Water and sanitation in Ghana – Focus on Adenta Municipal District

 Water and sanitation in Ghana –
Focus on Adenta Municipal District in the Greater Accra Region. February 2009
Anna Norström CIT Urban Water Management AB CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AdMA AMA ATMA AVRL CWSA CWSD DA DANIDA DFID DHS DWST EHSD EPA ESP GAR GLSS GPRS GSS GWCL GWSC JMP KVIP MDG MICS MLGRDE MMDA MWRWH NCWSP NEPAD PURC RCC RWST SSNIT TMA UNFPA UNICEF WATSAN WHO WMD WRC WSDB WWTP Adentan Municipal Assembly Accra Metropolitan Assembly Accra‐Tema Metropolitan Area Aqua Vitens Rand Limited Community Water and Sanitation Agency Community Water and Sanitation Division District Assembly Danish International Development Agency UK Department for International Development Demographic and Health Survey Distric Water and Sanitation Teams Environmental Health and Sanitation Department Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Sanitation Policy Greater Accra Region Ghana Living Standards Survey Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Ghana Statistical Service Ghana Water Company Limited Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation Joint Monitoring Programme Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine Millennium Development Goal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing National Community Water and Sanitation Programme New Partnershop for Africa’s Development Public Utilities Regulatory Commission Regional Coordinating Council Regional Water and Sanitation Teams Social Security National Insurance Trusts Tema Metropolitan Area United Nations Population Fund United Nations Children’s Fund Water and Sanitation Committees World Health Organisation Waste Management Department Water Resources Commission Water and Sanitation Development Boards Wastewater Treatment Plant 2
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 CONTENT LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... 2 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 5 SHORT FACTS ABOUT GHANA .............................................................................. 5 Water resources and use ................................................................................... 6 Water supply ..................................................................................................... 6 Sanitation .......................................................................................................... 7 Some demographics .......................................................................................... 8 URBANISATION OF PERI‐URBAN ACCRA ............................................................... 9 Adenta Municipal area ....................................................................................12 Land tenure .....................................................................................................13 GHANA’S WATER AND SANITATION POLICIES ....................................................14 The National Water Policy ...............................................................................14 The National Environmental Sanitation Policy ................................................14 INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES IN THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR ..........14 Historical development ...................................................................................14 National level ..................................................................................................15 Regional and district level ...............................................................................18 REGIONAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION ..........................................................19 WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION ...................................................................21 Centralised distribution ...................................................................................22 Water Tanker Service ......................................................................................24 Sachet water/Bottled water ............................................................................25 3
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 SANITATION ........................................................................................................25 Wastewater and liquid waste .........................................................................25 Solid waste ......................................................................................................27 LARGER SCALE PROJECTS IN THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR .................29 NCWSP selection of beneficiary communities .................................................35 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................36 Personal Communication ................................................................................37 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................38 Appendix A. Former Tema district and preliminary boundaries of Adenta Municipal.........................................................................................................38 Appendix B. River basins in Accra, Ga and Tema districts. ..............................40 Appendix C. Extract from Environmental Sanitation Policy 1999. ...................41 Appendix D. Extract from Environmental Sanitation Policy draft 2007. ..........50 Appendix E. Development of the institutional structures in the WSS sector in Ghana. .............................................................................................................57 Appendix F. Development of water and sanitation coverage in Ghana. .........58 Appendix G. ATMA water supply system. ........................................................59 Appendix H. Technologies provided by NCWSP ...............................................60 4
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 INTRODUCTION This report was prepared for the project ”Peri‐urban water and sanitation in Accra, Ghana – relevance and adaptability of contemporary Swedish approaches”, which was financed by Formas and carried out with support from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)‐office in Accra. The report should be viewed as i) a background study of factors influencing the water and sanitation situation in peri‐urban Accra, and ii) as an introduction to Ghana and the selected study district, Adenta Municipal, for those not familiar with the area. SHORT FACTS ABOUT GHANA Ghana is located on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. It has a land area of 240,000 km2, which is about half the area of Sweden. The official language is English, and the neighbouring French‐
speaking countries are Cote d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north and northwest, and Togo to the east (Figure 1). In 1957, Ghana was the first nation in sub‐Saharan Africa to achieve indepen‐
dence. On 7 January 2009, Prof. John Evans Atta Mills from the National Democratic Congress (NDC) party was officially sworn in as the new president of Ghana. This is the second time in Ghana's 52‐
year political history that an elected leader handed over power to another elected leader.1 Figure 1. Overview of Ghana with topography, major cities, lakes and rivers.2 1
Professor Atta‐Mills, is considered by many Ghanaians as making personal history after being the first sitting former vice president to lose power, stay in the opposition for eight consecutive years under another party's rule, and then win power back. 2
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/ghana_topographic_map. Design Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID‐Arendal. The black dot without a name on the map shows the location of the city of Kumasi. 5
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Ghana is mainly a lowland country. Exceptions are a range of hills that lie on the eastern border and Mt. Afadjato (884 m asl), which is to the west of the Volta River. The climate is tropical, but temperatures and rainfall vary by distance from the coast and elevation. The average annual temperature is about 26ºC. There are two distinct rainy seasons, April to June and September to November. Generally, rainfall decreases from the tropical south‐western part of the country (2,000 mm/year) towards the savannah area that covers the northern and eastern part (950 mm/year). The driest area is the south east‐coastal plain (800 mm/year). Water resources and use Ghana’s water resources potential is divided into surface and groundwater sources. Surface water sources are mainly from three river systems that drain Ghana: the Volta, South Western and Coastal river systems. Approximately 70% of the land area is covered by the lower Volta River system, which is made up of the Oti River and the Red, Black and White Volta Rivers, and basically coincides with the savannah area. The South‐Western river system and the Coastal river systems make up 22% and 8% respectively of total land area. In addition to these, the only significant natural freshwater lake in Ghana is Lake Bosumtwi, situated about 30 km south‐east of Kumasi. The total water available from surface water sources is 39.4 billion m3 per year (MWRWH, 2007). The main consumptive uses of water are water supply, irrigation and livestock watering. On the basis of surface water resources alone, the consumptive water demand for 2020 has been projected to be some 12% of the total surface water resources. The main non‐consumptive uses are inland fisheries, water transport and hydropower generation. Impoundments and reservoirs have been constructed for hydropower generation, potable water supply and irrigation. The first hydroelectric dam, constructed in 1965, is located 100 km from the source of the Volta River. The dam created one of the largest man‐made lakes in the world, covering an area of about 8,500 km2 at the ”Full Supply Level” of 88.5 meters. In 1981 when another hydroelectric dam was completed, the Kpong Head‐
pond was created which is a smaller and shallower impoundment of about 40 km2. Other important impoundments are the Weija and Owabi Reservoirs on the Densu and Offin Rivers, respectively. Water supply Notwithstanding the availability of water to meet water supply, there are deficits in coverage. In the early 1970’s, eight out of every ten persons in urban centres in Ghana had reasonable access to potable water. This figure dropped to seven by early 1990 and is now below six (Drechsel & Van Rooijen, 2008). In 2004, urban water supply coverage was estimated at 55%, and the rural and small town coverage was 51.6% (MWRWH, 2007). However, according to the latest JMP report Ghana is number seven on the list of countries on track to meet the MDG drinking water target that have made the most rapid progress between 1990 and 2006 (WHO/UNICEF, 2008a). During this period 51% of the population has gained access to an improved drinking water source3 (Table 1). 3
Improved drinking water sources includes sources that, by nature of their construction or through active intervention, are protected from outside contamination, particularly faecal matter. These include piped water on premises, public taps or standpipes, tube wells or boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collection (WHO/UNICEF, 2008a). 6
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Unimproved Improved Piped into dwelling, yard of plot Other improved Unimproved Improved Piped into dwelling, yard of plot Other improved 36 86 40 46
14
39
2
37
61
56
16
40 44 2006 23,008 49 90 37 53
10
71
4
67
29
80
20
60 20 Unimproved Other improved 15,579 Improved Total population (thousand) 1990 Urban % Year Piped into dwelling, yard of plot Table 1. Drinking water coverage (%) in Ghana. Modified from WHO/UNICEF (2008a). Urban
Rural
Total % of population that gained coverage (1990‐2006) with respect to median population (Year 1998) Ghana is also on the list of countries with the highest percentage of urban population using bottled water as their main drinking water source. Data for Ghana only describes use of sachet water4, which for urban and rural areas are 12% and 1% respectively. The JMP programme considers bottled water a source of improved drinking water only when the household uses water from another improved source also for cooking and personal hygiene. In the coverage data for Ghana, as presented by the JMP, sachet water is included as an improved sources (MICS, 2006). 51 Sanitation In contrast to the water supply coverage that show good progress, the sanitation coverage is a rather slow story. During the same period, only 8% of the population gained access to improved sanitation5 (Table 2). Shared sanitation facilities are facilities of an otherwise acceptable type that are shared between two or more households, including public toilets. The data on shared sanitation facilities presented here exclude shared facilities that are unimproved, such as shared pit latrines without a slab or shared open pits. Worldwide, the proportion of people using shared sanitation facilities is 10% or less in all developing regions except sub‐Saharan Africa, where they are used by 18% of the population (WHO/UNICEF, 2008a). For most countries in which at least 10% of the urban population shares a sanitation facility of an acceptable technology, the majority share a facility with five or fewer households. Ghana is an exception, where a considerably larger proportion of households in both urban and rural areas share sanitation facilities with more than five households (Table 3). This highlights the widespread existence and use of public toilets in Ghana. 4
Sachet water or piu water is drinking water sold in 500 ml plastic bags. Improved sanitation facilities ensure hygienic separation of human excreta from human contact. They include: flush or pour‐flush toilet/latrine to piped sewer system/septic tank/pit latrine, VIP latrine, Pit latrine with slab and composting toilet (WHO/UNICEF, 2008a). 5
7
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Improved Shared Unimproved Open defecation Improved Shared Unimproved 11 47 31
11
3
19
47
31
6
29
41 24 2006 23,008 49
15 69 8
6
34
28
32
10
51
19 20 8
Urban % % of population that gained coverage (1990‐2006) with respect to median population (Year 1998) Open defecation 36
Open defecation Unimproved 15,579 Shared Total population (thousand) 1990 Improved Year Table 2. Sanitation coverage (%) in Ghana. Modified from WHO/UNICEF (2008a). Urban
Rural
Total 8 Table 3. Percentage of households sharing a sanitation facility of an acceptable type in Ghana. Modified from WHO/UNICEF (2008a). Urban (%) Rural (%) 2‐5 households More than 5 households 2‐5 households More than 5 households Ghana 10 58 4 35 Some demographics At the last census in 20006 the total population in the country was 18.9 million, with an average growth rate of 2.7% (GSS, 2004). Today the expected population is about 23 million. Ghana’s population is young, with 44% of the population under 15 years and the older age groups (65 years and above) constituting just 5% of the population (GSS, 2004). The average life expectancy is 58.3 and 57.4 years for female and male respectively7, which is among the highest in Africa (UNFPA, 2007). The mean household size is 4.0, with household size in rural areas (4.3) larger than in urban areas (3.6) (GSS, 2004). The Accra‐Tema agglomeration is the largest in the country. In 2000, the population per house was 12.6 and 9.1, and the household per house was 2.8 and 1.9 for Accra and Tema respectively. Ethnically, the people of Ghana belong to one broad group within the African family, but there is a large variety of subgroups. It is possible to distinguish at least 75 of these on the basis of language. Many of the subgroups are very small, and only ten of them are numerically significant. In the Greater Accra Region (GAR), the major ethnic groups are the Akan (39.8%), Ga‐Dangme (29.7%) and Ewe (18%). The Gas form the largest single sub‐ethnic grouping, accounting for 18.9% (GSS, 2005). 6
The next national census is planned for March 2010. In Western Africa the average life expectancy is 46.7 and 47.5, and in Sweden it is 78.6 and 82.9 for male and female respectively. 7
8
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 It is generally agreed that the southern part of the country is more Christian, while the North is more Islamic. In the Greater Accra Region, Christians constitute the largest religious group (83.0%), followed by Moslems (10.2%), people who profess no religion (4.6%) and adherents of traditional religion (1.4%). The current system of formal education was introduced in 1989. It is based on a three‐tier system: six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary school, and then three years of senior secondary school. Education varies by place of residence. Urban women are more likely to be educated than rural women (Figure 2), and the proportion of female household members who have never attended school decreases with higher wealth status. Females in the northern half of the country (Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions) are seriously disadvantaged educationally. More than two‐thirds of women in these regions have never been to school, compared with one‐fifth in the Greater Accra Region. Across the regions the pattern among the male population is similar to that exhibited by the females. However, men are more educated than women at all levels of education. The median number of years of schooling completed is twice as high among men (3.9 years) as among women (2.1 years), and it is the highest in the Greater Accra Region with 8.5 years and 6.4 years for men and women respectively (GSS, 2004). Percent distribution
50
40
No education
Some primary
Completed primary
Some secondary
Completed secondary
More than secondary
Don't know
30
20
10
0
Urban
women
Urban
men
Rural
women
Rural men
GAR
women
GAR men
Total
women
Total men
Figure 2. Percent distribution of men and women (urban, rural and in the Greater Accra Region) by highest level of education attended or completed. Modified from Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2003 (GSS, 2004). URBANISATION OF PERI‐URBAN ACCRA In the late 1980’s only about one third of Ghana’s population was estimated to be urban. By the beginning of the 21st century almost one half of the population were living in urban centres, and the modern urbanisation in Ghana is focused mainly on Accra‐Tema, Kumasi and Sekondi‐Takoradi. Accra became the capital of the Gold Coast, now Ghana, in 1877 when the colonial headquarters were relocated from Cape Coast. It has subsequently become not only the political and administrative capital but also the commercial, industrial and cultural centre. It is the transport hub of the country and linked to the outside world through the only international airport in Accra and a harbour at Tema, about 20 kilometres to the east of Accra. 9
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 The rapid urbanisation has resulted from several factors. Before the 1980’s it was pre‐dominantly from in‐migration mainly from rural areas, but increasingly from small and medium sized towns. Since the 1980’s, the major factor has been the natural population growth. Accra is experiencing a rapid growth rate and it is one of the fastest growing cities in West Africa. On the eve of independence, the population of Accra was only about 190,000. However, it increased to 1,658,937 in 2000 from just under a million (969,195) in 1984. In general terms, Accra’s rapid growth has occurred without the benefit of consistent and co‐
ordinated planning. During the colonial era, physical‐planning activities occurred only in areas where the colonial administrators and expatriate personnel lived (Larbi, 1996). Beyond the high‐class residential areas, the city developed in a disorderly manner creating a fragmented urban structure. This process has not been reversed during the post‐colonial era and this failure has now created a situation where the development of Accra has become totally uncontrollable. Expansion has occurred in many areas without any framework for growth and development. The legal boundary of Accra has been redefined several times in the past. In 1964, the whole of Accra was declared a statutory planning area. A Master Plan of Accra was produced in 1958 but it was not fully implemented. Still, Accra has no coherent consistent spatial development strategy. The areas that have suffered most are the new areas that have developed since 1970 and in particular the recently developed fringe zones. Under the Economic Recovery Programmes and Structural Adjustment Programmes (supported by the World Bank/IMF8 and implemented since 1983) urban planning, development and management have been seriously tackled. A new Structure Plan was produced for Accra in 1992 to cover the period 1993‐2010 and to be executed in phases of 5‐year development plans. The plan provides a framework for guiding the current and future development of Accra, Tema and Ga in an integrated manner. The plan, however, does not provide any measure for dealing with the areas which have already developed in a haphazard manner without schemes, nor does it consider the old villages in the fringe zones. Almost all new development in peri‐urban Accra is characterized by a similar physical appearance: wide areas of land dotted with large villas at various stages of completion in the midst of which are fairly compact indigenous villages consisting of compound earth houses (Gough, 1999). This physical appearance reflects a tradition ‐ necessitated by the absence of a mortgage system ‐ for a long lasting, sometimes life‐long, saving and building effort to raise a house. As a consequence, the new urban areas are visually dominated for several years by a high percentage of plots with natural vegetation or exposed surfaces between the brick walls. One of the challenges when looking at urbanization is that recently updated maps covering the Accra area are not available. In fact most information on urban land cover is more than 30 years old and completely unsuitable for monitoring the recent development, out of which much are occurring in the fringe areas of the city of Accra and the Tema municipality. Yankson and colleagues have used satellite based land‐cover mapping to show the physical growth of the urban areas during the years 1985‐2002 (Figure 3). 8
IMF – the International Monetary Fund 10
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Figure 3. Four maps showing the extent of the urbanized areas of Accra in 1985, 1991 and 2002 as well as the extent of the area that is under conversion to urban use in 2002. All maps are based on texture‐based classification of Landsat (E)TM satellite images. Extracted from Yankson et al., (2004). The urbanized areas of Accra now constitute 555 km2, as compared to 216 km2 in 1985. An additional 196 km2 are under conversion from rural to urban use. As shown in Figure 3, especially the fringe zones of Accra and Tema district to the East are characterized by rapid urbanization, but there is also a significant change in the Ga district to the Northwest. By comparing the preliminary boundaries of Adenta Municipal as outlined in Appendix A with Figure 3, is it evident that Adentan has been through a significant development during this period, which is also visible when travelling through the area. 11
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Adenta Municipal area In the Adenta Municipal area there are 34 communities and four electoral areas (AdMA, 2008). At the time of the 2000 census, there were 18 communities in this area, with a population of 62,7159 (Table 4). Based on an estimated growth rate of 2.6% the current population is 79,014. This number is assumed to be significantly under‐estimating the current population, but until the next census is performed in 2010 this is the official figure. In 2000, approximately half of the population in this area were living in the community Adentan East (GSS, 2005), see Appendix A, Figure 2 area 3. A typical urban community in AdMA is described as having slum‐like characteristics at the centre but nicely planned infrastructure at the periphery. This is also the general layout for the 13 rural communities in the municipality, where the original land owners live in a rural‐like environment at the centre, and the land sold‐off surrounding them is built in a more planned fashion.10 It is not very clear which traditional authority owns or holds custody to Adenta Municipal area. The area is controlled by three traditional councils namely La, Nungua and Teshie. This makes land acquisition difficult and promotes land litigation.11 Table 4. List of electoral areas and communities in Adentan 2008 Population 2000 census
Electoral Area Koose Malejor* Amrahia** Amanfro Ashiyie (Oshiyie?)** Ampomah Village E.A. Gbentanaa Adentan Old Town New Adentan Adentan Housing Estates Approtech Commandos East Adentan New Legon SSNIT Flats*** Frafraha Ritz Areas Alhaji Only in 2000 census Dzenayor Fafraha Nungua Farms Total 150
1130
158
534
31072
3014
630
1170
628
E.A. Nii Ashale Ashale Botwe Ogbojo (Ogbodzo?) Sraha Little Roses Japan Motors – Lake side**
Third Gate Arap Adjei Part Dzen Ayor E.A. Sutsurunaa Obudankadi University Farms**
Nmai Djorn**
Dzornaaman Otano (Onator?) Trassacco Area Adjiringanor (Agirigano?)**
Bedzen Tesaa Otinshie Population 2000 census 11974 5140 2648 344 750 129 1431 777 1036 62715 *GWCL piped water from Oyibi **Has local man made water resources ***GWCL piped water from Kpong 9
In 2000, the total population in Tema was 504,000. N.‐N. Adumuah, personal communication. 11
From Adenta Municipal Assembly (AdMA) strategic plan draft 2008 10
12
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Adenta has several natural resources, prominent among them are the Nugget River in Nmai Djor and the Ogbojo stream. These resources are not being properly maintained and are gradually collecting waste materials in the form of used papers and polythene bags. The Ogbojo stream has a tendency of overflowing in the rainy season, thus hindering accessibility to facilities such as the Ogbojo Market and schools for the population on the opposite side of the river (AdMA, 2008). In Adenta there is no master drainage plan, and soil erosion is a problem due to the lack of constructed drains. Adenta Municipal area is mainly located in one river basin (Appendix B) and drained by rivers that flow into Tema and then into the sea. To facilitate farming and agricultural activities, various individuals and institutions have, over the years, constructed dams within Adenta Municipal. These are: • Japan Motors Tourist Resort (from 1960’s tourist attraction, cattle ranch) • Faahe Dam in Nmai Djor (for cattle, dry in season) • Tessa dam in Adjiringanor by Nkrumah • University Farms Dam for faculty of agriculture • Water body of Amrahia and water body of Ashiyie Land tenure A complicated land tenure system exists today in Accra. The Ghanaian government formally recognizes the ownership of public (government owned) and customary land – that which is managed by tribal chiefs or family heads, i.e. the stool lands. Public land is managed by the Lands Commission, a government agency whose function is to “acquire and manage public lands; advise government on land use; advise the government, district assemblies and traditional authorities on land development and coordination; and maintain a register of all land titles”. Much of the land in Accra acquired by the government over the years is used for institutional (government buildings, education, and health) and industrial purposes. This land has been acquired under “various government enactments” and although compensation is required, it has in many cases not been paid (Gough and Yankson, 2000). The tradition of tribal land management was developed prior to colonialism. Land tenure was, and is, customary, that is, it is “vested in a collective,” meaning all members of the political community have rights of usage. The boundaries of this land have never been officially recorded and most communities have relied on memory and natural landmarks to determine locations. Consequently, there is some uncertainty as to where the different jurisdictions lie (Gough and Yankson, 2000). Individuals desiring to own land especially for housing purposes purchase the lands on long‐term leasehold basis. This is done by approaching the landowners, usually the chiefs or stools and family heads. The chief’s appointed surveyor demarcates the plot of land for the prospective buyer. The problem of multiple sales of land is prominent. In some cases the lands are sold out by different fractions within the land owning family or stools and the developer gets to know only after a search at the Lands Commission or when he or she starts building. The result therefore has been open conflicts and litigations (Yankson et al., 2004). The period for the long‐term leasehold contracts have usually been 99 years, and when they are about to expire it create problems. One of the government owned treatment plants, for example, is situated on land where the lease is about to expire and the owner now wants the land back. This case is expected to be settled in court and will probably serve as a reference for the future.12 12
H. Esseku, personal communication. 13
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 GHANA’S WATER AND SANITATION POLICIES The National Water Policy The overall goal of the National Water Policy is to ”achieve sustainable development, management and use of Ghana’s water resources to improve health and livelihoods, reduce vulnerability while assuring good governance for present and future generations” (MWRWH, 2007). The main focus of this document is on water supply, and relevant issues are addressed under three main broad areas: i) water resources management, ii) urban water supply, and iii) community water and sanitation. The National Water Policy is underpinned by the principles articulated in the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS), the MDGs and the ”Africa Water Vision” of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). The National Environmental Sanitation Policy Ghana’s first environmental sanitation policy was published in 1999. This policy was revised and updated in 2007, but has not yet (February 2009) been officially approved. The revised policy ”seeks to refocus the priorities of the sector so it is forward looking and effectively embraces the challenges of changing life‐styles associated with modernization and improving wealth status” (MLGRDE, 2007). A desired institutional setup is outlined in the policy. If the policy is approved than some existing responsibilities will be transferred between institutions and human resources capacity will have to be developed within the institutions. The policy states that the Environmental Health and Sanitation Directorate within MLGRDE, and the Regional Environmental Health Offices shall play the leading roll in supporting environmental sanitation. There is also a generic organisation chart intended as a guide for assemblies on how to set up their own structures in order to carry out their five distinct functions with respect to environmental sanitation: Waste management, Public health management, Environmental monitoring, Provision of works related to environmental sanitation facilities (new), and Planning, monitoring and public relations. Changes in the definitions of components of environmental sanitation between the two policies can be found by comparing Appendix C and D. INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES IN THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR Historical development In the late 1920’s the public water supplies in Ghana began to develop through a pilot pipe‐borne water system in Cape Coast, managed by the Hydraulic Division of the Public Works Department (PWD). After Ghana’s independence, the Water Supply Division of the PWD, responsible for service provision in rural and urban areas, was separated and brought under the Ministry of Works and Housing (Appendix E). After a sever water shortage during the dry season in 1959, a study that was sponsored by the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended the preparation of a twenty‐year Master Plan for water supply and sewerage services in the country. Out of this recommendation, the Water Supply Division was turned into a legal public utility, the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), established in 1965. The GWSC was responsible for water supply and sewerage 14
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 in rural and urban areas, and in charge of conducting related research as well as developing engineering surveys and plans. Hence, all aspects of water management were centralized under one authority (Drechsel & Van Rooijen, 2008). During the 1970’s and 1980’s the government’s ability to invest in the sector was severely constrained, and the GWSC did not manage to deliver reliable services to its customers or to expand the system to those uncovered. During the 1990’s a number of organizational reforms were initiated, and encouraged by the World Bank the Government of Ghana embarked on a program to segregate responsibilities for urban water, sewerage and rural water. By a Local Government Act the responsibility for urban sanitation was shifted from GWSC to the District Assemblies (DAs) in 199313. In the following year, the Community Water and Sanitation Division (CWSD) was founded in order to pay more attention to water supply and sanitation in rural communities and small towns. In 1998, the division became independent from the corporation and changed name to Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA). In 1999, GWSC was replaced by Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), responsible for urban water supply only. Due to the urban focus of the GWCL, more than 110 small town water systems were transferred to DAs. At the same time, the responsibility for rural water supply and sanitation was also decentralized to the DAs. National level The Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH) focus on overall water resources management and drinking water supply. The MWRWH is the principal water sector ministry responsible for overall policy formulation, planning, coordination, collaboration, monitoring and evaluation of programmes for water supply and sanitation. The Water Directorate of MWRWH occupies a central role in the coordination of the water and water‐related sanitation sector for policy harmonisation, sector‐wide monitoring and evaluation of GPRS14 outcomes and the MDG targets. The Directorate is also responsible for the coordination of foreign assistance. The key agencies of MWRWH carrying out the ministry’s water resources management and drinking water programmes are WRC, CWSA and GWCL. A schematic overview of the institutional setup of the water and sanitation sector is presented in Figure 4. •
The Water Resources Commission (WRC) was established in 1996 to harmonize water resources management and related issues concerning all consumptive and non‐consumptive uses of water in the country. For example it grants licences to users for the abstraction of water and keep data of the country’s water resources. The executive functions in the water management field are organised according to river basins rather than administrative boundaries.15 • The Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) was launched in 199416 to address the problems of water and sanitation in rural communities and small towns. The CWSA is coordinating and facilitating the implementation of the National Community Water and Sanitation Programmes (NCWSP) in the District Assemblies. 13
Formation of District Assemblies took place in 1988. The Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS II) for the period 2006‐2009 follows the initial Ghana Poverty and Reduction Strategy (GPRS I) launched in 2003. 15
K. Frempah‐Yeboah, personal communication. 16
Between 1994‐1998 CWSA was part of the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC) as the Community Water and Sanitation Division (CWSD). 14
15
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 •
Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) is 100% state owned and responsible for water supply to Ghana’s urban residents. This responsibility includes rehabilitation and expansion of water supply schemes as well as the operation and maintenance of such schemes. o The functions in the operation and maintenance field have been sub‐contracted to a private operator, Aqua Vitens Rand Ltd. (AVRL) under a five year contract that commenced in June 2006. AVRL is a non‐profit company, and AVRL’s ten expatriate staff are paid from a World Bank grant, and not from revenues generated from customers. Sanitation
Rural
water
Urban
water
Small
towns
Water
Resources
External Support agencies
MLGRDE
MWRWH
Sanitation directorate
Water Directorate
National
level
PURC
GWCL
CWSA Head Office
WRC
AVRL
CWSA-RWST
MMDA
GWCL/AVRL regional offices
Regional
level
GWCL
District
level
DWST
WATSAN
National Environmental
Sanitation Policy
National Community Water
and Sanitation
Programme
WSDB
National Water Policy
Community
level
Figure 4. Institutional diagram of the water & sanitation sector. Modified from an idea by Marieke Adank, IRC. Outside the field of responsibility of the MWRWH there are ministries and independent organisations working with different aspects of water supply and sanitation activities. The Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment (MLGRDE)17 is in charge of urban sanitation and responsible for the implementation of the Environmental Sanitation Policy (ESP). This responsibility includes management and regulation of solid and liquid wastes by local government bodies, i.e. the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs).18 In 2002, the Environmental and Health Unit was turned into the Environmental Health and Sanitation Directorate. 17
The Environmental and Health Unit moved from Ministry of Health to MLGRD in 1995. The domination and power of the District Assembly depends on the settlements population or the degree of urbanization. Metropolitan Assemblies have more than 1,000,000 inhabitants; Municipal Assemblies more than 400,000 inhabitants or a high degree of urbanization (H. Esseku, personal communication) 18
16
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 •
•
The District Assembly (DA) is the highest administrative authority for local government in Ghana. DAs are responsible for the planning, implementation, operation and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities, and the legal owners of communal infrastructures in rural communities and small towns. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)19 established in 1994, is responsible for regulating the environment and ensuring the implementation of Government policies on the environment.20 The EPA is responsible for environmental protection in a number of fields, among others the protection of water resources, which includes the regulation of activities within river basins and the setting of effluent standards. In the sanitary field there are also other ministries involved at the national level in addition to the MWRWH and MLGRDE; Ministry of Education, Science and Sports conduct hygiene education, and Ministry of Health, which handles health data, contributes to policymaking, setting standards, and hygiene education through Ghana Health Service. Besides the ministries and government bodies mentioned above, the following institutions are of particular importance and interest: • The Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) established in 1997, is an independent regulatory organisation which among its responsibilities regulates the standard of services in the water supply field. These responsibilities cover standards of water quality provided by the GWCL, as well as the level and design of tariffs to be charged for the supply of drinking water in the country. The aim of PURC as a regulatory body is to balance the interests and needs of the service providers versus the needs of the customers. • The Ghana Standards Board is responsible for developing and setting quality standards drinking water including certification and other related uses. • The Town and Country Planning supports DAs in physical planning and provides layouts of towns that give land‐use and directs development of services like roads, drainage networks, electricity and water supply distribution lines. This is to guide DAs to regulate grants of permits for various classes of buildings (housing, industrial, commercial, institutional) and control development.21 • The Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning administers all public investment in water including negotiating for grants and loans. • The Water Resources Information Services institutions, i.e. the Hydrological Services Department, the Ghana Meteorological Agency and the Water Research Institute under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, provide data and other water resources related information and services to support planning and decision making. In addition to institutions mentioned above, four other sector ministries deal with sector‐related water. Under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) focuses mainly on water conservation and irrigation. GIDA is responsible for the development 19
Ministry of Environment and Science, and thus the EPA, moved to MLGRD which changed name to MLGRDE. EPA at a glance. Compiled by P. Acquah, Executive Director Jan 2000. Source: EPA Accra Office, Nov 2008. 21
Some state that this is an ineffective support since the TCP are not in charge of any budget and have no mandate, therefore their plans are sometimes rather a wish list than a realistic plan. 20
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CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 of the country’s water resources for irrigated farming, livestock watering and supports fish culture in irrigation ponds and dams. GIDA dams also serve as sources of water for domestic supplies in many rural communities. The Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for fisheries and fish culture, the Ministry of Harbours and Railways for water transport and navigation, the Ministry of Energy for water‐for‐
energy and regulating provision of hydro‐power including its distribution. Regional and district level As previously mentioned, GWCL is the asset holder and planner of the urban water systems and AVRL is in charge of day to day operation, collection, billing, and maintenance. The operational activities of the GWCL/AVRL – the Operator is basically organised at regional level, with each regional office responsible for a varying number of urban water schemes. The GWCL currently operates 81 large pipe‐borne systems serving urban centres.22 Under the new management contract with the Operator there are plans to turn each regional office into separate business units. Operators of large supply systems report directly to the Operation Manager at the Regional Offices. Operators of smaller supply systems, bore holes and treatment plants report to the District Manager who in turn report to the regional office.23 Besides regional and district offices, AVRL also run local revenue collection offices where the customers can pay their monthly bills. Local government is responsible for environmental sanitation. At regional level the MLGRDE has the Regional Coordinating Council (RCC) that provides support in this field through monitoring and evaluation, but also by capacity building efforts in areas like planning and technical development. However, the operational responsibilities in the sector are found at the district authority level. According to the National Environmental Sanitation Policy, waste management24 shall be carried out by the Waste Management Department within the assemblies (MLGRDE, 2007). They may provide the services either directly or indirectly through private contractors or franchisees. All other environmental sanitation tasks (e.g. environmental sanitation education and inspection and enforcement of sanitary regulations) shall be carried out by the Environmental Health and Management Department with private sector inputs where appropriate. In Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies, these two departments are separate entities, whereas in a District Assembly they are combined into one unit. In some urban areas a Sanitation Audit – an assessment of the environmental conditions has been performed to identify key areas of concern. This have been performed in GAR but not in Accra itself.25 For small town and rural water supply and sanitation26, the CWSA Head Office is responsible for the overall programme management. However, it is the CWSA Regional Offices that have the overall 22
According to the census the statistical definition of an urban centre in Ghana is any settlement with a population of 5000 or more persons. However, the definition of an urban water system is not necessarily the same since it also depends on other factors, such as institutional capacity (Esseku, personal communication). 23
M. Botse‐Baido, personal communication. 24
Waste management, in this case, refers to collection and sanitary disposal of wastes, including solid wastes, liquid wastes and excreta.
25
T. Adomako‐Adjei, personal communication 26
A rural community has a population less then 5,000 people, whereas a small town is a community that is not rural but a small urban community, with population between 2,000 to 30,000 that has been mandated by the relevant authority to manage its own water and sanitation system (MWRWH, 2007) 18
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 responsibility for programme implementation and monitoring. The CWSA do not have offices at district level so they liaise with the District Water and Sanitation Teams (DWSTs) at the DAs who are the actual implementers of the NCWSP in rural communities and small‐town areas. REGIONAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION Ghana is divided into ten administrative regions. Each region is headed by a Regional Minister who is the direct representative of the government. The Regional Minister is assisted by the Regional Coordinating Council, which formulate integrated district plans and programmes within the framework of approved national development policies and priorities, and co‐ordinate and monitor activities of the district assemblies. The Greater Accra Region is the smallest in terms of area (Figure 5), occupying a total land surface of 3,245 square kilometres or 1.4% of the total land area of Ghana. In terms of population, however, it is the second most populated region, after the Ashanti Region, with a population of 2,905,726 in the year 2000, accounting for 15.4% of Ghana’s total population. Under the regional administrations are district administrations. In 2007, new districts and municipalities were created by the former President, J.A. Kufuor.27 The assemblies were inaugurated at their various locations simultaneously on 29 February 2008, and since then Ghana’s ten administrative regions are subdivided into 169 distinctive metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies (MMDA). The Greater Accra Region is now divided into ten districts: Accra Metropolis, Adenta Municipal (new), Ashaiman Municipal (new), Dangme East, Dangme West, Ga East Municipal, Ga West28, Ledzekuku‐Krowor Municipal (new), Tema Metropolitan and Weija Municipal (new). Adenta and Ashaiman both used to belong to Tema. Adenta is a municipal assembly due to its high degree of urbanization, Ashaiman on the other hand is a municipal assembly due to its large population, which is among the largest in Ghana.29 Tema District used to consist of six zones with their respective Zonal Councils. One of these, Kpeshie Gonno, has now been elevated to the status of a district, i.e. Adenta Municipal. Each district is under control of a Chief Executive representing the central government but deriving his/her authority from an assembly. The District Assembly is the highest political and administrative authority in the district, and it is headed by a Presiding Member elected by the members themselves. Two‐thirds of assembly members are elected through local elections, while the remaining one‐third is appointed by the Government. In Adenta Municipal Assembly (AdMA), there are six assembly members, of which four are elected and two are appointed.30 Today the 19 member zonal council and the assembly administration exist side by side, but there are plans to turn the four electoral areas in AdMA to Zonal Councils.31 In AdMA, the local government structure also include 6 unit committees with the main function to mobilize the communities to 27
On this occasion, the President created 27 new Districts and 4 Municipalities, and upgraded 26 existing Districts and 2 existing Municipalities. 28
As a result of the 2000 Census, an additional district was created in GAR by splitting the Ga District into Ga West (with Amasaman as capital) and Ga East (with Abokobi as capital). 29
H. Esseku, personal communication. 30
The electoral areas now belonging to AdMA used to be part of TMA which had 84 electoral areas. 31
L. Baeka, personal communication. 19
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 participate in decision making processes. However, these committees are not functioning due to lack of support for their activities and the voluntary nature of the unit committee (AdMA, 2008). Figure 5. An overview of the ten regions in Ghana, and the former six districts in the Greater Accra Region. To date it has not been possible to get a map of the new districts in GAR since the borders have not been finalised. There are 63 employees in the core units of the Assembly, and the main affiliation of the staff is presented in Table 5. Those in charge of implementing decisions concerning sanitation are the Waste Management Department (WMD) and the Environmental Health and Sanitation Department (EHSD). The 3 employees in WMD are the head of the department, and head/staff of the Liquid Waste Unit and the Solid Waste Unit.32 Staff at EHSD are divided into four units that each work with one of the four electoral areas in the municipality. These units will further be divided into three teams that will cover different aspects of environmental sanitation, such as i) environmental and health promotion, ii) food and water hygiene, and iii) environmental protection and standards enforcements.33 Table 5. Core units in AdMA and their number of employees as of August 2008.34 Core units Central Administration Environmental Health, Sanitation Waste Management Planning Budget Internal Audit Finance and Revenue City Guards and Task Force Works Transport Total No. employees
8 11 3 2 1 1 13 11 8 5 63 32
N.‐N. Adumuah, personal communication. As outlined in the generic organisational charts in the national Environmental Sanitation Policy. 34
Modified from Norström et al., 2008. 33
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CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 In practice, planning for sanitation solutions is usually done for either an existing issue or an anticipated problem. Sanitation planning starts when issues are identified during scheduled monitoring programmes or through complaints by residents either at his/her residence or at Residential Association meetings (Norström et al., 2008). Major decisions on sanitation, e.g. construction of drains or provision of refuse containers, are mostly initiated by the EHSD or WMD. The unit presents the issue for approval in the form of a memo or a technical report to the Municipal Chief Executive through the Municipal Coordinating Director. If the report is approved, it can be implemented by the unit. This approach cuts across all units in the Assembly. The focal department for solid waste management is the WMD. The planned areas have their waste collected by contractors who provide house‐to‐house service for a monthly fee. Poor households who cannot afford the fee are provided with a skip container by the Assembly. When it comes to solutions for liquid waste, this is generally between the residents and the service providers. The Assembly only comes in when an individual or an institution is about to construct a building in which case the Planning Unit ensures that there is provision of septic tanks since the municipality lacks a central sewage system (ibid). WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION It is almost not possible to say what the actual level of piped water supply coverage is in Accra. When comparing different sources there is a large discrepancy in how these indicators are measured, by whom and where (Appendix F). In Figure 6, water supply coverage in the Accra Metropolitan Area according to the 2000 census, and coverage in Greater Accra Region according to the last MICS in 2006 are presented. Unfortunately MICS‐surveys are not presented on a district level but only by regions, which makes comparing quite difficult. Another aspect is that the fractions have changed with the introduction of improved and unimproved sources. Yet another aspect is availability. Lundéhn (2008) states an example from her studies showing that only 9% of her questionnaire participants in Accra have access to water all the time, and 59% do not have access to the amount of water that they need for daily domestic activities, as compared to a WaterAid report from 2005 which states that 25% of the population in Accra has 24‐hours supply. There are no statistics available specifically for Adenta Municipal Area. AMA Water Supply Coverage (GSS, 2002)
Greater Accra Region Water
Supply Coverage (MICS, 2006)
Piped into dwelling
Piped into dwelling
Piped outside
Piped outside
Tanker supply
Tanker supply
Shared improved
Other (boreholes,
rivers, etc.)
Sachet and bottled
water
Shared unimproved
Figure 6. Reported water supply coverage in Accra Metropolitan Assembly and Greater Accra Region. 21
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Centralised distribution The ATMA (Accra‐Tema Metropolitan Area) region is supplied with water from two sources: Densu River and Volta River. The water supply and distribution is managed by GWCL through two water works (Weija and Kpong) and three regional offices: Accra West, Accra East and Tema. The regions are further divided into districts, however, neither the regions nor the districts are the same as the administrative borders. Thus, part of Adentan municipal area make up a large part of the Accra North East District in the Accra East Region (Figure 7). Figure 7. ATMA regional and district boundaries for GWCL/AVRL. Weija The Weija reservoir was created in 1977 on the Densu River. The Weija water works include three plants (Bamang, Candy and Adam Clark) which are all located on a hill (83 m asl) northwest of central Accra. Water is supplied by gravity, hence Weija can only serve low‐pressure areas west and northwest of Accra. Kpong The Kpong reservoir was formed after the closure of the Volta dam in 1981. Kpong Water Works is situated close to Akosombo, about 75 km northeast of Accra, and it consists of two plants. The new plant serves the ATMA region while the old is used for rural areas. Due to the long distance a lot of energy is consumed for pumping the water to Tema, where a number of water‐consuming industries are located, and then further on to Accra. 22
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Distribution systems The ATMA distribution system can be divided into five distinct areas (Figure 8). First, the Accra distribution system is divided into three pressure zones: • The low pressure zone (L.P.Z) covers areas with ground elevation generally between 0 and 30.5 m, and is controlled by the water levels in the Weija works storage facilities to the west, in the Accra Terminal reservoir to the North and in the Mile 4 reservoir in the centre. • The medium pressure zone (M.P.Z) covers areas with ground elevation generally between 30.5 and 61 m, and is controlled by the M.P.Z reservoir. • The high pressure zone (H.P.Z) covers areas with ground elevations generally above 61 m, and is controlled by the H.P.Z reservoir. Figure 8. Pressure zones in ATMA. Extracted from Sahl & Westerblom (2008). The Tema distribution system has only one pressure zone that is supplied from the Tema Terminal reservoir by a main pipeline directly connected to the distribution network. And finally, the Central Area of ATMA is an area located between Accra and Tema which is supplied from both the Accra network, by means of the L.P.Z, M.P.Z and the Accra pressure main pipeline, and from the Tema reservoir via the Teshie‐Nungua pipeline. The treated water from Kpong is delivered by a high lift pumping station through a 54 km long pipeline to Tema Reservoir (Appendix G). The reservoir supplies, directly by gravity, consumers at Tema/Ashaiman Townships and feeds as well the Tema Booster Station. The station transmits the water through a 22.6 km long pipeline to Accra Terminal reservoir. This reservoir supplies by gravity most areas in the Eastern parts of Accra, and also feeds the Okponglo Booster Station. The station has two different sets of pumps of which one supplies the H.P.Z via the Legon University service reservoir. The other is aimed to supply the M.P.Z but is currently not in use due to lack of water (Sahl & Westerblom, 2008). 23
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 The average water supply in ATMA is about 0.31 million m3 per day from Weija and New Kpong Treatment Plants, about half from each. In contrast, demand is over 0.57 million m3 per day35. One major problem is the unaccounted‐for water, which in the ATMA water supply system is an estimated 50% of the water supplied to the network. This indicator covers physical loss leakage (30%), non‐revenue water (50%) and commercial loss (20%) such as illegal connections, too low billing due to fixed pricing, meter error and bypassing. (GWCL Corporate Plan 2003‐2005). Among other things, AVRL has established Loss Control Teams to educate the public and reduce illegal water‐related activities. In February 2008 the Accra East Region of AVRL‐GWCL caused the arrest of ten illegal connection syndicates in the Adenta community. They had constructed huge underground reservoirs which served as a source of water for private water tanker operators. The tanker operators buy water from these illegal sources and sell it to private individuals at Ashaley Botwe at high prices.36 According to Figure 8, Adenta Municipal area is outside the defined pressure zones, consequently it is not covered in the ATMA supply scheme except for a few exceptions. Water from the Legon University service reservoir is used to supply customers in Adenta East, State Housing Complex (SHC), Panton and SSNIT Flats. Within these areas, the total customer connections are 3,484 out of which 1,952 (56%) are active.37 Water is supplied once or twice per week and customers are billed monthly. The water charge for domestic use is 0.66 GH¢/m3 for 1‐20 m3, thereafter 0.91 GH¢/m3, and for commercial use the charge is 1.0 GH¢/m3.3839 If the bill is not paid within one month the customer is disconnected and have to pay a fee for reconnection. Another aspect of this centralized system is that the GWCL definition of ATMA does not even include the Northern parts of AdMA and TMA, they are instead part of the Dodowa District. In Dodowa there is a borehole with an installed capacity of 1,680 m3/day, however, only Amrahia is supplied with water from this source.40 In Northern Tema District there is the Oyibi Water Area Scheme, which is a small system started with funding from DANIDA. It extracts water from boreholes in two villages (Kpone Seduase and Old Saasabi). 7000 people are served, including Malejor and Valley View University in Adentan. Water is sometimes rationed in the dry season. The cost is 1.65 GH¢/m3 or 0.03 GH¢ per bucket.41 Water Tanker Service According to the JMP‐definition delivery of water by tanker service is not considered an improved drinking water source. However, this is a very common source of water for many people in Accra and Adenta alike. To date, services from tankers and vendors are still often more reliable in some of the areas served by the GWCL mains. Therefore buying water from tankers are not only for poor people but rather for all who can afford it. The cost for tanker water is around 5‐10 GH¢/m3, this amount is not set by any tariff but rather dependant on factors such as location, season and type of truck.42 35
www.avrl‐ghana.com (accessed November 12, 2008) http://avrl‐ghana.com/pages/posts/the‐dodowa‐intervention19.php?p=5 (online February 15, 2009) 37
B. Bilabia, personal communication. 38
J. Ayolgo, personal communication. 39
1 GH¢ (Ghana Cedi) ≈ 0.6 Euro ≈ 6.8 SEK (February 18, 2009) 40
M. Botse‐Baido, personal communication. 41
Staff at Oyibi Area Water Scheme, personal communication 42
D. Van Rooijen, personal communication. 36
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CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Tankers are also used as an extended arm of the distribution network. One way for GWCL/AVRL to tackle the supply deficit has been to install large polytanks in areas where the network supply does not work. People in the neighbourhood can than buy water here at a flat rate comparable to the price for piped water. PURC undertook a survey in 2002/03 which revealed that 60% of poor people receive their water from tanker and cart operators and vendors including neighbour sellers. It is therefore developing guidelines and mechanisms for the provision of quality service to the urban poor through tankers. Currently the urban un‐served are buying water at high prices from tankers, carts and even vendors. Regulating this section of the economy would make it easier for prices to be set at reasonable rates at the final delivery point. Sachet water/Bottled water Small‐scale private water providers, play an important role in fulfilling the critical water needs of a high proportion of the urban population, especially the urban poor. The water in the sachet should come from legal sources and therefore have the same standard as the treated drinking water that is distributed to the pipe system. However, this is not always the case and the sachets might be produces at uncontrolled sources. In the GWCL/AVRL North East District there are 17 people from GWCL that work with production of sachet water.43 One bag of 500 ml of water cost 0.05 GH¢44, which is about 200 times the cost of drinking piped water in your house. 1.5 L of regular bottled water cost about the same as 1 m3 of piped water.45 SANITATION Wastewater and liquid waste As with the water supply coverage, it is difficult to give actual figures and for the Adentan area it is not even possible. Therefore, as an introduction the variety of sanitation facilities in the Greater Accra region during the time of the census is presented (Figure 9) and then the discussion takes off from there. In the region, 32% of the population uses a flush toilets. However, the numbers of WCs out of service might be significant. As pointed out earlier, the use of public toilets is common although here there is no distinction between different types of shared/public toilets. In AMA, there is only around 158 public toilets built by the local authority and a few privately built toilets (van der Geest & Obirih‑Opareh, 2006). According to Mr Sarkodie, the present trend is that future public toilets will be built with flush toilets.46 The public toilets cost 0.06‐0.2 GH¢ to use.47 43
J. Ayolgo, personal communication. 1 GH¢ (Ghana Cedi) ≈ 0.6 Euro ≈ 6.8 SEK (February 18, 2009) 45
At MaxMart 1.5 L of BonAqua (local, bottled by the CocaCola Company) cost 0.55 GH¢, AquaSplash (local) 0.7 GH¢, Evian (France) 3.95 GH¢ and Volvic Strawberry taste (France) 6.70 GH¢. 46
Y.A. Sarkodie, Water and Sanitation Monitoring Platform (personal communication with Daan Van Rooijen). 47
D. Van Rooijen, personal communication. 44
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CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Greater Accra Region sanitation
facilities (GSS, 2005)
Water closet at home
Facility in another
house
KVIP
Bucket/Pan
Public toilet
Pit latrine
No facility
Figure 9. Distribution of sanitation facilities in Greater Accra Region. The sewage network in Accra only expands over 15% of the municipal area, and it has seen very little expansion since its construction in the early 1970’s (Van Rooijen & Drechsel, 2008). Approximately 5% of the wastewater generated in the city is collected in the sewage system, however, it ends up directly in the ocean since the existing treatment plants are not in operation. In Ghana, there are 44 wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), out of which 22 are located in the Greater Accra Region (9 activated sludge, 6 trickling filter, 7 waste stabilisation ponds)48. Six of the WWTPs are functional, however, only one (TMA Community 3) treat wastewater from a residential area (Table 6). The higher income area usually have septic tanks installed as an onsite treatment facility. The liquid waste from septic storage tanks, together with the waste from the central sewage system, is collected at three treatment plants that are not functioning properly. These are found at Achimota,Teshie and Korle Gonno. The liquid waste is also transported by tanker trucks to Lavendel Hill, a place by the ocean and dumped there. In the fringe areas, such as Adenta, none of the houses are attached to a main sewerage system and the facilities available vary widely between the settlements. It is estimated that almost half of the houses in the newly developing areas have flush toilets that empty into septic tanks in the gardens. A significant part of the population is still dependent on pit and pan latrines. Liquid waste collected from Adenta should be discharged at a septic treatment plant which is located on the road to Tema. Disposal of liquid waste is a problem, and in AdMA there are plans to purchase a piece of land within the municipality to construct their own septic waste treatment plant.49 Another problem with the existing septic tanks is ground water pollution. For example, Mr Mba pointed out that the common retention time in the tanks is dimensioned for one family usage. This is usually enough although at special occasions, like when there is a death in the family, many other family members arrive at the house of the diseased and stay for several weeks. Hence, the capacity of the tank is greatly overused leading to minimal sedimentation and treatment in the tank before discharge into drains or into the ground. Other plans in AdMA for 2009 include providing a communal septic to tank to four communities that are without any facilities today. A questionnaire will be used to assess which communities are ready for this, since it will include a connection charge to provide money for operation and maintenance of the tank. 48
49
EPA 2001. Extract from monitoring report on status of sewage treatment plants. E. Mba, personal communication 26
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 F P F F F F N ? P N N N N N P P N N N N F N 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 Other Company Hospital Hotel AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS TF TF TF TF TF TF WSP WSP WSP WSP WSP WSP WSP School 37 Military Hospital Accra High School Accra Waste Project Golden Tulip Hotel La Palm Beach Hotel Labadi Beach Hotel Presbyterian Boys Secondary School Roman Ridge Trade Fair Company Ltd Accra Mental Hospital Achimota Secondary School Burma Camp Teshie Nungua Estate University of Ghana (Botanical Gardens)
University of Ghana (Lower Hill) Achimota AMA Korle Lagoon AMA Legon Staff Village Pantang Hospital Teshie Nungua AMA TMA (Community 3) TMA (New Town Paradise Beach) Total Status Plant type Table 6. Wastewater treatment facilities in Ghana. 50 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Plant Type: AS‐activated sludge, TF‐trickling filter, WSP‐waste stabilisation ponds. Status: ?‐unknown, N‐non functional, F‐functional. Solid waste Solid waste collection is based on either house to house collection (high and middle income residential areas) or communal central containers (high density low income residential areas). Privatisation became part of the Ghanaian official policy in 1995, and both systems can be run either by the public sector of private operators. However, a study about the solid waste collection in AMA, showed the house to house systems by private operators managed to recover 95% of fees due, whereas public systems only recovered 30‐40% (Post, 2003). In the house to house system, residents are obliged to register with the WMD or the accredited contractor and required to pay a user charge. Poor households who cannot afford the fee are provided with a skip container by the Assembly. In Adenta, collection is performed by the private company Zoomlion, and the solid waste is disposed of in a landfill located in Ga East district. 50
EPA 2001. Extract from monitoring report on status of sewage treatment plants. 27
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 In many areas, Zoomlion Ghana Limited is appointed by the MLGRDE through the DAs to provide the services of collection and haulage of solid and liquid wastes, sweeping and cleaning of street, and drains. They work according to the rules and regulations of the Assembly, that is, the frequency of collection of waste from houses and fees paid by clients.51 Zoomlion was responsible for this part of the Tema District and stayed on as the waste contractor when the new district was created. However, when the new administration came into office they discovered that there were no legal documents in place. Therefore a request for proposals is prepared to make the arrangement legal, but for the moment it is awaiting clarification about the local administration due the recent presidential election in Ghana. The new president took office in January, and since Chief Executives are appointed by the president some changes are expected. However, until this appointment is cleared some decisions are put on hold. In Adentan, solid waste contains both residential and commercial waste since they are strongly interlinked in the society. The composition of the waste is not known, therefore the waste characteristics in AMA in presented in Table 7 as reference. During 2009, a pilot project will start in the SSNIT‐flats (79 blocks, approximately 16 families/block) with source separation of plastic, paper and metal. The ambition is that this will turn into a permanent solution and spread to other places as well. Today there are several communal containers in the area but the goal of Mr Mba, the waste management officer in AdMA, is that with time they will all be removed and replaced by the house to house system. Table 7. Waste Characteristics in AMA52 Waste fraction % by weight Organic 65.0 Paper 6.0 Plastic 3.5 Glass 3.0 Metals 2.5 Textiles 1.7 Inert materials 17.1 Others 1.2 Total 100.0 Density 0.47 ton/m3 Moisture content 40% 51
N. Armah, Zoomlion (personal communication with Eric Obeng) In AMA, total solid waste generation is about 2000 tons daily, and the total average solid waste collection about 1500 tons daily (Kpodo, 2007) 52
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CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 LARGER SCALE PROJECTS IN THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR 1987 ‐ German Technical Co operation Unit (GTZ) Most of the initial KVIPs installed at several city locations as public and private toilets were pre‑financed through a revolving fund set up by the GTZ to support the phasing out of pan latrines. The major push towards conversion from pan latrines to KVIPs began in late 1987 with the establishment of the Urban Sanitation Improvement Team (USIT) in the Waste Management Department. The KVIPs were supposed to be built in areas with porous soil so that the liquid found in the toilet could be absorbed by the soil, leaving the scum to be scooped out for use as manure in gardening and agriculture. Unfortunately however, the soil in Accra is clayish and as a result cannot absorb the liquid from the toilet as expected. The toilet is therefore always wet and needs dislodgement by suction pumps (van der Geest & Obirih‑Opareh, 2006). 1994 ‐ Community Water and Sanitation Project (CWSP) In 2000, the Second Community Water and Sanitation Project (CWSP2) was initiated with support of a World Bank IDA credit of USD 21.9 million, aiming at increasing access and supporting effective and sustained use of improved community water supply and sanitation services in villages and small towns through a demand‐driven approach. It built on lessons learned from the first Community Water and Sanitation Program (1994‐2000). A large‐scale decentralization approach in the planning, implementation, and management of water supply and sanitation in Ghana was one of the main characteristics of the second program. Moreover, the communities were given technical assistance and hygiene education. Gender‐balanced water and sanitation committees were set up to actively engage and include NGOs, private sector actors, and District Assemblies. As a result of the program, which ended in 2004, nearly 800,000 people were provided with potable water and almost 6,000 households and 440 schools were provided with latrines. ATMA is considered urban area, therefore this project has not engaged in much activity in these districts. In total, eight communities in the Tema District has been engaged (Kpone Seduase, Old Saasabi, New Saasabi, Malejor, Oyibi, Awanse Estates, Good Morning Seminary, Mansahbar) out of which only Malejor is in Adentan Municipal Area.53 Technologies provided by NCWSP are listed in Appendix H. 1994 ‐ Accra Sustainable Programme (ASP) The Sustainable Cities Programme is a joint UN‐HABITAT/UNEP facility established in the early 1990s to build capacities in urban environmental planning and management. The first phase concluded in 2001, and the current second phase runs from 2002 ‐ 2007. In 1994, the Government of Ghana and UNCHS/UNEP Sustainable Cities Programme signed a project document for the execution of the ASP. The key implementing agencies are MLGRD and AMA. A technical support unit is located within the Town and Country Planning Department. Accra has experienced several efforts that have sought to integrate environmental issues with urban development. The Accra Structure Plan process, initiated in 1988 and terminated several years later, included a review of environmental conditions in the city. In 1991, urban environmental data were 53
C. Engmann, personal communication 29
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 collected and an environmental profile of the city was prepared with assistance from the Urban Management Program (UMP). That same year, urban environmental consultations and a town meeting were held with assistance from Canadian donors and the UMP. To identify and prioritise urban environmental issues, a one‐week long City Consultation was held in Accra in May 1995. The objectives of the consultation were to: a) review and elaborate on the city's most pressing environmental issues, as identified in an environmental profile; b) bring together major stakeholders to jointly agree on a participatory planning process; c) identify two priority issues for action plan development; and d) agree on an appropriate institutional structure for the ASP. Prior to the consultation, a series of individual meetings were held to build commitment and the environmental profile was distributed to form the basis of discussion. Over 150 stakeholders participated in the consultation, coming from central government, metropolitan government, traditional authorities, Parliament, the private sector, NGOs, CBOs, international agencies, and academic/research institutes. During the five‐day consultation, two priority issues were discussed (degradation of the Korle Lagoon and inadequate sanitation), an appropriate institutional framework was devised for the ASP, and consensus was summarised in an "Accra Declaration." Strategy development and action planning was proceeding through the formation of six working groups. These were: • Collection and transportation of solid waste • Disposal and recycling of solid waste • Liquid waste management and drainage • Public education and awareness creation on sanitation issues • Pollution and degradation of the Korle Lagoon • Resource development of the Korle Lagoon 1996 ‐ Urban Environmental Sanitation Project The first UESP ran 1996‐2003. In 2004, The World Bank Board approved a credit of US$62 million to implement the second phase of a project which aims at improving urban living conditions in the five largest cities of Ghana: Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi‐Takoradi, Tamale, and Tema. The UESP II is co‐funded by the World Bank, Nordic Development Fund and Agence Française de Développement. The project development objective is to improve urban living conditions in regard to environmental health, sanitation, drainage, vehicular access, and solid waste management in a sustainable fashion, with special emphasis on the poor. There are five project components. 1) Storm drainage: Reduce the frequency, severity and duration of flooding in low‐lying areas. 2) Provision of sanitation services: Increasing the accessibility for low and middle‐income residents and school children to adequate latrines by providing household, public, and school latrines, and rehabilitating sewers as part of a liquid waste management plan. 3) Increase the amount of refuse collected and disposed of in an environmentally sustainable manner by the construction of sanitary landfills, supply of equipment for their operation and the completion of the sanitary landfill, improved use of the refuse dumps, rehabilitation of discontinued refuse dumps, and scaling up of private solid waste collection. 4) Increase vehicular access and reduce flooding, erosion, and dust in low‐income communities by upgrading community infrastructure. 5) build capacity and enable central and local government agencies to more effectively fulfill their mandate regarding the project objectives, especially the Waste Management Departments; and address malaria vector control & HIV/AIDS prevention. 30
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 1999 ‐ Water for African Cities (WAC) The second phase of the Water for African Cities Programme (WAC II) in Accra, is a follow up to the first phase (WAC I) undertaken from 1999‐2002. The first phase in Ghana focused on three key areas, introducing effective urban water management strategies, protecting freshwater resource from the impact of urbanization, enhancing regional capacity for urban water management. The objective of the second phase (2006‐2009) is to support the implementation of integrated water and sanitation interventions in Sabong Zongo, a low income area in Accra in order to increase access to water and sanitation facilities and services and manage wastes (liquid, excreta, garbage).54 2000 ‐ Korle Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project The Korle Lagoon is the major basin into which the greater proportion of the flood waters of Accra flow before entering the sea. The lagoon receives water from a total catchment area of 400 km2. It receives discharges from three main sources: the Odaw River and two major drains on its eastern and western sections (Figure 10). The Government of Ghana, having realized the adverse impacts of pollution in the lagoon on the physical and economic environment of Accra thought to implementing measures to restore the lagoon to its natural ecology. This 66.9 million project was being funded by the Ghana government, Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa and OPEC Fund for International Development. Figure 10. Map of the Korle Lagoon, Accra, and its environs (Source: Survey Department of Ghana, Accra). Extracted from Boadi & Kuitunen (2002). 54
www.unchs.org accessed 080330 31
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 The project, expected to be completed within three‐and‐half years, consisted of dredging of about 1.5 million m3 of silted material from the lagoon, channel improvement of Odaw river and South Kaneshie drain terminal sections, solid waste disposal and landscaping of the periphery of the lagoon. It would also cover the construction of dry weather diversion channels around the lagoon, pumping stations, a preliminary treatment plant and a new pipe sea out‐fall of 1.5 kilometres. There was also set up a committee to recommend the best way to re‐settle those living at Old Fadama (Sodom and Gomorrah), since it was believed that over 25,000 squatters were, illegally, occupying the project site expecting to be resettled elsewhere. Attempts were also being made to get the communities in the catchment area to become involved in managing their environment through environmental education and awareness programes. The outcome of this project is not clear. Facts are that Sodom and Gomorrah is still there, the treatment plant is not working and the Lagoon is still a dump for liquid waste. 2004 ‐ Urban Water Project The Urban Water Project which developed by the Government of Ghana and the World Bank, states that ”along with energy, roads, telecommunications and sanitation, a reliable and affordable source of clean water is an essential component of the basic infrastructure package needed for robust economic activity and also necessary to ensure a healthy and vibrant population” (World Bank, 2004). In August 2004, the World Bank approved a US$103 million loan, which later turned into a grant, for Ghana’s urban water system. The Nordic Development Fund contributes US$5 million, while the Government of Ghana provides the remaining US$12 million of the US$120 million project. The main objectives of the program, which will end in 2010, are to (i) significantly increase access to water supply systems in the urban areas of Ghana with an emphasis on improving the service for the urban poor; and (ii) restoring the long‐term financial stability, viability, and sustainability of the GWCL. It provides technical assistance and training. Moreover, the Urban Water Project supports private sector participation and thus contributed to the management contract between GWCL and AVRL (World Bank, 2004). The first component of the project ‐‐ Network Expansion and Rehabilitation – will focus on increasing the amount of bulk water for distribution in Ghana’s urban centers and in extending water supply services to low income areas. The physical works, to be carried out by Ghana Water Company Limited will cost $91.8 million, being 73% of the total project cost.55 2004 ‐ Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Project The Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Project was approved by the World Bank in 2004 with a loan of US$26 million. In 2007 the World Bank decided to support the project with an additional credit of US$10 million. The German development agency GTZ contributes to the project with US$400,000, while the Government of Ghana provides US$4.6 million. The project will end in 2009 and aims at increasing water supply and sanitation access to small towns in six Ghanaian regions, providing about 500,000 people with water supply facilities and about 50,000 people with sanitary facilities. 55
http://go.worldbank.org/J6VNOLXTN0 32
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 The project has the following three components: 1) will provide resources for water and sanitation services in four types of contexts: (a) small towns subprojects planned but not implemented; (b) new small town systems; (c) rehabilitation of small towns systems; and (d) institutional and household sanitation facilities and hygiene promotion activities in small towns. 2) will support training and technical assistance for major stakeholders to improve their capacity to fulfill their sector roles. 3) will provide Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) with a management fee equal to five percent of the funds disbursed under the project (component l), supporting the incremental costs incurred by the Agency to implement the project.56 2006 ‐ Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP) The African Development Bank (ADB) contributes to the ASIP with a loan of US$69 million, while the Government of Ghana provides US$8.6 million. The project was approved by the ADB in 2006 and is expected to be implemented within five years. In this time, two treatment plants and eight pumping stations are expected to be built. Moreover, sewerage networks and sanitation facilities will be extended and rehabilitated. The project also supports environmental measures, institutional strengthening, engineering services, and project management (ADF, 2005). In order to address the deterioration of environmental and health conditions in the city, the Government, through grant resource from the ADF, prepared a Feasibility Study (1996) and a Detailed Design Study (2004). The studies culminated in an improvement project for off‐site and on‐
site sanitation facilities for a 30 year planning horizon. Thereafter, the Government requested the ADF to finance the implementation of the proposed project. The project has been prepared based on a participatory approach through extensive consultations with all stakeholders, including relevant Government agencies, NGOs, the private sector, opinion leaders, assembly women/men, traditional chiefs, school representatives, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), donors and media representatives. Three consultative seminars were held in May 2003, December 2003 and September 2004. Consultations focused, among others, on the selection and design of sanitation and sewerage systems, environmental management plan and socio‐economic considerations. The outcomes of the consultations with stakeholders were integrated in the project. Assessment of the existing sewerage systems during the Feasibility Study indicated that in order to reduce the operation and maintenance costs and to optimize the use of the area topography, it was necessary to reduce the number of treatment plants by providing collective treatment facilities. The project is therefore based on the concept of reducing the number of sewage treatment plants, with the establishment of combined treatment facilities, each serving one catchment area. Accra has been divided into four areas for sewage treatment. These are the central area (served by the existing AWP), eastern area (Burma Camp), western area (Densu Delta) and northern area (Legon). The waste stabilization ponds technology is selected for sewage treatment and the proposed Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) will be provided in the open spaces at Densu Delta and Legon. 56 http://go.worldbank.org/HT2AKV0Z80 33
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 In low income areas, the concept is to phase out the pan latrine. However, the phasing out process will take some time to be achieved. Underground reception tanks in conjunction with public toilets will be provided to to allow residents to safely dispose of pan latrine waste. The public toilets are of Aqua privy toilet (APT) type provided at vantage locations and in sufficient numbers to reduce emptier journey times and costs. In the middle and high income areas, individual and/or public sanitation facilities would be adopted. Public toilets of Water Closet (WC) type will be provided while KVIP will be provided by individual households. The waterborne central sewerage network is the long term policy objective and it shall be rehabilitated and extended to new areas where it is the most economically viable alternative or where other forms of sanitation are not appropriate/applicable, this being the only sure means of preventing pollution of surface water bodies by both sewage and sullage. The existing sewerage network is under‐utilized in the current circumstance because of low number of house connections, which is presently 800 connections. 2006 ‐ EU‐funded research: SWITCH57
SWITCH is IHE‐based research programme aimed at solving the challenge of water management in the city of the future. They project include 10 demonstration cities in the world. In Accra there has been two learning alliance meetings to date.58
Other ongoing and coming projects The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) supports the water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana's northern regions through three projects: 59 • CIDA contributes US$11 million to the gender‐balanced District Capacity Building Project, which aims at strengthening local capacities to manage water and sanitation resources, thus enabling local government bodies to provide water supply and sanitation services. DISCAP began in 2000 and will end in 2008. • The agency provides US$16.4 million for the Northern Region Water Sanitation Project, which began in 1999 and is expected to end in 2009. The main objective of the gender‐
balanced project is to increase access to water and sanitation through a demand‐driven approach. At the end of the project, up to 250,000 communities in the eastern corridor section of the northern region are expected to have access to safe drinking water, including 420 which independently manage their new water systems. • The Northern Region Small Towns project, which is being implemented from 2004 to 2014, is supported by CIDA with US$30 million. The project is expected to establish water supply and sanitation services in up to 30 small towns. With support from the German, Danish and Dutch governments, DFID Ghana is helping to provide access to water and sanitation for 200,000 people through a UKPound 7.5 million grant. This initiative will include water supply for eight small towns and for 115 communities in the Greater Accra regions, and for a number of communities affected by Guinea worm. 57
http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/ B. Darteh, personal communication. 59
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ghana#External_cooperation 58
34
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Danida has supported water supply and sanitation in Ghana since 1993, and water resources management since 1997. Phase I of Sector Programme Support (SPS) to water supply and sanitation began in 1998. It ended in December 2003 after a one‐year extension. According to the corporate brochure of CWSA, there are two ongoing projects supported by the Government and External Support Agencies in the community water and sanitation sub‐sector in the Greater Accra Region. These are: • DANIDA: District based water and sanitation component of the water and sanitation sector programme support phase II (WSSPS2) for 43 districts in Eastern, Volta, Central and Greater Accra regions for the construction of 1,255 point sources, 20 piped schemes and 20,000 latrines at DKK 271.7 million: 2004‐2009. • DANIDA/DFID/GoG: 3‐districts water supply scheme to serve 108 communities in the Dangme East and Dangme West60 in the Greater Accra region and North Tongu in the Volta region at a cost of USD 9 million: 2002‐2008. Three Donors are presently considering future projects in Ghana: Danida, EU and the World Bank. The new aspect of these new projects is that the DAs will be in the driving seat responsible for planning, implementation and monitoring so that the projects are truly anchored at the district level.61 The Danida funded project has progressed the most and will only cover key districts in Ghana, however these are not decided yet. The targeted districts for a project are often decided in a dialogue between CWSA Head Office and the donor. The Water Directorate of the MWRWH and sometimes also the RCC are involved in the process. NCWSP selection of beneficiary communities When funding has been sourced from a donor for a region to provide a number and types of water and sanitation facilities, there is a defined procedure for how the selection is made (CWSA, 2007). In short, the communities are informed about the available option to join the programme. They have to apply to the DA for a facility of their choice and show evidence of their ability to pay 5% capital contribution. They also have to form structures for O&M such as Water and Sanitation Committees (WATSAN) in rural communities and Water and Sanitation Development Boards (WSDB) in small towns. The DA evaluates the applications, and then shortlist the communities using established general criteria agreed upon by all parties. The final selection of communities will be made at a general meeting of the assembly during which community representatives (Assemblymen) are present. The final selection is based on the following: • Choice of a service based on willingness to pay and acceptance of responsibility to manage, operate and maintain the system • Show effective demand in terms of willingness to contribute to capital cost backed by evidence of financial strength (bank statement) • Payment of half (2.5%) of capital cost contribution before drilling • Commitment to make land available and transfer ownership to community. 60
The problem in these district, as in AdMA, is that the ground water is saline in many places and therefore not suitable for drinking water. 61
C. Engmann, personal communication 35
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 REFERENCES ADF (2005) Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP). Appraisal Report. African Development Fund. AdMA (2008) Strategic Plan for Adentan Municipal Assembly draft 2008. Boadi K.O. & Kuitunen M. (2004) Urban Waste Pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana. The Environmentalist. 22(4): 301‐309. CWSA (2007) Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) Corporate Brochure. Drechsel P. & Van Rooijen D. (2008) Water privatization in Ghana. In: NEPAD Business & Investment Guide 4: 108‐111. GSS (2002) Population and Housing census 2000. Summary report of final results water quality and consumer location in the distribution system. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra, Ghana. GSS (2004) Demographic and Health Survey 2003. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra, Ghana. GSS (2005) Analysis of district data and implications for planning Greater Accra Region. Based on 2000 population and housing census. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra, Ghana. Gough K.V. (1999) The changing role of urban governance in Accra, Ghana. Third World Planning Review 21(4): 397‐414. Gough K.V & Yankson P.W.K. (2000) Land Market in African Cities: the Case of Peri‐Urban Accra, Ghana. Urban Studies 37(13): 2485‐2500. Kpodo S.K. (2007) Sanitation delivery in Accra: the current situation and future plans for waste management (both liquid and solid waste). Presentation by Kpodo Principal Environmental Health Technologist, Waste Management Department, Accra Metropolitan Assembly, at the Urban Water and Sanitation Stakeholders Forum organized by SWITCH in Accra. 14‐15 March 2007. Larbi W.O. (1996) Spatial Planning and urban fragmentation in Accra. Third World Planning Review 18(2): 193‐214. Lundéhn C. (2008) Consumer trust in drinking water supply – assessing the interface between the supplier and the consumer. Licentiate Thesis. Water Environment Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden. MICS (2006) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2006. Ghana Statistical Service, Ministry of Health, UNICEF, Ghana and Macro International. MLGRDE (2007) Environmental Sanitation Policy. Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment, Government of Ghana. Final Draft May 2007. MWRWH (2007) National Water Policy. Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing, Government of Ghana. Norström A., Owusu E.S. & D. Van Rooijen (2008) Sanitation challenges for a new Municipal Assembly in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Presented at the IRC symposium: Sanitation for the urban poor: Partnerships and governance. Delft, The Netherlands, November 19‐21. (Results based on an unpublished report from an interview study performed in August 2008 by Eric Obeng). Post J., Broekema J. & Obirih‐Opareh N. (2003) Trial and error in privatisation: experiences in urban solid waste collection in Accra (Ghana) and Hyderabad (India). Urban Studies 40(4):835‐852. Sahl M. & Westerblom J. (2008) A proposal for improving the water supply in South Teshie, Ghana. Master of Science Thesis. KTH Architecture and the Built Environment. KTH, Stockholm, Sweden. UNFPA (2007) State of the World Population 2007 – Online report: United Nations Population Fund. http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2007/english/notes/print/indicator_notes.html [accessed 2007‐07‐05] 36
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 van der Geest S. & Obirih Opareh N. (2006) Getting out of the shit : toilets and the daily failure of governance in Ghana 1. Le bulletin de l'APAD, n° 23‐24, La gouvernance au quotidien en Afrique . Online: Dec 15, 2006 http://apad.revues.org/document150.html [accessed 2009‐02‐18] Van Rooijen D. & Drechsel P. (2008) Exploring implications of urban growth scenarios and investments for water supply, sanitation, wastewater generation and use in Accra, Ghana. Presented at the 33rd WEDC International conference in Accra, Ghana. 7‐11 April. WHO/UNICEF (2008a) Progress on drinking water and sanitation: special focus on sanitation. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP). UNICEF, New York and WHO, Geneva. WHO/UNICEF (2008b) Coverage Estimates: Improved Sanitation. Ghana updated in July 2008. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP). UNICEF, New York and WHO, Geneva. World Bank (2004) Project appraisal document for a second urban environmental sanitation project. Yankson W.K., Kofie R.Y. & Moller‐Jenson L. (2004) Monitoring urban growth: urbanisation of the fringe areas of Accra. Working Paper. Personal Communication Mr. Abukari Abudulai, Senior Staff Surveyor, Survey Department, Cartography and GIS Section, Head Office. November 18, 2008. Mrs. Marieke Adank, Project Officer, IRC's West Africa Regional Programme Team. Mrs. Theodora Adomako‐Adjei, Extension Services Co‐ordinator, CWSA Head Office. February 9, 2009. Mr. Nii‐Noi Adumuah, Municipal Chief Executive, AdMA. November 11, 2008. Mr. James Anafo Ayolgo, District Manager, AVRL North East District, November 12, 2008. Mr. Nii Armah, Research and Development Director, Zoomlion Ghana Ltd. August 2008, through Eric Obeng. Mr. Isaac Asamoah, Junior Officer, EPA Accra Office, November 18, 2008. Mrs. Lilian Baeka, Planning Officer, AdMA. February 6, 2009. Mr. Beakanang Kwame Bilabia, Commission Officer, AVRL North East District, November 12, 2008. Mr. Michael Botse‐Baido, Planning Engineer, GWCL Head Office. November 13, 2008. Mrs. Bertha Darteh, Accra City Facilitator, SWITCH Project. Mr. Thomas Donkor, Engineer, Environmental Health and Sanitation Directorate, MLGRDE. November 13, 2008. Mrs. Charlotte A. Engmann, Water and Sanitation Systems Co‐ordinator, CWSA Head Office. February 9, 2009. Mr. Harold Esseku, Consultant working at CWSA. November 14, 2008. Mr. Kwame Frempah‐Yeboah, Rural Water & Sanitation Sector Co‐ordinator, Water Directorate, MWRWH. November 13, 2008. Mr. Edward Mba, Waste Management Officer, AdMA. February 6, 2009. Mr. Yaw Asante Sarkodie, Team Leader, Water and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Platform (WSMP, Ghana). February 13, 2009, through Daan Van Rooijen. Mr. Daan Van Rooijen, PhD‐student, IWMI Accra Office. 37
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 APPENDICES Appendix A. Former Tema district and preliminary boundaries of Adenta Municipal. Figure 1. Tema District. Source: Survey Department, Cartography and GIS Section Head Office, Accra (Nov, 2008) 38
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Figure 2. Preliminary boundaries of Adenta Municipal in Tema Metropolitan Context. Source: AdMA Planning Unit (Feb, 2009) 39
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix B. River basins in Accra, Ga and Tema districts. Source: CD Accra Starter Kit, Urban Water Management. Version 2 (2008). IWMI, Accra, Ghana. 40
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix C. Extract from Environmental Sanitation Policy 1999. Annex 2.
Outline Specifications for Environmental Sanitation Services (Parts deleted in ESP 2007 draft are highlighted in yellow) Solid Waste Management
Solid wastes comprise all solid waste material generated by households, institutions, commercial establishments and industries, and discharged from their premises for collection; all litter and clandestine piles of such wastes; street sweepings, drain cleanings, construction/demolition waste, dead animals and other waste materials. Hazardous wastes comprise those wastes that are toxic, flammable, corrosive, radioactive, explosive or otherwise dangerous as defined by the EPA. They also include motor oil, diesel fuel, gasoline (petrol), paint, solvents, dry cell and vehicle batteries, pesticides, infectious or medical wastes from hospitals and clinics, metallic and/or oily sludges or solvents, and asbestos materials. Primary responsibility for solid waste management rests with the Assembly. However, in general, the private sector shall be invited to provide the actual services under contract or franchise, as appropriate. In the case of franchise, the franchisee may propose services above the minimum specified standard, as long as the users’ willingness and ability to pay can be relied upon. The franchisee may also propose tariffs and subsidy levels, subject to final approval by the Assembly. Storage and Collection Services The District Assembly shall require all premises to have primary storage facilities (dustbins) which shall meet the approval of the District Assembly with regard to size, material and capacity. The District Assembly shall, in consultation with each community, prescribe the minimum standard of collection service (including the sorting of refuse if applicable) taking into account household incomes, housing pattern, and the infrastructure in the service area. The collection service shall be rendered on the basis of cost recovery. In deprived areas where ability to pay may be low, service charges may be related to the recovery of operation and maintenance costs only. Communal Storage Sites In communities where house‐to‐house collection is not appropriate, the Assembly shall designate communal storage sites where solid waste can be discharged into a fixed or moveable container. These sites shall be formally acquired and suitably developed for the purpose. Civil works at the sites shall be such as to contain the wastes dumped and maintain the sanitary condition of the surrounding area. The containers should be readily accessible to those dumping wastes, including children. 41
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Transportation and Transfer Stations The collection and removal of wastes from individual premises and communal storage sites shall be effected at frequencies sufficient to prevent undue accumulation and decomposition of wastes. In general, wastes shall be collected at least twice a week. To this end the District Assembly shall arrange for a transportation system with appropriate equipment and planned vehicular movement in the service areas. For sustained and cost‐effective service delivery the use of intermediate transfer stations may be considered where haulage distances are uneconomical. Waste Treatment and Disposal Site Acquisition Sites for treatment and disposal of wastes (landfills, composting facilities, waste stabilisation ponds, trickling filters, septage treatment plants, etc.) shall be located so as not to create safety and health hazards or aesthetic problems in the surrounding area. In order to ensure adequate provision of such sites, all District Assemblies shall be required to: (a) Produce medium and long term plans for the provision of treatment and disposal sites, including the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessments; (b) Acquire sufficient land and secure title with payment of due compensation for the land for immediate and future use and protect such acquisitions by proper demarcation, fencing, etc.; (c) Ensure that the sites are managed so as to satisfy approved environmental protection standards. Sites should be acquired by lease or purchase, with agreement on rehabilitation measures to be taken when the site is full. Due attention must be paid to the feelings of local residents (in addition to chiefs and landowners) when acquiring sites. Relevant legislation on the acquisition of land for treatment and disposal sites shall be reviewed and legislative and administrative provisions established to facilitate site valuation, negotiation and payment of compensation by District Assemblies. Technology The recommended technologies for solid waste disposal are: (a) Sanitary Landfill: This is internationally recognised as one of the most cost‐effective methods of solid waste disposal and is recommended for use by Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies. (b) Controlled Dumping with Cover: This represents the most basic method of solid waste disposal to meet minimum requirements, and is recommended for all other District Assemblies. (c) Incineration: This shall be considered as a treatment option only for clinical and other hazardous or noxious wastes (eg. dead animals). Only simple, easily maintained incinerators shall be used. Incineration may be carried out with or without energy recovery; however, the technology used must be consistent with sustainable operation under the prevailing conditions. Adequate control of emissions shall be provided. (d) Composting: This shall be practised at both municipal and domestic levels where possible, but large‐scale capital‐intensive composting plant with high operation and maintenance costs shall not be employed. Composting shall be carried out using simple methods and on a decentralised basis, as near as possible to the point of waste generation. It shall only be carried out if it 42
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 results in net savings to the Assembly in terms of reduced transport and landfill requirements and possible revenue (estimated with due regard to the limited market for compost). (e) Recycling: This shall be encouraged for all items such as plastics, bottles, paper, metals, glass etc. as inputs for production. Hazardous and Clinical (Hospital) Waste All health institutions shall establish an institutional waste management system for the primary storage of wastes. They shall be required, where possible, to pretreat clinical waste (eg. by autoclaving) prior to storage. Domestic type waste shall be stored separately from clinical wastes (infectious or hazardous hospital wastes). Similar procedures shall be followed by other generators of hazardous wastes. Separate collection of hazardous and clinical wastes shall be provided by all District Assemblies or by other arrangements approved by the Assembly. Transportation of such wastes shall be in closed no‐
compaction vehicles which shall be cleaned and/or disinfected at the end of every collection day. The wastes shall be incinerated and/or buried in designated sections of landfills or other approved waste disposal sites, in accordance with MLGRD guidelines. Liquid Waste Management
District Assemblies shall ensure the availability of facilities for the safe handling and disposal of human excreta (nightsoil and sewage), industrial waste, animal manure, industrial sewage and domestic/commercial wastewaters. These include excreta disposal facilities and systems for the conveyance (sewerage, vehicular, manual), treatment and final disposal of liquid wastes. The District Assemblies shall have authority to regulate, control, and co‐ordinate the activities of all agencies involved in liquid waste management services. MLGRD shall issue technical guidelines from time to time specifying which technologies may be used, including design parameters and recommended operating procedures. Excreta Disposal Facilities Recommended technologies are the water closet (WC), the pour flush latrine (where water is used for anal cleansing), the ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP), the aqua privy, the chemical toilet (for emergency or temporary usage) and any other proven technologies recommended by MLGRD. Bucket (pan) and open trench latrines are actively discouraged and must be phased out as they do not meet minimum sanitary standards. District Assemblies shall regulate technologies for domestic toilets by legislation and application of the building code. Assemblies shall arrange for the provision of public facilities in central business districts, major commercial and light industrial areas, local markets and public transport terminals (lorry/bus stations). Public (communal) facilities shall also be provided in low income, 43
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 high‐density neighbourhoods where domestic toilets are not provided in individual residential premises. However, District Assemblies shall promote the construction and use of household toilets, including the conversion of pan latrines to one of the approved types. District Assemblies shall transfer management and maintenance of all public toilets to the private sector, either by franchising existing facilities or granting concessions for the construction and operation of new ones. The Assemblies shall establish minimum design and operational standards and monitor their implementation. Sewerage, Drainage and Septage Removal District Assemblies shall ensure the hygienic transfer of liquid wastes from the point of generation to the point of treatment and disposal. Where appropriate, they shall provide and maintain sewerage and stormwater drainage systems. Desludging of septic tanks and VIPs shall be regulated by the Assemblies, but in general carried out by the private sector. Sewerage Systems The sewering of entire urban areas shall not generally be considered as a liquid waste management option in view of its high cost. However, small scale sewerage systems may be provided for high density areas where other options are not technically feasible, institutions (schools, colleges etc.), and small estate developments. The simplified sewerage concept may be applied to such limited scale developments. The use of combined sewers (carrying both sanitary sewerage and storm water) shall not be permitted for both economic and sanitary reasons. Stormwater Drainage (moved to its own headline) In order to limit sanitary nuisances, vector breeding and the physical hazards of flooding, District Assemblies shall ensure that communities are provided with adequate and consistently functioning drainage works in accordance with nationally defined design standards issued by MLGRD. The Assemblies shall ensure, through appropriate bye‐laws and control mechanisms, that faecal and solid wastes are not discharged into stormwater drainage systems. Septage Removal The hygienic desludging of septic tanks and VIP latrines is an essential service. However, experience shows that this is one area where services are impossible to sustain when provided by the public sector, due to the way revenues are used and the lack of any system for making provision for the purchase of new equipment. New equipment should therefore be purchased by or on behalf of an Assembly only if it can be clearly shown that there is no private sector interest in providing the service, or if no backup or competition for a private service exists. In order to ensure adequate hygienic standards, equipment and protective clothing for staff should be inspected regularly. Staff should also be adequately trained and provided with vaccinations and regular medical check‐ups. These matters should be regulated and enforced by the Assembly’s Environmental Health and Management Department. Assemblies may establish licensing systems, to facilitate enforcement. 44
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Treatment and Disposal Systems On‐Site Systems Acceptable technologies include VIP latrines and septic tanks with soakaways or subsurface drainfields. District Assemblies, however, shall decide on the acceptability and extent of use of VIP latrines in urban areas. For both the technologies mentioned, sludge must be periodically removed. This should be done by tanker service in the case of septic tanks and single pit VIPs. Alternating pit VIP latrines should only be used where it can be guaranteed that the user population will allow sufficient time for sludge digestion prior to manual removal. Off‐Site Systems Waste stabilisation ponds are the recommended technology for the treatment of liquid wastes, where the volume of nightsoil and/or septage collected and conveyed per day is above 50 cubic metres. Where the daily volumes hauled are less than 50 cubic metres, other methods such as ponding and co‐composting with municipal solid waste may be considered. Where there is no reasonable alternative, marine disposal of sewage shall be permitted, provided primary treatment to an acceptable standard is provided. “Conventional” sewage treatment technologies (eg. trickling filters, activated sludge, etc.) shall only be used where there are limitations on the use of waste stabilisation ponds. District Assemblies shall only adopt such systems if they can meet their high capital, operation and maintenance costs and skilled manpower requirements. Industrial Wastes
Industrial wastes of significant importance include wastes from sawmills, food processing factories (canneries, etc.), breweries, metal works, etc. These wastes may be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Solid Wastes The disposal of solid wastes specific to an industry shall be carried out in compliance with the standards and procedures prescribed by the EPA and any other relevant regulatory agencies. The industrial houses shall undertake or arrange for the conveyance of their wastes to an approved disposal site. Liquid Wastes Liquid industrial effluents shall be pre‐treated by the industry to prescribed standards before discharge into the environment, ie. land, public drains, sewers, water courses and other receiving water bodies. 45
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Gaseous Wastes Gaseous emissions from industrial activities and processes which may have adverse effects on the environment shall be treated to the prescribed standards specified by the relevant regulatory agencies. Toxic, Radioactive and Other Special Wastes All generators of toxic, radioactive and other special wastes shall be required to comply with the standards prescribed by the relevant regulatory agencies for storage, collection, transportation and final disposal. Public Cleansing
District Assemblies shall ensure the provision of public cleansing services to maintain a clean environment within the District, covering all facilities used by the general public, eg. lorry parks, markets, public gardens, streets, public beaches, drains, river banks etc. In general, public cleansing shall be carried out by the same agency responsible for solid waste collection in a given area. The heavy human traffic and commercial activities at markets and transport terminals (lorry and car parks) generate large quantities of solid and liquid wastes, thus exposing the public to health hazards and inconveniences. District Assemblies shall give priority to the maintenance of a clean and pleasant environment at these public places. Whilst retaining overall responsibility for cleanliness at these places, the Assembly (or designated contractor or franchisee) shall discuss cleaning activities with the main interested parties (market associations, GPRTU etc.) and, if possible, levy direct charges for recovering costs. Vector and Pest Control
Control of Insect Infestation District Assemblies shall make arrangements, both directly and through the private sector, for the effective and continuous control of insect vectors and pests, especially mosquitoes and flies. This shall include the provision of infrastructure and services (eg. drainage, waste management etc.), public education and action campaigns, and the application of chemicals or other control measures to critical sites. Control of Rodents The District Assemblies’ primary concern shall be given to the control of rats and mice in the markets where they threaten food storage and property. The Assemblies shall allow private participation in this and other pest control services and make bye‐laws for the registration and control of private pest control operators. 46
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Food Hygiene
Prepared Foods District Assemblies shall run programmes to control the sale of prepared foods, including the specification of utensils and display containers. Effective mechanisms for monitoring and enforcing standards shall be put in place, and appropriate bye‐laws shall be enacted to support the programmes. Eating and Drinking Establishments The District Assembly shall register all eating establishments and food premises and specify the standards to be observed. Effective mechanisms for inspection, monitoring and the enforcement of standards shall be put in place, and appropriate bye‐laws enacted to support them. Slaughtering Facilities District Assemblies shall ensure that all communities that need slaughtering facilities have access to them, either as public or private facilities. These are to be registered and regularly inspected by the District Assembly. The District Assembly shall undertake regular inspection of meat and fish. Provision Markets District Assemblies shall ensure the availability of suitable and hygienic market facilities. The private sector shall be encouraged to build and manage such facilities. Provision for the handling, display and preservation of meat, fish and other perishable foods shall be such as to prevent contamination and decomposition. District Assemblies shall make bye‐laws allowing for the development of markets by the private sector and providing for their control. Environmental Sanitation Education
Environmental sanitation education should be seen as an integral element of all environmental sanitation activities. Whilst it is not in itself sufficient to ensure improvements in environmental sanitation, neither is the provision of sanitary infrastructure and services unless they are properly used. Environmental sanitation education is similarly complementary to regulation, which is ineffective unless coupled with explanation and persuasion. There is an unfortunate tradition in Ghana of hygiene and environmental sanitation education as a didactic one‐way process in which the target group is considered as part of the problem rather than part of the solution. Improved approaches based on problem‐solving and active participation by the target groups must be developed and implemented. National Level Programmes MLGRD shall conduct environmental sanitation education programmes at the national level, with the co‐operation of other relevant agencies, using both the mass media and local structures. It shall also 47
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 co‐ordinate training, materials development and research to support both local and national programmes. Local Level Programmes District Assemblies shall carry out environmental sanitation education programmes within their districts, directly related to the introduction or improvement of environmental sanitation services, or to specifically targeted issues. These programmes shall be co‐ordinated with those of other Government agencies, NGOs, churches, social groups, etc. Community based organisations shall also be involved as an aid to achieving coverage in all communities. Sanitary Inspection and Law Enforcement
Given the prevailing high level of illiteracy and low level of public awareness of acceptable hygienic practices, sanitary inspection and the enforcement of sanitary regulations are necessary to the maintenance of a hygienic environment. Sanitary inspection and law enforcement programmes shall be operated in all communities by the District Assemblies. These shall be backed up by education and information campaigns, and technical assistance to help with building design, latrine construction, etc. Inspection of Premises The Environmental Health and Management Department of the District Assembly shall inspect the plans of all new buildings to ensure that they conform to sanitary regulations, and approve issue of the Certificate of Habitation when the buildings are completed. All premises (residential, commercial, institutional and industrial) shall be periodically inspected, with the frequencies of inspection determined to ensure that the provisions of the relevant laws and the building code are observed by occupants. Public Open Spaces All undeveloped lands within the Assembly’s boundary, as well as public parks, gardens, beaches, recreational areas, etc. shall be inspected periodically. The District Assembly shall ensure that environmental health hazards thus identified are neutralised as soon as possible. Enforcement of Sanitary Legislation All District Assemblies shall enact appropriate sanitary legislation and bye‐laws to facilitate the inspection programmes and empower the relevant officers to perform their functions effectively. Disposal of the Dead
District Assemblies shall regulate the burial and cremation of the dead and the provision of all facilities and services related to the handling, transportation and preservation of the dead. There shall be national and local legislation empowering District Assemblies to perform the said functions. 48
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Burial Legislation All District Assemblies shall make adequate and appropriate arrangements for the registration of deaths and the control of burials and cremations as specified in the Registration of Births and Deaths Act. 1965 (Act 301) and any relevant legislation subsequently enacted. Cemeteries District Assemblies shall ensure that all communities have approved cemeteries as well as making provision for the approval of private burial grounds. Standard specifications for the siting of cemeteries and works for the protection, drainage, and beautification of the cemeteries and provision of access roads shall be issued by MLGRD. Appropriate national legislation shall be enacted to facilitate the acquisition of lands for public cemeteries. Crematoria The provision of crematoria by the District Assemblies shall not be mandatory. However, the Assembly shall be responsible for regulating the provision and operation of such facilities in accordance with the national legislation in force. Private organisations shall be allowed to provide and operate crematoria. Private Mortuaries and Funeral Homes The provision and operation of private mortuaries shall be allowed subject to the provisions of relevant legislation enacted by national Government. Control of Rearing and Straying of Animals
District Assemblies shall make and enforce regulations to control the rearing and straying of animals, so as to protect humans from the health hazards and sanitary nuisances arising therefrom. Rearing of Animals The applicable regulations shall prohibit the rearing of specified animals in designated areas of a community or limit the number of animals to be allowed. Control of Straying Animals There shall be appropriate legislation or bye‐laws to control the straying of animals with adequate penalties for offences. Control of Dogs and Other Pets District Assemblies shall make and enforce bye‐laws to control the keeping of dogs and other pets. Existing legislation shall be reviewed and strengthened. 49
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix D. Extract from Environmental Sanitation Policy draft 2007. Annex 3:
Definitions of Components of Environmental Sanitation
(Parts added from ESP 1999 are highlighted in green) Solid Waste Management
Solid wastes comprise all solid waste material generated by households, institutions (including health‐care waste from hospitals and clinics), commercial establishments and industries, and discharged from their premises for collection; all litter and clandestine piles of such wastes; street sweepings, drain cleanings, construction/demolition waste, dead animals and other waste materials. Hazardous wastes comprise those wastes that are toxic, flammable, corrosive, radioactive, explosive or otherwise dangerous as defined by the EPA. They also include motor oil, diesel fuel, gasoline (petrol), paint, solvents, dry cell and vehicle batteries, pesticides, infectious or medical wastes from hospitals and clinics, metallic and/or oily sludges or solvents, and asbestos materials. Primary responsibility for solid waste management rests with the Assembly. However, in general, the private sector shall be invited to provide the actual services under contract or franchise, as appropriate. In the case of franchise, the franchisee may propose services above the minimum specified standard, as long as the users’ willingness and ability to pay can be relied upon. The franchisee may also propose tariffs and subsidy levels, subject to final approval by the Assembly. Waste Treatment and Disposal Site Acquisition Sites for treatment and disposal of wastes (landfills, composting facilities, waste stabilisation ponds, trickling filters, septage treatment plants, etc.) shall be located so as not to create safety and health hazards or aesthetic problems in the surrounding area. In order to ensure adequate provision of such sites, all District Assemblies shall be required to: (a) Produce medium and long term plans for the provision of treatment and disposal sites, including the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessments; (b) Acquire sufficient land and secure title with payment of due compensation for the land for immediate and future use and protect such acquisitions by proper demarcation, fencing, etc.; (c) Ensure that the sites are managed so as to satisfy approved environmental protection standards. Relevant legislation on the acquisition of land for treatment and disposal sites shall be reviewed and legislative and administrative provisions established to facilitate site valuation, negotiation and payment of compensation by District Assemblies. 50
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Liquid Waste Management
District Assemblies shall ensure the availability of facilities for the safe handling and disposal of human excreta (nightsoil and sewage), industrial waste, animal manure, industrial sewage and domestic/commercial wastewaters. These include excreta disposal facilities and systems for the conveyance (sewerage, vehicular, manual), treatment and final disposal of liquid wastes. The District Assemblies shall have authority to regulate, control, and co‐ordinate the activities of all agencies involved in liquid waste management services. MLGRDE shall issue technical guidelines from time to time specifying which technologies may be used, including design parameters and recommended operating procedures. Excreta Disposal Facilities Recommended technologies are the water closet and septic tank system, the pour flush latrine (where water is used for anal cleansing), the ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP), the aqua privy, and any other proven technologies recommended by MLGRDE. Bucket (pan) and open trench latrines are actively discouraged and must be phased out as they do not meet minimum sanitary standards. District Assemblies shall regulate technologies for domestic toilets by legislation and application of the building code. Assemblies shall arrange for the provision of public facilities in central business districts, major commercial and light industrial areas, local markets and public transport terminals (lorry/bus stations). District Assemblies shall promote the construction and use of household toilets, including the conversion of pan latrines to approved types. District Assemblies shall transfer management and maintenance of all public toilets to the private sector, either by franchising existing facilities or granting concessions for the construction and operation of new ones. Sewerage and Septage Removal District Assemblies shall ensure the hygienic transfer of liquid wastes from the point of generation to the point of treatment and disposal. Where appropriate, they shall provide and maintain sewerage and stormwater drainage systems. Desludging of septic tanks and VIPs shall be regulated by the Assemblies, but in general carried out by the private sector. Sewerage Systems Small scale sewerage systems may be provided for high density areas where other on‐site options are not technically feasible, institutions (schools, colleges etc.), and small estate developments. Simplified and small‐bore sewerage systems will be adopted to cater for other areas including low‐
income high‐density housing areas. Septage Removal The hygienic desludging of septic tanks and VIP latrines are essential services that require regular availability of machinery and equipment. 51
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 In order to ensure adequate hygienic standards, equipment and protective clothing for staff should be inspected regularly. Staff should also be adequately trained and provided with vaccinations and regular medical check‐ups. These matters should be regulated and enforced by the Assembly’s Health Department. Assemblies may establish licensing systems, to facilitate enforcement. Sullage Conveyance and Disposal In order to limit sanitary nuisances and vector breeding District Assemblies shall ensure that communities and households provide sullage conveyance drains (gutters) and soakage pits to minimise puddles and use of earth ditches. Tertiary drains shall be provided to carry sullage into secondary and primary drains. The Assemblies shall ensure, through appropriate byelaws that communities and occupiers of premises maintain and tidy all drains and gutters abutting their properties. Treatment and Disposal Systems On‐Site Systems Acceptable technologies include VIP latrines and septic tanks with soakaways or subsurface drainfields. District Assemblies, however, shall decide on the acceptability and extent of use of VIP latrines in urban areas. For both the technologies mentioned, sludge must be periodically removed. This should be done by tanker service in the case of septic tanks and single pit VIPs. Where the user population is low to allow sufficient time for sludge digestion prior to manual removal, alternating pit VIP can be used. Off‐Site Systems Waste stabilisation ponds are the recommended technology for the treatment of large volumes of nightsoil and septage. For daily volumes of less than 50 cubic metres, other methods such as ponding and co‐composting with municipal solid waste may be considered. Where there is no reasonable alternative, marine disposal of sewage shall be permitted, provided primary treatment to an acceptable standard is provided. “Conventional” sewage treatment technologies (eg. trickling filters, activated sludge, etc.) shall only be used where there are limitations on the use of waste stabilisation ponds. District Assemblies shall adopt such systems taking due consideration of the capital and replacement costs, operation and maintenance costs and skilled manpower requirements. Stormwater Drainage
In order to limit sanitary nuisances, vector breeding and the physical hazards of flooding, District Assemblies shall ensure that communities are provided with adequate and consistently functioning drainage works in accordance with nationally defined design standards. The Assemblies shall ensure, through appropriate bye‐laws and control mechanisms that faecal and solid wastes are not discharged into stormwater drainage systems. 52
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Industrial Wastes
Industrial wastes of significant importance include wastes from sawmills, food processing factories (canneries, etc.), breweries, metal works, etc. These wastes may be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Solid Wastes The disposal of solid wastes specific to an industry shall be carried out in compliance with the standards and procedures prescribed by the EPA and any other relevant regulatory agencies. The industrial houses shall undertake or arrange for the conveyance of their wastes to an approved disposal site. Liquid Wastes Liquid industrial effluents shall be pre‐treated by industries to prescribed standards before discharge into the environment, ie. land, public drains, sewers, water courses and other receiving water bodies. Gaseous Wastes Gaseous emissions from industrial activities and processes which may have adverse effects on the environment shall be treated to the prescribed standards specified by the relevant regulatory agencies. Toxic, Radioactive and Other Special Wastes All generators of toxic, radioactive and other special wastes shall be required to comply with the standards prescribed by the relevant regulatory agencies for storage, collection, transportation and final disposal. Public Cleansing
District Assemblies shall ensure the provision of public cleansing services to maintain a clean environment within the District, covering all facilities used by the general public, eg. lorry parks, markets, public gardens, streets, public beaches, drains, river banks etc. The heavy human traffic and commercial activities at markets and transport terminals (lorry and car parks) generate large quantities of solid and liquid wastes, thus exposing the public to health hazards and inconveniences. District Assemblies shall give priority to the maintenance of a clean and pleasant environment at these public places. Vector and Pest Control Control of Insect Infestation District Assemblies shall make arrangements, both directly and through the private sector, for the effective and continuous control of insect vectors and pests, especially mosquitoes and flies. This shall include the provision of infrastructure and services (eg. drainage, waste management etc.), public education and action campaigns, and the application of chemicals or other control measures to critical sites. 53
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Control of Rodents The District Assemblies’ primary concern shall be given to the control of rats and mice in the markets where they threaten food storage and property. The Assemblies shall allow private participation in this and other pest control services and make bye‐laws for the registration and control of private pest control operators. Food Hygiene
Prepared Foods District Assemblies shall run programmes to control the sale of prepared foods, including the specification of utensils and display containers. Effective mechanisms for monitoring and enforcing standards shall be put in place, and appropriate bye‐laws shall be enacted to support the programmes. Eating and Drinking Establishments The District Assembly shall register all eating establishments and food premises and specify the standards to be observed. Effective mechanisms for inspection, monitoring and the enforcement of standards shall be put in place, and appropriate bye‐laws enacted to support them. Slaughtering Facilities District Assemblies shall ensure that all communities that need slaughtering facilities have access to them, either as public or private facilities. These are to be registered and regularly inspected by the District Assembly. The District Assembly shall undertake regular inspection of meat and fish. Provision of Markets District Assemblies shall ensure the availability of suitable and hygienic market facilities. The private sector shall be encouraged to build and manage such facilities. Provision for the handling, display and preservation of meat, fish and other perishable foods shall be such as to prevent contamination and decomposition. District Assemblies shall make bye‐laws allowing for the development of markets by the private sector and providing for their control. Environmental Sanitation Education
The provision of sanitary infrastructure alone is not sufficient to ensure improvements in environmental sanitation unless there is sufficient access to the facilities and they are properly used. Environmental sanitation education is therefore an integral element of all activities. Environmental sanitation education is complementary to regulation, which is ineffective unless coupled with explanation and persuasion. Improved approaches of environmental sanitation education based on problem‐solving and active participation by the target groups must be developed and implemented. National Level Programmes MLGRDE shall support environmental sanitation education programmes at the national level, with 54
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 the co‐operation of other relevant agencies, using both the mass media and local structures. It shall also co‐ordinate training, materials development and research to support both local and national programmes. Local Level Programmes District Assemblies shall carry out environmental sanitation education programmes within their districts. These programmes shall be co‐ordinated with those of other Government agencies, NGOs, churches, social groups, etc. Community based organisations shall also be involved as an aid to achieving coverage in all communities. Sanitary Inspection and Law Enforcement
To make progress in behaviour and attitudinal change towards environmental sanitation, education for raising awareness on hygienic practices will go hand in hand with sanitary inspection and enforcement of sanitary regulations. Sanitary inspection and law enforcement programmes shall be applied at all levels of service provision. These shall be backed up by education and information campaigns as well as technical assistance for developing appropriate plans and programmes for enforcement. Inspection of Premises The Health Department of the District Assembly shall inspect the plans of all new buildings to ensure that they conform to sanitary regulations and approve the issuance of the Certificate of Habitation when the buildings are completed. All premises (residential, commercial, institutional and industrial) shall be periodically inspected to ensure that the provisions of the relevant laws and the building code are observed by occupants. Public Open Spaces All undeveloped and vacant lots within the Assembly’s boundary, as well as public parks, gardens, beaches, recreational areas, etc. shall be inspected periodically to ensure the maintenance of hygienic environment and amenities. Enforcement of Sanitary Legislation All District Assemblies shall enact appropriate sanitary legislation and bye‐laws to facilitate inspection and enforcement programmes and empower relevant officers to perform their functions effectively. Disposal of the Dead
District Assemblies shall regulate the burial and cremation of the dead and the provision of all facilities and services related to the handling, transportation and preservation of the dead. There shall be national and local legislation empowering District Assemblies to perform relevant functions. Burial Legislation All District Assemblies shall make adequate and appropriate arrangements for the registration of 55
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 deaths and the control of burials and cremations as specified in the Registration of Births and Deaths Act. 1965 (Act 301) and adhere to all relevant legislations. Cemeteries District Assemblies shall ensure that all communities have approved cemeteries as well as make provision for the approval of private burial grounds. Standard specifications for the siting of cemeteries, works for the protection, drainage, and beautification of these facilities and provision of access roads shall be issued by MLGRDE. Appropriate national legislation shall be enacted to facilitate the acquisition of lands for public cemeteries. Crematoria The provision of crematoria by the District Assemblies shall not be mandatory. However, the Assembly shall be responsible for regulating the provision and operation of such facilities in accordance with the national legislation in force. Private organisations shall be allowed to provide and operate crematoria. Private Mortuaries and Funeral Homes The provision and operation of private mortuaries shall be allowed subject to the provisions of relevant national legislation. Control of Rearing and Straying of Animals District Assemblies shall make and enforce regulations to control the rearing and straying of animals, so as to protect humans from the health hazards and sanitary nuisances arising therefrom. Rearing of Animals The relevant regulations applicable to the rearing of specified animals in designated areas of a community or limiting the number of animals to be allowed shall be enforced. Control of Straying Animals The relevant regulations and bye‐laws applicable to control the straying of animals shall be enforced with adequate penalties for offences. Control of Dogs and Other Pets The relevant regulations and bye‐laws applicable to control and keeping of dogs shall be enforced. Existing legislation shall be reviewed and strengthened when necessary. 56
Rural/small town 57
The CWSD became fully independent. Changed name… WSC was replaced by Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), responsible for only urban water supply Management contract signed with Vitens International (Netherlands) and Rands Water Services (South Africa) AVRL – the Operator 1998 1999 2005 2006 Local Government Act: Decentralisation of responsibilites for urban sanitation to DA … to Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) … was founded as a semi‐
autonomous division of GWSC to manage the National Community Water and Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) Due to the urban focus of GWCL, more than 110 small towns water systems were transferred to DAs, which receive support from the CWSA. In addition, sanitation was separated from water supply and became a responsibility of the DA in urban areas. The responsibility for rural water supply and sanitation was also decentralized to the DA Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC) was established as an independent regulatory organisation In order to pay more attention to WSS in rural communities and small towns a Community Water and Sanitation Division (CWSD) … 1994 1997 Formation of District Assemblies (DA) Rural/small town Urban Sanitation The division is turned into a legal public utility, the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC) responsible for the provision of urban and rural water supply for public, domestic, and industrial purposes, and the establishment, operation, and control of sewerage systems The water supply division was placed under Ministry for Works and Housing, ‐
> Minstry for Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH) Urban Water 1993 1988 1965 1957 CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix E. Development of the institutional structures in the WSS sector in Ghana. CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix F. Development of water and sanitation coverage in Ghana. Development of improved sanitation coverage based on estimated access in urban and rural areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2008b). Development of access to improved drinking water sources based on estimated access in urban and rural areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2008b). 58
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix G. ATMA water supply system. Source: http://www.arch.columbia.edu/Studio/Spring2003/UP/Accra/PDF's%20to%20printer/13%20‐ %20water%20and%20sewers.pdf 59
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Appendix H. Technologies provided by NCWSP Technologies provided by NCWSP for water supply Small communities – point sources (population up to 2000)62 • Hand dug well fitted with hand pund • Spring development • Borehole fitted with hand pump • Mechanised borehole with limited distribution • Rain water harvesting Small towns – piped schemes (population above 2000) • Ground water based piped schemes • Spring of Highland gravity water supply schemes • Surface water with slow sand filtration piped schemes • Surface water with minimal conventional treatment schemes • Other technologies based on ground conditions Prioritised order of source selection • Ground water including spring • Relatively unpolluted surface water • Slightly polluted surface water Techonologies provided by NCWSP for sanitation Rural Communitites • Rectangular single pit VIP (lined and unlined) • Mazambique single pit VIP (lined and unlined) • 1‐2 seater KVIP • Any other improved versions of traditional latrines that may be available Small towns • 1‐2 seater KVIP • 3‐seater variation in shared‐facilites for congested core areas • Pour flush latrines • Ecosan toilet63 • Alternatives that have higher capital and/or O&M costs (e.g. WCs or Pour flush linked to communal septic tanks) shall b considered on case‐by‐case bases for high‐housing density core areas, or areas with difficult terrain e.g. high‐water table • Other techonologies approved by MLGRDE Schools • 4‐10 seater KVIP • All options should have hand‐washing facilities 62
63
There are also examples where water has been piped from afar if the local source is not usable (C. Engmann) Are not commonly used and also they are normally not on display on the Sanimart (T. Adomako‐Adjei) 60
CIT Urban Water Management AB February 2009 Operation and maintenance (O&M) The O&M of completed facilities is supported by the following structures: Point sources • Water and Sanitation Committe (WATSAN) supported by pump caretakers and area mechanics • National spare parts distribution network. Piped schemes • Water and Sanitation Development Boards (WSDBs) through their employed staff • WSDBs through contracts with private operators 61