Indianer und Terrorismus

Transcription

Bartl Consulting
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Indianer und Terrorismus:
Bedrohungsvorstellungen in der amerikanischen Kultur
Renate Bartl
1. Indianer als Bedrohung für Indianer
(seit prä-kolumbianischer Zeit)
2. Indianer als Bedrohung für Amerikaner
(1492 – 2001)
3. Amerikaner als Bedrohung für Indianer
(1492 – 2001)
4. Indianer und Terrorismus nach dem
11. September 2001
Renate Bartl: Native Americans and Terrorism © 2006
2
1. Indianer als Bedrohung für Indianer
(seit prä-kolumbianischer Zeit)
•
Migrationen und Konflikte
3
American Indians = threat to American Indians
Athabaskan Migration from Subarctic Region to Southwest ca. 1400
[http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/continent.gif]
http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/amnord/images/fam-na_dene-map.png
4
USA
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=usa]
5
2. Indianer als Bedrohung für Amerikaner
(1492 - 2001)
•
•
•
•
Indianer als Bedrohung für Leib & Seele
Indianerkriege und Massaker
Stereotypisierung der Indianer
Indianischer Terrorismus
6
Indians = threat to Body and Soul
Moravian Missionaries
Plimouth Plantation
founded 1620
7
New England – Plimouth Plantation
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=massachu]
8
Religion & Faith
Founding of Praying
Towns in New-England
1673: John Eliot on Praying
Town Indians
“…; they have a deep
sense of their own
darkness and ignorance,
and a reverent esteem of
the light and goodness of
the English, ...”
[Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. X,
1809: 127]
Father John Eliot (1604-1690)
9
1792: Daniel Gookin on Indians of New-England
“[…] generally they acknowledge one great supreme doer of good; and
him they call Woonand, or Mannitt: another, that is the great doer of evil
or mischief; and him they call Mattand, which is the devil; and him they
dread and fear, more than they love and honour the former chief good
which is God.
There are among them certain men and women, whom they call
powows. These are partly wizards and witches, holding familiarity with
Satan, that evil one; and partly are physicians, and make use, at least
in show, of herbs and roots, for curing the sick and diseased. […]
These powows are reputed, and I conceive justly, to hold familiarity
with the devil; and therefore are by the English laws, prohibited the
exercise of their diabolic practices within the English jurisdiction, […]
Satan doth strongly endeavour to keep up to this practice among the
Indians: and these powows are factors for the devil, and great
hinderers of the Indians embracing the gospel. It is no small
discouragement unto the Indians yielding obedience unto the gospel,
for then, say they, if we once pray to God, we must abandon our
powows; and then, when we are sick and wounded, who shall heal our
maladies?”
[Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. III, 2nd series, 1815: 92]
10
Christian Indian = Civilized Indian
1795: Dr. Ramsay on Indians in Southeastern USA
“We here consider the Indians as a people who cannot be
civilized; who do not increase, but decrease; so that their
extinction is contemplated by our most reflecting citizens.
[…] Our back-country settlers generally say, that to tame
wolves is as impracticable as to civilize Indians.”
[Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. IV, 1795: 99]
1807: Indians on Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts
“The Indians were converted to the christian faith; and
attempts were made to reduce them to a state of
civilization.”
[Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. III, 2nd series, 1815: 92]
11
Indian Wars: USA, East of the Mississippi
(1622-1775)
1622–1646
1609-1613
1644-1646
Powhatan War (Anglo-Powhatan Wars):
•First Anglo-Powhatan War
•Second Anglo-Powhatan War
Virginia
1637
Pequot War
Connecticut
1642-1698
French and Iroquois Wars (Iroquois Wars, Beaver
Wars)
New France (New York State)
1675-1676
King Philip’s War
New England
1680
Pueblo Revolt
New Spain (New Mexico)
1689-1763
1689-1697
1702-1713
1744-1748
1754-1763
French and Indians Wars
•King William’s War
•Queen Anne’s War
•King George’s War
•French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War)
British Colonies - French
Colonies (incl. Dutch, Spanish
and Indian forces)
1711-1715
Tuscarora War
North Carolina
1763-1766
Pontiac’s Rebellion
Great Lakes Region, Ohio
Country, Illinois Country
12
Indian Wars: USA, East of the Mississippi
(1775-1873)
1775–1783
American Revolution
1811–1815
1811–1813
1813–1814
1813
War of 1812:
•Tecumseh's War
•Creek War
•Peoria War
USA, Canada
•Indiana
•Southeastern USA
•Illinois Territory
1817–1818
First Seminole War
Florida
1832
Black Hawk War
Illinois and Michigan Territory
1835–1842
Second Seminole War
Florida
Indian Wars
Colonial Powers + Indian Allies ↔ Colonial Powers + Indian Allies
U.S. Troops + Indian Allies ↔ U.S. Troops + Indian Allies
13
Indian Wars: USA, West of the Mississippi
(1823 – 1898)
14
Massacres
Year
Date
Name
Participants
1622
March 22
Jamestown Massacre
Virginia
Powhatans killed 347 English settlers
throughout the Virginia colony.
1637
May 26
Mystic Massacre
Connecticut
English troops & Indians attacked Pequot
village Fort Mystic, ca. 500 Pequot killed
1704
February 29
Deerfield Massacre
Massachusetts
Indians & French-Canadian militia attacked
Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians.
1778
August 31
Stockbridge Massacre
New York
A battle of the American Revolutionary War
1782
March 8
Gnadenhütten Massacre
Ohio
ca. 100 Delaware Indians killed by
Pennsylvania militiamen.
1830
Trail of Tears
1832
August 1-2
Battle of Bad Axe
Wisconsin
Around 300 Indian men, women and children
were killed in Wisconsin by white soldiers.
1860
February 26
Indian Island Massacre
California
At least 100 Wiyot Indians, killed by white
settlers in Humboldt County, California
1862
August/
September
Sioux Uprising
Dakota
ca. 800 settlers killed.
15
Massacres
Year
Date
Name
Participants
1862
October 24
Tonkawa Massacre
Indian Territory
Caddo, Kickapoo, Delaware and Shawnee,
attempted to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in
Indian Territory.
1863
January 29
Bear River Massacre
Idaho
White settlers killed at least 200 Indian men,
women and children near Preston, Idaho.
1864
November 29
Sand Creek Massacre
Colorado
Militiamen killed at least 160 Cheyenne
Indians at Sand Creek, Colorado.
1870
January 23
Marias Massacre
Montana
White Americans killed 173 Pigeons, mainly
women, children and the elderly.
1876
June 25
Battle of the Little Big Horn
Montana
About 250 U.S. soldiers died in a battle
against Sioux and Northern Cheyenne
1879
January 8
Fort Robinson
Montana
Northern Cheyenne under Dull Knife
attempted to escape from confinement in
Fort Robinson, Montana; about 50 survive.
1890
December 29
Wounded Knee Massacre
South Dakota
ca. 150 Lakota men, women and children
were killed by US soldiers at Wounded Knee
16
•
Indianerkriege und Massaker
•
•
•
Jamestown Massacre (1622)
Tuscarora War (1711 – 1715)
Battle of Little Big Horn (1876)
17
Virginia – Jamestown Massacre
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=virginia]
18
Jamestown Massacre (March 22, 1622)
[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/national_parks/jamestown_settlement98.pdf]
[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/national_parks/jamestown_park98.pdf]
19
1607: Founding of Jamestown (Virginia)
•
•
•
•
•
Virginia Indians outnumbered English Colonists
Earlier British colonization efforts not successful
Colonists depended on Indians for food
17th century English: high potential of violence
Indians used guerilla tactics in war and attacks
1622 (March 22): Jamestown Massacre
Attack by Indian warriors and Indian people working peacefully
alongside with the English settlers
10% of the English population of the colony died
“The worst fear … had come true: the ‘savages’ had been treated
well (by English standards) but had proved ‘treacherous’ and
‘ungrateful.’ ” [Rountree, 2002]
20
[Engraving by Matthaeus Meriam, plate 7 in Theodor de Bry, Dryzehender theil Americae, part 23, Frankfurt, 1628]
21
North Carolina – Tuscarora War
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=ncarlina]
22
Tuscarora War (1711-1715)
North Carolina:
White settlers encroached Tuscarora farmland
[http://www.csulb.edu/~aisstudy/nae/chapter_1/001_002_1.39.jpg]
Christopher von Graffenreid, founder of a Swiss-German
colony in North Carolina, and his slave being held captive
by the Tuscarora during war.
1711: retaliation raids on colonial
villages by Tuscarora
1713: British troops and
Yamasee Indians attacked
Tuscarora village of Neoheroka
1,000 inhabitants killed or captured
Migration of the surviving Tuscarora to upstate New York
1722: Tuscarora became part
of the Sixth Nations of the
Iroquois League
23
Montana - Battle of the Little Bighorn
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=montana]
[http://www.curtis-collection.com/tribe%20data/Tribal%20Images/custer%20images/bmap.gif]
24
Battle of the Little Bighorn (June 25, 1876)
Battle of Little Big Horn
Kicking Bear (Mato Wanartaka)
c. 1898
Lakota (born c. 1846, unknown;
died May 28, 1904, near
Manderson, South Dakota)
Watercolor on muslin
2 ft. 11 in. x 5 ft. 10 in. (frame
included)
The Southwest Museum, Los
Angeles
[http://www.nmculturenet.org/heritage/kicking_bear/img/kick_xl.jpg]
Lt. Col. George A. Custer and 264 men of the 7th U.S. Cavalry were killed in a
battle against Teton Dakota/Sioux and Northern Cheyenne Indians along the
banks of the Little Bighorn River in Southeastern Montana.
25
Stereotyping Indians as “Terrorists“
“Native Americans have been
negatively portrayed in American
cinema dating back to silent
pictures, generally depicted as
marauding terrorists at worst or
noble savages at best.”
[Süddeutsche Zeitung/The New York Times, December 5, 2005: 16]
26
Native American Terrorism pre-2001
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Indian Activists
Warrior Societies (e.g. Cheyenne Dog
Soldiers, Mohawk Warrior Society)
Ghost Dancers (1888 – 1890)
American Indian Movement (AIM, founded
1968)
Leonard Peltier (1944 - )
Cochise (ca. 1810 – 1874)
Geronimo (ca. 1829 – 1909)
27
Native American Terrorism pre-2001
Cochise
Chiricahua Apache
war chief and leader
ca. 1810 - 1874
Geronimo
Apache leader
ca. 1829 - 1909
Strike The Root [daily journal from a libertarian / market anarchist perspective]:
“Geronimo, Cochise and Osama bin Laden
by Douglas Herman
If they were living today, the legendary Apache chieftains Geronimo and
Cochise might fully understand the motives of the guerilla warrior, Osama
bin Laden, even if most of the “civilized” world cannot. ...”
[http://www.strike-the-root.com/51/herman/herman13.html]
28
3. Amerikaner als Bedrohung für Indianer
•
•
•
•
•
Kolonisierung
Kriege, Massaker, Deportation, Völkermord
Chemische und Biologische Kriegsführung
Kultureller Völkermord: Indianerschulen
Umwelt-Terrorismus
29
USA is experiencing since 9/11 what Native
Americans have experienced since 1492
[Geronimo and 3 Apache warriors / Artist: Colleen Lloyd (Cherokee)]
30
Engravings by Thomas Vaughn
[Smith, John.1624. The Generalle Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles]
John Smith and King of Paspahegh encounter,
1609:
“C[aptain] Smith takes the King of Paipahegh
prisoner Ao 1609“
John Smith and Opechancanough encounter, January 1609:
“C[aptain] Smith taketh the King of Pamaunkee prisoner 1608“
31
•
Kriege, Massaker, Deportation, Völkermord
•
•
•
•
Pequot War & Mystic Massacre (1637)
Sand Creek Massacre (1864)
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
Indian Removal/Trail of Tears (1830 – 1842)
32
Connecticut - Pequot War & Mystic Massacre
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=connecti]
33
Mystic Massacre (May 26, 1637)
English soldiers, led by Captains John Mason and John Underhill,
Mohegan-Pequots (under Uncas) Narragansetts and Eastern
Niantics attack Pequot settlement “Fort Mystic” and set it on fire.
300 - 700 women, children and old men died
John Mason in “A Brief History of the Pequot War”:
“And indeed such a dreadful Terror did the Almighty let fall upon their Spirits, that
they would fly from us and run into the very Flames, where many of them
perished.”
“Thus we may see, How the Face of God is set against them that do Evil, to cut
off the Remembrance of them from the Earth. […] Thus the Lord was pleased to
smite our Enemies in the hinder Parts, and to give us their Land for Inheritance:
…”
[Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Volume VIII of the second series, 1819: 139-140, 151]
34
Pequot War (1637-1638)
Remaining Pequots (mainly warriors) capture, killed, executed, enslaved
(by Indians & non-Indians) and deported
Pequots sold into slavery to Bermuda and the West-Indies
Use of the designation “Pequot” was outlawed by colonial authorities
Puritan Account of 1643:
“And in the war, which we made against them [the Pequots], God’s
hand from heaven was so manifested that a very few of our men in a
short time pursued through the wilderness, slew, and took prisoners
about 1,400 of them, even all they could find, to the great terror and
amazement of all the Indians to this day; so that the name of the
Pequots […] is blotted out from under heaven, there being none that is,
or (at least) dare call himself a Pequot.”
[Hauptman, Lawrence M. 1990. “The Pequot war and its Lagacies”. In: Hauptman, Lawrence M. & James D. Wherry. 1990. The Pequots in
Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation. p. 76]
35
Pequot War & Mystic Massacre (1637-1638)
Laurence M. Hauptman:
Mashantucket Pequot Museum &
Research Center
1983, October 18:
Western (Mashantucket) Pequot
Indian Federal Recognition
“Historians and
anthropologists
visiting
today’s
Mashantucket
Pequot community get the distinct
impression that these terrible past
events are still very much a present
reality to these Indians. The ways in
which the Pequots, who are always
conscious of the War of 1637,
commemorate this tragedy, interact
with both their Indian and non-Indian
neighbors and build the modern-day
community are similar to other
survival
experiences
after
genocide.”
[Hauptman, Lawrence M. 1990. “The Pequot war and its Lagacies”. In:
Hauptman, Lawrence M. & James D. Wherry. 1990. The Pequots in
Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation.
p. 70-71]
36
Colorado – Sand Creek Massacre
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=connecti]
37
Sand Creek Massacre (November 29, 1864)
1850s: Gold Rush (Rocky Mountains)
Immigration of miners & settlers to
Colorado
Conflicts with Arapaho & Cheyenne
(incl. attacks by Dog Soldiers)
Preparation of Removal of Indians
to Reservation in Oklahoma
November 29, 1864:
Attack by Colorado Militia on Sand
Creek Camp of Arapaho &
Cheyenne Indians
ca. 160 Indians killed
Scalps and body parts displayed in
Apollo Theater, Denver, Colorado
Dog Soldiers killed nearly 200
settlers in revenge
[http://www.forestry.umt.edu/research/CESU/NEWCESU/Asse
ts/Partner%20Activities/FY06%20Activities/Apr%2014%20200
620(E)/CaseStudySandCreek/SANDVicinityMap.jpg]
38
South Dakota – Wounded Knee Massacre
[http://www.mapquest.com/atlas/main.adp?region=sdakota]
39
South Dakota – Wounded Knee Massacre
[http://indien.nexenservices.com/amerindiens/images/wknee1.jpg]
40
Wounded Knee Massacre
(December 29, 1890)
1890:
• Allotment of Great Sioux
Reservation, South Dakota
• Ghost Dance Movement
Lakota Ghost Dancers fled to
Cheyenne River Indian
Reservation, joining Chief Big Foot
December 29, 1890:
U.S. Army killed ca. 150 Lakota
Chief Big Foot
Wounded Knee is considered end of Indian Wars
1973, February 27: Wounded Knee Conflict
41
Indian Removal / Trail of Tears
(1830 – 1842)
1830: Indian Removal Act
http://homepage.univie.ac.at/kurt.mayer/graphics/TrailTearsl.jpg
Removal of the Five Civilized
Tribes (Cherokee, Creek,
Choctaw, Chickasaw,
Seminole) from the Southeast
to Indian Territory (Kansas/
Oklahoma)
ca. 12.000 Indians died
31% of the Cherokee died
(Trail of Tears / Trail where
the Cherokee cried)
43% of the Creek died
27% of the Choctaw died
18% of the Chickasaw died
42
Columbian Exchange: Diseases
[http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat
_amer/post/htmls/hi_decline.html]
Biological & Chemical Warfare:
• Smallpox
• Cholera
• Typhus
• Diphtheria
• Measles
• Influenza
• Syphilis
• Alcoholism
43
Diseases: Smallpox
[www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/placenames/map4.gif]
44
Indian Boarding Schools
Hampton,
VA, 1878
Carlisle Indian School, PA, ca. 1900
Cultural Genocide
St. Mary‘s Mission Prayer Time
45
Environmental Terrorism
• Chemical and nuclear waste
deposit on Indian reservations
• Destruction and exploitation
natural resources on Indian
land by U.S. companies
46
4. Indianer und Terrorismus nach dem
11. September 2001:
•
•
•
•
Mohawk Skywalkers
„War Against Terrorism“
Homeland Security
Einsichten, Wiedergutmachung und
Offizielle Entschuldigungen
47
Mohawk Skywalkers
David Rice, 1971, WTC, South Tower
Kyle Beauvais
Mohawk Skywalkers
constructing and deconstructing
World Trade Center
48
War Against Terrorism
[http://www.medalofhonor.com/NativeWarriors.htm]
Private First Class Lori Piestewa
(Navajo) died in Iraq 2003 (first
Native American woman in the
U.S. armed forces ever to die as a
result of combat)
[http://www.defendamerica.mil/awt/jun2002/awt062402a.html]
Ceremony: Oglala Sioux Nation
paying tribute to 5 of its
warriors who are National
Guard soldiers engaged in the
war against terrorism
49
Homeland Security
Homeland Security Act of 2002 – Amendments
(2003 – 2006):
Indian Tribes shall be treated as State
Eligibility for grant monies and funds
25 Indian tribes have jurisdiction over lands
adjacent to the Canadian or Mexican border,
and to waters that provide direct access to the
USA (e.g. Tohono O’odham Reservation, AZ)
260 miles of international border of the United
States under jurisdiction of Indian tribes
50
Homeland Security
2005: U.S. National Governors Association
Convention, Des Moines
•
American Indian dance group
prevented from performance for
“security reasons”
Preston Dunken (Meskawi from Tama,
Iowa): “Maybe they’re afraid of us –
we’re more threatening than al-Qaida, I
guess.”
[H-AMINDIAN, 7/15/2005]
51
Homeland Security (Canada)
2005: Canada – British Columbia
•
West Coast Warriors Society
disbanding because its members are
tired of being targeted as terrorists for
exercising their rights as natives
[H-AMINDIAN, 8/5-7/2005]
52
U.S. Apologies to Native America
U.S. House of Representatives (2005):
• CONCURRENT RESOLUTION Honoring the
service of American Indians in the Armed
Forces
U.S. Senate (2005):
• JOINT RESOLUTION To acknowledge a long
history of official depredations and illconceived policies by the United States
Government regarding Indian tribes and offer
an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of
the United States.
53
Blessing Ceremony on Ground Zero
(November 13, 2001)
Dr. Henrietta Mann
(Northern Cheyenne
Healing Woman)
“At some point it was as if I had
suddenly developed “Eagle” wings and
vision and I was looking down from
some very high place above. Not only
could I see what happened on
September 11th, I could see the “Trail
Where the Cherokee Cried;” I could see
two of my great-Grandmothers at Sand
Creek, one rapidly riding away on a
pony, her little brother behind her. I saw
so much more and I understood even
more.”
54
“I sadly understood how far from spiritual
center that some people have strayed, made
apparent by the lack of respect for human
life. It was obvious that the interconnectedness and inter-relatedness of all
life is severely weakened or non-existent.
Thus, it is critical that our teachers and
grandparents continue to pass on their
teachings about what is to be a human being,
a fully developed whole person who stands
respectfully and responsibly in the great
circle of life. Simply, we cannot continue to
be fragmented in self or disconnected from
one another as the for children of earth from
the sacred white, red, yellow, a white [sic; i.e.
“black”]
quarters
of
the
universe.”
[Dr. Henrietta Mann, 2002]
55

Indianer und Terrorismus

Transcription

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