integrated planning and resource allocation

INTEGRATED PLANNING
AND RESOURCE
ALLOCATION
Introduction
Sound and effective integrated planning and allocation of resources
are critical for the socioeconomic development and economic growth
of any country. Service delivery in terms of expanding, improving
and maintaining infrastructure such as houses, roads, rail networks,
health facilities and other facilities is a national priority and must be
planned and achieved without forfeiting environmental sustainability.
In addition, the effective planning of the components, through effective
management of these components, reduces the possibility of developing
a silo mentality when planning.
The provision of tools at both a district and municipal level would
provide an opportunity for redressing a past and very dysfunctional
and inequitable space economy. It would also offer a guide for
investment decisions to achieve more sustainable human settlements.
Infrastructure and associated operations are not only enablers
of economic growth, but also stimulate growth by increasing the
productive capacity of the economy. Social development, which is
fundamental for any country, can take place only with proper provision
South Africa’s road and rail network
of basic amenities such as hospitals, schools and housing. Likewise,
incorporates some 100 000 bridges,
the provision of infrastructure for electricity supply, waste management,
including rail bridges. The construction
water and sanitation services and improved communication between
of bridges requires a substantial financial
all constituencies is imperative.
investment; the average construction cost
The CSIR conducts relevant research and development to find key
the replacement value of a typical
is currently close on R15 000 per m² −
solutions to facilitate the planning of resourcing service delivery and
100-metre-long, 20-metre-wide bridge
successfully transfers solutions to enable this to take place. Many
is thus in the order of R30 million.
of these technologies are used extensively locally and in a number
of specific instances also internationally. Examples of such science,
engineering and technology (SET) research listed in the publication
include projects on systems to maintain bridges, models for waste
collection, a geo-spatial analysis platform to facilitate planning,
sustaining natural resources and a rural innovation and development
model that guides and supports the establishment of primarily youthowned social enterprise networks that provide ICT access to rural
communities.
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FACT FILE
Bridge construction
costs
R15 000 per m2 is the
average construction
cost of a bridge
R30 million is the
replacement value
of a 100-m-long bridge
The CSIR’s Struman bridge management system
(BMS) provides for structures to be maintained
at acceptable levels of service and defects to be
identified timeously and repaired economically.
CSIR system contributes to
well-maintained bridges
T
o assist with bridge management and maintenance, the CSIR
Western Cape. Some very large bridges are also found on
developed the Struman bridge management system (BMS) in
the proposed Wild Coast section of the N2 in the Eastern Cape.
collaboration with local consulting engineering firm Stewart
The Bloukrans arch bridge near Nature’s Valley in the Western Cape
Scott International in the 1990s. The CSIR Struman system comprises
is the biggest bridge. With a height of 216 m above the Bloukrans
customised and regularly updated software, manuals and training
River, it is the highest single-span arch bridge in the world. The central
programmes for clients, ensuring that qualified engineers who act as
span is 272 m and the length, 451 m. It is believed to host the world’s
bridge inspectors have a consistent approach in rating the condition
highest commercially-operated bungee jump activity.
of bridges.
Locally, the South African National Roads Agency Ltd (SANRAL) has
Bridges are a major infrastructural asset and need to be maintained
implemented the Struman BMS, with all three toll operators using it.
regularly – the CSIR recommends inspections every five years and
The system is used in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, the Western Cape
a maintenance strategy over a five-year period, based on a priority
and the Eastern Cape. The Taiwan Area National Freeway Bureau
list of bridges in need of repair. This approach means structures can
was the first major international client, while Namibia, Botswana and
be maintained at acceptable levels of service and defects identified
Swaziland have also implemented the BMS.
timeously and repaired economically.
The advantages of the Struman BMS for road authorities include that
the system focuses on actual defects rather than trying to determine the
overall condition of all bridge elements and that the system is able to
prioritise bridges in need of repair in order of importance.
Most of South Africa’s bridges are ‘short’, less than 20 m in length,
with the five largest bridges being situated on the Garden Route in the
Paul Nordengen • Tel: 012 841 3945 • E-mail: pnordengen@csir.co.za
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FACT FILE
INTEGRATED PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Availability of
weekly refuge
removal service
to households:
• 90% in major metros
Developing
optimisation models
for municipal residential waste collection
R
• 60% in small to
medium-sized
municipalities
• 20% in rural towns
A total of 2.2 million
households are without
adequate waste
management services.
ecent government initiatives
on research to improve
models to provide decision
municipalities’ existing waste
aimed at improving waste
municipalities’ service delivery
support to local municipalities.
collection and transportation
management service
through transportation scheduling
Similar research conducted in
resources. By providing decision
delivery have included the draft
for the removal of household
Europe and the United States
support to municipalities, critical
White Paper on Integrated
waste. The main objective is
resulted in improved service
skills and capacity are developed
Pollution and Waste Management
to improve the systems and
delivery and significant savings.
to run the service in an efficient
for South Africa, the Action Plan
processes of local government
for General Waste Collection and
to facilitate better utilisation of
the National Waste Management
resources, and in so doing to
Strategy. While these initiatives
reduce unnecessary expenditures
are a step in the right direction,
they fail to address one of the
integral operational areas of
waste management: the collection
and transportation of solid waste
The CSIR research is in the final
budget restrictions, insufficient
phase. The limitations of the
and increase service delivery.
skills development and lack of
models and algorithms have
in-house capacity. The CSIR-
been determined and how to
The highly-repetitive nature of
developed algorithms can
apply them to provide decision
waste collection means that
alleviate budget restrictions
support to municipalities has been
even a small improvement in the
by optimising the use of
established.
by local municipalities.
For this reason, CSIR industrial
being conducted by the CSIR
engineers have embarked
is based on using optimisation
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and effective manner.
faced by municipalities include
process can lead to significant
6
Some of the key challenges
savings in costs. The research
Elias Willemse • Tel: 012 841 3934 • E-mail: ewillemse@csir.co.za
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Long-life ROADs
possible with high-modulus asphalt
A
n initiative aimed at improving South African roads, more specifically increasing the design life
of roads that carry heavy traffic, is the high-modulus asphalt (HiMA) project undertaken by the
CSIR in collaboration with the Southern African Bitumen Association (SABITA).
The objective of the initiative is to develop a pavement material that will decrease road user costs,
last longer and reduce the need for maintenance and the resultant road user delays.
Transport Minister Sibusiso Ndebele recently announced that the condition of 40% of the country’s
provincial road network has reached crisis proportions. South Africa’s continued economic growth has
seen large increases in the volume of heavy vehicles on the country’s roads. Road design methodologies
and pavement material technology have to keep pace with the increase in demand placed on the
infrastructure.
Developed in France in the early 1990s, HiMA is now used extensively in that country on main routes,
urban roads and at airports. HiMA technology combines superior permanent deformation resistance
with high structural strength and good endurance. HiMA has a better resistance to deterioration than
conventional asphalt mixes and is more cost-effective. It is a material that can provide longer pavement
life with improved performance. To demonstrate the benefits of the material, the CSIR will construct a trial
section of road with HiMA as a base layer and subject it to accelerated pavement testing (APT).
The CSIR’s tests on HiMA feed into the revision of the South African pavement design method by the
South African National Roads Agency Ltd (SANRAL). As part of the project, tentative performance
criteria have been set for the South African equivalents of the French testing methods. A preliminary
guideline for the design of HiMA mixes and pavement structures containing HiMa layers has been
completed. In the next phase, locally-designed HiMa mixes will be tested to validate the design methods
What is asphalt?
Asphalt is a
composite material,
commonly used in
the construction of
road surfaces, airport
pavements and
parking lots. It consists
of bitumen (used as a
binder) and mineral
aggregate mixed
together, then laid
down in layers and
compacted. Asphalt
roads are often
wrongly referred to
as ‘tar’ roads in
South Africa.
and gain further experience in this technology.
Erik Denneman • Tel: 012 841 2933
E-mail: edenneman@csir.co.za
Enquiries...
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INTEGRATED PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Spatial monitoring and
evaluation of social
facilities contribute to service delivery
• Auditing impact of new
they inform community decisions
eradication; and
and participation in determining
• Providing support to local
government in ensuring
sufficient and sustainable social
infrastructure for new housing
and development projects.
The results of the eThekwini
accessibility modelling have
proved to be useful in a number
of ways. They serve to evaluate
requests for new facilities and
convinced the municipal rural
area-based management unit to
change the location of a new
The geographic information systems analysis ensures that
the evaluation of backlogs and the provision of facilities
are based on factual data such as population distribution
and facility shortages and not on political motives.
priorities.
Other positive outcomes of the
study include creating a central
database of facilities; contributing
to the Quality Living Environment
Strategy by improving service
coverage in the most effective
manner; limiting the construction
of under-utilised facilities;
providing added relevance
in the planning for integrated
service delivery and assisting in
informing budgetary processes.
local library. Initially planned for
The geographic information
a low-density rural area where
systems analysis ensures that
it would have been accessible
the evaluation of backlogs and
to only some 20 000 people,
the provision of facilities are
the location was at a late stage
based on factual data such as
changed to a more accessible
population distribution and facility
spot where the regional facility
shortages and not on political
could be reached within 30
motives.
minutes by 30 000 people and
60 000 people lived within 60
minutes’ travel. As a result of
the modelling, eThekwini is now
establishing a formal system of
T
service backlogs. In addition,
facilities on the backlog
The use of geographic
information systems to spatially
evaluate access to and
availability of public facilities,
based on agreed standards
he Presidency has placed
support to the eThekwini
evaluating all new development
major emphasis on
(Durban) and Cape Town local
applications.
of provision, has led to
monitoring and evaluation –
authorities. Five specific areas
The results also serve capital
has – by and large – directed
budget strategic planning in
capital investment to the areas
that they indicate which services
of greatest need. Used together,
are well placed for maximum
facilities planning standards and
accessibility and which not,
GIS accessibility analyses have
thus facilitating wise choices.
enabled more effective provision,
The results are used to motivate
management and monitoring of
for additional grant funding
publicly-provided facilities and
at national level to alleviate
services.
particularly of health, education,
of planning support were
safety, economic growth and job
provided:
creation – in order to facilitate
• Developing and documenting
service delivery in terms of the
standards (number, size
Local Government Turnaround
and access requirements)
Strategy (LGTAS). The aim is to
for delivery of social facility
determine whether basic services
infrastructure;
are sufficiently and equitably
accessible to the public.
The CSIR has for some time been
• Evaluating compliance of
the standards within spatial
parameters;
supporting local government in
• Developing location plans
its service delivery objectives.
for new facilities within
The Stellenbosch office in
need, desirability and capital
particular has provided sustained
constraints;
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improvements in governance and
Cheri Green • Tel: 021 888 2657 • E-mail: cgreen@csir.co.za
Enquiries...
I
n South Africa, where there is a huge need but limited resources
to provide housing, it is imperative to make well-informed and
justifiable investment decisions that will promote the development
of sustainable human settlements. To this end, the Department of Human
Settlements (DHS) commissioned the CSIR to update research contained
in the Human Settlements Atlas 2009.
The purpose of the atlas published by the DHS is to provide a spatial
interpretation of settlement localities established in terms of current
policies regarding sustainable human settlements. The main spatial
challenge in the country remains the spatial exclusion of the poor from
the main socioeconomic facilities of cities and regions. Locations close
to employment areas, opportunities and services are not accessible
to all people because of issues such as high land costs, limits to
Human
settlement
research
enables well-informed
decision-making
planning instruments and subsidies, and limited bulk infrastructure
in appropriate places.
The atlas includes a conceptual framework, spatial analyses and
recommendations for investment in housing and support services.
It features a comprehensive set of maps of the country as part of the
analysis, showing different aspects and potentials of provinces and
regions. Individual spatial maps are provided on various matters such
as access to job opportunities, population trends, social issues such as
grant dependencies and health, and environmental suitability.
The atlas is an invaluable tool to provide a spatial dimension to the
national housing policy, provide input to national integrated settlement
planning and to place provincial and district settlement planning in
a national context.
Department of Human Settlements • E-mail: info@dhs.gov.za
CSIR: Maria Coetzee • Tel: 012 841 2552 • E-mail: mjcoetze@csir.co.za
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INTEGRATED PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Infopreneurs® put rural communities
®
inTouch with the world
B
eing ‘off-grid’ or on the wrong side of several ‘divides’ haunts
The Infopreneur® model utilises a layered, franchise-like approach to
many rural communities in southern Africa and has resulted in
ensure sustainability as well as scalability of the networks. The model
these communities:
was initiated in Limpopo and is now being put into operation in the
Makhado Local Municipality to cover the rest of the Vhembe District.
• Not having sufficient access to government service delivery;
• Not having effective access to extensive trade opportunities into,
as well as out of these communities; and
The network will enable the Vhembe District Municipality to plan and
deliver appropriate socioeconomic development services to all its
constituent rural communities through the services rendered by young
• Not having access to modern technology, connectivity and the
social information entrepreneurs in the network.
information which such connectivity would provide.
Science and technology institutions have for a number of years tried to
address these shortcomings primarily through technology responses.
During the past five years, the CSIR adopted a different approach by
addressing the people aspect of development, particularly as far as
information and communications technology (ICT) for development is
concerned.
The Infopreneur® network is enabled, supported and managed by
another rural-focused innovation of the CSIR – the inTouch Africa®
service delivery support system. This is a system used by development
practitioners to manage aspects of their interventions in the
development contexts they are serving.
The software platform developed by the CSIR is currently used by the
The CSIR’s Infopreneur approach is a rural innovation and
National Development Agency in its national and provincial offices,
development model that guides and supports the establishment of
the National Youth Development Agency in support of its voucher
primarily youth-owned social enterprise networks that provide ICT
programme in all its offices; Investec’s Business Place network in South
access to rural communities. This is done through the provision of data,
Africa as well as Botswana and the Real Enterprise Development (RED)
information, learning opportunities and a range of socioeconomic
Door network in the Western Cape at 17 outlets and the provincial
development services in a development-through-enterprise approach.
head office in Cape Town.
®
“BACK OFFICE”
Supporting
Service
Provider
Warehouses
Network
Providers
Banking
Services
National
Government
National Wholesalers (Private)
Enabling Context
Service
Provider
Regional Infopreneurs
Development
Partnerships
National Delivery Agencies
(NGO & Public)
®
Warehouses
Local
Government
Area Retailers (Private)
Infopreneurs
Community
Support Context
Technology
Partnerships
®
Development
Agencies
Area Delivery Agencies
(NPO & Public)
Johann van Rensburg • Tel: 012 841 2970
Delivery Context
Micro
Enterprises
CBOs
E-mail: jvrensbu@csir.co.za
Citizens
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Strategic planning cannot be removed from place and information about what is where and how it contributes to a better quality of life.
Geo-spatial analysis
platform facilitates strategic planning
Strategic planning is a primary concern of service
important administrative and physiographic boundaries, and are
delivery at all levels and in all spheres of government.
connected to a strategic digital road network.
Strategic planning cannot be removed from place.
In other words, how much of what is where; or what
must be done where to establish improvement.
W
hile there are many data sources available, this still
does not allow decision-makers to clearly identify where
exactly to focus their efforts. A major problem is the
widely-differing analysis units and scales used for different sectors
or scientific disciplines upon which these datasets are based.
The South African Geospatial Analysis Platform (GAP) was developed
specifically to address this problem and to provide a basis for
profiling places both in terms of their local or intra-locational attributes
(such as population density) and their relational or inter-locational
attributes (such as relative position, accessibility or remoteness).
GAP can be described as a geospatial platform for the assembly,
analysis and sharing of strategic geospatial information, that is,
information about what is where; how much is where; where the main
concentrations/hot spots are to be targeted and what can be reached
from where.
GAP consists of:
Application and impact
During the past two years, GAP has contributed towards strategic,
relational spatial analysis in support of strategic development planning
in South Africa. Recent prominent projects, which were based on
and also illustrate the value of relational spatial analysis, include: the
update of the National Spatial Development Perspective (NSDP) of
The Presidency (2006); the development of the draft Regional Industrial
Development Strategy (RIDS) by the Department of Trade and Industry
(2006); the contextualisation of the NSDP in 13 districts by The
Presidency (2007); the recent Overview of National Spatial Trends and
Settlement Dynamics (2009) done for the South African Cities Network;
and developing an index for the Department of Social Development
indicating geographical areas in which social workers qualify for an
allowance – the allowance aims to retain social workers in areas where
resources may be insufficient.
The outcomes of these applications illustrated:
• The benefits of addressing the problem of spatially incompatible
statistical area boundaries; and
• The value of enabling practitioners and policy-makers to move
from the prevailing ‘container approach’ to a much more relational
• 25 000 so-called mesozones with an average size of 50 km2;
approach to spatial analysis. This means that instead of only
• A geo-referenced dataset of about 1 000 central places (villages,
measuring and mapping what is in each territorial area (e.g. a
towns, cities, etc.) ranked in terms of their relative weight to other
South African centres based on economic activity and public
services;
• A strategic road network; and
local municipality), attention can also be given to measuring and
mapping the relative positions, cross-border influences and other
inter-locational attributes that places have in relation to surrounding
areas and regions.
• A range of geospatial analysis tools and methods.
GAP overcomes the problem of spatially incompatible ‘large area
Gerbrand Mans • Tel: 021 888 2546 • E-mail: gmans@csir.co.za
statistics’ by re-scaling and assembling a variety of census statistics,
Elsona van Huyssteen • Tel: 012 841 2018 • E-mail: evanhuyssteen@csir.co.za
satellite imagery and other data sources in terms of a common set
of mesozones − demarcated in such a way that they all nest within
Enquiries...
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INTEGRATED PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Monitoring informal settlements
using remote sensing
Informal settlements are increasing in size and numbers within the South African landscape.
These settlements have grown from 1 049 million dwellings (in 1994) to 1 376 million (in 2004)
and reached some 2 400 million in 2008.
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FACT FILE
Growth of informal
dwellings
1 049 million in 1994
1 376 million in 2004
Approximately
2 400 million in 2008
T
he existence of informal
non-functional layout and do not
– to the extent that the erection
The first step was to use the
settlements is fast becoming
adhere to local building codes.
or removal of structures often
QuickBird imagery to delineate
happens overnight. Shifts in
homogeneous areas manually,
municipal boundaries and
from which urban settlement
overlapping administrative
attributes were identified.
responsibilities contribute to the
The next step was to develop an
confusion.
automated settlement classification
a serious problem since they
accommodate a large proportion
of the urban population in substandard living conditions. The
housing backlog means that for
many South Africans there is no
One of the fundamental
difficulties that authorities face
when planning a response to
the formation and growth of
informal settlements is the lack of
procedure, in collaboration
spatial and temporal data. Such
Additional challenges include
housing and shack settlements.
data provide an understanding
deficits in manpower, funding
of settlement morphology,
and equipment. All these factors
The rising trend in migration to
population distribution and
contribute to the difficulty of
urban areas inevitably leads to a
emerging settlement patterns
obtaining the data required for
shortage of basic infrastructural
and allow authorities to identify
effective planning in and around
services such as water, sewerage
and quantify services and
informal settlements.
and solid waste removal.
infrastructure required to improve
Rapid urbanisation also places
conditions in the settlements.
To overcome some of these
algorithms that describe
difficulties, the CSIR is
settlements more effectively.
There are several reasons for
investigating the use of satellite
education.
the scarcity of data on informal
images to obtain spatial data.
The ultimate goal is to build
settlements. The dysfunctional
The goal is to use QuickBird
a system that can identify
Informal settlements have either
structure and high building
imagery as a primary data source
changes in settlement patterns
low or no levels of infrastructure,
density of the settlements make it
to map the extent of informal
automatically over time using
are poorly serviced or not
difficult to conduct surveys. The
settlements, simultaneously
satellite images, thereby alerting
serviced at all, have no security
settlements are dynamic, with
determining the specific settlement
officials of potentially significant
of tenure, are characterised by a
frequent population fluctuations
type in each area.
changes on the ground.
alternative but to live in informal
increased pressure on essential
services such as health and
with the CSIR Meraka Institute.
Researchers have already
developed a prototype of such an
automated settlement mapping
system. Current research is
focused on the development of
automated feature extraction
Dr Frans van den Bergh • Tel: 012 841 4486 • E-mail: fvdbergh@csir.co.za
Enquiries...
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INTEGRATED PLANNING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
Developing ecological
indicators for the Waterberg
A CSIR study of the ecological status of rivers and wetlands in the Waterberg will provide
the basis for guidelines to inform and direct management actions to ensure the long-term
sustainability of the Waterberg rivers and their aquatic ecosystems, thus contributing to
service delivery in terms of the provision of safe and clean water in this region.
Managing ecosystems for
sustainable service delivery
the tributaries in the basin have
understanding of the current
been exploited to the limit through
ecological situation and the
The study aims to minimise the
the building of dams and weirs,
cause-effect relationships that
while society’s water demands for
link atmospheric deposition and
domestic, irrigation, mining and
land use patterns to water quality
industrial purposes have caused
changes and the ecological
progressive deterioration of the
consequences.
potentially adverse consequences
of the establishment of the
Medupi power plant near
Lephalala (formerly Ellisras) and
the subsequent increased mining
activities in the area.
When the Waterberg coalfield
was discovered in the 1920s, it
was considered too distant from
the economic heartland of the
country to develop. However,
with the current energy crisis and
the fact that the coal deposits
there are believed to be sufficient
to fire eight power stations for
the next 150 to 200 years, the
region is now set for dramatic
change.
The three-year CSIR research
project is focusing on the current
state of the aquatic ecosystems
aquatic ecosystems.
In this regard, the CSIR is already
Without strategic planning, the
partnering with the Department of
additional atmospheric pollution
Water and Environmental Affairs
from the new mines and power
and Eskom.
stations in the area, combined
with increasing agricultural
activities and the development of
infrastructure to accommodate the
expected influx of employees, will
further exacerbate water quality
and the deterioration of the
The CSIR’s Waterberg study
aims to develop a set of
ecological indicators that provide
an accurate estimate of the
ecological status of the river and
wetland ecosystems in the study
ecosystems.
area. These will then be used to
The anticipated adverse
the aquatic ecosystems and to
consequences in the Waterberg
estimate the extent of changes
could be minimised if decision-
that increased atmospheric
makers base their plans and
deposition, water pollution and
actions on a sound scientific
water transfers will cause.
detect processes of change in
of the upper and middle reaches
of the Mokolo and Lephalala
rivers in the water stressed
Limpopo River basin. Many of
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Dr Paul Oberholster • Tel: 021 888 2591 • E-mail: poberholster@csir.co.za
Enquiries...
Improving wastewater management for service delivery
Despite a system of laws, regulatory frameworks and agencies for
controlling water pollution, the country’s freshwater resources are
increasingly polluted. The White Paper on Integrated Pollution and
Waste Management for South Africa identifies salinisation, nutrient
enrichment, microbial degradation and sedimentation as key
components of the total impact of pollution on freshwater resources.
These pollutants, combined with poor pollution prevention measures,
affect the environmental sustainability of water resources and
formed the basis of research commissioned by the Water Research
Commission and conducted by the CSIR in the Crocodile-West Marico
and Olifants River catchment areas.
The investigation was aimed at assessing the cost of water treatment
FACT FILE
Estimating
the cost of polluted water resources
burden on treatment facilities
The South African wastewater treatment capacity
has an estimated capital replacement value
of R23 billion and operates at an estimated
R3.5 billion per annum (DWA, 2009).
It can be argued that the R3.5 billion operational
expenditure equates to wasteful expenditure in
light of the pollution potential of poor effluent
quality being discharged. The cost of poor water
quality on densely populated areas was estimated
at R2.9 billion in 2000 (DWA, 2001) and the loss
of storage capacity adds a further R1.3 billion
(Sawadogo, 2008).
at the point of discharge (wastewater treatment plant) versus the
cost of water treatment at the point of use (water purification plant).
In addition, the research highlights the inadequacies inherent in the
current pollution control systems and the cost impact of pollution loads.
The results further indicate that large industrial and densely populated
Responsibilities for wastewater treatment from urban areas generally
areas with insufficient wastewater treatment and sanitation systems,
lie with municipalities.
contribute significant pollution loads.
Currently, the water and pollution management approach is geared
South Africa cannot afford to continue polluting its water resources.
at extensive and expensive upgrades of existing infrastructure,
Current wastewater management systems will have to be developed,
the construction of new wastewater treatment facilities and the
maintained and where necessary upgraded to enforce treatment-at-
improvement of the technology for downstream water purification.
source principles. Serious attention is also required to rectify
Little attention is given to pollution prevention measures, which may
non-compliance regarding the operation and management of
be more efficient and effective in the longer term.
wastewater treatment works.
The results of the study indicate that the high cost of wastewater
The findings of studies such as this will assist local government to
treatment does not appear to curb ongoing pollution of surface
develop and maintain an integrated pollution and waste management
water resources. It seems that the prevention of such pollution may
system as required in terms of government’s service delivery aims
be the only sustainable approach to preserving the quality of the
regarding water supply and management.
water necessary for the country’s economic growth. Indirect costs of
increased pollution include the reduction in agricultural yields, the
deterioration of human health due to microbial pollution and the loss
of surface water storage capacity due to sedimentation.
Dr Suzan Oelofse • Tel: 012 841 4333 • E-mail: soelofse@csir.co.za
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Improving health by
understanding cholera
epidemics in southern Africa
Provision of safe water and sanitation is critical in reducing the impact of cholera and other
waterborne diseases and as such is high on government’s list of service delivery priorities.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Africa accounted for 94.2% and 98.2%
of the total number of cholera cases contracted globally in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The total number of
cases reported in Africa increased by 21.2% for the same period. While health and water supply authorities
are working to contain cholera outbreaks in southern Africa, a multidisciplinary team of researchers,
funded by the CSIR, conducted groundbreaking research on the environmental factors driving cholera outbreaks
FACT FILE
in the region. The project started in September 2005 and was concluded in February 2007.
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Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection
caused by ingestion of food or water
contaminated with the bacterium
Vibrio cholerae. Every year, there are
an estimated 3-5 million cholera cases
and 100 000-120 000 deaths due to
cholera worldwide.
T
he CSIR’s research is not aimed at the treatment of the disease −
The study indicated that in Mozambique, the Vibrio cholerae bacteria are
cholera is an easily treatable disease and up to 80% of people
endemic − they are present year-round in the environment. It is only when
can be treated successfully through prompt administration
environmental conditions favour the amplification of the reservoir and the
of oral rehydration salts. The research is aimed at obtaining an
understanding of the key factors driving the persistence, growth and
virulence of the bacterium to enable authorities to take appropriate
exposure of humans to the bacteria that cholera epidemics will occur.
Ongoing testing in areas in South Africa where cholera cases are
preventive measures to mitigate the impact of future pandemics.
reported is needed to determine whether the bacteria are present all
The coastal city of Beira in central Mozambique was chosen as the
The year-round presence of Vibrio cholerae has important implications
research site as recurrent cholera outbreaks indicated the widespread
for prevention and mitigation. The focus on safe water supply versus
and continuous presence of cholera bacteria in the area. The CSIR
sanitation will change depending on the endemicity of the bacteria.
research team also analysed three years of cholera case data for
Water supply should be prioritised in areas where the bacteria occur
KwaZulu-Natal.
throughout the year, whereas sanitation should be the focus in areas
The team has made several discoveries pertaining specifically to the
southern African region. This is the first study to record the presence of
Vibrio cholerae 0139 in the coastal waters of East Africa. While there
are 200 different serogroups of Vibrio cholerae, only 01 and 0139
can cause outbreaks. Until now, the presence of 0139 has been
detected only in Southeast and East Asia, whereas 01 is regularly
detected in different parts of the world, including Africa.
In the past, changes in plankton concentrations in estuaries and the
open ocean were used to predict cholera outbreaks as plankton has
been shown to be a natural reservoir of cholera bacteria. However,
the CSIR research team could not find a significant correlation
between chlorophyll concentrations (plankton) and cholera cases
year-round in natural water sources utilised by the communities.
that are potentially vulnerable to outbreaks if the bacteria were to be
introduced.
Further research
Following the initial research, the project has evolved to include
remote sensing of the ecological drivers of the epidemic and is being
funded by the European Union (EU). The CSIR leads the cholera
research part of the project. Project partners include the University of
KwaZulu-Natal and EU partners such as Fraunhofer Institute, European
Commission Joint Research Centre, University of Dresden, SPOT IMAGE,
Open Geospatial Consortium (Europe), ATOS Origin and other groups
based in France, Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.
in Beira.
The aim of the project is to develop a better understanding of the
Using a new model, the Pienaar model, the CSIR research team found
exposure and health impacts. The objective is the development of models
a correlation between rainfall figures and the number of cholera cases
that relate environmental changes to health exposure; the development of
– suggesting that the accumulative effect of rainfall and its runoff are
a geographic information system (GIS), risk mapping and alerts; and to
the dominant factors in driving cholera epidemics. Cholera outbreaks
be able to predict environmental conditions that are likely to increase the
usually occur during the hot rainy season in the tropics and
risk of adverse health outcomes within affected communities. The project
subtropics.
will continue until February 2013.
complex relationships between environmental factors, population
Martella du Preez • Tel: 012 841 3950 • E-mail: mdupreez@csir.co.za
Marna van der Merwe • Tel: 012 841 3397 • E-mail: mvdmerwe2@csir.co.za
Wouter le Roux • Tel: 012 841 2189 • E-mail: wleroux@csir.co.za
Enquiries...
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