at whatever level because what differentiates animals from humans is the ability to reason and do what is right and shun what is evil. If everything else fails moral education taught separate from religion and through religion is capable of transforming human souls to think about their life in eternity and change for better. Recommendations were made, for example that government should include moral education in the school curriculum and in the re-branding programme. Introduction The Nigerian society faces the danger of moral bankruptcy if indiscipline continues at the rate we are witnessing it today. Not a day passes without some media report of cases of immoral behaviours and other negative vices reflecting on the unsatisfactory state of our institutions and society at large. The Nigerian society is going through a very difficult time and incidences of immoral behaviour permeates our entire social, economic and political life as a nation. The perpetrators of such negative behaviour include: parents, teachers, lecturers, principals, the press, officials in the ministries, employers of labour, labour unions, professional organizations, business men and women, police, the armed forces and even pupils and students. These as we know are representatives of the educated and the half educated elements in our society. Also there are so many dangerous and conflicting values that compete with sound moral training that most often attract the youth more. The issue of re-branding the Nigerian society therefore is not only timely but extremely necessary. This is because the current situation needs urgent solution, and the solution which we all agree is re-branding which should go beyond slogans because the ills of the nation cannot be eradicated or waved off through campaigns alone, but through articulated moral education. For the fact that the challenge of re-branding is a difficult one, it requires a sound and intense moral education, in which the Nigerian youth are given the right orientation in schools where they can evolve a character of service and sacrifice. We all know that getting a positive image that has been badly battered over the years at home and abroad transcends campaign alone. It must start from the home to the school where the youth in their impressionable age would have imprinted in their minds and personalities positive values and attitudes that would earn the nation the needed respect in the world. The adults also need a change in attitude to bring about a re-branded Nigeria where our individual and collective concept of right and wrong matters and where we will no longer believe in and accept such 212 statements as “the end justifies the means” or “if you can’t beat them join them.” These should be exceptions rather than rules. The paper discusses the way forward in the re-branding process by clarifying some concepts, rationale for re-branding Nigeria, the need for moral education and how moral education can play a vital role in re-branding the Nigerian society among others. Clarification of Terms The key terms that need clarification include: Re-Branding, Moral, Education, and Moral Education. Re-branding Several meanings have been given to the word ‘brand’ some of which are “a type of product made by a particular company;” “to describe someone or something as a very bad type of person or thing, often unfairly” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2001). Nigeria has been Branded as “the third (3rd), most corrupt country in the world” (Transparency International Information), a nation of drug pushers, fraudsters, electoral malpractice, religious and ethnic crisis, corrupt educational system etc. Re-branding therefore, has to do with changing perception; it is about de-stigmatization; or what is called image substitution (Saraki, 2009). Re-branding in the context of this paper involves an activity geared towards making alternations in the state of something already existing with the intention of giving it a different and better image. To re-brand Nigeria means to change the world’s perception about our nation from negative to positive perception. It is about re-defining the concept of our nationhood and engaging wholly in the process of national renewal to attain a height where national interest and the domestic and international image of the nation matters to all (Daniel, 2009). It aims at improving the quality of services in the country. Moral/Morality The word moral/morality originally comes from the Latin word “Mores’ meaning customs and usages of a people. Subsequently, it came to mean precept or law. Morality in its present usage has come to mean one of two things; either the theory of what is right or wrong in human conduct or objectively, the body or system of what is right or wrong in human action, and especially what is wrong (Okere, 1983). Nduka (1983), also shares the same view on the concept of morality when he says “Morality deals with what has been accepted by the society as being right or wrong, good or bad in conduct and interpersonal relations.” This paper is of the view however, that not everything accepted by society as being right or wrong, good or bad is necessarily moral. For example, the Nigerian society seems to accept the fact that the rich are always right, or that the majority opinion carries the vote especially in our context. Reason being that what the majority accepts may actually be based on selfish interest. Education The word education is also derived from a Latin word ‘educare” – which means to bring up a child physically or mentally, to rear. It also means to draw out, to assist at birth as in midwifery, to hatch as from an egg, to bring up (Okere, 1983: 53). Drawing from a theory of learning by Socrates, Okere stated that “education is a midwifery; it is helping the student to bring forth that which he is already pregnant with.” He further stated that man as a 213 complex being full of possibilities and potentials could be more accomplished and truly educated if he develops these potentials. Being educated, he cautioned is not synonymous with being moral in that an intellectual giant who is a moral dwarf could hardly be regarded as an educated man. Education according to Ocho (2002:12), is “normative and implies worth-while and desirability.” Education in the context of this paper is seen as a critical factor in re-branding Nigeria. It is a dynamic agent of information, change and development in any society, it is essential for development both at macro and micro levels. It is identified as a principal element for the individual’s intellectual, social and economic progress (Bakaro, Girei and Kaibo, 2000). Moral Education Nduka (1983:19), stated that, “Moral education involves not only the teaching and learning and other processes whereby values, rules, principles, ideal; habits and attitudes are inculcated but also the taking of adequate educational steps to supplement with appropriate institutional arrangements to promote moral growth along the developmental continuum.” Brown (1970), also sees moral education as inculcating in people “behaviour that is governed by a sense of obligation and duty.” Moral education in this context is believed to or capable of re-branding Nigeria. Rationale for Re-branding Nigeria Re-branding in Nigeria dates back to General Gowon’s regime which initiated an internal re-branding programme of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction to heal the wounds of the Nigeria – Biafra war. This achieved a measure of success in the area of reintegration of fellow Nigerians from the Biafran side. Next was that of General Murtala’s regime of Zero Tolerance for Corruption. The re-branding programme of this regime led to the removal of many bad-eggs from the service of both public and private sectors. General Murtala would have made Nigeria the respectable country we desire if he had not been killed in the 1976 bloody coup. In spite of the regime’s short lived plan, Nigeria as a brand played prominent role in Africa in the independence struggles of countries such as Zimbabwe, Angola and even South Africa. Though Buhari’s War against indiscipline was not sustained after its ouster, it did however re-waken in individuals the essence of self-discipline. The rebranding programme of General Babangida, the Movement for Self-Reliance, Social Justice and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) was not sustained either after he left the seat of power. Similarly, Obasanjo’s “Heart of Africa” project failed despite its lofty objective due to poor planning and because it was not domesticated. The current Re-branding Programme imitated by Prof. Dora Akunyili is geared towards repositioning Nigeria such that all forms of corruption would be eradicated. For this current initiative to succeed what we need is sustainable Moral Education. At this juncture, it is appropriate to ask why successive governments from General Murtala to the present regime engaged in trying to redeem Nigeria’s image without success, and why the government which initiates the reforms is accused of being the culprit in some instances. To answer these questions, a look at some of the happenings in our national life will give us an idea as to why Nigeria needs to be re-branded, since previous attempts have failed. Nworah (2006), summarized why Nigeria needs re-branding as follows: - To remove dichotomies militating against national interest and sustainable nation building; - To sanitize the political scene that reeks of electioneering abuse, display of economic arrogance and 214 the use of youths and political thugs to level political scores on real and imagined enemies.; - To rid the nation of all forms of corruption; - To replace individuals and self-interest with national interest; - To sensitize youths on the need to initiate, promote and maintaining peace while eschewing militancy, restiveness and irrational behaviours; and - To redeem the badly battered Nigerian image. Other reasons include poor work ethics, corporate and large scale organizational irresponsibility, fake and substandard goods and services, tribal, ethnic and religious squabbles, poor planning, lack of security and disregard for human life and property, armed robbery, kidnapping etc. Akinpelu (1983), summarized the need for change because he claimed Nigeria then was in a state of moral crisis. A catalogue of such crisis include: exhibition of unhealthy attitudes which are the reflections of an even deeper malaise, namely, the lack of commitment to a viable moral base and the consequent lack of moral integrity. This lack of moral integrity is reflected in forms of rampant fraud, stealing, robbery, nepotism, forgery, examination malpractices and above all, in the prevalence of bribery and corruption which has become entrenched in Nigerian public life. Additionally, there was lack of discipline in virtually every sphere of life exemplified, for instance, by the tendencies to recklessness and general lack of courtesy on our highways, scrabbling or even riotous behaviour at the airports and other public places, lack of respect for law and order, etc. Similarly get rick quick syndrome was said to be the order of the day where fellow citizens were defrauded, cheated and exploited. Nigerians exhibited unhealthy attitude to work as few were willing to exert themselves to perform their duties promptly and efficiently. In fact some civil servants often assumed a haughty and insolent manner in the performance of their statutory duties even expect ex-gratis payments for doing their duties. Sexual immorality was said to have dug deep into the moral fabric of the Nigerian society as a result of the flood of pornographic materials. These catalogue of vices were observed and recorded almost thirty years ago and were then a common knowledge. It was observed then that few leaders showed enough concern and indignation over the situation with the aim of improving life. What then can we expect today, if the situation was that bad many years back? Chiroma in Baikie (2010), stated that “for us to deny unpleasant images of us that are true would compound the situation and permanently confirm our inability to alter the undesirable images and replace them with more favourable ones.” Baikie, supported this view by saying “the comments by Chiroma (1995) are as true today as they were then; but the conditions that prompted the observations/ comments may have grown worse today with the increase in crime, corruption, examination malpractice, money laundering etc” Akunyili (2009), stated: in the eye of the world; every Nigerian is perceived as a potential mongster; Nigerians are regarded as unruly, most difficult people to lead or govern, Nigeria is also perceived as a country where nothing works and where chaos is a daily staple. But we know all this is a misrepresentation of the average Nigerian who is Godfearing, peace loving and law abiding. The position of this paper is that in trying to solve the problems of Nigeria, rather than continually point fingers at our faulty inherited legacy from our colonial masters; we should look inwards to our own failures from national to home level and start from there. If as a 215 people we recognize and accept that we have a problem, then we should all be willing to be part of the solution – contribute towards re-branding Nigeria. The Need for Moral Education The need for moral education in the up-bringing of the young children especially today cannot be overemphasized. This is because as future hope of our nation, we must inculcate in them good morals so that we will have well behaved Nigerians tomorrow. While moral education can be a deliberate organized formal system of instruction, it could also be informal but equally deliberate in form of socialization if we are to have better behaved future Nigerian adults. As earlier established, the Nigerian society shows glaring signs of moral decadence. Iwe (1993), added his voice to the already clouded scene when he stated that “one needs not go far to see instabilities in homes, sexual laxity among the old and the young, senseless and selfish use of power by those in authority, conscienceless political victimization, repression and discrimination, electoral malpractices at all levels even among students and trade unionists; senseless craving and pursuit of wealth by both big and small – the religious and the irreligious, shameless and bold misappropriation of public funds by our ‘messianic’ public officers, our pious – looking religious leaders, our corporate and executive looking bankers, our image-salvaging teachers in the classroom etc.” To re-brand Nigeria, there’s need for moral education in our society. The National Policy on Education (2004), recognizes this when it wants Moral education to be inculcated in the Nigerian child before he gets to the age of thirteen (13). West African Examination Council (WAEC 2004:147, 296), also stated that among the aims and of objectives of teaching religious studies are to make students ‘worthy ambassadors of God in the home, the nation, and the world at large’ and to inculcate in them “the spiritual, moral, social and intellectual role of their religion” Unfortunately, no systematic attempt has been made by the government to map out these right types of values and the means of inculcating them. Problems of Moral Education in Nigeria It is appropriate at this point to pose the question “why has the government and other stake holders in position to make decisions (who have all recognized the need for moral education in our society) not done anything to improve the situation all these while?” In as attempt to give answers to these questions, Onwuka (2006), enumerated some practical problems confronting moral education in Nigeria as follows: i. Policy makers and policy implementers are not sincere with themselves and with the programme. They are not truly committed to the moral ideals, and those who want to be committed lack the moral courage to do the right thing. They therefore only pay lip services to these laudable programmes. ii. Moral education faces problems of materialism and craze for title and names. Nigeria society worships money, it does not matter how one gets his money so long as they throw it around in form of “donations” or buy chieftaincy tittles with it. It is like the end justifies the means. iii. The family system is fast breaking down. Children from broken and absentee parent families are not adequately taken care of in most cases. For the craze of getting rich quick both parents in some cases abdicate their God-given responsibility of caring for the children to teachers in the formal school system or paid care givers who are mostly not competent to 216 play that role. Such parents simply do not have time to take care of the moral upbringing of their children. Children of such parents may be intellectually good but could be morally bankrupt. iv. Harsh economic situation has led civil servants to engage in all manner of unethical attitudes to make ends meet. No wonder they ask for “kola” while discharging their duties. Lecturers force students to buy substandard handouts, parents no more care where and how money comes in to the family e.g there are cases where full-time female students engage in prostitution to support their families and pay for their education but their parents do not question the source of the money. v. Lack of qualified resource persons and materials to teach moral education in our society. Some parents lack good morals, so are some teachers and religious leaders. Since one cannot give what he does not have it becomes impossible for such category of persons to influence others for good. Equally true is that the type of programmes we watch and the types of novels and magazines we read are not morally sound. These influence people negatively. Who should be responsible for Moral Education? Moral education, the type proposed by Nduka (1983), in our definition is not a one man’s job. In the re-branding process that aims at leading Nigeria to a morally sound nation, all hands must be on deck as such the home, the school and the religious organizations and the society must all contribute their quota. Firstly, the family is a major agent of moral education. The child is a member of a family. It is here the child get his first training (socialization). It is the only agent of socialization where an individual relate with on a continuous basis throughout his life. The child picks up most of his sentiments, values and morals from the family, Ilori in Onwuka (2006). The school/teacher is a crucial factor in the moral education of a child. The child spends most of his time during the day in custody of the teacher. The teacher contributes significantly in character formation of the child from the pre-nursery to primary, to the secondary and tertiary institutions. To the child, the teacher is a role model and embodiment of knowledge. He learns so many things from his teacher positive or negative ones. For these reasons, “teachers must accept that they are moral educators, whether this influence operates subtly through the ethos of the school, or overtly in the moral education system” (Kay, 1975; 298). Religious organizations are other means of moral education. Every “religion has what it accepts as right or wrong, and children from various religious persuasions pick up some things they do from what these religions teach. The place of religion in moral education cannot be overemphasized as seen in the influence of religion in every aspect of our interaction in Nigeria. The society is another agent that affects the morals of a child. The child learns a lot from the society in the process of growth where his character and opinions are formed from what he sees. This explains why what happens in the school is a true reflection of what is happening in the larger society. A society that is morally bankrupt should expect indiscipline among its youth. The Role of Religion in Moral Education Religion can play a significant role in teaching morals/morality, however it is important to clarify that religious education is not the same thing as moral education. Nduka 217 (1983:12), distinguished the two when he stated that morality is logically independent of religion and therefore, moral education is not synonymous with religious education” Similarly, Woodhouse in Nduka and Iheoma (1983), noted that “religion and morality are conceptually distinct in that one can teach morality without reference to religion.” This paper is not advocating that moral education should in anyway substitute the teaching of Christianity and Islam, doing so would create more serious problems for Nigeria. Lemu (1983:81), summarized this is clear terms when he emphatically stated that teaching morality without any reference to religion has some disadvantages such as: i. Morality without God has no authority: If morality in left for each man to work out on his own, it will be according to one’s own ideas, whims and prejudices, but in the religious context, morality carries the supreme and unchanging authority of God; ii. Morality without the concept of life after death has no sanctions: A philosophy which has no concept of life after death implies that there is no accountability for one’s deeds on earth. Morality without personal accountability lacks sanction and thus cannot be effective to check immoral behaviour; iii. Teaching of moral philosophy without reference to revelation leads to human reasoning; so for a moral system to have a grip on people, it must be a part of a comprehensive set of beliefs and; iv. Detachment of morality from religious sanctions in Europe has for instance led to the overthrow of the moral authority of the Church in matters of marriage and sexual morals which in turn led to illegitimate births, venereal diseases, teenage pregnancies divorce etc with their attendant social problems. We cannot in Nigeria afford to make similar mistakes. Religious education has played a key role in teaching morals at the family, school, community and national levels. If moral education is to be a tool for re-branding Nigeria, all Nigerians must be carried along to ensure its success. While the focus of this paper is on teaching of moral education in re-branding Nigeria, it should be noted that moral education is not limited to children of schools, colleges and institutions of higher learning only nor is it a purely academic exercise but it includes ‘behaviour in accordance with certain standards of what is good and what is evil – striving for the good and rejecting evil for all.” (Nduka, 1983:18). Moral education could enable literate adults who no longer attend school learn morals through religious teaching, illiterate adults can also improve on their morality through religious education. Nigeria is a highly religious pluralistic society where everybody is said to be intensely religious; full of religious zeal and energy, and when we use the positive aspects of our religion we can once more be people of high moral values in a re-branded Nigeria. The Role of Moral Education in Re-Branding Nigeria Implicit in the concept of morality is the view that it involves acting for a reason or reasons not on mere impulse. Such reasons it is argued must be based on moral rules and principles such as justice, equality, consideration of the interests of others, etc. The ability to reason morally is said to develop in accordance with the age of and the influences affecting the child. If Nigeria will ever be re-branded, there is need for all Nigerians to begin to do what is right through changes in our attitudes, which is possible through moral education. Baikie (2010), suggested that for Nigeria to be re-branded, much more need to be done to translate our well documented national intentions into teachable and attainable goals through public enlightenment and education (moral education in the context of this paper). At school and college levels, the curriculum should cover among others the under-listed topics: Public History of Nigeria from 1940 218 Comparative religion Unity in diversity The states of Nigeria Evils of corruption Civic duties and responsibilities Patriotism. He further opined that the factors responsible for the call for re-branding of Nigeria are directly or indirectly related to the vacuum in our upbringing caused by failure to ingratiate important factors which are capable of promoting understanding, patriotism, national unity, religious harmony, discipline and national pride in us. Tahir in Baikie (2010), also suggested practical steps that can move forward and transform Nigeria’s social and moral values such as: i. Adapting procedures that would elevate the Nigerian State to its rightful place. That we must agree and be made to agree that the Nigerian state is sacred, Supreme and above any other loyalty except that owed to God; ii. That a catechism emphasizing the virtues of loyalty, duty, obligations and obedience to the state must be developed and all citizens must be made to know and believe in them; iii. That compulsory course in Nigerian civics which highlight the classical and conventional virtues and vices (like the so-called deadly sins etc) and set in the Nigerian context must be developed and a compulsory part of the syllabus at all levels of the education system; iv. That the education system must impart knowledge of our diverse cultures to students and the electronic media must be made to mount programmes of inter-ethnic education as a regular feature of their out-put. All these suggestions have to do with doing what is morally right and avoiding doing anything that would mar the reputation and good name of Nigeria. Who would accuse us of misbehaviour if we do what is morally right; and how can we know what is morally right if not through moral education? Conclusion Re-orientation of the Nigerian public through moral education is both necessary and urgent if Nigeria is to be re-branded. As earlier explained, moral education is a joint responsibility of four main agencies: the home, the community and the school and religious organizations. Each of these has a special role to play with a mutual interaction among them in the complex process of moral development. The home however remains the most powerful formative factor in the moral development of a child. All agencies of moral education must therefore be mutually supportive such that the Nigeria society is able to produce morally upright adults who could project a better image of Nigeria at home and abroad. Moral education can help reverse the negative trends in the Nigerian society if the policy makers, policy implementers and the general public are sincere with themselves and with the re-branding programme. If as a people we come to sincerely believe that Nigeria is re-brandable and we are willing to be part of the solution, then there should be a change in attitude. No one needs to tell us that the already cloudy scene could get worse if we do not do something urgent and now. Furthermore, for the re-branding project to succeed, everyone, (literate, illiterate, adult and young) must be carried along. This could be achieved through vigorous 219 enlightenment campaign in addition to teaching it in our schools where everyone is made to understand, appreciate and contribute towards re-branding our nation. There is no restriction to the teaching of morals at whatever level, what is lacking is being committed to doing what is morally right. Recommendations To re-brand Nigeria the following suggestions are proposed: All policy statements by government should be backed by action e.g the National Policy on Education (2004), as it concerns the inculcation of moral education in the Nigerian child before he gets to the age of thirteen (13) be translated in practical terms. There is need to have trained moral educators in our schools. The moral educators need not necessarily be religious studies teachers. Moral education should form part of the school curriculum. In the same vein, deliberate efforts should be made to train moral educators separate from religious studies teachers. Religious organizations should properly play the socialization function of religion in which people of all ages are taught the fear of God, respect for parents and elderly, humility, truth, honesty, justice, kindness and shunning all forms of evil. Religious education reenforces the moral teaching that is acquired at home and other social agents of moral education. If fear of God cannot change our attitude, then nothing can. Proper teaching and exemplary life of leaders can help in the re-branding process. Moral educators at whatever level should exhibit behaviours of emulation. It is no exaggeration to say Nigeria’s bad image is as a direct result of low moral values among the generality of the people. We must stop paying lip service to issues of morality. There is an urgent need for change in attitude where money is not everything. Character makes man, our leaders must be sincere, honest hardworking, dedicated and disciplined. There must be accountability with no sacred cows where anybody found wanting should be dealt with according to the rule of law. Enlightenment campaign on morality should form part of re-branding programme. It should not be just an academic exercise or political slogan. Other attempts failed because they were not taken seriously and most Nigerians did not understand what they entailed. References Akinpelu, J.A (1983). New perspective in moral education; Ibadan, Evans brothers. Akunyili, D. (200). Speech delivered on the occasion of the flag off of the National Rebranding campaign, Abuja: Tell Magazine Pp 12-27. Baikie, A. (2010). Quality education and re-branding Nigeria. Reynote aAddress, delivered at the 3rd National Conference of the School of Education, Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education,Kumbotso. Bakari, S.G; Girei, A.U and Kaibo, J.M (2000). Educating the Nomadic Girl-child. Challenges for the UBE Programme: A paper presented at the proceedings of the national conference on education for the disadvantaged groups in Nigeria held at Federal College of Education, Yola. 220 Brown, C.H (1970). Understanding society. London; George Allen and Unwin. Daniel, P. (2009). Re-branding Nigeria, role of youth from www.nigerians inamerica.com. Retrieved on 26/5/2010. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Iwe, N.S.S (1983). New perspective in moral education. Ibadan; Evans Brothers. Kay, W. (1975). Moral education. London; George Allen and Unwin. Lemu, S. A (1983). New perspective in moral education. Ibadan; Evans Brothers. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 3rd edition (2001). U.K; Longman. Nduka, O. (1983). New perspective in moral education. Ibadan; Evans Brothers. Nworah, U (2006). Critical Perspectives on the Heart of Africa Image Project, www.brandc\annel.com./.../40 Retrieved on 20/9/10. Ocho, L.O (2002). Poverty alleviation strategies: Implications for poverty alleviation in Nigeria Journal of Women in Colleges of Education vol. 6, 27. Okere, T. (1983). New perspective in moral education. Ibadan; Evans Brothers. Onwuka, E (2006). Repositioning citizenship education through moral education: In Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development, Vol. 7. No 8. Saraki, B. (2009). Vision 2020 and the Challenges of Re-branding Nigeria. www.kwarastate. Gov.ng/ .../vision/-20-2020 and the Challenge of Re-branding Nigeria ht. Retrieved on 20/9/10. West African Examination Council( 2004 – 2008). Syllabus for senior secondary school certificate examinations (Nigeria) Lagos; WAEC. 221 ENSURING LEADERSHIP THROUGH POSITIVE STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIP IN SCHOOLS: A SOCIOLOGICAL VIEW DANJUMA M. Division of General Studies Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero Abstract If Nigeria craves for leaders that will bring abut the much talked about positive changes in the Nigeria system of government, the educational institutions must be given the task. Consequently the teachers should be given their right position in providing worthwhile experiences and opportunities for learners at all levels of education. Using the interactionist perspective, this paper examines the effectiveness of positive student-teacher relationship in ensuring leadership among youths with regard to positive student teacher relationship the teacher and the teaching profession and career counseling in schools. The paper also shows the relevance of cordiality in schools getting in order to boost teaching-learning activities. Among other things the paper recommends that ethical relationships be encouraged among teachers and students as well as submits that a conductive atmosphere in school promotes learning. Introduction Immoral acts, insensitivity to the right of others, disparities of wealth among Nigerians, economic and political instability are evidences of the education process (Odionye. 2009) Odionye further adds that, nothing informs man about his environment and issues of life and the lives of others like education. Oyemi (2009) posits that, education from pre-school to tertiary, is expected to mould the character and conduct of those benefiting from it in such a way that they provide good leadership in whatever position they find themselves in life. In essence, contemporary educational institutions in Nigeria have unlimited resources, manpower possibilities, if utilized properly for developing leadership qualities in .Nigerian youths who comprise future leaders’, as children are usually tagged by politicians, policy makers, educationist and the like. Leadership exists within social relationships and serves social ends. This however, implies one's relationship with others, especially when in a position to lead. A leader, according to Hornby (in Olusegun, 2009) is a person who leads a group of people, especially a head of a country or an organization. Although this definition offers a considerable insight into what leadership is at a macro-level, it does not take cognizance of leaders in a microlevel relationship, as the act of leadership can be found to exist among two people or a small group as would between a teacher and a student or students. Leadership simply means being in charge (Macmillan English, 2007) Leadership then can be defined as ones’ ability to get others to follow willingly-and in broader terms, it entails the exercise of influence over the beliefs, values and action of others, in (Brown, 2007). Leadership is defined as the process of moving people in a planned decision by motivating them to action through various means (Kazeem, 2009). Positive student-teacher relationships have been described as relationships that are mutually respectful and supportive (Pendergast and Bahr, 2006), while open communication as well as emotional and academic support that exist between teachers and students serve as another way to describe a positive relationship between the two parties. Motshing-Pitrick. 222 Cornelins White Honey, and Cornelins White, (2004) see these relationships as having empathy, warmth and genuineness. Positive student-teacher relationships have also been characterized by mutual acceptance, understanding, warmth, closeness, trust, respect, care and cooperation (Leitoa and Wangh, 2007 as cited in WikEd, 2011). Existing cordial relationships in a school set-up are encouraging when guided by the ethics of the teaching profession with education playing the role of promoting good leadership where teachers are saddled with the responsibility of inculcating in Nigerian youths the spirit of honesty, accountability, truthfulness, integrity and devotion to duty. Teaches therefore, .must lead by example, while the students should be ever ready to assume their social duties as leaders of tomorrow. Interactionist Perspective The paper adopts the integrationists perspective as it relates to everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Interactionism is a sociological framework for viewing human beings as living in a world of meaningful objects which may include material things, actions, other people, relationships and even symbols (Schaefer, 2005). Mead (1863-1931) is widely regarded as the founder of the integrationist perspective. Integrationists consider groups at their micro levels and the intimate relationships that exist between them. They are interested in how individuals interact with one another and how their interaction patterns affect or influence socialization as well as education (Mahuta, 2007).He further stated that the emphasis in this perspective is about relationship among individuals. This paper is rooted on this perspective as it considers the relationship between teachers -and students as a laudable method in shaping students and teacher's ideals, beliefs value and social nature. Because it is more or less micro-level study, teachers who interact closely with students, tend to understand both their weaknesses and strengths in both their academic and social "lives. These enable them (teachers) proffer solutions where necessary and motivate the students as well, especially in their educational pursuits. Positive Student-Teacher Relationship Educational institutions, particularly public schools, are rapidly becoming second class institutions despite the fact that majority of Nigerian youths are enrolled into these schools. Considering the rising falling standard of education, especially in secondary schools, it is common to find graduates who lack academic competence, especially in communication skills, which is one of the key factors or quality to become a leader. Students’ inability to perform or even defend their academic certificates has become a major source of concern to most stakeholders. The labour market finds it relatively difficult to contend with the influx of unqualified graduates, especially from our Universities, and other institutions of learning. Students' rebellious attitude to proper educational attainment could be linked to many factors ranging from economic, political, social, or social relationships which exists between a teacher and a student. However, student-teacher relationships can influence, either positively or otherwise, the educational expectations of the former. Schaefer (2005), stresses that continued attendance in the formal school setting inevitably exposes an individual to general development. This is to say that teachers must encourage students to remain in school till completion time in order to acquire the necessary training for onward movement into the larger society. This could be achieved through positive student-teacher relationships. 223 Consequently, the relationship between teachers and students if maximally productive should reflect certain attitudes and commitments of each to the other. For instance, the Kabbala (2011) approach to education stresses three elements of student-teacher relationship as follows: - The student must trust the teachers concern. .. - The student must respect his or her teacher and hold him or her in the highest esteem... - The student must commit himself/herself to following the instructions with utmost discipline... (p1) In line with the above, there is no doubt that discipline can be enshrined in a student, if he/ she abides by the directives of the teacher. Teachers on the other hand, should display positive attitudes that are worthy of emulation by the students. This will go a long way in giving the students a sense of belonging and the feeling of care. One study on adolescents and extracurricular activities found that adolescents who participated in extracurricular activities reported higher grades, more positive attitudes towards school and higher academic aspirations (Darling. Cardwell and Smith, 2005). In Ali, Jusoff. Ali. Mokktar and Salamat, (2009). Broh (2002), in Ali et al states that participation in extracurricular activities is associated with an improved grade point average, higher educational aspirations, increased college attendance and reduced absentism. This indicates that teachers must find healthy ways of interacting with students to achieve the aforementioned. Avenues for relaxation when provided will yield positive relationships among them. Positive student-teacher relationship is an important component of creating conducive classroom, and school climate. Meehan. Hughes and Cavell. In WikEd (2011) state that positive students-teacher relationships encourage students to respond effectively when academic tasks cause emotional and behavioural dysregulation. In a related development. Carventes (2007) in WikEd (2011) posit that a positive student-teacher relationship has an even greater impact on students in low-performing schools. A Therefore, considering the state of Nigerian public schools, improved and ethical student-teacher relationships will help curb or possibly, eliminate problems associated with lack of performance in future life. In relation to teachers confronting students, and as long as they are able to confront the students in a positive manner, the student would be open to learning and trying harder. Hanushek. (2007) adds that, "teachers do indeed matter when assessed in terms of students' performance”. This serves as a motivational measure for the students with an increased desire to want to go to school. The teacher and the student are considered the two principal actors in the educational process and so therefore need to work together. The Teacher and the Teaching Profession Teachers are nation builders. They as leaders are an embodiment of virtues like tolerance, cooperation, truthfulness and integrity, accountability, devotion to duty and so on. Teaching primarily, is a process of educating. Hyman (1974) refers to the general enterprise of teaching as an overall cluster of activities, which are associated with a teacher; explaining, questioning, advising etc. One of the challenges of the profession however, is that, it is assumed anybody can teach. Teachers are supposed to be at their disciplines in order to impart the desired knowledge to students. UNESCO (2005). Indicate that teachers must be equipped with ethical, intellectual and emotional know how to develop some range of equalities in their pupils in various schools and as the society demands. Therefore, the influx of some 224 unqualified teachers, the compromising attitude of some teachers by form of preferential treatments to some students at the expense of other students and the smooth running of the school is unethical as it could go a long way in jeopardizing the intents in grooming them (students) towards national unity, cohesion and above all development. Amadi (1989) in Kazeem (2009), noted that teachers are to ensure that ones educational preparation will have deliberate elements of leadership values groomed into the recipients. Kazeam (2009) further adds that, teachers from Nursery to University levels should identify leadership qualities in their subjects whether in Sciences or Arts and inculcate them in the learners. Not minding at what level a teacher operates, he/she must imbibe the habit of encouraging students socially, morally and spiritually. The teacher must learn to facilitate and prepare them to be patriotic through cooperation and peaceful coexistence. Ukeje (1991) posits that, without good teachers there cannot be good engineers, no good medical doctors, no good lawyers. Institutions of learning should be dynamic in recruiting their teachers and encourage teachers to be able to face the challenges of the changing world. The demands of society are dynamic, hence the need to reposition professionalism in teaching; teachers need to be encouraged to be more interactive in discharging their duties rather than sticking to their conventional methods of teaching. Professional training of teachers in Colleges of Education, Faculties of Education and Institutes of Education should be taken much more seriously than ever before. This is because teacher education is the foundation of quality in any educational system. Chioma and Maduewesi (2008) observed that the teacher and the kind of education he she receives are important for the quality of the overall education system. FGX (2004). recognize teacher education as one of its objectives, where it states that, it is meant to help teachers to put into social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals. Career Counseling in Schools Social movements grow out of social needs, and the growth of counseling is no exception. Modern life is complex and full of problems. Professional counseling developed as a response to strong social needs. Modern life is characterized by instability. People are now moving more towards the "me and my family” way of life. The individual in the society has been encouraged, and even forced to be independent of others. In doing so, he may have gained an increased identify, but often at the expense of longstanding personal relationships, which he could use constructively in time of trouble. Counseling from the viewpoint of society, can be seen as a process by which one person helps another to deal more effectively with himself and the stress imposed by his environment (Salawu, 2000). He further adds that the outcome of counseling reflects in change of behaviour of the client. Counseling serves as a tool by which to effect positive change in persons who are dissatisfied with their present behaviour. A student may not necessarily understand the effect of certain (bad) behaviour he may be exhibiting and its long term effects on his future career. A teachers' position, no doubt, is to find out and study students' behaviour and in turn counsel them where appropriate. This can be done through positive student teacher relations and concern by the teacher for the teaching profession. So, putting the required machinery into motion would not be difficult. Thompson and Zimmeeman (1969) in Salawu (2000) see counseling as a person-toperson relationship in which one person (Counselor) helps another (counsellee) to resolve an area of conflict that has not been hitherto resolved. Social relationships value is particularly 225 important in counseling because it may reflect the locus of the decision making (individual, family, group) and it may relate to preferred communication style. Basso, (1990), kim. Slim and Cai (1998) in Brown (2007), also state that, people with individual social values are quite likely to make their own decisions. However, the diversity of students in our schools increasingly reflects the diversity of our society, which calls for a participation of the stake holder in decision making with respect to their own lives. Human beings yare social animals and so sociologists scientifically examine their social relationships with others. Max Weber (1864-1920) as cited in Schaefer (2006) point out that we cannot analyze our social behaviour by the same type of objective criteria we use to measure weight and temperature. To fully comprehend behaviour, he added, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their action - how they themselves view and explain their behaviour. This should serve as a guide to school counselors when dealing with students of diverse cultural backgrounds, beliefs, norms and value and find ways of addressing issues that may affect their becoming future leaders. Leong (1993) in Brown (2007) suggest that both content and career counseling must be altered to accommodate die interpersonal styles, cultural values, attitudes and beliefs of students. While Griff (1987) in Brown (2007) indicate that groups of students share common needs and the career development services available to students should include some if not all the following: - Career and self awareness activities - Exploration of interests, values goals and decision. - Realities of the job market and future trends - Practical, accurate information about career (p327) Students should however be made to understand the interaction of career and other life roles, understand the changing roles of men and women in our society and the interrelationships that exist between the needs of the society and the world of work, especially leadership. Recommendations Considering the three (3) major sub headings used in this paper which are positivestudent teacher relationship, the teacher and the teaching profession and career counseling in schools, it becomes evident that the paper is more or less concerned with the interaction that partakes between a teacher and a student(s) in and outside the classroom. In the light of these, the paper recommends that:- Ethical cordial relationship be encouraged among teachers and students - Extracurricular activities be encouraged in schools which should serve as a stepping stone for free interaction among teachers and students. - Training and retraining of the staff and school career counseling staff on simple ethics of interaction bearing in mind student's cultural diversity. - Teachers should imbibe the habit of inculcating leadership traits in the students at the very slightest opportunity. - The students should be encourage to be fully equipped with the tools of research, be fact finding on problems confronting the society, with the spirit of seeking positive and lasting solutions. - Teachers must encourage the students to be competent enough to lead others out of social crisis in the interest of the entire society. 226 Conclusion Education, as we have seen, is a process of socializing, which employs formal, informal, and non-formal methods in transmitting knowledge, skills and dispositions that make the learners more or less able members of the society. The socialization process in education involves many different influences and agencies which to some extent have the power to control, discipline, reward and punish and the ability to deliberately teach and encourage learning. This paper however, examines some aspects of positive relationships that exist between teachers and students with the intention to help boost conducive atmosphere in our schools towards achieving greatly in the realm of education. Positive student-teacher relationship, which calls for a cordial relationship between the two parties, could be done through the inclusion of extracurricular activities in schools. The teacher and the teaching profession are made better if the ethics of the profession and teachers qualities are adhered to. Career counseling in schools is the combined effort of teacher and students in their attempt to develop leaders of tomorrow. References Ali, N Yusoff, K. Ali, S. Mokhtar, N. & Salamat, A.S.N, (2009). The factors influencing students performance at University of Technologi MARA Kedah, Malaysia. Management Science and Engineering, Vol. 3 No.4. ISSN1913-0341 Brown, D. (2007). Career information, career counseling. And career development. Nineth Edition USA. Chioma & Maduewesi (2008). Reforms in teacher education industry. Challenges and the wax-forward. Journal of Teacher Education and Teaching Vol 4.No.2 Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, Lagos, NEROC Press Hanushek E.A.. (2007). Education production functions. Palgrave Encyclopedia Hyman. R.T.C.. (1974). Contemporary thought on teaching. Eaglewood Cliffs N.J Prentice Hill Inc. Kabbala & Education: The element of student teachers relationship. Part 48 mhtml: file://f:/ Retrieved 7/21/2011. Kazeem, F.A.. (2009). Philosophy of education and the Nigerian educational system: in Owan, E.A. In Owan E.A Education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, philosophy of education association of Nigeria, Saniez Books. Odionye, A.E., (2009). Education and democratic process; The Nigerian perspective: In Owan E.A Education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books Olusegun, A. A., (2009). The teacher’s role as a leader in national development: In Owan E.A Education and Leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books. 227 Oyemi F.T.. (2009). Pre-School education and preparation of the Nigerian child for Leadership. In Owan E.A education and leadership in Nigeria: Annual Book of Reading, Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria, Saniez Books. Salawu A.A.. (2000). Introduction to guidance and counseling. Reading in Education. Vol. 1 Bigs Educational Services. Schafer, R.T., (2005). Sociology nineth edition, McGrawHill. Schaefer, R.T.. (2006). Sociology a brief introduction, sixth edition. McGraw Hill. UNESCO (2005). Managing primary education in Nigeria. A reform agenda/Abuja, VICL, Nigeria Ukeje, B. (199l). The education of teachers for a new order of the Nigeria teachers today (DNTT) Kaduna national commission for colleges of education. WikEd.mht (2011). Positive student teacher relationships retrieved on 7/21/20 from~ http://wik.ed. \7iuc.edu/index.php/ Macmillan english dictionary (2007). For advanced learners. 228 ACHIEVING NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION WALU R. W. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Jos. Abstract This paper examines the role of the universal basic education as an effective strategy in advancing national development. It highlights the various aspects of economic, political and social levels of underdevelopment in the country and emphasizes that development or progress will be circumscribed as long as the level of illiteracy that results from lack of basic education prevails. It therefore recommends that the Universal Basic Education programme should be adequately funded and made more accessible to the common man. Introduction According to Obanewa (2000) national development has often been misconceived in economic terms, rather than as a process that encompasses all aspects of the community life thereby drawing the specific contributions of all social groups to enable them reap the fruit of national endeavor. National development therefore involves fundamental changes, which embrace economic, political, cultural and social reforms. The clamour for national development among scholars has been focused around two key issues; firstly, the fight against poverty. The low standard of living in most underdeveloped nations of the world is defined as a key concept of development The second key area focused on economic and social development. This approach concentrates on comparing development among countries and regions on the basis of social, economic, technological and political transformation. Given this concept, Nigeria has been identified as one among the underdeveloped countries of the world as rating low in developmental indices. According to most recent statistics on the progress of the Millennium Development Goals, MDGS (2005), Nigeria ranks high on the poverty index. As a sixth largest exporter of oil, Nigeria is said to host the largest number of poor people after china and India (Igbuzor, 2006). The poverty rate is said to be severe and widespread especially in the rural areas. Dosunmu & Oni (2010) have observed that an average Nigerian is faced with material deprivation to access basic services like health education and drinking water. The literacy rate in the country uis also not without challenges. Daily Trust Newspaper (2010) indicate that about 17 million Nigerian children who are of eligible age, are out of school. Also reported is the highest rate of illiteracy among females. The poverty and illiteracy rate has increased the burden of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, child and maternal mortality among nursing mothers. Also, of more concern, economic stagnation, political has characterized the economic and political landscape of the country thereby rendering the achievement of meaningful and natural development a major challenge. However, as observed by Obanewa, (2000) national development remains a major challenge as long as ignorance prevails as a result of inadequate education. He maintained that without a level of compulsory education contained in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) there can be no economic and socio-political transformation. The National Policy Education (2004) states the need for functional education to be relevant, practical for 229 acquisition of appropriate skills and development of competences to enable individuals contribute to the development competences to enable individuals contribute to the development of the society. Therefore, the Universal Basic Education is an effective instrument for breaking the cycle of underdevelopment by reversing the rate of poverty and illiteracy. The Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2010) has shown the extensive benefits of the Universal Basic Education on breaking the cycle of poverty, improving public health, such as lowering the spread of disease like HIV/AIDS, economic growth in the economy through productivity. Ekeocha (2007) maintains that a stable democratic society is achievable with a minimum level of literacy on part of most of its citizens Basic Education has served as a vital link in the categorization of a nation as a developing one or not and just as Adewale (2004) has concluded that the virtuous circle of underdevelopment can be brought to life if they relate literacy to development. However, for the Universal Basic Education to achieve this noble objectives, the UBE must be qualitative and functional. In spite of the prospects attached to the scheme, its success in bringing about any meaningful development is threatened as a result of challenges such as access or enrollment into the scheme, lack of adequate funding, lack of adequate and qualified teaching staff and infrastructural facilities and quality assurance. It is this vital concern on the effectiveness of UBE in promoting national development that this paper seeks to address. The paper examines the concept of underdevelopment and Universal Basic Education, the relationship between UBE and national development and recommends the way forward. The Concept of Development Development is very important for the overall existence and sustenance of any society. According to Webster’s Dictionary, Development is synonymous with growth and progress. Development is manifested in man’s increased capacity to have control of material assets, intellectual ideology and obtain the basic necessities of life like food clothing, shelter, good governance and economic independence and peace (Igbuzor 2006). It encompasses all aspects of community life and it is a process that draws contribution from members of the community to enable them reap the fruit of national Endeavour. In the light of the above, national development therefore resolves around economic, social, poltical administrative reforms, attitudinal changes of people towards work, acceptance of discipline in private and public life Obamewa (2000). Also according to Obanewa (2000), national development affects society and individuals that live within it. It involves a change of life from old habits age long customs; to modern ways and traditional technology to modern and more efficient technology. However, Obanewa (2006) maintains that National Development cannot take place where ignorance prevails as a result of lack of education. Without a level of compulsory education as contained in the Universal Basic Education, no society can become a knowledge driven, information coucious, economically enhanced and globally competitive. The Universal Basic Education is strategic to socio-political and economic transformation; hence its relevance to national development cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, the use of Basic Education as a pre-requisite for economic sustainability, social development and good governance becomes imperative. 230 Universal Basic Education (UBE) According to Tahir (2003), Universal Basic Education is the first and foundation level education that serves as a pivot on which other levels of education are built. Goziem (2000), also asserts that the success or failure of other levels of education depends on the strength or weakness of its basic education. Basic Education brings about changes in the lives of families and communities. Thus, Anukam (2005) maintains that the Universal Basic Education equips individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable them live meaningful and fulfilled lives, contribute to the development of society and derived maximum social, economic and cultural benefits from the society. Similarly, Okam (2002), concludes that by mobilizing youths and learners to acquire basic education, the UBE shall transform them into citizens with functional skills and values, which would develop and improve their living generally in the community and the country as a whole. In this case, according to Ozo (2010), basic education empowers the individual with full talents to realize their creative potential and also empowers the citizens of a nation with skills to make democratic institutions to function effectively. It is in realization of its function in human development and society’s survival that governments all over the globe have embrace education as a universal concept in eradicating illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. It is also in recognition of its importance that Nigeria in 1990, along with other 155 countries, attended the World Conference on “Education for All” held at Jomtien in Thailand to set the goals of providing Education to children in the Developing countries of the world by year (2000). Using the Universal Basic Education as the pivot of its policy, the Nigerian Government enacted policies to make it free, accessible and compulsory to every citizen, irrespective of background. 2.6 Challenges to the Implementation of UBE 2.6.1 Poor Funding One of the major challenges to the successful implementation of the UBE scheme is funding. Funding of the UBE scheme is a joint responsibility of the federal, state and local government. However, this issue is not properly addressed. Adepaju and Fabiyi (2006) report from their findings that the cost of education has been on the increase yearly and in spite of increase in budgetary allocation for implementation of the scheme, the funds are still inadequate. The lack of adequate funding has resulted to the following: 2.6.2 Poor Infrastructural Facilities Most of the UBE schools have poor and dilapidated buildings and poor equipment with inadequate infrastructural materials. Most of the UBE schools took off from the ruins of the former primary schools erected by colonial masters. Statistics conducted of recent reveal that there are over 2,015 primary schools in Nigeria with no buildings of any type of classes are still held under the trees (Dike, 2007). Most of the schools are not properly equipped with libraries, laboratories workshop rather they have poor infrastructures, overcrowded classrooms etc. (Dike, 2007). 2.6.3 Irregular payment of teacher and shortage of manpower According to Dike (2007), not long after the launching of the scheme in Nigeria by the Federal government, it was reported that the increased in enrollment figures did not correspond with the increase in the provision of qualified human resources including the availability of material resources in the schools. Also reported by the federal government was 231 that 23% of the over 400,000 teachers employed by the nations primary schools do not posses that Grade II Teacher Certificate. This is in spite of minimum requirement for teaching in Nigeria which is the National Certificate of Education (NCE). In addition to the irregular payment of teachers and inadequate remuneration, the persistent strikes and closers of schools in the county has worsened he situation. Presently, out of the 36 states in Nigeria, only 17 states schools including UBE have been shut down due to the non implementation of the New Teacher’s salary scale (NTA 9 O’clock news 5th Oct. 2010). 2.6.4 Lack of quality and Relevance in Education The problem of quality and relevance is being lamented by government and public over the UBE scheme: Nwagu (2005) reports that the quality of education offered in most UBE schools leaves much to be desired as a result of the dearth of human and material resources, overcrowded classrooms and incessant strike action by teachers which do not correspond with increase in enrollment. 2.6.5 Enrollment It is observed that despite considerate efforts made in the expansion of basic education, its universally had been threatened due to lack of adequate funds to cater adequately for the scheme, parents are forced to get involved in its funding. Most Nigerian parents are poor and therefore the children remain poorly equipped to learn. Poverty has retarded the enrolment of the poor into basic education. Despite the fact that it remains free in principle, a lot of illegal fees are introduced by heads of such schools (Nwagu, 2005). Efforts, therefore to universalize basic education remains a mirage. The rural areas are mostly affected because a lot of Nigeria rural populations remain poor. In many schools pupils bring their books at resumption, parents buy uniforms, books, transcript, pay PTA levy, provide midday meals because the programme is not free and compulsion is not enforced (Ayorinde, 2007). It has been observed that in spite, government’s efforts at providing logistics aids, a lot of Nigerian children basically out of school. Ayorinde (2007), observed that the target of 2015 is still a mirage because the programme is beset with problems of enrolment (Dike 2007) reported that about 4 million Nigerian children had no access to basic education and that majority of those that were likely to enter schools were given substandard education. Despite massive efforts over the last eight years to promote access to education, millions of Nigerian children of school age remain out of school. Goziem (2000) noted that the major factor in enrolment is licked to gender issue, that the sex differences affected the enrolment level of both sexes at the primary and post primary level. He maintains that environmental impediments coupled with cultural practices are hindrances to enrolment in school. He observed high enrolment rate at the primary school level and a corresponding declining rate of transition from primary one to junior primary and secondary levels. In the same vein, Ayorinde (2007) maintained that other social disadvantages have held back parents enrolling their children and wards into the UBE proramme and has considered these factors as Hawking, street begging, early marriage, teenage pregnancy and child trafficking. He concludes that these social disadvantages work against the realization of the goals of the Universal Basic Education. It is the researchers opinion that these social disadvantages, if not properly addressed shall serve as a set back against the attainment of the goals of “Education For All” (EFA) and Vision 2020 of the President Yar Adua’a 232 administration which relies on education as one of its main target of achieving the goals of the vision. 2.7.1 Poor Planning According to Tahir (2003) one of the major challenges to the implementation of the UBE scheme is the non-availability of accurate school based statistics, which is highly essential for the proper implementation of the UBE programme. He further pointed out that this had negative implications on the employment ratio of teachers, pupils, provision of infrastructures and learning materials which were inadequately provided. Recommendations The government of the country and political officers concept on development should not be focused on economic aspect but educational policies should be enacted with utmost concern to accelerate development. The Universal Basic Education should receive adequate attention towards quality improvement. The Universal Basic Education Policies of accessibility to all children and illiterate adults should be taken with serious concern by the government Adequate funding is a key issue in the provision of qualitative basic education. Conclusion From all indications, the developmental challenges facing the country is partly attributed to lack of quality and functional basic education among its citizens. National development cannot be feasible without a degree of literacy on the part of its populace. Democracy cannot thrive if majority of it citizens do not have the required basic level of literacy. This paper advocates that the Universal Basic Education should be qualitative and functional and recommended pro-active measures from the government towards Basic education. 233 References Adewale, A. (2004). Towards effective implementation of universal basic education scheme: Book of universal basic education conference proceedings. Ayorinde, S. A. (2008). Achieving the goal of reforms by combating social disadvantage. Nigerian Journal of Sociology of Education 2008. Vol. 11 No. 2, 105 – 109. Daily Trust News Paper (2010). Education expenditures and school enrolment in africa. Dike, V. (2000). The state of education in Nigeria and the Health of the Nation. Online at www.africa.economicanalyst.org. Ekeocha, P.C. (2007). An assessment of the progress and prospects of the MDGS in Nigeria. A case study of the universal basic education. Nigeria and the MDGS 2007, 175 – 206. Igbuzor, O. (2006). The Nigerian millennium development goals: Can Nigeria meet the goals in 2015? Retrieved online at actionavel.org.otweigbuzor@yahoo.co.uk. Nigerian millennium development goals report 2005. Obonewa, O. (2000). Administration, non formal education and development. Literary philosophy and practice. 2008, 20 – 26. Retrieved online. Tahir, G. (2001). Federal government intervention in universal basic education forum. A Journal of Basic Education in Nigeria. Vol. 1 No. 1, 1 – 12. 234 THE SCHOOL AS AN EFFECTIVE INSTRUMENT FOR DISPENSING THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRATIC SETTING RIMFAT S.A. Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Universty of Jos. Abstract The paper maintains that for an educational system to be relevant, it has to relate with other major social institutions of the society. It would be in this consideration that the paper tried to highlight the mutual interdependence between the Nigerian educational system and the family, economy and polity in meeting the needs of the Nigerian citizens. Furthermore, emphasis is laid on the teacher’s role as an socialization agent in the school setting. Suggestions for ensuring effective socialization in the school are made. Introduction All modern societies are known to have well established social institutions which include the family, education, economy, religion and polity. These institutions are interrelated and interdependent on one another in terms of their functions and they exist in harmony to guarantee stability and survival of the overall society. Nigeria as a society is undergoing rapid social change as a result of industrialization and urbanization, thereby altering, these social institutions with it attendant problems of crimes and social vices and decline in the moral values. Besides, there are issues of insecurity, political crisis, illiteracy, poverty and unemployment and persistent corruption which all combine to threaten the corporate existence of the Nigerian society. The discourse in this paper therefore focuses on the educational system while its functional relationship with these institutions which would go along way in addressing these challenges face the Nigerian society. Furthermore the paper goes to maintain that in dispensing these functions, the educational system has to be well articulated and effective. Education and Family The educational institution plays the role of a socializing agent for the society. The socialization function was once the exclusive responsibility of parents in the home, but with the rapid rate of urbanization, industrialization and modernization, this role is being shifted to the school with the teacher as the dominant role figure. In fact, parents are expected to be the chief custodians of the societal values and norms. It is in the home that the primary socialization takes place because that is where the child first has intimate relationship for character development and acquisition for local language and other desirable habits necessary for proper interaction in later life. However experience has shown that most Nigerian parents have no time to guide and protect the values of the society by effective primary socialization (Gbenga A. 2006). Apart from that, the modernization process increase the number of working class women. Hence, children start schooling very early, by attending day-care centres, nursery, primary, secondary and stay long till they complete university education. Thus, the industrial and oil economy require person with specialized skills of which the family as a socializing agency is inadequate in training for this (Rimfat 1999). This explains why the demand for school socialization is on the increase at all levels of the educational system. 235 Thus, the school serves as a centre for individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds who converge to be nurtured and developed to become responsible citizens who can conform to cultural norms of the society. Besides, it is in the school that the individuals acquire skills knowledge and attitude that enable them to contribute to societal development. It is in the school that the dominant cultural values of the society are transmitted via the curriculum offerings to the learners. By this, culture is being preserved and passed to the next generation where the school also serves as instrument of change by preparing students for the future. Swift 1969 in expressing this states, in rapidly changing societies, the school prepare children for cultural changes which it cannot adequate foresee. On the other hand, we must also appreciate the fact that the school is part and parcel of the society or the community in which it is located. This goes to explain that the attitude and values of the people in the school community also affect the school. For instance where people value education, they would develop positive attitude to school hence there would be high rate of enrolment and retention of both gender in the school. There would also be high attendance of Parent Teachers Association meeting followed with massive support of the school with finance and materials by the members of the community. In situation where the value attached to school is negative this will now has negative effect on the school community relationship resulting in low rate of enrolment and other educational wastages. The picture becomes clearer if we compare the community relationship of schools located in the southern states and those located in the Northern States in Nigeria. Similarly certain values attitudes associated with home variables affect even, the academic performances for the students in the class Brembeck (1969). That the value taught at home if conflict with those taught in the school, students from such homes have academic problem and vice-vera. Education and Economy: Formal education through the school specialized in the selection and role allocation function of individuals into various occupations and professions. This depends on the complexity attained by every society, various positions are created and those who occupy these positions perform their roles in a way to ensure the continuation and development of the society. In the traditional society, the school was less important than the family in assigning roles and status to individuals. For instance, in most African societies of the pre-colonial period, role allocation occurred at birth, as the family was the unit of production and socialization. Thus, calabash carving, mat weaving, leather work, blacksmithing, drumming and craft are occupations in which families used to specialized, hence selection for any of the occupations was determined in the context of the family Fafunwa (1984). In the modern Nigerian society where there has been increased industrialization and urbanization, social organization are becoming a more complex, hence formal schooling has assumed the role of determining one’s adult role in the society. Thus, the school apart from acting as agency for socialization, it is also acting as a mechanism for selection, sorting of children into a variety of academic route along which they will receive education of duration and quality. This therefore implies that the type of institution one attended, the number of years spent in the school and the course chosen determines one’s occupation and prestige in the society (Broom 1955). In carrying out this section role, and allocation function, the school serves as a vehicle for upward social mobility in society. The educational system is responsible for the economic growth and development of any nation. It is in this regard that economists and educationist have reached a consensus that 236 education is an investment in human capital. Education is a long term investment by any nation. It renders opportunities to an individual to live better and make a living Nigeria Police Force society. It is through the school system that needed societal skilled manpower is supplied for the economy. This view has been expressed by Nieto (1992) on the relationship between education and the economic growth. That the supply of skilled manpower plays critical role in the development of the economic sector. No wonder then the Ashby report on education on the eve of independence in Nigeria in 1960 stressed the importance of manpower forecast which led to the expansion of both secondary and high education 1960-70 to boost the supply of high level manpower as required by the economy. On the other hand the implementation of any educational policy depends on the economy. A lot of funds are required by the education system for provision of infrastructural facilities, instructional materials, payment of staff and other running costs. No wonder, UNESCO recommended that a developing country should allocate 26% of her annual budget to education. However, the Federal government hardly allocates up to 10% of her annual budget on education in the country is witnessing a population explosion leading to expansion of the educational system at all levels. The under funding has led to crisis in education and lowering of standards. Having realized the mutual interdependence between education and the economy, all Nigerian development plan and other economic agenda heavily depend on the educational system for its realization. Education and Polity: Education as a process of all round development of young ones to fit into their societies has some political functions. The function is being discharged through the process of political socialization. Coleman 1965 described the concepts of political socialization as “the process of acquiring attitudes and feelings towards the political system by individuals as well as their own perception of their role in it.” Thus the Nigerian government uses the school as the agency for achieving this political socialization through the teaching of subjects like citizenship civics, government, history and social studies which strive at producing good citizens with positive feelings about their nation, state or even their institution. Besides, the rituals of singing the national anthem and the national pledge is part of this process. The need for the government to achieve political integration and stability after the political independence is met through the establishment of Federal institutions and unity schools where children from diverse cultural background, ethnic group and states have come to learn to live together and to appreciate each other. In fact in several cases the school has served as a centre of mater selection and making of life friends despite the differences. Similarly education brings about literacy and awareness which allows for participatory democracy. It would be recalled that before one is elected or appointed into any political office, he or she must possess a minimum qualification obtained from the school system. The art of governance is also learned in the school through the prefect system and students unionism. For instance house-captain, class prefects, and student leaders would have imbibed the political values over the year. Their activities in student unionism help them to acquire democratic ideas and experiences which are used as stepping stone into partisan politics. 237 Thus, the educational system produced enlightened and politically conscious citizens and individuals who know their rights. Followership, leadership and democratic principles are learned in the school. Democracy therefore thrives on widespread education of the members of the society. Education enables the citizens to read and write and to understand the constitution and government policies. Rimfat (2000). On the other hand, a political power has some significance impacts on the educational system. Apparently the major decision on education is taken by the politicians either through their executive or legislative powers. They decide how much is allocated to education, how many institutions are to be established and where they are to be located. All the appointees to serve in the educational industry are part of political patronage. To a large extent the decision as to who to teach and what to teach are also influence by the political class. The Role of the Teacher in Transmission of Culture and Knowledge in the School Setting The forgone discussion clearly indicates that the educational system functions to meet our social, economic and political needs of the Nigerian citizens. It is common knowledge that the rate and extent of development of the society depends on the quality of its education and how the individuals have been socialized. Thus, any educational system has its curriculum of which teachers are the implementers. Education as a process reflects the totality of the society’s culture as contained in the objectives of the curriculum. Sociologists tend to see education to be synonymous with socialization, which emphasizes the internationalization of the society’s cultural norms and values. The teacher as a member of the school organization is the dominant personality in the school socialization process as he is expected to play the role of transmitting the dominant cultural values, skills and knowledge to the students in the school setting. It is in consideration that the school curriculum has been carefully selected to ensure that the culture in its totality is transmitted to the students. For instance, such values as cleanliness, personal hygiene, self reliance, patriotism are taught to the students at the basic education level. Equally important is keeping to time or punctuality which is valued by the society is taught to the learners in the school. The child is taught the need to respect constituted authority as he or she is exposed to hierarchy of authority which is found in the school as an organization. In the school it is also the role of the teacher to teach languages both English and one Nigerian Language for effective communication and national integration. The teacher teaches the spirit of self-reliance, cooperation and competition which are also necessary in the world of work. Similarly values such as citizenship, education, character development and tolerance are learned and are transmitted to the students at each stage of their educational advancement. In support of this Edet and Anderson 1982 states that: If Nigerian establishes certain goals as essentials for national development, the school becomes an important vehicle for achieving the goals. A major example is the goal for developing a literate society capable of responding to the technological demands of the modern world. The school as a socializing agency complements the role of the family in effecting socialization of the children into a modern Nigerian society. This is becoming very crucial as children go to school nowadays very early and stay longer. The parents are becoming too 238 busy struggling to make ends meet, thus the influence of the family as socializing agency is on the decline as the society becomes more complex. Enoh (1987) supports this view when he said that “the diminishing degree of parental influence in the socialization of children which results from the increasing complexity of our society places a demand on another agent to continue with the socialization of the young.” The agent of course is the teacher in the school. The teacher’s role in the classroom is not restricted to assessment. He is in addition a mediator of knowledge, a parent substitute, a confidant, a disciplinarian and a representative of moral values of the dominant group. Hence the teacher’s role is becoming more enormous, demanding and challenging in this new millennium. Issues Affecting Effective School Socialization: The issues that affect school socialization are: i. Large-class size ii. Socio-linguistic problem iii. Religious motives and general poverty iv. Negative influence of the peers v. Negative influence of the mass media vi. Lack of political will on the part of the government vii. Teachers’ motivation visa-vis commitment of their work. viii. Frequent industrial action and closure of school as a result of violence and ethnoreligious crisis. ix. Decline in moral values and corruption that pervade the Nigerian society. x. Quality of teachers. xi. Insufficient instructional materials including infrastructural facilities. Suggestions: These include: i. Improvement in funding of education to be in accordance with the recommendation of UNESCO. ii. Steps to make teaching a profession be hastened by registering all qualified teachers and implementing the new salary structure. iii. Supply of adequate teaching materials and that of infrastructures. iv. Government should censure all films. v. More teachers to be employed to cope with the rate of expansion so as to remedy the problem of large class size. vi. There should be effective of supervision of private schools to ensure that they operate within the laid down policies. vii. There should be emphasis also on the effective and psycho-motor domain for evaluation of students. Conclusion The discussion has portrayed that with the twin sister of industrialization and urbanization in the face of population explosion, the 21st century will likely witness many young people as youth and young adults demanding for more functional education for employment, basic services and other citizen rights in our emerging democracy. However there are several challenges facing the school system in dispensing its social functions, hence, suggestions have therefore been made to the stakeholders to ensure effective school socialization. 239 References Brembeck, C.S. (1969). Social foundation of education: Environmental influence on teaching and Learning. New York: John Willey and Sons. Broom, S. & Darroch, D.B. (1955). Sociology with adapted Reading. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Coleman, J.S.(1965). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington: Office Publishers. Edet A and Anderson L. (1982). The school and the Nigerian society. Ibadan: University Press. Enoh, A.O. (1987). A handbook of education foundation. Jos: Challenge Press. Fafunwa, A.B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. Lagos: George Allen and Union. Gbenga, A (2006). Sociology of education (Morality and ethics). Ilorin: Nathadex Publisher. Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The socio-political context of multicultural education. New York: Longman. Rimfat, S.A. (2000). Education and democracy in Nigeria in Enoh O. Elements of education and society. Jos: Fab. Anieh. Rimfat, S.A. (1999). Socialization process and the role of the Nigerian teacher. Jos: Midland Press. 240 EDUCATION AND SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT: CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (ESD) AND THE WAY FORWARD DAHIRU, I. M. Department of Education Bayero University, Kano Abstract This paper is geared towards stressing the likely (global) challenges of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Programme, with a view to offer some possible suggestions as the way forward. The paper comprises five (5) major sections. Section one serves as an introductory aspects of the paper, section two contains the conceptual contents of ESD programme, section three involves the possible challenges and barriers to global Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) programme, section four covers the conclusion statements and last but not the least section five comprises suggestions as the possible strategies for overcoming the challenges. Introduction In modern, complicated societies, members perform very different tasks, resulting in a strong interdependence circumstances. Based on the metaphor of an organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, complicated societies are held together by organic solidarity based on social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, which are strong among members of industrial societies. Education is humanity’s best hope and a most effective means in the quest to achieve sustainable development. This powerful statement was made in 1997 in the UNESCO report, Educating for a Sustainable Future. Five years later, it was brought to the attention of the world leaders at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development, paving the way for the establishment of the United Nations Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014). Education is an essential tool for achieving sustainability. People around the world recognize that current economic development trends are not sustainable and that public awareness, education, and training are keys to moving society towards sustainability. Beyond that, there is little agreement, people argue about the meaning of sustainable development and whether or not it is attainable. They have different visions of what sustainable societies will look like and how they will function. These same people wonder why educators have not moved more quickly to develop education for sustainability (EFS) programs. The lack of agreement and definition has stymied efforts to move education for sustainable development (ESD) forward. It is curious to note that while we have difficulty envisioning a sustainable world, we have no difficulty identifying what is unsustainable in our societies. We can rapidly create a sundry list of problems - inefficient use of energy, lack of water conservation, increased pollution, abuses of human rights, overuse of personal transportation, consumerism, etc. Three terms synonymously and interchangeably have been used here: education for sustainable development (ESD), education for sustainability (EfS), and sustainability education (SE).ESD is most often used because it is the terminology used frequently at the international level and within UN documents. Locally or nationally, the ESD effort may be named or described in many ways because of language and cultural differences. As with all works related to sustainable development, the name and the content must be locally relevant and culturally appropriate. 241 MCKeown, Hopkins, Christalbridge and Rizzi (2002), were of the opinion that, an important distinction is the difference between education about sustainable development and education for sustainable development. The first is an awareness lesson or theoretical discussion. The second is the use of education as a tool to achieve sustainability. In the majority’s opinion, more than a theoretical discussion is needed at this critical juncture in time. While some people argue that "for" indicates indoctrination, we think "for" indicates a purpose. All education serves a purpose or society would not invest in it. Driver education, for example, seeks to make our roads safer for travellers. Fire-safety education seeks to prevent fires and tragic loss of lives and property. ESD promises to make the world more liable for this and future generations. Of course, a few will abuse or distort ESD and turn it into indoctrination. This would be antithetical to the nature of ESD, which, in fact, calls for giving people knowledge and sky for lifelong learning to help them find new solutions to their environmental, economic, and social issues. Key Elements Of Education For Sustainable Development (ESD) Under this segment, efforts were made to discuss the major key components or elements of ESD, i.e. Education, Sustainability, Sustainable-Development as well as Education for Sustainable Development with a view to comprehend the concept of the presentation. Education As posited by Schofield (1999), education has often been seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavour characterised by aspirations for progress and betterment. It is understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality, and acquiring wealth and social status. Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potential. It is also perceived as one of the best means of achieving greater social equality. Many would say that the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow (meritocracy). Few would argue that any education system accomplishes this goal perfectly. Some take a particularly negative view, arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of inequality. Sustainability Hak (2007), posited that, the word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustainers (tenere, to hold; sus, up). Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings for sustain, the main ones being to “maintain", "support", or "endure”. However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability, as the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of stewardship, the responsible management of resource use. In ecology, sustainability describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time, a necessary pre- condition for human wellbeing. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganising living conditions (e.g., eco- villages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities), to reappraising work 242 practices (e.g., using perm culture, green building, sustainable agriculture), or developing new technologies that reduce the consumption of resources. Sustainable Development According to Blewitt (2008), sustainable development is a difficult concept to be defined; one of the original descriptions of sustainable development is credited to the Bruntland Commission: "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p 43). Sustainable development is generally thought to have three components: environment, society, and economy. The well-being of these three areas is intertwined, not separate. For example, a healthy, prosperous society relies on a healthy environment to provide food and resources, safe drinking water, and clean air for its citizens. The sustainability paradigm rejects the contention that casualties in the environmental and social realms are inevitable and acceptable consequences of economic development. Thus, the authors consider sustainability to be a paradigm for thinking about a future in which environmental, societal, and economic considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development and improved quality of life. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) From the time sustainable development was first endorsed at the UN General Assembly in 1987, the parallel concept of education to support sustainable development has also been explored. From 1987 to 1992, the concept of sustainable development matured as committees discussed, negotiated, and wrote the 40 chapters of Agenda 21. Initial thoughts concerning ESD were captured in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21, "Promoting Education, Public Awareness, and Training." Unlike most education movements, ESD was initiated by people outside of the education community. In fact, one major push for ESD came from international political and economic forums (e.g., United Nations, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Organization of American States). McKeon, (2002). As the concept of sustainable development was discussed and formulated, it became apparent that education is key to sustainability. In many countries, ESD is still being shaped by those outside the education community. The concepts and content of ESD in these cases are developed by ministries, such as those of environment and health, and then given to educators to deliver. Conceptual development independent of educators input is a problem recognized by international bodies as well as educators. Education is held to be central to sustainability. Indeed, education and sustainability are inextricably linked, but the distinction between education as we know it and education for sustainability is enigmatic for many. The following sections describe the components of education for sustainability. ESD carries with it the inherent idea of implementing programs that are locally relevant and culturally appropriate. All sustainable development programs including ESD must take into consideration the local environmental, economic, and societal conditions. Four major thrusts will mark the beginning work of ESD: (1) improve basic education, (2) reorient existing education to address sustainable development, (3) develop public understanding, awareness, and (4) training. 243 Challenges and Barriers to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) MC Keown (2002) reiterated that, many nations around the world have embraced the need for education to achieve sustainability; but only limited progress has been made on any level. This lack of progress stems from many sources. In some cases, a lack of vision or awareness as impeded progress. In others, it is a lack of policy or funding. He further stated that Charles Hopkinson who has spoken with people at many levels of involvement in education (i.e., ministers of education, university professors, millennium teachers, and students), opined that ten (10) major issues stymied the advance of ESD during the 1990s and new millennium. Educational Reform and Economic Viability The effectiveness of the world’s educational systems is already critically debated in light of the changing needs of society. The current widespread acknowledgment of the need for educational reform may help advance ESD. If it can be linked to one or more priorities of educational reform, ESD could have a good chance for success. However, if promoters try to add another issue to an already over-burdened system, the chances of success are slim. One current global concern that has the potential to drive educational reform in many countries is economic security. Around the world, ministries of education and commerce are asking: What changes will prepare a workforce that will make my country economically viable in the changing economy of the new millennium? One educational effort that can boost the economic potential of entire nations is educating females. During the last decade, some national leaders have recognized that educating the entire workforce, both males and females, is important for economic viability. In addition, Lawrence Summer of the World Bank says, “Once all the benefits are recognized, investments in the education of girls may well be the highest-return investment available in the developing world” (King and Hill, 1993, p vii, in McKeown,2002). Accordingly, some nations are removing barriers to girls attending school and have campaigns to actively enrol girls in school. Further, aligning education with future economic conditions is difficult, because economic and technological forecasting is an art based on imprecise science. Answers are elusive. To be successful, ESD will need to catch the wave of educational reform. ESD proponents need to identify and illustrate the linkages between the principles of sustainability and the long-term economic well-being of each nation. If ESD can be linked to the current global educational reform movement, educating for sustainability will be swept along with the energy of the reform effort. Facing the Complexity of Sustainable Development Concept Sustainable development is a complex and evolving concept. Many scholars and practitioners have invested years in trying to define sustainable development and envisioning how to achieve it at national and local levels. Because sustainable development is hard to define and implement, it is also difficult to teach. Even more challenging is the task of totally reorienting an entire education system to achieve sustainability. When we examine successful national education campaigns, we find they often have simple messages. For example, messages that encourage us to vaccinate our children and boil our water, or discourage us from driving drunk and taking drugs, are simple concepts compared to the complex range of environmental, economic, and social issues that sustainable development encompasses. Success in ESD will take much longer and be more costly than single-message publiceducation campaigns. 244 Developing an ESD Program with Community Participation Perhaps the greatest obstacle to reorienting the world's educational systems is the lack of clarity regarding goals. In simple terms, those who will be called upon to educate differently (e.g., the world's 59,000,000 teachers or agricultural instructors or water treatment trainers) eventually will ask, “What am I to do differently?” “What should I do or say now that I didn't say before?” These simple questions leave most “experts” in a quandary and the questioner without an adequate response. Education for sustainable development remains an enigma to many governments and schools. Governments, ministries of education, school districts, and educators have expressed a willingness to adopt ESD programs; however, no successful working models currently exist. Without models to adapt and adopt, governments and schools must create a process to define what education for sustainability is, with respect to the local context. Such a process is challenging. It calls for a public participation process in which all of the stakeholders in a community carefully examine what they want their children to know, do, and value when they leave the formal education system. This means that the community must try to predict the environmental, economic, and social conditions of the near and distant future. Public participation processes whereby stakeholders examine the needs and desires of a community and identify essential elements of basic and secondary education can be adapted and implemented in many types of communities. Engaging Traditional Disciplines in a Tran disciplinary Framework Education for sustainable development (ESD), by nature is holistic and interdisciplinary and depends on concepts and analytical tools from a variety of disciplines. As a result, ESD is difficult to teach in traditional school settings where studies are divided and taught in a disciplinary framework. In countries where national curriculums describe in detail the content and sequence of study in each discipline, ESD will be challenging to implement. In other countries where content is described generally, ESD will be more easily implemented, although doing so will require creative teachers who are comfortable and skilled at teaching across disciplines. Sharing the Responsibility Popular thinking promotes the myth that an informed society is solely the responsibility of the ministry of education. In reality, however, the ministries of environment, commerce, state, and health also have a stake in ESD, just as they have a stake in sustainable development. By combining expertise, resources, and funding from many ministries, the possibility of building a high-quality, successful education program increases. Every sector of the government that is touched by sustainable development (i.e., every ministry and department) can play a role in ESD and the reorienting process. At the UN meeting of the Commission on Sustainable Development, ministries of the environment have taken the lead in stating that education, awareness, and training are essential tools in bringing about sustainable development. Ministries of the environment need to work with both formal and non-formal sectors of the education community to implement ESD. In addition, it is absolutely essential for teachers to be involved in the process of building consensus concerning ESD. Building Human Capacity The successful implementation of a new educational trend will require responsible, accountable leadership and expertise in both systemic educational change and sustainable 245 development. We must develop realistic strategies to quickly create knowledgeable and capable leadership. It is unrealistic to expect nations to retrain 59,000,000 teachers and thousands of administrators in either - or both - ESD and educational change. We must find ways, such as employing the strengths model, to use existing skills. Two models of human resource development currently exist - in-service training and pre-service training. In the first, experienced professionals are provided with additional training. Then, they reshape existing programs by drawing on their new knowledge, previous expertise, understanding of national and local systems, and network of contacts. In pre-service training, concepts, principles, and methodologies are provided during initial training. The new professionals then step into their jobs with ESD as part of their expertise. Pre-service training is more cost effective than retraining educators and administrators later in their careers. For initial success in ESD, both in-service and pre-service training are necessary. Supply of adequate material Resources Perhaps one of the greatest expenses of implementing ESD will come with providing appropriate basic education. Basic goals, which were established at Jontien and reaffirmed at Dakar, include educating more children and increasing the universal average minimum of schooling to six years. Meeting these goals will require hiring many more teachers. These new teachers must be trained, and current teachers must be retrained, to reorient their curriculums to address sustainability. The good news is that many countries are spending a larger percentage of their gross national product (GNP) on education. Two-thirds of the 123 countries listed in the UNESCO World Education Report 2000 that reported public expenditures on education as a percentage of GNP in both 1990 and 1996, reported spending more in 1996 than in 1990. Although governments are prioritizing education in terms of funding, how much of this funding is going to reorient education to address sustainability? In the opinion of this paper, simply providing more education does not reduce the threat high resource consumption poses to sustainability. One of the reasons why many experts perceive that little progress has been made regarding ESD since the Earth Summit in 1992 is that few financial resources have been dedicated to reorienting education to address sustainability. In fact, national and local governments have spent little on ESD beyond improving basic education. Developing Policy To succeed, ESD must have an authoritative impetus from national or regional governments that will drive policy development. The omission of such an impetus proved to be the downfall of the 1970s global effort to infuse environmental education into the elementary and secondary curriculums. This same fate could befall the ESD effort. The reality of any educational reform is that success depends on both “top down” and “bottom up” efforts. Administrators at the top echelons of ministries are in a position to create the policies that will make reforms occur. Together, administrators, teachers, and community leaders at the local level must interpret what the policy should “look like” locally. Developing a Creative, Innovative, and Risk-Taking Climate In order to bring about the major changes required by ESD, we need to nurture a climate of safety. Policymakers, administrators, and teachers will need to make changes, experiment, and take risks to accomplish new educational and sustainability goals. They need to have the authority and support of the educational community to change the status quo. 246 Teachers must feel that the administration will support their efforts if parents or vested interest groups in the community question or criticize their initiatives. We need to develop and implement policy to ensure administrators and educators at all levels have the right to introduce new or controversial topics and pedagogical methods. Of course, an overzealous few could abuse these rights; therefore, a system of checks and balances within professional guidelines and cultural context should also be in place. Promoting Sustainability in Popular Culture Perhaps the most difficult obstacle to address in implementing ESD is that of popularity. While many countries agreed that ESD is important, the themes of sustainability are not prevalent in popular cultures or governmental policies. For example, one principle of sustainable development is that the rates of use of renewable resources should not exceed their rates of regeneration. Yet, many societies have developed or are developing a “disposable culture.” Disposable beverage containers, food wrappers, plates, and eating utensils pass through our lives daily. We use them once and then discard them to be buried, burned, or dumped in the water. This disposable culture is using such resources as trees and fossil fuels more rapidly than they can be replaced. Conclusion In summary, to successfully implement ESD, governments and school authorities must plan ahead and develop strategies to address the 12 afore-mentioned issues. These issues should be addressed at every level, especially, the national level, to ensure consistent implementation of ESD across the country. Purposeful deliberation and planning around these issues as well as issues particular to each region will increase the likelihood of successfully implementing ESD programs and reorienting curriculum to achieve sustainability. An educated citizenry is vital to implementing informed and sustainable development. In fact, a national sustainability plan can be enhanced or limited by the level of education attained by the nation's citizens. Nations with high illiteracy rates and unskilled workforces have fewer development options. For the most part, these nations are forced to buy energy and manufactured goods on the international market with hard currency. To acquire hard currency, these countries need international trade; usually this leads to exploitation of natural resources or conversion of lands from self-sufficient family-based farming to cash-crop agriculture. An educated workforce is a key for moving beyond an extractive and agricultural economy. Good community-based decisions - which will affect social, economic, and environmental well-being - also depend on educated citizens. Development options, especially "greener" development options, expand as education increases. For example, a community with an abundance of skilled labour and technically trained people can persuade a corporation to locate a new information-technology and software-development facility nearby. Citizens can also act to protect their communities by analyzing reports and data that address community issues and helping shape a community response. For example, citizens who were concerned about water pollution reported in a nearby watershed started monitoring the water quality of local streams. Based on their data and information found on the World Wide Web, they fought against the development of a new golf-course, which would have used large amounts of fertilizer and herbicide in maintenance of the grounds. Education is also central to improving quality of life. Education raises the economic status of families; it improves life conditions, lowers infant mortality, and improves the educational attainment of the next generation, thereby raising the next 247 generation's chances for economic and social well-being. Improved education holds both individual and national implications Recommendations The following recommendation or suggestions were offered to salvage the system from the total waste of resources and the tendencies of building castle in the air towards the mission of development. 1. People should be entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. 2. Development of today must not undermine the development and environmental needs of present and future generations. 3. Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing environmental damage beyond their borders. 4. Nations should develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that activities under their control cause to areas beyond their borders. 5. Nations should use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. 6. Eradicating poverty and reducing disparity in living standards in different parts of the world are essential to achieve sustainable development and meet the needs of the majority of people. 7. The developed countries must acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command. 8. Enviromental issues should be handled with the participation of all concerned citizens. 9. Nations shall facilitate and encourage public awareness which may lead to economic growth and sustainable development in all countries. 10. Environmental policies should not be used as an unjustifiable means of restricting international trade; sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems. So nations should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of sustainability. 11. Full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development; the creativity, ideals and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are needed too. 12. Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests of indigenous people. References Adams, W. M. & Jeanrenaud, S. J., (2008). Transition to sustainability: Towards a humane and diverse World. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 108 pp., ISBN 9782831710723. Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding sustainable development; London: Earths can. ISBN9781844074549. Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). The consumer's guide to effective environmental Choices: Practical advice from the union of concerned scientists. New York, Three Rivers Press. ISBN 060980281X. Bruntland, G. (1987). Our common future: The World commission on environment And development, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Daly, H. & Cobb, J. (1989). For the common good: Redirecting the economy Toward community, the environment and a sustainable future: Boston Beacon Press. Hak, T. Et- al, (2007). Sustainability indicators: SCOPE 67. London: Island Press. ISBN 1597261319. McKeon, R., Hopkins, C. Christalbridge, M., and Rizzi, R., [2002].Education for Sustainable Development. info@esdtoolkit.org downloaded free of charge at http://www.esdtoolkit.org. Schofield, K. (1999). The purposes of education, queens land state education: 2010, Accessed 2002, Oct 28. 248 TERTIARY EDUCATION AS PRACTICAL MEASURE OF ENHANCING SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA OLOKEDE, N. O. School of Education, Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun. Osun State Abstract This paper looked at tertiary education as a practical measure towards enhancing societal development in Nigeria. The study sought to provide answers to two research questions. The sample of study was made up a total of 560 subjects consisting 180 parents, 200 students, 120 teachers and 60 members of the public. The instrument used for data collection was a questionnaire: Perception of stakeholders on tertiary institutions (PSTI). PSTI has a face and content validity with a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.75. The data gathered were analysed using frequency counts, and percentages. The findings revealed that there was sharp rise in the private establishment of tertiary institutions than public and there is no support for private proprietors by the government to establish private tertiary institutions. The study however recommends, that there should be legislation about compliance with the due procedure, as set out by the Nigerian Sector Development Plan, before private tertiary institutions are established. There should also be government intervention to regulate on the huge charges by the private tertiary institutions. Introduction The indispensable value of education to man’s holistic development in particular and society in general cannot be overemphasized. Education is a major tool in transforming man from being a beast. In a country like Nigeria, the role of tertiary education in meeting the aspiration for good governance, reformation in value orientation, democratization, gender equality, religious harmony and national unity, is obvious. Tertiary education in Nigeria was not part of an early agitation by the natives. Its demand seemed a slow or delayed scenario as. Abdulkareem (1990), observes that the demand for tertiary education came after the world economic depression of the early 1930s. The colonial government launched a giant stride with the establishment of Yaba Medical School in 1930. Later in 1932, the Yaba Higher College was established and in his analysis, Taiwo (1986) says that ninety one (91) men and nine (9) women were admitted to pursue various disciplines in Medicine, teaching, engineering agriculture and surveying. He concluded that, their admissions were through a competitive entrance examination of standard London Matriculation and tied to the anticipated vacancies in the schools and in the civil service. The roles of Asquith and Elliot (1943) and Ashby (1959) commissions in the history of tertiary education will remain evergreen as Nigeria exists. The Elliot Commission was instrumental to the establishment of University College Ibadan. At the sixteenth year of the establishment of Yaba College, it was transferred from Lagos to form the nucleus of University College Ibadan in 1948 which was affiliated to the University of London until it ultimately gained autonomy in 1962. Guobadia (1983) maintains that University College Ibadan remained the only university until 1960 when Nigeria gained independence. He further states that the 1954 Federal Constitution made higher education in Nigeria a concurrent legislative matter. This 249 gave the regional government impetus to initiate bold proposals for the establishment of regional universities, which precipitated in the establishment of University of Nigeria, Usuka; Ahmadu Bellow University Zaria and University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) in the Eastern, Northern and Western regions, respectively, in 1962. Also in 1962, the University of Lagos was established. Later, the federal and state government and private individuals have left no stone unturned in the establishment of universities. In the aspect of polytechnic education, the missionaries relaxed and this seemed to be responsible for its slow start. The missions dreaded its expensive nature. Fafunwa (1974) observed that five technical centres agitated for, which saw the five post secondary technical colleges in Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu, Kaduna and Auchi been established. And that, admission into these technical colleges was based on passing the West African School Certificate Examination or General Certificate of Education (GCE) of London. These technical colleges were later upgraded into polytechnics and colleges of technology. They include the first ever, Yaba College that formed the foundation for University College, Ibadan. It was reestablished as Yaba College of Technology. Other polytechnics established then were Kaduna Polytechnic; Ibadan Polytechnic; Mid-West Polytechnic; College of Science and Technology; Port Harcourt and Institution of Management and Technology, Enugu. These polytechnics and colleges of technology are transformed to present polytechnic and monotechnics. However, the mission had shown keen interest in the development of teacher education. The Christian Missionary Society (C.M.S.) established the first Teacher Training School in 1859 in Abeokuta and later moved it to Oyo called Saint Andrew’s College, Oyo. In 1930, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (WMMS) followed the pace setter that is the C.M.S. when they opened a training school for catechists and teachers in Ibadan. In the Eastern region, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, in 1892 established Hope Waddel College and in the Northern region, Nassarawa School was established in 1909 by Hanns Vischer. The trend in the establishment of teacher training institutions cut across almost all provinces of Nigeria. The teacher training institutions were upgraded and new ones were established. They include Advanced Teachers, College, Lagos (1962), Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo (1962); Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri (1963); Advanced Teacher College, Zaria; Advanced Teacher College Kano (1964); Advanced Teachers College, Uyo; National Technical Teachers’ Training College, Yaba and Advanced Teachers’ College, Sokoto. These Advanced Teacher College were later renamed as Colleges of Education. The trends and the development of tertiary education in Nigeria are impressive and heart-arming when one considers the stipulated goals of tertiary education in enhancing societal change in Nigeria. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) highlights the goals of tertiary education thus; a. contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training; b. develop and inculcate proper value for the survival of the individual land society; c. develop the intellectual capacity of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and external environment. d. acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful members of the society; e. promote and encourage scholarship and cement national unity and f. promote national and international understanding and interaction p.36 250 Research Questions These two questions are meant to guide this study; 1. What is the trend of growth in the establishment of tertiary institutions (Universities, Polytechnics, Monotechnics and Colleges of Education) in the last four years? 2. What is the perception of the stake-holders (parents, students teachers and members of the public) on the current status of the existing tertiary institutions? Methodology Descriptive survey is the research design used for the study. Thus, the survey as a method was adopted. All the parents, students, teachers and members of the public in Osun State constituted the population used for the study. The sample of this study was made up of 560 subjects (180 parents, who are civil servants drawn from various ministries in Osun State, 120 teachers from 40 selected secondary schools who sat for 2011/2012 UTME in Osun State, 60 members of the public (drawn from market women, religious leaders, human right activists and artisans). Instrumentation Questionnaire on Perception of Stake-Holders on Tertiary Institutions (QPSHTI) is the main instrument used to collect data from the parents, students, teachers and members of the public. In order to ensure the validity of the above instrument, the initially drawn ten (10) items were taken to two experts in measurement and evaluation for advice. These culminated into seven (7) items that were finally used for the study. Test-retest reliability was used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument by selecting 30 parents, 40 students, 20 teachers and 10 members of public who are outside the respondents that participated in the final study. The instrument was administered after two weeks on the same selected subjects. The two scores were calculated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient and yielded a value of 0.75. Administration and Collection of the Data The instrument used was personally administered to the respondents. The completed questionnaire were collected immediately and this ensured that the copies were all returned at one hundred percent (100%) rate. Data Analysis Technique The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics involving percentages. Research Question 1:n What is the trend of growth in the establishment of the tertiary institutions in the four academic sessions? Number of Tertiary Institutions Between 2008/2009 and 2011/2012 Academic Sessions Table 1: Number of Universities in Nigeria Academic Session Federal State Private Total No % No % No % 2008/2009 25 32.47 24 31.17 28 36.36 77 2009/2010 25 29.07 30 34.88 31 36.05 86 2010/2011 25 28.09 32 35.96 32 35.96 89 2011/2012 25 25.77 34 35.05 38 39.18 97 251 NOTE: It should be noted that there are new nine (9) public Federal universities recently approved by the Federal Government in 2011/2012 not included on the table because they are not yet incorporated in the brochure. Table II: Number of Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria Key: Polytechnics (Poly) Monotechnics (Mono) Academic Federal State Private Session Poly Mono Poly Mono Poly Mono 2008/2009 20 17 29 13 11 06 37 42 17 38.54% 43.75% 17.71% 20 17 33 16 13 03 2009/2010 37 49 16 36.27% 48.04% 15.68% 2010/2011 20 19 33 15 15 03 39 48 18 37.14% 45.71% 17.15% 2011/2012 42 55 22 35.38% 45.83% 18.33% Table III: Number of Colleges of Education in Nigeria Academic Session Federal State Poly Mono Poly Mono No % No % 2008/2009 21 28.90 39 52.00 2009/2010 21 26.25 41 50.00 2010/2011 21 21.00 41 50.00 2011/2012 21 21.00 46 46.00 Sources of Table I, II and III Private Poly No 15 18 20 33 Total 96 102 105 120 Total Mono % 20.00 22.50 24.39 33.00 75 80 89 100 1. UME/DE 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 2. MPCE 2008/2009 and 2010/2011 3. 2010/2011 UTME Brochure 4. 2011/2012 UTME Brochure From table 1 above, the rate at which private universities are increasing is alarming. This is because while the public universities are growing at arithmetic rate, the private universities are growing geometrically. Jubril (2003) in his observation says that as at August 2011, Nigeria had 45 universities (25 were Federal, 16 were State owned and 4 were Private). It should be noted that between 2001 and 2011 out of 97 universities in Nigeria, 38 are privately owned, while the Federal 25 are static, states increased their own from 16 to 34 and private increased their own from 4 to 38 showing an increase 105%. In the aspect of polytechnics and monotechnics (see table II), the Federal Government, as at 2008/2009, established 20 Polytechnics and 17 monotechnics and has managed to increase the number to 22 Polytechnics and 21 monotechnics as at 2011/2012. The states as at 2008/2009 had 29 polytechnics and 13 monotechnics which they have 252 increased to 39 Polytechnics and 16 monotechnics at 2011/2012. The private proprietors have not shown any significant response in the establishment of polytechnics and monotechnics institution. For instance, in 2008/2009 there were 11 polytechnics and 6 monotechnics and the figure has risen to 18 Polytechnics and 6 monotechnics. State governments have demonstrated a leading role in this aspect of education (polytechnics and monotechnics) between 2008/2009 when they have 42, which have been raised to 55 presently, indicating about 76.30% increase. The low level of both the Federal Government and private proprietors is a revelation of the truth that polytechnic or monotechnic education is a suffering orphan that can not claim rights. This level of education and its apex (Higher National Diploma) has become controversial since it cannot size-up with university degree. This is a puzzling issue that is unresolved till this present time. In the Colleges of Education establishment, going by table III, as at 2008/2009, the Federal Government established 21 colleges of education. The figure is static till 2011/2012 academic session. Whereas, states have made a little progress by increasing state colleges of education from 39, as at 2008/2009 to 46 as at 2011/2012. The private proprietors have launched a giant stride by increasing the 15 colleges of education as at 2008/2009 to 33 as at 2011/2012 about 45% increase. From above, geometric progression the private tertiary institutions’ proprietors, compared to the public (Federal or states) proprietors. Research Questions Two What is the perception of the stake-holder on the current status of the existing tertiary institutions? 253 Table IV: Questionnaire on Perception of Tertiary Institution by Stakeholders. S/N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Items Do you prefer private tertiary institution to public ones? Total Do you support the policy that government should cut down the charges levied by private tertiary institution? Total Can at least 50% of Nigerian parents/guardians afford private tertiary institutions’ cost? Total Should government establish more (public) tertiary institutions? Total Should government encourage the establishment of private tertiary institutions? Total Do you have confidence in the output of private tertiary institutions than public? Total In your perception, do employers of labour prefer recruitment of private tertiary institutions graduates to public ones? Respondents Parents Yes 31 % 17.22 No 149 % 82.78 Total 180 Students Teachers Members of public 47 13 09 23.50 10.83 15.00 153 107 51 76.50 89.17 85.00 Parents 161 89.44 19 10.56 200 120 60 560 180 Students Teachers Members of public 152 101 54 76.00 84.17 90.00 48 19 06 24.00 15.83 10.00 Parents 59 32.77 121 67.22 Students Teachers Members of public 37 45 13 18.50 37.50 21.67 163 15 47 8150 62.50 78.33 Parents 156 86.67 24 13.33 Students Teachers Members of public 171 110 50 85.50 91.67 83.33 29 10 10 14.50 8.33 16.67 Parents 42 23.33 138 76.67 Students Teachers Members of public 47 23 09 23.50 19.17 15.00 153 97 51 76.50 L80.83 85.00 Parents 33 18.33 147 81.67 Students Teachers Members of public 75 33 09 37.50 27.50 15.00 125 87 51 62.50 72.50 85.00 Parents 27 15.00 153 85.00 Students Teachers Members of public 23 19 13 11.50 15.83 21.67 177 101 47 88.50 84.17 78.33 Total 200 120 60 560 180 200 120 60 560 180 200 120 60 560 180 200 120 60 560 180 200 120 60 560 180 200 120 60 560 Perceptions of stake-holders are seen on Table IV. Item 1 indicates that 82.78% of parents, 76.50% of students, 89.17% of teachers and 85.00% of the members of the public reject preference for private tertiary institutions. On item 2, 89.44% parents, 76.00% students, 84.17% teachers and 90.00% members of public support legislation that government should cut down the hike in charges by the private tertiary institution. Item 3 reveals that 67.22% parents, 81.50% students, 62.50% teachers and 78.33% members of public opine that 50% of the parents/ guardians could afford private tertiary institutions’ cost. Moreover, the pre-eminence of parents cannot be waved off. This agrees with submission of Audu (2008) that parents hold the key to enrolment. The fourth (4th) item indicates that 86.67% parents, 85.50% students, 91.67% teachers and 83.33% members of public agree that government should establish more tertiary institutions. 254 Item 5 indicates that 23.33% parents, 23.50% students, 19.17% teachers and 15.00% members of the public support the view that government should encourage the private proprietors in establishing private tertiary institutions. On confidence in the graduates from private tertiary institutions, 81.67% parents, 62.50% students, 72.50% teachers, and 85.00% members of the public disagreed that they have preference for output from private tertiary institutions. Item 7 shows perception of employers of labour on recruitment of graduates from private tertiary institutions. 15.00% parents, 11.50% students, 15.83% teachers and 21.67% members of the public agree that employers of labour can prefer graduates from private tertiary institutions for employment to the public tertiary graduates. This means that high numbers of respondents do not agree that graduates from private tertiary institutions can be preferred to graduates from public tertiary institutions when it comes to matter of employment. Recommendations Based on the above findings and discussions, the following recommendations are made: There is no doubt that Nigeria needs more tertiary institutions to cater for the teeming population graduating yearly from secondary schools. However, the government should exercise caution to regulate the modus operands of tertiary institutions in the following respects. Government should enact strong policy guiding the establishment of tertiary institutions so as not to erase the quality of tertiary institutions as producers of terminal or middle level manpower. Government should encourage private individuals found to have genuine interest in education not profiteering or individuals with selfish interest behind establishing tertiary institutions. Government should wade in to reduce the exorbitant charges usually demanded by the private tertiary institutions in order to enhance accessibility to more individuals who wish to pursue their academic programmes at the private tertiary institutions. The various tertiary institutions regulatory bodies such as the National University Commission, National Board for Technical Education and the National Commission for Colleges of Education should be alive to the tasks of sincere accreditation, clear cut curriculum as against the present situation in which universities, polytechnics, monotechnics and colleges of education curriculum are replicated or dovetailed into other segments. For instance, why are technical courses like Woodwork, Building, Automobile, etc at colleges education and polytechnics? Where should Secretarial Studies, Home Economics, Business Studies and Shorthand belong? Polytechnics or colleges of education? The dwindling glory of private tertiary institutions should be redeemed through the frantic effort of the above-accredited bodies. Some people have lost confidence in some of private tertiary institutions due to their operations by proprietors. This necessitates why the accredited bodies should ensure standard in admission into private tertiary institutions to disallow the lackadaisical students from turning private tertiary institution into hideouts. The federal and state governments should wake up to their responsibility by establishing more tertiary institutions to prevent the tertiary education from the mess like what is confronting the present day public primary and secondary schools in which they seem inferior to private primary and secondary schools. 255 Conclusion Since there is need for more tertiary institutions in Nigeria, both the public and private bodies should be alive to the challenges by establishing more tertiary institutions in order to facilitate societal change and advancement. Therefore, all hands should be on deck by all stakeholders to ensure that students are accessible to qualitative tertiary education at all times and places. References Abdulkareem, A. Y. (1990). A guide on historical foundations of education in Nigeria. Ilorin: Kewalerel press. Audu, A. J. (2008). Reforms for the education of the girl-child in Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Sociology of Education. 2 (2), 40-40. Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Guobadia, A. I. (1983). The political enrolment of higher education co-ordination in Nigerian Education: Trends and issues. In Adesina, S. Akinyemi, K. and Ajayi, K. (Eds). Ile-Ife: University press. Jubrill, M. (2003). Country higher education profiles. Teferra, D. & Albach, P. G.(Eds.) Indiana: University press. Monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education (MPCE) 2008/2009 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint Admission Matriculation Board. Nigeria education sector analysis (2006). Sector diagnosis report framework for reengineering the education sector. Taiwo. G. O. (1986). The Nigerian education system, past, present and future. Lagos: Nelson Pitman Ltd. UME/DE (University Matriculation Examination) 2008/2009 session brochure. Abuja: Joint admission and matriculation board. UME/DE 2009/2010 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint Admission and Matriculation Board. UTME (Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination) 2010/2011 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint Admission and Matriculation Board. UTME 2011/2012 Session Brochure. Abuja: Joint admission and matriculation board. 256 PROSPECTS OF LEADERSHIP AND GOOD GOVERNANCE IN TEACHER EDUCATION SARKINFADA, H. Educational Foundations Department, Faculty of Education and Extension Services, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto Abstract The paper viewed Teacher Education as hope for good governance in Nigeria. It asserts that Teacher Education should be intellectually stimulated of for the prospective teacher to become versatile with leadership qualities to enhance good governance. In order to meet the challenges of effective educational leadership a number of innovations and changes have to be put in place such as making every school to operate as a professional learning community so that through partnership with parents and community members, it can continually strive to improve the quality of students. The paper recommended further development of the teacher’s capabilities to enhance rapid development of the teacher for the continuous development of the nation. Introduction Education is an indispensable tool for national growth and development. Teacher education distinguishes itself through its focus on pedagogy, epistemology and human development. Here, the teacher as a leader awakens the joy of creative expression and knowledge. Hubbard (1986) saw the teachers as those who could make two ideas grow where only one grew before. While Olusegun (2009) believed that they could make hard things easy. The impact of leadership tends to be greatest in schools where the learning needs of students are most acute, because they are one-fourth preparation and three-fourth theatre. Education, weather formal or informal, conveys certain knowledge, skills, honours and responsibility to its beneficiary. It equips the teacher with the act of utilizing the knowledge he has in school and constantly making it available in the society. As already noted, Teacher Education prepares the teacher for their roles in the society and not only in the classroom. In most cases, what makes the difference among civil servants is the amount and kind of education acquired by each teacher. The teaching profession as one of the valuable professions in the world, ensure that the future of any nation is premised on the vibrance of her teachers and leadership philosophy, giving seal to Plato’s assertion that productivity of a nation is the hinged on everyone’s ability and capacity to give back to the society. Thus, teachers’ education should not only involve the theoretical knowledge about leadership qualities, but should also the skills needed to effectively mobilize the individuals and entire nation to set and realize realistic, meaningful and productive goals. Conceptual Clarifications Teacher Education is referred to as a planned and systematic process for the initial preparation for further training and retraining of teachers. Teacher Education is the professional training of teachers in colleges of education, Faculties of Education and Institute of Education (FRN, 2004). Leadership is derived from the verb “to lead”. To lead means to “guide” or cause to follow one” or to direct as by persuasion or influence, to a course of action and thought. It also means to show the way to, to direct the course of conduct in a certain direction, or to be a head (Kalausi, 2009). 257 At the core of most definitions of leadership are two functions, “providing direction” and “exercising influences”. Each of these functions can be carried out in different ways and such differences distinguish many models of leadership from one another. Leadership could be defined as “the process of directing the behavior of another person or persons towards the accomplishment of some objectives” (Kepana, 2000). From this definition, it can be seen that leadership involves a process, a specific method, or procedure or approach which spans over time, whether short or long. Leadership, therefore, involves everyone because someone must lead another at one time or the other. Good governance is the ability to be dedicated to duty, and ready to serve the people in order to achieve the stated goal or vision. According to Alberta (2002), good governance includes strong leadership combined with responsible and accountable governance and the ability to maintain critical stewardship of an educational system. Governance is defined by the World Bank (1994), as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development. Governance represents a concrete basis of providing leadership and harnessing a nations’s economic resources for sustainable development. The enthronement of good governance poses a formidable challenge and requires capability, commitment and appropriate value orientation on the part of our leaders and the citizenry. Teacher Education for Leadership The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) reaffirms that education is an instrument “par excellence” for effecting national development for the benefit of all citizens with the specific goals and relevance to individual and society needs in consonance with realities of the Nigerian environment and the modern world. In order to make Teacher Education effective there is the need for the inclusion of leadership skills and objective in the program. Thus, teachers will not only see themselves as trained teachers but also as effective leaders in the society. Teachers with leadership skills could help in the training of students to become inspired leaders to assume leadership roles and ensure good governance. According to Kepana (2000), teacher education implies the following: Personal development of the teacher including intellectual and spiritual growth; Vocational preparation of the teacher in terms of necessary practical skills and character qualities; Social training of teacher in order to initiate the young people into the society. It is important for a teacher as a leader to be a role model; he should also know his objectives and have a plan on how to achieve these objectives in the school and the larger society. The teachers should help each team member or members of a group, families, communities and the students who are the leaders of tomorrow, to develop their potentials and be ready to give their best. Leadership Challenges in Teacher Education The past years have witnessed a tremendous expansion in the educational programmes in Nigeria. Schools have sprung up in many parts of the federation and teachers have been produced, some qualitatively and some quantitatively. The Universal Primary Education Scheme (U.P.E) has multiplied the schools products leading to further establishment of the Colleges of Education, Colleges of Technology, the Polytechnics and the Universities. One unifying factor in all these establishments is that they all require teachers, in the right quantity and quality, in order to achieve the desired national objectives. Since the teacher is the hub around which all educational objectives revolve, the picture becomes clearer that, if Nigeria 258 is to become a dynamic and great nation, she has to depend on the effectiveness of her teaching force that trains the much-needed work force (Taiwo, 1980). Teacher Education has come a long way and has gone through various criticism and modification. In order to meet the challenges of effective educational leadership a number of innovations and changes have to be put in place. These may include: Schools needs strong effective leaders, who encourage their teachers, help them plan, implement researcher based practices and provide leadership for improving curricula and instruction. Why and how one emerges as a leader will advently have an effect on the process of education, and how the teacher manages the following challenges: autonomy; inadequate funding; poor state of infrastructural facilities; fallen standard of academic pursuits and poor leadership. Teachers should therefore seek to develop certain leadership qualities that the teachers know to be lacking. Not doing so amounts to planning for problems and failure as a leader According to Odigie (2009), teachers should strive to be leaders for justice, fairness trustworthiness, prudence, vision etc. These and many other characteristics are needed in a teacher to be a leader, irrespective of how many teacher training skills the teacher has acguired. In a nutshell the teacher’s education should include the process of looking for new ways of leadership and good governance among praticing teachers and prospective teachers. Teacher’s Role in Good Governance Teachers and school administrators continuously seek and share information and act on what they have learned. All their efforts are concentrated on improving their practice so that students can achieve the best possible results. In governing the schools, the teacher needs to look at what the schools need so that students are well prepared with the knowledge, skills and attributes they need to succeed. The hallmark of good governance therefore is the ability to improve the quality of life and the ability to meet today’s need without compromising those of posterity, but just having an excellent curriculum is not good enough. According to Alberta (2009), the teacher’s role in good governance should include the following: - Having an excellent curriculum, the school must be a place where excellence is the hall mark, where teams of principals, teachers, school staff, parents and students work together to ensure continuous improvement in students achievement and results. - The teacher’s role include: operating the school within the communities, and demonstrating his skill as leaders. Our schools should be places where teachers have reasonable class size and are able to relate to each and every child and to govern accordingly. - Teachers are able to work effectively with teaching assistants and other professionals to address the challenges of children with special needs. - ensuring a variety of community supports and services are centered around and available to students. - Allow schools to function as cooperative community centers sharing expertise, facilities and resources to meet the needs of their students. The teacher, as epitome of good governance must be leaders with vision; he must be one who is focused, result oriented, and one who can influence his followers (students). He should also be a role model and one that does not coerce his followers. A teacher should have goals and ambitions that will make the school an excellent school where high standards are set and achieved. Such teachers make children to learn. The primary aim of leadership and 259 good governance is accomplishing stated objectives or goals. Thus, the teacher as a leader should map out goals that will prove to be better and successful. The goals should not be targeted at self-perpetuation or the enrichment of self, but for excellent governance. The teacher needs to spend much time to carefully and adequately work out realistic and achievable goals, possibly in consultation with those knowledgeable about the subject matter. According to Tajomavwo (2006), The teacher needs to develop broad goals that will enhance good governance in school: Every school operates as a professional learning community and, through partnership with parents and community members, it should continually strive to improve the outcomes of students. The Essence of Leadership in Teacher Education According to Max (2001) “the essence of leadership is the ability to create vision, inspiration and momentum in a group of people. People are not led by plans and analysis; they are led by this trinity of other things. And the truly effective leader focuses nearly all his actions on examining them- using different skills for each element of trinity”. Let’s now examine the components of this trinity:-Vision: - The vision is the positive image of what the organization could become and the path towards that destination. To create a shared vision, the teacher is always hungry for ideas that fit with the organization’s strategy, and is smart enough to spot good ones. But crucially, he should also be artistic enough to fashion those ideas into images, programmes, projects that are intriguing, meaningful and realistic. -Inspiration: - Within the individuals that comprise the organization, inspiration is what moves people to action. The teacher uses his interpersonal skills to excite his students and help them see how they themselves may benefit from both the journey and arrival. He helps them to see the “word made flesh”. -Momentum: - Momentum of the organization’s projects, programmes and initiatives is what carries the organization to its destination. Using his own energy and problem solving-skills, the teacher keeps the vision and mission on course It is, of course, on these three dimensions that the true and effective leaders deliver strongly. The visionary is not a leader if he cannot also inspire. Similarly, the momentum – sustainer is not a leader if he cannot create a shared vision. Conclusion One of the most vital skills is the ability to work with people as a team. Without this skill, the teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter or administrative and co-coordinating abilities comes to nothing. Indeed, in order to get things done properly, or get members of the schools think and act in a particular way the teacher needs to be highly skilled as a leader in good human relationship. A leader who is aware of its importance and who genuinely desires to guide his schools to achieve its goal and objectives, will do everything to improve on his humanistic tendencies as a teacher-leader with good governance. Recommendations The paper presupposes that teachers are an emblem of societal change they should therefore, be taught leadership skills in their training and the serving teachers should be mentored towards being effective leaders with good governance for social change. - Teacher should therefore seek to develop, planning for problems and failures in setting objectives, planning work, assigning the work, and following up on the result of the work. 260 Teachers should guide, monitor, and support necessary skills and knowledge and proffer solutions to deficiencies. - Every teacher must maintain congruency that is consistent with what he says and what he teaches. Equally, he must be emphatic and develop new ideas that need to be more successful in bringing about change in students at the classroom level which means to develop the teacher’s ability to understand what his students experiences. - Teachers should imbibe the ability to create vision, inspiration and momentum in a group of people. The visionary is not a leader if he cannot also inspire. The momentum – sustainer is not a leader if he cannot create a shared vision. - Teachers should see themselves as carriers of corporate governance because it is having essentially to do with leadership: for efficiency, for probity, with responsibility and leadership which is transparent for the comprehension of the student and the society for adequate social change. References Alberta, I. (2002). Alberta’s commission on learning. Report and recommendation. Turning vision into reality good governance government of Alberta education.com. http://Alberta.edu/html.com.retrievedn August 20,2011. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed). Lagos. Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). Hubbard, J. (1986). Improving leadership and leadership roles. New York: Match Concept. Kalausi. J. (2009). Youth education and leadership in Nigerian. Journal of Educational Philosophy 21 ( 2), 17-23. Kepana, S. (2000). How to be a wise leader. Principle that work. Nairobi: Painless University Press. Max, L. (2001). The fools of leadership. New York: Herper Collins Publishes. Odigie, V.O. (2009). Education leadership challenges, and options, styles and skills. Annual Book of Reading Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria. 1(1), 122-125. Olusegun, A. A. (2009). Teacher’s role as a leader in national development. Annual book of reading philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria 1 (1), 33-42. Taiwo, C.O. (1980). The Nigerian education system. Past, present and future. Lagos. Thomas, Nelson. Tajomavwo, G. A. (2006),Transpernacy and accountability in university governance. A Centre for Management Development (CMD).Lagos. Ford Foundation 1 (1),3-5 World Bank (1994). Governance: The World Bank Experience. Washington DC. 261 LEADERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT UMAR M. R. Department of Educational Foundations, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Abstract The paper examines the concept of leadership and sustainable development in Nigeria. It also looks at the need for effective leadership, and discusses education and leadership processes which are based on the following objectives; the development of the individual into a sound and effective citizens, and the full integration of individual into the community. It also looked into the problem of leadership in Nigeria, which is not only political, but includes all aspects of life such as the family, school, community and business. The paper also recommended some possible solutions to the problem of leadership such as admonishing Nigerian leaders to reason rightly and imbibe thecritical requirements sucf as Intelligence, inner creativity, impulse, skills, capacity and vision to govern. Introduction Leadership in the mind of Emefu (2008) can be described as “sacrifice and selflessness. What this indicates is that leadership is not for everybody and this is because it is not everybody that can make sacrifices and show the selflessness that leader require. Leadership is therefore for people who have such virtues as selflessness, sacrifice and have the calling to do so. It is reserved for those who have been ordained for it. Agwaranze (1997) described leadership as the “capacity or quality of an individual or group to direct, organize and control the actions of the other people or groups towards the attainment of the collective goal of the group or society”. Effective leadership is therefore referred to as the ability of the individual to successfully direct the activities of the group to the attainment of sustainable development. This effective leadership must go along with effective followership for it to work Concept of Leadership, Education and Sustainable Development Leadership derives from the verb “to lead”. To lead means to “guide or cause to follow one” or to direct, as by persuasion or influence to a course of action or thought. It also means to show the way to , to direct the course of , to conduct a certain direction, or to be a head. Thus, leadership involves or connotes providing guidance and / or direction to people for achieving some specific goals people, and by the leader. Although it is possible for humans to lead animals and perhaps, other living creatures, the focus here is on the leadership of human beings by human beings. To led, may also imply the ability to manipulate the led by the leader; this may be by persuasion, coercion or influence. The need for leadership in any human society can not be over emphasized. Whether they belong to institutions or organizations working together to pursue and achieve jointly established goals and objectives that bring people together as members of the same family, clan, state or nation. Human beings always demonstrate their need for leadership within a group. There will be confusion, stagnation and anarchy if there is no leadership as each person would be going on his own, pursuing his own goals and creating and running his own world. Indeed, there would be some people who would be unable to pursue any discernible 262 goal or achieve any tangible success in life, without leadership. There are, however, some people who would crave for a free and relaxed environment and atmosphere to operate and produce optimum positive results for themselves and for the organization to which they belong. But, certainly, this set of people still need or look unto a few others to create that free and relaxed atmosphere and to see the goals (corporate) that people will pursue. Thus, even though they may not depend on coercion or persuasion to operate, they would, of necessity, need and depend on leadership to achieve optimum results. Sustainable development on the other hand is a difficult concept to define. It is also continually evolving, which makes it more difficult to define. One of the original descriptions of sustainable development is credited to the Brundtland commission which asserts thus; “sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs” (World commission on environment and Development (NCED 1987). Sustainable development is generally thought to have three components; environment, society and economy. The well-being of these areas are intertwined, and not separate; for example, a healthy environment is necessary to provide food and resources, safe drinking water and clean air for its citizens. The sustainability paradigm rejects the contention that casualty in the environment and social realms are inevitable and acceptable consequences of economic development. Therefore, sustainable development is considered as per the contention of the paradigm for thinking about the future in which environmental, societal and economic considerations are balanced in the pursuit of development and improved quality of life. Education can be seen as a universal phenomenon, which allows all human societies to develop the requisite knowledge, experience and skills for their-self preservation and growth. It should be borne in mind that the phenomenon of human development revolves around how man applies his knowledge to control his environment. The lesson to be learnt here is that civilization and centers of power and wealth have been shifting in the historical process to which education is a paramount driving force. Education and Sustainable Development Two major issues in the international dialogue on sustainability are population and resource consumption. Increases in population and resource use are thought to jeopardize sustainable future, and education is linked to both fertility rate and resource consumption. Educating females reduces fertility rate and can therefore lead to reduction in over population. The challenge in educating the citizen is to raise the education levels without creating an ever-growing demand for resources and consumer goods and the accompanying production and pollutants. When education levels are low, economics are often limited to resources extraction and agriculture. In many countries the current level of basic education is so low that it severely hinders development options and plans for a more sustainable future. A higher education level is necessary to create jobs and industries that are greener and more sustainable. The United Nations, in recognition of the importance of education for sustainable development, declared 2005-2014 as a decade for education for sustainable development. It is against this background that Okebukola (2007) stressed that the United Nations recognized that there could be few more pressing and critical goals for the future of human kind to ensure steady improvement in the quality of life for this future government in a way that respects our common heritage, and the planet we live in. As human beings, we seek positive 263 change for ourselves, our children and grand children, and we must do it in such a way that we would respect the rights of all. This can be done through constantly learning about ourselves, our potentials, our limitations, our relations, our environment and our world. Education for sustainable development is a life wide and life long endeavor that challenges individuals, institutions and societies to view tomorrow as a day that belongs to all of us, or it will not belong to anyone. Okebukola (2007), emphasized that education is critical for sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to address environmental and development issues. It has also been a common consensus that education is a driving force for the change needed to be actualized through education, in this regard, there is need for effective leadership in Nigeria. Need for effective leadership for sustainable development Olsen (2005), every organization, group, or country has its objectives to achieve. To ensure the realization of the organizational goals, only persons with strong leadership qualities need to be appointed. Such qualities that define good leadership among other things include high intelligence, honesty, justice and fairness, exemplary living, resourcefulness, firmness, tolerance, self confidence, democracy mindedness, charisma and hard work. Any effective leader should be equipped with high intelligence so as to be able to understand and analyze issues as they arise, and immediate solutions proffered without delay. The allocation of an organizations resource requires a high sense of judgement and knowledge. The Niger Delta issue is a case in point, one of the social ills in Nigeria today is that of dishonesty. This state of affairs has generated public distrust of our leaders, thereby bringing about political instability in the nation. Nigerian leaders should be transparently honest to ensure a more certain future for the nation. Effective leadership should be based on justice and fair play. One of the most potent causes of wars and political crisis in any country is injustice. At all times a leader should be seen as fair and just in his dealings with the groups or individuals good leader, as Oluleye (2002) posited, is one who realizes that he is the mirror of the society. In Nigeria, our experience has shown that our leaders are those who match their words with contrary action. Exemplary living in what defines a leader as one who “creates and sets forth exceptional behaviour patterns in such a way that other persons respond” Buttressing the above, Oputa (2006) in his submission adulated that Mohatma Gandhi lived like, looked like and dressed like the average Indian, and so was able to lead them having completely identified himself with them. The proper role of a leader should be a model for the society. What his words teach, his actions ought to show, just as the diagrams drawn by a geometry teacher illustrate his proofs. Every great leader should be able to give others a sense of perspective and he should set the moral, social and motivational climate among his followers. This takes wisdom and discipline, and with disciplined leadership, there is bound to be an equally disciplined followership. In the claims of Anya (2003)), the world historic crisis has naturally had its impact on the third world and the Nigerian society in particular, these include economic inequality, the effect of consumer oriented society, the growing influence of mass media, and lately an increase in violence and crime. As cultural patterns become more complicated, a morality built on traditional systems tends to collapse, and many of the second generation of Nigerian leaders are less able to discern what is right and what is wrong. For instance, Nigeria which is a country with 150 million people, the most populous country in Africa, has found itself torn apart in a morass of corruption, ethnic violence, increasing poverty, epidemic of ethnic politics, and overtly bad leadership. 264 In situations where there are followers that find it difficult to cope with the pace of leadership as well as those who are deviant, an effective leader becomes one who is able to cope with these short comings and yet able to put the organization together. He offers necessary assistance by advising, teaching and persuading deviant followers to conform. This could result from his intellectual capacity, clout and power of oratory. The effective leader must be sure of his facts and figures so as not to do shameful or mean things that destabilize his ego. Katumbay (2007), concluded in his study that Nigerians are lacking badly in such men and women who are not enslaved by love of money but who know how to use it and its power for the well being of all. Nigeria has not yet had its mother Theresa’s, Martiin Luther Kings, Gandhis or Malulas. We are yet to have Men and women who are neither guerrillas nor slave drivers who refuse to betray their own consciences because they are enlightened by a desire for something greater. In Nigeria, leadership is the most wrongly conceived art. It is not only seen as a “knock and drag out game”, but as an open link to wealth and fame. Such a misconception of leadership could be as a result of leadership mis education. Education and Leadership Process In contempary Nigeria, the National Policy on Education (2004) reaffirms that education is an instrument “per excellence” for effecting national development for the benefit of all citizens with the specific goals and relevance to individual and society needs in consonance with the realities of the Nigerian environment and the modern world. For effective educational leadership to be, the leader should be aware of the broad based philosophical objectives in education, which are based on the following; a. The development of the individual into a sound effective citizen b. The full integration of individual into the community and c. The provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at primary, secondary and tertiary levels; both inside and outside of the formal school system. In addition, for effective educational leadership, the aims and purpose of education should be well mastered and integrated by the leader since the end of education is to develop in each individual all the perfection of which he is capable. According to Kontian idealism and philosophy, idealist education implies the holistic growth and development of all the faculties and capabilities of man too all levels reachable. According to Farrant (1985), this implies the following; a. Personal development including intellectual and spiritual growth b. Vocational preparation in terms of necessary practical skills and character qualities. c. Social training in which young people are initiated into the society at local and national level. It is important as a leader that one should know his objectives and having a plan on how to see them through. Building a team committed to achieving the objectives, helping each team member of deputies, vice principals, to give their best. The process of leadership can be influenced by the nature of challenges, options, the style used and skills possessed by the leader. Leadership Education for Sustainable Development No country has ever found it easy after its independence to attain sustainable development. When one closes ones eyes to the factors responsible for failure of leadership and lets go rambling ideologies, then one would realize that it was due to leadership miseducation. The so-called Nigerian leaders developed sore interest to share in the “booty”. 265 They usurped the office of leadership out governing dexterity and genuine knowledge on how to pilot, coalesce and improve the nation. In the assessment of clark (2002), they assume responsibilities only to worsen the already useless output of their predecessors, creating on aura of political confusion. The UN informed masses that are easily taken in by unreliable pledges, prejudice, and ethnic sentiments are reimbursed with poverty, hunger, poor heath care, lack of social amenities, insecurity and secret killings. What a disappointment! There is need for Nigeria to embark on a new educational philosophy of leadership. Such an educational philosophy will among other thing re-assess and reform the former leadership education programme. This will aim at enabling Nigerian leaders to rise to their responsibility and exhibit a good name, self-pride, honour, self-discipline, honesty and commitment as their hallmarks. Achebe (1983) minced no words in his categorical assertion that “the trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership”. He stated that: The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to the challenge of personal example, which are the hallmarks of true leadership. Critically speaking, Achebe’s supra stated quotation with the adjectival noun “unwillingness” suggests not being ready to do what is needed, most probably on account of ignorance. For Aristotle, ignorance is an antithesis of wisdom or lack of knowledge, which is supposed to be there, but is not there. Brameld (1965) adulated knowledge as the greatest weapon ever devised by man. It can be used for mans advancement as well as his downfall. Education, hitherto remains the gateway to knowledge and ultimately to power. Every industrialized nation of the world attained its sustainable development by tapping from the tremendous power of education. This paper, therefore suffices it to state that the Federal Government of Nigeria should not know less that formal education is a source of power, initiative, and critical thinking for leadership education. Education adequately nurtures the human mind and opens up horizons for a creative or inventive spirit. Consequently, the way for the government to promote frontier spirit or productive consciousness in the citizen and prospective leaders, is through adequately financing the nations educational institutions. For instance, institutions of higher learning, where individuals get mature in their thoughts and fully master techniques of learning and doing should be adequately funded and equipped. Intellectuals must be respected and recognized for what they truly are, namely, beacons of national progress and greatness. They should be adequately encouraged and rewarded for their services to the nation. Anti intellectual temper, on the part of the government or a nation, is a sure index of the demise of leadership and sustainable development. There is no denial of the fact that quality education is a backbone for genuine leadership and attainment of sustainable development. In Nigeria, the educational system has virtually collapsed. When the lecturers are not on strike for poor pay and unbearable condition of service, the students will go on rampage to protest for lack of basic amenities or against school fees increase. The net effect is that the psychologic attitudinal formation of the students who are the leaders of tomorrow is greatly traumatized. This may well be to this single purpose of ensuring sustainable development through leadership education that Plato in his “Republic” (374 B.C) thought of selecting the leaders from those people capable of pursuing true education. He proposed the division of the society into three classes; a. The Guardians who will emerge as the philosopher kings, and are the only ones capable of pursuing true education, because they are intellectually gifted. 266 b. The solider class who are the military class, and must be fit for war through training in logistics and regimentation. c. The artisans, farmers, businesspersons and what have you. These sets of people provide the economy of the state and its production. Arguably, one may ask whether plato is proposing “education” or “training” for the philosopher kings. The answer lies in the fact that the philosopher kings would emerge only after a series of articulated educational metamorphosis, involving the elimination of the second best. For Plato, the status of a philosopher king would only be attained at a latter age, between 50 and 60 years. It is after then that these selected few would have been educated or trained to rule the state. Education for Plato is for the acquisition of certain skills competence and insight on how to be good rulers. This is how they could be capable of true knowledge or education. In other words, the philosopher kings would not only have competence for ruling, but must know why they are meant to rule and who ought to rule. Indeed, they would be expected to rule justly, for the attainment of “truth”, and “justice” which as the indices of stability, should be the purpose of quest for knowledge and understanding according to Plato. Should we believe Plato or yet argue that the philosopher kings are not trained but educated? It is a known fact through concrete evidence that both training and education have logical connections, but are not to be mistaken one for the other. Training is specific and much less demanding as education. Training emphasizes the acquisition of skills and competence, but education is for the overall development of man, morally, intellectually, socially, physically, and emotionally. Education is umbrella like in nature, for it is involves not only “knowledge” and “understanding” but also the “how” and the “why” as well as the “where- for”, it has no narrow end as in training, and no straight jacket course. Problems of Leadership In Nigeria According to Agwaraze (1997), the problem of leadership in Nigeria has assumed the unenviable position of being subjected to the ruler ship and not leadership of ill motivated and selfish individuals since independence, be it civilian or military. In Nigeria, the problem of leadership is not only political, it includes all aspects of life such as family, the school, community and business. For instance, in many families in Nigeira today, parents whose primary duties include proper socialization of the child have almost abandoned this duty to the school which is not forth coming. This causes negative effects in the society in the end. One of the outstanding social ills in Nigeria is dishonesty. This has generated public distrust of our leaders thereby bringing about political instability in the country. One of the most potent causes of war and political crisis in any country is injustice and that is the major reason for a leader to be fair and just in his dealings with any groups. Our experience in this country is that our leaders will say one thing and do the opposite, it is this type of behavior, being manifested by our leaders, that probably made Oluleye (1985), to say that exemplary living is what defines a leader as one who creates and sets forth exceptional behavior patterns in such a way that others persons respond. The type of leadership we have in Nigeria may not be compared with what is found in other countries of the world. Emefu (2003), citing the Sunday Guardian of October 14, 2001 assessed Nigerian leaders from 1960 when we got political independence. According to him, “was there any manifestation of leadership in those demagogic and despotic activities of those tyrants?” This is because leadership failure still remains a common occurrence in a country where there are renowned wise men and women who have made some positive 267 global impact. This could be the reason for Okolo (1985), to say that “embezzlement of public funds, excessive greed, irresponsibility, lack of public accountability, tribalism, sectionalism, nepotism, absolute lack of concern for public good and welfare, lack of patriotic spirit etc are all perpetrated by African political leaders and those highly placed in public offices”. The consequence of this is backwardness and that could be the reason for the absence of sustainable development in Nigeria and most African countries. Emefu (2003), stated that “political instability which resulted in the most bloody and wicked civil war was the price of zoological leadership which the Nigerian masses paid for the recklessness of their political leaders”. The question then is; what lesson have we drawn from that episode? It does not seem that we have learnt anything from that because ‘men of no conscience’ still pilot the affairs of the country. For instance, Nigerian leaders can afford to waste billions of Naira preparing for a democratic election,they know will never take place. Even though they know very well that election did not take place, the same group of people will still come on air to announce that the election was free and fair. In this regard, Nwokora (1990), stated thus; “only a modest, non flamboyant, service oriented leadership can salvage this country and above all selflessness is the ultimate ingredient”. From here we can think of what may be the effect of a good leadership and education towards sustainable development. Conclusion To conclude this paper, one may say that for any nation to be “healthy” there is need to integrate the concepts that are involved here. The concepts in question are leadership, education and sustainable development. For any nation to think of sustainable development there must be healthy leadership and healthy education. For the Nigerian society to make meaningful and sustainable progress, we need leaders with a capacity to transform the society in which they exercise leadership. Conclusively, there is no society where a predator, masquerades, as leaders ever develops. Nigeria, one may think, is not far from this, this is because for over 40 years of independence, there is nothing like sustainable development. Thus, Nigerians still cry in this 21 st century, about certain ills like high unemployment rate, crumbling health facilities, horrible roads, deteriorating infrastructure, soaring crime, dysfunctional educational system and helpless value system. Recommendation - Nigerian leaders should reason rightly that leadership is not a matter of the “turn” of a certain senatorial or geo-political zone to lead, but a matter of the person with the leadership intelligence, inner creative impulse, skills, capacity and vision to govern. - A democratic leadership of any country should be ready to provide service to the people. The toughness of the leader is not measured by the swiftness with which educational institutions are closed down, or by the number of the innocent civil servants retrenched in a bid to reduce overhead cost or to streamline the service; it is rather, assessed by the kind of services provided for the benefit of the citizens. - A leader should not give up himself to licentiousness and ignoble conduct. He should exercise a positive impact on his people through action, education, policies and ideologies. Any leader who is comfortable only in leading but fails as a paradigm is a wolf par excellence. 268 - Adequate resource centers and libraries should be built and equipped specifically to train and induct the youths in proper ethics of leadership. This is to enable them acquire basic leadership skills. References Emefu, C.C. Philosophy of leadership the mind opener vol. 11, 2002-2003. Agwaranze, N.D.I . Towards Effective leadership in Nigeria. The pointer Magazine vol. vill, No.1 Dec. 1997. Oluleye, J.J 91985). Military leadership in Nigeria 1966-1976 Ibadan: University press. Okolo, c.P (19985). Philosophy and Nigerian politics Ibadan: Pacific college press. Nwokora, L. (1990). Choosing and alternative: How Nigerians underdeelopoed Nigeria, Onitsha: Verities publsiehrs Farrant, J.S (1985). Principles and practice of education. London : Longman. Achebe, C (1983). The trouble with Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension publishers. Brameld. T (1965). Education and power. New York: Holf, Rinehart and Winston. Clark, B.R (2002). Educating the expert society. (revised) san Francisco; chandler publishing. Anya, O.A. (2003). Leadership, education and the challenge of development in the 21 st century, a convocation lecture at the university of Benin. Nov, 20003. 9-13. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN 2004). National policy on education (4th edition) Lagos. Nigerian educational research and development council. Katumbay, J.e.K (2007). The lack of vision and leadership in Nigeria. Onitsha; spiritan Publications Oputa, C. (2006). Committed leadership. In R.W onyewuenyi (Ed). Hon. Justice chukwudifu oputa selected speeches and reflections. Onitsha; spiritan publications,371-372. Oluleye, J.J. (20003). Military leadership in Nigeria. (1966 – 1970). Ibadan: University Press. Olsen, M.E (2003). The process of social organization. New York; Holt, Rinchard winstom. Talle M. & Muhammad H. (2008). Faculty of education and acts, IBB, University Lapai Niger State World commission on environment and developent , NCED (1987). Okebukola, P (2007). Science technology and mathematics education for sustainable Development. Key note address presented at the Golden Jubilee anniversary conference of the science teachers association of Nigeria, Sokoto. 269