Proceedings of Sandalwood Meeting held in Vanuatu.

Transcription

Sandalwood pruning demonstration at Tropical Rainforest Aromatic’s sandalwood farm on Efate
SANDALWOOD RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH
AND TRADE IN THE PACIFIC
AND ASIAN REGION
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGIONAL WORKSHOP
PORT VILA, VANUATU
22 – 25 NOVEMBER 2010
Edited by Lex Thomson, Cenon Padolina,
Rajan Sami, Vinesh Prasad and John Doran
2
REGIONAL WORKSHOP ON SANDALWOOD
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH AND
TRADE IN THE PACIFIC AND ASIAN REGION
3
CONTENTS
1
Executive Summary 05
2
Introduction 06
3
Country Reports
07
3.1
Cook Islands, Teaunuku Koroa 07
3.2 Fiji, Binesh Dayal
09
3.3 French Polynesia, Leopold Stein 20
3.4 New Caledonia, Philippe Bourgine
22
3.5 Niue, Terry-Anne Mokoia
26
3.6 Papua New Guinea, Robert Kiapranis
27
3.7 Samoa, Tito Alatimu
31
3.8 Tonga, Ketoni Akau’ola
32
3.9 Vanuatu, Tate Hannington
37
4
SPC Regional Report: Cenon Padolina and Vinesh Prasad 44
5
Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Resource Development
46
5.1 Conservation Strategy for Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) in French Polynesia
and Findings after 10 Years of its Implementation, Jean-Francois Butaud et al.
5.2 Planted Sandalwood Developments in Vanuatu, Tony Page, Tate Hannington,
Anna Potrawiak, Alick Berry and Clement Bled
57
5.3 Private Sector – SWOT Analysis of the Vanuatu Sandalwood Industry, Jonathan Naupa 61
5.4 The Sustainable Management and Conservation of Santalum yasi in Fiji and Tonga: A combined
Ecological and Genetic Approach, Ryan Huish, Tevita Faka’osi, Heimuli Likiafu,
Joseva Mateboto and Lex Thomson. 63
5.5 Sandalwood Plantings in Rotuma, Fiji, Vilisoni Nataniela and Lex Thomson 64
5.6 An Integrated Management and Conservation Strategy for Sandalwood (Santalum album) in
West Timor Indonesia, Yudhistira Ardhyana Nugraha Rua Ora 5.7 Tropical Forestry Services Corporation: A Sandalwood Plantation Manager, Peter Kimber
90
6
Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Research
92
6.1 The Impact of Heartwood Rot on Sandalwood (Santalum album) Oil Production,
Liz Barbour, L. Norris and T. Burgess
6.2 Sempit’s Tree – Extreme Variation of Oil Composition and Quality in a Single Santalum
46
65
92
austrocaledonicum Tree, Peter Murphy, Jonathan Naupa Ben Brookman and Sempit Naritantop
6.3
Breeding behaviour of three Sandalwood species (Santalum album,
S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum), Tony Page, Tate Hanington and Clement Bled 99
102
6.4 The Vegetative Propagation of Sandalwood species, S. yasi, S. album and F1 hybrid, Maloni Havea
109
6.5 Micropropagation of Sandalwood (Santalum spp), Sainimili Baiculacula
111
117
7
Technical Presentations on Sandalwood Trade and Markets
7.1 Historical Perspectives, Recent Sandalwood Trade and Future Prospects from the Pacific Islands,
Lex Thomson and John Doran
117
7.2 The Development of Sandalwood Planting and Products in China, Chan Kamwah
121
7.3
Amruqa’s Essential Oil Trade from PNG and Plans for Sandalwood, Sharmayne Ryan
122
8
Group Discussions, Findings and Recommendations
123
8.1 Group Discussions and Findings
123
8.2 Recommendations
126
9
Appendices 127
9.1 List of Participants
127
9.2 Workshop Programme
133
9.3 Opening Speech, Minister of Forestry, Vanuatu 138
04
1.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Resource Development, Research and Trade in the Pacific and
Asian Region was organised by the Forests and Trees and Forestry and Agriculture Diversification Teams
within the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) in collaboration with
the Department of Forests of Vanuatu and James Cook University of Australia.
Financial and other support was provided by the European Union-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity
Trade (FACT) Pilot Project, the SPC/GIZ Programme on Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Region
(CCCPIR), the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Institution (APAFRI) and the International
Seminar Support Scheme (ISSS) of AusAID. It was held from the 22nd to 25th of November 2010 at the
Melanesian Hotel in Port Vila, Vanuatu and attended by 45 participants from the Asia-Pacific region.
The objectives of the workshop were to:
• Exchange information on sandalwood resource development, research and trade within the Pacific
Islands and Asia.
• Strengthen and explore opportunities for collaboration amongst countries and territories in the Pacific
Islands and Asia.
• To discuss and review new developments in production and uses for sandalwood oil and santalols.
• Develop recommendations for future directions to ensure sustainability of sandalwood as a vital
economic resource.
Representatives from Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu presented country reports providing details of present activities aimed at
conservation and sustainable development of sandalwood. Technical presentations highlighting the latest
developments on Sandalwood Resource Development, Research and Markets/Trade were given by resource
persons in the region representing government and private sectors.
A field trip was held on the third day of the workshop to visit the Vanuatu Forestry Department Nursery,
sandalwood plantations at Snake Hill established and managed by Tropical Rainforest Aromatics (TRA), the
sandalwood plantations of Far North Oils, a sandalwood oil distillation plant of TRA and agroforestry farms
near Port Vila.
In its final session, the workshop participants agreed that sandalwood has a unique potential
to continue to contribute to the improvement of living standards of people in Pacific Island countries and
territories. However, in order for this to happen, there must be a critical assessment of the resource,
continuation of cutting-edge research and development, improved management practices and policies, and
marketing initiatives and promotions in the key markets of East Asia, India, Middle East, Europe and USA.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Date of Publication
August 2012
This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union-funded Facilitating
Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) Project implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community,
James Cook University, Australia and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR).
The data presented, conclusions drawn and the recommendations made are the sole responsibility of the authors.
05
2.
INTRODUCTION
Sandalwood has considerable cultural and economic importance to many communities in a number of
countries and territories in the Pacific Islands and Asia. It is for this reason that its conservation is an
important issue and deserves added input to ensure its sustainable development and management.
Because of its high economic value and suitability to be grown in cultivated situations (agroforestry systems
and plantations), sandalwood has the potential to make a significant contribution to rural economies.
In the Pacific Islands sandalwood was heavily exploited from early in the 19th century. It is now almost
extinct in some countries. Many of these countries failed to regulate the exploitation of their sandalwood
resources due to strong market demand coupled with the lack of replanting programmes.
As much of the initial stands have been exploited throughout the Asia-Pacific region, there is concern
now for its survival. For this reason, greater research and input into ways of improving stand management,
introduction of sandalwood in agroforestry systems, and policy requirements to conserve both the different
species and its habitat are required.
There is now great interest in the development of sandalwood due to its economic potential. Large-scale
development of plantations of sandalwood is going on in several parts of northern Australia, India and
southern China. In the Pacific Islands, several countries are now promoting the planting of sandalwood
at a community level while regulating the harvesting of their remaining stock in their natural habitats. In
recognition of its great potential, the Government of Vanuatu is encouraging and supporting the replanting
and local processing of sandalwood while regulating harvesting from its natural stands.
Vanuatu has been chosen to host this workshop in recognition of the significant sandalwood development
work there, providing excellent opportunities to participants from other countries and territories to observe
and to learn. The first regional sandalwood meeting was held in Hawaii in 1991, followed by meetings in
Noumea in 1994 and 2002 and a meeting in Fiji in 2005.
Opening Ceremony
During the opening ceremony, workshop facilitator Mr Cenon Padolina of SPC officially welcomed all the
participants to the regional sandalwood workshop and also introduced the chief guest, Mr. Gilbert Mermer
– First Political Advisor for the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Livestock and Quarantine of the
Republic of Vanuatu.
In his opening address, Mr Mermer commented on the appropriateness of the workshop’s theme and
challenged the participants and stakeholders present to develop a standardised information package that
ensures only one message is delivered by all to avoid conflicting information from being communicated to
growers.
He said, “History is being created with the regional sandalwood workshop finally being held in Vanuatu. The government and people of Vanuatu would like to thank the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, EU,
AusAID, GTZ, APAFRI and JCU for making it possible for this workshop to be held in the Happiest Place on
Planet Earth.’’
“Between 2007 and 2009, the total income earned by Vanuatu’s sandalwood owners in royalty payments was
estimated at VUV 233 million, generating even more interest among ni-Vanuatu to participate in replanting.”
Mr Mermer stated that the use of sandalwood in the Pacific has a long history, and noted that the history of
sandalwood utilisation in Vanuatu is recorded in Dorothy Shineberg’s book ‘They Came for Sandalwood’.
“Sandalwood is an important tree crop that has supported the people of the Pacific Islands for many years. Sandalwood also has the potential to contribute to the improvement of living standards of the people in the
Pacific. However, for this to happen, it needs critical assessment, research and improved management
practices,” he said.
06
3
COUNTRY REPORTS
3.1 COOK ISLANDS,
Teaunuku Koroa, Mangaia Island Council
Introduction
The Cook Islands consists of 15 islands scattered over some 2 million square kilometres of the Pacific
Ocean. They lie in the centre of the Polynesian Triangle, flanked to the west by the Kingdom of Tonga and
Samoa and to the east by the islands of French Polynesia. Total population is 12,000 (Cook Islands Statistics, Quarterly Bulletin December 2009). Since 1965 Cook Islands has been a self-governing country in free
association with New Zealand. The islands are divided into two groups: the Northern Group of atolls namely,
Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Nassau, Palmeston, and Suvarrow and the Southern Group of
volcanic and raised coralline islands namely Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke, Manuae, Mitiaro,
and Takutea.
Background
From the 1940s until 1964, agriculture was the back-bone of the country (fruit trees for example citrus
spp, pineapples, root crops, fresh vegetables, maire (Alyxia stellata) garlands to Hawaii mainly from the
Southern Cooks and copra), as well as pearls, pearl shells, fish, etc from the Northern Cooks. Following
the development of an international airport, tourism took over as the economic mainstay of the country,
followed by marine exports (black pearls and tuna), then agricultural exports. With the tourist influx,
and increased domestic market opportunities our export of produce started to fade; furthermore, many
people ignored their plantations and migrated overseas. With the neglect of these plantations, soil erosion
increased and exotic trees (including Pinus caribaea and Acacia spp.) were introduced to help control stop
erosion. One of these introduced trees was the sandalwood with the seeds sourced from SPC in Fiji and
New Caledonia.
Sandalwood in the Cook Islands and its uses
The island of Mitiaro in the Southern Cooks has an endemic variety of sandalwood known locally as a’i (Santalum insulare var. mitiaro). It is a slow growing variety which only grows in a certain area of the
island and according to the people on Mitiaro it flowers but does not set seed. On Mitiaro, they use
their sandalwood as a cure for migraine, and as a body oil. In 1992 Santalum austrocaledonicum was
introduced through Mr Ives Erhart of CIRAD Forêt and trialled on Rarotonga. In 1994, S. austrocaledonicum
was planted on Mangaia, Mauke, and Mitiaro islands. Santalum album was later introduced accidentally in
the Cook Islands and planted from 1998 to 2000 on Mangaia only. In 2004, a new batch of S. album seeds
(1,000) was sown and planted on Mangaia
Plantations and age
Mangaia
Santalum austrocaledonicum - 5,000 trees aged 6-16 years covering 5 ha
Santalum album - 600 trees aged 6-12 years
Hybrid - 400 trees aged 6-12 years
Mitiaro
Santalum insulare -120-200 plants, possibly a root-suckering clone
Santalum austrocaledonicum - 1000 trees aged 16 years covering 2 ha
Santalum album - 100 trees aged 6 years
Mauke
Santalum austrocaledonicum – 2,000 trees aged 16 yrs covering 3 ha
Research and development
Collaborators are:
• CIRAD Forêt
• SPRIG/SPC (Lex Thomson)
07
Trade and industry
• Family remedies
National plan and strategies
• All the plantations on the island of Mangaia are owned by the landowners with ongoing
management and maintenance provided by the Island Administration of Mangaia.
• It is envisaged that a national plan and strategies for the sandalwood in the whole of the Cook Islands will be developed in the future.
Extension and awareness
• TV programmes
• Inter island work attachments and workshops
• Overseas trainings, meetings and workshops
Other agencies/programmes in the sandalwood development sector
• SPC/GIZ (formerly GTZ)
• Refer to Research and Development.
Priority national activities for implementation
• Research for quality and properties of sandalwood, and pest and diseases
• Extension is a must and more information is needed on processing and marketing
• Development needed to strengthen ties between the landowners, local government and overseas agencies for example SPC/GIZ.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to the following organisations and individuals:
The Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)
Ms Helen Henry, Island Secretary, Mangaia Island Administration
Mr Anthony Brown, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture
Mr Nooroa Tokari, Senior Project Officer
Mr Teokotai Topa, Island Secretary and Tokai Ngaiorae, Agriculture Officer, Mitiaro
Island Administration
And all of those who helped me with information on sandalwood in the Cook Islands
08
3.2 FIJI
Binesh Dayal, Fiji Department of Forestry
Abstract
Sandalwood in Fiji was first harvested and exploited by European settlers dating back to January 1800 at
Bua Bay, Vanua Levu. Volumes and prices are unknown for sandalwood traded during those days and it is
unclear how much resource owners benefited from trading this valuable resource.
Sandalwood in Fiji now remains a commercially depleted resource. Illegal harvesting operations
were recently undertaken in the Lau Group and Vanua Levu but the Department of Forestry has put a
stop to exports. Commercial value of sandalwood remains the biggest incentive for development and
conservation with regeneration by landowners now progressing to sustain the demand in the long run.
In 2002, the Forestry Department with funding assistance from SPC/SPRIG embarked on more vigourous
research and development to support regeneration in the country. Now, interest on replanting is growing
and attempts are being made to quickly raise sufficient supply of quality seed for seedling production.
Action is urgently needed to ensure the conservation of genetic resources of the species, including the
development of seed stands of local provenances for use in future propagation and replanting.
Introduction
Santalum yasi or ‘yasi’ as known locally is the native sandalwood of Fiji and forms a fundamental part of the
local tradition, history and ecology of the country. Overexploitation in the early 1800s led to the near extinction of the species. Periodic commercial exploitation
has continued as recently as the 1980s. Regeneration to replace exploited areas has not been significant
due to lack of suitable silvicultural practices and limited resources for development. Sandalwood is a semi-parasitic tree and the essential oil from its heartwood is one of the most valuable
non-wood commodities in the world. The growing and harvesting of sandalwood has great potential to
become a major industry and economic earner in the next two or even three decades with the current level
of extensive planting programmes. Research and development of sandalwood in Fiji over the years has been on a casual basis (Jiko 1992) with
more vigourous research on sandalwood starting in 2002. The Forestry Department through its Silviculture
Research Division formally incorporated sandalwood research in its five year development programme
(2002 – 2007) in partnership with the AUSAID funded SPRIG Project (South Pacific Regional Initiative on
Forest Genetic Resources). Current research focus is mainly on improving techniques on the propagation of
sandalwood and conservation of S. yasi through the establishment of ‘in-situ’ and ‘ex-situ’ stands at specific
locations.
Sandalwood resource base
The native sandalwood resource base is distributed in certain locations in Fiji, namely in Bua Province and
Udu, Nasealevu, Dreketi areas, Macuata Province of Vanua Levu, Kadavu, Rotuma, Ono-i-Lau, Lakeba,
Oneata (Lau Province), Nausori Highlands and Colo West Range from Tubenasolo to Nasaucoko, Western
Viti Levu (Figure 1).
Sandalwood resources in Fiji have been infrequently estimated. In 1994, a survey in Bua estimated a total of
50,000 to 61,000 trees of all sizes giving an expected yield of 1,191 tons of heartwood (based on dbh of 7
cm with 35% heartwood content (Usumaki, 1981: Bulai, 1995: Thomson, 2000). In Ono-i-Lau, only 14.9 tons
was estimated (Tabunakawai and Chang, 1984; Jiko, 1993). No other survey or inventory of sandalwood has
been undertaken since due to its distribution and funding requirement to travel to the remote sites where
sandalwood might still occur. Trees are usually harvested when they reach a commercial size.
09
MAP 1: NATURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SANTALUM YASI IN FIJI
Seed technology
The Sandalwood Seed Production Areas (SPAS), Sandalwood Field Clonal Seed Orchard (FCOS), Sandalwood
Family Trials established at specific locations and Containerized Clonal Seed Orchard (CCSO) in the Colo-ISuva nursery are now producing seeds for further research and development of sandalwood in Fiji. In
addition, the grafting between S. yasi and S. album has allowed the mass production of seeds at an early
stage of one and half years to two years. Provision of funding through the SPRIG Project and SPC has
enabled the collection of seeds from the outer islands for further research work on sandalwood.
Flowering can occur throughout the year, however the peak flowering period occurs in February and again
from October and November. Fruiting occurs in the wet season from January to March with light fruiting in
the cooler season from June to August.
Sandalwood seed normally takes about four to five months to develop, mature and ripen after
flowering (Figure 2). The average fruit weight is 0.85 grams and there are approximately 800 to 850 fruits in
one kilogram. After sandalwood seeds have been processed there are 6,000 to 7,000 dry seeds per kilogram.
The average size of S. yasi fruits is 1.2 cm x 1.1 cm while the average size of the seed is 0.9 cm x 0.7 cm.
Technology for sandalwood seed processing has been improved to ensure speedier processing of ripe
sandalwood fruits and higher viability. Initially, S. yasi ripe fruits were collected and soaked in water for
depulping the flesh. A new technique has been developed where the S. yasi fruits are buried in river sand or
compost matter for nine days to allow the fleshy component to soften up. The seeds are then cleaned and
air dried at room temperature.
Germination tests for sandalwood seeds, usually involves sowing on compost matter in germination trays
and placed in a shady, covered area. Germination speed is from 30 days onwards up to 90 days. Germination
percentage is usually above 95% for properly processed seeds.
10
Fig 2. Sandalwood fruits and seedlings
Nursery production
Sandalwood seeds are sown on well-composted mahogany pods. Research has also been undertaken using
other compost materials such as coconut husk humus and sawdust humus. All compost materials used
for the germination of sandalwood seeds are sterilized due to the high presence of fungi and bacteria in
composted matter, which may kill seeds. Using sterilized compost material for germinating sandalwood
seeds is ideal mainly due to the texture of the compost medium that does not allow damage to the soft root
tissue when pricking out germinants for transplanting into pots.
Transplanted wildings are also used to supplement seedling production. Young regeneration is dug up
and potted in the nursery. To encourage good growth of wildings in the field, it is best to clear and cultivate
undergrowth and fence out animals to induce and protect germination of fallen seed. This method is best
on sandy, well-drained soils and suitable in areas where larger, fruit-bearing sandalwoods remain.
A number of trials were also undertaken to ascertain the best potting medium in the nursery. It is now
conclusive that the best potting medium for propagating sandalwood seedlings is 6 parts of decomposed
sawdust, 4 parts of forest floor top soil (sandy loam), 1 part of river sand plus NPK. A high percentage
of survival has been noted when using this mixture for raising sandalwood seedlings. After the germinants
have been transplanted into the pots in the nursery, it usually takes 8 to 10 months for the seedlings to
attain a reasonable size and be hardened to where they can perform well after field planting (Figure 3).
Fig 3. Sandalwood propagation and seedlings in the nursery
Vegetative propagation
In early 2009, a sandalwood grafting trial was undertaken in the Colo-i-Suva nursery (Figure 4). The
total number of plants grafted was 100 using the stock of S. album and scion of S. yasi. Assessments
were undertaken on a monthly basis and there was 70% survival after the first assessment. However, by
the end of 2009 the survival percentage was only 10%. Further research on grafting is continuing to produce
successful results.
Cuttings trials were also undertaken in the nursery misting facility (Figure 4). A recent trial on cuttings
showed 80% survival after eight weeks, but cuttings did not root and eventually died.
11
Fig 4. Grafting and cutting trial
Tree improvement
Seed production areas (SPAs)
The primary objective of SPAs is to have a continuous supply of seed for future use. Also, they will determine
the best growing conditions for the Santalum species e.g. climatic conditions and soil types, and determine
the best planting space and host plant. Approximately, two hectares of SPAs have been established and
growth of natural regeneration under the seed trees is also being encouraged to increase stocking (Table 1
and Figure 5).
TABLE 1. SEED PRODUCTION AREAS
Location
Species
Spacing
No of Trees Area (ha)
Host Species
Nukurua
S. yasi
4m x 4m
250
0.40
Morinda citrifolia,
Calliandra calothyrsus
Colo-i-Suva
S. yasi
4m x 4m
150
0.24
C. calothyrsus
Colo-i-Suva
S. yasi
4m x 4m
250
0.40
Vunimaqo
S. yasi
3m x 3m
250
0.23
Vunimaqo
S. album
3m x 3m
150
0.14
M. citrifolia
M. citrifolia, C. calothyrsus, Gliricidia sepium
M.citrifolia, C. calothyrsus, G. sepium
S. yasi and
4m x 2m
85
0.07
M. citrifolia, Acacia mangium
4m x 2m
205
0.16
M. citrifolia
Total
1,115
1.64
Lololo
Korovou
S. album
S. yasi
The seed trees in SPAs provide accessible seed sources, general growth data under suitable silvicultural
regime, and act as demonstration plots for extension purposes showing sandalwood growing with suitable
host species.
12
Selection of plus trees
The majority of the plus trees that were initially selected
were not under Fiji Department of Forestry control and
thus, when matured, they were harvested and sold. The
origin of progeny of the selected seed trees within the
SPAs is recorded and current status is known. A recent
selection of plus trees in natural stands has been
undertaken in Bua Province (Figure 6), Lakeba and
Ono-I-Lau in the Lau Province and in Kadavu. Seed
collection from the selected seed trees will be for
progeny testing and establishment of demonstration
stands. Selection criteria is based on vigour, stem form,
disease resistance and fruiting intensity. The selected
clones will be vegetatively propagated in the clonal seed
orchard.
Fig 5. Vunimaqo SPA
Fig 6. Seed tree selected at Banikea Village, Bua, Vanua Levu
Clonal seed orchards
Successful grafts from the initial grafting trials have been established in clonal seed orchards (CSOs).
Separate, isolated CSOs for S. yasi and S. album have been established at Colo-i-Suva to reduce likelihood
of hybridization (Figure 7).
Yasi family trials and provenance resource stands (PRS)
A S. yasi family trial consisting of nine families (total of
165 plants) from Lakeba was established in September
2002 at Vunimaqo at a spacing of 4 m x 2 m with field
hosts, C. calothyrsus (intermediate) and Citrus reticulta
(long term)(total area 0.13 ha). Growth performance for
height and girth is undertaken on a bi-annual basis and
the current survival percentage in this plot is 62%, mean
height of the surviving plants in this plot is 5.61 m and
mean diameter (30 cm above ground level) is 5.5 cm
(Figure 8).
Fig 7. Clonal seed orchard
A S. yasi family trial (total of 70 plants) of seed trees from
Kadavu was established in April 2004 at Lololo at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m with field host of A. mangium (total
area 0.03 ha). Growth performance for height and girth is undertaken on a bi-annual basis and the current
survival percentage in this plot is 47%, mean height of the surviving plants in this plot is 1.62m.
13
A S. yasi family trial consisting of eight families (total of 120 plants) from Bua was established in December
2004 at Vunimaqo at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m with field hosts of C. calothyrsus and C. Limon (total area of
0.11 ha) A S. austrocaledonicum species trial (total of 50 plants) was established in August 2006 at Naloto,
Verata, Tailevu at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m with a field host of Citrus species (total area of 0.05 ha). Growth
performance for the height and girth is undertaken on a quarterly basis and the current survival percentage
in this plot is 48%, mean height of the surviving plants in this plot is 3.19 m (Figure 8).
Fig 8. Lakeba S. yasi family and S. austrocaledonicum
species trial plots
In situ and ex situ sandalwood gene
conservation
The primary purpose of gene
conservation is to protect the S. yasi
genetic pool. Hybridization between
S. yasi and S. album is the major concern
and the need arises for the pure gene
of S. yasi to be protected. The Forestry
Department ensures that there is no
introduction of exotic Santalum species
where S. yasi is naturally distributed.
Tabulated left (Table 2) are the S. yasi
gene conservation plots established to
date in the country.
TABLE 2. SANTALUM YASI GENE CONSERVATION STANDS IN FIJI
Location
Date
Stand
Gene Established
Type Source
Spacing
No of
Area (ha)
Host Species
Nawailevu
Jan 2004
In situ
Nawailevu 4m x 2m
400
0.32
A. mangium
Lekutu
Jan 2004
In situ
Lekutu
4m x 2m
400
0.32
A. mangium
trees
Colo-i-Suva
08/11/09
Ex situ
Lakeba
3 m x 3m
40
0.04
Existing vegetation
Rokovuaka
07/07/10
Ex situ
Naivaka
3m x 3m
150
0.14
Citrus species
Tore, Cuvu
04/10/10
Ex situ
Noro
4m x 4m
100
0.16
Citrus species
1,090
0.98
Total
Santalum yasi seedlings sourced from different locations of Bua Province are being raised in the nursery as
well as the host plants of Citrus species. The establishment of gene conservation stands will be continued
with specific locations already identified (Figure 9).
Trade and industry
Sandalwood is still harvested in most parts of the country
today where this valuable resource exists, however, there
are considerable fluctuations from year to year. The
extent to which sandalwood resource owners benefit from
harvesting this valuable resource is questionable. In addition
to this, some local buyers do not comply with the licensing
conditions required and these facts only come to the
attention of the Forestry Department when the exporter
applies for the permit to export the sandalwood
produce. The need arises here for the proper control of
harvesting of sandalwood in the country. There are currently
four registered exporters in the country with the number
of local buyers unknown.
Fig 9. In situ S. yasi gene conservation
stand at Nawailevu, Bua, Vanua Levu
Sandalwood harvesting in the country involves the felling of the tree, uprooting of roots and removing the
sapwood (Figure 10). The local buyers in Fiji have different approaches when purchasing sandalwood from
the resource owners. Some purchase sandalwood without the sapwood removed while others purchase
heartwood (sapwood removed) and sapwood chips separately
14
The purchasing prices for wood may vary when the sandalwood sapwood is not removed. Woods
can be purchased at approximately FJ$10 to $15 per kg. Where the sapwood is removed, the rate is
approximately FJ$35 to $80 per kg. The age of the sandalwood tree can impact on price as do the different
parts of the sandalwood tree e.g. the roots have the highest levels of heartwood present, while the stem
and branches have less. Most domestic buyers process the sandalwood further to meet the requirements
of buyers abroad, e.g. by processing the heartwood into dust or chip form. Over 50% of the total sandalwood
purchased is exported to markets abroad while the remaining percentage is used locally for production
of sandalwood products such as scented oil, soap and candles.
An economic research study was undertaken by the Forestry Department in 2007 on Lakeba Island in the
Lau Group to study the volume of heartwood and sapwood of 26-year-old sandalwood trees, which is
when they are matured and the heartwood is fully developed. Six percent of the sandalwood trees in this
stand were sampled during the research study. Sandalwood species studied were S. yasi (Fiji sandalwood)
and S. album (Indian sandalwood). Results from this research study showed that the Indian sandalwood
are more vigorous and have a higher percentage of heartwood than sapwood. On the other hand, Fiji
sandalwood has a lower percentage of heartwood. Sandalwood harvested at this site was sold directly to
an overseas buyer for FJ$35,000 per ton. Tabulated below (Tables 2 & 3) are the findings on sandalwood
harvests and revenue generated from this economic research. Export destinations are mostly Asian
countries.
TABLE 3. ECONOMIC RESEARCH ON SANDALWOOD HEARTWOOD
Species
Sap wood
Heart wood (HW)
Gross weight
HW @ 30.00/kg
61 kg
39 kg
100 kg
FJ$1,170
116 kg
259 kg
375 kg
FJ$7,770
S. yasi
(approx.1 tree)
S. album
(approx.1 tree)
Fig 10. Sandalwood harvesting
TABLE 4. SANDALWOOD HARVEST AND EXPORT DATA
Total
Year
Total
Year
Total
Year
2007(MT)
Revenue($)
2008(MT)
Revenue($)
2009(MT)
73.4
$22,436
233.1
$111,564
33.1
Total
Revenue($)
$82,789
EXPORT
Year
Quantity (MT)
2007
116.3
2,679,886
2008
306.5
6,001,770
2009
82.1
2,603,668
15
Value (FJ$)
National plans and strategies on the future management, conservation and development of sandalwood
in the country include the following components.
•
•
•
Conservation and better utilization of the genetic resources of sandalwood in Fiji
Extensive replanting programme by 2011 in areas where sandalwood occurs naturally and its
introduction to other parts of Fiji where it does not naturally occur
Management and conservation of S. yasi genetic resources (both in situ and ex situ) and establishment
of seed stands of sandalwood to ensure that there is a continuous supply of seeds for future use
• Research undertaken on sandalwood for the development of scientifically sound conservation and
management strategy
• Collaboration with landowners that have sandalwood populations/stands for their conservation on the
islands, and
• Encourage landowners to conserve sandalwood populations/stands in localities that are potentially good
seed sources.
Extension and awareness in the country aims to increase understanding and interest in the community to
address areas such as the importance and benefits of replanting, the need for seed sources and the need
for partnership (Figure 11). Partnership will encompass transferring relevant knowledge in silviculture
practices to cover seed collection, seed processing, nursery production techniques and reforestation
management systems.
Extensive awareness programmes have been undertaken in the country via radio talkback shows,
exhibitions and during forest restoration training programmes in communities. The Forestry Department
has developed awareness campaigns on the sustainable production of S. yasi including information
brochures for growers, research papers and training workshops. SPC provided the funding assistance
for the printing of the brochure.
Funding assistance provided by the former Fiji-German Forestry Project and SPC-SPRIG Project has
enabled the Forestry Department to reach out to communities to conduct awareness and community
assistance on the following components:
•
•
•
•
•
Provide training on sandalwood seed technology
Sandalwood cultivation
Spacing of plants and appropriate host species
Conditions that best suit the growth and survival of sandalwood
Development of nurseries for farmers and communities with interest in sandalwood propagation and
cultivation. To date, five nurseries have been developed by the Forestry Department through funding
assistance, but only three are currently operational.
Fig 11. Community assistance
Sandalwood cultivation in the general areas where the species naturally occurs is regarded as the best way
forward to conserve the genetic resources and provide economic benefits to rural communities. Use of local
seed sources will ensure that the genetic integrity of locally adapted populations is maintained. The Forestry
Department promotes replanting of S. yasi using local germplasm sources and production of high quality
seedlings in its extension nurseries.
16
Some of the main issues and constraints encountered include the following:
•
•
•
•
Collection of seeds – birds quickly eat ripe fruit
Landowner lack of awareness
Resources depleted faster than can be replaced
Technology transfer hindrance.
Other agencies/programmes
Pacific Reforestation (Fiji) Ltd is undertaking research on sandalwood and host species in collaboration
with the Fiji Government, specifically, exploring the possibilities of a marketing and branding strategy to
maximise market recognition and appreciation of Fiji S. yasi and its essential oil in the overseas market
(Figure 12).
Fig 12. Sandalwood seedling propagation by Pacific Reforestation (Fiji) Ltd
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is undertaking nursery development and restoration of trees by replanting
sandalwood for communities as a long term income source and an alternative to exploitation of forest
resources with higher economic returns.
National Trust of Fiji (NTF) is planning sandalwood nursery development for communities and the
restoration of grasslands through the replanting of sandalwood for income generation as alternative
to exploiting natural resources for livelihoods.
University of the South Pacific – Institute of Applied Science (USP-IAS) is undertaking research on S. yasi
DNA and providing training on sandalwood to communities (Figure 13). This has included restoration of
forests in degraded areas through the replanting of sandalwood and promoting the valuable resource for livelihoods.
Partners in Community Development Fiji (PCDF) is providing
training on sandalwood and nursery development for
communities and forest restoration through the replanting
of sandalwood. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Center (SRL) is undertaking
sandalwood nursery establishment for communities and
sandalwood reforestation projects in deforested areas
Fig 13. Sandalwood training provided to
the villagers of Namada, Nadroga (an
initiative by USP-IAS)
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) works with
national partners to help conserve, improve and better
promote the wise use of genetic resources of local
sandalwood species as a means to enhance environmental
protection and promote economic and rural development.
17
The primary purpose is to strengthen the capacity of the participating Departments, Regional
Organisations and NGOs to conserve, improve and better promote the wise use of sandalwood genetic
resources in order to promote sustainable rural development. SPC is also undertaking research on
sandalwood tissue culture for mass production of planting material.
The Forestry Department works in collaboration with the above companies and agencies to facilitate
the training programmes and implementation phases of the nursery development and sandalwood
restoration projects. One of the major issues and constraints faced is the management of projects by the
communities after implementation. Lack of interest displayed by the communities all too frequently results
in failure of projects since sandalwood is a long term development and there are other alternatives for more
rapid income returns. It has been noted that sandalwood nurseries developed by and for individual growers
who have displayed great interest in propagating and cultivating sandalwood have been more successful.
Sandalwood propagation and cultivation requires intensive tendering practices and conditions
(environmental) favouring its survival and growth. These are all limiting factors.
Priority national activities for implementation:
• Specific technical and economic information and data relating to the cultivation of sandalwood planting,
including in agroforestry systems, be collated and developed into a guide for growers.
• Emphasis is placed on encouraging the replanting of sandalwood.
• Greater numbers of high quality sandalwood seedlings with suitable pot host be grown for distribution
to farmers which may then be used as local seed sources for replanting programmes. • The Forestry Department encourages and continues assisting with the development of community and
private nurseries emphasising that only local seeds of sandalwood are used.
A key issue for the Forestry Department is helping those landowners who are entitled to the sandalwood
regeneration fund and, with the iTaukei Land Trust Board, utilise these funds to establish S. yasi woodlots
from local germplasm sources.
There is also a need to engage and support local communities and landowners to establish gene
conservation/seed stands for their local sandalwood population and to encourage research on S. yasi to
assist in the scientifically sound conservation and management of its genetic resources.
Sandalwood has the advantage of providing a very high value, non-perishable product. It is also free of the
quarantine impediments which have seriously constrained trade in agricultural commodities. Commercial
value of sandalwood remains the biggest incentive for its development and conservation.
Possible threats that may be encountered include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Illegal forest fires and natural disasters like cyclones;
Pests and diseases e.g. fungal root attacks;
Unsustainable and uncontrolled harvesting;
Damage to regeneration by feral cattle;
Clearing land for agricultural development; and
Theft of sandalwood.
Conclusion
Financial returns can be great from cultivating sandalwood if good silviculture, management and correct
germplasm are used. The intensive level of exploitation of native stands drives the need for extensive
cultivation of the species. The vigorous research, development and conservation of this valuable resource in
Fiji and the significant demand for sandalwood is expected to lead to extensive cultivation in the country.
Funding assistance has enabled the Forestry Department to undertake research, development and
conservation of this valuable species. It has also enabled the Department to acquire seeds from remote
sources in outer islands for establishment of family trials, seed production areas and conservation stands.
18
Sandalwood silviculture has been the vital component of research and improved techniques are now
supporting immediate replanting programmes in the country. The extensive awareness programmes and
promotion of planting techniques through the dissemination of Information on Growing Sandalwood in Fiji
manual to communities and individuals has allowed regeneration of sandalwood in the country. There is a
great need for the Forestry Department through the Silviculture Research Division and Extension Division to
raise sufficient seedlings to meet the current demand and replanting programmes.
Furthermore, wider R&D on sandalwood needs to be continued especially by replanting, determining its
potential as an agroforestry species with timber and agricultural crops and as well as conserving the
genepool of S. yasi (without introgression from introduced S. album).
References
Bulai P., 1995. Sandalwood in Fiji. In L Gerum, JED Fox and Y Ehrhart (eds.) Sandalwood seed, nursery and
plantation technology. Proceedings of a regional workshop for Pacific Island Countries; August 1-11,
1994; Noumea, New Caledonia. RAS/92/361. Field Document No. 8. UNDP/FAO South Pacific Forestry
Development Programme, Suva, Fiji. Pp 167-172
Jiko, L. R, 1993, Status and Current Interest in Sandalwood in Fiji. In: Sandalwood in the Pacific Region:
ACIAR Proceedings No. 49, Australia: 13-18
Tabunakawai, K. and Chang, A. 1984
Thomson, L.A.J., et al. 2000. A strategy for conserving, managing and better utilizing the genetic resources
of Santalum yasi (sandalwood) in the Kingdom of Tonga and Republic of Fiji. (SPRIG Project document;
Department of Forestry, Fiji and Division of Forests, Tonga).
Usumaki, J. T. 1981, A Report on Survey of Sandalwood in Bua Province, Vanua Levu, Fiji.(unpublished
report of Fiji Department of Forestry).
19
3.3 FRENCH POLYNESIA
Leopold Stein, Chef du département de la Forêt et de la gestion de l’espace rural (FOGER) Service du
dévelopement rural (Department of Forests and Management of Rural Areas and Rural Development)
Introduction
There are seven varieties of the local species Santalum insulare in French Polynesia viz. insulare, alticola,
raiateense, marchionense, deckeri, raivavense and margaretae. It is a hardwood, shrub or tree of 10 – 13 m
high with opposed leaves and branches, hemiparasitic roots and perfumed heartwood. It is used in
medicine, cosmetics, body care and carving.
On the other hand, there are three introduced species of sandalwood, viz S. album, S. yasi and
S. austrocaledonicum vars. austrocaledonicum and pilosulum.
Sandalwood is rare in French Polynesia for a number of reasons. Historically, there was overharvesting
between 1805 and 1826 during trade between China, Europe and the South Pacific. Today, it continues to
be overharvested for the tourism sector. Other impacts on sandalwood include rat predation on seeds,
invasive species and grazing.
TABLE 1. STATUS OF NATURAL STANDS
Location
No of Trees
Tahiti
313
Moorea
222
Raiatea
58
Rapa
14
Raivavae
Over 2000
Marquises North
1251
Marquises South
431
TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTATIONS
Location
No of Trees
Tahiti
360
Moorea
140
Nuku Hiva
1341
Hiva Oa
541
Ua Huka
112
Sandalwood conservation and reforestation programme
SDR Programme / Partnership
- Direction of Conservation
- University of French Polynesia
- French delegate to research
- Own and private owners
SDR programme strategies
- Conservation of genetic diversity
- Creation of 9 management units
Conservation regime
General status
- In FP cleaning, felling, extraction of trees (fruit tree, forest tree, must be approved by
mayor of township).
- Many sandalwood varieties are fully protected by regulation.
20
Propagation
- Creation of nurseries for sandalwood production
- Training for nursery staffs
- Creation of seed orchard
Sandalwood plantation
- Setting of trials plots in arboretum and seed orchards
- Creation of production (more than 6 ha today)
- Plants sale to public (no transport of plants between islands
Public awareness
- Few Tahitians know how to identify a sandalwood tree
- Meeting, information in schools
- Booklets
- Tree planting day
- Develop arboretum
Overview
- Conservation and management of the resource. The last stands must be protected from cattle, goats, horses, theft and rats. Hosts plants will have to be replanted afterwards.
- Creation of conservatory plantation. To preserve genetics, plantations and be created on sites, near the existing stands on a controlled perimeter to avoid back crossing.
- Creation of cultivation techniques for each species
Spacing and density of hosts
Form pruning
Silviculture of host plants
Fertilization
Irrigation
- Development of techniques to value sandalwood
Shaping work
Silviculture of host plants
Fertilization
Irrigation
Issues to overcome
Control of hosts plants and pests
Management of natural habitats
Reduce early management costs
Protection of stems from mechanical damage
21
3.4 NEW CALEDONIA
Philippe Bourgine, Department of Rural Development Province Sud, New Caledonia
Introduction
New Caledonia is organised in three provinces as shown on the map below: Northern Province, Southern
Province and Loyalty Islands Province. These are French overseas territories managed by their own
parliaments elected for five years. Their jurisdiction includes economic development, conservation and
management of natural resources, and primary school education.
Each province is free to set its own policies. However, one can notice minimal differences in approach
between the 3 collectivities (unless mentioned).
Local government deals with regional relations, education (programmes), customs, biosecurity and public
health. It is composed of 11 members, representative of all major political parties who have seats in the
New Caledonian parliament. The New Caledonian parliament is composed of members of the provincial assemblies and it is in charge of
the budget and legislation for areas that come under government.
Existing natural stands
As in many other Pacific islands, sandalwood trade was very active from 1820 to 1920, during which time
it was bought from local populations for very little. At the time, there was no management of the forest,
resulting in sandalwood disappearing in many places.
22
There is one species present in New Caledonia Santalum austrocaledonicum, which has three varieties:
var austrocaledonicum; var minutum; and var pilosulum. Santalum austrocaledonicum var
austrocaledonicum is the most common and can be found on the Isle of Pines and Loyalty Islands.
Santalum austrocaledonicum var minutum is only found in one place north of the main island, while
S. austrocaledonicum var pilosulum is present near Noumea and probably along the west coast. Most of
the remaining stands for these two, less common varieties are small in size (from one hectare up to 20
to 30 hectares in Noumea). But it is not really worth considering the area as in some stands, trees can be
scarce within the existing vegetation. Inventory of all trees is a better option. These stands are not logged
and are partly protected (reserve status or belonging to private owners and/or public territory).
On the Loyalty Islands and on the Isle of Pines, the resource is much more important. Recent inventories
(2003 on Maré - Loyalty Islands, 2008 on the Isle of Pines) have shown that sandalwood stocks on these
islands were important and could be harvested on the basis of an annual quota of heartwood. The Isle
of Pines has the largest potential with 530 tons of heartwood standing. The area covered by sandalwood
natural stands represents more than 9000 hectares on the Isle of Pines. However, as these are natural
stands, the density of trees per hectare varies a lot as well the structure of these populations. Sandalwood
is often grown around houses and on land boundaries. When found on fallow land, it has a natural origin
(mainly spread by birds). The density of trees is often more important in the village or on cropping land than
in natural stands. These inventories are needed to monitor existing stock after seven years of harvesting on
the Isle of Pines, as well as checking if the management plan is working as planned and sustainable.
Demographic trends of sandalwood populations
As little is known of the small populations listed above, there is a need to monitor them in order to
ascertain their present status. For the Isle of Pines, the recent inventory (2008) has clearly demonstrated
that even if the population is well managed and production not endangered for the next 10 to 20 years, there
is a gap in the younger classes mostly as a result of uncontrolled burning. This could lead to a dramatic
drop in production and a loss of income for these communities in about 20 to 30 years from now.
Planting programme
For the Southern Province, the planting programme has been about one to two hectares per year. This
programme has been conducted mainly on the Isle of Pines and on bare land. There are also grants which
take the form of seedlings awarded to land owners who harvest their trees. For each tree felled and sold
to the local distillery, five young plants are now given for planting (it used to be three up until 2008). Until
recently, the young plants were given to associations in charge of distribution. Following a recommendation
made after the 2008 inventory, the young plants will now be stocked at the distillery and provided directly to
the land owner. This will allow the Southern Province to better locate these plants and monitor them on a
long term basis.
There is currently no research activity on sandalwood. Development is carried out by the Association
Interprovinciale des Centres Agricoles (AICA) which is in charge of mass selection in natural stands, seed
collecting and conservation, establishment of seed orchards and setting of compartment trials on different
soils and climate.
During the 2008 inventory on the Isle of Pines, more than 100 “plus” trees were recorded and located by
GPS. Seeds will be collected from these trees for future plantations. AICA has also started a mass selection
in other stands around the country to ensure the broadest possible genetic base. Trees are selected on a
phenotypic basis (size in diameter and height, well-formed trunk). The tree owners have been asked to
collect and sell the seeds from these trees to the Southern Province. The first procurement was done in
2010 with around 5000 viable seeds being bought.
Trade and industry
General regulations
New Caledonia’s forestry regulations are based on Decree No. 405 dated 18 March 1910 and its subsequent
amendments and additions from 1926, 1936, 1968 and environmental codes for Northern Province (2008)
and Southern Province (2009).
23
Provinces have the right to issue harvest permits irrespective of the status of the land. However, on
customary lands the permit can only be delivered after getting the approval of the owners (generally the
chiefs). A permit spells out the technical and statutory conditions of the exploitation.
The main technical criteria for allowing a sandalwood tree to be cut are:
- Having a girth over 70 cm (measured at 20 cm above the ground level) and sapwood width under 3 cm
- All trees with a girth over 100 cm.
The statutory criteria are determined by the inventory and, for Isle of Pines, it is not more than 40 tons of
heartwood per year.
On customary land (Isle of Pines), the forestry service manages the harvesting operation. The trees to be
felled are marked by forest officers and a number is given to each tree (with records of girth and locality).
This number is also recorded on arrival of the tree and its parts at the distillery. This helps to control and
prevent illegal harvesting.
The original inhibitants on Isle of Pines are divided into eight tribes. Because of history and past
exploitation of the resource, the richness in sandalwood resource owned by different tribes is variable.
Therefore, an annual harvesting permit is delivered to each tribe based on inventory data. Some tribes have
large annual harvesting allocations (10 tons for the richest) and some only a few hundreds of kilograms.
Industry
Sandalwood was discovered on New Caledonia in the 1820s, and between 1828 and 1865 around 2000 tons
of heartwood was exported to Australia and then onwards to China for tea trading. From 1906 to 1923, 980
tons from New Caledonia and Vanuatu were harvested and sent to the European market. More recently,
between 1948 and 1990, 1985 tons have been cut in New Caledonia. Of this, a portion has been processed
locally into oil and another portion exported to Europe.
There are currently two private distillation units. One is based on Mare Island (Loyalty Islands), the other
has been operating on the Isle of Pines since 2001.
TABLE 1. PRODUCTION – ISLE OF PINES
1999/2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Oil
3793 kg 1410 kg 1500 kg 1300 kg
1551 kg 1561 kg Residue/Waste
68 tons 40,7 tons 45 tons 45 tons 53 tons 53 tons
The number of trees harvested each year to get enough heartwood (about 40 tons) to produce around
1000 kilos of oil is around 300 trees on the Isle of Pines (inventories made by IAC in 1988 and 1994 have
confirmed that the average weight of heartwood per tree was about 150 kg when criteria for logging is
considered and respected). Most of the sandalwood oil is sold on the French market, but also in Germany,
and the United States of America. The waste is dried and then sold to the Asian market where oil is
extracted with solvent, then crushed and used to make incense sticks.
For the foreseeable future New Caledonia cannot produce more oil than about 1 MT per year given the
current sandalwood stocks and the need to exploit this resource in a sustainable manner,
The earnings in 2009 were 112 million Pacific Francs (Equivalent to 938000 Euros). About half of this
amount stays on the islands and is redistributed to the landowners. The distillery unit employs seven
persons on the Isle of Pines.
24
The harvestable natural stands of sandalwood are now managed in a sustainable way. The stock has been
inventoried and an annual quota of heartwood is allowed for harvesting. It has been fixed at 40 tons/year
on the Isle of Pines. On the Isle of Pines, inventories will be conducted every five to eight years to check the
stock and adapt the management of the population by increasing or decreasing the amount of heartwood
allowed to be cut.
In addition to the young plants given to landowners, the Southern Province is developing a planting
programme of 100 hectares per year starting in 2012.
In terms of management, sandalwood can only be distillated on the Isle of Pines and no export of wood
is permitted. This has been decided with the full support of tribal authorities in order to maximise value
adding opportunities on the island.
For the conservation of sandalwood, the largest stand remaining on the main island is located within the
city of Noumea and is now a flora reserve. Other stands are mostly located on private land and are not
exploited.
This is to be considered only on Loyalty Islands and Isles of Pines where the stands are harvested. The
major issue in the awareness programme is to inform people not to use burning as a way to clear
their plots of land before planting or at least control the fire to prevent it spreading beyond their land.
Sandalwood trees are often planted close to houses where cropping land can be found as well as on fallow
land. When burning is uncontrolled, the seedlings are killed and therefore, this may lead to a gap of 20 to
40 years in production. When fire is used in an intensive way, sandalwood may disappear altogether.
The other main programme involving sandalwood is known as the ‘dry sclerophyl forest programme’. This
programme works on the main island and only on the West Coast where remnants of this ecosystem can be
found. It is financed by France, New Caledonia, Northern Province, Southern Province and WWF. Its goals
are to protect, restore and make people aware of this very specific and endangered ecosystem. It covers only
4000 hectares and the main threats to this ecosystem are bushfires, invasive species and cattle grazing.
Sandalwood is one of the species planted during restoration of these forests. The trees used for
restoration come from nearby remnants of forests. It is a way to protect the genetic resources of these
limited populations. The agency responsible for this programme is the Department of Conservation of the
Southern Province.
1 Identify within the remaining populations the best trees with regards to form but also with superior oil
production capacity. Select these for use in seed orchards
2 Inventory all small natural stands remaining and study the structure of these populations in order to
establish their current conservation status
3 Carry on with the seed collection from these natural stands and create a seed bank
4 Establish field trials in different sites
5 Monitor plantations and trees on the Isle of Pines
References
Friou, M., Nasi, R and Cornu, A. (1994). Inventaire des peuplements de santal de l’Ile des Pins.
CIRAD-Forêt/province Sud, Nouméa, 42 p.
Quemin, C. (1988). Etudes sur le santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum). Mémoire ENITEF, CTFT, Nouméa,
Nouvelle-Calédonie, 84 p.
Tassin, J., Hnepeune, S., Azaïs, T., Ricci, J.P. and Dessert, A. (2005), Country report of New Caledonia. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific
Islands and Asia, Noumea, New Caledonia SPRIG-CPS, pp 53-56.
Brinkert, M., (2003). Inventaire des populations de santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum) sur l’île de Maré,
Nouvelle-Calédonie. Mémoire FIF- ENGREF, IAC/Province des Iles Loyautés, 75p.
Lemaresquier, L., (2008). Inventaire des populations de santal (Santalum austrocaledonicum) sur l’île des
Pins, Nouvelle-Calédonie. Mémoire FIF- ENGREF, Province Sud, 75p.
L’agriculture calédonienne de 2000 à 2009, DAVAR, Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie.
25
3.5 NIUE
Terry Anne Mokoia, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Introduction
Niue is one of the world’s largest raised single coral atolls with a total land area of 269 km2. It is situated
in the Southwest Pacific Ocean at 19° south and 169° west. The population is less than 1,400 people. There
are two distinctive seasons, the hot wet season from November to March (which coincides with the tropical
cyclone season) and a cool dry season from April to November. Average rainfall is approx 2,180mm but varies from 810 to 3,330 mm per annum. Sixty-eight percent of the total annual rainfall is concentrated in the
wet season. During the wet season, the daily maximum temperature is 30°C (January/February) with a daily
minimum of 23°C. The daily maximum during the dry season is 26°C with a daily minimum of 19°C
The soils are of marginal fertility for intensive agriculture. Land is covered with fern growth indicating the
poor structure and nutrient content of the soil. The soils are sketetal with makatea (limestone) outcrop
over approximately 50% of the island.. There are four main soil types (and other minor soil types), viz.
Hikutavake, Hakupu, Fonuakula and Palai soils.
Niue is still largely covered by tropical forest (19,351ha or 74% of the island). It has one of the highest forest
areas per inhabitant amongst island countries in the Pacific Region (and logging is almost non-existent).
TABLE 1. FOREST RESOURCES ACCORDING TO LAND COVER CLASSES (LANDCARE 2001)*
Matured Forest
6,805ha - 26%
Secondary Forest
11,233ha - 43%
Littoral Forest
1,313ha - 5%
Total Forest 19,351ha - 74%
Managed Land, Bare Land, Littoral Scrubland
6,792ha - 26%
Total Land 26,143ha - 100%
*Figures are not the latest (1994) and were amended after ground truthing (2001 – 2004)
Sandalwood areas
Niue was not formally part of the SPRIG Project Phases 1 and 2 but they received assistance in terms
of securing seeds for a seed orchard. Very little is known about the small sandalwood natural stand
at Hakupu and Alofi which covers less than 1 sq km and has fewer than 100 small trees. There are
unconfirmed sightings of sandalwood plants in other areas. A complete inventory of the stand is
recommended.
An attempt to establish a seed orchard was not successful due to lack of maintenance. Due to limited
manpower within the Forestry Division there is currently no research and development on sandalwood.
The government should continue to be supportive in all agricultural policies to promote conservation and
sustainable development concepts. The national forest policy recognised that agroforestry development and
intercropping will be encouraged and promoted. Research will focus on data collection of promising species
and provenances in support of indigenous forest management with emphasis on agroforestry development.
An awareness programme for landowners is needed so that they might grasp the importance of this
valuable tree species.
26
3.6 PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Robert Kiapranis, Forest Research Institute, PNG Forest Authority
Abstract
This paper documents the conservation status of sandalwood, Santalum macgregorii, in the Buzi and Berr
villages in the West Kiwai local level government area of the Western Province and attempts to propose a
conservation plan for the species based on observations carried out during a recent field trip to the area.
The wood oils of Santalum macgregorii across PNG were found to be highly variable in composition and
yield. Doran, Brophy and Niangu (2005) reported that some wood samples collected from Buzi and Berr
gave oils of commercial yield with levels of Z-α-santalol and Z-β-santalol very similar to those of high
quality Indian sandalwood (S. album) oils. Doran et al (2005) suggested that as a result of the high yield and
good quality, these oils might be expected to command a higher price in the market place than oils from
sandalwood in the Central and Gulf Provinces. It is therefore in the best interest of the Papua New Guinea
Forest Authority to concentrate its research, development and extension programmes with sandalwood
from this area.
Although commercial exploitation of PNG sandalwood commenced in the late 1800s and has been going
on intermittently for over 100 years, existing records indicate that very little sandalwood was harvested
in the Western Province. However, despite escaping from commercial exploitation, natural distribution
of sandalwood populations in the province is sporadic and limited to within 50 kilometres of the coastline
(Doran et al 2005) and even this may be confined to only the southern coastline close to the Indonesian
border. For this reason, the object of this proposal is to identify a number of populations in the area and
protect them in order to conserve the genetic resource of the species from complete erosion.
Introduction
During the last sandalwood trip to the Western Province in September 2006, a one day meeting was
arranged with the people of Buzi and Berr villages to explain the purpose of the visit to the area. Many
issues were discussed at the meeting including various aspects of sandalwood conservation, management
and sustainable utilization. The people are keen to plant and harvest their sandalwood in a sustainable
manner but a suitable strategy that would enable all villagers to participate and benefit from this development
must be identified and implemented.
The purpose of this paper is therefore to document their interest and highlight the conservation status
of sandalwood in Buzi and Berr villages and identify a suitable conservation plan appropriate for the area
based on the findings of the recent trip.
Background
In a relatively short time since interest in sandalwood was rekindled in October 1996, information on
Santalum macgregorii has expanded from investigative work in PNG with assistance from Australian
research collaborators.
Several germplasm collection expeditions were undertaken in the Central and Gulf Provinces. Bosimbi
(1997) assessed its natural distribution from Kwikila in the Central Province to Malalaua in the Gulf Province
and more recently sandalwood was found in the Western Province (Doran and Lea, 2005). Seed collections were
undertaken in 2001by Agiwa and Bewang, in 2002 by Bosimbi and Bewang and in 2004 by Agiwa and Brammall. The aim of the collections has been to establish an ex situ seed production stand for easy access to seed
and other vegetative material for the production and distribution of planting material to interested
stakeholders.
Since the sighting of sandalwood in the Western Province by Doran and Lea (2005), one investigative and
wood sample collection trip was done by Bosimbi in September, 2006. Observations during the trip were
alarming, to say the least, and there is a need for urgent conservative measures to be taken to preserve
this high oil yielding sandalwood chemotype. It is isolated and characterised by fast declining, fragmented
populations.
27
Conservation status of Buzi and Berr sandalwood
The conservation status in this context refers to the present state of the genetic resource in the area and
the risk of future erosion. During the September visit, six small populations were investigated. Three of
them known locally as Usasara, Dod and Mandra Kodo are on the Buzi side and the other three, Biklup, Bie
Bodigat and Among Kodo are on the Berr side of the swamp separating the two villages. Usasara, Dod and
Biklup populations display similar characteristics to sandalwood in the Central and Gulf Provinces, however,
the Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo populations are the two sites of greater interest and concern due to their
high oil contents and the fact that the sizes of the population are very small and quite isolated. At the time of
visit, there were about 18 mature individuals in an area less than 50 x 50 m2 located within extensive
grassland. The Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo populations are under very serious threat for the following
reasons;
1. First and perhaps the foremost reason is the threat from people other than the rightful landowners.
Until 2005 when these populations were discovered (Doran and Lea 2005), not many villagers knew
what sandalwood looked like and therefore they were relatively safe from poaching. However, now that
they have been discovered and known to many people, they are in imminent danger of being poached by
people induced by fast cash rewards and not by the rightful resource owners. This was the trend
observed in the Central and Gulf areas when the Hiritano highway was extended from Bereina to Malalaua.
2. Secondly, there is no sign of regeneration of young sandalwood wildlings either as seedlings from seeds
or coppice from roots and stumps. In contrast, the regeneration at the Usasara population is prolific and
healthy with approximately 200 -300 seedlings per 50 x 50m2. The complete lack of regeneration here is
mainly attributed to heavy bird and rodent predation and the intense fires that are rampant in the area
during the dry season.
3. It was also observed that there is no regeneration by coppicing either from roots or stumps of trees that
have been cut down. Cut stumps are often subjected to very heavy and intense fires that induce fungal
and other pathogenic attack that prevent coppicing.
The urgency for conserving the highly restricted and endangered genetic resources of the species in the
area is evident. This calls for immediate action to put in place a breeding programme to slow down it’s
erosion while consideration is given to demographic and economic factors prevailing in the area. Current
legislation and forest policies also need to be considered in order to put together an effective and workable
sandalwood conservation and management plan for the sandalwood at Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo
respectively.
Special features of Western Province sandalwoods
Due to the high oil content reported by Doran et al (2005), further studies are needed to confirm their
initial findings. In the meantime, some physical and structural differences that make the Buzi and Berr
sandalwoods unique are listed here. The tree itself has some twigs that resemble willow branches that
develop and hang downwards and often reach to the ground. According to villagers, this phenomenon
occurs every year during the wet season.
Conservation strategy
In the selection of populations to be conserved, the main objective is to secure the genetic variation and
prevent it from erosion (Theidale et al, 2002). Several specific points can be used as criterion for selecting a
stand for conservation;
• Population size – the stand should be large enough to conserve the genetic variation and provide good
conditions for adequate regeneration.
• Legal conservation status – because most sandalwood is on traditional land, proper land
demarcation must be done and the land registered as a conservation area before any activities can take place.
• The socio-economic context – areas designated as conservation areas must be far enough from heavily
populated areas but within easy reach for purposes of management and benefit sharing.
• Management and costs – the management option taken must be realistic and cost effective.
In general, the selection of conservation measures for a given population depends on the conservation
status and the nature of the biological material to be conserved (Theidale et al, 2002). Where all the criteria
are met, in situ conservation may be possible. However, where the conservation status or the population
size is too low, another population may have to be identified or ex situ conservation undertaken. The latter is
probably the most likely and cost effective method for the Western Province sandalwood.
28
The two populations of Mandra Kodo and Among Kodo marked for conservation and sustainable
development are too small and do not satisfy any of the above criteria and therefore require immediate
action to capture and conserve remaining genetic variation through establishment of ex situ populations in
safe environments. Efforts should also be made to restock and increase their current population sizes.
Sandalwood plantations
Plantation establishment is one way of contributing to the conservation of this scarce and fast eroding
genetic resource because the sandalwood from Buzi and Berr represent a valuable gene pool. A complementary
breeding programme based on material taken from the present populations and bred elsewhere (ex situ) for
reintroduction later for plantation development will contribute significantly to the conservation of the
species. It is by this means that the unique genetic make-up of the Buzi and Berr sandalwoods that cause
them to yield higher percentages of commercial oils will be captured and improved. Refer to Table 1
for some physical and structural differences between the Buzi/Berr and Central/Gulf sandalwoods. The
breeding programme may commence immediately while legislative and demographic factors are being
considered to draw up an effective sandalwood development, management and extension strategy.
At present there are no substantial sandalwood plantations in Papua New Guinea. Seedlings are now easy
to raise in the nursery using techniques developed here and elsewhere (Tuiwain, 2005). However, raising
large quantities of seedlings for plantation development has hitherto not proved successful due to the
difficulty in obtaining sandalwood seed. Field trial plantings established in 1997 at Leron were destroyed by
fire the following year and those established by the Forest Research Institute in the Lae Botanical Gardens
are yet to start producing enough seed for plantation establishment.
So far, enough seedlings have been raised at the Leron nursery to plant about two hectares. Seeds were
collected there from the remnants of the 1997 plantings. It appears that attempts to plant other species at
Leron have failed numerous times except sandalwood. This planting will therefore test this assumption and
if found to be doing exceptionally well, the whole area at Leron will be planted with sandalwood. When this is
successful, it is hoped that sandalwood from Western Province will be propagated and planted at Leron for
further breeding, propagation and distribution to various stakeholders, especially back into its native habitat
in the Buzi and Berr areas of the Western Province.
TABLE 1. PHYSICAL & STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES IN 3 SANDALWOOD SAMPLES
Pores
Color Tylosis
Weight
Rays
Hardness
Parenchyma
Smell
Fibres
Texture Grain
Mandra Kodo (Western)
Very small, numerous, solitary
Yellow-brown
Abundant
Moderately heavy
Narrow
Hard
Diffuse in aggregate, apotracheal. Pleasant aromatic odour
Very thick wall.
Very fine
Interlocked
Vanuamai
(Central)
Very small, numerous, solitary
Yellow-yellow-brown
Moderately abundant Moderately heavy
Narrow Hard
Parenchyma Apotracheal, diffuse (few), indistinct
Pleasantly aromatic odour
Very thick wall Very fine
Interlocked
Miaru
(Gulf)
Very small, moderately numerous, solitary
Yellow-brown-brown
Few (compared to samples 1 & 2)
Moderately heavy
Narrow
Very hard
Parenchyma Apotracheal,
diffuse in aggregate
Aromatic odour
Very thick wall
Very fine
Interlocked
Discussion
In the absence of significant sandalwood plantations, all remaining stands of sandalwood in the country
are owned by traditional landowners (Gunn et al 2002 citing Paul 1990). It is, therefore, only logical that
any development efforts to conserve and manage the sandalwood resource in the country be done in direct
consultation with and participation of these resource owners. During the rapid rural appraisal (RRA) survey
by Gunn ibid in 2002, villagers from Miaru in the Gulf and Eboa in the Central Province expressed keen
interest to plant sandalwood trees and undertake activities that would help to conserve the remaining
populations in their respective areas.
29
During the September 2006 visit to Buzi and Berr villages in the Western Province, the people there also expressed
similar sentiments. However, despite the enthusiasm expressed by villagers and recommendations by Gunn et
al (2002) in their presentation of the sandalwood conservation and management strategy to the National Forest
Board, nothing specific or concrete has been done to encourage farmers and resource owners to develop and
manage their sandalwood resources.
During the 1996 sandalwood workshop in Port Moresby, a working group was established to put together a
sandalwood development strategy in the country. The group recommended that a full time officer be appointed
from the Southern Regional Office to continue to conduct landowner awareness, support them to develop their
sandalwood and provide general support and advisory services. The Papua New Guinea Forest Authority never
took these recommendations seriously and the committee has since disbanded.
The National Tree Seed Centre of the Management Division and the Forest Research Institute are the only sections
undertaking research and develop sandalwood in the country at present and rely on recurrent funds.
In contrast, the Authority is spending a lot of money in trying to investigate and develop eaglewood with funding
support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Besides being a new comer to the scene,
eaglewood requires an inoculant to help it to develop oil in the wood while sandalwood already has oil naturally
in the wood. It is believed that more money will be spent on research to find a suitable inoculant to infect the
eaglewood trees in order for them to start developing oils in the wood and this technology may take some years
to develop. It may be argued that eaglewood commands a higher return per kilogram of wood, mainly due to its
scarcity, but ultimately both species end up producing highly valuable oils and associated wood products and
therefore both warrant attention.
Recommendations
Notwithstanding difficulty of securing financial support, it is strongly recommended that the following actions
be taken to develop the potential of sandalwood in the Western Province.
1.
2.
Immediately implement recommendation 8 of the Gunn committee. That is to support in situ and ex situ
conservation stands of sandalwood through involvement of resource owners in awareness campaigns to
reinforce the value of their sandalwood and develop methods of protecting existing trees as well as planting
new trees.
Immediately implement recommendation 10 by the above committee to support specific actions to
protect and manage the sandalwood in the Western Province. One specific action required now is to start
raising planting material to enrich existing populations through either seedlings or vegetative propagation.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Buzi and Berr villagers for their hospitality and friendship extended during
the field trip, especially Koven, Awati (Papagraun), Moses, Wago, Ati, Eric, Tonie, Esau, Joel and Sam. Siwi
Mathe and family deserve a special mention for transporting and looking after us during the weeklong stay
at Buzi, and guide Oleam Warapa Baia.
References
Bosimbi D. and Bewang I.F. (2007). Report on sandalwood research, development and extension in PNG. P
57-61 in L. Thomson, S. Bulai and B. Wilikibau (eds), Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on
Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands, 28 November – 1 December
2005, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji.Doran J.C., Brophy J.J and Niangu M. (2007).
Chemical variation in the oils of Santalum macgregorii (PNG sandalwood). P 101-107 in L. Thomson, S.
Bulai and B. Wilikibau (eds), Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development
and Extension in the Pacific Islands, 28 November – 1 December 2005, Secretariat of the Pacific
Community, Suva, Fiji. Doran J.C. and Lea D. (2005). Annual Report, 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2004,
for Essential Oil Crops for Rural Communities in PNG and Australia (ACIAR FST/1998/113) Project. CSIRO
Forestry and Forest Products Client Report No. 1538, Canberra.Gunn B.G., Bewang I.F. and Bunn Y. (2002). A
Strategy for Conserving and Managing the Genetic
Resources of Santalum macgregorii (PNG sandalwood) in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report prepared for
PNG Forest Authority as part of ACIARs Domestication of Papua New Guinea’s Indigenous Forest Species
Project ACIAR FST/1998/115). CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. Theilade I., Sekeli P.M., Hald
S. and Graudal L., (Editors 2002). Conservation Plan for Genetic Resources of Zambezi teak (Baikiaea
plurijuga) in Zambia. DFSC Case Study No.2. DFSC and FAO in collaboration with Forestry Department,
Lusaka, Zambia.Tuiwain T. (2005). Germination technique for sandalwood (Santalum macgregorii F.v. Muller) in Papua New Guinea. Planted Forest Programme, Forest Research Institute, Lae, Papua New Guinea.
30
3.7 SAMOA
Tito Alatimu, Forestry Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Samoa has not established any substantial plantations of sandalwood as yet however plans are underway
to do so. An NGO has shown keen interest to set up a trading company. The last sighting of sandalwood was
in 1991, before it was introduced by SPRIG project in 2003. Another NGO – Women in Business - has shown
keen interest in seed propagation and are being assisted by SPC. The priority issues for Samoa are:
• Research and development work on the species for better results
• Awareness and publicity on the growing and management
• Mass production of seed materials to supplement growing demand
31
3.8 KINGDOM OF TONGA
Ketoni Akau’ola, Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries
Santalum yasi, known locally as ahi, is a small, semi-parasitic tree found naturally in Tonga and Fiji in the
South Pacific. The species produces a highly valued heartwood and has been commercially exploited and
traded since the early 1800s. Its exploitation has been from native stands and characterised by short periods
of intensive extraction followed by longer periods while the resource regenerates. S. yasi has excellent potential to supplement incomes of
villagers in rural parts of Tonga.
S. yasi grows throughout Tonga but its frequency varies between islands (Map 1). For example:
• ‘Eua - Very common especially in secondary forest and coastal areas but very rare in the South-eastern
side of the island
• Tongatapu - Rare to very rare in coastal and lowland forests
• Ha’apai - Common in the Ha’apai group especially in Foa and Pangai
• Vava’u - Common in the northern side of Vava’u group and small outer islands
Map 1 Natural Distribution Of Santalum Yasi In Tonga
32
With the exception of ‘Eua, sandalwood (S. yasi) populations now exist as scattered individuals often located
in remote, less accessible sites. Whilst such individuals constitute an economic and genetic resource of
potentially great significance, it has been difficult to fully realise these. The immediate genetic
resource is difficult to realise because it is difficult or impossible to undertake sizeable seed collections
from a number of trees. This is due to inaccessibility of remnant trees and light fruiting over a long period
(and consumption of mature fruits by birds). There is also a risk that a high proportion of set seed from
isolated remnant trees may arise from selfing and be liable to produce less fit plants.
TABLE 1. FRUITING AND FLOWERING MONTHS FOR S. YASI IN TONGA
Tongatapu
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept Oct
Nov
Dec
Flowering
Fruiting
‘Eua
Flowering
Fruiting
Ha’apai
Flowering
Fruiting
Vava’u
Flowering
Fruiting
The high economic value of sandalwood makes it a highly promising tree species for rural income generation.
This is not surprising, given that sandalwood provides a non-perishable product (heartwood and essential oil)
that has found good markets for Tonga for more than 200 years.
In Tonga, research and development of sandalwood has been limited with no detailed research on sandalwood
in the country. The present and previous work from other countries will help fill this gap. This will produce
information about sandalwood, which it is hoped will be used by rural communities, government and resource
developers in their quest to develop and apply more efficient research for sandalwood resource development
in Tonga.
The research and development of sandalwood in Tonga needs to be strengthened. More importantly, the
results could be used to assist the government, private nurseries and the villagers in the genetic improvement
of their sandalwood resources.
Currently the main efforts to conserve the genetic resources of S. yasi are as follows:
1. Propagation and distribution of seedlings in government
nurseries in Tonga.
2. Protection and management by the Forestry and Conservation
Division of the only substantial sandalwood population remaining
in the Ha’apai Group, on Foa Island.
4. Small-scale replanting of sandalwood on ‘Eua by the
Forestry and Conservation Division on its
governmen t- lease forest estate.
5. Small-scale field trials on Foa Island (different permanent
hosts) and ‘Eua (Fijian seed sources) under the SPRIG Project.
6. Establishment of potted seed orchard in Tongatapu nursery
33
SPRIG project and recent activities
The existing 0.2 ha (half acre) of sandalwood plot at Toafa area in Vava'u was established by the SPRIG
project. A 0.4 ha (one acre) sandalwood plot with 500 sandalwood and 500 citrus seedlings was established
during 2010 at the Vava’u forestry station. It is partly intercropped with the new ma’ala yam, kava, taro and
kape. The intermediate and longer term host plants planted for sandalwood were citrus, Rhus taitensis
(tavahi) and pineapple: these had been found to be the best host plants as observed in the sandalwood
plots of Mr. Nafe Kuila (first sandalwood block planting grower in Tonga) at Leimatua village (3.2 ha) with
assistance from SPC.
Trade and industry
In pre-European times, sandalwood was traditionally bartered or traded between Tonga and neighbouring
countries, notably Fiji and Samoa. Early Tongan navigators usually took with them sandalwood products
such as scented coconut oil, powder and heartwood to exchange for other goods. During the 1960’s and
70’s overexploitation of the resource occurred leading to the harvesting of immature trees. The Forest Act of
1979 banned export of sandalwood products in order to allow the resource to regenerate. This ban was later
amended to allow Tongan citizens to undertake export under certain licensing conditions, but these licenses
have been abused due to a lack of monitoring and enforcement. The most recent commercial exploitation of
sandalwood on ‘Eua was in 1996-97 when some small scale utilization occurred. The price paid to cutters
was 2-3,000 Paanga (AUD2,000-3,000) per tonne of heartwood.
The main reasons for the decline of sandalwood in Tonga include over harvesting without natural
regeneration or replanting; the latter being associated with a low importance attached to planting. During
garden development, sandalwood plants, especially seedlings and young saplings, are either inadvertently
or deliberately cut or otherwise destroyed. The loss and excessive opening up of forest associations and
replacement with grassy associations has reduced sandalwood habitat and resulted in more frequent fires
which can destroy sandalwood in all age classes.
The quantities and value of sandalwood (heartwood) exported from Tonga during the last nine years are
outlined below:
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF SANDALWOOD EXPORT QUANTITY
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Metric Tonne
60.7
6
1.9
21.8
80
29
53.7
203.7 18.6
0
$T Million
0.18
0.01
0.01
0.08
0.25
0.07
0.12
0.5
0
Source: Statistics Department (Foreign Trade report)
METRIC PER TONNE
Figure 1. Metric tonnes exported from Tonga annually from 2000 to 2009
34
2006
2007
2008
0.12
2009
$ MILLION
Figure 2. The value in Australian dollars of sandalwood export during the last nine years
The reduction in the sandalwood resource is a direct result of overharvesting whereby all larger individuals,
i.e. main fruit bearing trees, are periodically cut out. Failure to retain an adequate number of seed trees for
natural regeneration or undertake enrichment planting means that the populations take a very long time to
recover after such intensive exploitation.
The species has considerable economic potential, however, the resource is depleted and there is a need
to regenerate, sustainably manage and better conserve remaining populations. Three actions are
recommended to conserve, manage and better utilize the genetic resources of S. yasi as follows:
• Develop appropriate policies and legislations to enable sound
management of sandalwood in the country
• Amend the Forests Act and regulations to provide greater
control over sandalwood harvesting and to introduce the
appropriate fees and charges to ensure that the ministry
has funds to monitor sandalwood operations and produce
sandalwood seedlings
• Plan for a national forest policy, which will cover sandalwood
management strategies
Sandalwood planting programmes
The potential value of sandalwood to the national economies of Pacific Islands including Tonga and to their
rural peoples indicates that more attention should be paid to the development of sandalwood cultivation.
One of the main objectives of the former SPRIG project throughout the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) is to
help conserve, improve and better promote the wise use of genetic resources of regional priority
tree species, including sandalwood. It is expected that this approach will promote economic and rural
development. Sandalwood in Tonga is an important tree because of its high economic value compared to
other tree species. The heartwood has a good smell due to fragrant essential oils, which upon steam
distillation has an exceptionally high commercial value (e.g. FJD1000 per litre).
Tonga Trust (NGO), Vavau youth and community level
35
• Coordinate and undertake national forest inventories in Tonga
Forest resource knowledge is based on the national forest resource inventory. Such data is out-of-date
and needs updating. Detailed forest inventories for individual forest areas do not generally exist and
Tonga’s biodiversity is poorly understood.
• There is a need to develop appropriate policies and legislations to enable sound management of the
country’s forest resources through;
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Formulation of a national forest policy that outlines guiding principles to assist strategic planning and implementation of a set of key national objectives
Review, develop, enforce and monitor existing forest legislations to address pressing forestry
economic and conservation issues
Harmonise the policies of the forestry sector with those of the agricultural sector, particularly in relation to land use, incentives to agriculture and expansion of agricultural domain
Capacity building, and
Upgrade capital resources to match development needs
The Forestry Act of 1961 is the only act that provides the legal status in which the Forestry Division
operates. With the diversification in the roles of the Forestry Division identified in the five year
development plan, it was considered that the 1961 Forest Act is too general in its application and does
not give the legal status and authority required for the management of forest resources. The act is
outdated and does not cover sustainable forest management and other forest policy developments. A
review of other relevant legislation is necessary to remove anomalies and ensure compatibility and
coordination. Other acts related to forest resources management include the 1988 Parks and Reserves
Acts and the proposed new Environment Act initiated by the Ministry of Land, Survey and Natural
Resources. According to a number of reports, these acts are overlapping thus creating confusion in the
authority for the management of forest resources and resulting in duplication of efforts and resources.
• Curtail commercial exploitation of sandalwood for 20 years through
a. Restricting the issue of export licenses
b. Limiting the total annual sandalwood harvest to the estimated national sustainable level of harvest
Tongan farming system is increasingly threatened by rising population, growing encroachment of
non-agricultural development into agricultural lands; increasing allocation of land for monocrops; and
increasing monetary expectations and aspirations of the people from farming
Government issues such as over regulation and poor enforcement, poor monitoring and evaluation, lack of
strategic planning and policy, poor coordination of services.
36
3.9 VANUATU
Hanington Tate, Department of Forests
Introduction
Sandalwood is an important tree crop for many Pacific islands including Vanuatu, where the naturally
occurring Santalum austrocaledonicum is the only species being promoted for cultivation.
Sandalwood in Vanuatu has a long but not so good history dating back to the 18th century, when it was
harvested by Europeans based in Australia and traded with China to quench their love for Chinese tea. As
history has it, sandalwood is one of the earliest natural products to enter international trade including in
ancient times from Indonesia to India and then from India to China.
Sandalwood is an important crop for Vanuatu. It is the only crop that generates much needed income in the
remotest areas and in many cases remains the only source of income in these isolated communities. Its
uniqueness as a source of income for people in remote areas, as well as its value to the national economy,
has encouraged the government to develop it into a sustainably managed industry.
The sandalwood industry has progressively developed to the stage where it is now an important value adding
and export industry. The contribution of the industry in continuously increasing the price of wood has
also generated an enormous interest in sandalwood replanting among several communities, and this is
a positive sign for the future of the industry.
Research into sandalwood is of considerable importance for the continuous development of the sandalwood
sector in Vanuatu. Sandalwood research has been the foundation for the current work of developing elite
sandalwood germplasm production through a selection and breeding programme.
Sandalwood grows naturally on the islands of Aneityum, Futuna, Aniwa, Tanna, Erromango, Efate, Malakula
and Santo. It is likely that the natural stock in almost all the islands have continued to decrease over the
past few decades. However, at the moment an accurate estimate of the natural stock would be impossible
because it is difficult to locate individual standing trees in the forest, and any exercise to do so would be
prohibitively expensive. What has been done so far was an inventory conducted by the Department of
Forests in collaboration with James Cook University on wild stock on Erromango, Efate (Moso Island) and
Malakula in 2008. This inventory report has indicated a very limited stock of mature sandalwood in the wild.
Consquently, the sandalwood industry cannot rely on wild sandalwood for its survival in the future
The natural sandalwood stock is important to continuously sustain the development of the industry over the
next few decades. Bearing this in mind, it is important that the natural stock is managed in a sustainable
manner and several steps have been taken to better ensure sustainability. The annual sustainable harvesting
quota has been set at 80 metric tons since 1997 when the sandalwood regulations came into force. Since then,
the total quota of all sandalwood licenses issued is limited to a total of allowable purchase of 80 metric
tons. However, in 2003 when the policy came into force, one of its requirements was for the annual
sustainable yield to be reduced to 70 metric tons per year, until such time when information is available
to set up a new quota. However, that policy requirement has never been implemented and the annual
sustainable quota remains at 80 metric tons.
The government and the industry are mindful of the importance of the wild resource and have urged
resource owners to assist with its management. The government is also considering the possibility of gene
conservation of the resource but action has yet to be taken.
Planting programme
Future sustainability of the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu will involve a shift from the natural to the planted
resource. The efforts undertaken by the government and the industry in the past to promote planting of
sandalwood have now been taken up by communities and individuals. Sandalwood is now being planted in
areas outside of the natural range in Vanuatu, which is seen as a good development for the industry.
However, there is a concern as to whether trees planted in non-native locations will still develop good quality
heartwood, and whether planted trees have been given silvicultural treatments that achieve good heartwood
development. These issues have led the Department of Forests to develop information packages and videos;
and conduct several community training and awareness workshops.
37
The planting programme appears to be undertaken well by the farmers and communities. After seeking
silvicultural information from the Department of Forests and the industry, individuals are starting to set up
their own sandalwood nurseries. Since 2007, the demand for sandalwood seedlings has outstripped supply
from government nurseries. Therefore, home nurseries have emerged as the suppliers of sandalwood
seedlings. Interestingly, VANWODS (micro-credit scheme for women) has embarked on raising sandalwood
seedlings to supply to its members and also for sale. There are also ongoing planting programmes by
Tropical Rainforest Aromatics and Summit Estate.
The difficulty in obtaining high quality seeds remains the major constraint to the planting programme.
To address this issue, the Department of Forests, with financial assistance from ACIAR, is embarking on
establishing grafted seed orchards on some islands. The primary objective of this programme is to provide
high quality seed sources for private and community planting programmes.
Sandalwood research is paramount for continuous development and improvement of the industry in
Vanuatu. Research is conducted at different levels by the industry to address the sector’s development
needs and also by the government, notably tree improvement programmes.
Ad hoc research has been undertaken over the years without providing any real direction towards sandalwood
improvement. It becomes clear that sandalwood, which is a valuable forestry product, remains an unknown
commodity due to absence of information on variability within populations within an island and trees between
islands; until research into oil qualities was undertaken between 2004 and 2006.
The result of the research entitled Identification and Oil Analysis of Sandalwood Varieties in Vanuatu has set
the basis for sandalwood improvement in Vanuatu. In collaboration with James Cook University, the results
have guided the Department of Forests to propagate selected elite individuals from wild sandalwood
growing islands into a grafted orchard. These so called elite materials will form the basis for future
research.
The sandalwood improvement research is currently underway. The aim of this research programme is
hybridization programmes, specifically aiming at improvement of specific characters of selected individuals. The hybridization programmes, if successful, will provide Vanuatu sandalwood the opportunity to be more
competitive in the global sandalwood market.
Development and planned extension programmes
Sandalwood extension programmes are ongoing, with the aim of providing information to farmers and communities. The Department of Forests is aware that the industry is also undertaking extension programmes, through supplying
of seedlings and information dissemination. The Department of Forests’ programmes aim to empower and equip
local communities with skills and knowledge. These programmes were delivered in the form of training
workshops, field days, video productions, posters, media (radio) and leaflets. It is also important to note the
benefits of information sharing between individuals (e.g. farmer-to-farmer).
The Department of Forests’ community extension and training programmes are an integral part in assisting
sandalwood and general forestry farmers. It is important to note that these programmes have been very
effective during the course of 2009, in which the Department of Forests has conducted 10 workshops on
nursery construction and management techniques, including seed propagation on 10 islands in Vanuatu.
The training also included setting up of 10 community and private forestry nurseries and instruction on
woodlot management techniques, some of which are very specific to sandalwood. These activities include
production and supply of videos, posters and leaflets. The Department of Forests is currently undertaking a
similar process in which it is planning to conduct 12 training workshops and establish 12 community
nurseries in 12 islands from the Banks Group in the north to Aneityum, which is southern most island of
Vanuatu. These nurseries are an important infrastructure for the communities to have access to sandalwood
seedlings.
Research activities undertaken
Sandalwood research in Vanuatu has been conducted by the government as well as the industry. Research
undertaken by the Department of Forests with Australian research institutions in the past was basically
aimed at identifying and selecting elite germplasm (oil yield and alpha/beta santalol content) for domestication
and tree improvement programmes.
38
This research activity resulted in collection and establishment of a grafted stock in Port Vila of selected
individuals from throughout the country. This forms the basis for the current research activity, which is
aimed at the grafting of these materials and deploying them to selected islands for establishment of grafted
seed orchards; and also to undertake controlled hybridization programmes among selected individuals to
establish a progeny trial.
Industry research is mainly concentrated on product assessment, especially on oil quality. The industry
information also concurs with the findings of the ACIAR funded JCU/Vanuatu Department of Forest research,
which indicated that sandalwood trees on some islands (Santo and Malekula) are better in terms of oil yield
and quality than others. This information is important as they could form the basis for future development
of sandalwood in Vanuatu in the coming years.
Trade and industry
Trade in sandalwood has quite a long history. Sandalwood traders started harvesting sandalwood in
Vanuatu as early as the 1850s. The wood was harvested by early Europeans and exported through Sydney
to China in exchange for Chinese tea. This continued as different players, mainly Asians, became the main
buyers of Vanuatu sandalwood. The exploitation continued as a non-regulated activity until the sandalwood
regulation was enacted in 1997. Since then, licensees are only able to operate in Vanuatu during the three
harvesting months per year. This type of activity continued with the majority of licensees having no real
interest in longer-term development of the industry. However, a few licensees have been showing interest
in developing sandalwood into a local processing industry. This has resulted in the development and
adoption of a sandalwood policy.
The sandalwood policy has two main conditions; establishment of a local processing industry supporting
reforestation. Only two companies: Tropical Rainforest Aromatics and Far North Timber Sales were interested
and issued with sandalwood licenses.
The private sector now plays a significant role in the development of sandalwood industry in Vanuatu. Since
the establishment of the industry, the minimum royalty rates have significantly increased from VT 250 per
kilo of heartwood to VT 1,000 per kilo in 2010. This increase has generated significant interest among
ni-Vanuatu and encouraged them to embark on sandalwood planting. The linkage between trade and
reforestation activities is important because it guarantees the future of the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu.
Harvests, sales and earnings, markets
Annual harvesting of sandalwood is regulated by the sandalwood license. At the moment, only two companies
have been issued sandalwood licenses, and each year they utilize the entire annual sustainable quota.
Sandalwood harvesting in Vanuatu is done by the sandalwood/landowners from the natural forests. This
occurs during the three months of the sandalwood harvesting season. The harvested sandalwood
heartwood is then sold to the two licensees.
The quality of sandalwood extracted from the natural forest appears to be declining. Each year, the majority
of wood collected is from smaller trees and the quantity/quality of heartwood is decreasing. However, the
quantity of wood remains almost the same. The total quantity of sandalwood harvested over the last three
years is 261 metric tons, and the money earned by the resource owners was VT 232,800,000 (Table 1). The
income generated by sandalwood heartwood sales into the remote communities is very important because,
in some remote communities, this is the only source of real income.
TABLE 1. SANDALWOOD HARVESTS, ROYALTIES TO LANDOWNERS AND GOVERNMENT REVENUE 2007 TO 2009
Year
Amount harvested (Kilograms)
2007
112,000
95,200,000
2008
76,000
64,600,000
2009
73,000
73,000,000
Total
261,000
232,800,000
39
Royalties (Vt)
The main sandalwood markets are in Europe and Asia. The types of sandalwood products exported to these
markets are sandalwood oil, carving logs, semi processed sandalwood chips and small sandalwood logs.
Market potential
Sandalwood is regarded as having good future market potential. Vanuatu is aware of the development of
sandalwood plantations particularly in Western Australia, and how these large scale developments may
affect the international sandalwood market in the near future. Despite these huge developments, Vanuatu
feels that there is still a market for its sandalwood, targeting markets that appreciate organically grown
wood, most of which is raised through the unique traditional farming system.
The market for sandalwood continues to be lucrative. Anecdotal reports have noted that demand for sandalwood
continues to outstrip supply; and that the current supply may only meet 50% of the world demand for sandalwood
and sandalwood products. It is also estimated that the annual supply of Vanuatu sandalwood (80 tons) represents
around one percent of the world market. This means that there is a huge potential for developing the sector
and increasing supply to the world market.
Each year, the Department of Forests receives between two to four inquiries, declaring interest in buying
substantial quantities of sandalwood heartwood. These are important indications of a growing demand
for sandalwood that fuelled the current planting programmes, knowing that demand for sandalwood will
continue to persist.
Sandalwood is an important forest product and Vanuatu will continue to develop and improve its sandalwood
resources. Currently, there are no specific plans or strategies for the management, conservation and
development of the national sandalwood resource. However, being an important resource, the government,
through the Department of Forests will soon be embarking on specific plans to develop sandalwood. Two of
these plans are listed below;
Deployment of elite genetic resources
The Department of Forests in collaboration with JCU, through an ACIAR funded project, is currently working
on establishing the basis for deployment of elite genetic material onto several islands in Vanuatu. These
grafted seed orchards are intended to improve the supply of seeds to the local communities. It is anticipated
that getting seeds close to the farmers will increase their planting rates.
Forestry master plan
The Department of Forests has commenced initial discussions on the development of a Forestry Master
Plan. The Master Plan intends to guide the development of the forestry sector in Vanuatu, by guiding where
specific industries including plantations should be established. Using existing information, the plan will
identify which areas in Vanuatu are best suited to planting of sandalwood. This information will guide both
investor and individuals and landowners to plan their sandalwood plantings. In the absence of such a plan,
it has been difficult to assess whether trees planted in recent times have been situated in the most suitable
sandalwood growing zones.
Sandalwood conservation
A sandalwood conservation strategy was developed in 2000 (Anon, 2000), but has yet to be fully implemented.
In the strategy, specific areas have been suggested for gene conservation. Research results from five years
ago identified several populations and individual trees of superior, oil-producing characteristics which should
be conserved. This is an important area that needs to be re-visited.
The government currently does not have a specific extension and awareness programme on sandalwood. The
Department of Forests, with limited resources, is unable to effectively implement an efficient extension and
awareness programme on sandalwood. The Department is forced to utilise opportunities in other programmes
to provide awareness on sandalwood planting and silviculture. The sandalwood programme is currently
undertaken by the industry and individuals, and the main role of the Department of Forests has been to
provide information and train local communities on the management aspects of growing sandalwood.
40
The siliviculture of sandalwood is complex. It is a hemi-parasitic tree, gaining up to 50% of its nutritional needs
from host trees and other plants. In order for sandalwood to produce a high quality heartwood, it has to be
grown in areas suitable for the tree and under appropriate management/silvicultural regimes. Due to absence
of a sandalwood cultivation guide, many of the local farmers involved in sandalwood planting may not achieve
the maximum expected returns from their trees. Such a guide is planned and will be published in 2012.
There are several issues that affect the extension and awareness programmes.
A sandalwood development programme is required to ensure that the sector and the industry’s development
are guided. In the absence of a development programme, it is difficult to direct and effectively promote the
development of the sector. The features of the development programme might include but not be limited to;
(i) Identifying and mapping areas suitable for sandalwood both in traditional and non-traditional sandalwood
growing areas; (ii) guidelines for movement of germplasm and development; (iii) information on silvicultural
practices; (iv) in situ and ex situ conservation plans; and (v) prioritization of research activities. The programme
ought to include processing; particularly product development. At the moment, the processing industry is
alone in product research and development. This is an area that needs collaborative efforts from both the
industry and the government to look into researching and developing new sandalwood products.
Standardisation of awareness materials
There is an urgent need to standardise sandalwood training and awareness materials. With the involvement
of other stakeholders in promoting sandalwood, it is important that those involved in awareness and training
convey similar messages. It is the role of the Department of Forests to collaborate with other players in the
industry to develop standardised sandalwood awareness training materials.
Financial resources
Financial resources for training and awareness raising is also an issue. In most locations it is not possible for
the department to conduct awareness and training outside duty stations due to budgetary constraints. It is,
therefore, hopeful that a sandalwood development programme can pave the way for collaborative implementation
of the plan, and also become an instrument which can attract donor funding.
Other agencies
The development of the sandalwood sector in Vanuatu is going through an interesting development stage. The
promotion of sandalwood replanting which used to be the province of the Department of Forests and industry
has now widened to include other agencies. Two of these agencies are listed below.
VANWOD
As of last year, the VANWOD microfinance scheme (organisation promoting women in business) began
promoting sandalwood as a resource that its members can tap into. The organisation purchases sandalwood
seeds from farmers, raises the seedlings and distributes them to its members as part of its financial scheme.
The organisation in 2010 has become the main buyer of seeds and also one of the main suppliers of sandalwood
seedlings in Port Vila.
Sandalwood industry
The sandalwood industry has played a significant and pivotal role in the development of sandalwood in
Vanuatu. Their involvement in implementing government policy on onshore value adding of sandalwood has
led to a steady increase in sandalwood royalties in the last few years. This increase in royalties has contributed
directly to the current increase in sandalwood reforestation efforts and interest among sandalwood owners,
communities and individuals from non-traditional sandalwood growing islands to start growing sandalwood.
The industry has also participated and supported communities and individuals to plant sandalwood. The
industry supplies seedlings, seeds and information on replanting and conducts awareness on sandalwood in
some schools.
Community groups
The role of community groups in promoting sandalwood is also noted. In 2009, the Department of Forests set
up ten forestry nurseries, each one on a different island. These nurseries promote sandalwood as one of the
main nursery plants. Also recently, certain groups of churches have also shown interest in raising sandalwood
seedlings for their members to plant. These are examples of some of the developments in which other
agencies are involved in promoting sandalwood planting.
41
Main issues and constraints faced
Agencies involved in sandalwood planting face a series of constraints in implementing their planting
programmes. The main issue is the need for participants in the sector to cooperate well and assist each other.
Two of the main constraints faced are:
Financial assistance
A majority of agencies require financial support to assist them with the purchase of nursery materials and
seeds to begin producing seedlings. The Department of Forests has, on several occasions, been approached
by community groups, and church groups requiring capital to purchase nursery materials. Access to sufficient
financial resources remains a constraint to sandalwood replanting efforts.
Information
Appropriate information on growing sandalwood remains an issue, and lack of proper information might have
future deleterious consequences for wood quality.
Introduction of Santalum album
One of the main challenges to the sandalwood industry in Vanuatu is the introduction of Santalum album.
How the Indian sandalwood will affect Vanuatu sandalwood is not yet known, but what is certain is that the S.
album seed source is unknown, and thereby raises the question of the integrity of the material now grown in
Vanuatu. Santalum album spontaneously hybridises with S. austrocaledonicum (Lex Thomson, pers. comm.),
and uncontrolled hybrids might become commonplace. The challenge for the sandalwood industry is to verify
the quality of the introduced species. Such information is required to ensure appropriate management and
sandalwood breeding and also marketing of S. album from Vanuatu.
There are several national priority development activities that need to be implemented to ensure appropriate
development of the sandalwood sector. It is evident that sandalwood resources in the wild are diminishing and
that the industry cannot solely rely on wild sandalwood in future. It is also evident that to be successful in the
sandalwood business, the industry/licensees have to make the different products required by the market.
While sandalwood oil remains an important product, the demand for raw wood is continuing to increase. It
seems that the industry has moved forward, and to ensure that sandalwood remains an important forest
product, it is important that the industry and the government collaborate on research on developing new
products.
Listed below are some of national priorities that Vanuatu needs to address in the near future.
Research
Research is essential for the development of the sandalwood sector in Vanuatu. The last research on sandalwood
was on the verification of oil yield and quality in the natural population. The information gained has led the
government to make selections of elite individuals as a basis for future improvement and planting.
The current priority research activity in Vanuatu is the tree improvement research. The current sandalwood
project, which started in 2010, is aimed at genetic improvement through controlled hybridisation of selected
elite individuals. It is envisaged that by the end of 2011 that Vanuatu will have successfully raised controlled
pollinated seedlings for establishing progeny trials.
Development
The sandalwood sector in Vanuatu has been progressing well, as the communities, land owners and other
agencies are currently taking the leading role in planting sandalwood. While this is an important step for
future sustainability of the industry, the concern now is whether the trees are planted in areas most suitable
for growing sandalwood, and also whether the participants are fully aware of the silvicultural requirements for
raising a good crop of trees. This is an important issue for consideration, and raises the need for a sandalwood
development plan. Another priority development area for the sandalwood sector, which falls under a current
ACIAR funded project, is the deployment of grafted seed orchards to several communities in the country, which
would provide seeds of good genetic and physiological qualities to surrounding communities.
42
Extension
The government through the Department of Forests will continue with its normal extension activities. At the
moment, standardisation of training and awareness materials is very important, and it is a priority for producing
these. Several materials have been developed but only need to be combined into one simple step-by-step
document that farmers, the Department of Forests, and other agencies can use. Most of the information is
already contained in the “Fasin blong Planem Sandalwud” manual.
Legislation
Sandalwood cultivation involves considerable investment and time and has the potential to provide a high
return on initial investment. However, while reforestation has been encouraged and carried out by several
individuals, no specific regulations governing planted forests, including sandalwood, exist in Vanuatu.
Legislation that provides security over planted trees and a legal framework for trading in planted sandalwood
trees is required. This may help attract future investments into the reforestation of sandalwood.
References
Anon. 2000. A strategy for conserving, managing and better utilizing the genetic resources of
Santalum austrocaledonicum (sandalwood) in Vanuatu. AusAID-SPRIG Project and Vanuatu Department of
Forests, Port Vila. 31 p.
43
4
SPC REGIONAL REPORT ON SANDALWOOD
Cenon Padolina and Vinesh Prasad, Land Resources Division, Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Exchange of sandalwood seeds/planting materials in PICTs There has been limited exchange of tree germplasm between the small island countries in the Pacific, mainly
for research and development, although historically a number of useful tree species had been introduced from
within and outside the region. These exchanges are poorly documented.
During the implementation of the SPRIG project, there was active sharing of improved germplasm among
the participating countries using agreed and safe protocols, mainly in the form of seed exchanges. At national
levels, tree seed collection practices have been enhanced and are being maintained and actively used.
Effective and efficient procedures for the production of planting stocks, including seedlings, cuttings and
wildlings collection were developed. Unfortunately, however, these activities were adversely affected in recent
years by declining government budget support for forestry research and development in most PICTs.
The main problem facing the sandalwood industry in the Pacific is the supply of sufficient quantities of seed
for replanting purposes. The availability of seeds has been affected mainly by the overexploitation of the species
where most of the mature trees are harvested and traded. Likewise, the species has intermediate seed storage
behaviour, with seeds losing viability during storage within a period of months to several years.
Due to the importance of sandalwood to the economy of Vanuatu, its Department of Forests is working towards
better management of this resource. This is being achieved through the development of a specific policy on
sustainable management of sandalwood, which emphasises replanting. The policy recommendations include a
programme of replanting, exchange of germplasm and the conservation of the genetic resources of the species.
A similar conservation strategy for sandalwood in Fiji and Tonga was prepared under the SPRIG Project in
consultation with the respective forestry departments. These conservation strategies advocate replanting using
local germplasm (Thomson et al., 2000). The lack of resources and political will has adversely affected the
implementation of the conservation plans and strategies as envisaged.
Conservation, management and sustainable use of forest and tree genetic resources
The supply and exchange of tree germplasm plays a vital role in the conservation, management and utilisation
of forest genetic resources (FGR) in Pacific Island countries and territories. Thus, the efficient and safe exchange
of priority germplasm within and between PICTs is critical to sustaining genetic diversity within the Pacific and
at the same time enhancing the livelihoods and food security of PICT communities. The supply and exchange
of appropriate tree germplasm will become an increasingly important component of the regional strategy for
adapting to climate change, especially for the rehabilitation of degraded forest lands, coastal and watershed
protection and food security.
With limited resources and capacities available among small island countries in the Pacific, regional cooperation
could provide an effective solution towards a successful implementation of the strategy and action plan on forest
genetic resource conservation and management in the Pacific. It is, therefore, vital that a regional approach is
adopted, such that information and genetic resources can be readily exchanged among PICTs.
In April 1999 a regional action plan was developed to address practical actions that could be taken at the
international, regional, national and local levels to curb the loss of forest and tree genetic resources in PICTs.
The said action plan was reviewed and updated in a regional workshop held in June 2007. The updated action
plan was formally endorsed by the Heads of Agriculture and Forestry Services and approved by the Ministers
of Agriculture and Forestry at a regional meeting held in Apia, Samoa in September 2008 as an expression of
support and commitment among member PICTs.
This action plan will serve as a framework for planning and implementing the conservation, management and
sustainable use of forest and tree genetic resources within PICTs.
44
It sets priorities for implementation over the next eight years based on previous works and incorporates new
knowledge and changes in priorities. It will guide PICTs in developing and implementing relevant activities
and policies within their own regional, national and local policies and action plans, thus, contributing to the
security and development of their forest and tree genetic resources for present and future generations.
Establishment of a regional tree seed centre
Facilitating the regional exchange of tree germplasm among the small island countries through the establishment
of a regional tree seed centre at SPC’s Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) is one of the major recommendations
under the 2007 Regional Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of the Forest
Genetic Resources in the Pacific. The purpose for the new regional forest tree seed centre which the SPC is now
tasked to establish is to assist PICTs to collect and share germplasm of timber, fruit/nut tree and shrub
species of high regional importance. Species of particular importance for their resistance to cyclones,
coastal protection and atoll environments will be a focus for the Centre .
It is also envisaged that the centre will act as a centre-of-excellence for the provision of technical support,
training, information and advice to member PICTs. This role will cover fields such as seed technology,
propagation techniques and establishment of seed production areas for priority species that are hard to
collect from the wild. It will develop a Materials Transfer Agreement for exchange of tree germplasm and
inform member countries and territories on access and benefit sharing and related IPR matters to provide a
regional focal point for coordination and implementation of priority germplasm collection, storage, distribution
and research. Through effective conservation, management and utilisation, a dynamic and sustainable resource
management can be achieved that will reduce poverty, increase food security and assist in the protection of the
environment from the adverse effects of climate change.
45
5
TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
5.1 CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM INSULARE)
IN FRENCH POLYNESIA AND FINDINGS AFTER 10 YEARS OF ITS
IMPLEMENTATION
Jean-François BUTAUD a,b with the collaboration of foresters from the Rural Development Service (SDR),a
Consultant in Polynesian botany and forest management, POBox 52832 – 98716 Pirae – Tahiti, French
Polynesia,b Laboratory of Terrestrial and Marine Biodiversity (BIOTEM – EA 4239), University of French Polynesia
(UPF), POBox 6570 – 98702 Faaa – Tahiti, French Polynesia.
This paper provides a summary of diversity studies and provenance definition for Santalum insulare, followed
by an overview of sandalwood planting efforts in French Polynesia. It also constitutes a follow up to the paper
on plantations presented at the 2005 sandalwood workshop (Butaud and Malet, 2007).
Diversity and provenances of Santalum insulare
Polynesian sandalwood (Santalum insulare) is divided into nine botanical varieties in South-eastern Polynesia
(Fosberg and Sachet, 1985): 1 in Cook Islands, 1 in Pitcairn Islands and 7 in French Polynesia (Figure 1). In the
latter, it is known as native on 10 islands covering 3 archipelagos. It may have previously disappeared from
several other islands (Butaud and Defranoux, 2007).
Figure 1. Distribution Of Santalum Insulare in South-Eastern Polynesia
46
In order to sustainably manage this natural resource, studies of its ecological, morphological, genetic and
chemical variability were conducted from throughout the species natural range (Butaud, 2006).
Ecology and morphology
Polynesian sandalwood is found growing from sea level to an elevation of more than 2200 m, on volcanic or
coralline soils and among different vegetation types.
Seed morphology is highly variable according to archipelagos / islands, elevation and fruit-dispersing birds.
For example, average seed length varied between 9 and 34 mm in different populations.
Figure 2. Seed morphology of Santalum insulare
Genetic diversity
Genetic studies by chloroplast and nuclear microsatellite markers (Figure 3) showed a high clonality (60%)
and a differentiation in four metapopulations (evolutionary significant units – Figure 4) corresponding to archipelagos
separated by large oceanic barriers. Clonal clusters are explained by vegetative multiplication through root suckering.
Figure 3. Neighbour-joining tree with
nuclear microsatellites
Figure 4. Evolutionary significant units
47
Taxonomical revision
These morphological and genetic studies have led to a revision of the taxonomy of the species in French
Polynesia (Table 1) which will be published in the near future. Thus, in the Marquesas, var. deckeri will
become a synonym of var. marchionense. In this archipelago, two new varieties will be described: one endemic
to the high elevations of Nuku Hiva (commonly known as Toovii) and perhaps Hiva Oa, and the other one
endemic to the isolated island of Fatuiva.
TABLE 1. PROPOSED SANTALUM INSULARE TAXONOMY IN FRENCH POLYNESIA
Archipelago
Society Islands
Society Islands
Society Islands
Marquesas Islands
Marquesas Islands
Marquesas Islands
Austral Islands
Austral Islands
Variety
S. insulare Bertero ex A. DC.
var. insulare
S. insulare var. alticola Fosberg and Sachet
S. insulare var. raiateense
(J. W. Moore) Fosberg and Sachet
S. insulare var. marchionense (Skottsb.) Skottsberg
S. insulare var. nov 1 S. insulare var. nov 2 S. insulare var. margaretae (F. Brown) Skottsberg
S. insulare var. raivavense F. Brown
Distribution
Tahiti, low elevation
Tahiti, high elevation
Raiatea, Moorea
Nuku Hiva, low elevation
Ua Pou, Hiva Oa, Tahuata
Nuku Hiva, high elevation; Hiva Oa ?
Fatuiva
Rapa
Raivavae
Chemical variability
The diversity of sesquiterpenoid composition of heartwood oil obtained by solvent extract is organized in two
chemotypes (Figure 5) characterized by distinct carbon backbones as their main constituents: a typical santalol
chemotype (santalane backbone) and a new (Z)-nuciferol chemotype (bisabolane backbone). The santalol
chemotype is the commonest on each island whereas the (Z)-nuciferol chemotype is restricted to three
populations on two islands of the same archipelago. Moreover, some minor variations exist within the santalol
chemotype and help to differentiate several provenances linked with geographical distribution (Figure 6 and
Table 2).
Figure 5. Chemotypes of Santalum insulare
48
Figure 6. Ascendant hierarchical classification of sandalwood
provenances based on heartwood oil composition
TABLE 2. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF S. INSULARE HEARTWOOD OILS BY PROVENANCE
Provenancesα-santalolβ-santalol
ISO Standard (S. album)
(Z)-nuciferol
41-55
16-24
-
12
4
25
6
2
37
Nuku Hiva Santalols
49
19
2
Ua Pou
51
22
2
Hiva Oa Santalols and Tahuata
49
19
4
Fatu Hiva
38
18
4
Tahiti low elevation
40
16
5
Tahiti high elevation
51
22
2
Moorea
44
18
4
Raiatea
39
14
8
Raivavae
35
13
5
Rapa
46
21
1
Nuku Hiva Nuciferol
Hiva Oa Nuciferol
49
Conclusion
The synthesis of these diversity patterns shows a congruence of genetic and chemical structure, leaving aside
the rare (Z)-nuciferol chemotype. A tight relation is also observed between seed morphology and ecological
conditions. Whereas the existence of the (Z)-nuciferol chemotype remains unexplained by ecological or genetical
considerations, the variability among the santalol chemotype is linked with the genetic differentiation and to a
lesser extent with soil conditions. Expression of diversity varied according to traits showing that natural selection
and genetic drift do not have the same impacts. The low variation between populations for chemical traits
suggests a stabilizing selection while the strong variation between populations for morphological traits
suggests a local adaptation related to variation in biotic and abiotic factors.
The strategy implemented for the conservation and the utilization of the diversity of Polynesian sandalwood is
the creation of seed orchards /conservation stands throughout French Polynesia. Indeed, natural populations are
scarce and often difficult to reach. Seed collection has then been done on several islands despite the impacts of
introduced rats which are major seed predators (Meyer and Butaud, 2009). The aim is the establishment of seed
orchards for each of the identified provenances. These orchards will furnish seed for future production
plantations by the Forest Department and private owners, and will constitute an insurance conservation
strategy if sandalwood poaching persists in the natural stands.
1. Sandalwood plantations – current situation
By the end of 2010, conservation stands have been established for 5 provenances on 4 islands in French
Polynesia (Table 3): two varieties on Nuku Hiva, one on Hiva Oa, one on Moorea, and one on Tahiti. A mixture
of varieties has been introduced on Ua Huka where native sandalwood is considered to be extinct. In
December 2010, more than 50 sandalwood plants of var. raiateense from Raiatea will be planted on Tahaa,
the sister island of Raiatea.
TABLE 3. SANTALUM INSULARE PLANTATIONS IN FRENCH POLYNESIA
Archipelago Island
Variety
Date
Site / Block
Ua Huka
nov. and
2001
Manihina
marchionense
Ua Huka
nov. and
2001
Manihina
marchionense.
Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii)
2001
Hakapehi
Nuku Hiva marchionense 2001
Terre-Déserte
2002
Terre-Déserte
2003
Teavaiti 26
2004
Teavaiti 39
2005
Teavaiti 42
Marquesas Nuku Hiva nov. (Toovii)
2007
Teavaiti 44
2008
Teavaiti 48
2008
Teavaiti 24
2009
Teavaiti 78
2009
Teavaiti 79
Hiva Oa
marchionense 2007
L'Herbier 19
Hiva Oa
marchionense 2008
L'Herbier 20
Hiva Oa
marchionense 2010
L'Herbier
Moorea
raiateense
2004-5-6 Opunohu 58
Moorea
raiateense
2009
Opunohu, belvedere A
Moorea
raiateense
2009
Opunohu, Society
belvedere B
Tahiti
insulare
2007
Taravao A
Tahiti
insulare
2007
Papeiti
Tahiti
insulare
2009
Taravao A
Tahiti
insulare
2010
Taravao B
French
Polynesia
5 islands
4 varieties
2001-10 21 blocks
50
Area
(ha)
0.27
Number Spacing (m)
26
5x10
0.11
10
5x7
0.74
1.05
0.41
0.28
0.38
0.09
0.41
0.37
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.48
0.82
0.52
0.50
0.14
210
192
73
107
170
51
135
108
67
74
65
104
227
210
139
42
4x8
6x10
6x10
4x6
3x6
3x4
3x4
8x8
6x6
4x3
5, 5x3
6x6
6x6
5x5
5x6
5x6
0.40
137
5x6
0.74
0.10
0.14
0.28
205
39
40
78
6x6
6x6
6x6
6x6
8.61 ha
2509
-
Thus, 8.6 ha of Polynesian sandalwood plantations have been planted in French Polynesia over a 10 year
period. Together with several hundred isolated trees sold or given to local communities, these constitute the
only plantations of Santalum insulare in the country.
2. Growth of sandalwood plantations
The results of planting efforts, all carried out by the Rural Development Service (SDR) on public land, are
presented below by archipelago and by island.
No plantings have been carried out in the Austral Islands, neither on the islands of Ua Pou, Tahuata and
Fatuiva in the Marquesas.
On the Leeward Islands of Society archipelago, the first plantation will be done in December on Tahaa using
seeds gathered in 2001 or 2002 and germinated in 2009 (70% of germination after 7 years in a fridge at 4oC).
The measurements carried out on Moorea and Tahiti in the Society Islands and on Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas
are described in detail in the following section.
a. Sandalwood plantations on Moorea, Society Islands
Between 2002 and 2006, SDR staff collected several hundred seeds from the natural sandalwood (Santalum
insulare var. raiateense) population on Mount Rotui on Moorea. These seeds were used for the creation of
several plantations on the public land of Opunohu.
The first plantation with 29 saplings was done in October 2004 using seeds germinated in January 2003. In
2005 and 2006, this block was increased through the planting of 110 new sandalwoods. Tree heights were
measured on 3 March 2005, 30 October 2005 and 9 November 2010. Tree diameters at 50 cm above ground
were measured on 9 November 2010. The results are given in Table 4. The first flowering occurred in mid-July 2006.
TABLE 4. HEIGHTS (M) AND GROWTH (M/YEAR) IN THE INITIAL OPUNOHU SANDALWOOD PLANTATION
3/03/05
30/10/05
9/11/10
9/11/10
Date of plantation
2004
2004
2004
2004-5-6
Number of trees
29
28
28
104
Mean height (m)
1.5
1.9
3.6
2.9
Range
0.9-2.1
1.3-2.6
1.9-4.7
0.2-4.7
Height growth (m/year)
0.82
0.59
0.34
x
Mean diameter (cm)
x
1.2
7.4
5.4
Range
x
0.9-1.6
4.1-11.8
2.2 -11.8
Diameter growth (cm/year)
x
0.48
1.24
x
Trees with flowers (%)
0
0
96
85
Trees with fruits (%)
0
0
75
66
Thus, more than 7 years after the germination, the trees of the first planting have reached an average of about
3.6 m with a diameter of 7.4 cm at 50 cm above the ground. Mortality has been very low with one tree dying
during this period. Whereas the height growth decreased with age, it is interesting to see the increase in
diameter growth in the same period. Moreover, most of the trees are now fruiting which permit an easy
gathering of seeds for new plantations since 2008. This plantation acts now as a seed orchard for the
variety raiateense from Moorea thereby achieving the original aim.
No host plants have yet been planted inside this plantation, sandalwood presumed to be hosted onto weeds,
herbs, ferns and the few residual trees present before the plantation.
In 2010, 2 new plantations were established in Opunohu with seeds from the 2004 seed orchard (Table 5).
51
TABLE 5. HEIGHTS (M) IN THE 2010 OPUNOHU SANDALWOOD PLANTATIONS
9/11/10
9/11/10
Site
Belvedere down
Belvedere up
Number of trees
40
104
Mean height (m)
1.0
1.1
Standard deviation
0.3
0.4
Maximum
1.6
2.1
Minimum
0.2
0.3
This recent plantation is a success with good growth of most of the plants attaining at least 50 cm in height.
The only problem is the presumed theft of several individual plants.
b. Sandalwood plantations on Tahiti, Society Islands
On Tahiti, Santalum insulare var. insulare is restricted to two sites: Papeiti and Taravao. The oldest
plantation at Taravao plateau was done in 2007 with at least 205 saplings planted from 2 natural populations
on Tahiti (Tiapa and Pic Vert). The Taravao plantation was measured once in December 2009 (Table 6).
TABLE 6. SANDALWOOD HEIGHT (M) IN THE 2007 TARAVAO PLANTATIONS
16/12/09
Site
Taravao
Number of trees
202
Mean height (m)
1.6
Range
0.7-3.3
Trees with flowers
5
Trees with fruit
2
The mortality was very low with no problems of theft or rats chewing bark. No host plants were used, as
potential hosts in the form of weeds and residual trees were common. The growth is somewhat less than
observed on Moorea for the 2010 plantations (Table 5). This could be due to more weed competition on Tahiti
than on Moorea and less weeding on the former island.
In 2010, more than 10 trees were observed to be fruiting. Fruits are now able to be gathered to establish new
plantations of this endangered variety on Tahiti.
c.
-
-
Sandalwood plantations on Nuku Hiva, Marquesas islands
On Nuku Hiva, plantations have been established on 3 sites for both varieties existing on the island :
Hakapehi, Taiohae village: var. nov from the high elevation plateau of Toovii in 2001,
Terre-deserte, close to the airport: var. nov and var. marchionense (Vaiteheii stand) in a single block in 2001
and 2002,
- Teavaiti (sometimes called Teavanui) saddle: several blocks of var. nov.
Of these plantations (4.11 ha), those in Hakapehi (0.74 ha) and Terre-deserte (1.46 ha) have been measured for
height and diameter growth over several years. Monitoring has recently commenced on some plantations in
Teavaiti.
Hakapehi Plantation
This plantation was created in February 2001 from plants germinated in March 2000, and has been regularly
assessed (Table 7). Initially, diameter was not taken as the trees were too small. In recent years, the height
was not taken as this measurement was not informative.
52
Although some of the sandalwood trees that died were replaced and despite the recurrent dryness on the
island, mortality has been very low (less than 10%). Ten years after planting, the sandalwood trees had a mean
height exceeding 4 m with some specimens reaching 5 or 6 meters. The mean diameter is about 6 cm with
some trees exceeding 11 cm.
It is interesting to note that the height growth decreased whereas the diameter growth increased around 5
years after the planting.
In 2010, around 75% of the trees were flowering and 25% were fruiting. These proportions are still growing,
indicating that the fertility is highly variable between trees and attaining reproductive maturity can take a
long time. The best criterion for fruiting is stem diameter, with the thicker stemmed trees being the earliest to
flower. Candidate plus trees can be selected on the basis of those that have attained 10 cm diameter after 10 years.
TABLE 7. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD TREES IN THE HAKAPEHI PLANTATION
27/12/01
7/02/03
4/04/04 28/10/05
18/07/06
26/12/08
28/01/10
Number
210
209
207
209
208
211
211
Mean height (m)
1.03
1.70
2.19
3.01
3.28
x
x
Range
0.41-1.77
0.55-2.8
0.80-3.5 0.70-4.7
0.75-5.18
x
x
0.62
0.60
0.43
0.55
0.38
x
x
Mean diameter (cm)
x
x
2.42
3.41
4.14
5.35
5.83
Range
x
x
0.6-5.0
0.3-7.2
0.0-8.53
0.54-11.6 0.48-11.6
x
x
0.54
0.66
1.02
0.50
0.44
0
0
10
21
71
124
146
x
x
2.54
3.32
3.56
x
x
x
x
3.64
4.72
5.12
6.09
6.50
0
0
0
5
26
47
55
Trees with fruits : Height x
x
x
3.12
3.59
x
x
x
x
4.46
5.15
6.02
6.53
Diameter growth
(cm/year)
Trees with flowers :
Number
Height
Diameter
Trees with fruits :
Number
Trees with fruits :
Diameter
x
53
Captions to the horizontal axis in French?
Figure 7. Height and diameter growth on sandalwood plants in the Hakapehi plantation
Terre-Deserte plantations
This stand was created in two stages, first, in February 2001, with the planting of sandalwood trees from var.
marchionense provenance (low altitude Vaiteheii on Nuku Hiva) and then, in January 2002, with trees from var.
nov. provenance (high altitude Toovii on Nuku Hiva).Table 8 gives the measurements taken at 3 occasions.
Mortality was high 5 or 6 years after planting, with a rate of 63% mortality among low altitude (var. marchionense)
trees and 75% mortality among high altitude (var. nov) trees. This was to be expected as the ecological and
technical conditions are more difficult at Terre-Deserte: severe dryness, lack of watering, grazing by horse
and cattle due to damage to fencing. Nevertheless, the growth rate increased between 2004 and 2007,
probably because of higher rainfall and the improved growing conditions for the scattered surviving trees.
The growth of the two varieties seems to be generally similar, considering their difference in planting dates
(one year). On the other hand, the mortality rate differs between these varieties, with the high elevation variety
being less well adapted to the harsh ecological conditions of Terre-Deserte.
The comparison between Hakapehi and Terre-Deserte plantation shows similar growth rates; this is probably
due to the death of the smallest and weakest trees in the Terre-Deserte plantation.
TABLE 8. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD PLANTS IN TERRE-DESERTE PLANTATION
Varieties
Number of trees
Mean height (m)
Range
Height growth
(m/year)
Mean diameter (cm)
Range
Trees with flowers:
Number
11/02/03
var.
marchionense
146
1.02
0.4-2.4
11/02/03
var.
nov.
57
0.78
0.45-1.25
7/04/04
var.
marchionense
102
1.56
0.15-3.9
7/04/04
var.
nov.
37
1.04
0.50-2.05
19/07/07
var.
marchionense
70
3.71
0.4-5.6
19/07/07
var.
nov.
18
2.64
0.7-4.9
x
x
x
x
x
x
0.47
1.20
0.1-3.7
0.23
0.86
0.4-2.1
0.65
3.96
0.2-9.5
0.49
2.57
0.2-6.4
0
0
1
0
32
2
54
Trees with flowers:
Height
Trees with flowers:
Diameter
Trees with fruits:
Number
Trees with fruits:
Height
Trees with fruits:
Diameter
x
x
3.50
x
4.55
3.7
x
x
3.6
x
5.82
4.4
0
0
0
0
10
2
x
x
x
x
4.77
3.7
x
x
x
x
6.43
4.4
This plantation has been fully-fenced in 2009 in order to prevent damage by horses or cattle and to complete
the var. marchionense lines.
Col Teavaiti plantations
Among the 8 blocks of sandalwood planted since 2003 on public land at Teavaiti, 4 were measured in 2008. A
single block was measured before, the block 39 in 2006. This last block was planted in 2004 with replacement
of dead trees in 2008.
We can see important difference of mean height between the oldest plantation of 2003 (block 26 – 1.1 m) and
the one of 2004 (block 39 – 2.0 m). This can be explained by damage during maintenance with injuries to the
stem by the weed trimmer.
Teavaiti sandalwoods planted at 600 m elevation in a wetter area show a similar or slightly lower growth
compared with other plantations of Hakapehi and Terre-Deserte planted at lower elevation on drier sites. This
might be due to the lack of good host plant before the planting and/or the delay of growth of planted host plants.
TABLE 9. ASSESSMENTS OF SANDALWOOD PLANTS IN TEAVAITI PLANTATION
Block
26
39
42
48
April 2008
25 July 2006
Date of plantation
2003
2004
April 2008
April 2008
April 2008
2004
2008
2005
2008
Number of trees
59
Mean height (m)
1.1
126
108
36
23
107
1.4
2.0
0.7
1.1
0.7
Range (m)
0.2-3.0
0.6-2.4
0.6-4.0
0.4-1.5
0.2-2.0
0.4-1.1
(20 mths)
x
x
0.36
x
x
x
Mean diameter (cm)
x
1.4
2.9
x
x
x
Range (cm)
x
0.0-3.1
0.0-6.7
x
x
x
Trees with flowers
0
3
9
0
0
0
Trees with fruits
0
0
3
0
0
0
Conclusion
Ten years after the beginning of sandalwood plantings, more than 8.6 ha of Polynesian sandalwood plantations
have been created in 21 blocks, on five islands. A total of more than 2500 saplings have been planted on public
land. Foresters working in different islands in different archipelagos remain enthusiastic about promoting this slow
growing species. Their continuing efforts will provide a much better chance for this species to continue to survive.
The older plantations of Nuku Hiva (Hakapehi) and Moorea (Opunohu) fulfil their role as seed
orchards/ conservation stands. Indeed, SDR workers are now gathering seeds in these plantations for
seedling production in nurseries. In a few months, the Tahiti (Taravao) plantation could act also as a seed
orchard with increased fruiting trees. Sandalwood plants could then be promoted for plantations on private
property and sold to the general public. This is also the time of risk of mixture of provenances with several
known transfers of seedlings between archipelagos for business or gift purposes. To limit that, a note (but
not a legal rule) was circulated by the head of SDR on the 20 October 2006 (n°3713/SDR/FOGER), asking for
a control of the movement of sandalwood plants and seeds between islands.
55
The growth of the plantations can be considered satisfactory despite the dryness in the Marquesas, poor
weed maintenance in several islands and other problems which could be eliminated in the future. On the
Marquesas, we can expect a minimum growth of 10 cm diameter in 10 years whereas in the Society 15 cm in
10 years is expected. We still need more time to draw any conclusions about the appropriate diameter and the
age for utilization.
In the near future, we expect to be able improve the management of host plants (species, density, date of
planting relatively to sandalwood) as several plantations have no intermediate or long term host plants. We
should also develop sandalwood seed orchards as a matter of priority for the last evolutionary significant
units lacking this ex-situ conservation measure, viz. the Austral archipelago. It could be done more easily
on Raivavae island with easy gathering of mature fruits on sandy islets that are not home to ship rats. Some
efforts could also be done in Ua Pou and Fatuiva in the Marquesas but seed collection is more difficult on
these two islands
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the enthusiastic SDR agents working on the conservation and propagation of
sandalwood: Silvio on Moorea, Olive, Tommy and Mataiki brothers on Hiva Oa, Lucien Bonno and Jean-Pierre
Malet on Nuku Hiva, Joël Hahe on Tahaa, Léopold Stein, Maxime Taerea, Clayton Taerea and Laurent Georges
on Tahiti. Merci also to Frederic Jacq, Tamara Maric and Matai Depierre for some measurements. Thanks to
Lex Thomson for correcting the English and to Cenon Padolina for organizing the workshop.
References
Butaud J.F. 2006. Contribution à la connaissance d'un arbre insulaire en voie de disparition, le santal de
Polynésie française (Santalum insulare): études écologique, morphologique, génétique et chimique. PhD.
Thesis. Université de la Polynésie française, 1-457.
Butaud J.F. and Defranoux S. 2007. Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) programme in French Polynesia. In:
Thomson L., Bulai S., Wilikibau B. (eds.) Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research,
development and extension in the Pacific islands (28 November – 1 December 2005, Nadi, Fiji): p 73-79.
Butaud J.F. and Malet J.P. 2007. Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) planting efforts in French Polynesia. In:
Thomson L., Bulai S., Wilikibau B. (eds.) Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood research,
development and extension in the Pacific islands (28 November – 1 December 2005, Nadi, Fiji): p 73-79.
Fosberg F.R. and Sachet M.H. 1985. Santalum in Eastern Polynesia. Candollea 40: 459-470.
Meyer J.Y. and Butaud J.F. 2009. The impacts of rats on the endangered native flora of French
Polynesia (Pacific Islands): drivers of plant extinction or coup de grâce species? Biological invasions 11 (7):
1569-1585.
56
5.2 PLANTED SANDALWOOD DEVELOPMENTS IN VANUATU
Tony Page,1 Hanington Tate, 2 Anna Potrawiak,3 Alick Berry,4 Clement Bled 5
Cook University, Cairns, Australia
2 Department of Forests, Port Vila, Vanuatu
3 AP Consultancy, Perth, Australia
4 Vanuatu Chamber of Commerce, Port Vila, Vanuatu
5 Institut Polytechnique LaSalle Beauvais, Beauvais, France
1James
Abstract
The Vanuatu sandalwood industry has a very promising future, where for the first time in its recorded history
the resource is expanding. Recent planting activity has resulted in the establishment of between 270
and 550 ha of smallholder plantings and 150 ha of commercial plantings since 2000. While volumes
harvested from wild sources are likely to decline over the immediate future the increased sandalwood
planting may conservatively result in a sustainable annual yield of approximately 300 tonnes by 2030. At current
prices the production of sandalwood by smallholder farmers is economically feasible and perhaps offers
the highest returns of any agricultural activity in Vanuatu. With such smallholder sandalwood planting
expected to continue, the future harvest of this resource is likely to improve export volumes resulting
in improved balance of trade and government tax revenues, but importantly it will also stimulate the local
cash economy and ultimately improve ni-Vanuatu livelihoods.
Introduction
Sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum) provides high-value, low-volume, non-perishable products that
are in demand on the international market. Although only small volumes are harvested from wild sources
in Vanuatu (80–120 tonnes annually representing ~1-2% of world supply) it has contributed significant export
revenue and proved lucrative for harvesters. Wild-harvested sandalwood remains the basis of the Vanuatu
sandalwood industry, but the natural populations are now severely depleted (Gillieson et al. 2008). While
reducing harvest quotas can assist in making the industry more sustainable (Gillieson et al. 2008) another
option is to establish a planted resource. Active promotion of sandalwood planting was undertaken by the Vanuatu Department of Forests (VDoF) during
the 1990s and later formalised in the first objective of the department’s Sandalwood Policy (2002) where it stated:
to ‘increase sandalwood stock through replanting’. This policy also proposed that future sandalwood
purchasing licenses would only be issued to ‘applicants who have ... actively participated in sandalwood
reforestation.’ (Page et al. 2012) undertook a study to quantify the level of sandalwood planting across Vanuatu
to determine the effectiveness of government promotion. This report summarises the main findings of this
study, with respect to (a) recent activity in planting sandalwood in Vanuatu, (b) constraints to further industry
expansion and (c) commercial feasibility of smallholder sandalwood production.
Extent of sandalwood plantation estate in Vanuatu
Smallholders in Vanuatu currently demonstrate a preference for establishing sandalwood and whitewood
woodlots (Page et al. 2012). The interest in these species is largely due to the strong international demand
combined with local processing and export, which stimulates a local demand for smallholder-produced trees.
The two species are adapted to contrasting environments with whitewood adapted to areas of high rainfall,
and sandalwood adapted to drier areas of Vanuatu. These differing environmental preferences gives most
smallholders the opportunity to plant either of the two main commercial forestry species.
Sandalwood occurs naturally on eight main islands of Vanuatu (Santo, Malekula, Efate, Erromango, Aniwa,
Tanna, Futuna and Aneityum), but the climatic and edaphic conditions of eight other islands (Malo, Aore,
Ambae, Pentecost, Ambrym, Epi, Paama and Shepherd) are also suitable for its production (Gillieson et al.
2008). While the latter eight islands have little to no sandalwood plantings, their suitability represents an
opportunity for the industry to increase production over a wider geographical area, which will increase the
volumes as well as mitigating the impact of natural disasters such as cyclones.
Smallholders in Vanuatu often plant sandalwood within newly established garden areas with the trees
persisting after the garden has been abandoned and adjacent forest trees recaptures the site. This method of
establishment is preferred over plantings established in older (3–4 year old) garden areas since the growth of
sandalwood trees in the former is invariably greater than in the latter. Sandalwood seedlings are also being
established in native forests as enrichment plantings and within the village as ‘specimen’ plantings.
57
An annual planting rate of 14,270 sandalwood trees (99,890 trees) was found between 2000 and 2006, which
was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than the rate of 478 trees (3,346 trees) per year for the period between
1993 and 1999 (Page et al. 2012). Sandalwood farmers participating in a plastic planter bag initiative of the
Chamber of Commerce established an average of 327 trees between 2000 and 2006 inclusive. Some smallholder
farmers around the country are taking a lead in this area and despite not participating in the planter bag initiative
have established an average of 886 trees each. The two licensed sandalwood merchants in Vanuatu combined
have planted approximately 150 ha in Efate. Furthermore, recent foreign investment in smallholder
sandalwood has resulted in the establishment of 16 joint venture plantings in Erromango and Tanna.
The mean number of trees planted (4,000) under these arrangements is 12.5 and 4.5 times the number
measured in the 2007 survey and 2008 interviews, respectively. The increase in sandalwood planting rates since
1999 is likely to have been affected by the combined effects of:
• active promotion of tree planting in general, and sandalwood planting in particular (VDoF 2002), helped by
research and extension activities of AusAID/SPRIG and ACIAR-funded sandalwood projects (Page et al. 2008)
• the distribution of planter bags free of charge through the Vanuatu Chamber of Commerce
• a decreasing wild resource (Gillieson et al. 2008)
• increasing prices paid to landowners for sandalwood at an annual rate above that of the Vanuatu consumer
price index.
Projected industry size.
The medium- to long-term prospects for the industry are considered good due to the projected high value of
sandalwood in world markets, the level of sandalwood planting currently being undertaken and the resulting
increase in the size of the Vanuatu resource from 2020, as planted stocks begin to mature. In making projections
of the annual harvest volume we used a conservative estimate of heartwood content (18 kg at both 15 and 20 years)
in planted sandalwood established after 2000 and a projection that wild resources will decline to approximately
30 tonnes by 2015. It is likely that part of the planted resource will start to be harvested from 2014 and
combined with a 30 tonne wild harvest will bring production up to approximately 80 tonnes in 2015. This
additional planted resource will gradually build over the next decade where the industry may be able to sustain
annual production at around 120–150 tonnes between 2020 and 2025 and possibly over 300 tonnes by 2029–30. By this time the planted resource would therefore represent about a fourfold increase in annual harvesting
rates and subsequent value of the industry, when compared with the current 80 tonne annual quota. With a
continuation of the current planting activity, the Vanuatu industry can consolidate and improve its position as a
small, niche producer within the international marketplace.
Impediments to the expansion of a planted sandalwood resource
While seed supply has been a major impediment to increasing the planted sandalwood estate (Lui and
Smith 2007), it is likely that this will recede as the seed from plantations becomes increasingly available.
Sandalwood seed supply in Vanuatu comes primarily from the southern islands province of Tafea (Tanna,
Aniwa, Futuna, Erromango and Aneityum). Most smallholders in the province are able to access enough seed
to satisfy their demands for planting. This however, is not the case for the northern islands where there are
few natural populations and potential growers find it very difficult to locate sandalwood seeds. The limited
availability of planter bags, particularly for smallholders, is also an important constraint to industry development.
Boxes of planter bags (~6,000 units) are often not available in the major centres of Luganville and Port Vila,
since they are often pre-sold before importation to relatively wealthy urban wage earners, who have planting
interests in their home village. Although this interest is encouraging, further competition in the planter bag
market is required to ensure people of all demographics have the opportunity to participate in this potentially
lucrative agroforestry industry. Opportunity exists for greater competition to meet the high demand for planter
bags.
Risks to sandalwood cultivation
The current marketing duopoly operating in Vanuatu does not discourage smallholders from investing their
time in establishing sandalwood woodlots; however, it is likely to limit larger scale planting investments in
the country and thus the opportunity for the government and domestic economy to benefit from new employment opportunities and increased revenues from the export of product generated from such investments. This
policy area requires further review to ensure a balance between the protection of natural populations and open
competition can be met.
• Cyclones represent the greatest threat to sandalwood plantings attaining a full rotation. The impact of
lower category cyclones can be limited by planting in more sheltered areas, and establishing effective
vegetative wind-breaks.
58
In such protected situations, cyclones may damage the trees without a complete loss, and some salvage
may be possible. For an individual farmer there is limited capacity for mitigating the effects of high intensity cyclones. On an industry basis however, spreading the plantings across the many suitable islands in
Vanuatu will reduce the risk of outright loss of the sandalwood estate from an individual event.
• The greatest biological threat to sandalwood is the fungal disease Phellinus noxious (navwun) which can
kill trees of all ages, and if left unchecked in a planting can kill a large number of sandalwood trees. While
no chemical control agents have been registered for use against this disease, a number of traditional
methods of control (Page et al. in press) are effective in limiting the spread of the disease within a planting.
• The possibility of sandalwood tree theft is quite real in Vanuatu, particularly for larger plantings and those
established in isolated areas. Establishing plantings in areas that are regularly visited and also fencing
them will help to reduce the incidences of theft. Some respondents cited that jealousy and subsequent
vandalism may be an issue; however, as more people establish small woodlots these issues are likely to be
isolated.
Productivity of planted sandalwood
The value of a sandalwood tree is largely determined by the weight of its heartwood and the concentration and
composition of the oil contained within it (Doran et al. 2005). Determining the rate of heartwood development in
a sandalwood tree is important, since it will largely determine the length of its commercial rotation. The weight
of the heartwood is invariably limited by or dependent on the size of the tree. Very little information has been
published regarding the rate of growth in S. austrocaledonicum.
Growth rates and heartwood development
Given the prevalence of both enrichment and new garden plantings, the number of trees measured in these two
categories constituted 84% of the trees sampled. No statistical difference in the mean annual basal increment
was found between these two planting types with a basal diameter growth rate of 1.08 cm per year. Sandalwood
grown under commercial conditions was found to have significantly greater growth (~1.8 cm/yr) rates than all
other management regimes, largely due to the attention to host tree planting and fertiliser additions. Trees
planted in old garden areas were found to have (~0.8 cm/yr) significantly slower growth rates than all other
management regimes.
Heartwood development
The regression between tree age and heartwood weight indicates that the beginning of heartwood development
may occur at 7.5 years, and increase at a rate of approximately 2.5 kg per year thereafter. It is important to note
that significant variation in the timing of heartwood induction and rate of development is expected between
sites due to differences in genotype and local edaphic and/or climatic conditions. When grown under suitable
conditions (Page et al. in press) heartwood production at age 15 has been conservatively calculated at 18 kg
which increases significantly to approximately 59kg at age 30 (Page et al. 2012). These authors also reported
that heartwood development in S. austrocaledonicum may also develop earlier and with greater volumes than
similar aged trees of S. album.
Socioeconomics of sandalwood production
Using the conservative estimates of heartwood yield at both 15- and 20-year-old S. austrocaledonicum the
profitability of standard sandalwood planting models can be compared. Sandalwood agroforestry (1 ha planted
at 833stems/ha with a rotation of 15-20 yrs), which combines a food garden with sandalwood, is significantly
more profitable than producing sandalwood or food garden alone. This sandalwood agroforest had the highest
Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) (2.14) and Net Present Value (NPV) ($21, 785.64) of all 1 ha planting scenarios at
a rotation of 15-20 years. The return to labour for the 1 ha sandalwood agroforest is US$4.70/hour, which is
equivalent to the average hourly rate for a Technician (CS2.2) employed by the Vanuatu Government. Such a
position typically requires an education equivalent to that of a technical college diploma, and therefore sandalwood production represents potential earnings for farmers that is much greater than that of the minimum
wage (US$1.40/hr). The production of sandalwood on a shorter rotation (7 years) for sapwood is not economically competitive with sandalwood agroforestry (15-20 years). Given the ambitious stocking rate of 2,500/ha
and the low current farm gate sapwood prices (US$0.49/kg) the short rotation production of sandalwood is
marginal when considering it as an option to improve cash flow. The commercial production of sandalwood
within smallholder agroforestry provides an asset, which could be used as collateral to secure microfinance
and improve economic development. Sandalwood production is often referred to as the only long-term saving
option for smallholders that can improve financial security and ultimately their livelihoods. On a national scale
the production of sandalwood may help to alleviate the harvesting pressures of contracting wild stands while
providing a source of foreign exchange and government revenue.
59
Acknowledgments
The implementation of the project also depended on the cooperation of Joseph Tungon, Michael Tabi, Jeffery
Lahva, Ioan Viji, Mesek Sethy, Dick Tomker, Toufau Kalsakau, Simon Naupa, Samuel Lokre and Johnny Saman.
References
Doran JC, Thomson L, Brophy JJ, Goldsack B, Bulai P, Faka'osi T, Mokoia T (2005) Variation in heartwood oil
composition of young sandalwood trees in the south Pacific (Santalum yasi, S. album and F1 hybrids in Fiji,
and S. yasi in Tonga and Niue). Sandalwood Research Newsletter 20, 3-7.
Gillieson D, Page T, Silverman J (2008) 'An inventory of wild sandalwood stocks in Vanuatu.' Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research, Publication number: 2008-08 [FST/2006/118]. ISBN: 978 1 921434
36 5, Canberra. http://www.aciar.gov.au/node/8439
Lui WJ, Smith AM (2007) Country Papers: Vanuatu. In 'Proceedings of the regional workshop on sandalwood
research, development and extension in the pacific islands'. Nadi, Fiji, 28 November - 1 December 2005.
(Eds L Thomson, P Bulai and B Wilikibau) pp. 63-70. (Secretariat of the Pacific Community)
Page T, Leakey RRB, Tate H, Viji I, Robson K, Dickinson G (2008) 'Identification of optimum genetic resources
for establishment of local species of sandalwood for plantations and agroforests in Vanuatu and Cape York
Peninsula.' Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research., Project No. FST/2002/097, Canberra.
Page T, Tate H, Bunt C, Potrawiak A, Berry A (2012) Opportunities for the smallholder sandalwood industry in
Vanuatu. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR): Canberra
Page T, Tate H, Tungon J, Tabi M, Kamasteia P (in press) Vanuatu Sandalwood: Growers guide for sandalwood
production in Vanuatu. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra
60
5.3 PRIVATE SECTOR: SWOT ANALYSIS OF THE VANUATU
SANDALWOOD INDUSTRY
Jonathan Naupa, CEO, Tropical Rainforest Aromatics Limited, PO Box 7114, Port Vila, Vanuatu
Strengths
1. The industry is regulated and controlled.
2. The local species has flourished for millennia, blends well with other crops and does not require much land
3. There are no major disease risks in Vanuatu and the geographic isolation and biosecurity checks will help
ensure that no new diseases enter.
4. TRA has detailed knowledge of the local species including through detailed research over several years –
certain chemotypes of S. austrocaledonicum produce an essential oil which meets the ISO 3518 standard
for Santalum album.
5. More than 30,000 Santalum seedlings are planted each year whilst only 3000 are harvested - the people
of Vanuatu are natural growers and momentum is growing. Well-established plantations are excellent
resources and sources of local information.
6. The processed annual quota of 80MT will begin to rise in 2015 and is projected to reach 300MT (plantations) by 2020.
7. Sandalwood prices in Vanuatu have increased steadily over the past 10 years and were unaffected by the
global financial crisis.
8. Vanuatu sandalwood oil is readily accepted by European and Arab countries: we are now on the radar of
markets which deal in regularly analysed, consistent and quality products.
9. An incredibly rich history of sandalwood exploitation, organic certification and excellent traceability can be
used in the marketing of our oil.
Weaknesses
1. An unrealistically high expectation of prices and performance of our sandalwood on the global stage.
2. Political interference which has negatively impacted private sector partners.
3. Legislation that needs improving to protect investors - the largest investors are ni-Vanuatu landowners.
4. Lack of funds that are committed to the planting of sandalwood by the government - used to subsidise the
land-consuming and low-yielding copra industry.
5. A lack of suitable land as most is leased out to others / Land tenure disputes.
6. Cyclones
7. Introduced foreign species (S. album) and a lack of genetic diversity in the better chemotypes.
8. Lack of standards (ISO for S. austrocaledonicum is required) and protocols that are regulated by the government.
9. High local cost of processing and shipping in Vanuatu and limited and expensive international shipping
for low grade product. Changes in foreign exchange rate are also a concern in Vanuatu with local prices
increasing against a falling USD.
10. Insufficient awareness in the remote locations of Vanuatu.
Opportunities
1. Collaboration within the private sector and with the government to establish internationally recognised standards.
2. Investigating hybridisation of S. album and S. austrocaledonicum.
3. Good chance of establishing niche markets through ethical certifications (Fairtrade).
4. Other essential oils to complement sandalwood plantations.
5. Carbon credit farming.
6. Research and development of best planting, distilling and blending processes (fractionating). 7. Collaboration with other Pacific Island neighbours to co-ordinate and share information to establish the
Pacific region as the second largest producers of sandalwood (after Australia).
8. Funding programmes that are geared towards grassroots/communities/companies, environmentally
friendly and ethical - research grants (ACIAR) seeking best genetic materials.
9. Tourism projects integrating sandalwood oil (wellness resorts) and that also respect the environment.
61
Threats
1. Farmers losing land to leases (as happens when the Government signs in their place as leasee).
2. Disease arriving, especially in populations with limited genetic diversity.
3. Other crops that take up valuable sandalwood growing land (oil palm).
4. Politicians and unscrupulous and influential individuals which place personal gain ahead of wider industry
development.
5. Theft of young sandalwood trees and seedlings.
6. Mass felling and clearing of natural sandalwood land by developers.
7. Poor planting practices, removal of topsoil and erosion.
8. Lack of standards and poor marketing strategies that ruin the reputation of certified oil.
9. Black marketing of sandalwood that encourages lawless practices, and with impacts on replanting.
10. Well financed corporations with investments that do not consider the "Pacific way" and chase a balance
sheet over enhancing local livelihoods.
62
5.4 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF SANTALUM YASI IN
FIJI AND TONGA: A COMBINED ECOLOGICAL AND GENETIC APPROACH
Ryan Huish1, Tevita Faka’osi2, Heimuli Likiafu2, Joseva Mateboto3, Lex Thomson4
Hollins University, Virginia USA1; Tongan Ministry of Forests2; Fiji Department of Forestry3; Secretariat of the
Pacific Community4
Abstract
Valued internationally for the aromatic oil found within its heartwood, sandalwood (Santalum, Santalaceae)
is one of the most heavily exploited groups of plants across its range. While historically, most oil has been
harvested from Santalum album in Southeast Asia and India, the decrease of S. album sources has caused a
widening gap between supply and demand, which creates profitable market opportunities and increasing
harvest pressure for alternative sandalwood oil sources. Santalum yasi, a quality alternative, has been
harvested extensively in Fiji and Tonga, yet this species has received limited attention. The absence of basic
data on population dynamics and genetic variation for remnant populations remains a major constraint to
the sustainable management of this culturally and economically valued resource. This study focused on the
ecological and genetic data and analyses that can aid in developing sustainable management strategies for
this important species.
Population size-class structure data was collected using transects in the three densest natural populations
of S. yasi. Population dynamics, current species distribution, and ecological threats were investigated to find
that the few remaining wild stands display discontinuous size class structures, are under regenerative stress
and that the natural distribution has diminished significantly, even to local extinction in some areas. Some of
the ecological threats affecting regeneration may include invasive species such as pigs and introduced plants. Also premature harvesting seems to have an impact on the population structure.
Using a nuclear microsatellite analysis, genetic variability within and between populations was investigated.
Results suggest that there is no significant genetic variation between populations, and that most of the
genetic variation lies within populations. This suggests that there is a significant level of gene flow between
populations, most likely through human induced dispersal, showing a more panmictic trend than previously
supposed. This may provide molecular evidence confirming the Western documentation and traditional oral
history of extensive interaction between Fiji and Tonga and their trade of plants and culture.
Based on the dwindling S. yasi population size and unstructured genetic variation in Fiji and Tonga, further
enumerations and resource surveys may not be practical to conduct at this time. Rather, forestry and
governmental efforts can focus on promotion of local involvement in assisted natural regeneration of wild
stands through in situ, community-mediated conservation.
63
5.5 SANDALWOOD PLANTINGS IN ROTUMA, FIJI
Vilisoni Nataniela1 and Lex Thomson2
1 Contractor, SPC EU-FACT, Fiji
2 Team Leader, EU-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade, Land Resources Division, SPC, Narere, Fiji
Rotuma
• Small – land area of 43 sq. km located 12o 30’S of Equator
• Ethnically Polynesian - with own unique language, culture and traditions
• Isolated - separated by 430 km of sea from Fiji
• Volcanic origin with high soil fertility
• Hot, tropical, humid climate with periodic cyclones
• Average daily minimum of 24oC and maximum of 30oC
• Rainfall is evenly distributed with total of 3,358 mm
• Farming is the main activity
Previous work on Sandalwood on Rotuma
• Introduced to Rotuma in 1990 by the Fiji Department of Forestry
• Original introduction was on one farm at Saukama, in the district of Juju.
• Grew exceptionally quickly, especially the F1hybrid between Santalum yasi and S. album
• High early survival but after 4-5 years there was significant sandalwood mortality. Sapling death was due to
lack of maintenance and fungal attack (and associated with premature mortality of Calliandra hosts).
• AusAID-SPRIG Project undertook drilling and evaluation of heartwood
• Showed that F1 hybrid plants began forming high quality heartwood (rich in santalols) from a young age (about 6 years)
• Limited extension until assistance reported here by SPC EU-FACT
Sandalwood on Rotuma
• Mr Vilisoni Nataniela was contracted by SPC to work with Rotuma Island Council and districts to plant
sandalwood in all parts of the island.
• Programme started in November 2009 with first visit and identification of lead farmers in the island’s seven districts.
Propagation and planting of Sandalwood
• For biosecurity reasons, it is not permitted to transfer seedlings with soil from mainland Fiji to Rotuma.
• Accordingly nursery stock was established using seed from Viti Levu.
• 20 demonstration agroforestry plots established
• Only one plot failed due to pig damage and seedlings in another plot disappeared – presumed to have been
transplanted to another location.
Progress to date
• Before recent SPC EU-FACT initiative there were only 5-6 farmers with limited plantings of sandalwood on the island.
• From December 2009 to July 2010 the number of sandalwood smallholder growers increased to more than
100 growers across all villages.
• There are now 27 sandalwood nurseries in different villages.
• Survival in the new plantings is high, ranging from 70 to 100%, with the tallest plants reaching 1 m at six months of age.
• Current field stock is 1458 plants and nursery (potted) stock is 3137 plants.
• A highlight is the Oinafa district in which all 45 families have planted at least three sandalwood seedlings.
Key considerations
• Development of new sandalwood plantings is contingent on available planting materials from the island.
• Need to identify and mark candidate plus trees
• Aim to increase local seed production once the selected plus trees start bearing fruits
• Need to monitor maintenance of plantings and plant development
• Develop grafting as a way of rapidly multiplying better individuals
• Need to identify and increase production of host trees including Citrus
• Investigate development of sandalwood oil production (in future)
Future plans
• Continue development of sandalwood to cover all households on the island
• Plant sandalwood in non-farmed areas and in well-designed agroforestry systems
• Manage sandalwood in a sustainable manner including ongoing replanting
• Investigate local processing options on the island.
64
5.6 AN INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR
SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM ALBUM L.) IN WEST TIMOR, INDONESIA
Yudhistira Ardhyana Nugraha Rua Ora
Kupang State Agricultural Polytechnic, P.O Box 1125, Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia 85011.
Abstract
Sandalwood is perhaps the only natural resource in West Timor with such a long history of control over trade,
emphasising the significance of the trade’s economic importance. Surprisingly, there have been no major efforts
directed towards management of sandalwood in West Timor. Up until now, production has dominated all aspects
of the sandalwood industry with no consideration of the sustainable and long-term survival of the species.
The aims of this review are: first, to assess the current status of management and conservation of sandalwood
in West Timor; secondly, to identify issues and debates on the management of sandalwood; and, thirdly, to
propose a conservation strategy for better management of the species.
The main reason why previous attempts at sustainable utilisation of this species in West Timor have failed is
because of the extension of state control over this resource. This control is enforced through the implementation
of several policies that disadvantage the people of West Timor and leave few opportunities for them to be involved
in and benefit from sandalwood management. A significantly larger share of the benefits is taken by the
government. Thus, in linking up with the East Nusa Tenggara provincial government’s wish to regain its
former status as the ‘Sandalwood Province’, an integrative sandalwood management and conservation
strategy is needed for better management and future development of this valuable resource.
With regard to management aspects, the legal frameworks (in this case regulation and policies regarding
sandalwood) should be more supportive of the people. Thus, current policy should be reviewed and adjusted
so that sandalwood becomes more attractive and of increased benefit to the people of Timor. This approach
should be combined with continuing efforts to build awareness of sandalwood management, capacity building,
setting up a competitive market through cooperatives, and moving towards an integrative sandalwood resource
management.
On the conservation side, the first action should be to undertake a thorough inventory of the remaining sandalwood
throughout West Timor. This will provide a better understanding of the current status of the natural population,
identify suitable seed stands and allow limits for harvest to be set so that management of the resources can be
planned with a focus on sustainability. The availability of good quality seed will better ensure successful
reforestation and conservation. Identification and conservation of seed sources should be of highest priority.
A sandalwood working plan should be established in each district of West Timor which would incorporate
simple management plans for areas designated for conservation and development, sustainable harvesting,
replanting and a local nursery.
Lastly, an on-going effort should be made to fill the gaps in the knowledge base of sandalwood which have
led to constraints in the development of this species in West Timor. The ecology of this species is complex and
many aspects are still not well-understood. More resources are required locally in support of sandalwood
research to address this problem.
This combination of activities should result in reliable and achievable approaches for better management and
conservation of sandalwood in West Timor.
Introduction
Sandalwood (Santalum spp) is a shrub or small tree of great social, religious and economic importance in
many parts of the world. For example, in India, sandalwood is fully assimilated into all aspects of the philosophy,
culture and religion of the people who have been using this species for at least 2500 years (Weiss, 1997; Rai,
1990). People in Timor refer to this plant as hau meni referring to the fragrant wood which has a significant place
in their social and cultural ethos. It is also referred to as pah in balun (essence products of nature), meaning the
plant is considered as sacred and, as a consequence, traditional rituals should be conducted prior to the harvest
of the tree (Pae et al., 2004).
65
The oil extracted from the heartwood of sandalwood is of high economic value. At present, it is used mainly in
cosmetics, scent for soap, aromatherapy oil, perfumery and medicines (Rahayu et al., 2002; Doran et al., 2002;
CABI, 2000; Weiss, 1997; Coppen, 1995). The fragrant wood is the raw material for a range of products such
as sculptures, fans, carvings, rosaries and furniture (Rahayu et al., 2002), while the powdered wood is used for
incense sticks (Doran et al., 2002; Rahayu et al., 2002).
One of the most widely known species of sandalwood is the East Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.); this
is native to India, Timor and its surrounding islands, and possibly far northern Australia. Extensive studies on
East Indian Sandalwood have been largely conducted in India (e.g., Rao et al., 2007; Suma and Balasundaran,
2003; Rai, 1990). Thus, the status of the sandalwood in this region is relatively well understood. However, in
West Timor information about this species is patchy and not readily accessed.
The history of natural resource management in West Timor is the story of the control and trade of high
quality sandalwood (McWilliam, 2005). However, sandalwood, like other natural resources, has its limits in
continuously supporting a demanding market. Forestry officials of Indonesia’s East Nusa Tenggara Province
conducted a survey in West Timor in 1998 and estimated that the population of sandalwood comprised 250,940
trees, a 53% decrease from the 1987-1990 figures (Rahayu et al., 2002). It is believed that the current figures
are far below the 1998 figures.
The decline of the population of sandalwood reflects the decline of sandalwood production (oil and wood) in
West Timor. According to official figures, the contribution of value-added sandalwood products to export
earnings declined from a substantial 30% in 1992 to zero in 1997 (McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002).
Fox (1977) even argues that for West Timor, ‘sandalwood now stands as a symbol of its past not its future’.
However, although in declining quantities, West Timor has continued to supply the world sandalwood market
(McWilliam, 2005). Sandalwood still maintains its position as the key export commodity from East Nusa
Tenggara and contributes significantly to the income of the people of West Timor and of the provincial and
district governments.
The history of the management of sandalwood reflects a long story of abandonment in ecological terms,
in which the resources were utilised without any consideration for the long-term survival of the species.
Common threats to this species are habitat loss, overexploitation, lack of regeneration due to periodic fire
and excessive grazing, and pests and diseases (Rughkla et al., 1997; Radomiljac, 1998; Rahayu et al., 2002;
Suma and Balasundaran, 2003). These threats have motivated the IUCN to include this species in its Red List
of threatened species with the conservation status of vulnerable (IUCN, 2009).
To date, there has been no activity aimed at the development of an effective management and conservation
strategy for sandalwood in West Timor. Its high value and demand in the international market call for a national
strategy for its management (Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005). Moreover, Doran et al. (2002) also emphasise
the urgent need to develop a reliable conservation strategy for the sandalwood of West Timor in order to save
the scarce existing genetic resources of this species; in order to ensure its long term survival and continuing
contribution to income generation and sustainable rural livelihoods through better management practices.
Thus, this paper aims, firstly, to assess the current status of management and conservation of sandalwood
in West Timor; secondly, to identify some of the issues and debates on the management of sandalwood; and
thirdly, to propose a strategy for management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor.
Santalum album: its occurrence and ecology in the Indonesian region
Santalum album grows naturally in Timor and on several neighbouring islands including Sumba, Flores,
Adonara, Alor, Solor, Wetar, Lomblen and Roti (Rahayu et al., 2002; Coppen, 1995; McKinnell, 1990). These
islands are all within the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (Figure 1). Rimbawanto and Haryjanto
(2005) suggest that it has also a restricted range of occurrence in the upland of Sulawesi, Moluccas and
eastern tip of Java particularly in the district of Bondowoso.
66
Figure 1. East Nusa Tengarra Province which is a principal area of natural occurrence of
S. album L. in Indonesia. This species is also found in Timor Leste (East Timor)
(Source: Biyu Nasak Gallery)
Factors that limit the distribution of S. album include the occurrence of suitable host plants and habitat as it
is a site-specific, parasitic species (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). Sandalwood has adapted to the hot/
dry climate of West Timor (short wet season of 2-3 months, average annual rainfall of 900 mm and average
daily temperature of 31°C) and grows on well-drained often rocky sites with poor nutrient status, calcareous
(pH 8-9) soils which are common on the island (Radomiljac, 1998, Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). S. album
adapts to this very poor environment for tree growth by building a shallow horizontal root system and being a
root parasite. Rahayu et al. (2002) report that the horizontal roots of S. album can reach up to 30m in length.
The roots grow horizontally so that the plant can reach other plants surrounding it and parasitise them through
their roots. Rahayu et al. (2002) note that there are more than 300 recorded host species for S. album in Timor.
The host plants provide some nutrients and water essential to S. album survival and growth.
In West Timor, mature plants of S. album are scattered throughout the landscape, especially in open areas and
at the edges of forests. Common associates in the monsoon forests of West Timor include Psidium guajava,
Tamarindus indica, Acacia villosa, Casuarina junghuhniana and Timotius timon (Rahayu et al., 2002). Seedlings,
on the other hand, are usually found under stands of Eucalyptus urophylla, E. alba and Acacia leucophloea.
Sometimes, the seedlings are found under a tree where a bird nested or under thorny bushes, where birds that
feed on its fruits have dropped them on the ground (Rahayu et al., 2002). Mature plants rarely occupy closed
forests because at this stage the plants need direct exposure to the sun. Mature trees are found in small
disjunct populations (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005).
Values, price and markets
Values
Sandalwood has been a lucrative resource for East Nusa Tenggara Province. This can be seen from the Total
Regional Revenue (PAD – Pendapatan Asli Daerah) of the East Nusa Tenggara Province during the 1990s (Table
1). In the early 1990s, sandalwood contributed almost 50% of the PAD of East Nusa Tenggara Province. The
figure decreased dramatically in the late 1990s to just 13% of PAD. This dramatic decline in revenue followed
a decrease in the total production, from 7,465,917 kg in the nine years 1987 to 1997 to just 2,178,697 kg of
sandalwood timber in the six years 2001 to 2007 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006).
67
TABLE 1. THE ANNUAL CONTRIBUTION OF SANDALWOOD TO THE TOTAL REGIONAL REVENUE (PAD) OF EAST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCE, 1989 TO 2000
No
Year
Pendapatan Asli Daerah (PAD)
Total Regional Revenue (In IDR)
Contribution to PAD
(In IDR)
Percentage
(%)
1
1989/1990
6,182,087,300
2,739,250,000
44
2
1990/1991
8,162,081,300
3,829,113,870
47
3
1991/1992
10,395,764,896
3,385,750,000
33
4
1992/1993
11,783,248,087
3,660,325,750
31
5
1993/1994
13,128,757,319
4,781,554,690
36
6
1995/1996
15,995,385,266
3,104,042,700
19
7
1996/1997
31,010,872,600
7,772,548,900
25
8
1997/1998
29,053,660,441
4,170,436,500
14
9
1998/1999
19,950,917,000
2,761,834,000
14
10
1999/2000
18,136,400,000
2,383,172,786
13
Source: Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006.
Notes: IDR is Indonesian Rupiah
Nevertheless, sandalwood is still considered an important commodity export from West Timor. The wood and
oil from the sandalwood harvested in West Timor are valued for handicrafts, medicines and religious purposes.
East Nusa Tenggara Province participated in all these industries except for handicrafts as this is a traditional
industry in Bali (Rimbawato and Masripatin, 2005). However, almost no activities are being conducted in the
industries now since the raw materials became scarce.
Price and Markets
Sandalwood products (wood, sawdust or chips, and oil) generally generate a high price (Doran et al., 2002)
reflecting the high quality of the raw material and its limited supply.
The wood from sandalwood is one of very few woods which are sold based on the weight of the wood not on its
volume. The Department of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia has set four main quality classes for sandalwood
(McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002). These are classes of dried and cleaned timber. Moreover, the set prices for
sandalwood can only be legally gained by selling through a formal auction process which is controlled by the Provincial
and District Governments through the District’s Forestry Bureau. The prime classes are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2. QUALITY CLASSES OF WOOD OF SANDALWOOD AND PRICES
No
Wood Classes
Price
1
Class A
Rp 18,000 / kg ($A 3.80)
2
Class B
Rp 15,000/ kg ($A 3.00)
3
Class C
Rp 9,000/ kg ($A 1.90)
Source: McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002)
The fourth class is unprocessed or fresh-cut timber known as Kayu gubal which is sometimes sold at a
discount which appears to range from just Rp1,000 to as much as Rp13,000 per kg depending on the source
of information (Rahayu et al., 2002).
The recording of sandalwood oil prices started pre-World War II, when the oil was traded for A$ 3.8 to A$ 4.2
per kg (Padmanabha, 2008). Since the 1990s, the price for naturally-sourced sandalwood oil has soared. Top
grade sandalwood oil is now valued at more than A$2,000 per kg; while the lowest quality is sold for about
A$1,500 per kg. Since at present there is a world shortage of supply of at least 100 tonnes of oil annually, so it
must be very tempting for fragrance houses to seek alternatives or develop synthetic replacements.
India and Indonesia supply 70% and 30% of sandalwood to the international market, respectively (Oyen and
Dung, 1999; Harisetijono and Suriamihardja, 1993), but production data are varied and unreliable (Coppen,
1995). Therefore, consumption is also difficult to estimate. It is assumed that the world’s annual production or
consumption of sandalwood is of the order of several hundred tonnes annually (Coppen, 1995).
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India consumes about 50% of the world’s sandalwood products (Padmanabha, 2008). Apart from India,
China, with no natural resources of sandalwood of its own, is the main market for the wood of sandalwood
(Doran et al., 2002). Other large importers of sandalwood oil include the United States, France and the
Middle East (Coppen, 1995). The USA, in particular, is the main destination of sandalwood exports from
Indonesia (Coppen, 1995).
Current threats to sandalwood in West Timor
Because of the high economic importance of this species, it faces a high risk of extinction (Tennakoon and
Cameron, 2006; McWilliam, 2005; Rahayu et al., 2002; Radomiljac, 1998). Common threats to this species
are habitat loss, overexploitation, and lack of regeneration due to periodic fire and excessive grazing and,
so far restricted to India, the spread of spike disease caused by the insect-carried, and sandal spike
phytoplasma (IUCN, 2009; Suma and Balasundaran, 2003; Rahayu et al., 2002; Radomiljac, 1998; Rughkla
et al., 1997).
Throughout the history of sandalwood management in Timor some obvious threats contributing to the
depletion of sandalwood in natural stands can be highlighted. Firstly, there have been extensive logging
activities leading to over-exploitation of this species in natural stands. Unsustainable harvesting, combined
with several disadvantaging regulations to control the sandalwood trade (see below), are actually the main
threats to sandalwood in West Timor. In addition, most people in Timor are subsistence farmers who have
been practising shifting agriculture for centuries. Fire is the main tool in subsistence agricultural land
clearing and development. Uncontrolled fires have reduced the regeneration of sandalwood in natural
stands because they change the structure of the stands (UNEP-WCMC, 2007).
People in Timor have also been practising a wild foraging system for livestock, whereby domestic animals
are released freely into the forests. The foliage of sandalwood is palatable to grazing animals such as rabbits,
sheep, goats, cattle, pigs and horses (Rahayu et al., 2002). The wild forage system is also considered to be a
contributing factor to the depletion of land cover, and impacts on the more fragile and highly erodible soil
structure. This eventually leads to failure of the regeneration of sandalwood in natural stands.
Lastly, over the past ten years Timor has been experiencing high rates of deforestation because of the
conversion of forests to agricultural land and for human settlements. The high rates of deforestation have
also caused the loss of some of the main hosts of sandalwood.
Besides the threats caused by agricultural activities, the failure to protect and develop this species during
the 1990s was due to a large extent to several past policies imposed by the local government that have
disadvantaged the community of West Timor. For example, the policy of East Nusa Tenggara Province
Regulation Number 16 1986, stated that the government had 85 % control and rights over the species in
any stands, natural or plantation, even on people’s lands or farms. This law strongly discouraged the
community from planting and conserving this species (Rahayu et al., 2002). Moreover, in many cases, farmers
have preferred to cut down the trees and dig up seedlings that grow in their farms or yards, rather than
tending them and benefiting the government (Rahayu et al., 2002).
It is also important to maintain the supply of sandalwood from natural sources to ward off the threats from
substitutes and particularly the threat of synthetics taking over from natural oils (Chawla, 2008). This would
result in a lost opportunity to develop a viable and sustainable industry.
Current management and conservation position
Control over trade of sandalwood
When talking about natural resources management in West Timor, the discussion inevitably turns to
sandalwood. However, while much attention has been given to its exploitation, little effort has been
expended on its maintenance, conservation and protection for sustainable resource management.
Therefore, when discussing sandalwood management in West Timor, one can confidently argue that there
has been no actual management of this resource so far. Efforts to control the trade of the species in
Timor can be traced back to pre-colonial times (see Appendix 1 for a chronological account of the early
regulations). This historical interest in the plant emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to
be derived from the trade. Fox (1977; 2002) and McWilliam (2005) provide in-depth background to the history
of the trade of sandalwood in Timor.
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However, it was the Indonesian administration following independence in 1945 that brought about a major
shift in resource management policies and stricter control over sandalwood. The government of Indonesia
adopted some of the existing colonial regulatory frameworks, resulting in significant social impacts on the
people of Timor (Fox, 2002).
The government claimed ownership over sandalwood through the implementation of state and provincial
policies and regulations, all under the guise of protection and resource conservation (McWilliam, 2005).
Although state intentions seemed appropriate at the time, the people were still left out of the trade and
management; they still benefited little from what they saw as their own natural resources. Moreover,
there were many controversial cases where rights over sandalwood were given to certain individuals and
institutions; these allocations highlighted the lack of transparency in sandalwood management and trade.
Several subsequent changes in the policies have served only to draw attention to the government’s
continuing struggles to maintain effective management and control over this rich resource.
Policy changes applying to sandalwood since Indonesian independence
After Indonesian independence in 1945, some of the existing regulatory frameworks regarding sandalwood
inherited from the Dutch colonial authorities were retained by the government of Indonesia. The regulatory
frameworks then became district regulations. The summary of the policy changes during this period,
translated and adapted from Pello (2000) as cited in Rahayu et al. (2002), are given in Appendix 2.
Thus, it took at least until 1999 for farmers to get full ownership of sandalwood growing on their lands. Until
this time, provincial government regulations severely restricted timber cutting by smallholders who had
sandalwood trees growing on their land. The provincial government would decide when and how much to
harvest, a decision, the government said was based on inventory surveys of stock (Fox, 2002; Rahayu et al.,
2002; McWilliam, 2005).
A larger proportion of income generated from harvest went to the government while the smallholders
only received a comparatively small payment for cutting and gathering their own timber. The payments to
smallholders were supposed to be a percentage of the timber value. However, the nominal prices set by
the government were lower than market prices. Farmers were also expected to protect all sandalwood
seedlings that germinated in their fields and conserve the trees to maturity for the benefit of the
government harvest. As a consequence of this regulation, the appearance of sandalwood in a cultivated
field was an unwelcome sign that threatened dire consequences for smallholder farmers. This is illustrated
by Fox’s experience in West Timor:
I once happened to be with a farmer in Amarasi who discovered a shoot of sandalwood
growing in his dry field. Imploring me not to tell the ‘government’, he immediately
uprooted the stalk and systematically traced its roots through his garden,
pulling them up as he went” (Fox, 2002).
The role of “Adat” or custom in sandalwood management
For the Timorese, sandalwood holds a high social value. Many rituals, for example the ritual for exorcism of
vengeful spirits and all activities related to the welfare of families and villages, incorporate sandalwood (Pae
et al., 2004). Moreover, the pulpy red inner bark of the tree is often substituted for areca nuts in their betel
quids (McWilliam, 2005).
In Timor, vetor (kings) and noblemen used to play prominent roles in the activities surrounding the
planting of sandalwood and they determined when the harvest of sandalwood could take place. Thus, the
management of sandalwood was controlled by local indigenous institutions headed by the kings (Pae et al., 2002).
However, for the past years the functions of the kings and the local institutions have been progressively
reduced because of the implementation of the new type of government structure of villages (Pae et al., 2004).
As a result, the control, maintenance and development of sandalwood by the people have been gradually
weakened. Pae et al. (2004) in their study of sandalwood in Timor point out that within their project villages,
local institutions were still in charge of the management until 1994, but their roles were less strategic since
they had no legal foundations, although they were still respected.
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Until recently, the people felt that they were often neglected in the management of sandalwood (Pae et al.,
2004). The Timorese call this species hau plenat or ‘the government’s wood’; they thus perceive that
management should only be carried out by the government (Pae et al., 2004).
Progress on management and development of sandalwood in West Timor in recent times
ACIAR was the first agency to initiate a project to re-establish and regenerate sandalwood in West Timor
commencing in 1990 (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). One of the activities of this project was to identify
seed trees. Fifty-five seed tree sources were identified in this project and later four seed production areas
(SPA) were established. However, it is not known if these SPAs still exist (Rimbawanto and Masripatin,
2005).
Efforts focussed on rehabilitation of sandalwood resources have been mainly conducted by forestry agencies
such as Forestry Services and the Forestry Research and Development Centre in Kupang. Approximately 2400
ha have been planted with sandalwood but with a low rate of success (Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). This
is due to poor silviculture practices, limited facilities, continuous shifting cultivation and uncontrolled grazing.
In the light of the threats to the sandalwood genetic resources in West Timor, active and focussed management
is now required for its conservation and utilisation. The latest regulation, Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999,
states that the management authority for sandalwood is the district governments through their forestry
offices (Rahayu et al., 2002). The tasks of the ENT Forestry Office in sandalwood management are to undertake
inventory, distribution of seedlings, monitoring, and planting of sandalwood in coordination with the district
forestry offices. Although the management has been handed over to the districts through their forestry offices,
much of the money for the management of sandalwood has been given to the province as the representative of
the central government. Thus, districts depend entirely on ENT Province to allocate monies for sandalwood
development in their region. It is extremely important that this process be transparent to boost people’s
confidence in the process and counter any negative acts like corruption.
In 2009, the government of ENT Province set in place a new programme called Anggaran untuk rakyat menuju sejahtera (Budget for the people – for prosperity), in which one of the main activities is planting
sandalwood. It is a part of the government’s decision to regain the glory and ‘aroma’ of sandalwood in ENT
Province.
The goal of this programme is to bring about successful and efficient sustainable management of sandalwood
that could provide work opportunities and entrepreneurial activities in order to improve income generation,
the independence of farmers groups, and improvements in environmental quality (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi
NTT, 2009a). The first period of this management programme will last for four years, from 2009 to 2013. It
targets private and communal land, customary land and forest areas and especially areas or regions where
sandalwood is found naturally, a total area of 3,500 ha.
Based on studies conducted by several consultants, three strategic actions need to be implemented to
ensure sandalwood development in East Nusa Tenggara. They are (a) to review and reassess policy and
regulations regarding sandalwood and to make them more pro-people and pro-farmers’ groups through
the implementation of provincial and district regulations; (b) protection and conservation of the remaining
natural trees or stands to ensure that they continue to provide genetic resources and seed trees; and (c)
planting and development of 4,750,000 seedlings of sandalwood during the four-year period (750,000
seedlings in 2009 and one million seedlings every year between 2010 and 2013) (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi
NTT, 2009a).
Moreover, the government of ENT Province also plans to establish several sandalwood forests in the form
of community forests on state, private and communal land. In 2010, the government plans to establish a 500
ha area of sandalwood forest and this will be continued through the development of another 750 ha area of
sandalwood forest (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b).
The Department of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia is also supporting this sandalwood development
by supplying seeds and initiating other planting programmes including the ‘One Man One Tree’ programme.
This programme, being implemented throughout Indonesia, was first proclaimed in Ponain Village, District
of Kupang in February 2008 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b).
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During the first period of development (2009-2013), an inventory of sandalwood will be carried out to
understand the real potential for better management of the remaining sandalwood resources. Simultaneously,
a survey and investigation of potential planting areas, and preparation of seedlings will be carried out. After
that, planting will be conducted in partnership with communities and other relevant stakeholders such as
NGOs, universities and governmental institutions.
Current position regarding conservation of sandalwood in West Timor
The history of the management of sandalwood in West Timor is a long story of ecological negligence and
misuse, in which the resources were utilised without any consideration for the long-term survival of the
species. Considering that it has been threatened with extinction, IUCN put this species onto its red list of
threatened species with the global conservation status ‘vulnerable’ based on an assessment made in
1998 (IUCN, 2009). Moreover, in 1984, FAO noted that sandalwood should be given a high priority for in situ
conservation action (UNEP-WCMC, 2007). Some focussed and determined conservation efforts and measures
are therefore needed in order to maintain its existence.
In West Timor, efforts on protection and conservation of sandalwood were undertaken by imposing a temporary
ban on logging. The first ban on harvesting was instructed by the senior district administrator of South-Central
Timor District as a response to the unsustainable and illegal logging of mature trees (McWilliam, 2005). Using
a customary banning mechanism known as a banu, the population of the district agreed ‘to guard and protect
sandalwood’ or panat ma ampa loli haumeni (McWilliam, 2005). This was a successful ban because the
people respected it, as it contained spiritual as well as social sanctions.
However, it was the government itself that ignored the ban with the excuse that the sustainable yield of the
sandalwood was 350 tonnes per year (McWilliam, 2005). Moreover, a provincial government project known
as ‘Operation friendship’ (Operasi bersahabat) collected all dried sandalwood old logs that were thought to
be secreted in villages across the district of South-Central Timor. The reason behind this action was unclear
but what was obvious was that it initiated extensive felling of the remaining sandalwood trees to boost the
dried stocks which were offered up (McWilliam, 2005).
The total sandalwood timber obtained from this project was twice as much as the total production of the
district for the previous five years. Eventually in 1997, the governor of East Nusa Tenggara Province
declared a complete ban on harvesting sandalwood for at least five years, from 1997 to 2003 (McWilliam, 2005).
However, this latest ban has actually led to an even more dramatic decline in the sandalwood population as it
has encouraged illegal logging. This was due to the suspicions by the community about the government over
management and policing practices and the fact that the price of sandalwood increased dramatically during
this time. Thus, people were tempted to cut their trees illegally and sell them on the black market.
Although sandalwood is now rarely found in its natural distribution, to date there have been no real
efforts to protect this species nor its natural habitat in West Timor. This situation highlights the underlying
intention of the government to promote this species commercially without any regard to its long-term survival.
Main issues in management and conservation
Policy
Although the current regulation (Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999) guarantees people’s ownership of
sandalwood, the present situation of sandalwood in West Timor can be taken as an indication of a tendency
that began in the colonial period and one that has greatly increased since Indonesia’s independence in 1945.
The state has intervened to control and regulate a natural resource without fully understanding the social
ecology of the resource it is trying to manage, nor has it understood the implications for smallholders of
the policies that it is applying. Thus, factors that really impede further development and management of
sandalwood in West Timor are less to do with the technical aspects and more to do with the social aspects
of management. These policies plus stricter control over sandalwood have caused significant social issues
and difficulties in West Timor. There is also a continuing failure of law enforcement to control illegal
harvesting, under-reporting and the smuggling of the timber.
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Since it was recognised that sandalwood has a significant economic value, its management in Timor has
been under several sets of central and district government regulations, each with their own agenda. The
regulations have put even more pressure on the people resulting in some negative actions.
Firstly, the Timorese people have been afraid, for obvious reasons, to plant sandalwood within their
gardens and farms (Rahayu et al., 2002). Until recently, people still regarded sandalwood as hau malasi
or the source of ‘problem wood’ (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004) because, according to past government
policy, people had no effective rights over the sandalwood growing within their farms and gardens
(McWilliam, 2005). All sandalwood belonged to the government, even if it grew within people’s lands or farms.
Moreover, there have been numerous cases where people were sent to prison because they had harvested
their sandalwood without officially informing the government (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004). As a
result, they intentionally annihilated all the sandalwood which was growing spontaneously within their lands
(Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam, 2005) rather than risk official fines or censure if the trees were damaged or
deemed to be neglected (McWilliam, 2005).
Secondly, the system for sharing benefits set down in the district government regulations was seen as
unfair since it gives a larger proportion of the sale price to the government with the growers only getting
40% of any sandalwood products (Rahayu et al., 2002; Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam, 2005). This has led to
illegal logging after which the wood is sold on the black market where often a better price is offered. In
many cases, people not only take the wood but also take the roots, where the highest quality oil is located
(Rahayu et al., 2002). This places more pressure on the regeneration of sandalwood as this kind of harvesting
precludes natural vegetative propagation.
District Regulation Number 2 1999, which replaced the old District Regulation Number 16 1986, is seen
as a belated government effort to better manage the remaining resources (Pae et al., 2004; McWilliam,
2005). The government’s intention is to prevent the extinction of sandalwood in West Timor by providing
larger management and utilisation spaces to the people. This has been seen as a belated effort because
the population of sandalwood has already become so severely depleted. Many districts in West Timor, once
prominent sources of sandalwood, can no longer supply the sandalwood market. The remaining sandalwood
resources can only be seen growing on a very few farms and in a few gardens with little maintenance effort.
Land and property rights
One of the biggest sources of confusion in sandalwood management is over land tenure. This, in turn,
then leads to confusion over property rights. The government of Indonesia has set aside large areas of its
national territory as state forests (FAO, 2005). However, it is often the case that the people or the communities
living in or around the forests are neglected or ignored in the process of forest designation for ownership and
management. Local land uses, therefore, frequently vary from the national legal framework and the state’s
legal framework is often at odds with local traditions and adat or customary rights (Safitri, 2005).
Moreover, the national laws and regulations are often understood, or misunderstood, in particular ways
by certain government representatives and forest agents who deal directly with communities surrounding
the contested forests (Kusters et al., 2007) but the communities may understand the laws and regulations
differently. The forest agents usually have nothing to achieve in confronting locals when the concept of state
ownership of land is at stake. In such situations most communities ignore the contested status of the land
because it may have little impact on the communities’ perception of land tenure security. However, this
situation inevitably leads to increased conflicts when government-supported projects claim land already
used or controlled by local communities (Kusters et al., 2007). This leads further to a growing feeling of
insecurity among local communities regarding land tenure and the resources within the land and a growing
unwillingness to be further manipulated.
Land tenure is also one of the major concerns of individuals and communities in West Timor. One example
is the ongoing dispute over land ownership in some parts of the Mount Mutis Nature Reserve in the district of
South-Central Timor (Lentz and Mallo, 1998). South-Central Timor is an area where some major concentrations
of sandalwood are still found, and near Mount Mutis natural stands of sandalwood still occur. The lack of clarity
over the reserve boundaries surrounding Mount Mutis has resulted in disputes over the ownership of the
forest and natural resources (Lentz and Mallo, 1998).
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Confusion over land tenure leads to the people’s confusion over who has ownership of or rights over sandalwood.
Like in other parts of Indonesia, the natural forest area in West Timor is controlled by the Ministry of Forestry with
the local district government implementing many activities within the local forest area. Indonesia’s forests are
divided into four functional areas: conservation forest, protection forest, production forest and other land
uses. The Timorese people also have private or communal land that is owned by a family or a clan. Since
the government seeks control over land and forests which have been managed traditionally by the people
and their communities near and around the forests, it is the case that all sandalwood belongs to the
government even if it grows on people’s lands.
Species decline
In the history of the management of sandalwood, much attention has been given to how sandalwood could
yield as much economic benefit as possible without considering the ecological limits of the species. It is the
combination of long-term historical neglect and short-term economic opportunism which has caused the
ecological depletion of sandalwood resources across the island of Timor (McWilliam, 2005). These factors
and others such as the lack of regeneration due to fires, shifting cultivation and uncontrolled cattle grazing,
have been the causes of the serious decline in sandalwood in Timor (Coppen, 1995; Rahayu et al., 2002).
According to surveys done by ENT Forestry Office, during the 11-year period 1987 to 1997 there was more
than a 50% reduction in the number of trees and seedlings of sandalwood in West Timor (Table 3). The
combination of long-term historical neglect and short-term economic opportunism is exacerbated by the
fact that replanting activities have not been so successful. This is due to sandalwood’s complex silvicultural
requirement and people have not been attracted to plant sandalwood again in their gardens or farms due to
the disadvantageous policies implemented by the provincial government.
TABLE 3. NUMBER OF TREES AND SEEDLINGS OF SANDALWOOD IN FOUR DISTRICTS IN WEST TIMOR BASED ON INVENTORIES CONDUCTED IN 1987 AND 1997
No
District
Number of trees
Number of seedlings
Year
Year
1987
1997
1987
1997
1
Kupang
10,521
2,230
17,069
10,952
2
South-Central Timor
80,655
16,968
193,365
95,742
3
North-Central Timor
42,266
16,090
85,235
17,988
4
Belu
43,507
16,129
92,334
74,841
182,933
51,417
502,584
199,523
Total Source: Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2006
Lack of coordination in management and conservation
The promulgation of Regional Government Law marks a momentous change in Indonesian governmental
structure and organisation, from being one of the most centralised countries in the world to one of the more
decentralised ones (Palmer and Engel, 2007). Decentralisation is interpreted by many districts in Indonesia
as a way of exerting greater control over livelihoods and gaining greater share of natural resources,
arising from cultural and structural reinforcement of the districts (Palmer and Engel, 2007; Saptomo, 2006).
This leads to a full or partial transfer of natural resources rights from the central government to local user
groups or communities and to the district government. These changes within the Indonesian government
and the relations between the central and district governments, civil society and the private sector are
opening up new spaces for negotiation as well as conflicts (Thorburn, 2004).
As decentralisation forces the districts to become more self dependent in terms of finance, automatically,
as a way of gaining more income, the first intention is to exploit their natural resources within their
jurisdiction, including sandalwood. Sandalwood has attracted the interest of the central government and now
the provincial and the district governments. Each government has different interests and can now set their
own policies and regulations regarding sandalwood. This only brings confusion to the local people as
different messages are received. This increases people’s lack of confidence in managing and utilising
sandalwood.
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Furthermore, most agencies involved in their sandalwood programmes often work individually. According to
Rimbawanto and Haryjanto (2005), sandalwood rehabilitation can only be successful if all stakeholders who
are engaged in efforts of sandalwood redevelopment are working together in a coordinated manner.
Proposed integrative management and conservation strategy
An integrative management and conservation strategy that is likely to be feasible for West Timor is given
below. This strategy takes into account the earlier discussion of the factors leading up to the current
disastrous state of sandalwood in the region as well as recommendations of scientists (e.g. Rimbawanto
and Haryjanto, 2005; Rimbawanto and Masripatin, 2005). It establishes programmes for both in situ and ex
situ conservation of the genetic resources, mass propagation of sandalwood seedlings, and development of
model plantations.
Before coming to the actual management and conservation strategy, consideration is given to several
national programmes that are currently underway in Indonesia. These programmes have the potential to
contribute significantly to the management and conservation strategy, as seen from the objectives of the
programmes.
National strategy: current programmes that would benefit from adoption of a national strategy
Current central government programmes that could support the conservation and management of
sandalwood in West Timor are described below. According to Rimbawanto and Haryjanto (2005), it is crucial
to adopt a national programme for sandalwood redevelopment and rehabilitation in West Timor. The first
two programmes come from the Land Rehabilitation and Social Forestry Directorate of the Department
of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia. Both these programmes emphasize rehabilitation, reforestation and
development as well as community-based forestry activities, all of which can be integrated into a
sandalwood development programme.
In contrast the third programme, ‘One Man, One Tree’, is a presidential programme that is a programme
that is personally supported and promoted by the President of Indonesia, and is being executed by the
Department of Forestry in co-operation with and through all provincial governments in Indonesia.
In this programme, sandalwood is also a target species. The government’s seriousness in incorporating
sandalwood into rehabilitation and planting programmes can be seen from the large amounts of money that
have been given to the provincial government of the ENT for rehabilitation and regreening programmes in the
region. Critical lands reforestation and regreening programme ‘Critical land’ refers to a portion of degraded
land that has lost its vegetation cover (MoF-RoI, 2008). As a consequence, some of the land’s ecological
functions such as water retention, erosion control, nutrient cycling, micro-climate regulation and carbon
retention, have been significantly reduced or completely destroyed. Critical land is further classified as
very critical, critical, slightly critical, potentially critical and normal condition based on the condition of its
vegetation.
Critical land can be found inside forest areas or watersheds as well as outside forest areas. Restoration
or rehabilitation of critical lands inside forest areas or watersheds is called ‘reforestation’ or ‘forest
rehabilitation’. The aim of reforestation or rehabilitation is to restore the ecological and hydrological
functions of the degraded land in the forests or watershed areas (MoF-RoI, 2008). The reforestation
activities are to be conducted with the active participation of local communities living near the target areas.
Regreening, on the other hand, is an effort to rehabilitate critical lands outside forest areas by planting
trees and implementing soil conservation practices (MoF-RoI, 2008). It aims to improve land productivity and
hydrological function. The regreening activities may be implemented as part of a number of other related
schemes, such as a community forest and village nursery development programme.
A community forest activity is carried out with the cooperation of communities near degraded areas located
outside forest areas. The main species used for planting in such areas are multi-purpose tree species, fruit
trees, and fuel woods. The objectives of this scheme are to facilitate economic improvement and bring about
sustainable forest production for the community while improving soil fertility and restoring good environmental
conditions. Between 2004 and 2008, the Ministry of Forestry managed to revitalize community forests of
approximately 968,974 ha (MoF-RoI, 2008). The programme achieved an additional area of 227,584 ha in
2008 (MoF-RoI, 2008).
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A village nursery is a temporary nursery that is developed by farmer groups throughout villages in response
to their demand for seedlings for regreening activities. During 2004 to 2008, 512.157 million seedlings were
raised in various village nurseries across the country (MoF-RoI, 2008). In 2008 the programme achieved an
additional 25.78 million seedlings (MoF-RoI, 2008).
The total area categorised as critical lands in East Nusa Tenggara Province is 4,391,767 ha, consisting
of 1,171,956 ha of slightly critical land, 2,234,587 ha of critical land, and 985,224 ha of very critical land
(MoF-RoI, 2008). Within the forest area, total critical land in East Nusa Tenggara is 299,291 ha, while it is
much higher outside the forest area, a total of 1,057,466 ha (MoF-RoI, 2008).
One of the characteristics of sandalwood is that the species performs best under a degree of environmental
stress (McWilliam, 2005) such as dry conditions and hot climate. This characteristic is a strategy the species
has used to adapt itself to Timor’s very poor environment. The nature of sandalwood and its parasitic habit
present an opportunity for sandalwood to be incorporated into the programme as one of the rehabilitation
species to support the management and ex-situ conservation programme of sandalwood. The sandalwood
rehabilitation programme in East Nusa Tenggara Province through the two programmes mentioned above
was originally begun by the Ministry of Forestry in 2006.
Forestry agencies such as the Provincial Forestry Offices and the Forestry Research and Development
Centre in Kupang have also been actively implementing sandalwood resources rehabilitation programmes.
Another institution which has been active in developing suitable technology for sandalwood cultivation is
the Indonesian Science Institute (LIPI) (Rimbawanto and Haryjanto, 2005). These activities have also been
carried out by local NGOs, especially in supporting local communities in planting activities (Rimbawanto and
Haryjanto, 2005).
Development of community-owned forest and community forest
A ‘community-owned forest’ is a forest area that is owned traditionally by a community as it has been
passed on through generations (MoF-RoI, 2008). Such forest area has a minimum size of 0.25 ha and has a
canopy of woody trees or other plants with more than 50 % tree crown cover or other plants that are planted
in the first year at a minimum density of 500 trees per hectare (MoF-RoI, 2008).
The ‘community-owned forest management programme’ is implemented through various management
units. A unit consists of several farmer groups with total area of at least 900 ha. Under the programme,
community-owned forest management can be developed on lands with customary ownership rights or other
rights outside the forest area all needing to meet the requirements for community-owned forest development.
In order to meet the increasing domestic demand for timber and non-timber products for construction
and industrial purposes, the government has promoted the development of community-owned forests by
promoting a special incentive through access to low interest bank loans since 1997 (MoF-RoI, 2008). This
programme, called Kredit Usaha Hutan Rakyat (KUHR) or ‘Community-owned Forest Development Credit’,
is also intended to accelerate the rehabilitation of critical lands that will eventually lead to community
welfare improvement and an enhanced environment.
‘Community forests’, on the other hand, are state forests managed by local communities for the purpose
of economic empowerment and improvement without undermining their forest functions (MoF-RoI, 2008).
The management of such forests conforms to the principles of sustainable forest management and can be
implemented throughout Indonesia’s forests.
Given the fact that sandalwood has been managed traditionally by Timorese communities, the Community
Forest Programme may meet the criteria for a community forest for sandalwood management in West
Timor. Moreover, current sandalwood trees mainly occur on private and communal land, giving a broad hint
that community-based management programmes are likely to be more suitable for better management and
conservation programmes for sandalwood.
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‘One Man, One Tree’ programme
Indonesia plays a significant role in climate change and global warming issues by providing environmental
services through carbon sequestration. With an area of 120.3 million ha, Indonesia’s forests could sequester
carbon significantly (Republik Indonesia, 2008). However, deforestation is a major threat to these forests and
deforestation rates show no signs of abatement in that deforestation contributes to carbon emissions itself
at it releases carbon into the atmosphere. One way to slow global warming is by increasing the absorption
of greenhouse gases through tree planting activities.
‘One Man, One Tree’ is a programme initiated by the President of Indonesia in 2009 as a response to global
warming issues. The programme aims to improve environmental quality, especially to improve the capacity
of carbon sequestration through community-based planting programmes (Republik Indonesia, 2008). The
Ministry of Forestry has been appointed as the government institution in charge of the implementation of
this programme.
The ‘One Man, One Tree’ programme, being implemented throughout Indonesia, was first proclaimed in
Ponain Village, District of Kupang on 12 February 2008 (Dinas Kehutanan Propinsi NTT, 2009b; Republik
Indonesia, 2008). Ponain was deliberately chosen as the first area to carry out this planting programme
as part of the support that the central government gives to the successful establishment of sandalwood in
East Nusa Tenggara province, especially in West Timor. The government hopes that by facilitating such a
community-based forestry development programme it can encourage further commitment from community
institutions to maintain, manage, utilise and preserve natural resources, especially sandalwood and host
plants for sandalwood.
International initiatives
There are at least two international initiatives currently underway that are offering assistance for sandalwood
development in West Timor. The first is a programme undertaken by CSIRO and funded by AusAID called ‘An
intervention to the sustainable management of natural resources in West Timor Indonesia’; the collaborating
agency is the Institute of Forest Research and Development (IFRD) in Kupang.
This programme aims to improve forest conservation and natural resources management in West Timor
(AusAID, 2009). The objectives of this programme are integrated in three areas: building capacity of IFRD to
improve its functions in forest conservation and resource management, participatory activities employing
rural communities, public sector institutions and other relevant stakeholders, and the development of tree
planting models including on farms and in natural forest areas (AusAID, 2009).
It is hoped that this programme will help lessen the pressure on the remaining natural forests in West
Timor to enable them to recover. Thus, the activity is designed as an intervention to support tree planting
programmes. It will promote tree planting on community land to further decrease people’s dependency on
the natural forest for their livelihoods. In addition, it also hoped that the participatory activities will bring
an improved understanding of the social issues regarding sandalwood management in order to encourage
positive change. In this collaboration, sandalwood is one of the main tree species to be planted.
The other programme is being implemented by ITTO (the International Tropical Timber Organisation);
ITTO PD 459/07 is called ‘Improving the Enabling Conditions for Sustainable Management of Sandalwood
Forest Resources in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia’. The project is being executed by Indonesia’s
Directorate General of Production Forest Management in collaboration with the Forestry Office of East Nusa
Tenggara Province. The aim of the programme is to provide assistance to the provincial government of East
Nusa Tenggara in an effort to support and sustain sandalwood in that area (ITTO, 2008; MoF-RoI, 2010). Two
teams of experts will work on two aspects of sandalwood management: policy analysis and economy
(M0F- RoI, 2010). The specific objectives of this programme are to explore and obtain an understanding
of the perceptions of various stakeholders regarding policies and economic aspects of sandalwood
management in East Nusa Tenggara (MoF-RoI, 2010).
Furthermore, the Forestry Research Centre in Kupang, working in partnership with ACIAR (Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research), is currently preparing for a sandalwood genetic conservation programme. In
addition, the Forestry Research Centre (FORDA) is developing a sandalwood Master Plan which will be used as a
guideline for formulating activities for sandalwood management at provincial and district levels.
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All the programmes mentioned above are providing support to the management and conservation of
sandalwood in West Timor, either directly or indirectly. These programmes emphasise planting activity,
policy and economic analyses, the conservation of genetic resources, and community-based activities.
Criteria and indicators for sustainable integrative management and better
conservation strategy for sandalwood
A set of criteria and indicators needs to be developed to provide guidelines for sandalwood management.
Criteria and indicators are set up to periodically describe, assess and monitor the development of sustainable
forest management (SFM) over a period of time within a country or in a particular forest area (The Montreal
Process, 2007; Lindenmayer and Burgman, 2005; DAFF, 2006; FAO, 2008). The critical part of implementing
these criteria and indicators lies in the attempt to achieve a common understanding of what is intended by
SFM (The Montreal Process, 2007; Lindenmayer and Burgman, 2005; Wijewardana, 2008). The objectives
of criteria and indicators are to endorse improved forest management practices over time, and to further
develop a more productive forest estate by considering the social, economic, environmental and cultural
aspects of various stakeholders involved in the management process (FAO, 2008).
Adapting the criteria and indicators established by UNCED (The Montreal Process, 2007), a set of criteria
and indicators for better, more sustainable management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor is
developed here. Issues to consider when building the criteria and indicators for sandalwood management
are that there has previously been no adequate conservation effort for this species. Other aspects to consider
are attempts to regain the productive capacity of sandalwood in Timor and the implementation of a policy to
encourage people to plant and conserve the species. The criteria and indicators are shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4. CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF SANDALWOOD IN TIMOR
No
Criteria
Indicators
1.
Legal, institutional and economic frameworks for the conservation and sustainable
management of sandalwood
1. Extent to which the legal frameworks support
the conservation and management of
sandalwood (property rights, public
involvement, human resources skills, etc);
2. Non-discriminatory trade policies for
sandalwood products;
3. Adjustment in policies and in benefit
redistribution system; and
4. Research and development.
2.
Transfer production of sandalwood from
natural forests to plantations or agroforestry
systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Areas available and ready for plantations;
Areas available for agroforestry systems;
Identifying issues in the market;
Market opportunities; and
Training of farmers.
3.
Conservation of the natural distribution of
sandalwood
1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of sandalwood in natural stands;
Areas of natural habitat;
Number of hosts; and
Status of on-site and off-site efforts
focused on conservation of the genetic
diversity of sandalwood
The management and conservation strategy for sandalwood discussed below expands what has been set
out in Table 4, supplemented by additional understanding, analysis and implementation practices so that the
programme integrates the important aspects reviewed so far.
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Management strategy
Management objectives
Clear goals for sandalwood management must first be set up to guide its management and conservation. Based
on the assessment of the ecology and current status of sandalwood, the ecological, economic and social aspects
of management need to be seriously considered together to achieve sustainable and integrated management of
sandalwood in West Timor. The proposed management goals of sandalwood in West Timor are:
• Ecological
1. Support the natural processes of life occurring in the natural stands of sandalwood (e.g., climate, landscape, hydrology, water and air quality and aesthetic qualities, presence of host plants) so that the environmental context for re-establishment of sandalwood will support this goal;
2. Conserve the natural distribution of sandalwood in the region;
3. Maintain the structure of the natural distribution of the species; and
4. Support any in-situ or ex-situ conservation efforts regarding sandalwood.
• Economic
1. Regain the volume and productive capacity of sandalwood; and
2. Develop a viable and stable marketing strategy for sandalwood through assessing the sandalwood resource, reviewing the current market situation, identifying issues, exploring market opportunities and developing a marketing strategy that also adequately rewards farmers for their efforts.
• Social
1. Support training, education and scientific research on sandalwood;
2. Distribute to farmers any relevant technical information for the management and conservation of existing stands and raising and expansion of new stands;
3. Support strong community involvement in the development of sandalwood; and
4. Maintain the cultural and historical values of sandalwood.
Extent to which the legal frameworks support the conservation and management of
sandalwood in West Timor
In linking up with the provincial government’s decision to develop East Nusa Tenggara Province as the
‘Sandalwood Province’ (Provinsi Cendana), one of the ‘must do’ actions is to review and re-develop policies
for the sustainable management and utilisation of sandalwood. Legal frameworks in the form of district or
provincial regulations should take the side of the community, of farmers, and other smallholders. There are
four aspects of the legal frameworks that must be properly thought through: benefit sharing, land tenure
and property rights; public awareness; and public involvement. The aim of these policy changes is not only
to make sandalwood development more attractive to local communities and farmers but also to encourage
village-based tree planting of sandalwood.
Current regulations on sandalwood in West Timor (East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 2
1999) have granted individual ownership of sandalwood growing within farmers own lands to the farmers.
The benefit share set down in the provincial regulations should be reviewed meaning that there should be
a clear statement on how much the farmers can get and how much the government would take. The
government should receive only a reasonable percentage from sales of the timber, in the form of royalty.
The royalty can be about 10-15% of the sale price of sandalwood. The royalties can then go to the district
revenue agencies and be treated as district revenue.
Regarding land tenure and property rights, any new regulations should ensure that there are clear
boundaries between areas the government controls and properties that are owned by people themselves.
Steps to be taken include re-visiting and re-adjusting boundary demarcation of permanent state forests and
re-mapping of state forests to gain a better insight into land-use patterns. This action should be conducted
in coordination with the local communities surrounding the forest.
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Often the Timorese people simply do not know about the actual regulations that are being implemented
because there have been so many changes in the regulations. One example is that many people still think
that District Regulation Number 16 1986 is being implemented and this regulation can disadvantage them
when applied to cultivation, which then discourages them from growing sandalwood. Thus, it is very important
for the government to raise public awareness of any new regulations to ensure that there will be no more
confusion over ownership or rights in regard to sandalwood.
Awareness raising about any new regulations should aim to build better communications between the
government and the Timorese people about any sandalwood management programmes, regulations and
policy in order to support the acceleration and successful development of sandalwood. Based on my own
personal experience, many people are still quite unclear about the regulations in relation to tree ownership
because of the many changes in policy that have occurred over time and the different policies put in place
by different agencies, including districts. Thus, a public awareness programme is the key to successful
management of sandalwood and this can be done through workshops and seminars; optimization of the use
of existing religious and traditional institutions or other professional institutions as channels of information;
optimisation of formal institutions such as schools and universities to conduct environmental education on
sandalwood; and expanding information through the intensive use of local media such as newspapers and
radio broadcasts.
Since sandalwood has been traditionally managed by the Timorese communities in the past, any new
management strategy should be embedded in community-based management. The government’s decision
that East Nusa Tenggara should aim to regain its status as the ‘Sandalwood Province’ through programmes
for sandalwood promotion points to the need to achieve a strategic effort by districts or provincial and
national interests. Therefore, such a programme of development should be directed as a synergetic,
coordinated and integrated approach which involves a number of related stakeholders, including the
government, the private sector and the communities through effective and efficient planning and strategy.
In addition, in the implementation of such programmes it is hoped that the public and the people will be
involved as far as possible so that the programme can be run transparently.
Moving towards an integrated sandalwood resources management system
An integrated approach is needed in sandalwood policy and management reform. An integrated resource
management programme involves a process that puts forward development and resource management
through coordination in order to maximise the balance between economic and social welfare returns
without affecting vital ecosystem sustainability (Helmi, 2003) and the loss of a species through unsustainable
practices.
There are two aspects to consider in such an integrated approach to sandalwood resources management:
the natural system and the human system. In the human system component, especially, there are at least
two aspects essential to the integration of the system for sandalwood resources management.
Firstly, there should be a cross-sectoral integration in the development of policy regarding sandalwood.
This implies that sandalwood policy or law should be integrated with and supported by economic, social
and other sectoral development policies. Alternatively, policies regarding social and economic development
should also consider their implications for sandalwood resources so that conflicts of interest can be avoided
(Helmi, 2003; Smits et al., nd). This imperative also dictates that sandalwood management requires regular
exchanging of information between all related sectors and coordination between the sectors.
Secondly, in planning and decision making processes regarding sandalwood, every stakeholder should be
engaged in creating a balance and achieving sustainability. This aspect should be considered because in
reality, each stakeholder holds different interests that could potentially be in conflict with each other. In
relation to stakeholder engagement, operational tools may be developed to handle and resolve any conflict
and to evaluate trade-offs between various objectives, planning and actions. The issue regarding this point
is that the responsibilities for sandalwood management and conservation in Indonesia are still fragmented
in several governmental institutions, such as the Department of Forestry, the district government and other
stakeholders. Thus, a provincial coordination framework should be developed in engaging and coordinating
these stakeholders. A single universal policy across all levels of government can ensure that message is
understood across agencies and the people become more confident in developing and establishing
sandalwood in their own properties.
80
Building awareness of sandalwood management
Building awareness of sandalwood management should target not only the Timorese communities but also
government officials. This constructive action can be divided into three main goals. The first is to improve both
the government’s and the people’s awareness of the status, function and important values of sandalwood.
The district and the provincial governments, which together have authority over land and the region, should
take full responsibility for sandalwood management. Government officials should be the primary agents
who initiate, facilitate and encourage any sustainable management efforts for sandalwood.
Secondly, real efforts should be made to allay people’s deep-seated trauma and fears concerning sandalwood
management arising from past policies and actions. The community as the subject of the sustainable
management of sandalwood should become the central point because nowadays most of the remaining
sandalwood resources grow on both private and communal lands. If people are no longer fearful, it is
hoped that there will be a marked increase in the participation of people in all aspects of sandalwood management.
The third point is to improve the coordination and communication between government institutions, and
between the private sector and the communities. Successful coordination and communication can be used
as tools to improve control by the communities over any sandalwood management action implemented by
the government. Moreover, the relevant government agencies, such as Department of Forestry, Forestry
Offices in districts and universities should work together towards creating a common policy and sending a
consistent message and implementation support out to the people.
An on-going extension programme should be set up; this would also strengthen the capacity for the message
to be understood. Villagers, then, will become confident to plant sandalwood in the knowledge that the trees
will be theirs to sell.
Capacity building
In line with the government’s decision to redevelop sandalwood forests and plantations and improve communities’
participation in sandalwood management, the government should prepare all the technical and practical matters
regarding the silvicultural aspects of sandalwood. Pae et al. (2004) argue that one of the main causes of the failure
of more recent attempts to develop sandalwood in Timor is the lack of training of people in the silvicultural
aspects of sandalwood such as nurseries, land preparation, and planting. Any extension or capacity building
for tending and management of sandalwood trees should be welcomed, assisted and supported. Local
or aid agencies should be encouraged to take the initiative to provide technical training on sandalwood.
Currently, CSIRO through a project titled ‘An intervention to the sustainable management of natural
resources in West Timor, Indonesia’, is trying to address this issue in cooperation with the national,
provincial and district governments, the private sector, universities and NGOs.
Transfer production from natural stands to plantations or agroforestry systems
Production of sandalwood should be done through plantation and agroforestry systems since the natural
stands have been severely depleted. McWilliam (2005) argues that sandalwood has the potential to be grown
in plantations because the time needed to get mature heartwood equals approximately a human’s life time.
Thus, the government decision to recreate plantation forests of sandalwood (Dinas Kehutanan Provinsi
NTT, 2009b) is achievable. However, it is unlikely that such plantations are going to be a dense monoculture
of sandalwood because the parasitic habit of sandalwood necessitates that the plant depends on a host
throughout its life and so a mixed planting of sandalwood and host species is needed.
A farmer-based system, on the other hand, needs only to have the existing system of agroforestry facilitated and
expanded where sandalwood has traditionally provided a long-term domestic investment within an economically
diversified agricultural asset base in Timor. Researchers strongly suggest the possibility of incorporating
one or more high value timber species within a sandalwood silvicultural system to act as long-term hosts for
sandalwood (e.g., Rahayu et al., 2002; McWilliam, 2005). Farmers could also plant annual crops such as
corn, chilli and beans. A biodiverse farm forestry system, producing two or more high value timber products
appears not only possible but also the most likely to be successful. The rate of success will improve if
sandalwood growers also receive a higher proportion of the financial benefit from selling the sandalwood.
81
Within such agroforestry systems, farmers can obtain better economic benefits while also helping to maintain
ecological functions. Economically, farmers could derive additional income from hedgerow trees and the
annual crops planted within their sandalwood gardens. Within these systems, the diversification of the income
base, which is an important attraction to farmers, is achieved and farmers can depend on the other plants
when their sandalwood trees are not yet ready for harvesting. To make the planting even more attractive,
perhaps, in the first years of development of this farmer-based system, the government should provide
incentives for tree planting.
Marketing
Since sandalwood depends on other plants surrounding it to survive (i.e., it is parasitic), it can be developed
together with other commodities in order to support other primary agricultural programmes such as corn
and green animal feed. This intercropping method is also a means to seek support from farmers for sandalwood
management and to adopt a management and marketing system through cooperatives for promoting and selling
sandalwood.
Cooperatives are the most appropriate intervening measure or marketing system that the government can
implement for all sandalwood growers through which sandalwood can be sold so that people can benefit
directly from the sale. However, there should be a standard way of doing this in terms of management and,
most importantly, in setting the price and share of benefits. It is the government that is determined to
redevelop sandalwood and has the management programmes; thus, it is the government’s job to protect
and create a safe marketing environment that benefits all stakeholders but especially smallholder farmers.
Moreover, farmers in West Timor are experienced in marketing their farm products through cooperatives.
Therefore, setting up sandalwood cooperatives would not be a foreign process to them.The motto of cooperatives
is ‘from the people, to the people and by the people’. It means that the cooperatives are managed by the people
themselves for the welfare of the members. Such an environment can ensure transparency in the industry.
Undertake a thorough inventory of the remaining sandalwood trees or natural stands
throughout West Timor
During the first period of development, an inventory of sandalwood should be carried out to understand
the real natural distribution and potential of sandalwood for better management and conservation
actions. Moreover, an inventory is needed on which to base harvesting regimes to ensure more planned and
sustainable sandalwood utilisation. GIS-based (Geographic Information System) tools should be used in this
inventory to precisely locate and map the trees and stands. A GIS-based inventory would also be helpful in
determining the habitat area and would aid further analysis of the ecological range, such as habitat type,
community structure and climatic factors as the exact information about the ecological range varies a great
deal amongst the many sources.
Encourage conservation of potential good seed sources
Potentially good seed sources will comprise of multiple mature trees in reasonable proximity to one another
to facilitate cross breeding. The availability of good seed sources would significantly enhance successful
redevelopment and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. The activity should also include re-identification of
the fifty five seed tree sources and four seed production areas (SPA) identified during the 1990s. It is best again to
use a GIS-based approach for this conservation measure to identify and map the best seed source areas. Factors
to be considered when identifying sites for potential good seed sources include accessibility, population pressure,
and other development activities.
Forest officers, especially the district forestry officers, should meet regularly with the customary owners
of these areas and trees to explain the importance of conserving the trees as a source of seed. Moreover,
the officers should maintain ongoing contacts with the landowners to strengthen the rationales behind the
protection of the area or the trees and raise awareness on the importance of such trees. The landowners
should then be given incentives for protecting the trees and for the seeds collected.
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Research should also be carried out on the storage, shelf-life, viability and vigour of seeds collected, to
ensure a continuing supply of seeds for future planting. Importing good-quality seeds from a plot of West
Timor origin S. album in Thailand could be considered should local supplies be limited (J. Doran pers.
comm. 2010).
Development of community-managed sandalwood conservation and development areas
Sandalwood Managed Conservation Areas should be established by forestry district offices in coordination
with the communities and customary landowners. This coordination should also prepare simple management
plans for each conservation and development area. This will include a plan for the sustainable harvesting of
the sandalwood and replanting with the establishment of a local nursery. This would include the undertaking
of a detailed inventory of sandalwood in each proposed managed conservation area to aid in the development
of respective management plans, locating good seed sources and placing nurseries in appropriate locations.
Each conservation area is different in terms of local factors and management objectives. Therefore,
management plans will vary between areas. Corrigan et al. (2000) propose guidelines and specifications for
the following activities for each conservation area:
a. Volume and magnitude of sandalwood exploitation, e.g., limiting the annual sandalwood harvest to an
assessed sustainable level following an inventory of sandalwood stocks;
b. Planning on sandalwood regeneration activities, e.g., replanting and direct seeding of sandalwood in
areas where it has been harvested;
c. Agricultural activities – e.g., restricting the clearing of forest areas for agriculture to existing plantation
sites or utilization of agroforestry as a system to re-establish sandalwood;
d. Improvement and development of alternative income-generating activities, to provide additional incomes
other than from sandalwood products;
e. Development of local awareness and understanding about the sustainable management of sandalwood
through education programmes;
f. Assist in bringing sandalwood growers together in cooperatives in order to ensure good coordination
and marketing outcomes and the best financial returns to growers.
Conclusions
Sandalwood of the genus Santalum is a tree species with great social, religious and economic importance
attached to it in many parts of the world. Sandalwood has a long history of trade, but it has also lacked any
management. This has resulted in the uncontrolled destruction of the natural sandalwood for short-term
self interest. The historical record emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to be derived
from the trade in this valuable commodity. This study began with a question about what the best strategy
is for management and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. This question was addressed by looking
at information on the ecology, values, threats, management and conservation status of this species in West
Timor. When discussing sandalwood management in West Timor, one can confidently argue that there has
been no actual management of this resource so far. This is because much attention has been given to its
exploitation with little effort expended on its maintenance, conservation and protection for sustainable resource
management.
Efforts to control the trade of the species in Timor can be traced back to pre-colonial times. This historical
interest in the plant emphasises the highly significant economic benefits able to be derived from the trade.
However, it was the Indonesian administration following independence in 1945 that brought about a major
shift in resource management policies and stricter control over sandalwood. The government of Indonesia
adopted some of the existing colonial regulatory frameworks, resulting in significant social impacts on the
people of Timor. The government claimed ownership over sandalwood through the implementation of state
and provincial policies and regulations, all under the guise of protection and resource conservation.
Efforts to re-establish and regenerate sandalwood in West Timor began in 1990 by ACIAR. Currently, these
efforts have been mainly conducted by forestry agencies such as Forestry Services and the Forestry Research
and Development Centre in Kupang. However, these have shown a low rate of success due to poor silviculture
practices, limited facilities, continuous shifting cultivation and grazing. Through the government of ENT
Province’s programme called Anggaran untuk rakyat - menuju sejahtera (Budget for the people – for prosperity)
the government is taking steps to regain the glory and ‘aroma’ of sandalwood in ENT Province. Several sandalwood
forests in the form of community forests on state, private and communal land have been established.
83
Considering that this species has been threatened with extinction, IUCN put sandalwood onto its Red List
of threatened species with the global conservation status ‘vulnerable’ based on an assessment made in
1998. In West Timor, efforts on protection and conservation of sandalwood were undertaken by imposing
a temporary ban on logging. However, this latest ban has actually led to an even more dramatic decline in
sandalwood production as it has encouraged illegal logging. This was due to the suspicions by the community
about the government’s management and policing practices and the fact that the price of sandalwood increased
dramatically during this time. Thus, people were tempted to cut their trees illegally and sell them on the black market.
Thus, issues that impede further development, management and conservation of sandalwood include policy
and regulations that disadvantage the people. This policy has resulted in many negative actions including
illegal logging and people’s reluctance to plant and conserve sandalwood.
Moreover, there are also issues relating to land ownership in West Timor arising mainly because the
government’s legal frameworks for land are often in conflict with the customary laws which eventually also
involve sandalwood ownership. Furthermore, the sandalwood population has been depleted as a result of
unsustainable exploitation and threats such as lack of regeneration due to uncontrolled grazing. Another
issue is the un-coordinated manner of management because agencies working on sandalwood-related
projects often work in isolation. This only brings confusion as different messages are heard by the people.
This adds further to the people’s lack of confidence in utilising sandalwood.
The current sandalwood situation in West Timor calls for a new, integrated conservation and management strategy. This is backed up by the fact that many national programmes on planting activities consider
sandalwood as a target species and much encouragement has been given to the government of East Nusa
Tenggara province to redevelop and conserve sandalwood. Moreover, two international initiatives targeting
sandalwood management and conservation in West Timor are currently underway.
In order to link up with the East Nusa Tenggara provincial government’s wish to regain its status as the
‘Sandalwood Province’, integrative sandalwood conservation and management strategies are proposed
here. With regard to the management aspect, the legal frameworks (in this case regulation or policies
regarding sandalwood) should be supportive of the people. It means that all current policy should be reviewed
and redeveloped so that sandalwood cultivation can become more attractive and of increased benefit to the
people of Timor. This approach should be combined with continuing efforts to build awareness of sandalwood
management, in capacity building, in setting up a competitive market through cooperatives, and moving
towards an integrative sandalwood resource management.
On the conservation side, the first action should be to undertake a thorough inventory throughout West
Timor to build a better understanding of the current status of the natural population and to work out and
set limits for harvesting so that the management of the resources becomes more planned, integrated and
sustainable. Moreover, the availability of good seed sources would support more successful redevelopment
and conservation of sandalwood in West Timor. Therefore, some activities should be aimed at conservation
of seed sources. A sandalwood conservation area should be established in each district of West Timor. The
conservation area should be managed in accordance with a simple management plan which incorporates
guidelines for the management of conservation and development areas, sustainable harvesting schedules,
replanting programmes and establishment of a local nursery.
Lastly, an on-going effort should be made to fill the gaps in the knowledge base of sandalwood. It is hoped
that this combination will result in reliable and achievable approaches for a better management and
conservation of sandalwood in West Timor, as well as more sustainable base for livelihoods development
and support for the West Timorese people.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on a major research essay I prepared as part of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Forestry, Australian National University. I would like to thank AusAID for awarding me the opportunity to
study in Australia through the Australian Partnership Scholarship, my supervisors, Dr. Hartmut Holzknecht
and Brian Gunn, for their guidance, The Fenner School ANU and Professor Janette Lindesay, Professor Peter
Kanowski and Professor Stephen Dovers for giving me the chance to complete my study at the School and Dr.
Sue Holzknecht for her valuable inputs and tireless editing of this essay and other assignments.
84
Last but not least, I offer my deepest appreciation to my family who had to sacrifice a lot in order that I
could continue my study. Thanks especially to my mother, who always mentions my name in her prayers
and my beloved father, Alexander Benediktus Ora, who passed away on 21 November 2009.
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APPENDIX 1. EARLY HISTORY OF POLICY AND POLICY CHANGES APPLYING TO SANDALWOOD IN WEST TIMOR
1. Pre-colonial period (Before the 16th Century)
People of West Timor had a customary law (adat) regarding sandalwood management and trade called ‘Banu
Haumeni’. Two precepts were set out in this law:
a. Whoever harvests or cuts, burns or destroys any sandalwood trees deliberately would be fined one buffalo or goat.
The extent of the fine depended on the age of the destroyed trees; the older and bigger the trees, the bigger the fine.
b. Commoners were forbidden to directly trade their sandalwood to traders from China, Arab and Europe
before the kings, nobles and their families had met the traders.
2. Under the Portuguese and the Dutch Colonial Trade Company (VOC) (16th Century – 1906)
There was a consensus between the kings of Timor and the Portuguese and the VOC traders about share
of benefits from sandalwood trading. Portuguese and VOC traders were allowed to harvest and trade
sandalwood themselves but had to give 1/3 of the money generated from trading to the kings or nobles.
3. During the Dutch Colonial Period (1906-1945)
During this period the Dutch colonial authority’s strict regulatory and control measures over sandalwood
were put into practice. These regulations and controls placed pressure and burdens on people because the
people had to take care of and maintain all sandalwood trees or seedlings that grew within their land or farms.
If the Dutch authorities knew that the seedlings or trees were dead or intentionally or unintentionally destroyed
by the people, then the people would be punished. The punishments applied during this time included:
a. A fine of Rp 10 or silver money (traditional money) and imprisonment for a maximum of three years for those
who caused big sandalwood trees to die as a result of fire and for those who conducted illegal harvesting or
theft of big sandalwood trees.
b. A fine of Rp 5 or silver money and three years imprisonment for those who were caught destroying
sandalwood seedlings within their gardens, farms or yards.
c. One ringgit (silver money) fine and three years imprisonment for those who burnt the bushland or savannah
and caused the fall of sandalwood leaves.
d. One ringgit (silver money) fine and three months imprisonment for those who were caught cutting or pruning
twigs or branches of sandalwood intentionally.
(Adapted from Pello (2000) edited in Rahayu et al. (2002)
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APPENDIX 2. POLICY CHANGES APPLYING TO SANDALWOOD SINCE INDONESIAN INDEPENDENCE
Timor’s District Regulation Number 4 1953 about sandalwood
After Indonesian independence in 1945 and until 1958, the region of East Nusa Tenggara (ENT) Province
including West Timor was under the one administration of Nusa Tenggara (formerly known as the Lesser
Sunda Islands) together with Bali and West Nusa Tenggara Province. Timor was then one of the districts.
In Timor’s District Regulation Number 4 1953 it was stated that:
a. All sandalwood dead or alive within the District of Timor was fully owned by the government of the District of Timor.
b. The share of benefits was stipulated by the government; under this rule the Timorese people who
had to maintain and harvest sandalwood received a payment of only Rp 40 per kg of sandalwood
they gathered.
c. Those who cut, destroyed, owned, traded and transported sandalwood without written permission from the government would be imprisoned for at least three months and receive a maximum Rp. 100 fine. All the sandalwood related to this wrongdoing would be confiscated.
1) Provincial Regulation Number 11/PD/1966, East Nusa Tenggara’s Provincial Regulation
on sandalwood
This Provincial Regulation experienced three changes, becoming Provincial Regulation Number 8 1968
and then Provincial Regulation Number 17 1974 and lastly Provincial Regulation Number 7 1980. The
content of the Provincial Regulation Number 11/PD/1966 included:
a. All sandalwood growing inside or outside state forests within ENT Province belonged to the government
through the forestry offices of all districts within the East Nusa Tenggara Province.
b. A fine of up to Rp 10,000 or six months imprisonment for a person who cut, harvested and stored wood of
sandalwood without permission from the forestry officers.
c. A fine of up to Rp 5,000 or three months imprisonment for anyone who destroyed a living or dead sandalwood tree.
d. A fine of up to Rp 500 for a person who did not possess a permit letter when transporting sandalwood wood.
e. All sandalwood confiscated from all violations mentioned above was forfeited to the government.
2)
a.
b.
East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 17 1974
The content of this provincial regulation was basically the same as Provincial Regulation Number
11/PD/1966. Some changes included the setting up of a market price and a higher amount of fines:
Marketing and price of sandalwood were defined by the governor of ENT Province.
A fine of up to Rp 50,000 or six months imprisonment for a person who cut, harvested or stored sandalwood
without the permission of the head of the districts’ forestry offices.
c. A fine of up to Rp 25,000 or three months imprisonment for a person who destroyed a living or dead
sandalwood tree.
d. A fine of up to Rp 2,500 for a person who did not possess a permit letter when transporting sandalwood.
e. All sandalwood confiscated from all violations mentioned above became the government’s property.
3)
a.
b.
c.
d.
East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 16 1986
This provincial regulation contains several points about sandalwood ownership and fines including:
All sandalwood growing inside or outside state forests within the ENT Province belonged to the
government through the forestry office of the ENT Province.
Implementation of sandalwood management which includes planting, maintenance, protection,
harvesting, exploitation, transport and control was organised by the government.
Cultivation and maintenance of sandalwood were to be carried out by forestry offices.
Production, allowable cut, market price and exploitation fee were defined by the governor of the ENT
Province based on inventories conducted by forestry offices.
e. The share of the benefit from sale of sandalwood that came from farmers’ land was defined by the
government. The proportion was 15% for the farmer and 80% for the government.
f. A fine of up to Rp 50,000 or six months imprisonment for those who cut, harvested and stored
sandalwood without permission from the head of the district forestry offices.
g. A fine of up to Rp 25,000 or three months imprisonment for those who destroyed any living or dead sandalwood trees.
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4) Governor of East Nusa Tenggara Decree Number 2 1996
This ‘governor decree’ was a revision of Provincial Regulation Number 16 1986 in the share benefit
aspect. The share benefit for farmers was raised to 40%, with the government received the remaining 60%.
5) Governor of East Nusa Tenggara Instruction Number 12 year 1997
This governor’s instruction called for a ban on sandalwood harvesting from 1997 to 2003. The aim of this
ban was to conserve and protect sandalwood from illegal logging.
6) East Nusa Tenggara Provincial Regulation Number 2 1999
This is the regulation currently in force, and was issued to replace the ENT Provincial Regulation
Number 16 1986. The provincial government then handed over sandalwood management to the district
governments within the ENT Province. This latest regulation regarding sandalwood also ensures
that farmers can harvest and sell their sandalwood growing on their land without having to ask for
permission from the government. On the other hand, the government manages sandalwood within its
own land under a subsequent government decree.
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5.7 TROPICAL FORESTRY SERVICES CORPORATION:
A SANDALWOOD PLANTATION MANAGER
Peter Kimber
The Company
Tropical Forestry Services Corporation (TFS) is a West Australia Company founded in the late 1990s by Mr
Frank Wilson, who still heads the company. Mr Wilson’s family has had a long association with commercial
forestry, sawmilling and timber sales. The company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange in 2004.
The company’s purpose was to become a sandalwood plantation manager in support of the Australian
government’s managed investment scheme (MIS). The scheme was introduced to assist in the development
of forestry and agricultural plantations to be funded largely by small investors who were offered very
substantial tax concessions for their involvement. TFS both establishes and manages sandalwood
plantations up to harvest on behalf of the investors.
Two or three years ago, the company anticipated a decline in the demand from small investors interested
in the plantation industry and changed their investor profile to include large corporate investors. This was a
highly successful move and has contributed to the success of the company amid the recent demise of most
companies involved in the MIS industry. TFS still encourages and accommodates small investors in
its plantation schemes. TFS has adopted a policy of vertical integration in the sandalwood industry, aiming
to be involved in planting, maintaining and harvesting the trees and in processing the timber into the
various products demanded by the market. In this respect TFS purchased a West Australian Company,
Mount Romance, with a long history of distilling oil and marketing raw materials for incense production
using the native West Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Mount Romance has since adjusted its
processing procedures for the production of Indian sandalwood products as well as the native sandalwood.
Company Managed Plantations
Up to the present all TFS’ Indian sandalwood plantations are situated in the far north of Western Australia
in the east Kimberley Region. The majority of plantations are located in the Ord River Irrigation Area, a
prominent farming area centred on the town of Kununurra. The company has also started to develop
plantations on its own private estate with a substantial water supply dam located 70 kilometres east of
Kununurra.
Climatically the east Kimberly region is tropical monsoonal with a wet season lasting for about four months.
Average annual rainfall is between 700 and 800 mm; and open pan evaporation exceeds 3,600 mm per annum.
These conditions are far too dry and harsh to grow dryland plantations and irrigation is necessary throughout the
dry season.
The plantations programme has increased year by year and the company now manages a plantation
estate exceeding 4,000 hectares in area, of which more than 1,000 hectares were planted in 2010.
Points of Silvicultural Interest
The tree seedlings are planted mainly by hand in the cooler part of the dry season. Irrigation water is
applied within a few hours of planting. The majority of plantations are furrow irrigated, water being allowed
to flow down furrows between the rows of trees for 24 hours. Tailing water is recycled on some of the Ord
River Irrigation Area plantations. Under difficult conditions, particularly where water supply is limited, the
tree rows are irrigated with trickle tape throughout the life of the plantation. Some furrow irrigated areas
where soil tends to dry out quickly are trickle irrigated for the first dry season after planting, and then revert
to furrow irrigation. The sandalwood has three stages of hosts. The seedlings in the nursery are provided
with a small herb 3 to 4 months before planting out in the field. At planting, a short- term host is planted
in the same row as the sandalwood, generally one host to two sandalwood trees. This host gives the
sandalwood a tremendous boost in growth but is killed by the sandalwood after 2 or 3 years. Long term
hosts are planted adjacent to the sandalwood but in separate rows. Two or three long-term host species
are used to boost the growth of the sandalwood, but with a capacity to survive the parasitism. All hosts are
leguminous trees apart from the pot host established in the nursery.
Seed is collected from the company’s plantations and raised in a company nursery at Kununurra. Due to
the large areas now being planted, the nursery is unable to supply enough planting stock. Two Kununurra
nurserymen raise seedlings on contract to help meet the demand.
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The number of seedlings planted varies little from site to site. Generally between 500 and 550 sandalwood
seedlings are planted per hectare and long-term hosts are planted in numbers that provide a ration of
between 0.7: to 1:1 hosts per sandalwood tree, the number depending on the vigour of the various hosts
species. This amounts to between 350 and 500 long-term hosts per hectare.
The majority of the sandalwood begins to develop scented heartwood during the fourth or fifth year after
planting, and the heartwood continues to expand until the trees are harvested at age 14 or 15 years. At
harvest age the trees average around 8 meters in height and 20 to 24 cm basal diameter over bark
(measured at 200 mm above ground level.)
The company has a tree breeding programme that started four years ago with the development of seed
orchards. Once the sandalwood reaches 5 years of age the best trees are selected for inclusion in the seed
orchard. Selection is based on evidence of the formation of scented heartwood (checked by boring and oil
analysis of the core), vigour, and fine branching. The later trait is desirable in order to facilitate pruning
to develop a clear bole. Scions from selected trees are grafted onto seedling stock and planted on a
standard seed orchard pattern to ensure an equal chance of every pair of trees interbreeding. The seed
orchard location is remote from other sandalwood trees. Seed production commences at age 2 from
planting and is considerable by age 3.
Plantation Maintenance
To achieve an acceptable level of seedling survival (90% plus), rigorous weed control is practised for the first
two years after planting. Weed control entails a combination of cultivation, manual hoeing and herbicide
applications using shrouded sprayers to avoid spray drift. By the time the tree canopy has closed, between
ages of 5 and 7 years, weed control is reduced to mechanical slashing at the end of the wet season, and the
manual removal of climbers from affected trees.
Pruning is an important operation. The short-term hosts have their lower branches removed in the first year
after planting to allow light into the plantation. Some of the long-term hosts may display excessive vigour
threatening to shade out the sandalwood. These are topped and the side branches reduce mechanically
using a mango-hedging machine. The sandalwood trees are form-pruned in their first year to remove any
double leaders. In the second, third and fourth years they are pruned annually raising the length of clear bole
up to two and a half meters at age 4. This operation is to ensure that the vigour of the tree is directed into
increasing the size of the extremely valuable lower bole.
Irrigation is carried out throughout the dry season, extending from about April to December.
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6
TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD RESEARCH
6.1 IMPACT OF HEARTWOOD ROTS ON SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM
ALBUM) OIL PRODUCTION
Barbour L1 , Norris L2 and Burgess T3.
1 Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Australia.
2 Forest Products Commission, Locked Bag 888, Perth BC WA 6849 Australia
3 Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch WA 6150 Australia
Abstract
The presence of heartwood rot fungal diseases in S. album in Australia is recorded. Possible fungal candidates
were isolated and identified, four species being from the Ascomycetes and five different genera from the
Basidiomycetes. The latter group contains the wood rotting fungi and are thus of the greatest interest. All the
isolated Basidiomycetes were fungi that had not previously been described. The possible impact of such
diseases on sandalwood oil production is investigated. Heartwood containing the valuable alpha and beta
santalol sesquiterpenes of sandalwood oil developed around wood rot zones and encapsulated infected
areas. Greater production of sesquiterpenes was correlated with fungal infection from the base of the tree
compared to fungal infection entering from damaged bark. Intact or undamaged bark was a major factor
in protecting trees from fungal damage. Heartwood rot fungi that entered via bark wounds caused the most
damage and appeared to challenge tree disease resistance mechanisms via the synthesis of sesquiterpenes
and the resultant sandalwood oil production was lower.
Introduction
Sandalwood (Santalum album) is a hemi-parasitic tropical tree valued for the sesquiterpenes held within
its heartwood. High demand for the heartwood and sandalwood oil product has led to increased pressure on
native stands, and this together with the onset of the bacterial wilt disease in India, created a world shortage. Plantation S. album systems were developed in the Ord River Irrigation Scheme (ORIS), North Western
Australia to alleviate the pressure on wild sources and produce a sustainable supply of sandalwood oil to
meet increasing world market demands.
Tropical environments, due to high relative humidity and warm temperatures, encourage tree growth as
well as fungal diseases. The parasitic nature of S. album encourages the close proximity of neighbouring
host trees which are also potentially susceptible and can harbour fungi allowing for opportunistic crossinfection. Fungal disease management in these multi-species plantation systems has a new level of
complexity not historically explored in single species plantations or agriculture systems.
Sporadic S. album deaths have occurred throughout the Forest Products Commission trials at the Frank
Wise Institute in the ORIS. These deaths are attributed to termite attack or die-back infection through the
soil borne mould Phytophthora cinnamomi. The presence of wood rotting fungi has been masked by the
challenge to develop a reliable host system to support continued sandalwood survival and growth. There
have been few reports of fungal diseases in S. album. Ganoderma, a white wood rot, was identified from a
leguminous host but not from S. album (Smith, pers. comm.). During destructive harvests by the Forest
Products Commission (Barbour et al., 2011) wood rot was noted and this project quantifies these observations.
Methodology
All samples used in this study were provided by the Forest Products Commission from the Frank Wise
Institute in the ORIS on the outskirts of Kununurra, North Western Australia.
To identify the fungi, wood samples adjacent to the rot were collected from S. album and the presence of
fungal fruiting structures was noted. For isolation, a clean transverse cut was made and a samples from
the margin of the rot taken.
Three media were used to express the fungi:
• PDA ( Potato Dextrose Agar),
• Basidiomycete selective media and
• water agar
92
Over 100 fungal isolations were obtained from these three media and matched based on colony morphology. Isolates of known contaminants such as Alternaria, Aspergillus and Penicillin were excluded and
approximately 50 fungal samples remained. DNA was extracted from 35 representative isolates.
Wood rot and heartwood formation within sandalwood boles was assessed during the destructive harvest of
30 trees aged 8 years, and 40 trees aged 15 years. The bole length of each tree was measured and 4 discs,
4 to 5 cm wide, were cut from the base, 1st third, 2nd third, and top of the bole. Each disc was labelled and
photographed with a scale set at the disc surface. Imaging software (Image J, V1.41) was then used to
calculate total disc, wood rot, and heartwood area after each component was manually outlined on the digital
image. Simple linear regression between wood rot and wood parameters was completed using XLStat (2006).
For sandalwood oil analysis, a sub-sample of 16 discs from 7 trees aged 15 years of age, representing three
stem positions were selected. From each disc a total of 5 samples were taken, 3 in the heartwood surrounding
the wood rot, one from the sap wood and one from the wood rot area. The sample was taken using an 8 mm
drill piece, the shavings collected and placed into a 25 ml flask for ethanol extraction and volume
standardisation. Oil quantity and composition were determined by gas chromatography using the method
as described by Jones et al. (2007).
Results
Two groups of fungi, Basidiomycete genera and Ascomycete species, were isolated from the S. album tree
boles. All the Basidiomycetes isolated were from genera of known rot fungi causing diseases of woody
plants world-wide, namely Ceripora, Irpex, Fomes, Ganoderma, Phellinus and Peniophora. Most of these
wood-rotting fungi have a wide host range and are capable of causing wood rot in any available tree if they
obtain entry through a wound. Consequently their isolation and identification from S. album coupled with
the presence of fruiting bodies is irrefutable evidence of them causing rot within the wood.
None of the fungi isolated were an identical match for any known species with sequences available on the
public sequence database Genbank. In the case of identifications of Ceripora or Irpex and also Fomes or
Ganoderma, it was not possible to identify the exact genus. In both cases the two genera are closely related
to each other and often confused with the possibility of being mis-named on Genbank. Northern Australia
is an unexplored area in terms of fungal diversity and hence their endemic nature is a possibility. Studies
on botryosphaeriaceous fungi associated with boabs in the Kimberley resulted in the description of seven
fungal species that were new to science (Pavlic et al., 2008)
The Ascomycetes identified, Fusarium solani, Lasiodiplodia, Neoscytalidium dimidiatum and Pseudofusicoccum
adansonia are commonly found associated with cankers of woody trees (Dakin et al., 2010, Taylor et al., 2009,
Pavlic et al., 2008). The latter three are common tropical species in the Botryosphaeriaceae which have been
isolated from boabs and mangoes in the Kimberley and can in themselves cause cankers in stressed trees
(Sakalidis et al., 2010a, Sakalidis et al., 2010b). In sandalwood, these fungi are more likely to be secondary
pathogens entering after the rot fungi infection. In conjunction with the rot fungi they will produce a more
severe canker and do more damage to the branches than either group of organisms alone.
TABLE 1 DISCS EXTRACTED FROM AN 8 YEAR OLD S. ALBUM BOLE SHOWING THE SAMPLE NUMBER, DISCS WITH ROT, DISCS CONTAINING ROT ONLY IN THE CENTRE, DISC AREA (CM2, MEAN ± STD.DEV.), AND PERCENTAGE OF THIS AREA DIFFERENTIATED INTO HEARTWOOD AND WOOD ROT.
Disc position Discs (#)
Discs with rot (#)
Discs with Disc area
centre rot (#) (cm2)
Heartwood (%)
Wood rot
(%)
top bole
30
11
4
53.89 (20.71)
4.22 (7.76)
3.13 (6.67)
upper 3rd 30
11
4
57.46 (15.02)
3.03 (6.72)
3.45 (7.23)
lower 3rd 30
14
3
77.63 (19.47)
3.15 (4.49)
3.57 (6.54)
base
30
10
9
124.98 (22.75)
11.17 (12.97)
3.01 (5.80)
93
The occurrence of wood rot within the bole of 8-year-old S. album trees was highly variable (Table 1).
Between 37 and 47 % of the discs taken from each third of the bole showed signs of fungal rot. The majority
of this wood rot was a result of bark damage and fungal entry via the damaged cambium and sap wood
(Table 1). Fungal attack from the base of the tree entering the bole via the juvenile core occurred in between
10 and 30 % of discs (Table 1). The infection source, tree base or via damaged bark areas, changed up
the bole of the tree. At the base of the tree, there was a higher incidence of centre wood rot and a lower
incidence of sapwood rot. This changed from the first third disc, which was approximately 60 cm above
ground level, where the incidence of sap wood rot infection increased and became the dominant means of
wood rot entry.
The disc area decreased from the base (125 cm2) up the top of the bole (54 cm2) as did the area of heartwood.
The base disc had an average heartwood area of 11 cm2 (9 %) whereas the top of the bole contained 4 cm2 (7
%). On average, discs contained 3 % of wood rot across the length of the tree bole (Table 1).
Longitudinal assessment of wood rot along the S. album bole was modelled through consecutive cross sectional
discs and it was found that 23.3 % of the trees were healthy. The pattern of wood rot in the remaining trees
differed with no trend apparent with 7 trees having rot in a single disc, 1 tree with rot in two non-consecutive
discs, 8 trees had rot in two consecutive discs, 4 trees had rot in three consecutive discs, and 2 trees had rot in
all four discs. The highest mean proportion of rot area of the 4 discs within an individual tree was 20 (± 12) %.
Each wood rot was encapsulated by a darkened ring which was hypothesised to be a deposit of sesquiterpenes
and thus referred to as heartwood. The presence of wood rot appeared to stimulate heartwood production and
thus the relationship of the two different fungal entry points on heartwood production was investigated.
Figure 1. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within disc
for, A) all discs, and B) for discs with heartwood rot originating in the disc centre (♦) and
originating from bark damage (■) for S. album.
The correlation between area of wood rot infection and heartwood production is weak but significant with a
positive linear relationship (P= 0.008, R2=0.209). This supports the observation that when wood rot enters S.
album, the tree responds by increasing the development of heartwood (Figure 1A). This heartwood appears to
encapsulate and isolate the wood rot infection from healthy tissues.
When the entry point of the wood rot was separated into two different groups, those with heartwood rot
originating from the centre of the disc compared to fungal rot originating from the outer regions of the bole, a
clear division existed (Figure 1B). The relationship between heartwood production and the two types of wood
rot infection were highly significant (P < 0.001) and account for a high proportion of the variation in the data
(R2 < 0.75). It was evident by separating these two infection entry points, infection initiated from the base
of the tree through the juvenile wood in the centre of the bole stimulated greater heartwood production.
Infection that enters where the bark and often the cambium was damaged, via the sapwood, did not
stimulate heartwood production to the same extent (Figure 1B).
94
TABLE 2. DISCS EXTRACTED FROM A BOLE OF 15-YEAR-OLD S. ALBUM TREES SHOWING THE SAMPLE
NUMBER, ALL DISCS WITH ROT, DISCS ONLY CONTAINING ROT IN THE CENTRE, MEAN DISC AREA
(CM2 ± STD.DEV.), PERCENTAGE OF THIS AREA DIFFERENTIATED INTO HEARTWOOD AND
PERCENTAGE WOOD ROT.
Disc position
Discs (#)
Discs with Discs with Heartwood Wood rot
centre rot (#)
Disc area (cm2)
rot (#)
(%)
(%)
top bole
40
16
4
62.4 (29.6)
7.2 (8.4)
6.1 (11.3)
upper 3rd 40
16
10
65.5 (24.0)
12.0 (11.3)
5.2 (11.2)
lower 3rd 40
17
9
87.4 (33.3)
17.5 (12.6)
5.5 (13.3)
base
40
17
10
142.5 (55.6)
30.6 (12.4)
1.5 (2.4)
The pattern of wood rot in the 15-year-old trees changed. In the upper bole, heartwood rot occupied
approximately 11 % of the discs (Table 2) which was an increase from the 8-year-old trees at 3 % (Table 1).
What was significant in the 15-year-old trees was the decline in wood rot at the base of the tree (1 %) where
heartwood proportion was at its highest (30 % of the disc).
Disc area decreased from the base (143 cm2) up the bole (62 cm2) as did the heartwood, the base disc
having 31 cm2 (21.7 %) and the top disc 7 cm2 (11.3 %) (Table 2). It is important to note that the increase in
heartwood was greater from 8 to 15 years of age compared to the overall wood growth of the bole. This
indicates that once that heartwood is initiated, it is progressively filling the bole volume of the tree.
Figure 2. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within discs
taken from the base, first third, second third and top of the bole of S. album.
The amount of wood rot measured at the base of the bole was on average 1.5 % but this increased up the
bole to approximately 5.5 % (Table 2), well above levels detected in the 8-year-old trees. Discs with a higher
proportion of heartwood had less wood rot present (Figure 2) although no statistical relationship could be
found. In the sample of 40 15-year-old trees, only 9 trees were healthy. Of the remaining 31 trees, 12 had
wood rot in a single disc, 1 in two non-consecutive discs, 9 in two consecutive discs, 3 in three consecutive
discs and 6 in all four discs. Of the trees with rot in all discs, the highest mean proportion of rot was 37 (± 24)
% of disc area.
95
Figure 3. The relationship between the proportion of wood rot and heartwood within disc
from a 15-year-old tree for, (A) for discs with heartwood rot originating in the disc centre
(B) and originating from bark damage.
When the entry point of the wood rot was separated into two different groups, those with infection originating
from the centre of the disc compared with those originating from the outer regions, the relationship was not
as clear as had been seen in the 8-year-old tree harvest. Wood rot initiated in the centre of the bole showed
no distinctive linear relationship (P =0.139, R2= 0.072) (Figure 3A). Where rot originated in other regions of the
disc, there was a significant moderately positive linear relationship (P = 0.004, R2= 0.362) inferring that discs
with higher proportions of rot generally had higher proportions of heartwood (Figure 3B).
TABLE 3. SANTALUM ALBUM OIL ANALYSIS OF 15-YEAR-OLD TREES SHOWING OIL CONTENT FROM HEART
WOOD, SAPWOOD AND WOOD ROT (MG/G) AND THE ALPHA AND BETA SANTALOL PROPORTION
(%) WITHIN THE OIL
Wood sample
Sandalwood oil (mg/g)
Alpha santalol (%) Beta santalol (%)
Heartwood surrounding
the wood rot
29.93 + 31.34
47.74 + 13.12
18.95 + 5.41
Sapwood
4.81 + 10.06
52.26 ± 25.54
14.55 + 7.93
Wood rot
6.38 ± 8.67
44.13 ± 21.93
17.10 ± 8.43
The dark aromatic areas surrounding the wood rot referred to as heartwood were hypothesised to contain
sandalwood oil (sesquiterpenes). Wood samples taken from 15-year-old S. album trees from the heartwood
area surrounding the wood rot, sapwood and within the wood rot showed that the highest levels of sesquiterpenes
(sandalwood oil) were in the heartwood zone (Table 3).
The overall mean extractable sandalwood oil (sesquiterpenes) from the heartwood surrounding the wood
rot was 30 mg/g or 3 % of sandalwood oil per wood dry weight. This contrasts with the sapwood which only
contains 5 mg/g and the wood rot 6.5 mg/g of sandalwood oil. The levels of alpha and beta santalol do not
significantly change at any of these locations (Table 3).
Figure 4. The total extracted sandalwood oil (mg/g) and proportion of alpha- and beta-santalol
within this oil (%) at a height of 60, 90 and 120 cm above the base of a 15-year-old S. album tree.
96
The total sandalwood oil extracted from the heartwood declined with increasing height up the bole of the
tree. This was reflected in the amount of alpha- and beta-santalol produced (Figure 4).
Discussion
This project confirmed that wood rots have infected S. album trees at the Frank Wise Institute in the ORIS,
North Western Australia. Fungus identity has not been confirmed but candidates identified include Ceripora
or Irpex, Fomes or Ganoderma, Phellinus or Peniophora. It is noted that whatever the species, these isolates
will be a newly identified species as their DNA cannot be correlated to known fungi registered on the Gene
Bank. This suggests that these fungi are local in origin and have opportunistically moved across on to
S. album. This movement of wood rot fungi is a common occurrence and whilst there is a lack of wood rot
reports on S. album in the literature, their presence has been observed in photographs of wood sections
taken from East Timor (Haffner, 1994). There are no chemical treatments that suppress or stop the spread
of wood rot fungi.
The project recognised and quantified the ability of S. album to isolate fungal infection by depositing sandalwood
oil (sesquiterpenes) around the wood rot. It is hypothesised that wood rot fungi are unable to grow in these
sesquiterpene deposits and this may be the primary role for their synthesis. In a healthy tree, sandalwood oil
deposits initiate around the senescing juvenile wood in the tree base and this slowly radiates upwards and
outwards as the tree ages. The observation that sesquiterpenes are deposited via radial parenchyma (Jones
et al., 2006) suggests that the sesquiterpene synthesis process may be initiated in the cambium. Various
precursors are translocated via the radial parenchyma to remain locked in a sesquiterpene form in the ray
parenchyma at the tree centre. This project produced supporting evidence for this concept.
During the 8-year-old S. album harvest, it was clearly shown that with bark damage, often associated with
damage to the cambium, sesquiterpene synthesis was lower than when infection occurred in the centre of the
tree. Cambium damage may have disabled the tree to produce sesquiterpenes and thus render the tree unable
to isolate the wood rot effectively. In contrast, diseases that occurred via the base of the tree and travelled up
the juvenile wood positively stimulated sesquiterpene production. The tissues and system required to synthesise
sequiterpenes appear to be unaffected by core infection from the base of the tree.
Mechanisms that stimulate a disease-defence response in S. album are unknown and yet this knowledge is
vital to create natural protection. Further investigation into temporal and spatial regulation of oil biosynthetic
genes, and ultimately changes in oil composition in response to fungal attack will provide key information. Other specialized metabolic pathways may be initially involved prior to sesquiterpene production. This could
be relevant in young trees ( 5 years old), which do not have a high capacity for oil production.
It is clearly evident that any damage to S. album bark breaks the trees protection barrier against fungal infection.
The tree has expended energy in creating this bark, and once gone, mechanisms for compensating for this loss
are not as well developed. It appears that the greatest protection to fungal diseases is at the base of the tree, as
related to the highest production of sesquiterpenes. As sesquiterpene levels decline up the tree, fungal infection
from the bark-protected perimeter becomes a greater threat.
Silvicultural practices need to ensure that tree bark is not damaged. A number of management practices
increase the risk of bark damage. These include host pruning, pruning of S. album, chipping for weed control
on the mounds and mechanical weeding and spraying using tractors. Successful hosts were shown to grow
at a similar rate to S. album (Barbour, 2008) indicating that a host’s role maybe to ensure that the sandalwood
bole is protected from sun-scald.
Recognition that S. album can isolate fungal disease infections through the synthesis of sesquiterpenes has
important implications for the manipulation of tropical tree fungal disease resistance. Understanding this
mechanism may have far reaching ramifications, with the opportunity to develop new tools for fungal resistance
in many tropical and water-logged environments.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC Publication
No. 10/179) and the Forest Products Commission of Western Australia.
97
References
Barbour, E.L (2008) Analysis of plant-host relationships in tropical sandalwood (Santalum album). RIRDC
publication No. 08/138, Barton, ACT
Barbour, E.L., Plummer, J.A. and Norris, L. (2011) Flood irrigated tropical timber trials in the North of Western
Australia. RIRDC publication No. 11/xxx, Barton, ACT.
Haffner, D.H. (1994) The quantity and quality of heartwood in two species of sandalwood. Masters of Forestry
Science, University of Melbourne, Vic.
Jones, C.G., Ghisalberti, E.L., Plummer, J.A. and Barbour E.L. (2006) Quantitative co-occurrence of sesquiterpenes;
a tool for elucidating their biosynthesis in Indian sandalwood, Santalum album. Phytochemistry, 67: 2463–2468.
Dakin, N., White, D., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010) The opportunistic pathogen, Neofusicoccum australe, is
responsible for crown dieback of peppermint (Agonis flexuosa) in Western Australia. Australasian Plant
Pathlogy, 39: 202-206.
Sakalidis, M.L., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010a) Endophytes and potential pathogens of the baobab species
Adansonia gregorii; a focus on the Botryosphaeriaceae Fungal Ecology. (accepted with changes).
Sakalidis, M.L., Ray, J.D., Lanoiselet, V., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2010b). Botryosphaeriaceous pathogens
associated with Mangifera indica in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. New Zealand Journal of Crop
and Horticultural Science. (submitted).
Slippers, B., Burgess, T.I., Pavlic, D., Ahumada, R., Maleme, H., Mohali, S.R., Rodas, C.A., Wingfield, M.J. (2009) A
diverse assemblage of Botryosphaeriaceae infect Eucalyptus in native and non-native environments. Southern
Forests, 71: 101-110.
Taylor, K., Barber, P.A., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2009) Botryosphaeriaceae from tuart (Eucalyptus
gomphocephala) woodland, including the description of four new species. Mycological Research, 113: 337-353.
Pavlic, D., Wingfield, M.J., Barber, P.A., Slippers, B., Hardy, G.E.S.J., Burgess, T.I. (2008) Seven new species of the
Botryosphaeriaceae discovered on baobabs and other native trees in Western Australia. Mycologia, 100: 851-866.
98
6.2 SEMPIT’S TREE, EXTREME VARIATION OF OIL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY
IN A SINGLE SANTALUM AUSTROCALEDONICUM TREE
Peter Murphy, Jonathan Naupa, Ben Brookman and Sempit Naritantop
Tropical Rainforest Aromatics Ltd
In this presentation, an attempt was made to give a very brief account of the investigations into the variation
in sandalwood oil composition in Vanuatu. In a factory-scale and laboratory-scale distillation programme
over the last 11 years it became obvious that there were large variations in oil composition of Santalum
austrocaledonicum, firstly on a geographic basis, and then tree-to-tree variation within a population.
However, there were very noticeable differences within individual trees. This presentation will report results
that confirmed this phenomenon - but also turned up some unexpected results.
Differences in composition of sandalwood oil from different parts of an individual tree are well known. In
1997, Piggott et. al reported this phenomenon in Western Australian Santalum spicatum. Unlike the oil from
S. austrocaledonicum, the major constituent in this oil is epi-alpha-bisabolol. However, one can still see that
the levels of alpha and beta santalol are highest in buttwood and roots and decrease ascending the tree. This
is important since the “quality” (and therefore the commercial value) of sandalwood oil is usually measured
in terms of “santalol” content.
Also well known is the variability of oil composition of S. austroacaledonicum, the sandalwood species
indigenous to Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Page and collaborators observed large variations in santalol
content along the Vanuatu island chain, with the highest levels of santalols being in sandalwood from the
northern islands of Santo and Malekula.
Figure 6. Variation in 4 essentail oil contents of S.austrocaledonicum heartwood, across 6 islands
of Vanuatu. Horizontal lines indicate the levels for α- ( 41%) and β-santalol (16-24%) to meet the
international standard (ISO 2002). Verticale bars represent standard errors
A. Initial Investigations into Oil Composition in Different Parts of Santalum austrocaledonicum Trees
We took some initial steps to determine if, and to what extent, oil composition varied in individual trees of
S. austrocaledonicum. We carried out lab-scale water distillations on root and high branch material from a
single tree from Pango on Efate. The extent of the disparity in oil composition surprised us. There was a
huge difference in composition between wood at the top and bottom of this tree.
99
Root
Heartwood
High
Branch
Heartwood
To fill the gap between branch and root we took 4 samples from different parts of another single tree, this
time from North Tanna. Once again the same trend could be observed with significant differences in santalol
content between upper and lower parts of the tree.
We had the opportunity to harvest an individual tree on Ifira Island in a more tightly controlled experiment
with more samples taken to fill in the gaps. Unfortunately this tree yielded oil at the lower end of the “quality”
range. The differences between top and bottom of the tree were small, but with a bit of imagination the general
trend was still observable. Oil yields were difficult to interpret. Overall this tree was a poor specimen to test
our hypothesis. It was growing in extremely poor soil under a large mango tree.
With what has become known as “Sempit’s Tree”, we thought we had all the bases covered in controlling
the experiment and to overcome problems and inadequacies in our previous studies. Importantly we had a
complete life history of the tree.
Sempit’s Tree
• Aniwa seed but grown on Erromango
• 17 years old at harvest
• Suffered storm damage at 3 years old
• Harvested, cut into transportable pieces, debarked and reassembled at TRA factory in Port Vila
The first five samples chosen for laboratory-scale water distillations were selected as being representative of
different parts of the tree. The analytical results delivered some surprising results, so much so that I asked
Wollongbar to recheck their GC charts to see if there was any mistake. There was none.
So how to explain the anomalies?
•
•
•
The trend of decreasing “santalol” content in ascending the tree supports our previous observations for
S. austrocaledonicum.
Excluding, for the moment, the result for the diseased root sample RD1, the compositions of the
factory-scale distillation and the individual tree parts did not seem consistent.
– Why was the bulk distillation so high in santalols?
The composition of the oil from the diseased root RD1 had much enhanced levels of santalols and much
reduced levels of the curcumenol/nuciferol/lanceol group. – Could this be a defensive response to the presence of disease in the wood?
• Note that there is visual evidence of disease in butt B1, root R1 and diseased root RD1
Clearly, it was necessary to look more closely at these and the other samples to find the explanations.
In the time available, I will not be able to look at the results of each part in detail, so I will skim through the
experiments comparing wood from the different locations, using the composition of the main fraction from
the factory distillation as the reference standard.
100
With buttwood, there was an obvious enhancement in santalol levels in B2 which was contiguous with root
R1. Both displayed evidence of disease. B1 was a sizeable slice which enabled us to look at oil compositions
going from surface to centre. From the surface to point Y there was an insignificant amount of oil so no
analysis was done. From Y to X, there was a lower proportion of santalols than from X to the centre. From X
to the centre included wood that was obviously diseased. However there was nearly 3 times the concentration
of oil from X-Y as there was from X-Centre. The original sample of B1 in the initial group assessed incorporated
very little X-C, much more Y-X, and a lot of sapwood. The analysis is consistent with this mix. Going up into the
trunk of the tree, the levels of santalols are low and the curcumenol/nuciferol levels are high. Interestingly at
position T2 the level of lanceol is higher than the curcumenols+nuciferol.
One could speculate that in S. album the oil with high levels of santalols was an optimum composition to
fight and contain the fungal infection. In contrast, in S. austrocaledonicum with low santalol content, the tree
fights the infection by directing the biosynthesis down the pathway on the right, raising the santalol content
towards that of the optimum composition, as in S. album.
Conclusion
• This Sempit’s Tree study has validated our previous observations that there can be a large variation in oil
composition (and consequent quality) within an individual S. austrocaledonicum tree.
• Furthermore it has confirmed previous observations that levels of alpha- and beta-santalol are generally
highest in the lower parts of the tree and decrease in ascending through the trunk up to the branches. The reverse is true for the curcumenol/nuciferol/lanceol group of compounds.
• It appears that infection in the tree, probably introduced when it was damaged in its third year, has had
a profound effect on the oil composition. Samples where infection was evident had raised levels of
alpha- and beta-santalols. This had the desirable effect of markedly improving the oil quality, pulling it
up into TRA’s mid-quality Premium Grade. This effect is most likely enzyme mediated.
• The intriguing results of an abrupt drop in santalol content and large rise in lanceol content in going
down a root from R2 to R3 might also be explained by absence of infection in the extremity of the root at R3.
• One could speculate that, but for the boost from the infection, this tree would have produced oil of low
Standard Grade quality. Instead, the commercial, factory-scale steam distillation of undifferentiated
combined tree parts produced a higher, mid-quality Premium Grade oil, better than would otherwise
have been obtained.
References
Piggott, M.J., Ghisalberti E.L. and Trengrove, R.D. (1997). Western Australian sandalwood oil; extraction by
different techniques and variation of the major components in different sections of a single tree. Flavour
and Fragrance Journal 12: 43-46.
101
6.3 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THREE SANDALWOOD SPECIES
(SANTALUM ALBUM, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum)
Tony Page1, Hanington Tate2, Clement Bled3
1. School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland,
2. Department of Forests, Port Vila, Vanuatu,
3. Institut Polytechnique LaSalle Beauvais, Beauvais, France,
Abstract
This study demonstrates that no reproductive barriers exist between three tropical sandalwood species
(Santalum album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum) suggesting they have low genetic divergence
between them. The high level of cross-compatibility between these three species increases the germplasm
available for breeding programmes to develop cultivars suitable for commercial production. Each species could
potentially contribute characters to a breeding programme, with the superior oil qualities of S. album, the early
heartwood formation in S. austrocaledonicum and the straight form and fire tolerance of S. lanceolatum.
The production of hybrids between these species under natural conditions has conservation implications. Recent introductions of S. album in the southern part of Cape York means they can now hybridise with
natural populations of S. lanceolatum. In Queensland it is unclear whether such hybrid progeny would have
an advantage in these quite arid environments to persist beyond 1 or 2 generations. The planted resource
of S. album occurs as one planting on a single property, in which monitoring of the surrounding areas
could easily detect any issues with uncontrolled introgression between S. album and natural populations of
S. lanceolatum.
In Vanuatu where S. album has also been recently introduced, spontaneous hybridisation between it and S.
austrocaledonicum is also likely. In contrast with Queensland, there is little control over planting of S. album
and many plantations have been established over Efate and are continuing in other islands. It is likely that
hybrids between S. album and S. austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu are going to be competitive with pure forms
of Vanuatu sandalwood, as has been demonstrated in Fiji hybrids between S. album and S. yasi. While it is
recognised that S. album generally produces heartwood oil of superior quality in the marketplace, the source
and therefore the quality of the Vanuatu S. album introductions is unclear. The introduction of S. album also
represents a concern for the future identity of Vanuatu Sandalwood, which currently occupies an international
market niche. It is looking increasingly likely that New Caledonia will emerge as a refuge for pure forms of S.
austrocaledonicum.
Introduction
Santalum (sandalwood) is a genus of hemi-parasitic tree species occurring throughout south and southeast
Asia, Australia and the Pacific. The heartwood of several species produces valuable aromatic oil widely used
in perfumery, medicines and incense. Throughout the world, sandalwood products are being sourced from
declining natural stands and the international price for natural sandalwood products continues to increase. Therefore significant opportunity exists to establish commercial sandalwood agroforests, to reduce pressure
on wild stands, improve consistency of product supply and increase economic outcomes for smallholder farmers.
The development of sandalwood species as significant agroforestry crops will depend on the development of
forms suited to commercial production, with high growth rates yielding high volumes of heartwood containing
concentrated oils with high levels of - and -santalol. The implementation of a successful breeding programme
for any sandalwood species will depend upon knowledge of its breeding system and its cross-compatibility with
related species that are a source for potentially useful characters. Given also the continued exploitation of many
sandalwood species a knowledge of their breeding systems will assist those developing strategies aimed at
conserving current wild populations and establishing new plantings within their natural distributions. Information
on the breeding system and patterns of gene flow are important for planning germplasm collection, designing
and managing seed orchards and for maintaining genetic diversity in breeding populations. This study includes
information published in Tamla et al. (2011), with additional data related to S. album and S. austrocaledonicum, and updated on the original presentation to the Vila workshop. The objectives of the present study were to
determine levels of (i) self- and (ii) cross-compatibility within Santalum lanceolatum, S. album and
S. austrocaledonicum and (iii) cross-compatibility between these three sandalwood species. 102
Materials & Methods
Controlled pollination
Grafted clones of S. lanceolatum, S. album and S. austrocaledonicum were grown in 300mm-diameter pots
in a soil-less potting medium in an insect-proof greenhouse with drip irrigation. Flowers were emasculated
during anthesis using pointed forceps. The anthers removed during this process were either placed in small
plastic vials and placed in a desiccator with silica gel or used immediately for pollination. All pollinations
were made using pollen collected during the day (i.e. pollen was not stored and used on subsequent days). Pollinations were carried out by applying the pollen-shedding anther to the stigma until pollen grains had
adhered to the stigma. Individual inflorescences were pollinated with a single pollen source and each was
tagged with details of pollen donor.
Three genotypes of S. album (E5, E7 & E8) originating from two Indian seedlots, one genotype of
S. austrocaledonicum (T1) from Vanuatu and 13 genotypes of Santalum lanceolatum (accessions 0, 1, 2, 5,
8, 10, 14, 16, 25, 27, 29, 30 and 31) from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) were used to examine self- and
intraspecific-compatibility within, and interspecific compatibility between them. Seed production was
recorded across 2732 different controlled pollinations (Table 1).
TABLE 1: THE NUMBER OF GENOTYPE COMBINATIONS (UNIQUE ‘POLLINATIONS’) AND TREATED/POLLINATED
FLOWERS FOR SEVEN DIFFERENT POLLINATION TYPES.
Pollination Type
Genotype Combinations
Flowers 'Treated'
S. album self-pollinated
4
332
S. album intraspecific
4
279
S. lanceolatum self-pollinated
10
234
S. lanceolatum intraspecific
13
241
S. austrocaledonicum self
1
16
S. album x S. austrocaledonicum (reciprocal)
4
144
28
1250
5
236
69
2732
S. album x S. lanceolatum (reciprocal)
S. lanceolatum x S. austrocaledonicum (reciprocal)
Total
Pollinations were carried out on three separate flowering events during September 2007, December 2007
and February 2008. Flowers were left on the plants for approximately 8-10 weeks from pollination to fruit
harvest. Fruits from each pollination category were collected, the flesh was removed and the seed air-dried
before storing in a sealed plastic containers at 4oC. Germination of seed resulting from controlled pollination was undertaken in a seed raising mix with a 1:1
ratio of medium grade perlite and vermiculite. Seeds were placed under 50% shade and were watered
through an automatic irrigation system for 15 minutes per day. Seeds were considered germinated after
they had been pricked into pots and survived for a period of 3 months.
Differences in the (i) proportion of pollinated flowers developing into seed and seedlings between pollination
types (i.e. unpollinated, self-pollinated, intraspecific out-cross pollinated etc.) and (ii) the proportion of unique
pollinations developing seed and seedlings were evaluated using an equality test of two binomial proportions
(Ott and Longnecker 2001) calculated by: 103
y1
y
πˆ 2 = 2
n1
The two binomial populations are denoted by and where
by and where y1 seeds /
n2
πˆ1 =
seedlings are recorded for the random sample of n1 pollinations from population 1, and y2 seeds/seedlings
are recorded for the random sample of n2 pollinations from population 2. The null hypothesis was rejected
where the absolute value of the statistic z was greater than z0.05 = 1.645.
This statistical approach was used because, although a sufficient number of pollinations per pollination
type were performed, in some cases a low number of replicates or genotype combinations did not permit
evaluation by two-way ANOVA
Results
Unpollinated flowers
No signs of fruit development were observed in any of the unpollinated flowers in this experiment.
Flowers of all species in this treatment were shed towards the end of their expected ‘life’ (S. album 7-9 days,
S. austrocaledonicum 24-48 hours and S. lanceolatum 12-24 hours). No floral-tube abscission, indicating
fruit development, was observed and no seeds were set from any flowers of this treatment.
Self pollination in S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum
The percentage of self-pollinated S. lanceolatum flowers developing into seed (1.3%) was significantly (P < 0.05)
lower than for all other pollination types except that of self-pollinated S. album (3.1%). Seeds were produced
following self pollination in 50% of S. album and 20% of S. lanceolatum genotypes tested. The percentage of
self-pollinated S. lanceolatum flowers that developed into seedlings (0.7%) however, was not significantly
different from intraspecific crosses among S. album (0.6%) and S. lanceolatum (1.8%) genotypes. No seedlings
were recorded from self-pollinated S. album flowers. A comparatively higher level of self-pollinated flowers
developed into seed (12.5%) and seedlings (6.25%) for S. austrocaledonicum when compared with self-pollinated
S. album and S. lanceolatum flowers (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Number of seed and seedlings per pollinated flower for self and intraspecific pollinations
in S. album (‘album self’ and ‘album intra’ respectively) and S. lanceolatum (‘lanc self’ and ‘lanc
intra’ respectively), self pollination in S. austrocaledonicum (‘aust self’) and reciprocal interspecific
pollinations between these three species (‘album x aust’, ‘album x lanc’, ‘aust x lanc’). Vertical bars
represent standard errors. Cross types sharing lower case letters are not significantly (P < 0.05)
different within either the seed or seedling response variable.
* Calculation of standard error and significance values not possible because of low sample size.
104
Intraspecific pollination within S. album and S. lanceolatum
Of the 241 intraspecific crosses made between S. lanceolatum genotypes only 9.0% and 1.8% of pollinations
resulted in the production of seed and seedlings, respectively. For those crosses representing greater than
10 pollinations the seed set ranged from 0% in 3 different genotype combinations (averaging 16 pollination for
each) to 14.2% in crosses between accessions 16 (♀) and 29(♂) (totalling 14 pollinations). A similar difference in seed production compared with seedlings was recorded for intraspecific crosses within
S. album, where 13.2% of flowers developed seed but only 0.6% of flowers pollinated resulted in successfully
growing seedlings. Variation within of the four genotype combinations with greater than 10 pollinations the
seed set ranged from 3% (‘E8’ x ‘E5’ totalling 56 pollinations) to 56% (‘E5’ x ‘E8’ totalling 50 pollinations)
indicating that some genotypes might have a greater compatibility in one direction of a reciprocal cross.
Within S. lanceolatum only accession number 25 was used in over 50 intraspecific cross-pollinations each as a
pistillate and pollen parent with at least 3 different genotypes. The mean percentage of seed set per pollination in
this accession was not significantly different between pistillate (4.8%) and pollen (5.4%) parent. No other accession
had a sufficient number of pollinations or was crossed with at least 3 different genotypes to permit such evaluation
of differences in fecundity between its use as either a ‘female’ or ‘male’ parent for intraspecific crosses.
Interspecific pollination between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum
S. album x S. lanceolatum
Variation among the interspecific crosses between S. lanceolatum (♂) and S. album (♀) was found in the
percentage of seed set per pollinated flower, ranging from 0–23% and from 0-16% in its reciprocal crosses
(S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀) for those crosses with greater than 10 pollinations. Interestingly 38% of
the seeds that developed from the former interspecific cross type resulted in 2 seedlings following germination. In crosses involving S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀) the percentage of seed producing 2 seedlings was
7.5%. No other cross type in this study had seed that produced 2 seedlings. A significantly (P < 0.05) greater number of seeds per pollinated flower were found following intraspecific
pollination among S. lanceolatum genotypes (9.0%) compared with reciprocal interspecific crosses between
S. album and S. lanceolatum (4.6%). However the number of seedlings per pollinated flower was significantly
(P < 0.05) greater among reciprocal crosses between S. album and S. lanceolatum (4.2%) compared with S.
lanceolatum intraspecific pollinations (1.8%).
S. lanceolatum x S. austrocaledonicum
In the present experiment only one genotype of S. austrocaledonicum (T1) flowered during the period of
controlled pollinations. The flowering of this genotype coincided only with the flowering of five genotypes of
S. lanceolatum (accessions 2, 5, 14, 16, and 29). Therefore in the evaluation of the compatibility between S.
austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum only reciprocal crosses between T1 with each of accessions 2, 5, 14,
16, and 29 were possible. Variation among the crosses between S. lanceolatum (♂) and S. austrocaledonicum (♀) was found in the
percentage seed set per pollinated flower, ranging from 4–23% and from 0-18% in the reciprocal cross (S.
austrocaledonicum (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀). No significant differences in the number of seed per
pollinated flower were found between S. lanceolatum intraspecific crosses and each of the reciprocal
interspecific crosses between S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum. Number of seedlings per pollinated
flower for S. austrocaledonicum (♂) x S. lanceolatum (♀) cross was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than both
self- and intraspecific crosses within S. lanceolatum. The reciprocal interspecific cross (S. lanceolatum (♂)
and S. austrocaledonicum (♀) however, was not found to differ from these self- and intraspecific crosses.
S. album x S. austrocaledonicum
Interspecific compatibility was also found between S. album and S. austrocaledonicum with a substantial
percentage of flowers producing seed (12.1%) and seedlings (8.0%). This result contrasts with that found in
intraspecific pollinations among S. album genotypes, where a significant (P < 0.05) reduction was recorded
between the percentage flowers producing seed (13.3%) and seedlings (0.6%).
105
Discussion and Conclusions
Unpollinated flowers
In this study, no fruit or seeds were set following isolation of flowers and restricting pollination of all three
species in this study. This result suggests that these species do not possess a capacity for the development of
parthenocarpic fruit or clonal seed. This result is similar to that found in S. album in China, where no seeds
were found in flowers isolated from open pollination by bags (Ma et al. 2006).
Self compatibility in Santalum
The mean seed set per pollinated flower in both S. album and S. lanceolatum was significantly greater
following outcross- compared with self-pollination. This result indicates a possible self-incompatibility
mechanism(s) operating in these species. Rugkhla et al. (1997) proposed that both pre- and post- fertilisation
self-incompatibility mechanisms were operating in S. album and S. spicatum. This study however, found that
putative self-incompatibility mechanism(s) in these species, may either be incomplete, or subject to genetic
variation between accessions, given that seed set was affected following self pollination in 50% and 20%
of genotypes tested for S. album and S. lanceolatum respectively. Two self-pollination derived seeds in
S. lanceolatum were successfully germinated and have continued to grow for a period of 2 years without
indication of any deleterious effects of inbreeding. In contrast none of the self-pollinated seed in S. album
successfully germinated to produce a seedling. The percentage of self-pollinated flowers that produced seed and seedlings for S. austrocaledonicum
was substantially greater than that of S. album and S. lanceolatum. Given that the measures in
S. austrocaledonicum are based on only one genotype, this result cannot be generalised across the
species since often the degree of self-compatibility can vary between genotypes. It does however suggest
that individual trees of S. austrocaledonicum can be self compatible, which supports anecdotal reports
of isolated trees producing good quantities of seed. These results are similar to those found by Muir et al. (2007) for S. spicatum, where one family showed a
high level of inbreeding, which was contradictory to the high mean outcrossing rate (95.2%). These authors
proposed that flowering of this family was non-synchronous with many other families, resulting in higher
inbreeding. This flexibility in breeding strategy would be of advantage in continental Australian species
dispersing and colonizing many islands in south-east Asia and Pacific (Harbaugh and Baldwin 2007). In
Santalum album Ma et al. (2006) reported 24% of flowers with geitonogamous (same plant and different
flower) self-pollination set seed. While the results of this present study are indicative of the incomplete
nature of self-incompatibility in these three species of Santalum further work is required to determine the
extent of genetic variation in this trait.
In this study all cross types (self-, intraspecific and interspecific) were carried out on a given individual
ramet. Therefore it is possible that the reduced selfing rate recorded in this study could be due to
competitive interactions between flowers with ‘outcross’ and those with ‘self’ pollen and preferential
maternal resource allocation to those most competitive. It would be of interest to evaluate the percentage
seed set between these three cross types, where each type is restricted to an individual ramet of a given
genotype. This would remove any interaction effects that may have been operating in the present study.
Intraspecific pollinations
The mean level of seed set per pollinated flower varied between the intraspecific crosses within S. album
(13.3%) and S. lanceolatum (9.0%). No intraspecific pollinations were possible for S. austrocaledonicum in
this study, since only one genotype flowered during the experimental period and therefore we are not able
to make comparisons of intraspecific pollination success between each of the three species. The rates
of seed set in intraspecific pollinations in this present study are similar to those found in other studies of
reproductive biology in Santalum. For instance fruit set (and thus seed set, given a fruit is generally single
seeded) from open pollinated S. album trees was less than 2-3% in China (Ma et al. 2006) and 5.2% in India
(Sindhu Veerendra and Anantha Padmanabha 1996). Rugkhla et al. (1997) reported a final fruit set of 1.3% in
controlled intraspecific outcross pollination of S. spicatum in Western Australia. These authors also found
a 10% fruit set in controlled outcrosses of S. album, which was similar to the 9.4% found by Kulkarni and
Muniyamma (1998) in India. While Ma et al. (2006) found that 2-3% of open pollinated S. album flowers set
seed, this was increased to 14% during artificial outcross pollinations. The results of this and other studies
suggest that while improved seed set may be achieved using controlled pollination, several Santalum
species produce an abundance of flowers but less than 10% of these typically develop into viable seed. 106
The significantly greater (i) number of seeds set per intraspecific outcross and (ii) percentage of unique
intraspecific pollinations (genotype combinations) developing seed compared with self-pollinated flowers
suggests a putative self-incompatibility mechanism. However the low germination rate (40%) for intraspecific
outcross derived seed resulted in no significant difference in the number of seedlings between intraspecific
and self-pollinated flowers. Further replication of this work is likely to reveal the exact nature of the low
germination rate among ‘intraspecific seeds’.
Interspecific crosses between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum
Despite total geographic isolation and significant morphological divergence between the three species of
this study, no reproductive barrier appears to exist between them. We demonstrated equivalent or greater
seedling production in all three reciprocal interspecific pollinations compared with the two intraspecific
crosses. Seed producing two seedlings were found in crosses between S. album (♂) and S. lanceolatum (♀),
and although this is not unusual, the level (7.5% of seed) was elevated compared with all other crosses in this
study and with S. album intraspecific crosses in controlled crosses in China where the frequency was 2.5%
(Ma et al. 2006).
The results of this study reflect similar findings with spontaneous hybridisations between S. album and S.
yasi in Fiji, with no apparent reproductive barrier or hybrid breakdown (Bulai and Nataniela 2005; Doran et
al. 2005). Bulai (2007) further reported that open pollinated hybrids between S. album and S. yasi are now
being produced in clonal seed orchards, and these hybrids appear to have higher vigour, wider environmental
tolerances and are less dependant on forming host associations. Rugkhla et al. (1997) found that no seeds
developed after 1930 reciprocal controlled pollinations between S. album and S. spicatum, and reported that
strong incompatibility mechanisms operated between pollen and style, and possibly in the developing zygote.
Doran and Brophy (2005) proposed that interspecific hybrids may provide the opportunity to improve the planted form of sandalwood particularly given the good vigour of F1 hybrids between S. album and S. yasi observed
in Fiji. Hybridisation between S. album, S. austrocaledonicum and S. lanceolatum may be used to incorporate
important characters from each of these species into a cultivar for use in commercial plantations. Combining
characters such as high heartwood oil concentration and quality (% α - and β-santalol) from S. album,
precocious heartwood development from S. austrocaledonicum and straight form and fire tolerance from
S. lanceolatum in cultivars may be possible provided additive genetic effects predominate in the
characters of interest.
The high level of cross-compatibility between these three species indicates the likelihood that they are not
widely divergent genetically and chromosomally (few chromosome structural differences) and thus the
transfer of characters, even those under quantitative genetic control, would appear to be feasible from
interspecific crosses. While the high cross-compatibility between these three species indicates the likelihood
that they are not widely divergent genetically, it would be necessary to evaluate the fertility and seed
production level of both their F1 hybrid and F2 progeny, because it is possible that genetic divergence
between the two species may not be significantly manifest until these post-hybridisation stages.
The apparent lack of interspecific barriers between S. lanceolatum with each of S. album and S. austrocaledonicum
also has implications for the conservation of their natural stands. Given the low relative value of S. lanceolatum it is
unlikely that it would be introduced into areas of natural populations of S. album or S. austrocaledonicum. Commercial plantings of S. album have however, already been established in some areas of Queensland with
existing natural populations of S. lanceolatum. It is likely that gene flow will occur between the S. album plantings
and adjacent S. lanceolatum populations. It is unclear whether such hybrid progeny would have an advantage in
these more arid environments and persist beyond 1 or 2 generations. These considerations however may need to
be evaluated by those responsible for (a) management of S. lanceolatum wild stands and (b) improvement of S.
album germplasm for commercial production.
The genetic purity of S. austrocaledonicum appears to be under threat in Vanuatu, where S. album has been
introduced in recent years (Page et al. 2012). Given the cross compatibility between these species, this
development is of concern in terms of the long-term preservation of the genetic variation in this species. While it is recognised that S. album generally produces oil that is of superior quality in the marketplace, the
heritage and therefore the quality of the Vanuatu introductions is unclear. Page et al. (2012) also reported that
heartwood production in S. austrocaledonicum may be more precocious compared with S. album and therefore producers of hybrids in the future may need to consider increasing the length of the production rotation.
107
The introduction of S. album also represents a concern for the ongoing identity of Vanuatu Sandalwood, which
currently occupies an international market niche. It is therefore looking increasingly likely that pure forms
of S. austrocaledonicum may only persist New Caledonia. There may however be opportunity to preserve the
identity of Vanuatu sandalwood in isolated parts of the country including the regions of Malekula and Santo,
where forms of S. austrocaledonicum exist that have superior oil quality (Page et al. 2010).
References
Bulai P (2007) Research, Development, and Tree Improvement of Sandalwood in Fiji. Proceedings of the regional
workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the pacific islands, 27-33.
Bulai P, Nataniela V (2005) Research, Development, and Extension of Sandalwood in Fiji – A New Beginning. In
'Regional workshop on Sandalwood Research, Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia'.
Noumea, New Caledonia, 7-11 October 2002. (Eds L Thomson, S Bulai and L Sovea) pp. 83-91. (Secretariat of
the Pacific Community)
Doran JC, Brophy JJ (2005) Sandalwood - a global perspective. In 'Regional workshop on Sandalwood Research,
Development and Extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia'. Noumea, New Caledonia, 7-11 October 2002. (Eds
L Thomson, S Bulai and L Sovea) pp. 29-49. (Suva, Fiji: Secretariat of the Pacific Community)
Doran JC, Thomson L, Brophy JJ, Goldsack B, Bulai P, Faka'osi T, Mokoia T (2005) Variation in heartwood oil
composition of young sandalwood trees in the south Pacific (Santalum yasi, S. album and F1 hybrids in Fiji, and
S. yasi in Tonga and Niue). Sandalwood Research Newsletter 20, 3-7.
Harbaugh DT, Baldwin BG (2007) Phylogeny and biogeography of the sandalwoods (Santalum, Santalaceae):
repeated dispersals throughout the Pacific. American Journal of Botany 94, 1028–1040.
Kulkarni HD, Muniyamma M (1998) Floral biology and breeding systems in sandal, Santalum album L. In 'Sandal
and Its Products: Proceedings of an International Seminar'. Bangalore, India 18-19 December 1997(Eds AM
Radomiljac, Annanthapadmanabho, RM Welbourn and K Satyanarayana Rao) pp. 135-146. (ACIAR, Canberra)
Ma G-H, Bunn E, Zhang J-F, Wu G-J (2006) Evidence of Dichogamy in Santalum album L. Journal of Integrative
Plant Biology 48, 300-306.
Muir K, Byrne M, Barbour EL, Cox MC, Fox JED (2007) High levels of out-crossing in a family trial in Western
Australia Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Silvae Genetica 56, 222-230.
Ott LR, Longnecker M (2001) An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data Analysis. Duxbury: California
Page T, Southwell I, Russell M, Tate H, Tungon J, Sam C, Dickinson G, Robson K, Leakey RRB (2010) Geographic
and phenotypic variation in heartwood and essential oil characters in natural populations of Santalum
austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu. Chemistry and Biodiversity 7, 1990-2006.
Page T, Tate H, Bunt C, Potrawiak A, Berry A (2012) Opportunities for the smallholder sandalwood industry in
Vanuatu. ACIAR Technical Reports No 79. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR):
Canberra
Rugkhla A, McComb JA, Jones MGK (1997) Intra- and inter-specific pollination of Santalum spicatum and S. album. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 1083-1095.
Sindhu Veerendra HC, Anantha Padmanabha HS (1996) The breeding system in Sandal (Santalum album L.). Silvae
Genetica 45, 188-190.
Tamla HT, Cornelius J, Page T (2011) Reproductive biology of three commercially valuable Santalum species:
development of flowers and inflorescences, breeding systems, and interspecific crossability. Euphytica.
108
6.4 THE VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF SANDALWOOD SPECIES, SANTALUM
YASI, S. ALBUM AND F1 HYBRID
Maloni Havea, Technical Officer, Forestry Department, Tonga
Abstract
The genus Santalum belongs to the Santalaceae, a family in the Order Santales. Santalum comprises 16
species. Santalum taxa are hemi-parasites, and the availability of appropriate host plants is crucial to their
successful establishment. The economic and cultural values of Santalum species are attributed to the
fragrant oils present in its heartwood. Santalum taxa have considerable cultural and economic importance
to many communities in Pacific Island countries and territories.
This study investigated vegetative propagation of three sandalwood taxa, viz: Santalum yasi, S. album and
their hybrid (S. yasi x S. album). Experiments were undertaken to induce root suckering in mature sandalwood
plants growing in the field in two locations in southeast Viti Levu (Vunimaqo and Colo-i-Suva), Fiji. The
technique employed for root sucker induction was to partially or fully sever larger near-surface roots. Root
suckers were produced on the segment of damaged or cut root, which is positioned away from the trunk,
suggesting that chemicals from the tree inhibit the development of root suckers. Substantial differences in
the number of shoots produced were observed between roots which had been partially cut (primary lateral
root) and those that were fully cut through or severed (secondary lateral root). Induction of root suckering
was most successful for the hybrid plants: on average 3.7 ±0.6 shoots were induced on fully cut secondary
lateral roots, while 1.20 ±0.18 shoots were produced on partially cut primary lateral root roots. For S. yasi,
averages of 0.61 ±0.18 shoots were induced on fully cut roots and 0.15 ±0.11 shoots on partially cut roots.
For S. album, averages of 0.96 ±0.65 shoots were induced on fully cut roots and 1.2 ±0.34 shoots on
partially cut roots.
The optimal root diameters of severed lateral roots for stimulating shoot production was 1.40 ±0.10 cm for
hybrids, 1.98 ±0.11 cm for S. album and 1.60 ±0.11cm for S. yasi. The optimal root diameters for stimulating
shoot production in partially cut larger roots was 5.03 ±0.90 cm for hybrids, 4.78 ±0.35 cm for S. album and
4.77 ±0.57 cm for S. yasi. The distance from the trunk at which the root is cut has a strong influence on shoot
induction. The optimal distances from the trunk for stimulating shoot production were 56 ±4 cm for hybrids,
33 ±3 cm for S. album and 32 ±2 cm for S. yasi for completely severed or cut through secondary lateral roots.
However, for half-cut through primary lateral roots the optimum distance from the trunk was 20 ±4 cm
for hybrids, 19 ±5 cm for S. album and 9.1 ±2.5 cm for S. yasi. In addition, this investigation confirmed that
complete severing of roots was more effective than partial severing of roots for stimulating shoot production
for cuttings material of Santalum taxa.
An investigation was undertaken to identify effective treatments for propagating Santalum taxa through stem
cuttings. Five factors were investigated for their effect on rooting success of the cutting. These factors were
Indole Butyric Acid (±), root promoting hormone Naphthalene Acetic Acid at concentrations of (0, 0.5 and 1.0
mg L-1), seedling age (6-12 and 12-24 months), cutting type (root sucker shoots or seedlings) and cutting
position (apical or basal). The rooting percentage and number of roots formed was increased by Indole
Butyric Acid application in interaction with 30:70 sand:peatmoss, and apical shoots. Under these conditions,
the average number of roots formed on S. yasi was 2.8 ±0.3: corresponding numbers of roots were 2.6 ±0.2
for S. album and 3.6 ±0.3 roots for hybrids. The average length of roots formed on S. yasi cuttings was 2.1
±0.2 cm, 2.2 ±0.2 cm for S. album and 2.9 ±0.3 cm for hybrids. The application of 1.0 mg L-1 Naphthalene
Acetic Acid (NAA) in 30:70 sand:peatmoss medium, and originating from the apical portion further enhances
rooting success: root number and length for S. yasi were 2.5 ±0.2 roots and 2.7 ±0.2 cm, for S. album 2.5
±0.3 roots and 1.8 ±0.3 cm and for the hybrid 3.1 ±0.2 roots and 2.9 ±0.2 cm. Younger seedling age (i.e. 6-12
months) in a 30:70 sand: peatmoss medium, and originating from the apical portion further enhances rooting
success: root number and length for S. yasi were 1.9 ±0.2 roots and 2.0 ±0.2 cm, for S. album 1.5 ±0.2 roots
and 1.3 ±0.2 cm and for the hybrid 2.8 ±0.3 roots and 2.2 ±0.2 cm.
The result revealed that cuttings taken from apical positions gave much higher rooting percentages than
those taken from basal positions. Rooting of cuttings was improved (i.e. more and longer roots) in a 30:70
sand:peatmoss medium compared with mahogany compost. Application of rooting hormone (Naphthalene
Acetic Acid 1.0 mg L-1 or Indole Butyric Acid) increased the numbers of roots and root length.
109
Cuttings from younger seedlings (aged 6-12 months) produced more and longer roots than did cuttings from
older seedlings (aged 12-24 months). The results revealed that Santalum hybrid is the most suitable of the
three investigated taxa for conventional vegetative propagation.
The final experiment was an investigation of the development and survival of treated cutting-derived plants
following transplanting. The aim of this work was to investigate the survival of apical and basal stem
cuttings following transplanting. Transplanted rooted cuttings derived from younger seedlings (6 to 12
months old) and treated with Naphthalene Acetic Acid (1.0 mg L-1) in interaction with 50:50 sand:peatmoss
media developed longer roots in all three taxa (1.4 ±0.1 cm in S. yasi, 1.3 ±0.1 cm for S. album and 1.5 ±0.1
cm for hybrid). However, rooted cuttings that had been propagated in 30:70 sand:peatmoss with hormone
(1.0 mg L-1 Naphthalene Acetic Acid ) application produced longer roots after transplanting indicating the
importance of the media used. The most successful treatment in terms of root length was with transplanted
rooted cuttings taken from the apices of younger seedlings (6 to 12 months old) and treated with Indole
Butyric Acid in interaction with 30:70 sand:peatmoss media (1.5 ±0.1 cm for S. yasi, 1.5 ±0.1 cm for S. album
and 1.1 ±0.0 cm for hybrid.
Based on the experiments reported in this study, higher percentages of successful cutting-derived plants of
Santalum species can be attained by taking apical cuttings from younger seedlings (up to age of 12 months),
treating them with Indole Butyric Acid and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (1.0 mg L-1 concentration) and rooting
them in a 30:70 sand:peatmoss medium (rather than in media derived from local compost).
References
Havea, M. (2007). Vegetative Propagation of Santalum species (Santalum yasi, Santalum
album and Santalum hybrid). M.Sc. Thesis. University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
110
6.5 MICROPROPAGATION OF SANDALWOOD (SANTALUM SPP)
Sainimili Baiculacula, Laboratory Technician, CePaCT, SPC
Introduction
Santalum is a genus of woody flowering plants, commercially valuable because of its highly valued fragrant
heartwood, which contains sandal oil that is used in perfumes, cosmetics, medicines and also in incense
sticks industries (Srinivasan e.al, 1992). Most members of this genus are either trees or shrubs and are root
parasites which photosynthesize their own food but tap the roots of other species for water and inorganic
nutrients (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santalum). Brand (2005) stated that the best hosts are nitrogen fixing
trees because the growth of sandalwood is dependent on the amino acid availability. In addition, the host
should not be competitive to sandalwood in terms of nutrients. Santalum belongs to the family Santalaceae
that has over 30 genera and 400 species in the tropical and temperate parts of the world.
The fruit is produced after three years and the viable seeds are mostly available after five years. Like most
forest tree species, seed propagation is common to Santalum, however, seedlings are extremely heterozygous
due to outcrossing. Vegetative propagation via grafting, air layering and with root suckers can be used but the
production of clones is inefficient and time consuming (Shrimati et al., 1995).
For centuries, sandalwood has been an important commercial industry in the Pacific. Sandalwood species are
grown in specific island countries like: Papua New Guinea (S. macgregorii), New Caledonia and Vanuatu
(S. austroledonicum) Fiji and Tonga (S. yasi). Santalum album, however, is also planted and grows well in
most Pacific countries from New Caledonia to French Polynesia and the Cook Islands. Sandalwood has been
over-exploited over the years and the regeneration of trees in the field using conventional methods is often
difficult to achieve. An effective micropropagation protocol would support the development of the
sandalwood “industry” and increase productivity. This protocol would address establishment in tissue
culture, multiplication and rooting.
Sandalwood is recalcitrant to in vivo and in vitro propagation for which limited success has been achieved
so far (Sanjaya et.al, 2003). The previous reports on in vitro propagation have focused on adventitious bud
regeneration from in vitro grown seedling explants: hypocotyls (Bapat et al., 1978); endosperm (Sita et al.,
1979); zygotic embryo (Rai and McComb, 2002); and somatic embryogenesis through a callus phase (Sita
et al., 1980). With all these reports only small numbers of plants have been regenerated and the methods
require optimization.
As stated by Beck and Dunlop (2001), plant tissue culture based biotechnology has been employed to generate
quality planting material with many forest tree species. In 2006, Sanjaya et.al were able to establish an in vitro
clonal propagation of a candidate plus tree (CPT) of S. album using axillary buds. Shoot establishment,
multiplication and in vitro rooting were all investigated in this research.
Materials and Methods
Juvenile nodal segments
Sandalwood explants used for this research were taken from S. album, S. yasi and hybrid seedlings
established in the Colo-i-Suva screen house and brought to the Centre of Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT)
nursery. The sandalwood seedlings held in the CePaCT nursery were watered and treated with the fungicide
Benlate (Du Pont, New Zealand Ltd) 0.5g L-1 on a monthly basis. Pesticides Mavrik (Yates) 10ml L-1 and
ATTACK (Crop Care) 2ml L-1 were used alternately on a monthly basis. NPK fertilizers were added every three
months. Nodal segments were used for initiation.
Mature nodal segments
Sandalwood explants were sourced from the S. yasi, S. album and hybrid tree species grown at Vunimaqo
Forestry Research Station, Serua. Side branches 10 - 15cm long were trimmed from the trees, which were
10 to 12 years old. Collection was carried out after cyclone Thomas and during the flowering (January) and
fruiting (May- June) period of sandalwood trees.
111
Sterilization protocol for juvenile nodal segments
Sandalwood explants were decontaminated using a modified breadfruit decontamination protocol (Tuia et al.,
2007). The bleach used in the decontamination process is locally purchased and contains 2% active chlorine.
Juvenile nodal segments of 5 -7cm long were cut into 1cm nodal segments 0.5cm above and 0.5cm below
the nodes so that the leaf nodes were obtained. These nodal segments were gently placed in a beaker
containing tap water with a few drops of both detergent and White King bleach (containing 4.2% sodium
hypochlorite) and stirred. The explants were treated individually, brushed using a clean toothbrush and rinsed
well with tap water, followed with sterile distilled water to ensure the bleach was thoroughly removed.
The rest of the decontamination protocol took place in the laminar air flow cabinet. Explants were sterilized
in 70% ethanol, followed by immersion in White King with 2-3 drops of tween. Explants were then dipped in
a solution of 100mg/L citric acid for a few minutes to minimize browning and finally sterilized in White King
(containing 4.2% sodium hypochlorite) solution containing 2-3 drops of tween. The tissue was trimmed if
bleaching was obvious, sterilized again in White King containing 2-3 drops of tween, rinsed with sterile
distilled water several times and finally inoculated on the culture medium in McCartney 2 or polycarbonate
tubes. The cultures were placed in a growth room at a temperature of 250C under a light intensity of
30μmolm-2s-1 radiance (cool white fluorescent lamps) with a daylength of 16 hours.
Culture establishment
Two methods were followed in the establishment of Santalum spp in tissue culture These two methods were
from groups of researchers that were able to micropropagate their native species that have high commercial
potential in their regions and a need for clonal propagation of elite genotypes by tissue culture.
TABLE 2. SANDALWOOD SPECIES ON MULTIPLICATION MEDIUM
Species
Date of
initiations
Date of 1st
subculture
Date of 2nd
subculture
No of To no. explts of explts
Album (D) 10.11.08
06.07.09
01.06.10
1
20
MS
Album (C) 10.11.08
07.07.09
01.06.10
1
10
MS
Album (C) 10.11.08
07.07.09
01.06.10
1
2
MS
Album (B) 10.11.08
06.07.09
01.06.10
1
12
MS
Album (A) 10.11.08
08.07.09
01.06.10
1
16
MS
Album (E) 10.11.08
07.07.09
03.06.10
1
24
MS
Album (F)
24.10.08
08.07.09
03.06.10
1
6
MS
Yasi (A)
10.11.08
03.06.10
1
20
0.01µM NAA +2.50µM BAP
MS34
MS23
Yasi (C)
24.10.08
03.06.10
1
20
MS
MS34
5
From
media
To media
MS2
MS2
MS23
MS23
MS23
MS34
In any given tree population it is mostly possible to find individuals which are better than the rest in
terms of height, yield, branching or any other desirable trait. Selected trees are often referred to as
candidate plus trees. They are often used to establish base populations for future breeding.
2 McCartney bottles are a set of thick, clear & wide mouth glass bottle, aluminium screw cap and rubber
liner. These bottles along with the cap and rubber liner can be autoclaved easily and can be sterilized
with medium present inside it. The aluminium screw cap has a special coating which is compatible with
70 % IP spray and the rubber liner is available in different grades like silicon rubber, bromo butyl
rubber, natural rubber, etc.
112
Root induction
In vitro S. album shoots of 3.0 – 8.0 cm in length were used for in vitro rooting induction. Three methods were
evaluated for root induction. They were as follows:
• Pulse treated on 98.4µM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for 48 hours and then transferred to ¼ MS with
vitamins of B5 medium (Gamborgh et al, 1968), sucrose 20.0g/l and agar 7.0g/l and incubated in the dark
for a week before transfer to 16hrs photoperiod and a temperature of 28±10oC.(Sanjaya et al., 2003?)
• Pulse treated on 1230µM IBA for 30mins and then transferred to 400ml cultured bottles containing autoclaved
moist 75% sand, 25% potting mix and incubated at 28±10oC with a 16 hr photoperiod light (Sanjaya et al, 2006).
• Explants subcultured on ½ MS with 32.2µM IBA for 7 days and transferred to ½ MS with 10µM riboflavin for
30 days. (Narendra et al., 2004)
Sanjaya et al (2003) successfully micropropagated endangered Indian sandalwood (S. album) at the Institute
of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore India. The methods of establishment, multiplication and rooting
are mostly followed in this research with some modifications.
Narendra et.al (2004) successfully micropropagated two Australian native fruit species, Davidsonia pruriens
and Davidsonia jerseyana. Only in vitro root growth method was followed in this research.
The medium investigated for nodal segments establishment was Murashige and Skoog - MS (1962)
supplemented with different concentrations of BAP and NAA as listed in Table 1. The medium was adjusted
to pH 5.7 with 1M NaOH and HCl and dispensed into Mc Cartney or polycarbonate tubes. These tubes were
autoclaved for 20minutes at 1210oC and kept in a cool place ready for use.
TABLE 1. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS BY TYPE OF MEDIUM
SD-1
MS basal medium without plant growth regulators
SD -2
MS + 0.05 μM NAA and 1.25 μM BAP
SD -3
SD -4
SD -5
Shoot multiplication
The following shoot multiplication experiment has recently been established. Nodal shoot segments of S. yasi
and S. album were isolated from in vitro grown shoots that had been cultured on establishment medium and
cultured on three different treatments; MS2 (control), MS23, MS34 as shown in Table 2. The composition of
these three treatments have been described in footnotes (2), (3) and (4). For S. yasi, only two treatments were
used because of the limited availability of in vitro grown shoots. They will be subcultured at intervals of four
weeks and data recorded for each subculture.
TABLE 2. SANDALWOOD SPECIES ON MULTIPLICATION MEDIUM
Species
Date of
initiations
Date of 1st
subculture
Date of 2nd
subculture
No of To no. of
explts explts
Album (D) 10.11.08
06.07.09
01.06.10
1
20
MS
Album (C) 10.11.08
07.07.09
01.06.10
1
10
MS
Album (C) 10.11.08
07.07.09
01.06.10
1
2
MS
Album (B) 10.11.08
06.07.09
01.06.10
1
12
MS
Album (A) 10.11.08
08.07.09
01.06.10
1
16
MS
Album (E) 10.11.08
07.07.09
03.06.10
1
24
MS
Album (F)
24.10.08
08.07.09
03.06.10
1
6
MS
Yasi (A)
10.11.08
03.06.10
1
20
0.01µM NAA +2.50µM BAP
MS34
MS23
Yasi (C)
24.10.08
03.06.10
1
20
MS
MS34
113
From media
To media
MS2
MS2
MS23
MS23
MS23
MS34
Root induction
In vitro S.album shoots of 3.0 – 8.0 cm in length were used for in vitro rooting induction. Three methods were
evaluated for root induction. They were as follows:
• Pulse treated on 98.4µM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for 48 hours and then transferred to ¼ MS with
vitamins of B5 medium (Gamborgh et al., 1968), sucrose 20.0g/l and agar 7.0g/l and incubated in the dark
for a week before transfer to 16hrs photoperiod and a temperature of 28±10C.(Sanjay et al., 2003)
• Pulse treated on 1230µM IBA for 30mins and then transferred to 400ml cultured bottles containing autoclaved
moist 75% sand, 25% potting mix and incubated at 28±10C with a 16 hr photoperiod light (Sanjay et al., 2003).
• Explants subcultured on ½ MS with 32.2µM IBA for 7 days and transferred to ½ MS with 10µM riboflavin
for 30 days. (Narendra et al., 2004)
There were 10 replicates for each treatment. The different rooting medium is represented as R01, R02 and
R03 respectively as shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3. ALBUM SPECIES ON DIFFERENT ROOTING MEDIUM
S.Album Date
CODES of
initi.
Ini. Root
S.Album Date
hgt media CODES of
(cm)
initi.
Ini. Root
S.Album Date
hgt
media CODES of
(cm)
initi.
Ini. hgt
(cm)
Root
media
30a(1)
10.11.8 4.0
R01
40a
10.11.8
4
R02
20a
03.04.8 6.5
R03
30a(2)
10.11.8 6.0
R01
41a
10.11.8
4
R02
20a
03.04.8 5.0
R03
30a(3)
10.11.8 5.5
R01
42a
10.11.8
5.4
R02
21a
10.11.8 5.0
R03
31a(1)
10.11.8 6.0
R01
43a
10.11.8
3.6
R02
22a
10.11.8 5.0
R03
31a(2)
10.11.8 4.5
R01
44a
10.11.8
4.0
R02
23a
03.04.8 4.5
R03
31a(3)
10.11.8 3.5
R01
45a
10.11.8
6.2
R02
23a
03.04.8 4.5
R03
31a(4)
10.11.8 5.0
R01
46a
10.11.8
5.0
R02
23a
03.04.8 5.5
R03
32a (1)
10.11.8 5.0
R01
47a
10.11.8
3.0
R02
23a
03.04.8 5.5
R03
33a (1)
10.11.8 3.5
R01
48a
10.11.8
4.5
R02
24a
10.11.8 8.0
R03
33a(2)
10.11.8 6.0
R01
49a
10.11.8
5.0
R02
25a
10.11.8 7.0
R03
50a
10.11.8
5.0
R02
Results
Shoot Initiation
The combined use of BA and NAA exhibited bud break. The majority of explants that had survived the
establishment experiment were derived from the 60 S. album and 60 S. yasi juvenile nodal explants that had
been initiated on the 10.11.08. For each treatment 12 replicates were used. Explants cultured on SD1 media
had an average growth of 3cm – 5cm long, whilst shoots from explants cultured on the other media showed a
growth of 1cm-1.5cm long. 2-3 new shoots were produced from the buds of all the explants across the range
of different medium but only those cultured on SD1 showed good healthy growth; those cultures on SD2,
SD3, SD4 and SD5 were dwarfed and retarded in growth. Even though most of the explants had retarded and
dwarfed growth, they were kept because they were clean and had clumped side shoots which will be used for
multiplication research. After 8 months on establishment medium, plants were subcultured to MS.
Previous preliminary experiments had shown that subculturing sandalwood plantlets too soon leads to very
low survival. The 52 S. yasi juvenile nodal segments that were established on 07. 01. 10 on MS media only, had
13.5% survival rate. They were then subcultured on 10.02.10 on MS and further multiplied on MS2 and 3 on 24.
06. 10. These treatments are still under observation.
Shoot multiplication
After four weeks on multiplication medium, it was observed that explants on MS2 and 3 produced clumped shoots as
compared to the other two treatments (see in Figure 1). This experiment is still in progress.
Explants will be subcultured and placed on the same treatments for further multiplication and root induction research.
114
Root induction
The recent root induction experiment is still under
observation. Data will be available in the next
progress report.
On the 1st July, 2010, 6cm root length was observed
in a culture of S. album that was initiated on the 10th
October, 2008. On this date, a total of 61 juvenile S.
album was established in 5 different treatments with
12 replicates/treatment. From this experiment, only
19.1% survived.
MS2
MS 23
MS 34
The culture showing rooting had been initiated on
Treatment 3 (MS supplemented with 0.02µM NAA +
2.00µM BAP), and subcultured on MS media on 15.
07. 09. There was no further subculture. It was noted
that most of the media had dried out with this culture because of the length of time it had been in the same
container (see Fig 2). The rooting response could be a stress response, an indication that rooting is favoured
by a well-aerated environment and/or a nutrient-poor environment. As sandalwood in the field prefers a sandy
loam soil it is likely that these same conditions are required in vitro.
Figure 1. Comparison of explants on
three different medium
Rooting was also observed with 25 other S. album explants and in all cases, the medium had dried out, as
with the culture described above. These rooted cultures will be subjected to three different treatments to
determine which method bests supports further rooting.
Figure 2. Examples of
rooting S. album explants
Multiple shoots of S. yasi, S. album and their hybrid were induced from
nodal shoot segments derived from adult trees sourced from Vunimaqo,
Serua and juvenile explants excised from seed-derived plants held in the
Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) nursery.
Both explants taken from the adult trees and the nursery plants were
established on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented
with different concentrations of α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and
6-benzylaminopurine (BA). The in vitro shoots were multiplied on four
different media: MS (control), MS 2 and MS 3 medium.
Three different treatments were investigated for root establishment,
namely: pulse treatment of explants followed by soil planting, culturing
explants on MS medium supplemented with host plant extracts;
culturing explants on MS medium.
1 “For hybrids, the female parent is named first. In the case of the Santalum hybrid either species can
have provided the female. In practice it is usually S. yasi that is the female parent as it is easier to spot
hybrid progeny among the seedlings derived from yasi fruits (broader leaves), whereas album seedlings
may naturally have a broad range of leaf widths (so hybrids derived from album fruit can be hard to spot
in the nursery). Correct name would be Santalum yasi x album or Santalum album x yasi (if the album
was the female) as by convention the genus is left out for second named species of the hybrid combo.”
2 MS medium consists of 76g/l KNO3, 66g/L NH4NO3, 17.6g/l CaCl2.2H2O,6.8G/l KH2PO4, 14.8g/l
MgSO4.7H2O, 0.89g/l MnSO4.H2O,1.72g/l ZnSO4. 7H2O, 1.24g/l H3BO3, 0.166g/l KI, 0.005 CuSO4.5H2O,
0.05g/l Na2MoO4.2H2O,0.005g/l CoCl2.6H2O, 26.1g/l (EDTA) di sodium salt, 24.9g/l FeSO4.7H2O, 30g/l
sucrose, 7.8 g/l agar. (Murashige and Skoog, 1962)
3
MS medium supplemented with 0.1mg/l NAA, 1.0mg/l BAP, 50mg/l ascorbic acid, 22.70 mg/l citric acid,
23.02mg/l cystine, 50.0mg/l glutamine and 10% w/v coconut milk (Sanjaya et.al., 2006)
400g/l NH4NO3, 96g/l CaCl2.2H2O, 170g/l KH2PO4, 556g/l Ca (NO3)2. 4H2O, 990g/l K2SO4, 370g/l
MgSO4.7H2O,22.3g/l MnSO4. H2O, 8.6g/l ZnSO4.7H2O,6.2H3BO3,0.25g/l CuSO4. 5H2O, 0.25g/l
Na2MoO4.2H2O,22.78g/l FeSO4.7H2O,37.3g/l Na2EDTA,0.1g/l myo-inositol, 1ml of 1.0mg/ml T-HCl,
0.1mg/l BAP
115
Bulai S., Thomson L., Sovea., Leba., (2005) Proceeding of the regional Workshop on Sandalwood research,
Development and Extension in the Pacific Island
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Beck S.L., Dunlop R.W. 2001: Micropropagation of Acacia species – a review. In vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 37:531-538
Brand. J., 2005: WA Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) establishment guide for farmland in the Wheatbelt. Forest
Products Commission, Locked Bag 888, Perth WA 6849
Bule L., Daruhi G. 1990: Status of sandalwood resources in Vanuatu. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech Rep. PSW
122:79-84
Conrad.C., Eugene., Hamilton., Lawrence., (1990) Proceedings of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific.
A state of knowledge synthesis and summary from April 1990 symposium, 9-11 April 1990. Honolulu, Hawaii.
Gen. Tech.Rep. PSW-GTR-122.Berkeley,CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1 -11 pp
Channel.S., Thomson L., (1999) Development of a sandalwood conservation strategy for Vanuatu. Forest Genetic
Resources 27: 67-72
Department of Forestry., (2005) Growing Yasi or Sandalwood (Santalum yasi) in Fiji
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065451/sandalwood
Hirano. R.T. 1990: Propagation of Santalum Sandalwood Tree, USDA Forest Service Gen Technical Rep.
http://www.finegardening.com/plantguide/alternanthera-dentata-purple-knight-calicoplant.aspx
Jiko.L.R., (2000) Status and Current Interest on Sandalwood in Fiji. Sandalwood Research Newsletter, 10, 1-3pp
Mckinnell.F.H. (1990) Status of Management and Silviculture research on Sandalwood in Western Australia and
Indonesia. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech Rep. PSW 122:19-25pp
Murashige, T., and Skoog F., (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue culture.
Physiologia Plantarum 15: 473 – 497.
Narendra N., Roderick A.D., Sarah. A., (2004) Micropropagation of two Australian native fruit species, Davidsonia
pruriens and Davidsonia jerseyana G. Harden and J.B. Williams. Plant Cell Tissue Culture and Organ Culture;
77: 193 – 201
Robson. K., (2004) Experience with sandalwood in plantations in the South Pacific and North Queensland. Department of
Primary Industries and Fisheries, Horticulture and Forestry Science, Walkamin, Queensland,4872, Australia, 1-9pp
Rai R.V., McComb J. 2002: Directembryogenesis from mature embryos of sandalwood. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult
69:65-70
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Trop Forest Sci 15: 234-236.
Sanjaya B.M., Rahore T.S., Rai V.R.. 2006. Micropropagation of an endangreded Indian sandalwood (Santalum
album L.). J Forest Research 11: 203-209
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pp 1-60
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116
7
TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS ON SANDALWOOD MARKETS AND TRADE
7.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES, RECENT SANDALWOOD TRADE AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS FROM THE PACIFIC ISLANDS Lex Thomson1 and John Doran 2
Historical trade in sandalwood
There has been an ancient and continuing history of exploitation and trade in sandalwood. Since the 6th
century, merchants have traded sandalwood from India and Indonesia/ Timor Leste to China. Indeed China
has historically been the greatest export market for sandalwood.
European explorers found sandalwood on Pacific Islands in 1760 (Shineberg, 1967). In early 1800s there
were major trade imbalances developing between China and Great Britain and its young colony Australia.
The Pacific Islands sandalwood trade developed because of the need for Great Britain and Australia to find
a suitable commodity to trade with China in return for tea. For example, China exported £70 million of tea
to Great Britain in the period 1811-19 and £200,000 of tea in five years to Australia. It was observed that all
exports to China from Australia failed with the exception of sandalwood, which was paid for handsomely.
From Shineberg (1967): The Pacific scramble for sandalwood started in Fiji, with Santalum yasi, in the early
1800s with commercial resources cut out by 1816. A small load of sandalwood was obtained from Fiji as late
as 1825 (but not in commercial quantities). The Marquesas (French Polynesia) were stripped of sandalwood
(S. insulare) in only three years from 1814-17. In Hawaii the boom lasted from 1811 to 1828. The last major
wave of early Pacific sandalwood exploitation was for S. austrocaledonicum in Erromango (Vanuatu), Loyalty
Islands and Isle de Pins (New Caledonia) from 1820-55. For example, between 1840 and 1855, an average
of at least 1,300 tonnes per year of sandalwood was exported from Vanuatu and New Caledonia – a total of
more than 20,000 tonnes. A late discovery of sandalwood on Santo (Vanuatu) revived the wilting trade in the
1850s but trade from south-west Melanesia was already finished by 1865. In volume terms this annual level
of trade from Vanuatu and New Caledonia was at least five times that of the annual amount harvested over
the past ten years for the whole of Pacific Islands (approximately 270 tonnes/year). Exploitation of sandalwood
(S. macgregorii) in Papua New Guinea was later and most intense in the early decades of the 20th century.
There have been periods of boom and bust in the trade of sandalwood from various Pacific Islands ever since
the early 1800s. These periods may be separated by long intervals, as native sandalwood populations take
about 40 to 80 years to recover from intensive harvesting. This is mainly due to the removal of large, mature
specimens which act as the main seed sources for regeneration.
Sandalwood heartwood and oil have increased in price throughout the entire trade history, and have escalated
in recent times (Padmanabha, 2008). For example between 1990 and 2008 the price of Indian sandalwood
(Santalum album, the industry standard) heartwood showed a compound increase of 21%, with the price of
Indian Sandalwood oil doubling in early 2005, due to imbalances in supply and demand.
Current official supply of Indian Sandalwood is about 500 tonnes per year from the annual auction held in
Tamil Nadu, India in November of each year. The current consumption of Indian Sandalwood is 3000 tonnes
per year based on amount of product released each year into the market. The demand for sandalwood is
expected to remain high due to its broad range of high value uses, including medicines and perfumery.
Sandalwood has been used for medicinal purposes throughout India and Asia since 2000BC. There are
many uses in personal hygiene, such as chewable mouth fresheners that are popular in India and Pakistan.
A fairly recent use is in aromatherapy where sandalwood is believed to have calming qualities. Sandalwood
oil has also been found to contain cancer fighting qualities and a cream is in the final stages of development
at John Hopkins Institute in the USA. There is also interest in the use of sandalwood in treatment of human
papillomavirus but there might be other cheaper and more effective products available such as virgin coconut oil.
1
Team Leader, EU-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade, Land Resources Division, SPC, Narere, Fiji
2
Research Fellow, Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Plant Industry, Black Mountain Laboratories,
Canberra, ACT, Australia
117
Perfumes account for 10% of market for sandalwood product. Since 1750, there have been 7,000 classified
fragrances of which 3212 (or 46%) contain sandalwood notes (Choueiri, 2008). Approximately 200 new
perfumes or fragrances containing sandalwood are released each year. There is also an increasing use of
synthetic substitutes, but the market would prefer authentic sandalwood oil if there were: an assured and
consistent supply, an affordable price and it could be proven to be from legal and ethical sources. Tropical
Forestry Services, who have major sandalwood plantations in north-western Australia, have pre-sold 40% of
its first five years of sandalwood oil supply to Lush (handmade cosmetics manufacturer) and Albert Vielle (a
firm specialising in supply of essential oils).
Recent trade in Pacific Islands sandalwood
There has been limited trade in Santalum yasi from both Fiji (505 tonnes) and Tonga (404 tonnes) over the
past decade (Figs. 1 and 2). In Fiji the trade picked up in 2006, sharply peaking in 2008 at 306 tonnes of
heartwood with a declared value of $F6 million and has declined since due to dwindling availability. The
principal export markets for Fiji’s sandalwood have been Vanuatu (for conversion to oil), People’s Republic of
China, Taiwan, Australia and Middle East (Dubai). Aromatic Oils (Fiji) Ltd have a modern sandalwood steam
distillery in Lautoka, but due to lack of sandalwood supply, have only been able to produce and supply a little
over 100 kg of oil to India. In Tonga exports peaked in 2007 at 204 tonnes. The declared value at export for
sandalwood is from 4 to 8 Tongan pa’anga per kg (or about 1.6 to 3.2 Euros per kg). This price is considerably
lower than in neighbouring Fiji (8 to 22 Euros per kg in 2008-9), perhaps reflecting a lack of appreciation of
its export market sale price, and also that some of the wood is sold to intermediaries/ exporters and has
been illegally harvested. There is no value adding of sandalwood in Tonga. There are very few mature S. yasi
trees remaining in Fiji and Tonga, and the species can be considered on the verge of commercial extinction
until planted trees attain maturity.
Fig 1. Exports of Santalum yasi from Fiji between 2000 and 2009
118
Fig 2. Exports of Santalum yasi from Tonga between 2001 and 2009
There has been a reasonably sustainable and consistent trade in Santalum austrocaledonicum products (oil
and heartwood) from New Caledonia and Vanuatu over the past decade. From 2003–2008, between 45 and
53 tonnes per year of heartwood was harvested in New Caledonia by traditional landowners. This heartwood
was sold to two distilleries, one on Maré (Loyalty Islands) and the other on the Isle of Pines. The Maré
distillery produces 500-600 kg of essential oil per year and the Isle of Pines distillery produces 900-1,000 kg
of essential oil per year. Depending on market and quality, the essential oil is sold for 880-900 Euros per kg
(in 2009) in Europe, mainly France, and North America. This oil is used principally in high quality perfumery,
aromatherapy, and beauty care products. In Vanuatu 953 tonnes of sandalwood were harvested between
2000 and 2009, with 73 and 123 tonnes being harvested annually (Table 1). The average export market prices
in 2009 for sandalwood products from Vanuatu were 600 to 750 Euros per kg for essential oil; 40 Euros per
kg for carving logs and pieces; 360 Euros per tonne for spent charge (after oil removed) and 730 Euros per
tonne for sapwood.
TABLE 1. MASS OF SANTALUM AUSTROCALEDONICUM HARVESTED IN VANUATU FROM 2000 TO 2009
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Mass (MT)
73
76
73
121
123
114
112
112
76.1
73
Between 1997 and 2008, 360 tonnes of sandalwood (S. macgregorii ) were exported from PNG (Fig. 3). The quantity
of heartwood exported has fluctuated from 73 tonnes in 2003 to 2 tonnes in 2006 .
Fig 3. Exports of Santalum macgregorii from Fiji between 1997 and 2008
119
The declared export values are very low (equivalent to 0.7 to 1 Euro per kg from 2003-8) compared with other
Pacific Island sandalwood species.
The main issues of concern related to current exploitation and trade from Pacific Islands are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Unregulated and/or non-enforced regulations
Overexploited - commercially extinct in wild
Resource owners being duped by middlemen and/or having their trees stolen
Low declared values at customs (Governments not collecting rightful amounts of customs and excise
duties and taxes)
Lack of value adding e.g. essential oil production
Lack of natural regeneration and replanting (until quite recently)
Summary and future prospects
Over the past 10 years, trade of sandalwood and its products has fluctuated between 200 and 500 tonnes per
year from all Pacific Islands. The quantity has been stabilised by relatively consistent, regulated production
from Vanuatu and New Caledonia. This traded quantity equates to only about one-tenth of production
during the first wave of sandalwood exploitation in the Pacific in the early to mid 1800s. Extraction from
native stands will remain low over the next 20 years (maximum of 150-200 tonnes per year for entire Pacific
Islands region), until resources can be re-established through protection, management of natural regeneration
and enrichment plantings.
Future production in Pacific Islands will be dominated by planted sandalwood (home gardens, agroforestry,
plantations) and natural regeneration in areas adjacent to new plantings. Planted sandalwood from Pacific
Islands will only begin to come onto the international market in larger volumes ( > 500 tonnes per year)
from about 2018 – 2025. This will be predominately S. austrocaledonicum from Vanuatu and S. album, S.
yasi and hybrids from Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Factors that have limited replanting until relatively recently are
lack of quality germplasm and knowledge of silviculture; long rotation period (with islanders unable to tie
up resources for 20 years); and lack of secure land titles. Major threats to sandalwood production are
considered to be: theft; poor management (weeds, shade, lack of appropriate hosts); butt and root rot
fungi (in high rainfall zones), cyclones; drought and fire (in dry and intermediate rainfall zones) and termites.
The major risks to Pacific Island sandalwood prices and trade are likely to be:
• Large scale plantations in Australia, China and India and possibly elsewhere (e.g. Thailand and Sri
Lanka). These pose a risk to future prices which are likely to be paid for sandalwood but will reduce
pressures to develop improved and cheaper synthetics.
• Biotechnological developments – metabolic pathways and enzymes for santalenes production in
sandalwood have recently been identified, and could be transferred into yeasts/microbes with the
prospect of Santalum-like oils being mass produced cheaply in bioreactors. These developments are
likely to be at least 5 -10 years away and unlikely to be a major competitor due to genetic modification
concerns and a clear market preference for natural products in cosmetics and fragrances.
• Synthetic substitutes for the santalols of sandalwood oils are increasingly competing with the natural
product in perfumery and cosmetics uses. This trend will continue, at least in the short term, given that
the supply of sandalwood cannot keep up with demand and that it is possible that sandalwood prices will
continue to increase over next 3-5 years.
References
Choueiri, A. 2008. Sustainable ingredients in the fragrance industry and the use of Indian Sandalwood in
L’Oreal products. Paper presented to a conference “Revolutionising the Global Indian Sandalwood
Supply – creating a sustainable supply of Indian Sandalwood Oil and Wood”, Kununurra, Western Australia.
Padmanabha, A. 2008. Indian Sandalwood – the history, the uses and the future of supply. Paper presented
to a conference “Revolutionising the Global Indian Sandalwood Supply – creating a sustainable supply of
Indian Sandalwood Oil and Wood”, Kununurra, Western Australia.
Shineberg, D (1967). They came for Sandalwood – A study of the sandalwood trade in the south-west Pacific
1830-1865. Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria, Australia. 299 pp.
120
7.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SANDALWOOD PLANTING AND
PRODUCTS IN CHINA
Mr. Chan Kamwah, President, Dragon Pearl Island Sandalwood Industry Tech Ltd, Guangdong China
OUTLINE
1. Area map of Chinese sandalwood planting. Currently, sandalwood grows well in Guangdong, Guangxi,
Hainan, and in parts of Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan in southern China .
2. The development of Chinese sandalwood planting and industries from 1962 to 2002.
3. The rapid development of Chinese sandalwood planting and industries from 2003 to 2010.
4. The development of new sandalwood products in China. DPI has started to analyse the composition of
sandalwood's leaves, buds, fruits, branches and cortices and has developed lots of sandalwood products
since 2005.
5. The market potential and demand for Chinese sandalwood. In the past 6 years, over 10,000 customers
have come to DPI every year.
6. Chinese sandalwood industry is looking forward to mutual aid and cooperation to increase sandalwood’s
development and business opportunities.
121
7.3 AMRUQUA’S ESSENTIAL OIL TRADE FROM PNG AND PLANS
FOR SANDALWOOD Sharmayne Ryan, Organic Production/Assurance Manager, FOLLYWELL No. 6 Limited Trading (Amruqa),
Papua New Guinea
Established in 1997 as Pacific Spices, due to structural changes to enable expansion, now operating as
“AMRUQA”, the Qaqet name for the Rosewood tree meaning regeneration or rebirth.
Amruqa offers a range of organically certified spices, essential oils and tropical nut oils. Our essential oils
are distilled to the highest international and organic standards at our Vunakanau Plantation.
Amruqa based its development plans around four key needs:
•
•
•
•
Gain market recognition
On site value adding
Select new processing technology
Source quality plant material to meet market standards Amruqa's main constraints are:
•
•
•
•
•
Lack of knowledge and experience in essential oil quality requirements
Lack of market links
No traditional knowledge of growing aromatic plants at farmer level
Lack of a working examples of essential oil production in the Pacific
Lack of research and data of farming aromatic plants in the region
Amruqa’s work with sandalwood has been with:
•
•
•
•
Santalum macgregorii
Found mainly in the southern region of PNG
Over harvesting, and lack of planting has made it an endangered species in PNG
Urgent need for conservation and sustainable management practices
In summary; essential oil production is an effective means to:
•
•
•
•
•
Increase value for farmers products Increase marketability Diversification Increase value of second grade products Enable isolated communities to do onsite value adding
In conclusion; Amruqa will:
• Increase plantings of essential oil crops
• Continue trials on selected and potential essential oil plants
• Undertake R&D into essential oil production
122
8
GROUP DISCUSSIONS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 GROUP DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS
After the technical presentations, group discussions were held on the final day to discuss major issues on
sandalwood resource development, research and markets/trade. The following findings and recommendations
were made by the groups:
a. Sandalwood Resource Development:
1. Development of appropriate legislative requirements for each country based-on/following countries
with existing legal framework, taking into account natural populations and plantations.
2. Develop or compile procedures for management of sandalwood woodlots (seed collection, nursery
practices, plantation establishment, maintenance and harvesting) by farmers. These procedures to
include extension and awareness programmes, and regular exchange of information through meetings.
3. Support the sandalwood industry to develop sandalwood products. Also support farmers to plant
improved sandalwood and expand on existing resources.
4. Countries need to develop management strategies to conserve wild populations and to map reserves
to enable future development and maintenance of genetic diversity of sandalwood species in the
region. There is a need also to maintain the identity and uniqueness of country species so as to
protect their niche markets.
5. Conduct a national resource inventory of all wild populations and set up seed orchards. Continue to
distribute better quality seeds to farmers for their planting programmes.
6. Document and manage the occurrence of invasive species including pest and diseases in sandalwood
plantations. Identifying the most efficient and adaptable host plants could help alleviate the potential
disease risk associated with larger scale plantings.
b. Sandalwood Research:
1.
Seed handling and processing
a. Review of current technology - background
• Seed collected when red, not fully ripened fruit. Flesh must be seen to ensure freshness
• Remove pulp immediately as inhibits germination.
• For S. album: Mix seed in sand and place in the sun for three days and then place in the fridge for 30 days. Germination occurs quickly and evenly.
• Some seed needs the coat cracked before it will germinate. Some people nick the seed coat, other scarify, whilst another technique is to soak and dry the seed until the coat cracks. The seed can also be added to silica gel for drying rather than using the sun.
• Seed not used is dried and stored.
• Check viability by cutting seed in half and looking for embryo. Some people soak the seed and remove the floaters as non-viable.
• Seed viability drops with storage and seed germination becomes more erratic.
• S. album seed responds to GA3 treatment
• Seed must not have any fungal contamination when sown – clean with bleach or hydrogen peroxide prior to sowing.
b. Research on seed storage including lowering moisture content
• Information is lacking on optimum storage conditions for sandalwood seed.
• What moisture content should the seed be held at to maintain optimum viability?
c.
Studies of GA on seed germination
• It is known that S. album and S. spicatum respond to GA3 to improve germination
performance.
• Does this chemical hormone work with the other Santalum species?
• Can this chemical be used to improve the performance of stored seedlots?
123
2.
Seedling Production
a. Media – Common attributes to good seedling growth
• Good drainage
• Organic matter in the media
• Do not add fertilisers (too expensive – pig manure as alternative)
• Host added at various times depending on vigour of host. Host needed for root-binding so seedling can be easily extracted from the pot.
• Pot host provides early protection of seedling in the field
b.
3.
Planting
a. Research to develop general rule of selecting long term host plants
• Wide variety of plants, sandalwood: host ratios and spacing used. The choice may
be influenced by soil nutrition.
• What parameters need to be known to select the species of host?
• What host characteristics need to be taken into account for the planting design?
b.
Pricking-out of seedlings
• Seed pre-germinated – always uneven
• Follow Sempit’s advice, transfer seedlings into pots when shoot curled, too late if leaves expanded and auxiliary roots developed.
Silviculture
• Plant ground cover of a legume to reduce weed control and add nitrogen to the system
• Good host selection should reduce amount of silviculture management of host
• The host should not over-shade the sandalwood
• The host should not be in numbers that creates competition for space with the sandalwood
• Sandalwood pruning needs to be done early and regularly
• Branches that can only be pruned with secateurs should be removed, or reduced in size to maintain a leading shoot and a clean lower bole
• No pruning with bush knives
• Leave at least half of the canopy
4.
Genetics
a. Establish progeny trials for genetic parameter estimates for oil characteristics and growth
Superior sandalwood trees are selected for the following traits
• Growth vigour (which can be influenced by host)
• Apical dominance and small branching
• Oil quantity (can be influenced by fungal attack)
• Oil quality (early information suggests quality can be influenced by fungal attack)
The establishment of progeny trials will confirm the benefits of selecting for these traits and thus are recommended wherever selection has occurred.
b.
5.
Heart wood formation
a. Non- destructive measurement method of heartwood
• Drilling methods to assess sandalwood heartwood have the risk of introducing disease
• Drilling does not estimate the amount of heartwood, only its presence
• Drilling is required for analysing oil quality
• What method could be developed where heartwood quantity could be assessed in a
non-destructive manner?
Establish archives of the genetic variation from each island on each island.
• A breeding programme is only as good as the genetic variation captured and utilised
• The traits (particularly oil quality traits) may change with changing market requirements, disease outbreaks etc.
• Genetic conservation
• Archives (seedlings or grafted plants) should be established to preserve the genetic
variation of each species
124
6.
b.
Establishment clonal trials (cutting, tissue culture and grafting)
• Heartwood can be affected by many different physical aspects: host, light, stress, fungal diseases etc.
• Clonal trials will allow the understanding of the influence of these parameters on
the sandalwood genotype
• Clonal trials should be established in as many environments as possible to understand environmental influences on the genome
Harvesting and Processing
a. Research into oil yield and quality with the distance of the heartwood from the base.
• Oil yield and quality can change as the heartwood develops up the bole of the tree.
• Understanding this change may allow for the harvested tree to be divided into different grades of oil or carving logs to optimise value.
• How does the oil quality change in each species within the heartwood of the tree?
c. Sandalwood Markets and Trade
a. Products - Findings:
• Oil
• Carving/artifacts
• Spent charge and sapwood
b.
Recommendations:
• Eco-tourism – nature based (maintain basic cash flow/early cash flow)
• End products – tea
• Medicinal
• Traditional/Religious significance products e.g. incense sticks
• Sandalwood honey
• Animal feed
• Showcase Pacific Islands sandalwood products in China (DPI) or internationally
a.
Comparative Advantage - Findings
• People in the Pacific heavily depend on fast growing species. • Indian sandalwood is internationally recognized
• Sandalwood - connected with the people, history and tradition
b. Recommendations:
• Sandalwood needs to be cultivated with short term crops for livelihood
• Further research is required on the oils of Pacific Island sandalwood species to enhance their recognition/profile in international markets.
• Formulation of Pacific Islands Sandalwood Association for setting marketing and trade
standards
a.
Actual Size of the Market – Findings
• A lot of the trade is done illegally
• Hard to predict future prospects of sandalwood markets – trade in the Pacific is not well
documented and not transparent
• The overall cost of certification and marketing the product needs to be considered
• Certification – useful way of value adding, organic, fair trade and sustainable production
b.
Recommendations:
• Development of standards for sandalwood for the major Pacific Islands species (S. yasi
and S. austrocaledonicum)
• Determine and develop niche markets for organic sandalwood products
• Geographical labelling
125
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The workshop further agreed that:
• Sandalwood is a high value, non-perishable export product, which can be grown to provide substantial
cash income in order to improve the standard of living of farmers and their families living in remote
islands and with very limited income generating opportunities.
• Sandalwood needs to be prioritised in government forestry policy, research and development, extension,
rural development and trade.
• National sandalwood extension programmes need to be established in each current and aspiring
producer country. In order to optimise extension benefits, these are to be led by a full-time sandalwood
extension officer, and include extension materials, demonstration plots, media and awareness
programmes, and sandalwood farmer networks.
• Poorly regulated and unsustainable exploitation of sandalwood has resulted in its commercial
extinction in some places. Pacific countries can learn from the sandalwood regulations and policies of
New Caledonia and Vanuatu which have enabled continued, sustainable production of sandalwood from
native populations. Furthermore, regulations ensuring the conservation of core natural populations need
to be implemented.
• The introduction and development of exotic sandalwood species needs to be assessed in relation to the
need to preserve the specificity and uniqueness of the Pacific Islands sandalwood populations and
production. Investigation and conservation of the genetic resources of Santalum insulare in French
Polynesia serves as an excellent model for other endangered Pacific sandalwood species.
• There is an urgent need for replication of the detailed inventories undertaken for S. austrocaledonicum
and S. insulare to other sandalwood species in the Asia – Pacific region; coupled with plantings to
conserve vulnerable genetic resources and replanting with appropriate genetic materials including
especially superior local selections.
• An expanded and well resourced Pacific regional research and development programme aimed at
optimising sandalwood growth, heartwood formation and oil quality is needed to increase the economic
benefits to the region.
• Sandalwood provides considerable opportunities and linkages for biodiversity conservation, carbon
sequestration and eco-tourism which warrant development, including through public-private partnerships.
• SPC shall consult its member countries, private and NGO stakeholders on the establishment and
articles of association for a sandalwood association for the Pacific Islands, and seeks resources for its
establishment and initial operations.
• SPC, through its EU-FACT project, organise a study tour for Pacific Islanders to southern China in first
half of 2011 to exchange information on production and development of value-added sandalwood products,
better understand the China market place and help develop markets for Pacific Islands sandalwood.
• Endorse the establishment of the regional tree seed centre by SPC to facilitate the exchange of sandalwood,
among its 22 member countries and territories in the Pacific, to be facilitated under a Materials Transfer
Agreement (which is currently under development).
• The next Regional Sandalwood Meeting is held in French Polynesia (or New Caledonia) in 2013.
• SPC, through its EU-FACT project, undertakes market intelligence and reports back via the sandalwood
research newsletter and the proposed Sandalwood Association.
126
9
APPENDICES
9.1 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
AUSTRALIA
Dr. John Doran
Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Plant Industry
Black Mountain Laboratories – Bldg 65
Clunies Ross Street, ACT 2601,
Australia
Tel: (612) 6246 4833 Fax: (612) 6246
E-mail: John.Doran@csiro.au
Dr. Tony Page
School of Tropical Biology
James Cook University
P.O. Box 6811 Cairns, 4870
Australia
Tel: (617) 40421673 Fax: (617) 40421319
E-mail: tony.page@jcu.edu.au Dr. Liz Barbour
Research Development Officer
Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Science
University of Western Australia
35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Perth
Australia
Tel: (617) 6488 7738 Fax: (617) 6488 1002
E-mail: liz.barbour@uwa.edu.au
Mr. Peter Kimber
Expert Consultant Forester
TFS Corporation Ltd
169 Broadway, Nedlands, WA 6009
Australia
Tel: (618) 835 7141
Fax: (618) 85357141
E-mail: pbkim@westnet.com.au
COOK ISLANDS
Mr. Teuanuku Koroa
Agriculture Manager
Mangaia Island Administration
Ministry of Agriculture
Mangaia, Cook Islands
Tel: (682) 34 337
Fax: (682) 34337
E-mail: miadmin@mangaia.net.ck
127
FIJI ISLANDS
Mr.Maleli Belo Nakasava
Forest Guard
Department of Forestry
Ministry of Primary Industries
Box 2218, Government Buildings
Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 332 0211
Fax: (679) 332 0957
E-mail: mnakasava@yahoo.com
Mr. Binesh Dayal
Forestry Officer – Tree Improvement
Department of Forestry
Ministry of Primary Industries
Box 2218, Government Buildings
Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 332 2389
Fax: (679) 332 0380
E-mail: bineshdayal@yahoo.com
Mr. Vilisoni Nataniela
Consultant, EU-FACT Pilot Project
Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 332221
FRENCH POLYNESIA
Mr. Léopold Stein
Chef du département de la Forêt
et de la gestion de l'espace rural (FOGER)
Service du dévelopement rural
BP 100 , 98713 PAPEETE
POLYNESIE FRANCAISE
Tel :(689) 423 460 ou (689) 42 81 44 ,
Fax: (689) 420 831
E-mail: leopold.stein@rural.gov.pf
Dr. Jean-Francois Butaud
Researcher
BP 52832 Pirae 98716 Tahiti
French Polynesia
Tel: (689) 82648
E-mail: jfbutaud@hotmail.com
NIUE
Ms. Terrianne Vaine Leki Mokoia
Forestry Officer
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
P O Box 118, Vaimilo
ALOFI CENTRAL
Tel: (683) 4185
Fax: (683) 4185
E-mail: tkalu25@yahoo.co.nz
NEW CALEDONIA
Mr. Philippe Bourgine
Responsible Forestier
Department of Rural Development
Province Sud-New Caledonia
Tel: (687) 272674
Fax: (687) 270577
E-mail: philippe.bourgine@province-sud.nc
128
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mr Robert Kiapranis
Programme Leader, Forest Biology Programme
PNG Forest Research Insititute
Papua New Guinea Forest Authority
P.O. Box 314, Lae, Morobe Province
Papua New Guinea
Tel: (675) 472 4188
Fax: (675) 472 4357
E-mail: rkiapranis@fri.pngfa.gov.pg
Ms. Sharmayne Ryan
Organic Production/Assurance Manager
FOLLYWELL No. 6 Limited Trading (Amruqa)
P O Box 1593, Rabaul, East New Britain, 611
Papua New Guinea
Tel: (675) 9406412
E-mail: trad.org@telinet.com.pg
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Mr. Chan Kamwah
President, Gaoyao Dragon Pearl Island Sandalwood
Industry Tech Ltd
Jinlong Reservoir, Jiao Tang, Gaoyao City
Guangdong China
Post Code:526113
T:86-755-8123688
F:86-755-8123638
E-mail: dpi@sandalwood.cn
Ms. Yang Lijun
General Manager, Gaoyao Dragon Pearl Island
Sandalwood
Industry Tech Ltd
Jinlong Reservoir, Jiao Tang
Gaoyao City, Guangdong, China
Post Code:526113
T:86-755-8123688
F:86-755-8123638
E-mail: dpi@sandalwood.cn
SAMOA
Mr. Tito Alatimu
Principal Forester – Forest Management
Forestry Division
Min.of Natural Resources and Environment
P O Box 487, Apia, Samoa
Tel: (685) 58116
Fax: (685) 58257
E-mail: alatimut@lesamoa.net
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Mr. Fred Pitisopa
Director,
National Herbarium and Botanical Garden Ministry of Forestry and Research
P O Box G24, Honiara
Solomon Islands
Phone: (677) 24215
Fax: (677) 24660
E-mail: fpitisopa@hotmail.com
129
KINGDOM OF TONGA
Mr. Ketoni Akau‘ola
Technical Officer, Forestry Division
Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries
P. O. Box 14, Nuku’alofa
Tonga
Tel: (676) 29502
Fax: (676) 30040
E-mail: forestry@kalianet.to
Mr. Maloni Havea
Forestry Officer
Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries
P. O. Box 25, Neiafu, Vavau
Tonga
Tel: (676) 70164
Fax: (676) 70400
E-mail: maloni.h@gmail.com
VANUATU
Mr. Tate Hanington Tamla
Principal Forestry Officer – Policy and Projects
Department of Forests
Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and
Fisheries
Private Mail Bag 9064, Port Vila,
Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23171
Fax: (678) 23856
E-mail: hanington_tate@yahoo.com
Mr. Ioan Viji Vutilolo
Principle Forest Officer - Technical
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
E-mail: ioan_viji02@yahoo.com Mr. Channel Sam
Botanist – French Interpreter
Fisheries
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
Mr. Jude Tabiwusu
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
E-mail: judetabi@gmail.com
130
Mr. Joseph Tungon
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051 Mr. Valua Job
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
Mr. Joe Sel
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
Ms. Ruth Nalau
Secretary – French Interpreter
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: (678) 23856
Fax: (678) 25051
E-mail: ruthnalau@gmail.com
Mr. Jonathan Naupa
Director
Tropical Rainforests Aromatics
Port Vila, Vanuatu
E-mail: tradirector@vanuatu.com.vu
Dr. Peter Murphy
Port Vila, Vanuatu
E-mail: peter.murphy@sandalwood.vu
Mr. Ben Brookman
General Manager
Port Vila, Vanuatu
Phone: 678 5547099
E-mail: ben.brookman@sandalwood.vu
Mr. Jim Batty
General Manager
Far North Oils
Port Vila, Vanuatu
E-mail: jbatty.summit@gmail.com
131
Mr. John Salong
General Manager
VANWODS
Port Vila, Vanuatu
E-mail: jsalong@gmail.com
Mr. Benuel Tarilongi
Director
Department of Livestock and Quarantine
Fisheries
Port Vila, Vanuatu
E-mail: btarilongi@vanuatu.gov.vu
SECRETARIAT OF THE
PACIFIC COMMUNITY
Dr. Lex Thomson
Team Leader, FACT Pilot Project
Forests and Trees/Forestry and Agriculture
Diversification Teams
Land Resources Division
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands
Tel: (679) 3370733
Mobile: (679) 999 1198
Fax: (679) 3370021
E-mail: lext@spc.int
Mr. Cenon Padolina
Regional Forest Genetic Resource Officer
Forests and Trees Team
Tel: (679) 3370733
Fax: (679) 3370021
E-mail: cenonp@spc.int
Mr. Vinesh Prasad
Information Technology Assistant
Forests and Trees Team
Tel: (679) 3370733
Fax: (679) 3370021
E-mail: vineshp@spc.int
Ms. Sainimili Baiculacula
Laboratory Technician
Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees
Tel: (679) 3370733
Fax: (679) 3370021
E-mail: sainimilib@spc.int
132
9.2 WORKSHOP PROGRAMME
Date
Time
Activities
Responsible
DAY 1
08:00 – 09:00
Registration
Organisers
Opening Ceremony
• Devotion
• Welcome Address
(Forestry Dept. Vanuatu)
• Welcome Address
(SPC)
• Keynote Address
• Introduction of
participants, Workshop Programme and
Housekeeping
• Rapporteurs
Pastor
Mr.Hanington Tate Forestry Department,
Vanuatu
Monday,
09:00 – 10:30
22 November Mr Cenon Padolina, LRD - SPC
Hon. Stephen Kalsakau, Minister, MAFF, Vanuatu
Mr. Cenon Padolina, SPC, Workshop Facilitator
Vinesh Prasad, Hanington Tate, Ruth Nalau
and Ioan Viji
10:30 – 11:00
Group Photo, Coffee/Tea Break
11:00 – 12:30
Session 1a. Country
Reports/Presentations:
• Cook Islands
(Teaunuku Koroa)
• Fiji Islands (Binesh
Dayal)
• French Polynesia
(Leopold Stein)
• New Caledonia
(Philippe Bourgine)
• Niue (Terry-Anne
Mokoia)
12:30 – 13:30
Lunch
13:30 – 15:30
Session 1b. Country and
Regional Reports/
Presentations:
• Papua New Guinea
(Robert Kiapranis)
• Samoa (Tito Alatimu)
• Tonga (Ketoni
Akau’ola)
• Vanuatu (Hannington
Tate)
• SPC Regional Report
(Cenon Padolina/
Vinesh Prasad)
15:30 – 16:00
Coffee/Tea Break
16:00 – 17:00
Session 1d.
Plenary Discussions
on country and
regional reports
133
Dr. Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator
Mr Ioan Viji, Forestry
Department, Vanuatu
Dr Lex Thomson, SPC
Workshop Facilitator,
17:00
End of Day 1
Date
Time
Activities
Responsible
DAY 2
08:30 – 08:45
Review of Activities
on Monday 15 March.
Outline of Programme
for the Day
Cenon Padolina, SPC, Workshop Facilitator
Tuesday,
08:45 – 10:15
23 November
Session 2. Technical
Dr Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator
Presentations on Sandalwood Resource Development:
• Conservation Strategy
of Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) in French
Polynesia and 10 Years
of Implementations by
J.F. Butaud with the
collaboration of SDR
Foresters
• Economics and
silviculture of smallholder sandalwood
production in Vanuatu
by Tony Page, JCU
• Development of
Sandalwood
Plantations by the
Private Sector in
Vanuatu by Jonathan
Naupa of Tropical
Rainforests Aromatic Ltd.
• The Sustainable
Management and
Conservation of
Santalum yasi in Fiji
and Tonga: A Combined
Ecological and Genetic
Approach by Ryan
Huish, et al.
• Sandalwood Plantings in Rotuma, Fiji Islands
by Vilisoni Nataniela,
Consultant, EU-FACT
Pilot Project and Lex
Thomson
• An Integrated
Management and
Conservation Strategy for
Sandalwood (Santalum
album L.) in West Timor,
Indonesia” by Yudhistira
Ardhyana Nugraha Rua
Ora presented by Dr.
John Doran, CSIRO
134
Dr Tony Page, JCU, Workshop Facilitator
10:15 – 10:30
Session 2a. Discussions regarding technical
reports/presentations on
Sandalwood Resource
Development
10:30 – 11:00
Coffee/Tea Break
10:30 – 12:15
Mr Tito Alatimu, Forestry Division, Samoa
Reports/Presentations on
Sandalwood Research:
• The Impact of Heartwood
Rot on Sandalwood Oil
Production by Dr. Liz
Barbour, University of
Western Australia
• “Sempit’s Tree” Extreme Variation of
Oil Composition and
Quality in a Single
Santalum austrocaledonicum Tree by Peter
Murphy, Ben Brookman, Jonathan Naupa
and Sempit Naritantop
of Tropical Rainforest
Aromatics Limited
• Breeding Biology of
Santalum by Tate
Hannington of Forestry
Department, Vanuatu
• 'The Vegetative Propagation of Sandalwood
Species, S.yasi, S.
album and F1 hybrid S.
hybrid (yasi x album) by
Maloni Havea of Tonga
Forestry Division
• Micropropagation of
Sandalwood (Santalum
yasi) by Sainimili
Baiculacula CePaCT,
SPC
12:15 –12:30
Session 3a. Group Discussions Regarding Technical
Reports/Presentations on
Sandalwood
12:30 – 13:30
Lunch
135
Dr John-Francois Butaud, French Polynesia
Date
13:30 – 15:00
Dr John Doran, CSIRO, Workshop Facilitator
Reports/Presentations
on Sandalwood Trade/
Markets
• The Development of
Sandalwood Planting
and Products in China
by DPI Sandalwood
Industry Tech Ltd,
• An Overview of Sandalwood Markets/
Trade in the Pacific by Dr. Lex Thomson
of SPC and Dr John
Doran of CSIRO
• Amruqa's Essential Oil
Trade from PNG, and
Plans for Sandalwood
by Ms. Sharmayne
Ryan, Amruqa, PNG
15:00 – 15:30
Coffee/Tea Break
15:30 – 16:30
Session 4a. Group
Discussions Regarding
Technical Reports/Presentations on Sandalwood
16:30
End of Day 2
Time
Activities
Responsible
• Visit to the Forestry
Department Nursery
• Visit to Plantations
• Lunch at Far North Oils
• Visit to plantations/
agroforestry areas
• Visit to Distillation Plant
Mr. Tate Hannington and Forestry
Department Staff
08:30 – 17:30
DAY 3
Wednesday,
24 November
FIELD TRIP
DAY 4
Dr.John Doran, CSIRO, Workshop Facilitator
17:30
End of Day 3
08:30 – 08:45
Review of Activities on
Wednesday 24November. Outline of Programme for the Day
Workshop Facilitators
08:45 – 10:15
Group discussions of
findings and recommendations
10:15 – 10:30
Coffee/Tea Break
10:30 – 12:30
• Presentation of Draft
Findings and Recommendations
Thursday,
25 November
136
Date
Time
Activities
Responsible
12:30 – 13:30
Lunch
13:30 – 15:15
• Final discussion/adop- Workshop Facilitators
tion of findings and
recommendations
15:15 – 15:30
Coffee/Tea Break
15:30 – 17:00
Summaries of Main
Observations by
Groups, and Finalise
an Accepted Version of
the Draft Findings and
Recommendations
• Evaluation of the
Workshop
• Closing Remarks
• Closing Prayer
17:00
End of the Workshop
137
9.3 MINISTER’S OPENING SPEECH
Opening of Regional Sandalwood Workshop
Distinguished guests, country representatives/participants from the Pacific Island countries and territories
and the Asian region, the Sandalwood industry representatives, resource persons and workshop facilitators,
ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Vanuatu.
Today marks the history for the Regional Sandalwood Workshop to be finally held in Vanuatu. The
government and people of Vanuatu would like to thank the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, EU,
AusAID, GTZ, APAFRI and JCU for making it possible for this workshop to be held in the “Happiest Place
on Planet Earth”.
As we all know, sandalwood is an important tree crop that has supported the people of the Pacific for many
years. Sandalwood also has the potential to contribute to the improvement of the living standards of the
people in the Pacific Islands. However, for this to happen, it needs critical assessment, research and
improved management practices.
The use of sandalwood in the Pacific has a long history, some of which could drag on for many years, such
as Samoa still blaming Tonga for depleting their sandalwood. Having said that, please allow me to briefly
detail the history of sandalwood trade in Vanuatu.
It was detailed in a book called “They Came for Sandalwood” that trading in Vanuatu sandalwood started
in 1830, making it the first commodity to be exported out of Vanuatu. In that year, it was noted that sandalwood
grew from the mountains right down to the beach on some islands in the Southern part of Vanuatu. However,
due to heavy harvest by the Europeans, I won’t mention which countries assisted the Europeans, sandalwood
on Erromango and Aneityum islands were reduced to a very low level. Sandalwood continued to be
harvested and exported out of Vanuatu without any control or management measure. In 1996, realizing
the potential of developing sandalwood into an industry, the government enacted the Sandalwood Order to
regulate and manage sandalwood operations in Vanuatu. In 2003, the government issued the Sandalwood
Policy which gives direction to the development of the sandalwood industry to the stage it is today.
Sandalwood is an important crop in Vanuatu as well as in many Pacific Island countries. The income
generated from sale of sandalwood trees have contributed significantly to the livelihood of rural people,
some of which are in the most remote areas. For instance, in 2007, 2008 and 2009, the total income earned
by sandalwood owners in royalty payments is estimated at VT 233 million; all of which goes into the rural
areas. This value has generated a huge interest among many ni–Vanuatu to participate in replanting.
Industry
The sandalwood industry has played a significant role in bringing sandalwood to where it is today. The
establishment of onshore processing facilities in Vanuatu significantly increased royalty rates from the
minimum of VT 300 in 2003 to VT 1,000 per kilogram in 2010. However, the average of VT 1,500 per kilo
of wood paid by the industry becomes an incentive for farmers and landowners to invest in sandalwood
planting. The plantings you will visit on Wednesday are owned by the industry. The industry has also been
involved in sandalwood planting and conducts sandalwood awareness among communities.
Extension
The sandalwood extension programme in Vanuatu has proceeded positively, with collaborative efforts from the
government, the sandalwood industry and other agencies. During the last one to two years, there has been an
increased participation in planting as well as an increase in establishment of home sandalwood nurseries by
individuals. These activities are important because it shows that sandalwood planting is now taken up by
the general public. One issue though that needs to be addressed is the information on silviculture and
management of planted trees. This is important to ensure that farmers get the best value for their trees.
138
Research
Research is important for continuous development of the sandalwood industry, and I believe each country
has made progress in this area. In Vanuatu, sandalwood research is very important and several efforts have
been made into this area by different participants in the sector. I understand that the industry has invested
immensely into product and processing research to ensure that market requirements are continuously met. This is important for continuous development of the industry.
The government has also put a lot of efforts into research and development of sandalwood. With financial
assistance from donor partners, and in collaboration with research institutions, Vanuatu has made a lot
of progress into sandalwood research. An example of this work is the identification and collection of elite
genetic material from the wild stands and its establishment in a grafted orchard, which the participants
will visit on Wednesday. The next activity currently underway is to deploy these materials into grafted seed
orchards to the islands for providing of seeds. Another activity will be the control hybridization for selected
traits among individuals. We believe that continuous work in this area could lead us to become more
competitive with other sandalwood species in the next two decades.
Having said that, there are some challenges ahead that need to be addressed, two of which I would like to
make special mention of;
1. Information – because a lot of stakeholders have participated in reforestation awareness, it is very
important that the awareness materials are standardized, to ensure only one message is delivered by
all participants. This will limit conflicting information to growers;
2. Germplasm exchange – I understand that there has been exchange of germplasm of different materials
between some Pacific Island countries. One particular example is the recent importation and growing
of Indian sandalwood in Vanuatu. While Indian sandalwood has been known as the best sandalwood
species, I understand that it is aggressive and hybridizes very well with Vanuatu sandalwood, and could
have the potential for eliminating Vanuatu sandalwood as a single species. I won’t speculate on any
potential effect on the future market of Vanuatu sandalwood, but I suppose it to be of a challenge.
Having said that, I believe that you will have an enjoyable and constructive workshop. There are several
issues and challenges that affect sandalwood throughout the region, and I urge that these four days be
taken to investigate ways in addressing that. As host of this important workshop, the Government of
Vanuatu will be looking forward to the recommendations of the workshop to further the development of the
sandalwood industry.
While your schedule may be very tight, please allow time to explore Port Vila, and also time to drink Vanuatu kava.
Having said that, I would like to take this opportunity to wish you all every success, and also declare the
“Regional Sandalwood Workshop” open.
Thank you
139
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142

Proceedings of Sandalwood Meeting held in Vanuatu.

Transcription

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