Philippa Maurer

Transcription

Philippa Maurer

Philippa Maurer-Stroh
THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON
MODERN FRENCH, GERMAN AND ITALIAN –
a comparative lexicographical study based on
Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau Petit
Robert and lo Zingarelli
DIPLOMARBEIT
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Magistra der Philosophie
Studium:
Anglistik und Amerikanistik mit der individuellen Fächerkombination "Angewandte
Romanistik"
Universität Klagenfurt
Fakultät für Kulturwissenschaften
Begutachter: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan R. James
Institut: Anglistik und Amerikanistik
Klagenfurt, Dezember 2001
EHRENWÖRTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG
Ich erkläre ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Schrift verfasst und alle ihr vorausgehenden oder sie
begleitenden Arbeiten durchgeführt habe. Die in der Schrift verwendete Literatur sowie das Ausmaß der mir
im gesamten Arbeitsvorgang gewährten Unterstützung sind ausnahmslos angegeben. Die Schrift ist noch
keiner anderen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt worden.
Klagenfurt, 19.Dezember 2001
THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON
MODERN FRENCH, GERMAN AND ITALIAN –
a comparative lexicographical study based on
Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau Petit
Robert and lo Zingarelli
Diploma thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Magistra philosophiae
at the Institute for English and American Studies at the University of Klagenfurt
supervisor:
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan R. James
by
Klagenfurt, December 2001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan James for supervising this thesis. Furthermore,
I wish to express my being deeply grateful to him for introducing me to the topic of
(English) linguistics. His enthusiasm concerning this topic and the highly comprehensive
explanations in his lectures brought me to, finally, know what I am aiming at in
professional life. Attending his lectures, I have learned to love ‘linguistic signs’, analyse
them, interpret them, put them in relation.
I would also like to thank Chris Upward and Fred Swartz for making relevant newspaper
articles available on the Internet, all the people responding to my questionnaires and
Martine Vitteau and Julius Wallner for providing me the answers to the two missing
French questionnaires.
Further acknowledgements go to my close friends for supporting me, each of them in
her/his own special way. Especially, I would like to thank Ingrid Fernandez de Retana for
constructive criticism and useful discussions as to the final reading of this paper.
Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my family. My parents, for providing
me the opportunity to make my studies. Dad, for keeping me in a good mood when I was
just to throw away the word lists, Mum for lending me her new notebook and for her ever
presence when computer problems occurred, Grandma for causing some diversion with her
parrot, Sebastian for his support not only concerning layout of a diploma thesis and
Johannes for his being my contact to important topics other than studies.
1
PREFACE
“The definition of an Anglicism, in all its parameters, is itself an issue that anticipates in
microcosm virtually every important element of the vast debate that will unfold in the
pages of this volume.”
(Michel Piccone, 1996)
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
1
Table of contents
2
Abbreviations
6
1.
Introduction
7
1.1.
The influence of the English language on other languages
9
1.1.1.
The English influence on French, German and Italian
10
1.1.1.1.
Langue versus parole
10
1.2.
Procedure
11
1.3.
The fundamental definition
12
2.
The Corpus
13
2.1.
An introduction to lexicography
13
2.1.1.
How a word finds its way into a dictionary
16
2.2.
Presentation of the dictionaries
17
2.2.1.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary
18
2.2.2.
Le Nouveau Petit Robert
21
2.2.3.
Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch
23
2.2.4.
lo Zingarelli
26
2.2.5.
Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana
29
2.2.6.
Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen
30
2.2.7.
Les mots anglais du franíais
31
2.3.
Assembling the corpus data
32
2.3.1.
Search criteria
32
2.3.2.
Problems with the results
34
3.
Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing
36
3.1.
Linguistic borrowing from foreign languages – models of reference
37
3.1.1.
Maurizio Dardano
37
3.1.2.
Karin Viereck
38
3.1.3.
Wolfgang Viereck
40
3.1.4.
Mirosłav Jabłoński
42
3.1.5.
Ulrich Busse
43
3.1.6.
A new approach towards loan terminology
44
3
3.2.
The model of reference for this paper
45
3.2.1.
Linguistic borrowing from English in French, German and Italian
46
4.
English Internationalisms
54
4.1.
Authentic English Internationalisms
54
4.1.1.
List of authentic English Internationalisms
55
4.1.2.
Pseudo-Anglicisms as English Internationalisms
57
4.1.3.
General monolingual dictionaries versus special dictionaries of
foreign words
4.1.4.
61
English Internationalisms, their linguistic properties and the role
they play in the replica languages
63
4.1.4.1.
Graphology and orthography
64
4.1.4.2.
Phonetics and phonology
65
4.1.4.2.1. Vowels and diphthongs
67
4.1.4.2.2. Consonants
69
4.1.4.3.
70
Morphology and syntax
4.1.4.3.1. Parts of speech
71
4.1.4.3.2. Gender
72
4.1.4.3.3. Plural marking
75
4.1.4.3.4. Other syntactic indications
76
4.1.4.4.
77
Semantics and stylistics
4.1.4.4.1. English Internationalisms on the semantic level
77
4.1.4.4.1.1. Semantic narrowing
79
4.1.4.4.1.2. Semantic extension
79
4.1.4.4.1.3. Semantic shift
80
4.1.4.4.2. English Internationalisms on the stylistic level
81
4.1.4.5.
Authentic English Internationalisms – assimilated forms causing
ambiguity
82
4.2.
Assimilated Internationalisms
83
4.2.1.
Assimilation according to the rules of grapheme-phoneme
relation and representation
83
4.2.2.
Assimilation on the morphological level
85
4.2.2.1.
Verbs
85
4.2.2.2.
Nouns
86
4.3.
Prospects
87
4
5.
Attitudes towards English influence and the use of Anglicisms
89
5.1.
Questionnaires
89
5.1.1.
Procedure
91
5.1.2.
Results
94
5.1.2.1.
French
94
5.1.2.2.
German
99
5.1.2.3.
Italian
103
5.1.2.4.
Comparison
107
5.1.3.
The ‘Top Ten‘ of Anglicisms in the examined languages
112
5.2.
Projects in progress against the use of Anglicisms
115
5.2.1.
La Loi Toubon
115
5.2.2.
‘Verein deutsche Sprache‘ and ‘Wiener Sprachblätter‘
117
5.2.3.
Italian projects
118
6.
Conclusion
119
7.
Bibliography
123
Appendices
128
A.
E-mail correspondence as to Le Nouveau Petit Robert and Duden
129
a.
Latest version of LNPR
129
b.
Problems with Duden- Die deutsche Rechtschreibung
129
B.
Corpus lists
132
a.
132
b.
145
c.
lo Zingarelli
157
C.
English words according to Microsoft spell check
169
a.
169
b.
177
c.
lo Zingarelli
183
D.
Direct lexical borrowings – English Internationalisms in DDUWB,
LNPR, LOZ, LMADF, PS, WBÜA
190
E.
Direct lexical borrowings in LMADF, PS and WBÜA
194
F.
Phonetic transcription
196
G.
Questionnaires
201
a.
French
202
5
(1)
Questionnaire
202
(2)
Survey results
203
(3)
Examples of Anglicisms
204
b.
German
205
(1)
Questionnaire
205
(2)
Survey results
206
(3)
207
c.
Italian
208
(1)
Questionnaire
208
(2)
Survey results
209
(3)
210
6
ABBREVIATIONS
COD
The Concise Oxford Dictionary
DDUWB
LMADF
Les mots anglais du français
LNPR
LOZ
lo Zingarelli
PS
Le parole straniere nella lingua italiana
WBÜA
Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen
7
1. INTRODUCTION
In its easiness of grammatical construction, in its paucity of inflection, in its
almost total disregard of the distinctions of gender excepting those of nature,
in the simplicity and precision of its terminations and auxiliary verbs, not less
than the majesty, vigour and copiousness of its expression, our mother tongue
seems well adapted by organization to become the language of the world.
(a reviewer of the British periodical The Athenaeum, 1848)
1
Beyond doubt, this prophecy proves to be true, as English, in fact, has become the global
language in these days.
So, what makes a global language? Is it simple grammatical structure? Certainly not.
According to David Crystal, ‘the world authority on English language’, the fact that
English is the global language has little to do with structure or its number of speakers, but
“It is much more to do with who those speakers are. Latin became an international language
throughout the Roman Empire, but this was not because the Romans were more numerous than the
people subjugated. They were simply more powerful. And later, when Roman military power
declined, Latin remained for a millennium as the international language of education, thanks to a
different sort of power – the ecclesiastical power of the Roman Catholicism.
There is the closest link between language dominance and cultural power, and this relationship will
become increasingly clear as the history of English is told […]. Without a string power-base,
whether political, military or economic, no language can make progress as an international medium
of communication. Language has no independent existence, living in some sort of mystical space
apart from the people who speak it. Language exists only in the brains and mouths […] of its users.
When they succeed, their language succeeds. When they fail, their language fails.”2
In other words, the fact that English, nowadays, has become the global language is mainly
due to the dominance of the English speaking world throughout recent history. Starting to
spread in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution from Great Britain to rest of the world,
the English language, or more accurately its influence, first appeared around 1750 in other
European countries. The interest in England, then, was not only due to economic reasons,
but also (mainly) to socio-cultural reasons, with other nations just favouring English style,
opinions, fashions and games.
1
2
Crystal, English as a global language, p. 6
8
Soon, the English language set out on a new triumphant progress, now, originating in the
United States – since, by the end of the 19th century, America had overtaken Britain in its
economic power.
With the invention of the steamship and the railway in the early 19th century and the spread
of communication systems (telegraph and telephone) in the latter half of the century,
people started to get in contact with each other – even over a long distance. The urge for a
common means of communication for the first time became apparent – and it was only
natural to give English this status.
Likewise, in the 20th century, the English language continued to hold a prominent position
in the field of communication, and, in course of time, due to the ever increasing power of
the US and new technologies, “the language has penetrated deeply into the international
domains of political life, business, safety […], entertainment, the media and education. The
convenience of having a lingua franca available to serve global human relations and needs
has come to be appreciated by millions. Several domains […] have come to be totally
dependent on it – the computer software industry being the prime example.”3
To have a lingua franca, thus, provides mankind with the possibility of interacting on the
international level – and this is why it is primarily English that is taught as a second
language in various nations4.
In recent time, however, it is not the English language in its complexity as a language
system getting the upper hand in global communication / education that gives rise to
ongoing discussions, it is primarily the English language as a source language to
widespread linguistic borrowings that causes linguistic uproar. Yet, linguistic borrowing
from foreign languages is but one phenomenon of how the lexicon of a language develops
(as will be dealt with later on).
3
David Crystal states in English as a global language that, world-wide, a total of 337 million represent
those who have learned English as a first language compared to 235 million who have learned English as a
second language.
4
9
1.1. The influence of the English language on other languages
Linguistic borrowing is, perhaps, the most obvious result of language contact. Due to
nowadays’ permanent exposure to English, it is only natural that languages will adopt
some expressions.
Daniel K. Sokol5 gives the reasons:
• “Lexical borrowing is today the result of the international socio-economic exchange. Science,
sport and technology, the media and so many other activities to which men are devoted to, are
the determining factors of lexical borrowing.”
• “Many linguists […] believe in the self-explanatory ‘law of least effort’ which, in this case,
would claim that […] speakers favor anglicisms because the words are concise, take little time
to pronounce and are consequently better adapted to today’s hectic lifestyle.”
• “Borrowings occur through an impossibility to find an equivalent in one’s language […]”.
• “We use them, too, even when the analogies exist, for team or group spirit and to indicate its
special and technical character, particularly to the group, which, in our minds, we would lose by
using a word from everyday language […]”
• “One uses them out of snobbery […] and one uses them out of laziness. English today is more
fashionable than ever […], especially among the young, and this has resulted in a great
proliferation of English words.”
• “One of the main ways English words are adopted by the public is by the press. […] the
language of journalists and advertising agents is indeed strongly marked by anglicisms […] they
simply introduce the English word as it is, either for a touch of ‘couleur local’ or simply
because they like neologisms, wish to be up-to-date and couldn’t care less about the norm.”
• “English’s prominence on the Internet (95% of the Internet pages are in English) will no doubt
cause a sharp increase in borrowed words.”
• “Television is undoubtedly the most effective language proliferator. […] The link between
English and trendiness/modernity can be traced, amongst other things, to the very high number
of English and American films and soaps on the screens. […] Television’s direct and indirect
effects can also be applied to radio and pop music.”
With regards to purist tendencies, it is interesting to note that, although English has
become the most generous donor of words to other languages, the English language once
5
Sokol, Lingua non grata, http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/August2000/art242000.htm
10
was one of the most hospitable languages of the world as to its acceptance of foreign
loans.6
1.1.1. The English influence on French, German and Italian
For the purpose of this paper, I will try to analyse the influence of the English language on
modern French, German and Italian. I will, however refrain from drawing up statistical
studies on the occurrence of English words in native press, as this field has been
comprehensively covered7.
What I want to do is to go even further – I will not take into consideration ephemeral
words or ‘trendy’ ad-hoc formations in the media, but I will base my analysis on dictionary
entries, meaning, on words that have been judged worth being mentioned in a general
monolingual dictionary8: A foreign word having found its way into a (native) general
reference book, in my consideration, is the best proof of evidence for lexical influence, if
not to say lexical integration.
1.1.1.1. Langue versus parole
In this paper, I am, thus, not dealing with Saussure’s parole (the concrete utterances of a
speaker as to sociolinguistic backgrounds, pragmatics, stylistics, etc.), but I will
demonstrate how the English language influences modern French, German and Italian on
the langue level, namely concerning the language system itself – that is to say that this
paper, for the most part, will not include actual language usage, but will be based on
findings following lexicographical principles.
6
cf. Filipovic, English as a word donor, http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html
see: Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen; Viereck K., Influence of English on Austrian
German; Supanz, Anglizismen in der italienischen Presse; Fink, Von "Kuh-Look" bis "Fit for Fun"
8
For the purpose of this paper I will refer to Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch for the German
speaking world, to Le Nouveau Petit Robert for the French speaking world and Lo Zingarelli for the Italian
speaking world.
7
11
“Wörterbücher werden nicht gemacht, um jeweilige Ausschnitte der Sprachwirklichkeit zu
erfassen, sondern vielmehr dazu, dass sie dann, wenn sie benutzt werden, hilfreich dazu
beitragen können, den jeweiligen Sprachwirklichkeitszustand eines Benutzers-in-actu
anhand einer Suchanfrage in einen anderen zu überführen. [...] Das Gesamt der
lexikographischen Methoden ist geradezu daraufhin angelegt, die Sprachwirklichkeit nicht
ins Wörterbuch zu lassen, sondern ein sortiertes und portioniertes Wissen über Sprachen
und deren Gebrauch zu präsentieren, ein Datenangebot, das den erfolgreichen Benutzer in
die Lage versetzt, die Möglichkeit seines Verstehens und Sprechens zu verbessern und
damit die von ihm erlebte Sprachwirklichkeit punktuell zu verändern.“9
1.2. Procedure
First of all, I will deal with the corpus of this study and will give a brief introduction to the
principles of lexicography along with the presentation of my reference material (Chapter 2
– The Corpus).
Subsequently, I will try to untangle confusion as to loan terminology, comparing different
approaches to linguistic borrowing and by providing a new model of my own (Chapter 3 –
Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing).
Chapter 4 – English Internationalisms is dedicated to the primary object of this paper.
Within this section I will compare my corpus lists as to equivalent word forms in French,
German and Italian.
Judging from my findings, English Internationalisms have to be divided into genuine
English Internationalisms and assimilated forms of Internationalisms. I will, thus, deal with
these two forms separately.
The first subsection on English Internationalisms deals, first of all, with varying spelling
and pronunciation. Secondly, I will demonstrate how genuine English Internationalisms
take on grammatical gender in the three replica languages in question. Subsequently, I will
point out major differences at the semantic level and go into some detail as to the use of
English words on the stylistic level.
9
Wiegand, Fremdwörterbücher und Sprachwirklichkeit, p. 73
12
Assimilated Internationalisms, on the other hand, will be dealt with as to their linguistic
level of integration: sound-symbol realisation and morphology.
The last chapter of this thesis, Chapter 5 – Attitudes towards English influence and the use
of Anglicisms, quite in contrast to my remarks in 1.1.1.1. (langue versus parole), will be
primarily based on parole studies.
I sent questionnaires to speakers10 of French, German and Italian covering the following
questions:
1. When do non-native speakers of English in the examined language communities most
probably use English words
a. orally / in writing?
b. in working life / in everyday life ?
2. Why do people in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds use Anglicisms?
3. Are people aware of using so-called loan blends, hybrid forms with one English element and
one of the native language?
4. What are the speakers’ attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms with respect to their mother
tongue? Where do they think the influence comes from? Do they still notice English words
in actual language usage? Are there cases of a provocative use of Anglicisms to be observed?
5. Where do people most frequently notice the use of English words?
As a second step within this chapter I will demonstrate corrective efforts being made
against the English influence and discuss projects that are now in progress against
Anglicisms.
1.3. The fundamental definition
Essential to this thesis (and to any other thesis on Anglicisms) is, undoubtedly, the
definition of the expression ‘Anglicism’. For the purpose of this paper I will define
Anglicisms, according to Michel Piccone, as: “any borrowing from English that
constitutes a new word”11. Hence, in this paper, I will not differentiate between
Americanisms and Briticisms.
10
This summer (2001), I decided to subscribe to French, German and Italian news groups in the Internet in
order to get some e-mail addresses to which I sent my questionnaires translated into the respective languages.
11
Piccone, Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French, p. 3
13
2. THE CORPUS
As already mentioned in the introductory notes, my analysis of the English influence on
the French, German and Italian speaking worlds will be primarily based on the prevailing
general monolingual dictionaries of French, German and Italian: Le Nouveau Petit Robert,
Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch and lo Zingarelli.
Within this section I will, therefore, start with a brief overview of the principles of
lexicography. As a second step, I will present each of the general dictionaries in detail.
Subsequently, I will give some information concerning special dictionaries of foreign
words. Concluding this chapter, I will demonstrate my procedure in finding the lists of
words that, then, act as the corpus for this thesis.
2.1. An Introduction to lexicography
“Lexicography is often defined as ‘compiling dictionaries’, which first and foremost lays stress on
the product, i.e. dictionaries. However, it is perfectly possible to work on lexicography without
actually writing dictionaries […]. It would therefore be more correct to define lexicography in the
following way: Lexicography is a branch of applied linguistics which consists in observing,
collecting, selecting, and describing units from the stock of words and word combinations in one or
more languages. In cases where two or more languages are involved simultaneously, the
description takes on the nature of a comparison between the vocabularies of the languages in
question.”12
It is the last two sentences of this quotation that exactly describe the primary object of this
paper. In the following chapters I will analyse and compare special ‘units of the stock of
words’ in the French, German and Italian language, namely the units being labelled as
Anglicisms (what exactly the term Anglicism stands for will be discussed in the
subsequent chapter on terminology). The basis for my study will be the linguistic units
provided by a French, a German and an Italian monolingual dictionary.
How are these linguistic units presented in a (monolingual) dictionary?
12
Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 1
14
• As to Svensén13, a dictionary, firstly, describes the formal characteristics of a word
(how the word is spelt, how it is pronounced, how it is inflected and how this word
forms derivatives or compounds).
• Secondly, dictionaries present the semantic characteristics of words (what a word
means).
• Thirdly, the combinational characteristics of a word are demonstrated (how the word
combines with other words, how this word is to be employed in a text).
• In addition to these linguistic statements, dictionaries also provide information on
pragmatics and stylistics.
These four levels of a word’s description found in a dictionary (format, meaning,
construction patterns and style) are called the ‘microstructure’ of a dictionary. The
microstructure, thus, represents the format each single entry in a dictionary reveals.
However, it does not only concern the four parts an entry consists of, but also involves
typographical (type-size and type-face) conventions throughout the whole dictionary, as
well the use of abbreviations, punctuation and symbols. I will deal with microstructure in
more detail when presenting the dictionaries I consulted for this paper.
With the microstructure to be referred to as the structure and format of each entry, the
macrostructure of a dictionary means “the relative arrangement of the dictionary entries”14.
Macrostructure, thus, comprises questions such as methods of arranging the words.
For the most part, dictionary entries are arranged by their spelling and in alphabetical
order. Svensén refers this type of dictionary as a dictionary in semasiological format – in
contrast to onomasiological formats (words with shared semantic features are grouped
together, e.g. Thesauri) and syntagmatic dictionaries, where the focus lies on the
combinational aspects of the words (e.g. valency dictionaries)15.
13
Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 3 – 4
15
cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 17
14
15
The alphabetical arrangement of words can either be word-by-word or letter-by-letter, as
Svensén demonstrates with the following example16:
word-by-word
letter-by-letter
pass
pass away
pass for
pass off
pass out
pass up
passage
passenger
passion
passive
passport
password
pass
passage
pass away
passenger
pass for
passion
passive
pass off
pass out
passport
pass up
password
Other matters the macrostructure of a dictionary deals with are whether one entry
constitutes one paragraph or whether there is more than one entry per paragraph. The
below example17 shows (1) a one-entry-per-paragraph-arrangement and (2) an arrangement
that puts more than one entry in a paragraph:
(1)
Zwischengericht n entrée [course]
Zwischengeschoß n mezzanine [floor]
Zwischengröße f intermediate size
Zwischenhandel m intermediate trade
(2)
Zwischengericht n entrée [course] Zwischengeschoß n mezzanine [floor] Zwischengröße f intermediate size Zwischenhandel m intermediate trade
Before turning to the question of what the criteria are for a word to find its way into a
dictionary, let me just quote Svensén on the fact that lexicographers ‘have a really hard
job’:
16
17
taken from Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 224
16
“It is not only the information needs of different categories of user that are of importance. An
equally important factor is their ability to find and make use of the information given. Here the
lexicographer is forced into a difficult balancing act. On the one hand, the dictionary must contain
as much information as possible without becoming unnecessarily bulky; on the other hand, this
information must not be so compressed that the intended user will not be able to utilize it. […] He
has to find the right entry word […]. […] When the right entry word is found, the user also has to
find the right section within the entry, and within that section the material is grouped in a certain
order and presented according to certain conventions […]. In order to help users with this, more or
less detailed ‘instructions for use’ are given at the beginning of a dictionary, where these
conventions are more or less clearly explained. Hartmann […] observed the discouraging fact that
introductory explanations are very seldom consulted and that users rarely take the trouble to learn
the various codes, symbols, and abbreviations used in dictionaries […]”18
2.1.1. How a word finds its way into a dictionary
Before the actual process of collection and selection of material, a number of decisions as
regards the size and aim of the dictionary must be taken. Furthermore, a dictionary must be
authentic, meaning it must include only such linguistic signs that actually exist. In order to
prove this, the lexicographers have to find evidence for the words in several sources,
written and spoken. In addition, the editors of a dictionary have to prove the
representativeness of a word, that is to say the word must occur often enough, with a
certain frequency, in a language19.
It is for these reasons that you do not find ephemeral words or ad-hoc formations in a
dictionary. Both are phenomena that I would claim as typical for today’s hectic life: one
might feel ‘up-to-date’ when using fashionable words (that will ‘pass away’ only after a
few months to be replaced by another fashionable expression) or one creates a new word
only for a moment, a particular situation, out of laziness and not wanting to search for a
more appropriate word.
Generally speaking, big publishing houses, such as Dictionnaires Le Robert,
Dudenredaktion, Klett, Langenscheidt, Larousse, Centro Lessicografico Sansoni,
Zanichelli, etc., each have their own linguistic index cards providing information about the
sources where the words have been found, in which context, number of occurrences, etc.
And it was in the 1980s that “computer applications began to a alter the methods and
18
19
cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 40 – 42
17
potential of lexicography”20. Gone are now the days of manual sorting and transcribing,
with vast lexical databases (continuously updated)21 that also provide special search modes
enabling users to ask special questions, such as ‘show all words with English etymology’.
2.2. Presentation of the dictionaries
Dictionaries come in all shapes (printed in book format, electronic on CD-ROM, etc.) and
sizes (from pocket dictionaries with about 10,000 entries to special dictionaries for
advanced linguistic studies that cover more than 60,000 entries), they can be monolingual
or bilingual, arranged in a semasiological, onomasiological or syntagmatic format (see
definitions above) and dictionaries can be general or restricted (specialised dictionaries of
dialects, slang, neologisms, professional jargon, foreign words, etc.)
Thus, the requirements the dictionaries I use for this thesis have to meet are:
• general
• monolingual
• hugest possible coverage (more than 60,000 entries)
• electronic version (for easy to access searching in many ways)
• latest version
The basis of analysis for this paper will be the following prevailing general monolingual
dictionaries:
In the French speaking world:
• Le Nouveau Petit Robert (in the following LNPR), © 1996 – 1997 Dictionnaires Le Robert,
Paris. Version électronique du Nouveau Petit Robert. Réalisation informatique par le bureau
VAN DIJK
- 60,000 entries
- 300,000 meanings
20
Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 111
The hugest and most interesting to use lexical database (in German) I found in the internet is COSMAS at
http://corpora.ids-mannheim.de/~cosmas/
21
18
In the German speaking world:
• DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch (DDUWB), © 2001 Bibliographisches Institut F.A.
Brockhaus AG, Mannheim. DUDEN auf CD-ROM, PC-Bibliothek Express
- 140,000 entries
In the Italian speaking world:
• lo Zingarelli 1998 in CD-ROM (LOZ), © Zanichelli editore S.p.A. – Bologna. © I.CO.GE:
Informatica S.r.l. - Trento
- 134,000 entries
My English reference is:
• The Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD), 9th Edition. CD-ROM version of Oxford’s best selling
dictionary, © Oxford University Press 1997 – 99, © Software: TEXTware A/S. Licensed to the
Focus Multimedia Limited
I also consulted these special dictionaries of foreign words (see Chapter 4: English
Internationalisms):
• De Mauro, Tullio / Mancini, Marco : Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua
italiana. Milano: Garzanti Linguistica, divisione di Utnet S.p.A. 2001 (PS)
• Pogarell, Reiner / Schröder, Markus [ed.]: Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen. 2.,
erweiterte Auflage, Paderborn: IFB-Verlag 2000 (WBÜA)
• Tournier, Jean: Les mots anglais du franíais. Paris : Éditions Belin 1998 (LMADF)
2.2.1. The Concise Oxford Dictionary
The COD is a semasiological general monolingual dictionary that organises its entries in
alphabetical order, by means of the letter-by-letter principle:
19
new
New Age
New Age music
new arrival
new birth
new born
new broom
Newcastle disease
newcomer
new deal
newel
Newfoundland
In addition, the COD mentions only one entry per paragraph.
new /nju:/ adj. & adv.
adj.
1 a of recent origin or arrival. b made, invented,
discovered, acquired, or experienced recently or
now for the first time (a new star; has many new
ideas).
2 in original condition; not worn or used.
3 a renewed or reformed (a new life; the new
order). b reinvigorated (felt like a new person).
4 different from a recent previous one (has a new
job).
5 in addition to others already existing (have you
been to the new supermarket?).
6 (often foll. by to) unfamiliar or strange (a new
sensation; the idea was new to me).
7 (often foll. by at) (of a person) inexperienced,
unaccustomed (to doing something) (am new at
this business).
8 (usu. prec. by the) often derog. a later, modern
(the new morality). b newfangled. c recently
affected by social change (the new rich).
9 (often prec. by the) advanced in method or
theory (the new formula).
10 (in place names) discovered or founded later
than and named after (New York; New Zealand).
adv. (usu. in comb.)
1 newly, recently (new-found; new-baked).
2 anew, afresh.
a new one (often foll. by on) colloq. an account
or idea not previously encountered (by a person).
newish adj.
newness n.
[Old English niwe, from Germanic]
There are, however, derivatives that are mentioned in the same paragraph (newish,
newness) and that would break the letter-by-letter order – as these two words do not have a
special headword entry.
20
The COD’s electronic version reveals the following microstructure:
When you first load the dictionary you are presented with the main window. This is
divided into two main areas. On the right is the entry window: this is where the dictionary's
entries are displayed. On the left is the word wheel: all the headwords in the dictionary are
listed here22 (double-click on the word you want to have displayed). Above the word wheel
is an input box. This is where you type the words you want to look up.23
Headwords, in COD, are typed in bold, each meaning of these is given a separate
subsection (each subsection headed by an Arabic number).
Attached to the headwords, the COD provides their pronunciation (according to the IPA
alphabet – with RP accent) and information on word class (in italics)24.
22
Note that the entry window on this picture does not display all COD’s entries, but only entries that show
the word performance.
23
based on the HELP options found in COD
24
Plural marking is only explicitly mentioned when irregular.
21
The paraphrasing and definition section in the entries shows the following typographical
principles:
• Information on combinational principles are presented in round brackets and in italics:
(attrib.) or with the word to be combined in italics: (usu.foll. by of). They precede the
definitions and paraphrases (in contrast to examples given – that follow the definitions).
• Information as to the level of style is typed in italics: colloq.
• Information on subject fields are shown in round bracket and normal type-face: (of a
duty etc.)
• Examples are usually put in round brackets and typed in italics: (made such a
performance about leaving).
Following the definitions section the COD usually gives evidence of the words’
etymology: new … [Old English niwe, from Germanic]
Interesting with the COD is that you can double-click every single word in the entry text to
get its definition as a headword (this function more or less replaces cross-reference in a
book-shaped dictionary).
2.2.2. Le Nouveau Petit Robert
The Nouveau Petit Robert fulfils all of my above requirements – even if I only have the
1997 version, it is the latest electronic one to have been published (see appendix A).
As on the level of macrostructure, the entries in LNPR are arranged in alphabetical order.
They are organised by the letter-by-letter principle as can be seen below:
névrotique
new-look
newsmagazine
newton
newtonien, ienne
nez
ni
22
LNPR principally mentions one entry per paragraph, only disrupting this method by crossreferences (which are highlighted, but do not attract more attention than do the
headwords):
after-shave [aftZYGDv] n. m. inv.
• 1959; mot angl. ♦ Anglic. Produit que les
hommes appliquent sur leur visage après
s'être rasés. ⇒ après-rasage. Flacon d'aftershave. Des after-shave. —Adj. inv. Lotion
after-shave.
In the following I will outline the microstructure of the LNPR’s electronic version.
The right hand window shows all the headwords listed in LNPR (alphabetical, letter-byletter), with the left hand window to display the entries. Above the list of headwords is an
input box to type in words for a simple search modus.
23
The headwords in LNPR are presented in bold, presented in a serif typeface. They are
followed by the pronunciation (IPA symbols)25 and the information on parts of speech in
sans-serif typeface.
Before displaying the (different) meaning(s) of a word, LNPR provides information on the
word’s etymology, preceded by the • symbol (in contrast to the COD it also states the date
the word has entered the French lexicon and – in brackets – the date the word first
appeared in the host language)
If an expression has a general style or subject field label, this is shown by ♦ going before
the definition section26. The semantic subsections are each preceded by an Arabic number
and ♦. Next are placed subject field, register and style labels (typed in sans-serif).
Following the definitions and paraphrases, (synonymic) cross references are indicated by
⇒, with the (underlined) word in bold. Subsequently, examples of how to use the word are
typed in italics (usually, these examples also include information on plural marking).
LNPR on CD-ROM also provides the possibility to just double-click a word in an entry
text to get its meaning.
2.2.3. Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch
Actually, before choosing Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch as my German
reference, I wanted to use Duden – Die neue deutsche Rechtschreibung. However, my
findings in consulting the dictionary were not all satisfactory (see appendix A).
The DDUWB acts as one of the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries (along with
the above stated Duden – Die neue deutsche Rechtschreibung). It is layouted in
semasiological format and alphabetises its entries letter-by-letter:
25
26
following the rules of British English pronunciation
It is interesting to note that LNPR gives 776 out of 60,000 entries the ‘Anglicism’ label.
24
Newcomer
New Delhi
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Look
New Mexico
New Orleans
New-Orleans-Jazz
News
Newsgroup
Newsletter
Newton
Again, DDUWB also states one entry per paragraph, just giving evidence of derivatives or
compound forms within the entry:
Af|ter|shave ['—:¶¥ŸÉ•©∂], das; -[s], -s, Af|terShave-Lo|tion, (auch:) Af|ter|shave|lo|tion
['—:¶¥ŸÉ•Í∂'¨ØäÉŸÆ], die; -, -s [engl. after shave =
nach der Rasur]: nach der Rasur zu
verwendendes Gesichtswasser.
The DDUWB’s electronic version looks like this:
25
Corresponding to COD and LNPR, the electronic version of the Duden –Deutsches
Universalwörterbuch also presents two windows – the window listing the entries on the left
side (here again the window does not show all entries, but the ones that are labelled as
having English etymologies) and the window displaying the actual entry on the right side.
Above these two windows you see the input field for words you want to have looked up.
On the level of microstructure, the DDUWB reveals the following organisation:
Headwords are typed in bold and attached is their spelling in IPA format27 (the vast
majority is British English based) and information on word class. However, the actual
naming of part of speech does not follow common rules of lexicography, i.e. just
classifying the words under n (noun), v (verb), adj (adjective) , adv (adverb), interj
(interjection), etc.
The DDUWB only explicitly classifies words that are not nouns as to their corresponding
part of speech with < > :
se|xy ['∫¤´≥©, auch: '≥¤´≥©] <Adj.> [engl. sexy,
zu: sex, Sex] (ugs.): sexuell attraktiv od. zu einer
entsprechenden Wirkung verhelfend: s. Wäsche;
sie, er ist, wirkt s.; ich finde sie, ihn s.
lif|ten <sw.ÿV28.; hat> [zu engl. to lift, 1Lift]: 1.
a) (Med.) durch 2Lift heben, straffen: die
Gesichtshaut, den Busen l.; b) (ugs.) jmdn. einem
2
Lift unterziehen: sich l. lassen. 2. a) (bes.
Technik) in die Höhe heben, wuchten: die
Behälter ans Tageslicht l.; b) (Jargon) anheben,
erhöhen: die Preise l.
hipp, hipp, hur|ra! <Interj.> [zu engl. hip,
gebraucht zur Einleitung von Hochrufen u.
Trinksprüchen, H. u., u. hurra]: Ruf, mit dem
man jmdn., etw. feiert, jmdn. hochleben lässt.
Nouns are treated as to their attributed grammatical gender and case, giving their
nominative singular definite article, followed by the inflexion of the genitive case and the
plural marking.
27
28
This exclusively applies for difficult-to-pronounce-words.
sw. V. meaning ’schwaches Verb’, inflecting along the stem + -ete / (haben) ge + stem + –et) pattern
26
Particular to the DDUWB are the hints provided for word division, represented by the
symbol | in the headword.
Information on etymology is shown in square brackets using the terminology of
Carstensen/Busse (to English … , from English …, etc.) – which I will deal with in more
detail in the next chapter concerning loan terminology.
Definitions in DDUWB are typed in italics, with examples of use attached in normal typeface.
Style level, subject field and register labels are put into round brackets:
Bro|ker ['¢≤Øä´Ÿ], der; -s, - [engl. broker,
eigtl.ÿ= Weinhändler < anglofranzösisch.
brocour, H.ÿu.] (Börsenw.): Effektenhändler.
ea|sy ['i:zi] <Adv.> [engl.] (ugs.) leicht, locker:
alles e., Leute! (es gibt keine Probleme, keinen
Grund zur Aufregung).
The electronic version of DDUWB also has the function to just double-click any word to
display its meaning (as have COD and LNPR)
2.2.4. lo Zingarelli
Lo Zingarelli, quite in contrast to the other dictionaries of my reference, although also
semasiologically formatted and alphabetically arranged, uses the word-by-word
principle29:
new
new age
new deal
new entry
New Jersey
new look
29
The word-by-word principle works on the electronic version. What the printed version looks like I cannot
tell, but I assume both versions to be equivalent.
27
new wave
news
newsletter
newsmagazine
newton
newtoniano
newyorkese
As to the distribution of entries per paragraph, LOZ also makes use of the one-entry-perparagraph-method – with derivatives to interrupt this pattern:
pesca (1) o
(lett., dial.) persica
[lat. persica, nt. pl. di persicum ‘pesca’, propr. ‘(frutto)
della Persia’, da Persia ‘Persia’]
A s. f.
1 Frutto del pesco | Pesca noce, V. nocepesca |
Pesca (alla) Melba, pesca sciroppata servita su un
gelato alla vaniglia, con guarnizione di salsa di
lamponi, panna montata e pezzetti di mandorle
(dal n. della soprano australiana N. Melba (18611931) cui il grande cuoco A. Escoffier (18471935) la dedicò) | Volere la pesca monda, (fig.)
volere i frutti di q.c. senza faticare per ottenerli.
2 (tosc.) Lividura di percosse | Percossa che
lascia il segno.
3 (fig., fam.) Occhiaia, borsa sotto gli occhi: la
ragazza così gracile, così pallidina, con quelle
pesche sotto gli occhi (VERGA).
B in funzione di agg. inv.
· (posposto al s.) Che ha il colore del frutto
omonimo | Rosa pesca, rosa lievemente
aranciato.
|| peschetta, dim. | peschina, dim. | pescuccia,
dim.
The COD’s electronic version’s microstructure shows headwords in sans-serif typeface –
which is unusual compared to the other dictionaries I refer to.
Attached to the headword is, along lexicographical principles, the pronunciation. As to
words borrowed from another language, lo Zingarelli not only presents the (assimilated)
Italian pronunciation of a loan/foreign word, but also states the original pronunciation. In
the case of English being the host language of linguistic borrowing it is only the Zingarelli
which exclusively shows American English (AE) pronunciation:
28
charter
pole position
scanner
AE (in LOZ)
AE (in LOZ)
AE (in LOZ)
/»tÉh—:¢tŸ¢/
/ phoäJpŸÃzÍÉn/
/»skënŸ¢/
British English (BE) (in COD) /»tÉ—:tŸ/
BE (in COD) /»pŸälÃpŸ»zÍÉ(Ÿ)n/
BE (in COD) /»skanŸ/
The microstructure of the electronic version of LOZ reveals the following:
Contrary to my other reference dictionaries, the LOZ does not state part of speech
information right after the headword / its pronunciation, but only classifies the headwords
as belonging to a word class after the etymological information. The part of speech
marking, in LOZ, also includes the marking of plural inflexion.
Subsequently, the meanings(s) of the word are given (organised by Arabic numbers).
Within the entries, subject field, style and register labelling is presented in italics put into
round brackets: (est.), (ling.)
Examples of the use of the headwords are given in italic typeface after the definition.
29
2.2.5. Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana (PS)
This specialised dictionary of foreign words not only mentions English words in the Italian
lexicon but also words of Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Hindi, Persian,
Polish, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish origin (just to mention a few examples).
PS is semasiologically formatted and arranged alphabetically, following the letter-by-letter
principle. To have access to foreign words organised as to their host language, the PS
provides source language indices in its back matter (technical term used in Svénsen30).
Notes from the editor say that 4,320 entry words are of English origin (compared to a full
coverage of 10,650 headwords), which would give a total of 41%.31
Concerning the microstructure of PS, headwords are typed in bold, followed by their IPA
spelling in its assimilated Italian form and their syllable division.
Etymology is presented in square brackets – providing the original English pronunciation,
the ways of derivation and the date of first occurrence in Italian.
Meaning(s) are subdivided by Arabic numbers, followed by examples in italics.
management /ma»nadíment/ (ma-na-gement) s.m.inv. TS ammin.az. [1973; ingl.
management
/»mënÍdímŸnt/
pl.
managements, der. di (to) manage ‘dirigere,
amminstrare] 1 l’insieme delle attività
relative alla direzione e alla gestione di
un’azienda o di un’organizzazione pubblica
o privata 2 CO estens., l l’insieme dei
dirigenti dell’azienda stessa: decisioni prese
dal. m.
30
TS and CO label subject fields:
tecnico-specialisto and comune
ammin.az represents a further
register division:
amministrazione aziendale
estens. marks semantic
extension
cf. Svénsen, Practical Lexicography, p. 234
Compare this figure to words of French origin (1669 entry words = 16%) and words with German origin
(328 headwords = 3.1%).
31
30
2.2.6. Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen (WBÜA)
The Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen is freely available in the Internet32 and provides
an excellent reference corpus – as an alphabetical list of English-German equivalents.
However, it lacks any kind of lexicographical microstructure.
The WBÜA lists about 3,500 Anglicisms that are (as subjectively judged by the editors)
superfluous as to the German vocabulary.
Although lacking microstructure (with the exception of: notes from the editors in italics),
the WBÜA does have a macrostructure (semasiological and letter-by-letter arranged). It is,
however, although claimed to be a German monolingual reference, primarily layouted as a
bilingual dictionary, providing equivalents to the headwords:
listing
lite
little
live1
live2
load
lob
Auflistung
AE für → light
klein, kurz, wenig
leben, wohnen
zeitgleich, direkt, unmittelbar,
vor Ort, persönlich, vor allen in
Medien, auch in :
live-act
Auftritt
Livesendung Direktübertragung Denglisch
laden, Beladung
Überkopfball
Ulrich Busse, one of the authors of the German reference on Anglicisms33 (Carstensen,
Broder / Busse, Ulrich: Anglizismen-Wörterbuch – Der Einfluß des Englischen auf den
deutschen Wortschatz nach 1945. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 1993), remarks on the
WBÜA34:
“Die Herausgeber geben an, den Kern der Anglizismen im Deutschen erfasst zu haben, indem sie
Wörter aus allen gesellschaftlichen Bereichen gesammelt haben, mit denen ein normaler Mensch in
Berührung kommen kann.’ […] Eine kleine Stichwortauswahl illustriert allerdings, dass die
32
It can be downloaded at http:///www.vds-ev.de (the sites of ‘Verein Deutsche Sprache’).
There is another dictionary on Anglicisms now in print that, according to Busse, seems to have high
potential: Görlach, Manfred: UDASEL – A Usage Dictionary of English in Selected European Languages.
Oxford.
34
I found this article only after consulting WBÜA for my thesis (chapter 4).
33
31
Auswahl an Anglizismen […] äußerst heterogen und zuweilen wahllos erscheint. [...] In ihrer
Frequenz, in ihrem diachronen wie synchronen Fremdheitsgrad und in ihrer Zugehörigkeit zur
Gemeinsprache bzw. Fachsprachen und in einigen Fällen der Zugehörigkeit des deutschen
Sprachsystems überhaupt, sind diese Anglizismen völlig unterschiedlich zu bewerten. Eine
Dokumentation im Sinne von Belegung findet nicht statt. Jegliche Art von lexikographischer
Mikrostruktur fehlt diesem Glossar völlig, und Kriterien, an denen die vermeintliche
Überflüssigkeit gemessen werden kann, fehlen ebenso; sie existieren wohl nur in den Köpfen der
Herausgeber.“35
2.2.7. Les mots anglais du franíais (LMADF)
LMADF is a special dictionary on foreign words in, primarily, onomasiological format: it
groups words together that belong to the same semantic field:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
sports and leisure
science
social
legal, political, economic
technical
arts
everyday life
miscellaneous
The index in the back matter of the dictionary, however, displays all the headwords in
alphabetical (letter-by-letter) order.
As far as the microstructure of LMADF is concerned, it is layouted along the following
principles.
The headwords are typed in bold, with the IPA pronunciation attached, followed by an
‘assimilated’ syllable-spelling pronunciation in round brackets. Furthermore, information
on parts of speech is provided, as well as information on plural marking and etymology
(citing dates of first occurrence).
LMADF (as do French language dictionaries in general) not only gives native equivalents
or synonyms, it also provides ‘recommendations officiels’ proposed by Committees
35
Busse, Typen von Anglizismen, p. 145 - 146
32
engaged in language purism36. I will deal with these committees as a phenomenon in the
French speaking world later on.
after-shave [aftóÄÉ¤v] (af-teur-chèv), adj.
et n. m. invar. 1959. Se dit d’une lotion à
utiliser sur le visage, après rasage. Litt.
« après-rasage ». De after « après » et shave
, v. et n. « (se) raser, rasage ». Emp. intégré,
d’usage commercial et un peu snob, en
concurrence avec lotion après-rasage, n. f.,
ce dernier préférable.
lay-out [l¤awt] (lè-aoutt), n. m., pl. invar.
ou en –s, 1971. Étude préliminaire, projet,
plan, maquette. De lay out « étaler devant
soi, disposer, préparer ». Emp. Snob et
inutile. Voir équivalents dans la définition.
broker [br‘kór] (bro-keur), n. m. dat.?
Agent chargé des transactions sur les valeurs
mobilières dans les Bourses des pays
anglophones. Litt. « courtier », Emp.
Culturel peu utile. Le J.O. (11.10.91)
recomm. courtier, n. m.
Date of first citation in French
Literal translation (Litt.)
French equivalent (in italics)
French syllable-spelling pronunciation
(in round brackets)
Information on style and pragmatics
(with Emp. = loan word)
Official recommendation published in
a J.O. (Journal officiel)
2.3. Assembling the corpus data
For the purpose of this paper, I intended to ‘create’ lists of words of each of the general
monolingual dictionaries containing words that are marked with English etymology.
2.3.1. Search criteria
In this context, LNPR and LOZ are the only electronic dictionaries to give access to this
search modus. DDUWB’s search engine can just be consulted for either headword entries
or search in complete text (meaning entry text). It is for this reason that I had to consult all
of the electronic dictionaries in question for the occurrence of ‘English’ in complete text.
36
LNPR states 196 of those ‘recommendations officiels’, e.g. arrière-plan for background, liste de
vérification for check-list, publipostage for mailing, individuel for single, navire-citerne for tanker, etc.
33
My search criteria – according to the abbreviations used in the dictionaries –, thus, were:
•
LNPR: “angl” OR “amér” OR “anglic” in complete text = 2771 (4.6% of the total)
•
DDUWB: “engl” OR “amerik” in complete text = 3167 (2.3%)
34
•
LOZ: “ingl” OR “amer” in complete text = 3126 (2.3%)
2.3.2. Problems with the Results
As my formulation of search criteria also lets headwords be listed that merely have the
term ‘English’ (in whatever form or language) be inherent in their entry text, the resulting
lists (see appendix B) are by no means representative as to ‘English words in French,
German and Italian); e.g. also listed are hybrid forms (words consisting of one English
element and one native element) as well as English proper names37.
The DDUWB takes this problem even further, with only marking so-called ‘base’ words,
with, occasionally, their derivatives and compounds left without a label:
37
At this point I made use of the Microsoft © Word 1997 GB spell check and found out that LNPR contains
1316 English spelled headwords = 2.2% (of the total number of entries), DDUWB contains 1809 English
headwords = 1.3% and LOZ contains 1803 English headwords = 1.3% (see appendix C).
35
Marked ‘English’ in DDUWB
Trainer
trainieren
Training
Not marked ‘English’ in DDUWB
Training on the Job
Trainingsanzug
Trainingsdress
Trainingseinheit
Trainingshose
Trainingsjacke
Trainingslager
Trainingsmöglichkeit
Trainingsprogramm
Trainingsschuh
Trainingszeit
Nonetheless, in the following, the lists mentioned in 2.3.1. (appendix B) will represent my
corpus material: I do not only want to prove evidence for spelling correspondences in the
English, French, German and Italian dictionaries to go in for ‘English Internationalims’
(where the lists of words resulting after the English spell check would be sufficient), but I
also want to point out similarities on the international level (imperialism – impérialisme –
Imperialismus – imperialismo) and work on the characteristics of linguistic borrowing in
general – as demonstrated in the subsequent chapter.
36
3. TERMINOLOGY AND STATUS OF LINGUISTIC BORROWING
Within this chapter, my primary object will be to untangle and clear up the terminological
confusion concerning linguistic borrowing. To start with, I will deal with several different
models of loan terminology (Busse, Dardano, Jabłoński, Viereck K. and Viereck W.) – in
order to arrive at a comprehensive model of my own. This model, then, will be the basis
for a more detailed look at linguistic borrowing from English concerning French, German
and Italian.
As already mentioned in my introductory chapter, linguistic borrowing from foreign
languages is but one phenomenon of how the lexicon of a language develops38. The
following display illustrates this:
How the lexicon of a language develops:
(to illustrate these word formation processes I will add some examples from English)
• Internal borrowing (from dialects, sociolects etc. of the same language)
• External borrowing (linguistic borrowing from foreign languages)
• Derivation (by means of adding affixes to create new words): e.g. child-ish, un-predictable,
etc.
• Compounding (joining of two separate words to produce a single form): e.g. sunburn,
desktop publishing
• Ad-hoc- and ex-nihilo-formation (totally new words are created = coinage): e.g. aspirin,
Kleenex (trade names as source), etc.
• Blending (two separate forms merge into each other to form a new word; usually the
beginning of one word is combined with the end of the other word): e.g. brunch (from
breakfast and lunch), smog (from smoke and fog), etc.
• Clipping (clipping only concerns the reduction of one word): e.g. fax (facsimile), ad
(advertisement), sitcom (from situation comedy), etc.
• Back-formation (involves the reduction of a word to form another part of speech): e.g.
option – to opt, editor – to edit, etc.
• Conversion (the function of a word is changed without reduction = functional shift): e.g.
butter – to butter (a noun becomes a verb), must – a must (a verb becomes a noun), empty –
to empty (an adjective becomes a verb), etc.
• Semantic shift (the verb undergoes a shift in meaning): e.g. wife (in former times this word
was referred to ‘women in general’ and has undergone a semantic shift to its nowadays
meaning of ‘a married woman’)
• Sigle words (they are formed from the initial letters of a set of words, their pronunciation
remains this set of letters): e.g. CD, VCR, etc.
• Acronyms (these are sigle words that are pronounced as single words): e.g. NASA, laser,
Aids, etc.
38
cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 8 – 9
37
3.1. Linguistic borrowing from foreign languages – models of reference
In the following, I will critically deal with points of strength and weaknesses of various
models of loan terminology. For reasons of comparability I put these various approaches
into diagrams.
3.1.1. Maurizio Dardano
Summarising Dardano’s definitions concerning loan terminology I come to the following
diagram:
Fig.1: Maurizio Dardano’s model of loan terminology
38
First, Dardano39 distinguishes between unadapted and adapted Anglicisms. Unadapted
Anglicisms, here, refer to direct borrowings from English: dumping, marketing, trust,
boom, flirt, jet, etc. Adapted Anglicisms are defined as words having undergone
assimilation as to native patterns in phonetics (English words are pronounced according to
the spelling-pronunciation correspondence in Italian) and morphology, e.g. manageriale
(manager), flirtare (flirt), decentralizzare (to decentralise), accettabilità (acceptability),
etc.
Dardano moves on to calques, loan blends (compound forms of one English and one Italian
element) and semantic loanwords (meaning that existing words take on new meanings).
Calques, he states, involve the creation of new words and he differentiates between
homonymic calques (words that reproduce all elements of the English source word) and
synonymic calques (translated forms of the English model).
Here, the first terminological problem arises: Does the verb ottimizzare, for example, stand
as a graphological and morphological assimilated form to to optimize, is ottimizzare a
homonymic calque or is it a simple derivative of the Italian word ottimo?
Thus, we see that for my own summarising model at the end of this section I will have to
more clearly distinguish assimilated forms, derivatives and homonymic loan words.
3.1.2. Karin Viereck
The next terminological approach I will deal with is the model of Karin Viereck40. In her
article in “English in contact with other languages”41 she provides a clear and detailed
description of different forms of linguistic borrowing from other languages. She classifies
loan words according to a three-folded model: zero substitution, partial substitution and
full substitution. However, she only gives detailed information on zero (direct borrowing)
and partial substitution (loan blends), leaving totally aside full substitution – as the
following illustration reveals:
39
cf. Dardano, Influence of English on Italian, p. 237 – 247
Viereck K., Influence of English on Austrian German, p. 161 – 162
41
Bald / Viereck W., English in contact with other languages, p. 159 – 177
40
39
Fig.2: Karin Viereck’s model of loan terminology
Here I will not go into detail concerning a further description of the contents of Viereck’s
model, as the main points of her approach are distinctly demonstrated and exemplified in
the diagram above.
When ‘creating’ my own model I will primarily refer to Viereck’s model in classifying
loan blends (here: partial substitution) in genuine and pseudo categories. I will also make
use
of
Viereck’s
grouping
of
assimilated
forms
(here:
modification)
into
phonetic/phonemic or phonemic-graphemic (meaning the representation of the soundsymbol relation) and inflectional (concerning morphology).
40
3.1.3. Wolfgang Viereck
The next model I will take into consideration when making up my own model of reference
is Wolfgang Viereck’s approach towards loan terminology42.
Fig.3: Wolfgang Viereck’s model of loan terminology
42
Viereck W., The Influence of English on German, p. 115 – 119
41
In accordance with Karin Viereck, Wolfgang Viereck classifies English influence into zero
substitution, full substitution and partial substitution.
Wolfgang Viereck refers tozero substitutions as words that are taken over directly from
English, but that are only partially borrowed semantically (meaning that these words do not
take along all the meanings they have in the source language).
He also classifies English words that are used with a non-English meaning in the host
languages as belonging to direct borrowings (zero substitution), e.g. City in German has
the sense of English city-centre.
Other English words used with a non-English meaning are what Viereck calls semantic and
lexical pseudo-loans, e.g. dressman (for male model), handy (for mobile phone).
Along with morphological pseudo-loans, according to Wolfgang Viereck, are genuine loan
words that have undergone a process of morphological assimilation to the replica language,
e.g. infinitive inflexion of verbs in German, such as jobben, checken, etc.
As to my model of reference, I will not classify these morphologically adapted words as
pseudo-forms, but simply as assimilated forms of direct borrowings – with ‘pseudo’ only
being attributed to words that ‘look’ English but have a non-English meaning in the host
languages (these are named semantic and lexical pseudo loan words in Wolfgang
Vierecks’s model; see above).
Concerning Viereck’s sub-categories of full substitution, semantic loans, loan renditions,
loan translations and loan creations, I will classify all of them as synonymic calques (with
reference to Dardano in 3.1.1.).
Partial substitution, in the above model, is not further divided into genuine and pseudo loan
blends, as in Karin Viereck’s model.
42
3.1.4. Mirosłav Jabłoński
As to clarity and precision, this approach (illustrated in the diagram below) will constitute
the basis for my later model.
Fig.4: Mirosłav Jabłoński’s model of loan terminology
43
Jabłoński43 bases his three-fold classification of linguistic borrowing on the semiotic
triangle44, describing each word as having a form and a meaning. Thus, linguistic
borrowing in this context either involves a borrowing of both, form and meaning, a
borrowing of meaning only or a borrowing of form only:
• A borrowing of form and meaning can be sub-divided into foreign words in their
original spelling and foreign words in their assimilated form (following native patterns
in the replica languages).
• A borrowing of meaning only involves the reproduction of a foreign word via native
word formation processes.
• As to pseudo-loans, Jabłoński, refers to them as the borrowing of a foreign word only
on the formal level.
In spite of all its comprehensiveness, Jabłoński’s model leaves loan blends totally aside.
3.1.5. Ulrich Busse
Ulrich Busse is one of the authors of the most frequently consulted German reference
books concerning Anglicisms, the “Anglizismen-Wörterbuch” (I have referred to this
dictionary already in chapter 2: The corpus).
For reasons of completeness as to loan terminology I will now shortly illustrate Busse’s
main points. I will, however, not take his model into consideration when drawing up my
own model of terminology of linguistic borrowing – as I claim his classification to be
similar to Jabłoński’s model.
In the front matter of his dictionary45, Busse classifies Anglicisms as linguistic borrowings
43
Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 9 – 12
I will be dealing with the semiotic triangle in more detail when demonstrating my own model of reference.
45
Busse/Carstensen, Anglizismen-Wörterbuch, p. 18* - 19*
44
44
• from English x (borrowing of form and meaning)
• in accordance with English x (borrowing of meaning)
• to English x (borrowing of form)
3.1.6. A new approach towards loan terminology
In correspondence with Jabłoński’s model, the basis for classification of my model is the
so-called semiotic triangle46:
notion / meaning
word / lexeme
form
relatum / thing
Fig.5: The semiotic triangle
A word comes with a form and a meaning. Basically, both, form and meaning together,
refer to a special thing, the relatum (direct borrowing). However, it may well be the case
that only the form of a word refers to a thing (pseudo-borrowing) or only the meaning is
borrowed (semantic borrowing).
As to loan blends I have classified them as being somewhere in between borrowing of
form and borrowing of meaning – but, then, I have explicitly attributed them a borrowing
of meaning only, since loan blends involve native elements and are, thus, no longer
regarded as formally belonging to the source language, in our case English.
Another basic consideration was to group semantic borrowings along the synonymichomonymic principle stated by Dardano (see 3.1.1.).
46
Lyons, Einführung in die moderne Linguistik, p. 413
45
3.2. The model of reference for this paper
Fig.6: The present model of loan terminology
46
3.2.1. Linguistic borrowing from English in French, German and Italian
In the following, I will provide definitions and examples for the categories of the above
diagram. The examples of linguistic borrowing in French, German and Italian are taken
from my corpus list – with occasional reference to the special dictionaries of foreign
words.
The four main categories are:
I. direct / lexical borrowing
II. lexical pseudo-borrowing
III. partially substitutional borrowing (loan blends)
IV. fully substitutional borrowing (semantic borrowing)
I. direct / lexical borrowing
Direct lexical borrowings are words that are taken over directly (with form and meaning)
from English into the lexicons of the replica languages. A distinction can be made
between:
1. genuine loans
2. partially assimilated forms
1. genuine loans
I refer to words as genuine loans if they represent an exact reproduction of the English
spelling (except for capitalisation in German and varying hyphen- and compound spelling).
In the next chapter, it will be these genuine loans that I will call ‘English Internationalisms’
– provided that they occur in all three replica languages.
English
boom
marketing
sandwich
French
boom
marketing
sandwich
German
boom
marketing
sandwich
Italian
boom
marketing
sandwich
47
2. partially assimilated forms
Partially assimilated forms are slightly altered borrowings from English. They are
assimilated:
a. along grapheme-phoneme representation and relation
b. on the morphological level
c. as to semantics and stylistics
a. grapheme-phoneme representation and relation
Grapheme-phoneme representation and relation involves native patterns of the soundsymbol realisation, meaning that the French language, for example, realises the ‘u’
grapheme in a word as [y], whereas a speaker of German or Italian would most probably
pronounce it as [u]. The Englishman, according to the different rules of phonotactics,
realises ‘u’ as [ju] or [ä], [å], etc.
Grapheme-phoneme representation can be further divided in
- graphology and orthography
- phonology and phonetics
(1) graphology and orthography
On the level of graphology and orthography, assimilation along the grapheme-phoneme
relation means that a replica language replaces an English grapheme by the native
equivalent when English pronunciation is to be obtained:
English
boomerang
tick
photo
French
tique
-
German
Bumerang
-
Italian
foto
48
(2) phonology and phonetics
As to phonetics and phonology, assimilation in the replica languages also takes place
according to native rules of sound-symbol realisation. For detailed information on how
these patterns work, see the section on assimilated forms in the next chapter.
b. morphological level
Morphologically assimilated forms have undergone a morphological adaptation to the
replica language. Morphological adaptation covers
- inflectional morphology
- derivational morphology
(1) inflectional
Inflectional morphology primarily involves affixes (for the most part: suffixes) to indicate
grammatical functions of a word (part of speech, gender and plural marking, tense
marking, etc.):
English
to format
He formatted the floppy
disk.
French
formater
Il a formaté la disquette.
German
formatieren
Er hat die Diskette
formatiert.
Italian
formattare
Ha formattato il
dischetto.
(2) lexical / derivational
Derivational morphology is used to create new words in a language. As far as linguistic
borrowing is concerned, the replica languages take up (or assimilate) derivational affixes
from English:
English
mini-ity
French
minijupe
-ité
German
Minirock
-ität
Italian
minigonna
-ità
49
c. semantics and stylistics
Assimilation on the semantic and stylistic level is dealt with in full detail in the next
chapter.
II. lexical pseudo-borrowing
Lexical pseudo-loans are words that are made out of English word-building material, but
have a non-English meaning, with some of them that do not even exist in this form in the
English language.
English
handy (useful)
dance hall
champion
male model
jogging
French
dancing
recordman
footing
German
Handy (mobile phone)
Dressman
-
Italian
dancing
recordman
footing
III. partially substitutional borrowing (loan blends)
Loan blends are compound words consisting of one English element and one element of
the host language. As to their correspondence to an English equivalent, they are classified
as follows:
a. genuine
b. pseudo
a. genuine
Genuine loan blends, strictly speaking, are originally English compound words where one
element has been translated into the replica language:
English
charter flight
tramway
showbusiness
French
vol charter
-
German
Charterflug
Showgeschäft
Italian
volo charter
tramvia
-
50
b. pseudo
Pseudo loan blends are compound words of one English and one native component, but the
entire word has no English counterpart:
English
stress disease
leading industry
briefcase
French
attaché-case
German
Managerkrankheit
-
Italian
industria leader
-
IV. fully substitutional / semantic borrowing (calques)
Semantic borrowings involve a full substitution of an English word by native elements.
These substitutions can be:
1. synonymic calques
2. homonymic calques
1. synonymic calques
Synonymic semantic borrowing involves:
a. semantic loans
b. loan translations
c. loan renditions
d. loan creations & formal neologisms
a. semantic loans
If an existing word, under English influence, adopts a new meaning, it is called a semantic
loan.
51
English
to fire
French
but (formerly:
destination, aim, end)
-
comfort
-
goal
German
-
Italian
-
feuern (formerly: to make fire)
conforto (fomerly:
encouragement,
consolation)
b. loan translations
Loan translations are direct translations of an English word into a replica language.
English
soap opera
skyscraper
pocket radio
honeymoon
French
gratte-ciel
radio de poche
miel-lune
German
Seifenoper
Honigmond
Italian
grattacielo
luna di miele
c. loan renditions
Compounds of which one part has been directly translated while the other one is conveyed
freely into the host language are called loan renditions:
English
jukebox
fair play
knock-out
French
franc-jeu
-
German
Musikkiste
-
Italian
fuori combattimento
d. loan creations & formal neologisms
Loan creations involve English words (actually, only the meaning is transferred) that are
rendered completely freely in the host languages. Strictly speaking, loan creations are
linguistically independent from the donor language and, thus, represent formal neologisms.
These can be :
- monolexematic words
- paraphrases
52
(1) monolexematic words
Monolexematic neologisms consist of only one free lexeme (that is usually combined with
a bound morpheme).
English
pipeline
software
leggings
French
logiciel
-
German
Beinling
Italian
oleodotto
-
(2) paraphrases
Plurilexematic loan creations are, generally speaking, paraphrases of a foreign meaning.
English
provider
software
French
message publicitaire
location avec option
d’achat
-
field research
-
spot
leasing
German
Italian
-
-
Internetanbieter
-
insieme di componenti
modificabili
-
Erhebung von Daten im
Außendienst
2. homonymic calques / fully assimilated forms
According to my own model of reference, homonymic calques and fully assimilated forms
fall together in their definition: On the one hand, they are fully integrated according to the
principles of grapheme-phoneme representation and they are adapted as to the
morphological and semantic /stylistic level, on the other hand, they still reveal the original
elements of the English source word:
English
to vulcanise
elf
French
vulcaniser
elfe
German
vulkanisieren
Elfe
Italian
vulcanizzare
elfo
53
Concluding this chapter, I believe it correct to say that all of the categories and examples
mentioned above, strictly speaking, correspond to the definition of Anglicisms I gave in
the introductory chapter, as they all represent a linguistic sign that has come into being
through the influence of the English language. It is, however, the convention that fully
assimilated forms and synonymic calques do not have Anglicism status.
54
4. ENGLISH INTERNATIONALISMS
What is an English Internationalism? For the purpose of this paper, I will largely refer to
the definition of Jabłoński47, who defines English Internationalisms as words that have
been directly borrowed from English into several host languages of different language
families. He states that all direct borrowings from English can acquire the status of an
English Internationalism. Furthermore, he argues that among these either genuine loans
(leaving aside gender classification and flexion in the host languages) or assimilated forms
can be found.
In the following, I will deal with both types of English Internationalisms. I will, however,
treat them separately, claiming that only genuine loans are authentic English
Internationalisms.
Adapted forms, on the one hand, represent but one phenomenon of linguistic borrowing –
and, thus, lexical development – due to current (linguistic) globalisation. On the other
hand, these assimilated forms of international character are the results of older Greek and
Latin influences.
4. 1. Authentic English Internationalism
First of all, I consider reference of an English word in all three general monolingual
dictionaries other than English as being sufficient to indicate its internationality.
Furthermore, the authentic English Internationalism requires accurate reproduction as a
headword in the dictionaries, ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphen-spelling as
well as spelling of compounds in all languages.
These criteria may be regarded as too superficial – as they only work on the basis of the
comparison of headwords that show no more than the basic grammatical form of a word
(nouns in the nominative singular, adjectives in the positive singular, adverbs in the
positive, verbs in the present infinitive active), without any hints to its usage. It is for this
reason that I will have a closer look at the words according to linguistic fields concerning
47
cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 17
55
structure and use of language, namely phonetics and phonology, graphology (orthography),
morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics in one of the following sections.
4.1.1. List of authentic English Internationalisms
The list below has been created by means of sorting out according to the following
obligatory criteria:
(1) reference in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ
(2) correspondence of the headwords in their spelling (ignoring capitalisation, hyphens
and alternative compound spelling)
(3) reference in COD (words that fulfil (1) and (2) but are not headwords in COD are
put in brackets and dealt with in the subsequent section)
aftershave
air bag
(aquaplaning)
(auto-stop)
baby
babysitter
babysitting
backgammon
background
bacon
badminton
banjo
bar
barbecue
baseball
BASIC, basic
bazooka
beagle
beat
beatnik
(bébé)
bebop
best-seller
big bang
bingo
bit
blackout
blazer
blizzard
blues
bluff
boat people
bobtail
body-building
boogie-woogie
boom
boss
bowling
box
boy
Boy Scout
brainstorming
brain trust
brandy
break
bridge
briefing
broker
brunch
budget
bug
bulldozer
bungalow
bunker
bus
business
bye-bye
bypass
byte
cab
caddie
call-girl
camp
camping
campus
cardigan
cargo
cartoon
cash
cash flow
casting
cent
charter
checklist
check-up
cheeseburger
chewing gum
chintz
chip
Chippendale
chow-chow
clearing
clip
clipper
clown
cluster
coach
COBOL
cockney
cocktail
Coke
container
copyright
corner
cornflakes
cottage
cover girl
cowboy
crack
cracker
crash
cross-country
curling
cutter
dancing
dandy
dealer
Derby
design
designer
(Devon)
discount
dock
(doping)
dragster
drink
drive
driver
dry
(dumping)
ecstasy
ecu
enduro
engineering
establishment
eyeliner
(factoring)
fair play
fan
fanzine
fast food
feedback
feeling
festival
fifty-fifty
film
finish
flash
flashback
flipper
Flop
folk
folklore
football
Fortran
fox terrier
freak
(free jazz)
frisbee
funk
gadget
gag
gang
gangster
garden party
gay
gentleman
gentleman’s
agreement
getter
56
girl
glamour
globe-trotter
goal
golf
gospel
grill
grog
groggy
hamburger
handicap
happening
(happy end)
hardware
hickory
high-tech
hip
HIV
hobby
hockey
hooligan
horsepower
hot dog
hovercraft
husky
(impeachment)
in
input
Irish coffee
ISO
Jacuzzi
jazz
jeep
jet
jet set
jigger
jingle
job
jockey
(jogging)
(joint venture)
jukebox
(kart)
(karting)
ketchup
kidnapper
kidnapping
kilt
kiwi
knickerpocker,
knickerpockers
knockout
know-how
kumquat
lady
lambswool
laser
lasso
leader
leasing
lift
lifting
light
limerick
linoleum
Linotype
live
lob
lobby
loft
look
(looping)
lord
lunch
(made in)
mailing
majorette
management
manager
marketing
mascara
maser
match
medium
meeting
memorial
(merchandising)
Miss, miss
mohair
motel
mustang
net
new look
nightclub
non-stop
nylon
off
office
offshore
opossum
out
output
outsider
overdrive
oxer
pacemaker
paddock
pamphlet
panel
par
patchwork
pattern
pedigree
peeling
pellet
penalty
penny
performance
pick-up
ping-pong
pipeline
pixel
plaid
playback
playboy
pointer
poker
pole position
polo
pool
pop
pop art
popcorn
porridge
poster
premier
prime time
promotion
pub
public relations
pudding
pullover
punch
punk
putt
puzzle
quasar
rack
racket
radar
(rafting)
ragtime
RAM
ranch
rand
ranger
rap
rating
ready-made
recital
redingote
reggae
remake
reporter
revival
revolver
riff
rock
ROM
rugby
saloon
sandwich
scanner
scat
science fiction
score
Scotch, scotch
scout
scratch
self-government
self-made man
set
setter
sex appeal
sexy
shaker
sherry
shocking
shopping
show
show business
single
sit-in
skateboard
sketch
skinhead
slice
slip
slogan
slow
smash
smog
smoking
snack bar
snob
soap opera
software
sonar
soul
speaker
spider
spin
spinnaker
spleen
spoiler
sponsor
sport
spot
spray
sprint
squash
squaw
standard
standby
star
starter
sterling
steward
stick
stock
stop
stretch
striptease
sulky
swap
sweater
swing
take-off
talk show
tandem
tank
tartan
tee
teenager
telex
tender
tennis
terminal
test
thriller
ticket
tie-break
timing
toast
top
Tory
totem
training
transistor
(trekking)
trench coat
trial
trip
trolley
trust
tuner
tunnel
turf
tweed
twill
twinset
twist
underground
vamp
van
(video-)
VIP
volleyball
Walkman
wapiti
warrant
waterproof
weekend
western
Whig
whisky, whiskey
whist
wigwam
Yankee
yard
Yorkshire terrier
yuppie
(zapping)
zoom
57
4.1.2. Pseudo-Anglicisms as English Internationalisms
The above list gives evidence of 452 identical English headwords in DDUWB, LNPR and
LOZ. However, 20 of these words show no headword entry in COD. My first thought was
that these words must be what are called pseudo-Anglicisms, words only ‘looking’ English
on the formal level but that do not have English meanings. I will, therefore, have a closer
look on these words:
aquaplaning
As the headword aquaplane can be used as a noun and a verb, the ‘ing’-form does exist.
However, the English ‘- ing’, mainly used as an inflectional suffix marking the present
participle of a verb, is principally used in the replica languages as a derivational suffix to
create nouns. But as this phenomenon can also be found in the processes of word formation
in the English language system (with the ‘–ing’ being used as a derivational suffix forming
gerunds and nouns from verbs) and as one of the two definitions provided of to aquaplane
in the COD corresponds to the definition given in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ, aquaplaning
is secured its status as an English Internationalism.
auto-stop
The COD lists both, auto and stop as headwords, but there is no evidence of a compound
form of these, although a sample sentence under the headword stop makes a connection
between the words (the vehicle was brought to a stop). Nonetheless, the intended meaning
of ‘to hitch-hike’ found in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ is not offered by the COD, which
would make auto-stop belong to the category of pseudo-Anglicisms, even on the
international level.
bébé
This headword represents a very peculiar case: As mentioned further above, my search
criteria in the electronic dictionaries (occurrence of ‘engl’, ‘angl’ or ‘ingl’) were to be
applied to the complete texts, the resulting list of words not only stating English
headwords, but also words that show evidence of the criteria in the full entry text. In the
case of bébé, it made its way into the Anglicism lists by means of various reasons. The
DDUWB states bébé as being borrowed from French, with the French word being an
58
assimilated form of the English word baby. The LOZ also mentions French as being the
donor language of the borrowing, and it also states that this word might have come to
France via the English baby. The LNPR, then, gives evidence of the 1793 adaptation of
English baby in its lexicon. It is for these reasons stated that, for the purpose of this
synchronic analysis, bébé is neither an English Internationalism nor a pseudo-Anglicism,
but a borrowing from French with international quality, a Francisism.
Devon
The COD mentions Devon only in paraphrasing the headword Devonian (‘of or relating to
/ a native of Devon, in SW England’). LNPR and LOZ define devon as spoon-baits or
spinners, which are devices used in fishing. Both of them refer to the name of Count
Devon. The DDUWB, on the other hand, refers Devon to a period of the Palaeozoic era –
as does the COD with a second definition of Devonian though. The word Devon, thus, is
not an English Internationalism.
doping, dumping & factoring
Dope, dump and factor are all listed as headwords in the COD. They can be used as nouns
or verbs and, therefore, the justification for their being English Internationalisms is obvious
(see aquaplaning). The same observation can be made with the following words: jogging,
rafting, trekking and merchandising.
free jazz
The DDUWB, as well as LNPR and LOZ state free jazz as a form of jazz music whose
characteristics are improvisation and disharmony. Although the COD contains both, free
and jazz as a headword, the notion free jazz has not (yet) found its way into the dictionary.
Nonetheless, I would, in this case, claim free jazz to be an English Internationalism.
happy end
The term happy end may well be the most stated example of a pseudo-Anglicism. As the
correct English word is happy ending, one might argue for a case of morphological
pseudo-loan.
59
impeachment
The COD states the verb to impeach as headword (with the corresponding meaning in
LNPR, DDUWB and LOZ) and indicates the noun impeachment as well as the adjective
impeachable in bold type-face after the definition section – which proves evidence of its
being international.
joint venture
The COD states joint and venture as headwords, but the term joint venture is not found.
Here again I think that the word has just not yet found its way into the dictionary, the term
being perfectly international (see: free jazz).
kart
LOZ and the DDUWB refer kart to the abbreviation of go-kart, with go-kart being cited as
a variation of go-cart in the COD. LNPR gives no cross-reference to go-kart. Strictly
speaking, kart would not meet the requirements for being regarded as an English
Internationalism, but I dare say that the abbreviations cart or kart might be used in
informal English as well.
karting
In contrast to the above statement that the host languages often derive nouns ending in
‘ing’ from English verbs, karting is a genuine pseudo-Anglicism. Go-kart as well as gocart are marked as nouns only, meaning that there is no ‘to (go-)kart’ in English.
looping
Here we come across another incidence of a morphological pseudo-Anglicism. The COD
cites loop as noun and verb, thus offering the replica languages the possibility for ingderivation. The French, German and Italian dictionaries define looping as a manoeuvre in
which a plane describes a vertical circle – which is the COD’s definition of the noun loop.
made in
Although this collocation has no headword entry in the COD, one would forgive me in
arguing that the notion made in is perfectly English and international.
60
video-
The prefix video- (along with mini-, midi-, cyber-, etc.) is given a special status in the
DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ, and it is cited as a headword with reference to its property of
being the first element in numerous compound words related to broadcasting, recording
and reproducing visual material. In this sense, video- acts as an Internationalism since the
COD, besides noun and verb, also classifies the headword video as adjective. Evidence for
the internationality of video(-) are numerous subsequent entries in all dictionaries.
Videoclip in DDUWB, vidéoclub, vidéodisque and vidéotex in LNPR, video art, videoclip,
videofrequenza, videogame, videomusic, videotape and Videotex in LOZ and video camera,
video cassette, videoconference, video diary, videodisc, etc. in COD. These examples,
however, also show that video(-) is only to be regarded an Internationalism on the formal
level of this investigation. Actual language usage in the replica languages, namely the
compounding with native elements, and its Latin origin (videre) might even lead to the
assumption that video(-) is by no means English, but a fixed element of the vocabularies of
numerous languages due to a long-ago linguistic influence.
zapping
The COD’s stating of the verb to zap with its definition as ‘to move rapidly between TV
channels’ and its correspondence to the definitions in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ might
imply an international character. However, actual usage favours the term channel hopping
when referring to a noun.
Correspondence of a French, German, Italian and English headword in spelling, however,
does not guarantee its not being a pseudo-Anglicism. Take the word flipper, for example.
Its definition in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ show that the correct English word must be
pinball (a game in which small metal balls are shot across a board and score points by
striking pins with lights etc.), rather than English flipper (a broadened limb of a turtle,
penguin, etc., used in swimming.).
Or let us turn to the much cited smoking (which the three dictionaries in question define as
a man’s suit usually worn on formal occasions) that would be dinner jacket in English.
However, the word smoking holds an exceptional position in the field of linguistic
borrowings, being adapted from other languages at a time when it was actually termed
smoking jacket in English, with first occurrences of British dinner jacket and American
61
tuxedo only in somewhat later periods.48 The term smoking, thus, might be regarded as a
clipped form (an informally shortened version) in French, German and Italian vocabulary
rather than being a pseudo-Anglicism in the classical sense, like dressman (male model)
and handy (mobile phone) in German, and footing (jogging) and recordman (champion) in
French and Italian.
4.1.3. General monolingual dictionaries versus special dictionaries of foreign words
Working the three lists of my corpus for correspondences, I wondered about the relatively
low number of coexisting occurrences of an English word in all three dictionaries. Also
counting the numerous parallel correspondences in two of the dictionaries as English
Internationalisms, the 452 words of the list above would roughly amount to one third of the
total number. But since my definition of internationality requires an occurrence in the
dictionaries of three other languages than English, I will refrain from dwelling on this
subject too long.
What I did do, however, was to consult the special language dictionaries mentioned in
chapter 2, for the words that were missing to my required ‘threesomes’: ‘Les mots anglais
du franíais’ (LMADF) for French counterparts to a German-Italian occurrence, ‘Le Parole
Straniere della lingua itlaliana’ (PS) for Italian correspondences to a French-German
correlation and ‘Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen’ (WBÜA) for German matches to
a French-Italian relation.
With the help of these special dictionaries I found another 313 parallels – which would
result in a total of 765 English Internationalism (see appendix D), 59% of these found in
the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries, 41 % in the special dictionaries of foreign
words (as can be seen in the diagram below).
48
Busse, Typen von Anglizismen, p. 139 – 140
62
Total of LMADF, PS & WBÜA = 41%
LMADF
(53% of the total
22%
of 41%)
DDUWB &
LNPR & LOZ
59%
PS
8% (21%)
WBÜA
11%
(26%)
Fig.7: English Internationalisms across the 6 dictionaries
Another interesting aspect to mention is that 53% of the 313 missing threesomes (here I
refer to the right side figure 7) were found in the French dictionary of foreign words,
compared to 21% in the Italian reference and 26% in the special dictionary of German (see
appendix E). These numbers not only show a certain affinity between the German and
Italian vocabularies in the way they deal with the flux of omnipresent English words, they
might also mirror the respective nation’s attitudes towards the spread of English into their
lexicons.
As stated further above, to find way into a general monolingual dictionary is by no means a
valid proof for the existence of a word. There might be far too few occurrences in
reference material, or the lexicographer might take it as an ephemeral word, etc. As a
matter of fact, LNPR, with France even restricting the use of some English words by law,
‘ignores’ more than twice as many Anglicisms as DDUWB and LOZ do. The below
ranking of negative attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms might, therefore, be explained
against the background of the nations’ efforts being made against English influence (see
figure 7): (1) the Loi Toubon in France (53%), (2) organisations and societies in Austria
and Germany (26%), (3) occasional campaigns in Italy (21%).
As was indicated in the introductory notes to this chapter I will now drop theoretical and
formal approaches towards English Internationalisms and move on to a more practical
analysis in relation to the way they function or behave in the French, German and Italian
language systems.
63
4.1.4. English Internationalisms, their linguistic properties and the role they play in
the replica languages
For a closer examination on how Internationalisms, ‘abstract’ headwords in the preceding
sections, fit the structure and use of language within the individual systems and how these
correlate, I will analyse 45 (10%) randomly picked words with reference to the 6-levelmodel in Crystal49. As this model is based on the requirements for spoken language only, I
have slightly modified it in terms of adding categories needed for written language (typed
in bold-face).
language
medium of transmission
phonetics
& phonology
graphology
& orthography
structure
pragmatics
grammar
meaning (semantics)
morphology
syntax
lexicon
use
discourse
& text
Fig.8: An overall model of language structure (after Crystal 1997)
Since this study is based on dictionaries, I have access to both, the written and the spoken
channel. Leaving aside the very theoretical aspect of such a study, as dictionaries on no
account represent actual language usage, they provide exactly the information I need for a
thorough examination on several levels of language (see also ‘Principles of dictionarymaking’). I will, thus, subdivide this section as follows:
1. Graphology and orthography
2. Phonetics and phonology
3. Morphology and syntax
4. Semantics and stylistics
49
Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 83
64
The following words will be the basis for my analysis:
air bag
flashback
management
take-off
beagle
folk
new look
thriller
blizzard
gadget
overdrive
toast
boom
globe-trotter
performance
tuner
broker
happening
pole position
underground
business
hooligan
poster
warrant
cardigan
impeachment
recital
weekend
charter
Irish coffee
sandwich
yuppie
container
jigger
scanner
zoom
cross-country
jukebox
science fiction
drive
ketchup
shocking
establishment
light
sweater
4.1.4.1. Graphology and orthography
The chapter on English Internationalisms was introduced by my stating the requirements
English words in general monolingual dictionaries have to meet: accurate reproduction as a
headword, BUT ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphen-spelling as well as spelling
of compounds in all languages. I will, just for the purpose of this section, not only refer to
the 452 English Internationalisms but also consult the complete lists (appendix B).
Ignoring capitalisation in German is a rather obvious aspect not to take into consideration
when working with Germanic and Romance languages. Apart from capitalisation of proper
names, it is only the German language that capitalises nouns in general.50
Hyphen-spelling and compound spelling usually go hand in hand, representing just one
oddity in orthography concerning the language systems of the languages examined in this
50
“Die Großschreibung der Substantive nahm im 13. Jahrhundert ihren großen Ausgang von der
Großschreibung der Eigennamen (vor allem bei Personennamen und geographischen Namen.) Die
Verwendung von Großbuchstaben diente hier vor allem der Kennzeichnung von Wörtern, die inhaltlich als
besonders bedeutsam erschienen, beim Vorlesen hervorgehoben oder betont werden sollten. Die Ausweitung
der Großschreibung auf andere Substantivklassen fand überwiegend im 16. Jahrhundert statt. Zunächst wurde
die Großschreibung auf eigennamenähnliche Bezeichnungen übertragen, wie etwa auf Bezeichnungen von
Völkern und Sprachen, von Festen und Feiertagen, von Tieren, Pflanzen, Zeit- und Maßeinheiten. Die
zunehmende Ausweitung der Großschreibung auf immer weitere Bereiche führte dann im 17. Jahrhundert
dazu, dass die Funktion der Großschreibung umgedeutet wurde: Sie wurde nun seltener als ein Mittel zur
Hervorhebung gesehen, sondern diente vielmehr der grammatikalischen Markierung der Wortart Substantiv.“
(Duden Newsletter from Oct. 18th 2001)
65
paper. Nevertheless, general tendencies can be observed: the French and Italian language
tends to composition via prepositions (chambre à coucher, camera da letto), the German
language shows a great tendency to so-called ‘monster-compounds’, making one word out
of several elements (most famous perhaps: Fußballweltmeisterschaftsqualifikationsspiel),
and the English language most commonly favours separate pre- or post-modifying to
hyphen-spelling (air bag, video cassette recorder, a vase with handles, etc.)
As for the spelling of Anglicisms the confusion goes even further. However, working on
the lists, a certain regularity in the dealing with compounds borrowed from English may be
detected: DDUWB tends to take up the original form (be it separate, directly combined or
hyphen-spelling), LNPR shows a tendency to primarily apply hyphen-spelling and LOZ
usually takes up the English spelling, be it hyphen- or separate spelling (direct
compounding seldom occurs). Looking at the loan blends (compound words of one English
Element and one element of the native language), we get to know that they are treated as
being native to the language system in German, and, thus, form monstrous constructions
(Holdinggesellschaft, Medienbartering, Nonproliferation, Tuftingverfahren). As mentioned
in chapter 4, French and Italian lack this uncompromising composition of foreign and
native elements, either using the English notion as it is (Italian) or employing native
paraphrases (French).
4.1.4.2. Phonetics and phonology
This study is based on dictionaries and I have to rely on the lexicographers’ thorough
examining of the way words are pronounced in a language (for the pronunciation of each
of the 45 words given in the dictionaries see appendix F), but I assume that the
pronunciation of English words in actual language usage differs considerably from the
pronunciation given in a dictionary:
Jabłoński51 found out that dictionaries tend to maintain English pronunciation. Actual
usage, however, greatly varies and depends on various factors:
51
cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 33 – 34
66
-
the speaker’s attitudes towards Anglicisms (snobbism, linguistic purism, etc.)
-
the level of education and social status of the speaker
-
the speaker’s knowledge of English
-
the age of the speaker (whether he belongs to the older or younger generation)
-
the speaker’s acquaintance with the expression (intelligibility, familiarity, etc.)
-
the context in which the word is used
Jabłoński states that difficulties in pronunciation occur when an English word is directly
borrowed into a replica language without any modification. Speakers with a low command
of English would, then, certainly tend to spelling pronunciation (realising the word
according to native grapheme-phoneme relations). Furthermore, he points out that bilingual
speakers or speakers with English as their first foreign language will tend to pronounce it
in the English way and speakers wanting to express their high education and knowledge
will tend to an exaggerated pronunciation in some English native accent. He argues that, all
the same, as long as the English words are not assimilated to the native patterns of the host
languages in graphology, there will be variations in spelling.
For the purpose of my examination, however, I have strictly kept to the pronunciation
provided in the dictionaries, trying to detect a certain pattern.
In the early stages of my investigation on pronunciation the COD did not seem to be
suitable as reference for English pronunciation patterns, as it provides RP pronunciation
and the majority of international English words nowadays have their origin in the US, but
on a closer view the following becomes clear: It does not really matter for my study
whether the word is pronounced in the British or American way, what counts is whether
there
is
zero
transmorphemisation,
compromise
transmorphemisation
or
free
transmorphemisation.52 Zero transmorphemisation takes place when the English word is
pronounced in the English way, compromise transmorphemisation may also be called
assimilated pronunciation (partial imitation of the English pronunciation) and free
transmorphemisation is spelling pronunciation according to native grapheme-phoneme
(symbol-sound) patterns.
52
cf. Filipovic, English as a word donor, http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html
67
The DDUWB and LOZ show a great tendency towards zero transmorphemisation. Among
the 45 sample words I only found two cases of free transmorphemisation in Italian for
recital, pronounced as /»r¤tÉital/ or /r¤tÉi»tal/ and yuppie, pronounced as /»juppi/. DDUWB
gives evidence of four cases of free transmorphemisation, with cardigan, globe-trotter,
warrant and yuppie, pronounced as /»kardigan/, /»glo:bŸtr‘t–/, /va»rant/ and /»jäpi/. The
LNPR, however, proves my hypothesis that English words in France tend to be
pronounced in the French way. As examples let me mention: blizzard /blizaÄ/, crosscountry /kÄ‘skuntÄi/, jukebox /íykb‘ks/, management /manaímS/ and science fiction
/sjSsfiksjT/ .
Compromise transmorphemisation is by far the most frequently applied means of
pronunciation in the examined replica languages. It is for this reason that I will now go into
more detail concerning variations in vowel, diphthong and consonant realisation.
4.1.4.2.1. Vowels and diphthongs
Starting with the realisation of English vowel phonemes and diphtongs in the replica
languages (that offer the most significant variations), my results are the following :
COD
¤:
Í
u:
a:
‘:
a
å
“
ä
i:
Ÿ
Ÿä
åÍ
DDUWB
¤, e:, ¤:–
Í
u:
ar
‘:
ë, ¤
a, å
‘
ä
i:
–, ‘
oä, o:
ai, aÍ
LNPR
¤, i
i
u:, y
aÄ
oÄ
a
u, ó
‘
u
i
óÄ, ¤Ä, ó
‘, o
aj
LOZ
¤
i
u:
ar
or
¤, ë
a, å
‘
ä
i
er, o
‘, o
ai, aÍ
68
• The English [¤:] is most commonly realised as [¤] in French, German and Italian, with
variations in sweater, the [¤] pronounced as [e:] in German and [i] in French (this can
be regarded as a form of hyper-correction, strictly pronouncing ‘ea’ as [i:] wherever it
occurs), and in airbag, which the DDUWB transcribes as [¤:–].
• [Í] in LNPR and LOZ is primarily transcribed as [i], being articulated in a slightly more
close manner, whereas DDUWB sticks to the English mid-closed vowel. Some
variations can be seen in the pronunciation of management, pronounced with [a] in
French and Italian and gadget /»gadíÍt/, being transcribed as /gadí¤t/ in LNPR and
/»gadíet/ in LOZ.
• Principally, [u:] is maintained in all the examined host languages, with only the French
language offering an [y]-variation in jukebox and an [y] in tuner.
• In contrast to the (non-rhotic) British variation of English, French, German and Italian
are rhotic languages, meaning, they always pronounce the ‘r’ (in whatever variation).
As examples let me mention cardigan and charter, being transcribed with an [—:] in
British English, [ar] in German and Italian and [aÄ] in French. The same also holds true
for the [‘:] in performance, which is pronounced as [‘Ä] in French and [or] in Italian,
with only German maintaining the ‘very British’ pronunciation [‘:].
• The (British) English [a] in German is either pronounced as [ë] or [¤] and [¤] or [a] in
Italian: scanner /»sk¤n–/ (DDUWB) and /s»kanner/ in LOZ or flashback /»flëÉbëk/
(DDUWB) and /fl¤É»b¤k/ in LOZ. The LNPR principally maintains [a].
• The phoneme [å] to represent ‘ou’ or ‘u’ in the English Language, is only applied once
in the DDUWB and LOZ (underground in German and cross-country in Italian). Vice
versa, the similar – but more back and mid-open [a] is articulated in cross-country in
German and in underground in Italian. LNPR, however, transcribes cross-country as
/kÄ‘skuntÄi/, and underground as /óndóÄgÄaund/ or /Xd¤ÄgÄ(a)und/.
69
• The English [“], for the most part, is pronounced as [‘] in the host languages, e.g.
shocking /»É“kÍñ/ (COD), /»É‘kÍñ/ (DDUWB), /É‘kiñ/ (LNPR) and /»É‘kkin(g)/ (LOZ).
• The [ä], as in new look, is principally maintained: /»nju:»läk/ in DDUWB and /nju»läk/
in LOZ, but /njuluk/ in LNPR.
• [i:] is most likely to be shortened in the replica languages: e.g. LNPR and LOZ
transcribe weekend as /wik¤nd/.
• The ‘famous’ [Ÿ] sound seemed to need some extra investigation, as I found more than
ten variant pronunciations. However, there is only one regularity to be detected: [Ÿ] in
English nouns ending in -er (broker, globetrotter, scanner, sweater, tuner) tend to be
pronounced as the more open [–] in German, as [óÄ] or [¤Ä] in French and [er] in
Italian. Other alterations of [Ÿ] are: [ó] in French ketchup, [‘] in German container, and
[o] in Italian container.
• As for the English diphthongs, it was interesting to find out that [Ÿä] is chiefly
pronounced as [oä] in German, with two occurrences of [o:] in toast and globe-trotter.
LNPR usually transcribes [Ÿä] as [‘], as in broker /bÄ‘kóÄ/, overdrive /‘vóÄdÄajv/
and poster /p‘st¤Ä/, but it also gives evidence of [o] in toast and pole position.
Concerning the phonetic transcription in LOZ, the English diphthong [Ÿä] in the Italian
language tends to be pronounced either as [‘] or [o].
• The English [åÍ] becomes [ai] or[aÍ] in German and Italian and [aj] in French (drive,
Irish coffee, etc.) whereas [aä] is usually maintained in all three examined host
languages (e.g. underground).
4.1.4.2.2. Consonants
Here are the most obvious alterations concerning consonant articulation:
70
• German words usually tend to end in a voiceless plosive rather than the voiced English
version: air bag /»¤:–b¤k/, blizzard /»blÍz–t/.
• French and Italian do not pronounce the ‘h’ at the beginning of a word (hooligan and
happening) – even if it is a loan / foreign word (or can this fact be regarded as a prove
of the word’s being adapted to the French and Italian lexicon?).
• The English [w] is usually articulated as [v] in French and German (sweater, warrant).
• The Italian language is likely to avoid consonant clusters which are difficult to
pronounce, rendering jukebox as /díub»b‘ks/ (gemination), joint venture as
/dí‘i»v¤ntÉur/, stand-by as /st¤m»bai/ and happening as /»¤ppenin/. On the other hand,
the Italian language also tends to intensify the single occurrence of consonants: yuppie
/»juppi/, thriller /»triller/, scanner /s»kanner/, pole position /polpo»ziÉÉon/, happening
/»¤ppenin/.
• [ô] as in thriller is maintained only in the German language, with a French alteration to
[s] and the Italian version [t]: /»ôrÍlŸ/ (DDUWB), /sÄilóÄ/ (LNPR) and /»triller/ (LOZ).
4.1.4.3. Morphology and syntax
Headwords in dictionaries fulfil certain functions. In addition to their function of merely
proving evidence of the ‘existence’ of a word in language’s lexicon, they give hints to
spelling and – sometimes – recommended word division. Furthermore, they are always
marked as to their grammatical form (meaning, part of speech, irregularities, etc.) and,
thus, indicate how the words are treated (in sentences and utterances) when actually
producing speech according to syntactic patterns.
This section, thus, comprises the examination of the 45 English Internationalisms in
question regarding (1) parts of speech, (2) labelling of grammatical gender in the replica
languages and (3) plural marking , along with (4) other syntactical hints (the way words are
to be combined within an utterance to show relationships in meaning) provided by the
dictionaries.
To start with, I made up the following table illustrating the linguistic information attached
to the headwords in COD, DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ.
71
4.1.4.3.1. Parts of speech
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
28
11
2
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
7
2
33
2
0
0
31
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
3
0
0
0
2
0
-es
inv / Engl pl
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
inv / Engl pl
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
adj inv
0
2
2
2
n m AND adj
n m inv AND adj inv
n m AND adj inv
n m var (inv / Engl pl) AND adj inv
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
3
0
1
I.
n (noun)
n AND v (verb)
n AND adj (adjective)
n AND adj AND adv (adverb)
n AND adj AND adv AND v
adj AND adv
II.
n m (noun masculine)
n m inv (invariable plural))
n m sg (only in singular)
n m var (variable plural)
inv / -s
-e / -s
inv / Engl pl53
n n (noun neuter)
n n inv
n n sg
n n var
-e / -s
n m OR n n
n m OR n n inv
n m OR n n sg
n m OR n n var
inv / -s
-es / -s / -e
n f (noun feminine)
n f inv
n f sg
n f var
n m AND n f
n m AND n f inv
n m AND n f var
Table 1: Parts of speech labels for English Internationalisms
The above chart shows that in a list of 45 Internationalism, we not only find nouns directly
borrowed from English (as was my hypothesis, since verbs always take on native
inflectional morphemes and adjectives are also most likely to be altered by inflection), we
also find 2 adjectives, invariable (uninflected), of course: light and shocking. As for French
and Italian we also learn that there are some words belonging to both types of parts of
53
one of the plural variations is the English plural
72
speech, namely adjective and noun. These are folk, new-look and underground in French
and charter, folk, sandwich and underground in Italian. However, we do not find any
evidence of such words belonging to two word classes in the German list. Actually, I only
found one German Internationalism in the 453-words-list that fits into the group of nouns
and the group of adjectives: top.
Comparing section II to section I in the table, one will notice at once that there are several
English Internationalisms that are also used as a verb in the English language54, with some
of them also existing in the host languages in their verbal form. However, for the purpose
of the examination of Internationalisms, they cannot be taken into consideration since
verbs in the examined replica languages have to be morphologically assimilated and are,
thus, no longer exact reproductions of the English words. We see boomen, chartern and
toasten in DDUWB, tostare and zumare in LOZ and boumer, chartériser, driver,
sandwicher, warranter and zoomer in LNPR. As for these adapted forms I will go into
more detail in the following chapter.
4.1.4.3.2. Gender
The English language differs from the majority of other European languages by not having
a grammatical but a natural gender. Since grammatical gender attribution is obligatory in
the examined host languages, Anglicisms as well as English Internationalisms have to take
up one of the three (German) or two (French and Italian) grammatical genders when
integrated in the foreign language systems. According to Jabłoński55, nouns are classified
by reason of the following criteria:
1. natural gender
2. phonological and graphological structures
3. analogy with the nearest native equivalent (translation)
4. morphological factors such as suffix analogies
54
55
beagle, boom, broker, charter, drive, jigger, sandwich, toast, warrant, zoom
73
The above table 1 reveals that 23 nouns out of 43 German Anglicisms (nouns) are
masculine56, another 10 are neuter57 and 6 are either masculine or neuter58. For reasons of
comparability I will, only for the purpose of this analysis, treat German neuters as being
masculine – assuming that it is the masculine gender in French and Italian corresponding to
the German neuter. The total number of 39 ‘masculine’ English Internationalisms in
DDUWB would, therefore, amount to 91% compared to four feminine nouns59 (9%).
LNPR states 38 words to be of masculine gender60 (88%), 3 feminine nouns61 (7%) and 2
substantives (5%) that can either be feminine or masculine62. The results in LOZ were
similar: 37 masculine substantives63 (86%), 3 feminine nouns64 (7%) and 3 nouns (7%) that
can be either used as feminine or masculine65. Thus, the analysis demonstrates that English
Internationalisms, generally, show a great tendency to be attributed a masculine (neuter)
grammatical gender in the replica languages:
m
n
n&m
f
f&m
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
Table 2: Percentage of noun genders in English Internationalisms
56
German masculine nouns: Airbag, Beagle, Blizzard, Boom, Broker, Cardigan, Charter, Container, Drive,
Folk, Globetrotter, Hooligan, Irish Coffee, Jigger, Overdrive, Scanner, Sweater, Thriller, Toast, Tuner,
Underground, Warrant, Yuppie
57
German neuter nouns: Business, Crosscountry, Establishment, Gadget, Happening, Impeachment,
Management, Recital, Weekend, Zoom
58
German nouns either neuter or masculine: Flashback (Flash-back), Ketchup, New Look, Poster, Sandwich,
Take-off
59
German feminine nouns : Jukebox, Performance, Poleposition, Science-Fiction (Sciencefiction)
60
French masculine words: airbag, beagle, blizzard, boom, broker, business, cardigan, charter, container,
cross-country, drive, establishment, flash-back, folk, gadget, happening, hooligan, impeachment, irish coffee,
jigger, jukebox, ketchup, management, new look, overdrive, poster, recital, sandwich, scanner, sweater, takeoff, thriller, toast, tuner, underground, warrant, week-end, zoom
61
French feminine nouns: performance, pole position, science-fiction
62
French nouns either masculine or feminine: globe-trotter, yuppie
63
Italian masculine nouns: airbag, beagle, blizzard, boom, broker, business, cardigan, charter, container,
cross-country, drive, establishment, flashback, folk, gadget, happening, impeachment, Irish coffee, jigger,
jukebox, ketchup, management, new look, overdrive, poster, recital, sandwich, scanner, sweater, take-off,
thriller, toast, tuner, underground, warrant, weekend, zoom
64
Italian feminine nouns : performance, pole position, science-fiction
65
Italian nouns either feminine or masculine: globe-trotter, hooligan, yuppie
74
Concerning the predominant group of masculine nouns in French and Italian, this
classification is mainly due to suffix analogies and the tendency of unmarked nouns to
adopt masculine gender. Unmarked nouns are nouns that do not provide morphological
clues as to which class of grammatical gender they would fit best: blizzard, cardigan,
cross-country, drive, flash-back, folk, gadget, etc. Suffix analogies, on the other hand,
imply a certain morphological indication: English nouns ending in –ment are analogous to
French substantives ending in –ment and Italian nouns ending in –mento. They are,
therefore, treated as masculine. Nouns ending in –er are dealt with as the masculine suffix
–eur in French and the Italian masculine –ore.
As for the nouns ending in –tion and –ance another analogy can be observed, with the
corresponding native suffixes –zione / –anza in Italian and –tion / –ance in French to mark
feminine substantives.
The German language is a bit more complicated regarding gender attribution as there are
three grammatical genders, namely feminine, masculine and neuter, which have been, as to
unmarked nouns, almost arbitrarily fixed: der Airbag, der Boom, das Gadget, der Folk.
The grammatical gender of these nouns sometimes cannot even be explained by means of
the nearest equivalent, as this would be das Luftkissen for der Airbag, die Hochkonjunktur
or die Nachfrage for der Boom, der Werbeartikel for das Gadget and die Volksmusik for
der Folk.
There are, on the other hand, quite a number of ‘native’ suffix analogies to be observed:
nouns in –tion are feminine (Poleposition, Sciencefiction), nouns in –ment, –ness and –ing
are neuter (Happening, Establishment, Business, Impeachment, Management) and
substantives ending in –er are masculine (Broker, Scanner, Jigger). However, there is one
exception: Poster is classified as being primarily treated as neuter (probably owing to ‘das
Bild’).
A comparison of the words in each gender category on the level of all three host languages
proves my assumption that German neuter nouns are treated as masculine in French and
Italian since I did not find a German neuter Anglicism in the feminine sections of my
Italian and French results.
75
4.1.4.3.3. Plural marking
Plural marking of English Internationalisms in French shows a certain regularity with 40
occurrences of the plural –s grapheme (and three cases of invariable plural: jukebox, new
look, take-off). It is, however, doubtful whether the [s] or [z] is actually realised in spoken
language.
As for the plural of Internationalisms in the Italian language my analysis demonstrates a
general tendency to invariability (38 cases of invariability and 5 occurrences of variation:
either English plural or invariable plural), a finding that is justified and taken further by
Maurizio Dardano66:
“A norm which has been met with a great deal of consensus in the recent past prescribes that
foreignisms of high frequency should not take on a plural marker (for example, il bar – i bar, il film
– i film, lo sport – gli sport); on the other hand, those of low frequency should retain the English
plural. Since this distinction appears for the most part to be based on subjective criteria, there is a
prevailing tendency in today’s press never to indicate the plural; […] Also in essay writing use
oscillates; the plural marker appears above all in specialist texts (quotations of technical terms).”
However, the only words to which LOZ attributes the possibility of retaining the English
plural are globe-trotter, Irish coffee, jukebox, pole position and sandwich, words that
undoubtedly are frequently used.
The German language, represented by DDUWB, for the most part preserves the English
plural ‘s’ (20 occurrences), furthermore, there are three nouns that are assigned the status
of an uncountable noun in singular (Folk, Underground and Business) and seven nouns
with invariable plural (Broker, Container, Globerotter, Scanner, Sweater, Thriller, Tuner).
With all of them ending in –‘er’, one might argue that this category of words has been
assimilated to German native patterns of plural construction due to their being listed in a
German monolingual dictionary, but what about Poster and Jigger? Each word is attached
variant plurals (either invariable or the English plural ‘s’). Other variant plural markings
are Sandwichs/Sandwiches/Sandwiche and Toasts/Toaste.
66
Dardano, English influence on Italian, p. 238 – 239
76
4.1.4.3.4. Other syntactic indications
Parts of speech markings and information on plural marking right at the beginning of the
entry (after the headword) indicate syntactic construction patterns, as they are clear clues to
how the English words are to be employed in the language systems of the host languages
(nouns are differently to be dealt with than verbs or adjectives).
There is no need to point out that DDUWB, in addition to parts of speech and plural
indications also states the marking of the genitive case, since the German language has
different inflexion in its four cases. I will, however, refrain from dwelling on the
grammatical cases as they are of little relevance to my comparison with the French and the
Italian language (both of them only attributing cases to pronouns)67.
As I have already covered plural inflexion of nouns, I will now turn to the special category
of nouns that are also used as adjectives in French and Italian:
With the French adjective-nouns only folk is inflected in both cases (un chanteur de folk,
des groupes folks), new-look is both, invariable as a noun and when acting as an adjective,
and underground is inflected when used as noun and invariable in adjectival use (les
undergrounds, des films underground). The Italian Internationalisms charter, folk and
underground are invariable, thus uninflected, as nouns and as adjectives (il volo charter,
una canzone folk, delle commedie underground), whereas sandwich is invariable in
adjectival use (le strutture sandwich) and can be inflected when used as a noun (due
sandwiches al prosciutto).
67
I came across an interesting commentary concerning misspelling of the possessive/genitive case in German
which is due to English influence: “The widespread misspelling of ‘s in the genitive singular nouns in
German, especially in proper names, such as Goethe’s Gedichte, Shakespeare’s Dramen, Frank’s Bücher,
Berlin’s Denkmäler, likewise goes back to the English model. In England, too, it came about erroneously.
This can be demonstrated by its historical origin: beside the original inflected genitive singular (Middle
English the king(e)s son, German des Königs Sohn) stood the possessive dative (Middle English the king
(h)is son, German dem König sein Sohn). As the latter popular construction had spread out in the early New
English period the grammarians of the 17th century, who endeavoured to regulate the English language but
were still unfamiliar with its history, mistook his with its weakly pronounced h- for the origin of the genitive
ending and recommended therefore to put an apostrophe before the genitive -s in order to show that one or
more letters had been left out. This equation of the two grammatical constructions did by no means apply to
feminine nouns, as for example the queen her son, which, however, did not prevent the early English
grammarians from transferring the masculine ‘s out of its pretended his to the genitive singular of all the
nouns. This linguistic misconception also led at the same time to the restricted use of the genitive ‘s to the
possessive case.” (Lehnert, English loans in GDR German, p. 141 – 142)
77
4.1.4.4. Semantics and stylistics
The primary object of this section is to point out correspondences, similarities and
divergence in the use of Anglicisms on the semantic (referring to the meanings provided by
the dictionaries) and on the stylistic level (referring to style levels and the speaker’s
attitudes68.)
4.1.4.4.1. English Internationalisms on the semantic level
“Lexikalische Einheiten werden nie von Sprache zu Sprache als vollständige ’dictionary entries’
entlehnt. Die Entstehung eines Wortes kann nur in konkreten Lebenssituationen geschehen, d.h. ’in
the form of a concrete path. If a word has been borrowed in more than one situation, it may have
more than one sense in the borrowing language, and consequently the dictionary entry of this word
in the borrowing language will have more than one path.’.“69
These ‘paths’ mentioned above, on the practical lexicographical level are visualised as
shown in the following entry taken from LNPR:
performance [pDYfCYmSs] n. f.
• 1839; mot angl., de l'a. fr. parformance (XVIe), de parformer « accomplir, exécuter »
1♦ Résultat chiffré obtenu dans une compétition (par un cheval, un athlète). Les performances d'un
champion. Performance homologuée. Une médiocre performance. —Voiture classée première à
l'indice de performance, selon sa cylindrée. — Les performances d'un cadre, d'un vendeur. Les
performances d'une usine, d'un produit.
◊ Psychol. Test de performance : test non verbal d'appréciation des facultés intellectuelles. — (1966)
◊ Ling. Réalisation d'un acte de parole par une personne (encodage ou décodage). Compétence et
performance.
2♦ Résultat optimal qu'une machine peut obtenir. Les performances d'un ordinateur, d'un avion, d'un
système.
◊ Fig. Exploit, succès. ⇒ prouesse. Le travail a été exécuté en moins de temps qu'il n'était prévu,
c'est une belle performance! « Le capitaine-adjoint ne fut pourtant pas ébloui par cette performance »
(Dorgelès).
Thus, the noun performance encloses two paths leading to two different meanings.
Meaning 1 is further divided into two paths (meanings special to particular subject fields:
psychology and linguistics) and meaning 2 encloses a sub-path to the metaphorical
meaning of the word.
68
69
cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 183 – 186
Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 120
78
‘Using’ these lexicographical paths to examine semantic variations, I found out that 17 out
of 45 headwords show exactly corresponding paths in all three dictionaries: air bag,
blizzard, cardigan, container, cross-country, globe-trotter, hooligan, impeachment, Irish
coffee, jukebox, ketchup, pole position, science-fiction, shocking, thriller, weekend and
yuppie.
These words almost exclusively have only one meaning cited in the four examined
dictionaries – except for pole position which additionally takes on the metaphorical
meaning of ‘privileged status’ or ‘preferential treatment’ in French and Italian and
container whose second ‘path’ points to a semantic narrowing (specification) in German,
as it is referred to as ‘a box used for the shipment of books’.
A second group of words (8 cases) reveals corresponding meanings in all three replica
languages in question, but borrows only one meaning from the original English word:
• beagle (takes on the meaning of ‘a small hound of a breed with a short coat, used for
hunting’, but neglects ‘an informer or spy’)
• establishment (borrows only the meaning of The Establishment, leaving aside eight
other meanings, e.g. ‘a place of business’, ‘a household’, ‘a Church system organised by
law’)
• folk (is referred to as the colloquial abbreviation of English folk music, overlooking
other meanings, such as ’people in general’ and ‘one’s parents or relatives’)
• happening (does not borrow the much ‘broader’ meaning of ‘an event or occurrence’
from English, but is cited as ‘an improvised or spontaneous theatrical etc. performance’
only)
• management (excludes ‘the technique of treating a disease’ and ‘trickery or deceit’ in its
borrowing process from English, only referring to ‘the action or process of managing’
and ‘the professional administration of business concerns and the people engaged in
this’)
• new look (takes on the general meaning of ‘revised or new appearance or presentation’
and ignores the specialised English ‘a style of women’s clothing introduced after the
Second World War, featuring long full skirts and a generous use of material in contrast
to wartime austerity’)
79
• overdrive (does not apply to the second meaning in English: ‘a state of high or
excessive activity’ and only borrows ‘an additional speed-increasing gear’)
• recital (is referred to as ‘the performance of a programme of music by a solo
instrumentalist or singer’, leaving aside ‘a detailed account of’, ‘a narrative’ and ‘the
part of a legal document that states the fact’)
Jabłoński70 states that semantic integration of a foreign word into the lexicon of a host
language is not only restricted to a quantitative reduction (as with the eight preceding
words), but “it also affects the internal structure of such an entry [scil. in a dictionary]
modifying its paths … This leads to the phenomenon traditionally known under the
headings of the narrowing, extension and shift of meaning.”71
Thus, the third group comprises 20 cases of semantic variation concerning the borrowing
from English, with the French, German and Italian languages each acting differently when
taking over original English words: boom, broker, business, charter, drive, flashback,
gadget, jigger, light, performance, poster, sandwich, scanner, sweater, take-off, toast,
tuner, underground, warrant and zoom.
4.1.4.4.1.1. Semantic narrowing
A narrowing of meaning takes place when a word being borrowed from a foreign language
takes on a ‘specialised’ meaning in a replica language – only covering a small part of the
definition in its original meaning, e.g. in German the meaning of container is narrowed
down to ‘a boxed used for shipment of books’ and boom is reduced to ‘Hausse an der
Börse’.
4.1.4.4.1.2. Semantic extension
Extension or broadening in meaning occurs when a foreign word or loan word additionally
takes on another meaning, one the word does not have in the donor language, but that can
be traced back to one of the original meanings e.g.:
70
71
Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 121
80
• drive, in German, is broadened to ‘a special type of jazz music characterised by ever
accelerating rhythm’
• gadget, in German, is referred to as ‘a small gift to consumers for advertising reasons’
(what is, strictly speaking, a semantic shift), whereas the French and the Italian
language take on a meaning quasi antonymous to the original English one: ‘a useless
object or innovation’
• performance, in French and Italian, is added the meaning of ‘ numeral result in a
competition, e.g. number of points of a horse in a show jumping, or number of points
achieved by an athlete’
• sandwich, used as an apposition, is metaphorically used in French and Italian as ‘a kind
of structure’; in German it also denotes a special piece of equipment used in a political
campaign (it is in form of two advertising placards worn on chest and back)
• pole position, in French and Italian, takes on the metaphorical meaning of ‘privileged
status’ or ‘preferential treatment’
• take-off, in Italian, is also used for marking the beginning of an economical rise in
underdeveloped countries
4.1.4.4.1.3. Semantic shift
A shift in meaning takes place when the meaning / or one of the meanings of the borrowed
word has nothing in common with its original meaning in the source language, e.g.:
• Apart from the original meaning of the word, boom in French also denotes ‘a scandal’
or ‘a provoking advert’. Another meaning describes the ‘annual party of a French
school named H.E.C.’.
• The Italian meaning of jigger is altered to ‘a machine used for colouring textiles’. In
French, jigger is labelled ‘a device for electric transformation’.
• The English meaning of flashback (‘a scene in a film or novel set in time earlier than the
main action) undergoes a semantic shift in German to ‘a conditioned drugged state
without actually taking drugs’ (and is broadened to ‘a long ago episode of one’s life that
suddenly comes to one’s mind’ in Italian)
81
4.1.4.4.2. English Internationalisms on the stylistic level
Stylistics is defined as a branch of linguistics that studies variation in language use (style):
“Style is seen as the (conscious or unconscious) selection of a set of linguistic features from all the
possibilities of a language. The effects these features convey can be understood only by intuitively
sensing the choices that have been made (as we react to the linguistic impact of a religious
archaism, a poetic scheme, or a joke), and it is usually enough simply to respond to the effect in
this way. But there are often occasions when we have to develop a more analytical approach, as
when we are asked our opinion about a particular use of language. Here, when we need to explain
our responses to others, or even advise others how to respond […], our intuition needs to be
supplemented by a more objective account of style. It is this approach which is known as
stylistics.” 72
Since my reference material on English Internationalisms is based on dictionaries and by
no account applies to actual (individual) language usage, this section only covers a
theoretical approach to the use of English words. I will, however deal with the question of
stylistics in more detail – and on a more practical level – in chapter 6: Attitudes towards
the use of Anglicisms.
The Dudenredaktion claims foreign words to fulfil the following stylistic functions:73
• Refinement on the connotative and associative level
Sie ermöglichen inhaltliche Nuancierung durch Hervorrufung spezifischer Assoziationen.
Unerwünschte Assoziationen oder nicht zutreffende Vorstellungen können durch
Fremdwortgebrauch vermieden werden. Durch so genannte Bezeichnungsexotismen, Wörter, die
auf Sachen, Personen und Begriffe der fremdsprachigen Umwelt beschränkt bleiben, kann
wirkungsvoll ein kulturspezifisches Kolorit erzeugt werden. Daneben vermögen Fremdwörter ein
bestimmtes Lebensgefühl zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Wer so redet, möchte jugendlich, dynamisch,
zeitgemäß (trendy) und weltläufig wirken, und dazu dienen heute vor allem englische Fremdwörter
(Anglizismen).
• Refinement on the style level
Fremdwörter erlauben eine Nuancierung der Stilebenen Sie können verschiedene Stilhöhen
erzeugen: eine gehobene, eine neutrale, aber auch eine umgangssprachlich-jargonhafte.
72
73
Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 66
cf. Dudenredaktion: Zum Thema. Das Fremdwort – Freund oder Feind at http://www.duden.de
82
Nicht selten erscheint das Fremdwort eleganter, da pointierter, bisweilen auch klanglich besser zum
Wortsinn passend. Auch subjektive Haltungen und Einstellungen kann es zum Ausdruck bringen.
Fremdwörter ermöglichen Variation im Ausdruck. Um störende Wiederholungen zu vermeiden,
gibt es zum Fremdwort oft keine Alternative.
• Refinement on the sociolinguistic level:
Fremdwörter haben versachlichende Funktion und ermöglichen dadurch das taktvolle Sprechen
über heikle, unangenehme oder tabuisierte Themen. Fremdwörter ermöglichen die Anspielung auf
Bildungsinhalte. Sie stellen Wissensappelle dar und haben dadurch sozial integrierende bzw.
ausgrenzende Funktion.
• Refinement on the level of text production
Fremdwörter können eine Signalfunktion haben, d. h., sie können Aufmerksamkeit erregen. So
finden sich Fremdwörter (vor allem Anglizismen) häufig in der Kommunikationsbranche, im
Marketing und in der Werbung.
Fremdwörter ermöglichen Präzision und Kürze. Diese erfüllen stilistisch zwar keinen Selbstzweck,
können aber in bestimmten Redesituationen oder Textsorten (z. B. in der Fachsprache)
wünschenswert sein. Manche Fremdwörter, vor allem Fachwörter, lassen sich überhaupt nicht
durch ein einziges deutsches Wort ersetzen; oft müssten sie umständlich umschrieben werden.
4.1.4.5. Authentic English Internationalisms - assimilated forms causing ambiguity
Having thoroughly analysed 45 ‘genuine’ English Internationalisms by means of their
pronunciation, I may conclude that, strictly speaking, the majority of the examined words
would fall under the category of assimilated Anglicisms, as they are assimilated on the
phonological level. On the international level, speakers of English, French, German and
Italian will surely understand compromise transmorphemisation, but will a German
speaker understand the French /manaímS/ (management) or the Italian /»r¤tÉital/ (recital),
both occurrences of free transmorphemisation?
In addition, summarising my results of semantic variations in linguistic borrowing, I would
argue that there are quite a number of words that are not unmistakably to be understood by
speakers of English, French, German and Italian when interacting (see group three), with
the Englishman speaking of jigger as ‘an iron golf club with a narrow face’ for example
and the Italian referring to jigger as ‘a machine used for colouring textiles’.
83
It is for such reasons that I would have to revise my former requirements (accurate
reproduction in spelling as a headword, ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphenspelling as well as spelling of compounds in all languages) by adding two more
requirements an authentic Internationalism has to meet, namely zero transmorphemisation
or compromise transmorphemisation AND variation in meaning only in terms of
narrowing or quantitative reduction of the original meanings.
Thus, having analysed 45 English words that occur in a French, German and an Italian
monolingual dictionary, only 12 words meet the above requirements: air bag, cardigan,
container, globe-trotter, impeachment, Irish coffee, jukebox, ketchup, shocking, thriller and
weekend.
For the purpose of this paper, however, I will stick to my claim that the introductory
sorting (the list of 452 words) to represent English Internationalisms, as assimilated forms
show quite more considerable divergence in their characteristic features.
4.1.
Assimilated Internationalisms
Assimilation of foreign words primarily involves assimilation according to the rules of
grapheme-phoneme realisation and representation in the replica language and assimilation
on the morphological level (inflectional and derivational).
4.2.1. Assimilation according to the rules of grapheme-phoneme realisation and
representation
In my huge corpus of more than 9,000 words I found forty occurrences of ‘foursomes’ with
grapheme-phoneme assimilation, meaning that a host language modifies foreign words
(that-are-to-be-integrated) by means of an assimilated spelling corresponding to native
symbol-sound relations.
Here are some examples:
84
English boomerang
German Bumerang
English cashmere
French cachemire
German Kaschmir
English
French
German
Italian
kangaroo
kangourou
Känguru
canguro
English cheque
German Scheck
English
French
cheviot
cheviotte
English clubhouse
German Klubhaus
English foxtrot
German Foxtrott
English
French
tick
tique
Interesting to note is that within these 40 occurrences of assimilation through graphemephoneme representation, the Italian language only once modifies the spelling of an
‘English’ word (kangaroo – canguro), by replacing the ‘k’ by the more commonly used ‘c’
and assimilating ‘oo’ to ‘o’. The ‘u’ might be the result of the English [Ÿ] also being
assimilated to native sound patterns.
On the whole, it is primarily the German language that assimilates English words by means
of grapheme-phoneme relations, with 12 cases of replacing initial ‘c’ by ‘k’: Kaschmir,
Kalypso, Kamera, Kameramann, Känguru, Kanter, Katgut, Klubhaus, Kommando,
Kondom, Kricket, Krocket.
85
In syllable ending, however, it is mainly French that integrates an English word in spelling:
cachemire, kangourou, caravane, cheviotte, condome, skif, snif, starlette, tique, transfert,
zip.
4.2.2. Assimilation on the morphological level
I dare say that assimilation on the morphological level (be it inflectional or derivational) is
the best clue to claim a foreign word to be fully adapted by a host language.
4.2.2.1. Verbs
To start with, let us turn to the morphological assimilation of verbs. Generally speaking,
this assimilation follows certain rules in the replica languages examined. Principally,
English words are assimilated by adding the infinitive inflections
• -en (and -ieren for English verbs ending in -ise) in German: boomen, dopen, flirten,
klicken, mixen, sniffen, zoomen and kannibalisieren, hypnotisieren, makadamisieren,
optimieren, randomisieren, realisieren, standardisieren, visualisieren, vulkanisieren
• -er in French: boycotter, doper, cannibaliser, cliquer, coloniser, distancer, formater,
merceriser, mixer, quantifier, tatouer, zoomer
• -are in Italian: boicottare, cannibalizzare, cliccare, colonizzare, dopare, dribblare,
formattare, implementare, randomizzare, tatuare
There are, however, certain irregularities to be found in the German assimilation process:
• Certain English verbs not ending in -ise do take on the German -ieren: boykottieren,
formatieren, implementieren
As for verb inflection, assimilated English verbs act as if they were native –a point of
major discussion concerning the German language. One might argue that the mention of a
word in the prevailing German monolingual dictionary, the Duden, is proof enough to
apply native German inflection rules, and it is. Uncertainties only arise with the spelling of
86
the past participle of words that are not stated in the DDUWB as being ‘native’ or adapted,
e.g. forwarden – ich habe forgewardet / ich habe geforwardet, downloaden – ich habe
gedownloadet / ich habe downgeloadet. These words generally follow the rules of the
nearest native equivalent (weiterleiten – ich habe weitergeleitet, herunterladen – ich habe
heruntergeladen).
4.2.2.2. Nouns
As a general observation, most of the morphologically assimilated nouns cited as ‘English’
in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ are of Greek and/or Latin origin. The most commonly found
derivational morphemes, thus, are:
• -cracy/-cratie/-kratie/-crazia: to form nouns of state and quality (from Latin ‘-cratia’
and Greek ‘-kratia’ = ‘strength, power’)
• -ism/-isme/-ismus-/ismo: to form nouns, especially denoting systems, principles and
ideologial movements (from Latin ‘-ismus’ and Greek ‘-ismos’ or ‘-isma’)
• -ist/-iste/-ist/-ista: to form personal nouns (from Latin ‘-ista’ and Greek ‘-istes’)
• -ity/-ité/-ität/-itá: to form nouns denoting quality or condition (from Latin ‘-itas’)
• -tion/-tion/-ion/-zione: to form nouns denoting action, condition, etc. [also: -ion, -ation,
-ition, -ution] (from Latin ‘-tio’)
As examples of morphological assimilation originating in Greek and Latin influences let
me mention:
English
French
German
Italian
plutocracy
plutocratie
Plutokratie
plutocrazia
English
French
German
Italian
behaviourism
behaviorisme
Behaviorismus
behaviorismo
87
English
French
German
Italian
adventist
adventiste
adventist
avventista
English
French
German
Italian
electricity
électricité
Elektrizität
elettricità
English
French
German
Italian
acculturation
acculturation
Akkulturation
acculturazione
Apart from Greek and Latin influences, there are other cases of morphological assimilation
to be detected:
• The English suffix -er, in French, is likely to be replaced by -eur (assembleur,
handicappeur, joggeur) or -aire (dispensaire, partenaire)
• The Italian language tends to add a final vowel to English words (alligatore, dollaro,
elfo, flanella, monitore)
Concluding the section concerning assimilated forms of English Internationalisms, I would
like to point out once again that morphologically assimilated forms of borrowed words as
well as foreign words adapted by native grapheme-phoneme patterns are no longer felt as
being an ‘intruder’ to the lexicon of the host languages.
4.3. Prospects
Before turning to ‘Attitudes towards Anglicisms’ let me just set up the following
hypothesis for the future borrowing from English and/or the development of the French,
German and Italian lexicon to come. This thesis can only be backed by my lexicographical
and highly theoretical reference material and is, therefore, based on my being a native
speaker of German:
88
As we have boomen as verb for Boom or chartern according to Charter in German, tostare
as verb to toast and zumare corresponding to zoom in Italian and boumer, charteriser and
zoomer in French, I dare say that – in the long run – the vocabularies of the examined
replica languages will also take on (some of) the verbal forms (if they exist) of English
nouns being in the dictionaries.
My assumption, although rather subjective, is based on the following facts:
Apart from ‘older’ forms, such as filmen, grillen, handicappen, kidnappen, liften, puzzeln,
sponsorn, sprayen, stoppen, testen, we have the following verbs in German vocabulary,
even though they are not evidenced in DDUWB.
broken
brunchen
chippen
clustern
crashen
dancen
floppen
jazzen
jetten
broker
brunch
chip
cluster
crash
dance
flop
jazz
jet
jobben
rappen
scannen
job
rap
scanner
swingen
toppen
swing
top
twisten
twist
to act (or behave like a broker)
to have a brunch
to perform a golf shot called ‘chip’
to arbitrarily put together unsuitable things
to be involved in a car crash
(esp. in ‘abdancen’) to dance in an untamed manner
to result in a fiasco
to produce jazz music (to dance to jazz music)
to move quickly from one place to another (usually
over long distances)
to work
to produce rap music
to ‘read’ printed texts or pictures and transfer them to
the computer
to dance
to achieve a place or position higher than something
else
to dance
And I may argue that it won’t be long until we even get forms such as: brainstormen,
breaken, finishen, glamourisieren, jaccuzieren, lunchen, matchen, scouten, singeln, etc. in
German, or brainstormer, jacuzzer, singler in French and breakare, glamourizzare,
lunchare and scoutare in Italian.
89
5.
ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH INFLUENCE AND THE
USE OF ANGLICISMS
In the preceding chapters I have pointed out how English words are dealt with in the
French, German and Italian languages. My analysis here has been primarily based on
dictionary entries of the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries of the languages in
question, but, as already mentioned in chapter 2, dictionaries by no means represent actual
language usage. And it is for this reason – and the fact that ongoing discussions concerning
the flux of English words seem to be prominent in (not only) linguistic circles – that, in this
chapter I will deal with people’s attitudes towards Anglicisms in the French, German and
Italian speaking worlds.
Furthermore, in a separate section in this chapter I will refer to projects aimed against
English influence that are currently in progress.
5.1. Questionnaires
The method appropriate to my research project would seem to be the use of questionnaires.
As a technique I adopted the multiple-choice modus – since this procedure is the only way
to get comparable results. The questions were selected along the following criteria:
1. When do non-native speakers of English in the examined language communities
most probably use English words
a.
orally / in writing?
b.
in working life / in everyday life ?
In this context I assume that Anglicisms will be equally applied in working and everyday
life in the German and the Italian speaking world, with a majority of Anglicisms used in
everyday life in the French speaking community.
As for the distribution of Anglicisms in text and discourse, I expect English words to be
primarily used in spoken discourse in all three language communities in question.
90
2. Why do people in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds use Anglicisms?
This set of questions deals with stylistics in language usage. As answers to opt for I
proposed: (1) because English words are shorter and more precise than the corresponding
word in one’s mother tongue, (2) because there is no equivalent in one’s mother tongue,
(3) because the use of English words seems to indicate a certain kind of trendiness and
modernity, (4) because some English words are internationally fixed and/or used and (5) in
order to avoid repetition of words in speech or writing.
I assume that the answers (1) and (4) are most likely to be given by the majority of
speakers of French, German and Italian, with only a small percentage to selecting (2) and
(5) in French and a prevalence of German speaking people choosing (3).
3. Are people aware of using so-called loan blends, i.e. hybrid forms with one English
element and one of the native language?
Undoubtedly, I expect all speakers involved in my research to answer this question with a
clear ‘yes’.
4. What are the speakers attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms with respect to their
mother tongue? Where do they think the influence comes from? Do they still notice
English words in actual language usage? Are there cases of a provocative use of
Anglicisms to be observed?
I presume speakers of French to not opt for English words to enrich the French language
and I think that there will be only a small number of people choosing the option that
English words are no longer noticed in everyday language usage.
The majority of the speakers of German and Italian, however, will surely give as an answer
that they no longer notice English words and that they enrich their mother tongue.
Concerning the origin of the spread of English words in other languages’ vocabularies, I
expect all three language communities to opt for the dominance of the US in various
sectors such as economy, technology, etc.
91
As to the use of English words due to snobbery or showing-off I am not sure about the
answers to be selected in the various languages, but I think that primarily speakers of
German might opt for this answer.
5. Where do people most frequently notice the use of English words?
Within this section I proposed the following fields of application: sports, techniques and
technology, the Internet, youth language, advertising, science, business and economy and
politics.
Most probably, as for myself, the ranking in all language communities will be: Internet,
youth language, sports, business and economy, advertising, technology, science and
politics.
5.1.1. Procedure
As the object of my research project was to find out about the attitudes of speakers of
French, German and Italian towards the use of English words, my method implied
addressing these peoples of the different language communities. But how address them and
get a representative choice? I decided to subscribe to French, German and Italian news
groups and chat rooms in the Internet in order to get some email addresses to which I sent
my questionnaires translated into the respective languages (The English version of my
questionnaire is shown in the following on page 93, with the French, German and Italian
versions to look at in appendix G).
Without doubt, my sending e-mails to other users of the Internet slightly distorts my
results, since knowledge of English can be taken for granted with people familiar with the
Internet. However, this method seemed to me the only possibility to get appropriate
feedback.
Unfortunately, from more than 100 e-mails I sent to each, speakers of French, German and
Italian, only about 30 people were willing to support my statistical study by answering my
questionnaire. I got thirty-eight e-mails from speakers of German, twenty-nine from
speakers of Italian and twenty-eight from speakers of French.
92
For reasons of comparison I had to fix the number of questionnaires to deal with. I decided
to analyse thirty questionnaires, meaning, to just leave out eight questionnaires from
German speakers (the ones coming in last), to ask a friend to send e-mails to Italian friends
of his and to address the Société Française in Klagenfurt in order to get the missing
answers.
In my questionnaires I also asked people to fill in their age and gender – as I really
expected to make out some correlation (in age at least). It is, however, the case that no
central points can be drawn from the answered questionnaires. It is for this reason that I
will not consider age and gender when analysing the results of the questionnaires in the
subsequent chapter.
Still, as to the question of possible correlation concerning gender, it is noteworthy that it
was primarily male participants in German, namely 23 out of 30 (77%), and principally
female contributors in French (21 out of 30 = 70%) and Italian (23 out of 30 = 77%).
Another aspect I will not take into consideration in the analysis of the answered
questionnaires but that, certainly, is worth mentioning is the distribution of age. Looking at
age as regards the participants of my project on attitudes towards the English influence on
other languages, I found out that one can best make out these five age groups: From 15 to
24, from 25 to 34, from 35 to 44, from 45 to 54 and from 55 to 64. The only analogy to be
detected is that speakers of French, German and Italian between 25 and 34 alike were most
ready to answer my e-mail:
16
15
14
French
14
German
11
12
Italian
10
10
7
8
8
6
5
6
4
4
2
4
2
1
1
2
0
0
15 - 24
25 - 34
35 - 44
45 - 54
55 - 64
Fig.9: The distribution of age concerning the answered questionnaires
93
Here is the English version of my questionnaire:
QUESTIONNAIRE
Help!!! Anglomania!!! My name is Philippa Maurer-Stroh and I am studying English linguistics at the
University of Klagenfurt, Austria. At the moment I am working on my diploma thesis and I would like
to kindly ask you for you help in this matter. All I would need is about 3 minutes of your time ... So,
what is it about? I am carrying out a survey of the use of / and attitudes towards English words in
modern French / German / Italian. Well then, please take your time to answer the following
questions and return the questionnaire to me. The questionnaire is anonymous and your answers
shall only be used to draw up a statistical study of the current usage of language in the French /
German / Italian speaking world.
Please mark with a cross where applicable -> replace o by x
(you can give more than one answer)
1. I use English words
o
in working life
o
in everyday life
o
o
in writing
orally
2. I use English words
o
because they are shorter and more precise – example(s):
o
because there is no French / German / Italian equivalent –
example(s):
o
because they are "in" – example(s):
o
if the terms are internationally fixed / used – example(s):
o
in order to avoid repetition of words in speech or writing –
example(s):
3. I also use
o
hybrid forms – compound words of both languages (marketing
téléphonique, Last-Minute-Angebot, calciatore-manager)
4. The use of English words
o
enriches the French / German / Italian language
o
is due to the dominant role of the US in several sectors
o
displays a certain kind of snobbism or showing-off
o
does not strike me any longer, I sometimes do not even notice
them
5. I notice English words, terms and expressions primarily in the field of
o
sports – example(s):
o
techniques & technology – example(s):
o
the Internet – example(s):
o
youth language – example(s):
o
advertising – example(s):
o
business & economy – example(s):
o
science – example(s):
o
politics – example(s):
Age:
Gender:
Thank you !!!
94
5.1.2. Results
To start with, in this section I will deal with the results of the respective languages
separately. This analysis is, then, followed by a summarising comparison of the languages
involved.
5.1.2.1. French
When setting up the questionnaire, my hypothesis as to the distribution of Anglicisms in
spoken discourse and written texts was that the majority of speakers of all languages would
opt for the use of English words in spoken language – as is justified by the below diagram.
none
7%
in writing
7%
both
37%
orally
49%
Question 1a
Fig.10: Anglicisms in (French) spoken discourse and written texts
I did not, however, assume that 37% of the speakers of French would select both areas of
application (in writing and orally) since this figure implies not only a rise in the percentage
of English words used in spoken language, but also an increase in occurrences of English
words in French texts.
***
As to my assumption that the use of Anglicisms in everyday language will dominate in the
French spoken word (as La Loi Toubon to some extent restricts the use of English words),
the following illustration reveals that there is quite a balance in France concerning
diffusion of Anglicisms: 34% selected ‘working life’ as the area of predominant use of
95
English words, 33% opted for ‘everyday life’ and 30% tend to use them equally often in
both areas.
none
3%
working life
34%
both
30%
everyday life
33%
Question 1b
Fig.11: Anglicisms in (French) everyday and professional use
To back this result I found some plausible explanations of why speakers of French often
(also) use English words in their job, although the French state constantly tries to
intervene:
• “The dominance of English as a language of scientific publication dictates the language of
scientists. A study carried out in 1984 among researchers in Strasbourg […] revealed that 85
percent of the information they treated was in English and 12.5% in French.”74
• “The use of English in industry is a direct result of the internationalization of the economy. […]
A company usually operates at four levels: applied research, manufacturing, management, and
marketing. Since the application of research depends on scientific researchm it involves more or
less the same linguistic practices as those of the laboratory; this expains the frequent use of
English. In manufacturing, the use of English may be due to the use of techniques engineered in
that language, or the use of tools and machines with accompanying notices in English ”75
• “At the managerial level, English is used to facilitate communication between staff and
members from different linguistic backgrounds, between different branches of the company
located in different countries, and in the use of electronic hardware (mainly computers) […].”76
• “Large international companies have institutionalized English as a company language which
means that its use is compulsory for any form of written and oral communication within the
company […].”77
***
74
Truchot, The spread of English, p. 66 – 67
76
Truchot, The spread of English, p. 68
77
Truchot, The spread of English, p. 68
75
96
The diagram below verifies my assumption that ‘shorter and more precise’ and
‘internationally used’ (as attributed characteristics of English words in a foreign lexicon)
will dominate in my findings on the use of Anglicisms in the French speaking world.
shorter & more
precise
28%
no equivalent
25%
avoid
repetition
4%
"in"
15%
Question 2
internationally
fixed/used
28%
Fig.12 The use of Anglicisms in French
As to ‘no equivalent’, I was of the opinion that this criterion of use will fall under one of
the minor represented categories, such as ‘in order to avoid repetition’ or ‘to imply a
certain kind of trendiness’ – since there are even committees in France that are constantly
in search of a French equivalent (be it an older word that gets a new meaning or a
neologism), a phenomenon I will deal with in the second part of this chapter.
***
Hybrid forms
no
33%
yes
67%
Question 3
Fig.13: The use of hybrid forms in French
97
Hybrid forms, as I assumed, are used by far the majority of all speakers of French. It is the
67%, however, that strikes me (since I expected a 100% ‘yes’). One might argue, here, that
people are probably not even aware of using these forms, i.e. they no longer notice them (a
hypothesis that is justified by the following illustration).
***
no longer
recognised
37%
enrichment
22%
snobbism
8%
US dominance
33%
Question 4
Fig.14: French attitudes towards Anglicisms
It is nteresting to note that in France, a nation full of linguistic purists, 22% claim English
words to enrich the French language and 37% state that they no longer notice the use of
Anglicisms (an indication of the full integration of some English words).
Only 8% of the speakers of French bother about some people’s use of English as a means
of snobbery.
***
The last section of my questionnaire concerns the distribution of English words in varying
sectors of both everyday and working life.
As was my assumption, it is primarily in the field of computers, namely the Internet that
detect English words can be detected(27%), followed by sports (21%) and technology
amounting to 19% (a branch that I would have ranked as the penultimate):
98
technology
19%
internet
27%
sports
21%
politics
science
2%
4%
business &
economy
Question 5
6%
advertising
11%
youth
language
10%
Fig.15: The distribution of English words in various sectors (French)
***
Surprisingly, there were quite a number of people who would not let anything stop them
from commenting on my proposed answers when filling in the questionnaire. I am,
however, grateful for their contributions that I will herewith quote.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
78
« Les mots anglais enrichissent la langue française, mais ils l'appauvrissent aussi. » (8)78
« Les mots anglais peuvent enrichir la langue française par certains points, mais il est vrai que
hors de la vie professionnelle, je ne les utilise que peu. » (11)
« Je me rend compte que j'utilise des mots anglais, sans vraiment m'en rendre compte, c'est
pour cela que je n'ai pas pu donner beaucoup d'exemple. » (15)
« J’emploie peu de mots anglais, je ne suis pas opposée à cette langue, mais je pense que ma
langue est assez riche pour qu’on trouve les mots pour s’exprimer. Bien sûr il faut parfois
réfléchir pour éviter la facilité, mais c’est pour moi un plaisir de trouver le bon mot pour
m’exprimer en français. » (20)
« Des expressions internationalement fixées ? Je n’en ai pas d’exemples qui me viennent à
l’instant, c’est plus au travail que le vocabulaire me revient. » (23)
« Ils sont souvent plus courts, mais je ne suis pas sure qu’ils soient plus précis, par exemple :
‘week-end’ pour ‘fin de semaine’, ou encore ‘chewing-gum’ pour ‘gomme à mâcher’ (ici les
Franíais ont traduit le mot anglais car ce sont les Américains qui ont ‘inventé’ le produit et donc
le nome qu’il porte). Dans ce 2 cas le mot franíais est la traduction littérale du mot anglais. »
(25)
« En règle générale utiliser des mots anglais pour un Franíais est le signe que l’on est à la
mode, ‘branché’, c’est surtout vrai dans les milieux artistiques, des affaires, du commerce et
surtout chez des adolescents et les ‘jeunes adultes’. » (25)
found in the eighth questionnaire to be sent back
99
•
•
•
•
•
•
« Les mots anglais enrichissent la langue franíaise, oui, mais en même titre que toutes les
autres langues étrangères (si nous ‘empruntons’ des pratiques, des produits, des habitudes … il
est normal d’adopter le mot d’origine.) » (25)
« Ce je pense la principale raison : la prédominance des USA dans l’économie mondiale …
c’est normal est nécessaire. » (25)
« Les mots anglais pour moi sont une forme de vantardise : OUI, quelque fois, ía dépend …
dans la bouche d’artistes je trouve ía stupide et prétentieux, me je le coníois tout à fait dans le
milieu des affaires où bon nombre des gens sont obligés de maîtriser l’anglais s’ils veulent
survivre. » (25)
« Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans le domaine de l’internet, j’ai même remarqué
l’apparition d’un nouveau mot : le verbe ‘forwarder’ (il faut le prononcer à la franíaise !) » (25)
« Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans le domaine de la politique : NON, les hommes
politiques font attention à ne pas trop employer de mot anglais (Ils défendent la culture
franíaise !!) et ce surtout depuis la LOI de Monsieur Toubon (ancien ministre de la culture) qui
n’interdit pas mais subordonne l’emploi des mots étrangers, dans la publicité par exemple, à sa
traduction en franíais. » (25)
« Je n’ai pas vraiment mis d’exemple, car je ne les retiens pas … et je n’en vraiment emploie
pas beaucoup, sauf un peu dans mon boulot, forcement je suis informaticienne … et donc les
langages sont en anglais. » (26)
5.1.2.2. German
As for the distribution of Anglicisms in speech and writing, the German results back my
previous assumption that English words are most likely to be used in spoken language.
both
23%
none
0%
in writing
7%
orally
70%
Question 1a
Fig.16: Anglicisms in (German) spoken discourse and written texts
***
100
The results on the diffusion of Anglicisms in working and/or everyday life in the German
speaking world reveal certain similarities to the French findings.
both
30%
Question 1b
none
0%
working life
33%
everyday life
37%
Fig.17: Anglicisms in (German) everyday and professional use
It is, however, the case that everyday use in German is more frequently to be found than
professional use of Anglicisms (whereas the French results demonstrate the contrary – with
only a marginal difference though).
***
shorter & more
precise
27%
no equivalent
23%
"in"
12%
avoid
repetition
3%
Question 2
internationally
fixed/used
35%
Fig.18 The use of Anglicisms in German
The diagram above, once again, verifies my assumption that ‘shorter and more precise’ and
‘internationally used’ (being stated as typical characteristics of English words in a foreign
lexicon) will dominate in my findings on the use of Anglicisms.
101
Only 12 % opt for the use of an English word in order to suggest trendiness – a figure that I
would have assumed to be higher in the German speaking world.
***
As to the use of compound words consisting of one German and one English element, 87%
of the speakers of German state that they are well aware of using them – as the illustration
below reveals.
Hybrid forms
no
13%
yes
87%
Question 3
Fig.19: The use of hybrid forms in German
Among the examples given for hybrid forms were: Emailadresse, Webseite and
Downloadkapazität.
***
no longer
recognised
33%
enrichment
27%
snobbism
5%
Question 4
US dominance
35%
Fig.20: German attitudes towards Anglicisms
102
The above diagram shows that approximately one third of the speakers of German see the
origin of the English influence in the predominant position of the US. 33% obviously no
longer notice the use of English word in the German language, 27% would say that the
English language enriches the vocabulary of German – and only 5% argue that the use of
Anglicisms might indicate a form of snobbery.
***
The ‘German’ branches in which English words are most frequently to be observed are: the
Internet (21%), youth language (18%) and business & economy and technology with 15%.
internet
21%
technology
15%
youth
language
18%
sports
13%
advertising
11%
politics
science
2%
5%
business &
economy
15%
Question 5
Fig.21: The distribution of English words in various sectors (German)
***
Like certain speakers of French, three speakers of German could not help but add extra
information:
•
•
•
« Prinzipiell bin ich gegen eine Ver-englischung unserer deutschen Sprache, aber beruflich bin
ich leider an sie gebunden, da ich als Netzwerktechniker blöd angesehen werden würde, würde
ich "Wegweiser" zu einem Router oder "Schalter" zu einem Switch sagen. Diese Wörter, oder
besser die dazugehörigen Dinge, sind nicht im deutschen Sprachraum entwickelt oder erfunden
worden. Daher meiner Meinung nach die englische Sprachbetitelung. » (3)
« Die englischen Fremdwörter bereichern die deutsche Sprache wo es angebracht ist, jedoch
nicht immer. » (14)
« Es gibt natürlich auch viele Anglizismen, die uns als solche gar nicht mehr auffallen. » (28)
103
’Surfing’ through the numerous German pages concerning the use of Anglicisms I found
the following – rather witty – letter posted in a forum against the English influence on
German vocabulary:
“Daß die sog. deutsche Sprache zu großen Teilen englische, lateinische und französische Einflüsse
aufnahm, ist ganz natürlich und steht im Zusammenhang mit dem natürlichen Fluß zwischen
Völkern und Sprachen. Viele fremde Wörter wie Spaghetti oder so werden auch nicht mehr als
fremd wahrgenommen. Der Unterschied zur heutigen Denglisch-Scheiße ist, daß früher (und auch
heute noch) Fremdwörter in die deutsche Sprache einfließen, um Lücken zu besetzen und um neue
Tätigkeiten oder Dinge zu beschreiben, und die ’Neuwörter’ nicht aus Gründen der ’Coolness’,
’Hipness’ oder Verbraucherverarschung vorsätzlich verbrochen werden. Es gibt doch keinen
Grund, warum das Ortsgespräch CityCall heißen muß - da will jemand etwas normales cool, geil
und hip machen. Es gibt aber einen guten Grund, warum Spaghetti Spaghetti heißen ... weil ’lange
dünne Nudeln ohne Loch in der Mitte’ ein zu sperriger Begriff ist. Es ist also ein Unterschied, ob
der neue Begriff nur aus Coolness einen deutschen allgemein verständlichen Begriff verdrängen
soll, oder ob er die Sprache um eine zusätzliche Nuance (aha. Französisch!) bereichert ! Warum
also kann der Key Account Manager nicht wie immer Hausmeister heißen ? Warum kann der
Backshop nicht Bäckerei heißen ? Warum geilen sich viele Leute am Begriff ’Händy’ auf, kommen
sich geil und international vor weil’s ja gar so ’internäschionäl’ klingt, aber keine Sau auf der
englischsprachigen Halbkugel kann sich darunter was vorstellen ? Wo soll das hinführen, wenn
Sprache nicht mehr zur Kommunikation dient, ’tschuldigung, wo die speech nicht mehr for
communication techniques used wird, sondern nur noch geil klingende, sinnentleerte Floskeln
enthält ? ’Meeten wir um oh-eighthundred am Citypoint zum Chillen ? Wir können ja auch
shoppen oder einfach nur etwas walken’ oder der neueste Vorstoß aus dem Sport: ’Rope-Skipping
hält fit’ ach wie geil ... ich bin ja so toll, so geil, so hip, so in, ich mache Rope-Skipping !, daß das
schon vor dreitausend Jahren die Griechen machten, und seither alle Kinder, bloß halt uncool,
ungeil, unhip als Seilhüpfen, das kümmert die nicht. Warum ist ’Rope-skipping hält fit’ besser als
’Seilspringen hält gesund’??????“79
5.1.2.3. Italian
Interesting to note when referring to the Italian results of the distribution of Anglicisms in
spoken and written language is that, quite in contrast to the French and German findings,
only 7% would use English words in both written texts and spoken discourse (23% in the
German and 37% in the French language). As was my assumption, the majority opts for
the use of Anglicisms in spoken Italian rather than written documents. See the diagram
below:
79
DENGLISH nervt (Forum) at http://www.f23.parsimony.net written by ’Dyson’ on January 15th 2001
104
none
10%
both
7%
in writing
27%
orally
56%
Question 1a
Fig.22: Anglicisms in (Italian) spoken discourse and written texts
***
As to the situational context, 44% of the Italians would preferably use English words in
‘working life’.
none
3%
both
13%
working life
44%
everyday life
40%
Question 1b
Fig.23: Anglicisms in (Italian) everyday and professional use
40% state using Anglicisms in everyday situations and only 13% indicate a use in both,
professional and everyday casual context.
***
105
The Italians primarily tend to use English words when there is no Italian equivalent to be
found or if a notion or expression is internationally used.
internationally
fixed/used
31%
avoid
repetition
2%
"in"
11%
shorter & more
precise
24%
no equivalent
32%
Question 2
Fig.24: The use of Anglicisms in Italian
There is some indication (24%) that the Italian speaking world refers to Anglicisms as to
be shorter and more precise than words in the mother tongue.
Only 11% use English words to show or suggest modernity and no more than 2% would
use an English word in a (written or spoken) text for a stylistic reason such as avoidance of
word repetition.
***
Hybrid forms
no
30%
yes
70%
Fig.25: The use of hybrid forms in Italian
106
Concerning hybrid forms of English and Italian words, we observe a 70 : 30 relationship,
with 70% of the Italians stating that they do use loan blends.
***
The majority of the speakers in the Italian language community claims to no longer notice
English words (43%). 31% of the Italian answers show that the English language is seen to
have enriched / enrich the Italian language.
no longer
recognised
43%
enrichment
31%
US dominance
23%
snobbism
3%
Question 4
Fig.26: Italian attitudes towards Anglicisms
***
The answers concerning the diffusion of Anglicisms in sectors reveal a certain kind of
balance, but, again, with the Internet on top, followed by sports and business & economy.
sports
17%
technology
9%
politics
8%
internet
24%
science
8%
business &
economy
14%
advertising
12%
youth
language
8%
Question 5
Fig.27: The distribution of English words in various sectors (German)
107
Here are the Italian comments on my questionnaire:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
« Le parole inglesi fanno parte dell'uso comune che ne viene fatto da parte dei media. » (6)
« In campo educativo vengono usati spesso i termini inglesi vision e mission. » (9)
« Goal = quasi nessuno consce l'equivalente in lingua italiana – rete! » (12)
« Ultimamente ci sono sempre più pubblicità televisive in inglese – come se tutti lo capissero! »
(12)
« In Italia si parla solo da 'devolution' – che sarebbe il passaggio di potere dal Governo centrale
a quello regionale – e non di 'devoluzione', che ha lo stesso significato. » (12)
« In Italia l'uso della lingua inglese è molto diffuso ma questo non c'è discapito della nostra
lingua madre, ma è visto bensi come un arricchimento culturale. » (12)
« Le parole inglesi mi permettono di comunicare con persone che non conoscono l'italiano. »
(13)
« Tutte le parole usate in internet sono inglesi. » (14)
« Risponderti non è stato molto facile perché usiamo l’inglese abbastanza correntemente,
quindi, non riesco a focalizzare esattamente le parole inglesi che uso, perché ormai mi sembrano
normali. » (28)
5.1.2.4. Comparison
This section will now compare the results concerning the attitudes towards Anglicisms in
the French, German and Italian language communities.
First, let me turn to the use of English words in speech and writing.
25
French
German
Italian
20
Question 1a
15
10
5
0
in writing
orally
both
none
Fig.28: Comparison – Anglicisms in French, German and Italian spoken discourse
108
Generally speaking, non-native speakers of English (of whatever nationality) more
frequently make use of English words in spoken language than they would employ in texts
written in their mother tongue.
The Italians seem to use more English terms in written documents than do speakers of
French or German. Speakers of the German language, on the other hand, tend to most
frequently employ English words in oral communication, with speakers of French ranking
highest indicating a balanced diffusion of Anglicisms in the spoken AND written channel.
10% of the Italians claim to never use English words when communicating, compared to
7% in the French language community. I would have assumed the figure of French
speakers who do not make use of English words to be considerably higher, as France holds
a prominent position regarding purism in language usage.
***
Moving on to the comparison of situational use of English words, it is interesting to note
that, on the whole, the Italians claim to use Anglicisms either in their profession or in
everyday life, whereas speakers of French and German tend to apply English words
equally in both contexts.
14
French
German
Italian
12
10
8
Question 1b
6
4
2
0
working life
everyday life
both
none
Fig.29: Comparison – Anglicisms in French, German and Italian everyday and professional use
***
109
The following diagram backs my hypothesis that, generally speaking, English words are
used for their being shorter and more precise than the native equivalent, that they are
employed due to a lack of an equivalent in French, German or Italian and that their
occurrence their being internationally fixed (see also previous chapter).
French
German
Italian
25
20
Question 2
15
10
5
0
shorter/more
precise
no equivalent
"in"
international
avoid repetition
Fig.30: Comparison – The use of Anglicisms in French, German and Italian
***
As to the use of hybrid forms, it is primarily the German language which takes on
compounds of one English and one native element.
30
French
German
25
Italian
20
15
10
Question 3
5
0
hybrid forms 'YES'
Fig.31: Comparison – The use of hybrid forms in French, German and Italian
***
110
The below illustration shows that, basically, speakers of the languages examined no longer
notice English words in everyday/professional usage – with this being a clear clue to full
integration into one’s (or a language’s) vocabulary.
Speakers of German more openly admit seeing the English influence as an enrichment to
their other tongue than do Italians – and speakers of French.
I would have thought that US dominance is an obvious indication as to why the English
influence on other nation’s lexicons steadily grows, but the figures say that it is primarily
the German speakers who follow my assumption – along with the French speakers’
judgement. Few Italians (less than half the speakers of German) see the origin of the ever
spreading use of English words as US dominance. Here the question arises where they
would, then, see its source …
20
French
German
Italian
18
16
14
Question 4
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
enrichment
US dominance
snobbism
not recognised
Fig.32: Comparison – French, German and Italian attitudes towards Anglicisms
Also interesting to point out is the ranking of language communities that claim the use of
Anglicisms to be a mere indication of showing-off: French – German – Italian.
111
The last point of my comparison concerns the distribution of English words in the fields of
sports, technology, the Internet, youth language, advertising, business & economy, science
and politics.
sports
16
18
15
16
technology
18
8
23
26
internet
22
8
youth language
22
7
9
14
advertising
11
Italian
German
French
5
18
business & economy
13
3
6
science
7
2
politics
2
7
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Question 5
Fig.33: Comparison – The distribution of English words in various sectors
As to the diffusion of Anglicisms in subject fields, the only correspondences the above
diagram reveals are seen concerning the Internet and sports. Distribution considerably
differs in youth language (with German speakers opting for more than twice as many
occurrences as do Italians and speakers of French), business & economy (with once again
the ‘Germans’ more frequently noticing English words in this sector) and politics (with,
this time, Italian vocabulary noticeably differing from French or German language use).
***
Within the next section I will turn to the examples of English words in use given in the
respective questionnaires.
112
5.1.3. The ‘Top Ten’ of Anglicisms in the examined languages
In the questionnaires I not only asked people to select an appropriate answer, I also asked
them to give examples to each answer80 and it was interesting to find out that only two
English terms rank in the top ten of French, German and Italian results :
(to) download and e-mail.
(1) French examples
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
football
mail
week-end
marketing
web
corner
download
e-mail
goal
handball
planning
basket ball
browser
bug
chewing-gum / chewinggum
cool
être fair play
fun
hit
management
parking
PC
penalty
process
sandwich
skate
surfer
(8)81
(8)
(8)
(7)
(6)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(3)
(3)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
Interesting to note is that four Anglicisms ranking in the French top ten are not mentioned
in LNPR: mail, web, download, e-mail. This fact may be due to my ‘old’ 1997 electronic
version of the Petit Robert, as I definitely claim these words to actually have penetrated the
French lexicon – although there is evidence of e-mail (with its variation mail) to have been
80
81
the complete lists of examples are found in appendix G
indicating the number of mentions
113
‘abolished’ in 1997: “Die Délégation générale à la langue franíaise, zuständig für die
Reinhaltung der französischen Sprache, hat die E-Mail abgeschafft – und die Académie
franíaise hat zugestimmt. Statt des ungeliebten Anglizismus, mag er auch weltweit
verbreitet sein, heißt es in Frankreich künftig mél für messagerie électronique. In allen
offiziellen Schriftstücken ist fortan nur noch diese Form zulässig.“82
(2) German results
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Cool / cool
Download / download
Email / email
Computer / computer
Internet / internet
cash flow / cashflow
Server / server
Birdie
Browser / browser
cd-rom / CD-ROM
chat
Corner
Deal
Eagle
EBIT
freefly
homepage
in
kids
lamer
net
o.k. / ok
Out / out
RAM
Router / router
shit
Switch / switch
web
website
Workshop
WWW
(15)
(9)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(3)
(3)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
15 out of 30 persons (50%) stated cool as an example of an Anglicisim in German.
Nevertheless, cool is not included in the list of English Internationalisms containing 452
82
Keine E-Mail in Frankreich in ’Die Welt’, on July 5th, 1997 at
http://www.oedt.kfunigraz.ac.at/anglizismen/9Frankr.htm
114
words nor in the expanded list of 765 words (also comprising entry words in specialised
foreign words dictionaries).
The Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch mentions nine of the given examples, with
only Birdie83 having no entry in this monolingual dictionary of the German language.
(3) Italian results
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
e mail / email / e-mail
hardware
budget
software
spot
download
goal
leader
manager
provider
week end / weekend / week-end
basket
business
corner
devolution
account
beach volley / beachvolley
browser
bug
feeling
file
film
internet
Know how / knowhow
link
personal trainer
plug-in
raster scanning
summit
target
trading on line
web
world wide web
(9)
(6)
(5)
(5)
(5)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
Lo Zingarelli, my Italian reference, does not prove evidence of download and provider.
83
Birdie refers to the game of golf, meaning you succeed in finishing a ‘hole‘with one stroke under par (the
assumed average for professional players).
115
5.2. Projects in progress against the use of Anglicisms
To conclude this chapter, I will now go into some detail concerning the national efforts
being made against English influence in the French, German and Italian vocabulary. I will,
however, refrain from dwelling on minute information or interpretation as to the different
projects, but briefly outline their main purposes (and provide the corresponding web sites
for further reading).
At this place, let me mention the personal interest I took in dealing with this section.
Undoubtedly, I am well aware of the English influence on several – if not to say – all
languages, but why fight Anglicisms? I do ‘love’ my German mother tongue with all its
difficulties in grammar, I cannot help but feeling as if I were ‘special and privileged’ when
speaking melodious French and it is definitely the Italian language that implies a certain
kind of Mediterranean lifestyle along with ‘real’ culture, but I also appreciate the
expressiveness of the English language. It is for these reasons that I would just argue to not
opt for either English influence or French, German and Italian linguistic purism – let
vocabularies develop in their natural way: languages are ‘living’ constructions, borrowing
words, assimilating words, losing words, etc.
Nonetheless, there are efforts being made against the use of Anglicisms …
5.2.1. La Loi Toubon
“Language policy in France includes status planning and corpus planning. Status planning involves
the application of a law passed in 1994 entitled Law on the Use of the French language, known as
the Loi Toubon (from the name of the minister who proposed it). Corpus planning consists of
Terminology Committees (commissions terminologiques) established since 1972 in each ministry
to devise and promote French words. The 1975 language law made the use of the French terms
obligatory, but this obligation was suppressed by the 1994 law.”84
So, what does the 1994 Loi Toubon say? (The original text is to be seen in the Internet in
its original French version, along with an English and a German version, at
http://www.culture.fr/dglf/lois/presentation_lois.html)
84
116
According to Truchot85, la Loi Toubon
•
makes it a right for a contribution to be read in French (at a conference taking place
in France)86.
•
(in theory) excludes the domain of professional use – except that work contracts
and collective agreements have to be written in French
•
makes French obligatory on French radio and television channels
•
makes sure that, above all, information to consumers is the only domain that the
law really addresses
•
declares French to be the language of education (with the exception of the teaching
of foreign languages)
•
obliges speakers of French to use terms coined by the ministerial Terminology
Committees (as this obligation met with fierce opposition and was considered to be
an infringement of individual liberties, the French Constitutional Council retained
the obligation only for state communications and suppressed it for common use)
Paradox as it may seem, the ‘Cahier de termes officielles’ (containing English words that
are recommended or obligatorily to be replaced by French equivalents or neologisms)
published in 1994 by the government and the Terminology Committees is the most
comprehensive list of Anglicisms in the French language (it is, however, not up-to-date
and you should therefore consult the Internet homepages of the Délégation générale à la
langue franíaise, which will be dealt with in the footnotes to the subsequent paragraph).
Additionally to the current work of the various Terminology Committees (each covering
different sector, such as sport, the Internet, etc.)87, the French ministry of culture and the
French tourism association collaborate in the Internet, on the one hand, to ‘internationalise’
the French language (with 84% of the homepages held in English compared to 1.8%
French homepages) and, on the other hand, to call for constructive help in ‘creating’ new
85
cf. Truchot, The spread of English, p. 74
... with a more compelling measure included in the first version of the law stating that funds can only be
given to scientific research the results of which are published in French
87
Interesting to look at are http://crete.argyro.net/lexique/liste.cfm (for the French Olympic sports
terminology), http://www.olf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/golf/golf.html (for recommended language use when
playing golf in the French speaking world), http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/cogether/16-03-99internet.html (for French Internet terminology) and http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/foot.htm (for football
terminology)
86
117
words to avoid Anglicicms at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf.88 These pages provide an
excellent overview of French-English equivalents.
5.2.2. ‘Verein deutsche Sprache’ and ’Wiener Sprachblätter’
“As a country that designed this specific language policy, France appears to be an exception in
Europe. This may suggest that it is the only country to fight the spread of English in Europe. This
would be a superficial observation. The main difference lies in the fact that France has advertised
its policy whereas other European countries have proceeded differently.”89
The German speaking world does not have any kind of language policy, it has, however,
associations and societies which resist Anglicisms.
In Germany, it is primarily the ’Verein deutsche Sprache’ (formerly: ’Verein zur Wahrung
der deutschen Sprache’) which consequently ’fights’ English influence. The primary object
and aims of the association may be seen at http:///www.vds-ev.de.
In Austria, it is the ‘Verein Muttersprache’ that publishes ‘Wiener Sprachblätter’ – leaflets
dealing with purism on the level of language and language contact – and argue for a
restriction on the use of English words.
Last year (2000), ’Verein Deutsche Sprache’ and ’Wiener Sprachblätter’ started a petition
as to the use of English words, the results of which will be only available by 200290 at:
http://www.vds-ev.de/denglish/anglizismen
http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/~fischeg4/Unterschriftenaktion.html.
Here is a sample of the petition of ‘Wiener Sprachblätter’:
88
Braselmann, Sprachpolitik in Frankreich, p. 23
Truchot, The Spread of English, p. 75
90
I asked ’Wiener Sprachblätter’ for intermediary results, but they did not answer my e-mail
89
118
Sehr geehrter Herr Bundeskanzler Dr. Schüssel!
Sehr geehrte Frau Vizekanzler Dr. Riess-Passer!
Im Europäischen Jahr der Sprachen ersuchen wir Sie, sich für die Pflege und den Schutz unserer
Muttersprache einzusetzen und gegen Sprachverfall aufzutreten. Unsere Muttersprache wird
derzeit von Anglizismen überflutet, die zum Großteil überflüssig sind: die freshe Milch statt die
frische Milch, Event statt Ereignis / Veranstaltung, Family-life statt Familienleben, Prime time statt
Hauptsendezeit usw. usf. zu sagen stellt keine kulturelle Bereicherung dar. Auch „angloide“ Wörter
zu erfinden, die es im Angloamerikanischen gar nicht gibt (z.B. Handy, Twen, Smoking), läuft eher
auf eine Verarmung als eine Bereicherung unserer Muttersprache hinaus. Weit über 50% der
Österreicher beherrschen Englisch nicht, werden also vom öffentlichen Leben ausgeschlossen,
aber auch Einwanderer aus dem Osten, die Englisch in der Schule nicht gelernt haben; das
„Denglische“ ist also
undemokratisch und ausländerfeindlich.
Die Rechtschreibung wird erschwert, denn Squatter oder downloaden sind schwerer zu schreiben
als Hausbesetzer und herunterladen. Wenn zu viele deutsche durch englische oder
scheinenglische Ausdrücke ersetzt werden, wird unsere Literatur, auch die des 20. Jahrhunderts,
bald unlesbar werden.
Wir ersuchen Sie aus diesen Gründen, auf öffentliche Stellen und auf
Rundfunk und Fernsehen, die ja einen öffentlichen Bildungsauftrag haben, einzuwirken,
mehr verständliche einheimische Ausdrücke zu verwenden.
[Es sind auch Unterschriften aus anderen Ländern als Österreich willkommen!
Bitte ausdrucken, unterschreiben und, wenn möglich, ablichten,
viele Unterschriften sammeln und senden an:
Verein „Muttersprache“, Wien, Postfach 173, A 1081 Wien, Österreich]
5.2.3. Italian projects
As I did not find any evidence of Italian projects against the use of Anglisicms in the
Internet, I consulted two persons that have sent back to me the questionnaires concerning
attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms, both of them confirming that there is ‘nothing’
being done in order to prevent English words to penetrate the Italian vocabulary:
“Sarò felice di aiutarti se mi è possibile. Per rispondere alle tue domande, in Italia non esistono
enti, società, istituzioni ufficiali che vigilano sugli influssi delle lingue straniere. Un tempo esisteva
l’Accademia della Crusca ed alcune volte qualcuno tende a proporre limiti all’uso di queste
influenze estere, ma senza successo.”
“Rispondo con piacere alle tue domande, anche perché sono una insegnante e capisco il valore del
grande lavoro che stai per fare. Mi informerò, ma non credo che ci siano leggi di questo genere.
Ora abbiamo un governo abbastanza aperto riguardo a questo.”
119
6. CONCLUSION
With this study I endeavour to demonstrate how Anglicisms (any borrowing from English
that constitutes a new word) are dealt with in the language systems of French, German and
Italian. The sources for my analysis are the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries of
the languages stated (English, German, French and Italian): The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of the English language, Duden –Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau
Petit Robert and Lo Zingarelli.
Starting with theoretical introductory approaches to lexicographical principles (the
structure of dictionaries) and the presentation of the corpus data for this paper (chapter 2:
The Corpus), I continue with the methodology of linguistic borrowing and different models
of loan terminology: Examples as to the various ways of linguistic borrowing are given
with reference to a model I created out of five customary models of terminology (chapter
3: Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing).
The primary object of this paper is to compare dictionary entries in French, German and
Italian: On the one hand, I deal with correspondences and variations concerning these three
replica languages and, on the other hand, I go into some detail on the subject of
assimilation and adaptation as to the distinctive features of borrowed English terms in
foreign vocabularies (chapter 4).
Chapter 4, dealing with English Internationalisms, thus, is divided into two main sections:
Authentic and assimilated English Internationalisms.
In the first part of my analysis of English Internationalisms I deal with authentic forms of
borrowings from English, meaning words that are directly borrowed from English and
adapted by a foreign lexicon in an unaltered way:
On the level of graphology and orthography of compound words borrowed from English,
direct lexical borrowings into German tend to take up the original English spelling (be it
separate, directly combined or spelled with hyphen). The French language primarily
applies hyphen-spelling to English loan words and the Italian dictionary proves evidence of
120
an (only) occasional use of directly combined compound words. For the most part, the
Italian language also tends to adapt compounds in their original English form.
As to the phonetics/phonology level, it can be stated that, principally, English
Internationalisms (strictly speaking all Anglicisms) are realised as a partial imitation of the
English pronunciation in French, German and Italian alike.
Concerning morphology and syntax, English Interationalisms primarily apply to
inflectional morphology in the language systems of the replica languages. Characteristics
of borrowed English Internationalisms (exact reproductions of an English expression in all
three host languages) reveal that English nouns are, predominantly, attributed a masculine
(occasionally also neuter in German) grammatical gender. Furthermore, they are usually
marked with a plural ‘s’ in French and German, but are invariable in the Italian language
system.
The stylistics section reveals that English Internationalisms (generally, all words borrowed
from another language) fulfil several functions: They denote different kinds of style, they
motivate associations and connotations, they endorse euphemism and they act as a signal in
text production.
As far as semantics is concerned, my observation results in direct lexical borrowings from
English tending to only adopt one original meaning to the replica language – with
occasional semantic narrowing (e.g. container in German), repeated semantic extensions,
(e.g. pole position in French and Italian), and even shifts in meaning (e.g. boom in French).
The second part of chapter 4 deals with assimilated English Internationalisms, i.e. words
that have undergone various kinds of assimilation processes in order to fit the linguistic
systems of the replica languages in question.
Derivational morphology, in this paper, primarily concerns assimilated forms of English
Internationalisms – since English loans assimilated on this level have undergone a native
process of word formation by means of creating new words of different categories out of a
borrowed stem by adding derivational morphemes. Without doubt, the prime example of
this phenomenon of interference of direct lexical borrowing and native word formation
121
processes is the derivation of verbs out of borrowed English nouns, e.g. the German
boomen from boom, the French charteriser from charter and the Italian zumare from
zoom.
Other examples of derivational morphology are assimilated nouns. These forms mainly
originate in the Greek and Latin language, but they are, nevertheless, treated as
Anglicisms, since the dictionaries in question claim them to infiltrate the French, German
and Italian language systems via English influence.
My dealing with Anglicisms on the stylistic level brought me to think about a more
practical approach to this study on the English influence on modern French, German and
Italian. Several questions arose: Why do non-native speakers of English use English words
in their mother tongue and when do they employ them? What is their attitude towards this
use? Are there domains in which Anglicisms are primarily to be observed? In view of
these queries, I decided to compose questionnaires to be sent to speakers of French,
German and Italian (chapter 5: Attitudes towards English influence).
In general, the resulting answers on attitudes towards the English influence in French,
German and Italian language systems reveal that
• non-native speakers of English primarily employ English words in oral communication
• Anglicisms are used equally frequent in professional and everyday life
• English words seem to be principally employed for their being shorter and more precise,
for there being no native equivalent and for their being internationally fixed
• speakers of French, German and Italian no longer really notice English words in actual
language usage
• English words, chiefly, are said to be an enrichment of the host language’s lexicon –
with the outstanding position of the US to be the cause of their spread
• in French, German and Italian alike, it is principally the domain of the Internet and
sports which most frequently provide evidence of English words
122
Dealing with people’s attitudes, I also became aware of associations (and even laws) to
take action against the ‘English burden’.
Therefore, in the second section of chapter 5, I refer to the major projects (laws, petitions,
etc.) now in progress against English influence – expressing my own hope for mankind not
to opt for ‘false’ linguistic purism in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds since
languages are ‘living’ constructions.
***
We do not know what lies in store for us in the future, but let me emphasise once again that
linguistic borrowing is but one phenomenon in the development of a language’s
vocabulary.
123
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Dictionaries
a. General monolingual dictionaries
1. DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch © 2001 Bibliographisches Institut F.A.
Brockhaus AG, Mannheim. DUDEN auf CD-ROM, PC-Bibliothek Express
2. Le Nouveau Petit Robert © 1996 – 1997 Dictionnaires Le Robert, Paris. Version
électronique du Nouveau Petit Robert. Réalisation informatique par le bureau VAN
DIJK
3. lo Zingarelli 1998 in CD-ROM © Zanichelli editore S.p.A. – Bologna. © I.CO.GE:
Informatica S.r.l. – Trento
4. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th Edition. CD-ROM version of Oxford’s best selling
dictionary, © Oxford University Press 1997 – 99, © Software: TEXTware A/S.
Licensed to the Focus Multimedia Limited
b. Special dictionaries of foreign words
1. De Mauro, Tullio / Mancini, Marco : Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua
italiana. Milano: Garzanti Linguistica, divisione di Utnet S.p.A. 2001
2. Pogarell, Reiner / Schröder, Markus [ed.]: Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen. 2.,
erweiterte Auflage, Paderborn: IFB-Verlag 2000
3. Tournier, Jean: Les mots anglais du franíais. Paris : Éditions Belin 1998
124
(2) Reference material
a. Books
1. Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages.
Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986
2. Braselmann, Petra: Sprachpolitik und Sprachbewusstsein in Frankreich heute.
Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 1999
3. Busse, Ulrich/Carstensen, Broder: Anglizismen-Wörterbuch. Vol.1. Berlin: de Gruyter
1993
4. Crystal, David: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press 1997
5. Crystal, David: English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
1997
6. Jabłoński, Mirosłav: Regularität und Variabilität in der Rezeption englischer
Internationalismen im modernen Deutsch, Französisch und Polnisch. Tübigen: Max
Niemeyer Verlag 1990
7. Lyons, John: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik. München: C.H. Beck 1995
8. Piccone, Michel D.: Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French. Amsterdam:
Benjamins 1996
9. Stickel, Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York:
de Gruyter 2001
10.Svensén, Bo: Practical Lexicography. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press
1993
125
b. Contributions and articles
1. Busse, Ulrich: “Typen von Anglizismen“, in: Stickel, Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und
Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 2001, 131 – 155
2. Dardano, Maurizio: “The influence of English on Italian”, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich /
Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai
Kiadó 1986, 231 - 252
3. Lehnert, Martin: “The Anglo-American influence on the language of the German
Democratic Republic“, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in
contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 129 – 157
4. Truchot, Claude: “The spread of English – from France to a more general perspective”
in World Englishes, Vol. 16, No.1 1997, 65 – 76
5. Viereck, Karin: “The Influence of English on Austrian German”, in: Bald, WolfDietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest:
Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 159 – 177
6. Viereck, Wolfgang: “The Influence of English on German in the past and in the Federal
Republic of Germany”, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in
contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 107 – 128
7. Wiegand, Herbert Ernst: “Fremdwörterbücher und Sprachwirklichkeit“, in: Stickel,
Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York: de
Gruyter 2001, 59 – 88
126
(3) Web sites
1. Sokol, Daniel K.: “Lingua non grata” at:
http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/August2000/art242000.htm
2. Filipovic, Rudolf: “English as a word donor to other languages of Europe”, at:
http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html
3. Dudenredaktion: “Das Fremdwort – Freund oder Feind“ in: Zum Thema, at
http://www.duden.de
4. Dyson: DENGLISH nervt (Forum) at http://www.f23.parsimony.net
5. “Keine
E-Mail
in
Frankreich”
in
Die
Welt,
on
July
5th,
1997
at
http://www.oedt.kfunigraz.ac.at/anglizismen/9Frankr.htm
(4) Further reading
a. Books
1. Supanz, Elvira: Die Anglizismen im Rahmen der Wirtschaftsberichterstattung in der
italienischen Presse. Klagenfurt: 1983
2. Fink, Hermann: Von “Kuh-Look” bis “Fit for Fun”. Frankfurt am Main, Wien: Lang
1997
b. Web sites
1. “COSMAS” (German lexical database) at http://corpora.ids-mannheim.de/~cosmas/
2. “La loi Toubon” at http://www.culture.fr/dglf/lois/presentation_lois.html
127
3. “French Olympic sports terminology” at http://crete.argyro.net/lexique/liste.cfm
4. “French Golf vocabulary” at http://www.golf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/golf/golf.html
5. “French Internet terminology” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/cogether/16-03-99internet.html
6. “French football terminology” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/foot.htm
7. “Official French-English equivalents” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf.
8. “Verein deutsche Sprache” at http:///www.vds-ev.de.
9. “Wiener Sprachblätter” at http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/~fischeg4/
128
APPENDICES
129
A.
E-MAIL CORRESPONDANCE AS TO LE NOUVEAU PETIT
ROBERT AND DUDEN
a. Latest version of LNPR
Subject: RE: Le Petit Robert sur CD-ROM
Date: Wed, 7 Mar 2001 16 :30 :12 +0100
From: France Boutique france.boutique@havas-interactive.com
To: Philippa Maurer-Stroh pmaurer@edu.uni-klu.ac.at
Bonjour,
Il n’y a pas eu de réédition depuis la 1997, il devrait y en avoir une mais pas avant la fin de
l’année.
Cordialement
>--------Original Message------->From: Philippa Maurer-Stroh [SMTP: pmaurer@edu.uni-klu.ac.at]
>Sent: mardi 6 mars 2001 12 :42
>To: infoconso@havas-interactive.fr
>Subject: Le Petit Robert sur CD-ROM
>
> Madame, Monsieur,
> Je suis une étudiante des langues et je suis en train de faire mon diplôme (Anglicisms
> in the French-, German- and Italian speaking worlds).
> C’est la raison pour laquelle j’aurais besoin de la version du PETIT ROBERT sur
> CD-ROM la plus actuelle parce que maintenant je n’ai que la version du 1997.
> Veuillez me faire connaître s’il y a une version plus actuelle.
> Dans l’attente de votre réponse, je vous prie d’agréer, Madame, Monsieur,
> l’expression de mes sentiments les meilleurs.
> Philippa Maurer-Stroh
***
b. Problems with Duden – Die deutsche Rechtschreibung
Subject: Antwort: Duden Online-Anfrage bzgl. Produktinformationen
Date: Fri, 3 Aug 2001 13:41:24 +0200
From: duden-sprachberatung@bifab.de
To: pmaurer@edu.uni-klu.ac.at
Sehr geehrte Frau Maurer-Stroh,
alle Titel, die Sie nennen - "Duden - Das große Fremdwörterbuch", "Duden Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache" und das Universalwörterbuch sind für Ihre Recherche geeignet; sie basieren auf gewissenhaften
Untersuchungen des heutigen Sprachgebrauchs und sind auch als CD-ROM bei
Ihrem Buchhändler erhältlich. Allerdings wird keinem dieser Werke die
Herkunft der Komposita nochmals angezeigt, wenn bereits die Herkunft des
130
Grundwortes und die des Bestimmungswortes jeweils unter den entsprechenden
Lemmata beschrieben wurden. Sie müssten also tatsächlich, wenn die Suche
nach "engl." beispielsweise unter anderem "Baby" ergeben hat, die
zugehörigen Komposita von Hand auswerten.
Zitieren dürfen Sie unsere Werke natürlich (unter Angabe der Quelle) - wir
freuen uns darüber!
Einzelne Artikel aus der PC-Bibliothek kopiere ich über das
"Copy-and-Paste"-Verfahren häufig in andere Dokumente; dazu müssen diese
aber erst geöffnet und der Inhalt markiert werden. Teile der Stichwortliste
können in ein Benutzerwörterbuch kopiert werden; das Benutzerwörterbuch
können Sie dann exportieren.
Bei weiteren technischen Fragen wird man Ihnen gerne unter der Nummer (0 18
05) 12 45 78 behilflich sein. Haben Sie noch Fragen
sprachwissenschaftlicher bzw. lexikographischer Natur, so wenden Sie sich
bitte telefonisch an die Duden-Sprachberatung (E-Mails können wir leider
nur ausnahmsweise beantworten). Anrufe aus dem Ausland beantworten wir nach
wie vor kostenfrei. Sie erreichen uns unter der Telefonnummer +49 6 21 39
01-4 21.
Mit freundlichen Grüßen und den besten Wünschen für das Gelingen Ihrer
Arbeit
Franziska Münzberg
Duden-Sprachberatung
PS: Falls Sie sich für unseren kostenlosen Newsletter interessieren,
besuchen Sie unsere Homepage
unter http://www.duden.de
--------Original message-------pmaurer@edu.uni-klu.ac.at
An: michaela.thuering@bifab.de
Kopie: 25.07.01 02:25
Thema: Duden Online-Anfrage bzgl. Produktinformationen
Abteilung: Produktinformationen
Anmerkung: Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren,
Ich studiere an der Universität Klagenfurt, Österreich, Anglistik und
Romanistik, und bin gerade dabei, meine Diplomarbeit zum Thema "Anglicisms
in modern French, German and Italian - a comparative study" zu schreiben.
Nun ist es so, dass ich die jeweiligen Standardwerke, sprich Duden, Robert
und Zingarelli, in ihren elektronischen Versionen auf Gemeinsamkeiten
untersuchen will, um sog. Internationalismen (bezüglich Graphologie,
Aussprache und Semantik)der Gegenwartssprache zu finden. Nach meinen ersten
Versuchen einer Gesamterfassung der "Anglizismen" im Duden-Die deutsche
131
Rechtschreibung 22 (Buchstaben A bis H), bemerkte ich, dass über die Hälfte
der im Wörterbuch eingetragenen Anglizismen nicht markiert ist (<engl.>)
(z.B. markiert: Baby, Babysitter; unmarkiert: Babyaktie,Babyboom, Babyfon,
Babyjahr, Babynahrung, babysitten, Babyspeck, Babyzelle - Komposita, die in
anderen Einträgen im Duden unter <engl.-dt> fallen würden) und somit eine
weitere elektronische Suche wenig Erfolg verspräche.
Es ist mir klar, dass der Duden – Die deutscheRechstschreibung keineswegs als
Universalwörterbuch anzusehen ist. Müßte ich demnach zum Duden-Fremdwörterbuch
greifen, um die gewünschtenInformationen zu bekommen (und stellt das
Fremdwörterbuch auch den tatsächlichen Sprachgebrauch dar?) oder wäre der
Duden-DeutschesUniversalwörterbuch ausreichend? Der Duden- Das große WB
der deutschen Sprache? Oder haben Sie andere Vorschläge? Zudem fiel mir auf, dass es
nicht möglich ist, die gesamten gefunden Einträge in ein anderes Dokument
zu kopieren. Meine Frage bezüglich der Benutzung des elektronischen
Wörterbuchs wäre also, ob ich überhaupt dazu berechtigt bin, die Einträge
im Duden als Quelle der Anglizismen im Gegenwartsdeutsch in meiner
Diplomarbeit zu verwenden (sprich: Basis für Fragebögen, lexikographische
Auseinandersetzung mit den verschiedenen Einträgen, Korpusmaterial für den
Vergleich mit dem Robert und dem Zingarelli zur Suche nach Gemeinsamkeiten,
Internationalismen, etc.)?
Ich hoffe, Sie können mir in dieser Sache weiterhelfen, zumal ich mich
gerade wegen des großen Aufstandes um den Gebrauch von Anglizismen und der
großen Zahl an verschiedensten veröffentlichten "Wörterbüchern" (ich kann
mich in meiner Arbeit aus Gründen der Aktualität nur teilweise auf DAS Werk
der deutschen Anglizismen-Bearbeitung von Carstensen und Busse beziehen) an
ein Standardwerk der deutschen Sprache richte. Dass sich eine Sprache
täglich ändert ist mir ebenso klar, wie die Tatsache, dass es einer langen
Prozedur bedarf, ein Wort überhaupt in das WB aufzunehmen. Es geht mir bei
meiner Diplomarbeit allein darum, herauszufinden, welchen
Anglizismen-Wortschatz (für diesen Zweck: eindeutig erkennbare englische
Wörter) die jeweilige Sprache in der zuletzt veröffentlichten elektronischen
Form aufweist und ob es Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den Sprachen,
Internationalismen, gibt.
Ich danke Ihnen im Voraus für die Hilfe und verbleibe
Mit freundlichen Grüßen
Email: pmaurer@edu.uni-klu.ac.at
Name: Philippa Maurer-Stroh
Strasse: Jerolitschstr. 3
PLZ: 9201
Ort: Krumpendorf
Land: Österreich
132
B. CORPUS LISTS
a. DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch : "engl" in complete text
(3128) + "amerik" in complete text (125) [3167]
abgefuckt
Aborigine
Abort
abseits
Abstinenz
Abstract
Acid
Acid House
Action
Action-Painting
Adapter
Additiv
Adresse
Advantage
Adventist
Aerobic
Aftershave
Aggregat
Agitation
Agitator
agitieren
Agreement
ahoi
Aids
Airbag
Airbus ®
Airconditioner
Airedaleterrier
Airline
Airmail
Airport
Albatros
Alderman
Ale
ALGOL
Alien
Alligator
Allrounder
Allroundman
American Way of Life
Amerikanismus
Amphetamin
Anakonda
Analyst
Anchorman
Anchorwoman
Anglikaner
anglikanisch
Anode
Antilope
antörnen
Apartment
Appeal
Appeasement
Appetizer
Approach
Aquaplaning
architektural
Armutsgürtel
Artdirector
ASCII- Code
ASEAN
Assembler
Assembling
Assessment-Center
Assist
Atoll
Attack
Attacke
Attraktion
aufdatieren
Aus
ausflippen
ausknocken
ausloggen
Außenseiter
Aussperrung
Austenit
Austerity
Autocar
Automation
Autostopp
Average
AWACS
Axminsterteppich
Baby
Babysitter
Babysitting
Bachblütentherapie
Bachelor
back
Back
Backgammon
Background
Backhand
Backlash
Backlist
Backslash
Back-up
Bacon
Badminton
Bahncard ®
Ballade
Ballyhoo
Bananenrepublik
Bananensplit
Band
Bandit
Bandleader
Banjo
Banker
Banking
Bantamgewicht
Baptismus
Baptist
Bar
Barbecue
Bark
Barkeeper
Barmixer
Barrel
Base
Baseball
BASIC
Basizität
Basketball
Basset
Batchprocessing
Batter
Batterie
Bazooka
Beachvolleyball
Beagle
Beam
beamen
Beat
Beatgeneration
Beatnik
Beaufortskala
Beauty
Bébé
Bebop
Bed and Breakfast
Begum
Behaviorismus
Bel
Benchmark
Benchmarking
Bessemerbirne
Bestseller
Betarezeptorenblocker
bidirektional
Bigband
Bigbang
Big Business
Bigpoint
Bike
Biker
Bildschirmschoner
Bilge
Bingo
Bingocard
Bionik
Bischof
Bit
Bitterlemon
Blackbox
Blackout
Blackpower
Blank
Blankvers
Blaubuch
Blaujacke
Blaustrumpf
Blazer
Blend
Blind Date
blitzen
Blizzard
Blockbuster
Blockhaus
Bloody Mary
Blow-out
Blow-up
Bluebox
Bluechip
Bluejeans
Bluemovie
Bluenote
Blues
Bluescreen
Bluff
BMX-Rad
Board
Boarding-House
Boarding-School
Boatpeople
Bobby
Bobsleigh
Bobtail
Bodybuilding
Bodycheck
Bodyguard
Bodyshaping
Bodystocking
Bodystyling
Bodysuit
Boiler
Bombast
Bond
Bonus
Boogie-Woogie
Booklet
Bookmark
Boom
Booster
Boot
Boot
booten
Bootlegger
Bordcase
Boss
Bossing
Bottleneck
Bottleparty
Bowdenzug
Bowiemesser
Bowle
bowlen
Bowler
Bowling
Bowlinggreen
Bowls
Box
boxen
Boxer
Boxkalf
Boy
Boyfriend
133
Boygroup
Boykott
boykottieren
Boyscout
Braindrain
Brainstorming
Braintrust
Branding
Brandmanager
brandneu
Brandy
Break
Breakdance
Breakdancer
Break-even-Point
Brecher
Bregen
Bridge
briefen
Briefing
Brigg
Brodem
Broiler
Broker
Browning
Browser
Brunch
buchen
Buchmacher
Buddleia
Budget
Bug
Buggy
Bulldogge
Bulldozer
Bullterrier
Bully
Bumerang
Bungalow
Bungee-Jumping
Bunker
Bunny
Burger
Burn-out
Bus
Buschmann
Business
business as usual
Business-Class
Butler
Butterfly
Butterflymesser
Button
Button-down-Hemd
bye-bye
Bypass
Byte
Cab
Cable-Transfer
Cache
CAD
Caddie
Caddy
Cafeteria
Calf
California
Callboy
Call-by-Call
Callcenter
Callgirl
Callingcard
CAM
Camcorder
Camp
campen
Camper
Camping
Campus
canceln
Candle-Light-Dinner
Cannabis
Canvassing
Canyoning
Cape
Caravan
Caravaning
Cardigan
care of
Carepaket
Cargo
Carjacker
Carjacking
Carol
Carport
Carrier
Carsharing
Cartoon
Cartoonist
Carver
Carving
cash
Cash
cash and carry
Cashewnuss
Cashflow
Casting
Castle
Castor ®
Catboot
Catch-as-catch-can
catchen
Catcher
Caterer
Catering
Caterpillar
Catwalk
CB-Funk
CD
CD-Player
Cent
Center
Centre-Court
Chairman
Chairwoman
Champion
Champions League
Change
Charleston
Chart
Charter
chartern
Chasuble
Chat
Chatgroup
chatten
Check
Check
checken
Checklist
Checkpoint
Check-up
cheerio
Cheeseburger
Cherry-Brandy
Chesterfield
Chesterkäse
Cheviot
Chewinggum
Chief
Chillies
Chill-out-Room
Chinatown
Chintz
Chip
Chippendale
Choke
Chopsuey
Chow- Chow
Christian Science
Chutney
CIA
cif,c.i.f.
Cinemascope
Cinerama ®
CIP
City
Claim
Clan
Clarkia
clean
Clearing
Clerk
clever
Cleverness
Cliffhanger
Clinch
Clip
Clipper ®
Clog
Cloth
Clown
Clownerie
Cluster
Coach
coachen
Coaching
Coat
Cob
Cobbler
COBOL
Coca Cola ®
Cockerspaniel
Cockney
Cockpit
Cocktail
Cocooning
c.o.d.
Code
Codeswitching
Coffeeshop
Coke
Coldcream
Coldrubber
College
Collie
Colonel
Colt ®
Combo
Comeback
COMECON, Comecon
Comedy
Comedy-Show
Comicstrip
Coming-out
Common Sense
Commonwealth
Compact Disc
Compiler
Computer
Concept-Art
Connection
Constable
Consulting
Container
containerisieren
Contest
Controller
Controlling
Convenience-Foods
cool
Cool Jazz
Coolness
Coordinates
Cop
Copyright
Core
Corned Beef
Corned Pork
Corner
Cornflakes
Corporate Identity
Cosa Nostra
Cottage
Cotton
Couch
Count
Countdown
Counter
Counterpart
Countertenor
Countess
Countrymusic
County
Court
Cover
Covergirl
Cover-up
Coverversion
Cowboy
Cowgirl
Cox' Orange
Crack
Crack
Cracker
Crash
Cream
Crew
134
Crime
cross
Cross
Crosscountry
Cross-over
Cruise-Missile
Cruisergewicht
Cruising
Cumberlandsauce,
Cumberlandsoße
Cup
Curling
curricular
Curriculum
Cursor
Cut
Cutaway
cutten
Cutter
Cybersex
Cyberspace
Daddy
Daily Soap
Dame
Dampfer
Dampfmaschine
Dampfschiff
Dancefloor
Dancing
Dandy
Dandyismus
Darling
Darts
Dash
Date
Daten
Datenautobahn
Datenhighway
Datenverarbeitung
Daviscup
Daytrading
D-Day
Deadline
Deal
dealen
Dealer
Debugging
Decoder
decodieren
Deep-Freezer
Deficit-Spending
Defroster
degenerativ
Dekonstruktion
Dekonstruktivismus
Dekontamination
dekorieren
Delicious
Demonstration
demonstrieren
Denker
Denkfabrik
Denomination
Denotation
denunzieren
Deodorant
Department
Derby
Design
designen
Designer
Designerdroge
Designerfood
Deskresearch
Desktop-Publishing
Desperado
destabilisieren
detektieren
Detektiv
Detektor
Devon
Didgeridoo
Digest
Digit
digital
Dildo
Dime
dimmen
Dimmer
Dingi
Dingo
Dink
Dinner
Dinnerjacket
Dip
dippen
Direct Mailing
Discjockey
Discount
Disengagement
Diskette
diskret
Dispatcher
Displaced Person
Display
dissen
Dissidenz
Distrikt
Diversifikation
Dixieland
DNA
Dock
docken
Docking
Dogge
Dogger
Dogskin
do it yourself!
Dokumentalist
Dokusoap
Dolby-System
Dollar
Dolly
Domain
doodeln
Dope
dopen
Doping
Doublebind
Dover
Dow-Jones
down
Download
downloaden
Dragrace
Dragracing
Dragster
Draht
Drain
Dream-Team
Dress
Dressing
Dressman
dribbeln
Dribbler
Dribbling
Drill
drillen
Drink
Drive
Drive-in-Kino
Drive-in-Lokal
Driver
Dropkick
Drop-out
Drops
Drugstore
Drum
Drummer
dry
Dschungel
Dschunke
Dual-Band-Handy
Duke
Dumdum
Dummy
Dumping
Dunking
Duty-free-Shop
DVD
DVD-Player
Dynamo
E
Eagle
Earl
easy
Ebene
Economyklasse
Ecstasy
Ecu, ECU
Edinburgh
editieren
Editor
Editorial
Edutainment
EFTA
Egghead
Egotismus
Egotrip
Einhandsegler
Einkaufszentrum
einloggen
einmal
Eire
elaboriert
Electronic Cash
Electronic Commerce
Elektrode
Elektrolyse
Elektrolyt
Elektron
Elfe
E-Mail
Emitter
Emmy [Award]
Emoticon
emotiv
Empathie
Empire
Emu
Emulation
Emulator
Encoder
encodieren
Encoding
Encounter
Enduro
Engineering
English spoken
Englishwaltz
Enkulturation
Entertainer
Entertainment
entnazifizieren
Environment
environmental
Epistemologie
Equalizer
Equipment
Erdling
Ergonomie, Ergonomik
Erstschlag
ESA
Eskalation
Eskapismus
Esquire
Essay
Essential
Establishment
Euphuismus
evangelikal
Event
Everglaze
Evergreen
Everybody's Darling
Exchange
exklusiv
Expander
Export
exportieren
Express
Extended
extra dry
extrinsisch
Extruder
ey
Eyecatcher
Eyeliner
Facelifting
Face-to-FaceKommunikation
Facility-Management
Fact
Faction-Prosa
Factoring
135
Factory of the Future
Factory-Outlet
Faden
Fading
fair
Fairness
Fairplay
Fairychess
Fake
Faksimile
Fallout
Fan
Fannings
Fantasy
Fanzine
FAQ
Farad
farbig
Farm
Farmer
Fashion
fashionabel
Fast Food
Favorit
FBI
Feature
Federgewicht
Feedback
Feeling
Feim
Feldarbeit
Feldforschung
Fellow
Fellowship
Fender
Fenier
Fenster
Fenz
fest
Festival
Festplatte
feuern
Fiche
Fieldresearch
Fieldwork
fiftyfifty
Fight
fighten
Fighter
File
Filibuster
Film
Filou
Final
Finish
finishen
Firewall
firstclass
First Lady
Fischauge
Fisheye
Fission
fit
Fitness
fitten
Fitting
Fix
fixen
Fixing
Fizz
Flagge
Flame-out
Flammeri
Flanell
Flap
Flash
Flashback
Flashlight
Fleece
Flibustier
Fliegengewicht
Flintglas
Flip
Flipchart
Flipflop
Flipper
flirten
Float
floaten
Floating
Flockdruck
Floor
Flop
Floppy Disk
Flotation
flotieren
Flower- Power
Fluoreszenz
Flüssigkristallanzeige
Flutlicht
Flyer
Flying Dutchman
Fog
Fokus
Folder
Folk
Folklore
Folksong
Font
Foot
Football
Forechecking
Forehand
Foreign Office
Form
Forsythie
FORTRAN
Forward
Fosburyflop
fotogen
Fotografie
Fotoshooting
foul
Foul
foulen
Four-Letter-Word
Foxterrier
Foxtrott
Frack
Frame
Franchise
Freak
freakig
Freeclimber
Freeclimbing
Free Jazz
Freestyle
Free TV
Freidenker
Freihandel
Freimaurer
Friedenspfeife
Friedensrichter
Frisbee
Frontman
Frontmann
Froschmann
Froster
Full Dress
Full House
Full Service
Full Speed
Full-Time-Job
Fun
Functional Food
Fundamentalismus
Funk
funkig
Funsport
Fußball
Fuzzi
Fuzzylogik, Fuzzytheorie
G-7-Staat
Gadget
Gag
gaga
Gagger
Gagman
Gallon
Gallone
Gameboy
Gameport
Gameshow
Gang
Gangster
Gangway
Gardenparty
Gardinenpredigt
Gartenstadt
Gasolin
Gate
GATT
Gault
gay
Gecko
Gehirnwäsche
Geisha
Geisterstadt
Geld
Gemeingeist
Gemeinplatz
Gemeinwohl
generativ
Generikum
Genozid
Gentleman
gentlemanlike
Gentleman's Agreement,
Gentlemen's ...
Gesicht
Getter
Gettoblaster
Gewerbefreiheit
Ghostwriter
G.I., GI
Gig
Gig
Gig
Gigue
Gimmick
Gin
Ginger
Gingerale
Gingerbeer
Gin Tonic
Gipfel
Gipfelkonferenz
Girl
Girlie
Give-away
Glamour
Glamourgirl
glamourös
Gleiter
Glencheck
Global Player
Globetrotter
G-Man
Goal
Goalgetter
Goalie
Go-goGo-go-Boy
Go-go-Girl
Go-in
Gokart
Golden Delicious
Golden Goal
Golden Twenties
Golf
Golfer
Gong
goodbye
Goodwill
Goodwillreise
Gorilla
Go-slow
Gospel
Gospelsinger
Gospelsong
Gotcha
gotisch
Graffito
Grahambrot
Grammy [Award]
Grand Old Lady
Grand Old Man
Grandslam
Grapefruit
Graphem
Grass
Gräting
Grauzone
Greenback
Greencard
Greenhorn
Greenpeace
136
Greyhound
Greyhoundbus
Grill
grillen
Grillroom
Grizzlybär
Grog
groggy
Groove
Groundhostess
Groupie
Grubber
Grunge
Gruppendynamik
Gruppensex
G-String
Guide
Guinea
Gully
Gurkha
Guttempler
Habit
Habituation
Hack
hacken
Hacker
Hair-Stylist
Halbblut
halbmast
Halbzeit
Halfcourt
Halfpipe
hallo
Halloween
Ham and Eggs
Hamburger
Hammondorgel
Händedruck
handeln
Handicap
handicapen
Handicapper
Handling
Handout, Hand-out
Hands
Handy
Handyman
Hang-over
Happening
happy
Happyend
Happy few
Hardbop
Hardcopy
Hardcore
Hardcover
Harddisk
Harddrink
Harddrug
Hardedge
Hardliner
Hardrock
Hardselling
Hardstuff
Hardtop
Hardware
harmlos
Harmonika
Hattrick
Häuptling
Haut
Havelock
HD-Diskette
Headhunter
Headline
Headliner
Hearing
heavy
Heavymetal
Hedgegeschäft
Heilsarmee
Heimatland
Heißsporn
Held
Helikopter
Heliport
Heliskiing
Helium
Heman
Hemlocktanne
Henry
Hermetik
Herrenreiter
Hexenjagd
hey
Hickory
hieven
high
Highball
High Church
High End
High Fidelity
Highimpact
Highlife
Highlight
Highriser
Highschool
High Snobiety
High Society
Hightech
Hightech
Highway
Hijacker
Hillbilly
Hillbillymusic
Hinterbänkler
Hinterwäldler
hip
Hip-Hop
hipp, hipp, hurra!
Hippie
Hipster
Hit
hitchhiken
Hitchhiker
Hitzeschild
HIV
Hobby
Hochtechnologie
Hockey
Holdinggesellschaft
Hole
Holidays
hollerithieren
Holocaust
Hologramm
Holographie
Holster
Homebanking
Homecomputer
Homefighter
Homeland
Homelearning
Homepage
Homerule
Hometrainer
homo homini lupus
honen
Honey
Honeymoon
Honigmond
hooked
Hooligan
Hootenanny
Hop
Hop
Hornpipe
Horror
Horse
Horsepower
Host
Hostess
Hotdog
Hot Jazz
Hotline
Hotpants
House
Hovercraft
HTML
Hughesapparat
Hula-Hoop
Hully-Gully
Human Counter
Human Engineering
Humbug
Humor
Humorist
Hümpel
Humpen
Hundredweight
Hunter
Hurrikan
Husky
Hustle
Hut
Hydrant
Hydrofoil
Hype
Hyperlink
Hyperon
Hypersonikbereich
hypersonisch
Hypertext
Hyperurbanismus
hypnagog, hypnagogisch
hypnotisieren
Hypnotismus
-ical
Icing
Icon
Idiolekt
Ifor
Image
imaginabel
Impact
Impeachment
Implementation
implementieren
Import
Imprint
in
in
Incentive
Inch
Incoming
in concert
incorporated
Incoterms
Indentgeschäft
Independence Day
Indian
Indianersommer
Indie
Industrial Design
Industrial Engineering
Infight
Infoline
informal
Ingot
Ingrainpapier
Ingroup
Inlaid
Inlay
Inliner
Inlineskate
inlineskaten
Inlineskater
Input
Inselhopping
Insert
Insertion
Insider
instant
Instrumental
Interface
Interlockware
internal
international
Internet
Interpreter
Interrailpass
Interview
Intranet
intrinsisch
Intro
investigativ
Investment
Ion
Ionenaustauscher
Ionenfalle
Ionisation
ionisieren
Iridium
Irish Coffee
Irish Stew
ISDN
137
Ismus
ISO
Isolationismus
Isolationist
Isotop
Jacht
Jacketkrone
Jackpot
Jacuzzi
Jagdgrund
Jahrmarkt
Jak
Jamboree
Jamsession
Jamswurzel
Jazz
Jeans
Jeep
Jersey
Jesus People
Jet
Jetlag
Jetliner
Jetset
Jetstream
Jett
Jigger
Jingle
Jingo
Jingoismus
Jitterbug
Jive
Job
jobben
Jobber
Jobhopping
Jobrotation
Jobsharing
Jockey, Jockei
Jogging
Joint
Joint Venture
Jo-Jo
Joker
Joystick
Jukebox
Jumbojet
Jump
Jungfernrebe
Junk- Art
Junkfood
Junkie
Juror
Jury
just intime
Jute
Juxtaposition
Kabine
Kaffeehaus
Kaffer
Kaki
Kaleidoskop
Kalzium
Känguru
Kanister
Kanonenfutter
Kanter
Kanu
Kardinal
Kart
Kartätsche
Karting
Katamaran
Katgut
Kathod
Keeper
keep smiling
Keks
Kelt
Kerosin
Ketchup
Kettcar ®
Keule
Key-AccountManagement
Keyboard
Kfor
Kick
Kick-and-rush
Kickboard
Kick-down
kicken
Kickstarter
Kid
kidnappen
Kidnapper
Kidnapping
Kif
killen
Killer
Killerwal
Kilt
King
Kitchenette
Kiwi
Kiwi
Klick
Klipper
Klon
Klosett
Klub
Knickerbocker
Knittelvers
Knochen
knock-out
Knoten
Know-how
Knüller
Koalition
Koedukation
Koffein
Koks
Kollateralschaden
kolloid, kolloidal
Kolloid
Kolonisation
kolonisieren
Kolonist
Kombination
Komfort
komfortabel
Komitee
Kommodore
Kommunismus
Komödiant
kompatibel
Kompetenz
kompilieren
Kompliment
konditionieren
Kondom
Konferenz
Konformismus
Konformist
Kongregationalist
Konnektor
Konnotation
konnotativ
Konservatismus
konservativ
Konsol
Konstabler
Konstrukt
kontakten
Konter
kontern
konterproduktiv
kontextual, kontextuell
Kontroller
kontrollieren
Konverter
Konvertit
Konvoi
Konzentrationslager
konzeptualisieren
konzeptuell
Konzern
Konzertina
Kopilot
Korb
Kord
Korporation
Korund
kracken
Kraul
kraulen
Kraut
kreativ
Kreuzverhör
Kricke
Krieg
Kriegführung
Kriegspfad
Krill
Krocket
Kronkolonie
Kronzeuge
Krupp
Kryotron
Krypton
Küchenkabinett
Ku-Klux-Klan
Kuli
Kulm
Kumquat
Kung-Fu
Kurzgeschichte
kurzsichtig
Kutter
Kybernetik
Label
Labiovelar
Labour Party
Labskaus
Lacrosse
Ladino
Lady
ladylike
Lag
Lambskin
Lambswool
lamellar
Landart
Landratte
Landrover
Landseer
lange
Laptop
Lärm
Laser
Laserdrom
Lasso
last, not least
Lastex ®
Last-Minute-Angebot
Late-Night-Show
Latin Lover
Latino
Lautsprecher
Law and Order
Lawntennis
Layout
LCD
Leader
Lean Management
Lean Production
Learning by Doing
leasen
Leasing
leben
Lebensqualität
Ledernacken
Leggings, Leggins
Legionärskrankheit
Legislatur
Leitartikel
Lerner
Level
Lias
Liberalismus
Liebe
Liebesmüh, Liebesmühe
Lifestyle
Lifetimesport
Lift
Lift
liften
Lifting
Liftkurs
Liger
light
Lightshow
Liliputaner
Limerick
Limit
138
Linearbeschleuniger
Link
Linke
Linoleum
Linotype
Lipgloss
live
Liveact
Lob
lobben
Lobbyismus
Lobbyist
Location
Loch
Loft
Log
Loge
Logge
Logger
Logistik
Logo
Lokomotive
Lolli
Longdrink
longline
Longseller
Look
loopen
Looping
Lord
Lordship
Lore
Lori
Loser
Lost Generation
Lot
Lotion
Lotse
Louisiana
Lounge
love
Lover
Lovestory
Löwe
Lowimpact
LP
Luftbrücke
lugen
Lumineszenz
Lunch
ly
lynchen
made in ...
Magazin
Magnum
Mahonie
Mailbox
mailen
Mailing
Mailingliste
Mailorder
Mainliner
Mainlining
Mainstream
Maisonette
Major
Majorette
makadamisieren
Make-up
Makrobefehl
Mall
Malm
Management
Management-Buy-out
managen
Manager
manch
Manchester
Manchester
Mandarinente
Mandrill
Mangrove
manipulativ
Mann
Manpower
Manual
Manufaktur
Marchingband
Marina
Marker
Marketing
Marketingmix
Marquess
Mary Jane
Mascara
Maser
Master
Match
Matchstrafe
Maus
Mauspad
Mc-Job
Mediation
Medienbartering
medium
Medium
Medium
Medley
Meeting
meets
mega-in
Megalopole
mega-out
Mehrheit
meliorativ
Melton
Memorial
Memory
Menjoubart
Mentalität
Menü
Merchandising
Merlin
Meson
Mesotron
Message
Messe
metallic
Methodismus
Methodist
methodistisch
Mickymaus
Microburst
midi
Midlife-Crisis,
Midlifecrisis
Mikrofon
Mikroprozessor
Milch
Military
Mimikry
Mindmap
Mindmapping
mini
Minimal Art
Minimal Music
Mink
mint
Mintsoße
Miss
Missile
Missing Link
Mist
misten
Mister
Mittelgewicht
Mittsommer
Mixed
Mixed Drink
Mixed Media
Mixed Pickles
mixen
Mixer
Mob
mobben
Mobile
mode
Mode
Model
Modem
Modern Jazz
Modul
modular
Mogul
Mohair
Moiré
Mokassin
Mokka
Moleskin
Monarchist
Moneymaker
Monitor
Monocoque
Monopoly
Monotype
Monster
Monsun
Moonboot
Moorhuhn
Mopp
moppen
Morgenluft
morphen
Morphing
Morsealphabet
Motel
Motion-Picture
Motocross
Mount
Mountainbike
Movie
Moxa
Moxibustion
Mucke
Muffin
Mulch
Mull
multikulti
Multimedia
Multimediashow
Multiple-ChoiceVerfahren
Multiplex
Multitasking
Mummy
Mumps
Mungo
muren
Muring
Musical
Mustang
Muttertag
Muzak
Mylady
Mylord
Myriade
Mystery
Nabob
Nachrichtenmagazin
NAFTA
Nähmaschine
Namedropping
Nappa
NASA
NATO
Natron
Nautik
Navaho, Navajo
Navel
Necking
Negativ
Negrospiritual
Nelson
Neon
Neptunium
Nerv
nervös
Net
Netiquette
Network
Neufundländer
Neurose
Neutron
New Age
Newcomer
New Look
News
Newsgroup
Newsletter
Newton
New Wave
nibbeln
Nibble
Nigger
Nightclub
Nightskating
139
Nippel
Nobody
no future
no iron
No-Name-Produkt
Non-Book
Non-Essentials
Non-Fiction
Non-Food
Nonkonformismus
Nonkonformist
Nonproliferation
Nonsens
nonstop
North Dakota
Norther
Nostalgie
Notebook
Notepad
Novel Food
Novellette
Nubuk
Nugget
nuklear
null
Nullwachstum
Nylon
OAPEC
OAU
Oberhaus
obsessiv
Ochsenschwanzsuppe
Odds
OECD
Off
Offbeat
Offbrands
Offenmarktpolitik
Office
Offkommentar
off limits
offline
Offroader
Offsetdruck
offshore
Offshorebohrung
offside
okay
Okkurrenz
Oldie
Oldtimer
on
Onanie
on call
One-Man-Show
One-Night-Stand
online
on the road
on the rocks
Op-Art
OPEC
Open-Air-Festival
open end
Opening
Open Shop
Operating
Operationsresearch
Operator
Opossum
Opposition
oppositionell
Optical Art
optional
Oral History
Orbit
orbital
Orbital
Orbiter
Order
ordern
Organizer
Orgware
Oscar
out
Outback
Outcast
Outdoor
outen
Outfit
Outfitter
Outgroup
Outing
Outlaw
out of area
Outplacement
Output
Outsider
Outsourcing
Overall
overdressed
Overdrive
Overflow
Overheadprojektor
Overkill
Oxer
Oxid
oxidieren
Oxtailsuppe
Pace
Pacemaker
Packagetour
Pad
Paddel
paddeln
Paddock
Pager
Paket
Palaver
Palladium
palmieren
PAL-System
Pamphlet
Panel
Panorama
Pantry
Panty
Paper
Paperback
Papiertiger
Par
Paragliding
Paralympics
Parasailing
parboiled
Paria
Park
Parka
Park-and-ride-System
parken
Parkingmeter
Parlament
Parlamentarier
parlamentarisch
Parsec
parsen
Parser
Parsing
Partner
Party
Pass
passen
Passwort
Patchwork
Pattern
Patternpraxis
Pax
Payback
Paying Guest
Payout
Pay-per-View
Pay-TV
Pazifik
Peak
Peanuts
Pedigree
Peeling
Peer
Peerage
Peergroup
Pellet
Pemmikan
Penalty
P.E.N.-Club, PEN-Club
Penholder
Penizillin
Penny
Penthouse
Pep
Percussion
Performance
Performanz
permanent press
Permit
Pershing
Personalcomputer
Personalityshow
Petticoat
Petting
Pfadfinder
Pferdeschwanz
Pferdestä rke
Pharo
Phosgen
Piaster
Pica
Pickelhering
Picknick
Pick-up
Pidginenglisch
Pie
Piedmontfläche
Piek
Pier
piercen
Piercing
Pilling
Pin
Pinboard
Pincheffekt
Pingpong
pink
Pint
Pin-up-Girl
Pipe
Pipeline
Pistole
Pit
Pitbull
pitchen
Pitchpine
Pixel
Plaid
Plastics
Plastik
Plastiksprengstoff
Play-back
Playboy
Playgirl
Playmate
Play-off
Playstation
Plenum
PLO
Plot
Plotter
Plumpudding
Plutonium
Pneumatik
Pocketbook
Pogo
Pointer
Point of Sale
Poker
Pokerface
Polaroidkamera
Poleposition
Political Correctness
Poll
Polo
Pony
Pool
poolen
Pop
Pop-Art
Popcorn
Popper
Porridge
Port
Portabilität
Portable
Porter
Portlandzement
possessiv
Post
Post
Postdoc
140
posten
Poster
postmodern
Pot
Pot
Pound
Power
powern
Powerslide
Prärieauster
präsentieren
Präsenz
Präserve
Prau
Premier
premium
Preprint
Presbyterianer
presbyterianisch
Presenter
Preshave
Pressure-Group
Preview
Primary
Primerate
Primetime
printed in ...
Printer
Printing-on-Demand
Printmedium
Prisoner of War
Producer
Product-Placement
Professional
Profiler
Profitcenter
programmieren
Progressive Jazz
Prohibition
Proliferation
prominent
Prominenz
promoten
Promoter
Promotion
Propeller
Provider
provisorisch
Prozedur
Prozentpunkt
psychedelisch
Pub
Publicity
Public Relations
Publikum
Puck
Pudding
pullen
Pullmanwagen
Pullover
Pullunder
Pulp
Pulper
Pulsar
Pumpgun
Pumps
Punch
Punk
Punkrock
Punsch
Puppet
Puritaner
Puritanismus
Purser
Purserette
Push
pushen
Pusher
Push-up-BH
Putt
Puzzle
Puzzler
Pyjama
Q-Fieber
Quadrosound
Quäker
Qualifikation
qualifizieren
Quark
Quarter
Quarterback
Quarterdeck
Quasar
Queen
Quellprogramm
Quenching
Quickie
Quickstepp
Quicktest
Quilt
Quiz
Rachitis
Racingreifen
Rack
Racket
Rackjobbing
Rad
Radar
radikal
Radio
Radom
Raft
Rafting
Raglan
Ragtime
Raigras
Rally
Rallye
RAM
Ramie
Ranch
Rancher
Rand
randomisieren
Ranger
Ranking
Rap
Rating
Rattan
raubeinig
Rave
Reader
Readymade
Reaktor
Realignment
realisieren
Realityshow
Real-Time-System
Rebound
Rebreak
Receiver
Recital
recyceln
Recycling
Redingote
Redpower
Referee
Referent
Referenz
Reformer
Reggae
registered
Rehabilitation
rehabilitieren
Reise
Rekord
Rekorder
Rekurrenz
rekursiv
Relaunch
relaunchen
relaxed
relaxen
Relaxing
Release
Releaser
relevant
Relevanz
Relish
Remake
Remix
REM-Phase
Rendezvous
Repeatperkussion
Report
Reporter
Reprint
Republikaner
Research
Researcher
Reservation
respektabel
Retrieval
Retriever
Retrovirus
Return
Reverend
Reverse
Review
Revival
Revolution
Revolver
Revolvingkredit
Reyon
Rezession
Rhythm and Blues
Richterskala
Rickettsie
Riff
Rigg
Rikscha
Rips
Riverboatshuffle
RNA
Roadie
Roadmanager
Roadmovie
Roadster
Roastbeef
Robber
Robinson
Roboter
Rock
Rockabilly
Rock and Roll
rocken
Rocker
Rock'n'Roll
Rodeo
roger
röhren
Roll-back
Rollerblade
Rollerskate
Roll-on-roll-off-Schiff
ROM
romantisch
Rommé
Rooming-in
Rotarier
Rotary Club
Rothaut
Rotlichtviertel
Rotor
Round-Table-Konferenz
Routing
Rowdy
Royal
Rubber
Rubber
Rugby
Rum
Rumpsteak
Run
Runninggag
Runway
Rushhour
Rye
Sabbatical
Sabbatjahr
Safe
Safer Sex
Sago
saisonal
Salesmanager
Salmonelle
Saloon
Sample
Sampler
Sandwich
Sandwichman
SAS
Saum
Scaling
scannen
141
Scanner
Scanning
Scat
Scene
Schal
schanghaien
Scharpie
Schauer
Scheck
Scheckbuch
Schedbau
Schelf
schiften
schinden
Schlemm
Schlitten
schmal
Schmant
Schmauch
schneiden
schocken
Schoner
Schöpfung
Schrapnell
schrill
schrillen
schrinken
Schulter
Schwindler
Science-Fiction
Scientology
Score
scoren
Scotch
Scotchterrier
Scout
Scrabble
Scrapie
scratch
Scratching
Screen
Screening
Scrollen
SDI
SDP
Seaborgium
Seal
Sealskin
SEATO
secondhand
Secondhandshop
Secret Service
Seehund
Seersucker
Segregation
Seifenoper
Selbst
Selbstbestimmung
Selbstverwaltung
Selektion
selektiv
Selfgovernment
Selfmademan
Seller
Selling-Center
Sensor
sentimental
Sentimentalität
Separate
Separatismus
Separatist
Sequel
sequenziell
Sequoia
Sergeant
Serial
Serife
Serve-and-Volley
Server
Service
Session
Set
Set
Setter
Sex
Sex and Crime
Sex- Appeal
Sexer
Sexismus
sexy
Sfor
Shag
Shake
Shakehands
Shaker
Shampoo
Shanty
Share
Shareholder
Shareholder-Value
Shareware
Sheriff
Sherpa
Sherry
Shirt
Shit
shocking
Shooting
Shootingstar
Shop
shoppen
Shopping
Shopping-Center
Shorts
Short Story
Shorttrack
Shorty
Shouting
Show
Showbiz
Showbusiness
Showdown
Showman
Showmaster
Shredder
Shrimp
Shuffle
Shuffleboard
Shuttle
Sideboard
Sightseeing
Silk
Single
Single
Sinn
Sioux
Sir
Sitcom
Sit-in
Six Days
Sixty-nine
Skalp
Skateboard
skateboarden
Skateboarder
skaten
Skater
Skeetschießen
Skeleton
Sketch
Skiff
Skiffle
Skinhead
Skinner-Box
Skipper
Skooter
Skore
Skript
Skriptgirl
Skull
skullen
Skuller
Skunk
Skyeterrier
Skyjacker
Skylab
Skylight
Skyline
Slack
Slacker
Slang
Slapstick
Sleeper
Slice
slicen
Slick
Slip
slippen
Slipper
Slogan
Sloop
Slot
slow
Slowfox
Slum
small
Smalltalk
smart
Smartcard
Smash
Smiley
Smog
Smoking
SMS
Snack
Snackbar
Snail-Mail
Sniff
sniffen
Sniffing
Snob
Snobismus
Snooker
Snow
Snowboard
Snowboarder
Snowboarding
Soapopera
Soccer
Social Costs
Society
Sodar
Sodium
soft
Softart
Softball
Softcopy
Softdrink
Softdrug
Softeis
soften
Softie
Softrock
Softsculpture
Software
Sonar
Song
Songwriter
Sonnyboy
Soor
sophisticated
Sorter
SOS
Souchong
Soul
Sound
Soundkarte
Soundtrack
Sousaphon
South Dakota
Sozialismus
Sozialist
Spacelab
Spaniel
sparren
Sparring
Speaker
Special
Speech
Speed
Speedwayrennen
spektakulär
Spektrum
Spenzer
Spider
Spike
Spillage
Spin
Spinnaker
Spin-off
Spiritismus
Spiritual
Spiritual Song
Spleen
Splendid Isolation
splitten
Splitting
Spoiler
142
sponsern
Sponsor
Sponsoring
Sponsorship
Sport
sportiv
Sportsmann
Sportswear
Spot
Spotlight
Spray
sprayen
Sprayer
Spread
Spreading
Sprinkler
Sprint
sprinten
Sprinter
Spurt
spurten
Squash
Squaw
Stagediving
Stagflation
Stainless Steel
Standard
standardisieren
Stand-by
Standing
Standing Ovations
Stand-up
Star
Starlet, Starlett
Stars and Stripes
Start
starten
Starter
Start-up
Statement
Staufferfett
Steak
Steakhaus
Steamkracken
Steckenpferd
Stenografie
Stenotypist
Stepp
steppen
stereophon
Stereophonie
Sterling
Stern
Stetson
Steuereinheit
Steward
Stewardess
Stick
Sticker
Stillleben
Stock
Stoff
stoned
stonewashed
stop
Stop-and-go-Verkehr
Stop-over
stoppen
Stoppuhr
Story
Straddle
straight
Straps
Streetball
Streetwork
Streetworker
Strei
streiken
Stretch
Stringtanga
Strip
Stripper
Striptease
Strobolight
Strontium
Stuhl
Stunt
Stuntman
stylen
Styling
Stylist
Sub
suborbital
Suburbanisation
subversiv
Subwoofer
Suffragette
suggestiv
Sulky
Sunbelt
Super- G
Superlearning
Supermarkt
supersonisch
Supervision
Supervisor
Supreme Court
Surfboard
surfen
Surfer
Surfing
Surprise-Party
Survey
Survivaltraining
Swap
Swapgeschäft
Swapper
Sweater
Sweatingsystem
Sweatshirt
Sweepstake
Sweet
Sweetheart
Swimmingpool,
Swimming-Pool
Swing
Swing
swingen
Swinger
swinging
Swinging
switchen
Switchgeschäft
Symposion
Synchronisation
synchronisieren
Syncopated Music
Syndet
Syndikat
Synthesizer
Synthetics
Szene
Tab
tabu
Tabula rasa
Tabulator
Tachometer
Tacker
Tag
Tag
Tagesordnung
taggen
Taifun
Take
Take-off
Take-over
Talk
talken
Talker
Talkshow
Tamagotchi
Tamtam
Tandem
Tangram
Tank
tanken
Tanker
Tape
Tarot
Tartan
Task
Taskforce
tätowieren
Tatsache
Tattersall
Tattoo
Taxiway
T-Bone-Steak
Teach-in
Teak
Team
Teamwork
Tearoom
Teaser
Techno
Technokrat
Technokratie
technokratisch
Teddy
Teddybär
Tee
Teen
Teenie, Teeny
telegen
Telegramm
Telepathie
telepathisch
Teleprompter ®
Teleshopping
Teletext
Television
Telex
Temperenz
Tendenz
Tender
Tennis
tentativ
Terminal
Terrier
Test
testen
thermal
Thermopane
Thinktank
Thrill
Thriller
ticken
Ticker
Ticket
Tie-Break
Tiffanylampe
timen
Time-out
Timer
Timesharing
Timing
Tintenstrahldrucker
Tipp
tippen
tippen
tipptopp
Toast
toasten
Toaster
Toddy
Toeloop
Toffee
Token
Tomahawk
Tommy
Toner
Tonic
Tool
top
Top
Top
topgesetzt
Toplader
topless
Topmanagement
toppen
topsecret
Topspin
Topten
Törn
Tory
Totem
Touch
Touchscreen
tough
Tourist
Tower
Township
Trace
Track
Trackball
Trademark
143
Trading
Traditional Jazz
Trailer
Trainee
Trainer
trainieren
Training
Training on the Job
Traktor
Tram
Tramp
trampen
Tramway
Trance
Tranquilizer
Transfer
transferabel
transferieren
Transistor
Transmitter
Transponder
Transporter
Transputer
Trap
Trapper
Trapschießen
Trash
Traum
Traumfabrik
Travellerscheck
Travestie
Trawl
Trawler
Trax
Treatment
Treiber
treideln
Trekkie
Trekking
Trekkingbike
Trenchcoat
Trend
Trendscout
Trendsetter
trendy
Trepang
Triade
Trial
Trial-and-Error-Methode
Trichine
Trick
tricky
Trifle
Trigger
Trimm
trimmen
Trip
Triptyk
Trolley
Trolleybus
Tropical
Trouble
Troygewicht
Truck
Trucker
Trucksystem
Trust
Trustee
Tschandu
T-Shirt
Tube
tubeless
Tudorbogen
Tuftingverfahren
tunen
Tuner
Tuning
Tunnel
Turf
Turkey
Turmalin
Turn
Turnaround
Tutor
Tweed
Twen
Twill
Twinset
Twist
Twist
twisten
Tycoon
Überflussgesellschaft
überholen
Überlebenstraining
überziehen
UFO, Ufo
Ufologie
Ulster
Umweltschutz
umziehen
UN
Uncle Sam
Undercoveragent
Underdog
underdressed
Underflow
Underground
Understatement
UNESCO
unfreundlich
UNICEF
Union Jack
Unisex
Unperson
unplugged
Untergrund
Untergrundbahn
Unterhaus
Unternehmensberater
Unternehmensberatung
Unternehmensforschung
Unternehmer
unterprivilegiert
Unterschied
Unterseeboot
Unze
Update
Upgrade
Upperclas
up to date
Urknall
URL
USA
USB
User
utilitär
Utilitarismus
Utopie
Vamp
Van
vegan
Vegetarier
Vektor
Ventilator
Veranda
Verdikt
Viagra ®
Vibraphon
Victoryzeichen
Video
video-, VideoVideoclip
Video-on-Demand
Viktimologie
VIP
Viper
virtuell
Virus
Viscount
Viscountess
visualisieren
vital
vitalisieren
Vitamin
Voicemail
Volapük
Volkslied
Volkswirtschaft
Vollblut
volley
Volley
Volleyball
Vorhang
Voucher
V. S. O. P.
Vulgarität
Vulkanisation
vulkanisieren
Wad
Wafer
Waggon
Wakeboard
Walkie-Talkie
Walkman
Wallaby
WAP
Wapiti
Warm-up
Warp
Warrant
wash and wear
waterproof
Waterproof
waterresistant
Watt
WC
Website
Wechselwähler
Wedge
Wedgwood
Weekend
Weißbuch
Wellness
Weltergewicht
Westen
Western
Westerner
Whalewatching
Whig
Whirlpool
Whisky
Whist
Whistler
Whitecoat
White-Collar-Kriminalität
WHO
Who's who
Wigwam
Wildcard
Winder
Windjammer
Window
Windowshopping
Wissen
Witz
Wolke
Wolkenkratzer
Womanizer
Women's Lib
Worcestersoße
Workaholic
Workout
Workshop
Workstation
Worldcup
World Games
World Wide Fund for Nature
World Wide Web
Worst Case
wow
Wrestling
Wurmloch
Xetra
X-Strahlen
Yankee
Yard
Yellow Press
Yips
YMCA
Yorkshireterrier
Youngster
Yuppie
YWCA
Zahn
zappen
Zapping
Zebra
Zeit
Zelluloid
Zenerdiode
Zerealie
144
Ziehungsrecht
Zimbabwe
Zipp ®
Zirkus
zivil
Zivilisation
Zombie
Zoom
zoomen
Zug
Zyklon
145
b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert – "anglic OU angl OU amér" in complete
text [2771]
abalone – n. m.
aberration – n. f.
abiogenèse – n. f.
ablater – v. tr.
ablatif – n. m. et adj.
ablation – n. f.
abolitionnisme – n. m.
abolitionniste – n. et
adj.
abrasif, ive – n. m. et
adj.
A.B.S. – n. m.
absentéisme – n. m.
abzyme – n. f.
accélérine – n. f.
accession – n. f.
acculturation – n. f.
ace – n. m.
acétification – n. f.
acétylcoenzyme – n. f.
acquisition – n. f.
acre – n. f.
acronyme – n. m.
acte – n. m.
A.C.T.H. – n. f.
actuaire – n.
actualisation – n. f.
adaptation – n. f.
adepte – n.
admittance – n. f.
A.D.N. – n. m.
adrénaline – n. f.
adrénergique – adj.
adresse – n. f.
adventiste – n.
aérobic – n. f.
affidavit – n. m.
afro – adj. inv.
afro-cubain, aine – adj.
after-shave – n. m. inv.
agnosticisme – n. m.
agnostique – adj.
agrippement – n. m.
aigre – adj.
aigri, ie – adj.
aigrir – v.
aimer – v. tr.
airbag – n. m.
airedale – n. m.
albacore – n. m.
albatros – n. m.
albédo – n. m.
ale – n. f.
algol – n. m.
allégeance – n. f.
alligator – n. m.
allitération – n. f.
allo – interj.
aloès – n. m.
alphapage – n. m.
alternative – n. f.
aluminium – n. m.
a.m. – loc. adv.
amant, ante – n.
amendement – n. m.
amender – v. tr.
amer, ère – adj. et n.
m.
amer – n. m.
amèrement – adv.
américium – n. m.
amphétamine – n. f.
anaconda – n. m.
analycité – n. f.
angioneurotique – adj.
angledozer – n. m.
angliche – adj. et n.
angustura – n. f.
anion – n. m.
anomalon – n. m.
antibiotique – adj. et n.
m.
anticlinal, ale, aux –
adj.
antilope – n. f.
antipsychiatrie – n. f.
antiskating – n. m.
antitrust – adj.
apache – n. et adj.
apéritif, ive – adj. et n.
m.
aplanétique – adj.
approche – n. f.
après-rasage – n. m. et
adj.
aptéryx – n. m.
aquaplaning – n. m.
arbovirus – n. m.
arc – n. m. inv.
argent – n. m.
argon – n. m.
armée – n. f.
A.R.N. – n. m.
arrière-plan – n. m.
arrimer – v. tr.
arrow-root – n. m.
artefact – n. m.
ASA – n. m. inv.
ASCII – n. m.
asdic – n. m.
ASIC – n. m.
aspartame – n. m.
assembleur, euse – n.
associationnisme – n.
m.
assomption – n. f.
assuétude – n. f.
atoll – n. m.
attaché-case – n. m.
attaquant, ante – n.
attention – n. f.
attorney – n. m.
attractif, ive – adj.
attraction – n. f.
auburn – adj. inv.
audit – n. m.
auditeur, trice – n.
austénite – n. f.
autocar – n. m.
autoérotisme – n. m.
autofocus – adj.
automate – n. m.
automation – n. f.
autoreverse – adj. inv.
auto-stop – n. m.
avoirdupoids – n. m.
axone – n. m.
baba – n.
baby – n. m.
baby-boom – n. m.
baby-foot – n. m. inv.
baby-sitter – n.
baby-sitting – n. m.
backgammon – n. m.
background – n. m.
bacon – n. m.
badge – n. m.
badlands – n. f. pl.
badminton – n. m.
baffle – n. m.
bagage – n. m.
balbuzard – n. m.
balisage – n. m.
ballast – n. m.
ballon – n. m.
ball-trap – n. m.
banana split – n. m.
inv.
bang – interj. et n. m.
inv.
banian – n. m.
banjo – n. m.
banque – n. f.
bantoustan – n. m.
baptisme – n. m.
baptiste – adj. et n.
bar – n. m.
barbecue – n. m.
baril – n. m.
barmaid – n. f.
barman – n. m.
barn – n. m.
baromètre – n. m.
baron, onne – n.
baronnet – n. m.
barracuda – n. m.
baryum – n. m.
bas-bleu – n. m.
base – n. f.
base-ball – n. m.
basic – n. m.
basique – adj.
basket – n. m.
bateau – n. m.
battant, ante – n.
battle-dress – n. m.
inv.
bay-window – n. f.
bazooka – n. m.
beagle – n. m.
beat – adj. inv.
beatnik – n.
beaupré – n. m.
bébé – n. m.
be-bop – n. m.
because – conj. et
prép.
behaviorisme – n. m.
benji – n. m.
berçant, ante – adj.
berkélium – n. m.
bermuda – n. m.
best-seller – n. m.
bichlamar – n. m.
bicycle – n. m.
bienvenue – n. f.
bifteck – n. m.
big-bang – n. m.
bigot, ote – adj. et n.
bile – n. f.
bill – n. m.
bingo – n. m.
biodégradable – adj.
biodégradation – n. f.
bioénergie – n. f.
biorythme – n. m.
bit – n. m.
bitter – n. m.
black – n. et adj.
black-bass – n. m. inv.
blackbouler – v. tr.
black-jack – n. m.
black-out – n. m. inv.
black-rot – n. m.
blazer – n. m.
blinder – v.
blister – n. m.
blizzard – n. m.
bloc – n. m.
bloc-notes – n. m.
bloc-système – n. m.
bloody mary – n. m.
inv.
bloomer – n. m.
blue-jean – n. m.
blues – n. m.
bluff – n. m.
blush – n. m.
boat people – n. m.
inv.
bob – n. m.
bobsleigh – n. m.
bobtail – n. m.
body – n. m.
bodybuilding – n. m.
boghead – n. m.
boghei – n. m.
bogie – n. m.
bogue – n. f., cour. n.
m.
bol – n. m.
146
bollard – n. m.
bondage – n. m.
bondérisation – n. f.
boogie-woogie – n. m.
bookmaker – n. m.
booléen, enne – adj.
boom – n. m.
boomerang – n. m.
booster – n. m.
bootlegger – n. m.
boots – n. f. pl.
bort – n. m.
bosco – n. m.
boss – n. m.
boulder – n. m.
bouledogue – n. m.
bouline – n. f.
boulingrin – n. m.
boumeur – n. m.
bourbon – n. m.
bousin – n. m.
bowling – n. m.
bow-window – n. m.
box – n. m.
box – n. m.
boxe – n. f.
boxer-short – n. m.
box-office – n. m.
boxon – n. m.
boy – n. m.
boycott – n. m.
boy-scout – n. m.
brachiation – n. f.
bradykinine – n. f.
brain drain – n. m.
brainstorming – n. m.
brain-trust – n. m.
brandy – n. m.
braquet – n. m.
break – n. m.
break – n. m.
breakfast – n. m.
bréchet – n. m.
breuvage – n. m.
brick – n. m.
bridge – n. m.
bridge – n. m.
briefer – v. tr.
briefing – n. m.
brise-lames – n. m.
bristol – n. m.
broker – n. m.
brook – n. m.
brunch – n. m.
brushing – n. m.
budget – n. m.
bug – n. m.
buggy – n. m.
bugle – n. m.
building – n. m.
bulbe – n. m.
bulldozer – n. m.
bull-finch – n. m.
bull-terrier – n. m.
bun – n. m.
bungalow – n. m.
bunker – n. m.
bus – n. m.
bush – n. m.
business – n. m.
businessman – n. m.
bye-bye – interj.
by-pass – n. m. inv.
byte – n. m.
cab – n. m.
cabin-cruiser – n. m.
cabine – n. f.
câbler – v. tr.
câblogramme – n. m.
cachemire – n. m.
caddie – n. m.
caddie – n. m.
C.A.F. – adj. ou adv.
cafétéria – n. f.
cake – n. m.
cake-walk – n. m.
californium – n. m.
call-girl – n. f.
calypso – n. m.
cambrien, ienne – n.
m. et adj.
caméra – n. f.
caméraman – n. m.
camp – n. m.
camping – n. m.
camping-car – n. m.
campus – n. m.
canette – n. f.
canif – n. m.
canner – v. tr.
cannibaliser – v. tr.
canoë – n. m.
canter – n. m.
cantilever – adj. inv. et
n. m.
capacitance – n. f.
capacitation – n. f.
capital-risque – n. m.
car – n. m.
caravane – n. f.
caravaning – n. m.
carborundum – n. m.
carcinome – n. m.
cardigan – n. m.
car-ferry – n. m.
cargo – n. m.
caronade – n. f.
carpette – n. f.
carrick – n. m.
carriériste – n.
carter – n. m.
cartoon – n. m.
cash – adv. et n. m.
cash-flow – n. m.
casimir – n. m.
casse-croûte – n. m.
inv.
casting – n. m.
catalpa – n. m.
catalyse – n. f.
catamaran – n. m.
catch – n. m.
caténane – n. f.
catgut – n. m.
cathode – n. f.
catogan – n. m.
cattleya – n. m.
C.B. – n. f.
CD-ROM – n. m. inv.
ceinture – n. f.
cellular – n. m.
celluloïd – n. m.
cénozoïque – adj.
cent – n. m. et f.
centile – n. m.
centrosome – n. m.
céphalosporine – n. f.
céréale – n. f.
cérébroside – n. m.
cerveau – n. m.
chacal – n. m.
chaîne – n. f.
châle – n. m.
challenge – n. m.
challenger – n. m.
chambray – n. m.
chamito-sémitique –
adj. et n. m.
champignon – n. m.
chapeau – n. m.
charge – n. f.
charter – n. m.
chartiste – adj. et n.
chat, chatte – n.
chatterton – n. m.
cheap – adj. inv.
check-list – n. f.
check-up – n. m. inv.
cheddar – n. m.
cheeseburger – n. m.
cheese-cake – n. m.
cheftaine – n. f.
chelem – n. m.
chemin de fer – n. m.
chèque – n. m.
cherry – n. m.
cheviotte – n. f.
chewing-gum – n. m.
chicotin – n. m.
chien-loup – n. m.
chiffe – n. f.
chihuahua – n. m.
chimioluminescence –
n. f.
chinook – n. m.
chintz – n. m.
chip – n. m.
chippendale – adj. inv.
chips – n. f. pl.
chiropracteur – n. m.
chiropraxie – n. f.
chisel – n. m.
chlorofluorocarbone –
n. m.
chloroquine – n. f.
choc – n. m.
choke-bore – n. m.
cholinestérase – n. f.
choquer – v. tr.
chorus – n. m.
chow-chow – n. m.
chris-craft – n. m.
chromatide – n. f.
chrominance – n. f.
chutney – n. m.
cibiste – n.
C.I.F. – adj. ou adv.
cinérama – n. m.
ciné-shop – n. m.
cladisme – n. m.
cladistique – adj.
cladogramme – n. m.
clairance – n. f.
clam – n. m.
clamp – n. m.
clap – n. m.
clapman – n. m.
clash – n. m.
claymore – n. f
clean – adj. inv.
clearing – n. m.
clergyman – n. m.
climax – n. m.
clinomètre – n. m.
clinorhombique – adj.
clip – n. m.
clip – n. m.
clipper – n. m.
cliquer – v. intr.
clone – n. m.
close-combat – n. m.
clown – n. m.
club – n. m.
club – n. m.
club-house – n. m.
cluster – n. m.
coach – n. m.
coalition – n. f.
coaltar – n. m.
cob – n. m.
cobol – n. m.
coca-cola – n. m. inv.
cocker – n. m.
cockney – n. et adj.
cockpit – n. m.
cocktail – n. m.
cocooning – n. m.
code – n. m.
coder – v.
coke – n. m.
col – n. m.
cold-cream – n. m.
colin – n. m.
collapser – v. intr.
colley – n. m.
colloïde – n. m.
colombe – n. f.
colombite – n. f.
colonisation – n. f.
coloniser – v. tr.
colorisation – n. f.
coloriser – v. tr.
combinaison – n. f.
come-back – n. m. inv.
comité – n. m.
commando – n. m.
commodité – n. f.
147
commodore – n. m.
commune – n. f.
communicabilité – n.
f.
communication – n. f.
compact, e – adj. et n.
m.
compétence – n. f.
compétitif, ive – adj.
compétition – n. f.
compilateur, trice – n.
compilation – n. f.
compiler – v. tr.
comportement – n. m.
compost – n. m.
compound – adj. inv.
et n.
compulsion – n. f.
concéder – v. tr.
concentration – n. f.
concerner – v. tr.
concertina – n. m.
condenseur – n. m.
conditionné, ée – adj.
condom – n. m.
condominium – n. m.
conformiste – n. et adj.
confort – n. m.
confortable – adj.
conglomérat – n. m.
congrès – n. m.
connotatif, ive – adj.
connoter – v. tr.
consistant, ante – adj.
consolidé, ée – adj. et
n.
consortium – n. m.
constable – n. m.
consumérisme – n. m.
consumériste – adj. et
n.
contact – n. m.
contacter – v. tr.
container – n. m.
contraceptif, ive – adj.
et n. m.
contraception – n. f.
contredanse – n. f.
contre-exemple – n. m.
contrôle – n. m.
conurbation – n. f.
convent – n. m.
convention – n. f.
conventionnel, elle –
adj. et n. m.
convertible – adj. et n.
m.
convict – n. m.
convivial, iale, iaux –
adj.
convivialité – n. f.
cooccurrence – n. f.
cookie – n. m.
cool – adj. inv.
coolie – n. m.
coopérant, ante – adj.
et n.
coopératif, ive – adj.
coopérative – n. f.
coordinateur, trice – n.
et adj.
coprocesseur – n. m.
copyright – n. m.
coquerie – n. f.
coqueron – n. m.
cordite – n. f.
corned-beef – n. m.
corner – n. m.
corn-flakes – n. m. pl.
cornique – adj.
coroner – n. m.
corozo – n. m.
corporation – n. f.
corral – n. m.
correct, e – adj.
corréler – v. tr.
cortisone – n. f.
cosy – adj.
cosy – n. m.
cotidal, ale, aux – adj.
cotinga – n. m.
cotre – n. m.
cottage – n. m.
country – n. f. ou m.
inv.
couponnage – n. m.
court – n. m.
court-circuiter – v. tr.
couscous – n. m.
couvrir – v. tr.
covelline – n. f.
covenant – n. m.
cover-girl – n. f.
cow-boy – n. m.
cow-pox – n. m. inv.
crack – n. m.
crack – n. m.
cracker – n. m.
cracking – n. m.
craquage – n. m.
crash – n. m.
crasher (se) – v. pron.
crawl – n. m.
créatif, ive – adj. et n.
m.
crédible – adj.
crédit – n. m.
cricket – n. m.
critique – n. et adj.
cromlech – n. m.
crooner – n. m.
croquet – n. m.
cross-country – n. m.
crossing-over – n. m.
inv.
croup – n. m.
croupion – n. m.
crown-glass – n. m.
inv.
crucial, iale, iaux –
adj.
cruiser – n. m.
cryogénique – adj.
cryophysique – n. f.
cryotron – n. m.
cryptobiose – n. f.
cryptocommuniste –
adj. et n.
cubilot – n. m.
culturalisme – n. m.
culturel, elle – adj.
curling – n. m.
curry – n. m.
custom – n. m.
cutter – n. m.
cyan – n. m.
cybernétique – n. f.
cycle – n. m.
cyclone – n. m.
dada – n. m.
daïquiri – n. m.
dalmatien, ienne – n.
dalton – n. m.
daltonisme – n. m.
dancing – n. m.
dandy – n. m.
darwinisme – n. m.
D.A.T. – n. m.
dead-heat – n. m.
dealer – n. m.
dealer – v. tr.
débat – n. m.
débatteur – n. m.
déboguer – v. tr.
débriefer – v. tr.
débutant, ante – adj. et
n.
décade – n. f.
décideur, euse – n.
décimaliser – v. tr.
déclassifier – v. tr.
décoder – v. tr.
décollage – n. m.
décoller – v.
déconnecter – v. tr.
déconnexion – n. f.
décontracté, ée – adj.
décrément – n. m.
défaitisme – n. m.
défenestration – n. f.
défi – n. m.
déflation – n. f.
défoliant, iante – adj.
et n. m.
défoliation – n. f.
défolier – v. tr.
déforestation – n. f.
délétion – n. f.
delirium tremens – n.
m. inv.
délivrer – v. tr.
dengue – n. f.
denim – n. m.
déodorant, ante – n. m.
et adj.
déontique – adj.
déontologie – n. f.
département – n. m.
déplacé, ée – adj.
dépouille – n. f.
dépression – n. f.
derby – n. m.
déridage – n. m.
dériver – v. intr.
derrick – n. m.
désaisonnaliser – v. tr.
désappointé, ée – adj.
désappointement – n.
m.
désappointer – v. tr.
descriptivisme – n. m.
design – n. m.
designer – n.
desk – n. m.
desperado – n. m.
destroyer – n. m.
détecter – v. tr.
détecteur, trice – n. m.
et adj.
détection – n. f.
détective – n. m.
détonique – n. f.
dévaluation – n. f.
dévaluer – v. tr.
développement – n. m.
devon – n. m.
dévonien, ienne – adj.
et n. m.
dichroïsme – n. m.
différence – n. f.
digest – n. m.
digicode – n. m.
digit – n. m.
digital, ale, aux – adj.
digitaliser – v. tr.
diluvium – n. m.
dinghy – n. m.
dingo – n. m.
dinosauriens – n. m.
pl.
directif, ive – adj.
direction – n. f.
disco – n. m. et adj.
discount – n. m.
discounter – n. m.
discriminatif, ive –
adj.
dispatcher – n. m.
dispatcher – v. tr.
dispatching – n. m.
dispensaire – n. m.
disqualifier – v. tr.
disque – n. m.
disque-jockey – n. m.
disquette – n. f.
distal, ale, aux – adj.
distancer – v. tr.
distribution – n. f.
distributionnalisme –
n. m.
distributionnel, elle –
adj.
division – n. f.
dock – n. m.
docker – n. m.
dodo – n. m.
dog-cart – n. m.
148
dogger – n. m.
dogue – n. m.
dollar – n. m.
domestique – adj. et n.
dominion – n. m.
dopage – n. m.
dope – n. f.
doper – v. tr.
doping – n. m.
doris – n. m.
doux, douce – adj. et
n.
dragline – n. f.
dragster – n. m.
drague – n. f.
drain – n. m.
drastique – adj.
drave – n. f.
draver – v. intr.
draveur – n. m.
dravidien, ienne – adj.
et n. m.
drawback – n. m.
dressing-room – n. m.
dribble – n. m.
dribbler – v. tr.
dribbleur, euse – n.
drift – n. m.
drifter – n. m.
drill – n. m.
dring – interj.
drink – n. m.
drive – n. m.
drive-in – n. m. inv.
driver – n. m.
driver – v.
drone – n. m.
droper – v. tr.
drop-goal – n. m.
droppage – n. m.
drugstore – n. m.
drummer – n. m.
drums – n. m. pl.
dry – adj. inv. et n. m.
dry farming – n. m.
duffel-coat – n. m.
dumper – n. m.
dumping – n. m.
dundee – n. m.
duplex – n. m.
durham – n. et adj.
dyke – n. m.
dynamisation – n. f.
dynamiser – v. tr.
dysgénique – adj.
dysidrose – n. f.
ébonite – n. f.
écaille – n. f.
échiquier – n. m.
écholocation – n. f.
échoppe – n. f.
éclaireur, euse – n.
écluse – n. f.
écosystème – n. m.
écraser – v. tr.
ecstasy – n. f.
écu – n. m.
éditer – v. tr.
éditeur, trice – n.
éditorial, iaux – n. m.
effecteur, trice – adj.
et n. m.
efficience – n. f.
efficient, iente – adj.
égaliseur – n. m.
égotisme – n. m.
égrotant, ante – adj.
élastine – n. f.
elbot – n. m.
électret – n. m.
électricité – n. f.
électrique – adj.
électrocuter – v. tr.
électrocution – n. f.
électrode – n. f.
électrolyse – n. f.
électrolyser – v. tr.
électrolyte – n. m.
électron – n. m.
électronique – adj. et
n. f.
électrostriction – n. f.
elfe – n. m.
élisabéthain, aine –
adj.
élusif, ive – adj.
embouteiller – v. tr.
émergent, ente – adj.
émission – n. f.
émulateur – n. m.
émuler – v. tr.
encadrement – n. m.
endogamie – n. f.
endomorphisme – n.
m.
endorphine – n. f.
enduro – n. m. et f.
énergétique – adj. et n.
f.
énergie – n. f.
énergisant, ante – adj.
et n. m.
engineering – n. m.
enképhaline – n. f.
entraîner – v. tr.
environnement – n. m.
environnemental, ale,
aux – adj.
éocène – n. m.
épiphénomène – n. m.
épirogenèse – n. f.
épirogénique – adj.
épistémologie – n. f.
épluchette – n. f.
EPROM – n. f.
équimolaire – adj.
équipotentiel, ielle –
adj.
ergonomie – n. f.
érythromycine – n. f.
érythropoïétine – n. f.
escalade – n. f.
escalator – n. m.
esquire – n. m.
essai – n. m.
essayiste – n.
est – n. m.
establishment – n. m.
est-allemand, ande –
adj.
estérase – n. f.
estérification – n. f.
esterlin – n. m.
estran – n. m.
étai – n. m.
étambrai – n. m.
étanche – adj. et n. f.
ethnocentrisme – n. m.
étrangeté – n. f.
eugénique – n. f. et
adj.
eugénisme – n. m.
eugéniste – n.
euphuisme – n. m.
eurasien, ienne – adj.
et n.
évitement – n. m.
évolution – n. f.
excavateur, trice – n.
excentricité – n. f.
excentrique – adj. et n.
excise – n. f.
excitabilité – n. f.
exciton – n. m.
exemplarité – n. f.
exerciseur – n. m.
exfiltration – n. f.
exfiltrer – v. tr.
exhaustif, ive – adj.
expert, erte – adj. et n.
m.
expertise – n. f.
exportation – n. f.
exporter – v. tr.
express – adj. et n. m.
expression – n. f.
exprimer – v. tr.
exquis, ise – adj.
extéroceptif, ive – adj.
extra-dry – adj. inv.
eye-liner – n. m.
facteur – n. m.
factoring – n. m.
factuel, elle – adj.
faculté – n. f.
fading – n. m.
fair-play – n. m. inv.
fairway – n. m.
faisabilité – n. f.
falot, ote – adj.
falsifiable – adj.
fan – n.
fanzine – n. m.
faradique – adj.
farce – n. f.
far west – n. m. inv.
fast-food – n. m.
faucon – n. m.
fax – n. m.
feed-back – n. m. inv.
feeder – n. m.
feeling – n. m.
fennec – n. m.
ferler – v. tr.
ferromagnétisme – n.
m.
ferry-boat – n. m.
festival – n. m.
fiat – n. m. inv.
fifty-fifty – loc. adv. et
n. m.
film – n. m.
finaliser – v. tr.
finish – n. m.
finitude – n. f.
firman – n. m.
fish-eye – n. m.
fission – n. f.
fixe – n. m.
flanelle – n. f.
flash – n. m.
flash-back – n. m.
flasher – v.
flaveur – n. f.
flèche – n. f.
flexion – n. f.
flibustier – n. m.
flint-glass – n. m. inv.
flipper – n. m.
flipper – v. intr.
flirt – n. m.
flirter – v. intr.
flocage – n. m.
flock-book – n. m.
flop – interj. et n. m.
flottation – n. f.
flou, floue – adj. et n.
m.
fluorescence – n. f.
fluorescent, ente – adj.
flush – n. m.
F.M. – n. f. inv.
F.O.B. – adj. inv.
foil – n. m.
folk – n. m. et adj.
folklore – n. m.
football – n. m.
footballeur, euse – n.
footing – n. m.
forcing – n. m.
forfait – n. m.
formalisation – n. f.
formaliser – v. tr.
format – n. m.
formater – v. tr.
forsythia – n. m.
forteresse – n. f.
fortran – n. m.
fournaise – n. f.
foxé, ée – adj.
fox-hound – n. m.
fox-terrier – n. m.
fox-trot – n. m. inv.
frac – n. m.
franchisage – n. m.
149
franc-maçon, onne – n.
et adj.
frangeant – adj. m.
freak – n.
free-jazz – n. m. inv.
free-lance – adj. inv. et
n.
free-martin – n. m.
freezer – n. m.
frein – n. m.
french cancan – n. m.
frisbee – n. m.
fuel – n. m.
full – n. m.
full-contact – n. m.
fun – n. m.
funboard – n. m.
funéraire – adj.
funk – n. m. et adj.
funky – n. m. et adj.
inv.
furole – n. f.
fusel – n. m.
GABA – n. m. inv.
gadget – n. m.
gaélique – adj. et n.
gag – n. m.
gagman – n. m.
gallois, oise – adj. et n.
gallon – n. m.
galopant, ante – adj.
gambusie – n. f.
gang – n. m.
gangster – n. m.
gap – n. m.
garden-party – n. f.
garde-robe – n. f.
gastrine – n. f.
gauche – adj. et n.
gaur – n. m.
gay – adj. inv.
gelé, ée – adj.
gemmologie – n. f.
gène – n. m.
génératif, ive – adj.
génération – n. f.
générer – v. tr.
génétisme – n. m.
gentiane – n. f.
gentleman – n. m.
gentleman-farmer – n.
m.
gentlemen's agreement
– n. m.
gentry – n. f.
géopolitique – n. f. et
adj.
géosynclinal, aux – n.
m.
gestalt-thérapie – n. f.
getter – n. m.
geyser – n. m.
G.I. – n. m.
gibbérelline – n. f.
gift – n. m.
gigue – n. f.
gimmick – n. m.
gin – n. m.
gin-rummy – n. m.
girl – n. f.
glacé, ée – adj.
glamour – n. m.
glamoureux, euse –
adj.
glass – n. m.
globe-trotter – n.
G.M.T. – loc.
nominale
goal – n. m.
goal-average – n. m.
golden – n. f.
gold point – n. m.
golf – n. m.
gombo – n. m.
goretex – n. m.
gospel – n. m.
goût – n. m.
grâce – n. f.
grade – n. m.
grader – n. m.
gramophone – n. m.
granny smith – n. f.
inv.
grapefruit – n. m.
gratte-ciel – n. m.
green – n. m.
grigner – v. intr.
grill – n. m.
grizzli – n. m.
grog – n. m.
groggy – adj. inv.
groom – n. m.
groupe – n. m.
groupie – n.
guidance – n. f.
guiderope – n. m.
guinée – n. f.
gunite – n. f.
gutta-percha – n. f.
gymkhana – n. m.
h – n. m. inv.
habituation – n. f.
haddock – n. m.
haggis – n. m.
haire – n. f.
half-track – n. m.
hall – n. m.
halloween – n. f.
hamburger – n. m.
hameau – n. m.
hammerless – n. m.
handicap – n. m.
hanté, ée – adj.
hanter – v. tr.
happening – n. m.
happy end – n. m. ou f.
happy few – n. m. pl.
haquenée – n. f.
hard – adj. et n. m.
hardware – n. m.
harmonica – n. m.
has been – n. m. inv.
haut, haute – adj., n.
m. et adv.
haut-parleur – n. m.
hebdomadaire – adj. et
n. m.
héler – v. tr.
héliport – n. m.
hello – interj.
herd-book – n. m.
héritabilité – n. f.
hickory – n. m.
hi-fi – n. f. inv. et adj.
inv.
highlander – n. m.
high-tech – n. m. inv.
hip – interj.
hippie – n. et adj.
histogramme – n. m.
hit-parade – n. m.
hittite – adj.
HIV – n. m.
H.L.A. – adj.
hobby – n. m.
hockey – n. m.
holding – n. m. ou f.
hold-up – n. m. inv.
holster – n. m.
home – n. m.
homéostasie – n. f.
homespun – n. m.
home-trainer – n. m.
honorable – adj.
hooligan – n. m.
hormone – n. f.
hors-bord – n. m. inv.
horse-ball – n. m.
horse-power – n. m.
inv.
hors-la-loi – n. inv.
hospitalisme – n. m.
hot – adj. inv.
hot-dog – n. m.
houppelande – n. f.
hourra – n. m.
house-boat – n. m.
hovercraft – n. m.
humoriste – n. et adj.
humoristique – adj.
humour – n. m.
hurdler – n. m.
hurricane – n. m.
husky – n. m.
hydrocraquage – n. m.
hydrofoil – n. m.
hypnose – n. f.
hypnotisme – n. m.
hystérésis – n. f.
ICBM – n. m. inv.
iceberg – n. m.
ichtyol – n. m.
icone – n. m.
iconicité – n. f.
iconique – adj.
idéation – n. f.
idéomoteur, trice –
adj.
id est – loc. conj.
idiolecte – n. m.
iguanodon – n. m.
illumination – n. f.
I.L.S. – n. m.
immatérialiste – n.
immature – adj.
immelmann – n. m.
immun, une – adj.
impeachment – n. m.
impédance – n. f.
impérialisme – n. m.
impérialiste – n. et adj.
implémentation – n. f.
implémenter – v. tr.
implosif, ive – adj.
importation – n. f.
importer – v. tr.
imprédictible – adj.
impulser – v. tr.
in – adj. inv.
inapproprié, iée – adj.
in-bord – adj. inv.
incapacitant, ante –
adj. et n. m.
incident, ente – adj.
incohérence – n. f.
inconditionnel, elle –
adj.
inconstitutionnel, elle
– adj.
incorruptible – adj.
incoterm – n. m.
incrément – n. m.
indécidable – adj.
indésirable – adj. et n.
inductance – n. f.
induline – n. f.
inertiel, ielle – adj.
inexhaustible – adj.
inflation – n. f.
inflationniste – adj.
influence – n. f.
information – n. f.
informel, elle – adj. et
n. m.
ingénierie – n. f.
initialiser – v. tr.
initier – v. tr.
inlay – n. m.
inoculation – n. f.
inoculer – v. tr.
input – n. m.
insane – adj.
insanité – n. f.
inscriptible – adj.
insémination – n. f.
insert – n. m.
insertion – n. f.
instrumentalisme – n.
m.
insuline – n. f.
intelligence – n. f.
intension – n. f.
interchangeable – adj.
intercourse – n. f.
interface – n. f.
150
interférence – n. f.
interférent, ente – adj.
interférer – v. intr.
interfluve – n. m.
interlingual, ale, aux –
adj.
interlock – n. m.
interlope – n. m. et
adj.
interlude – n. m.
intermédiation – n. f.
intéroceptif, ive – adj.
interpréteur – n. m.
intertidal, ale, aux –
adj.
interview – n. f.
intron – n. m.
introspection – n. f.
intubation – n. f.
invariant, iante – adj.
et n. m.
investir – v. tr.
investissement – n. m.
ion – n. m.
irish coffee – n. m.
irish stew – n. m.
irresponsable – adj.
ISBN – n. m.
ISO – n. m. inv.
isolationnisme – n. m.
isooctane – n. m.
isospin – n. m.
isostasie – n. f.
isotope – n. m.
item – n. m.
itinérant, ante – adj.
jack – n. m.
jackpot – n. m.
jacuzzi – n. m.
jamboree – n. m.
jam-session – n. f.
jaquette – n. f.
jazz – n. m.
jazzman – n. m.
jazzy – adj. inv.
jean – n. m.
jeep – n. f.
jenny – n. f.
jerk – n. m.
jéroboam – n. m.
jerrycan – n. m.
jet – n. m.
jet-set – n. m. ou f.
jet-stream – n. m.
jigger – n. m.
jingle – n. m.
job – n. m.
jockey – n. m.
jodhpur – n. m.
jogger – v. intr.
joggeur, euse – n.
jogging – n. m.
joint – n. m.
joint venture – n. f.
joker – n. m.
jubarte – n. f.
juke-box – n. m. inv.
jumping – n. m.
jungle – n. f.
junior – adj. et n.
junkie – n. et adj.
jury – n. m.
jute – n. m.
kaki – adj. inv. et n. m.
inv.
kaléidoscope – n. m.
kangourou – n. m.
kaoliang – n. m.
karma – n. m.
karman – n. m.
kart – n. m.
karting – n. m.
keepsake – n. m.
kelvin – n. m.
kénotron – n. m.
kentia – n. m.
kerma – n. m.
kerrie – n. m.
ketch – n. m.
ketchup – n. m.
kick – n. m.
kidnapper – v. tr.
kidnapping – n. m.
kilt – n. m.
kimberlite – n. f.
kinesthésie – n. f.
king-charles – n. m.
inv.
kipper – n. m.
kit – n. m.
kitchenette – n. f.
kiwi – n. m.
kiwi – n. m.
klaxon – n. m.
kleenex – n. m.
klystron – n. m.
knickerbockers – n. m.
pl.
knock-down – n. m.
inv.
knock-out – n. m. inv.
et adj. inv.
know-how – n. m. inv.
koala – n. m.
krypton – n. m.
kumquat – n. m.
label – n. m.
lad – n. m.
lady – n. f.
lambswool – n. m.
laser – n. m.
lasso – n. m.
lasting – n. m.
LAV – n. m. inv.
lavage – n. m.
lawrencium – n. m.
leader – n. m.
leadership – n. m.
leasing – n. m.
leggins – n. f. pl.
leghorn – n. f.
légionellose – n. f.
législatif, ive – adj.
législature – n. f.
légume – n. m. et f.
leishmania – n. f.
lemmatiser – v. tr.
lemon-grass – n. m.
inv.
lepton – n. m.
lettre – n. f.
lévitation – n. f.
lias – n. m.
liberty – n. m. inv.
libre-échange – n. m.
libre penseur, euse –
adj. et n.
libre-service – n. m.
lidar – n. m.
lift – n. m.
lifter – v. tr.
liftier, ière – n.
lifting – n. m.
ligand – n. m.
ligase – n. f.
light – adj. inv.
lime – n. f.
limerick – n. m.
liminal, ale, aux – adj.
liner – n. m.
linkage – n. m.
links – n. m. pl.
linoléique – adj.
linoléum – n. m.
linotype – n. f.
linter – n. m.
lion – n. m.
liposome – n. m.
liqueur – n. f.
lisette – n. f.
lisp – n. m.
lissage – n. m.
listeria – n. f. inv.
listing – n. m.
live – adj. inv.
living-room – n. m.
livre – n. m.
lloyd – n. m.
loader – n. m.
lob – n. m.
lobby – n. m.
lobéline – n. f.
loch – n. m.
lock-out – n. m. inv.
lock-outer – v. tr.
locuteur, trice – n.
loft – n. m.
loge – n. f.
look – n. m.
looping – n. m.
loquet – n. m.
loran – n. m.
lord – n. m.
lord-maire – n. m.
lorry – n. m.
loser – n. m.
lot – n. m.
loto – n. m.
lougre – n. m.
lovelace – n. m.
loyal, ale, aux – adj.
loyalisme – n. m.
loyaliste – adj. et n.
L.S.D. – n. m.
luddisme – n. m.
lumière – n. f.
lump – n. m.
lunch – n. m.
lune – n. f.
lurex – n. m.
lutte – n. f.
lyddite – n. f.
lyncher – v. tr.
lyric – n. m.
macadam – n. m.
macho – n. m.
mackintosh – n. m.
maçon – n. m.
made in – loc. adj.
magasin – n. m.
magasiner – v. intr.
magazine – n. m.
magenta – n. m.
magnat – n. m.
mail-coach – n. m.
mailing – n. m.
maintenance – n. f.
maïzena – n. f.
majorette – n. f.
majorité – n. f.
malais, aise – adj. et n.
malle – n. f.
malnutrition – n. f.
malocclusion – n. f.
malposition – n. f.
malt – n. m.
mambo – n. f.
mamie – n. f.
management – n. m.
manager – n. m.
manager – v. tr.
mandrill – n. m.
mangrove – n. f.
manifold – n. m.
mannitol – n. m.
mappe – n. f.
marasque – n. f.
marée – n. f.
marginal, ale, aux –
adj. et n.
marginalisme – n. m.
marijuana – n. f.
marina – n. f.
marine – n. m.
marketing – n. m.
marlin – n. m.
marron, onne – adj.
marshal – n. m.
marshmallow – n. m.
martini – n. m.
maryland – n. m.
mascara – n. m.
maser – n. m.
151
massif, ive – adj. et n.
m.
mastère – n. m.
mastiff – n. m.
match – n. m.
match-play – n. m.
maternage – n. m.
materner – v. tr.
matrilinéaire – adj.
matrilocal, ale, aux –
adj.
maul – n. m.
maximiser – v. tr.
meccano – n. m.
médecine-ball – n. m.
média – n. m.
médium – n. m.
médium – n. m.
meeting – n. m.
mégamégalopole – n. f.
mégaphone – n. m.
mégohm – n. m.
meilleur, e – adj.
mélatonine – n. f.
melting-pot – n. m.
mémorandum – n. m.
mémorial, iaux – n. m.
mentalité – n. f.
merceriser – v. tr.
merchandising – n. m.
merise – n. f.
mess – n. m.
message – n. m.
méthadone – n. f.
méthionine – n. f.
méthodisme – n. m.
méthodiste – adj. et n.
métropolitain – adj. et
n. m.
microdissection – n. f.
microélectronique – n.
f. et adj.
microforme – n. f.
micro-instruction – n.
f.
micromanipulation –
n. f.
microminiaturisation –
n. f.
microphone – n. m.
microprocesseur – n.
m.
microtubule – n. m.
midship – n. m.
mildiou – n. m.
mile – n. m.
milk-bar – n. m.
milk-shake – n. m.
millage – n. m.
mille – n. m.
milord – n. m.
minable – adj. et n.
minijupe – n. f.
minoen, enne – adj.
minorité – n. f.
miocène – adj. et n. m.
miroir – n. m.
MIRV – n. m. inv. et
adj. inv.
miss – n. f.
missile – n. m.
mitogène – adj. et n.
m.
mixage – n. m.
mixer – v. tr.
mixeur – n. m.
mobile – adj. et n. m.
mobile home – n. m.
mocassin – n. m.
modern style – n. m.
inv.
mohair – n. m.
moire – n. f.
molalité – n. f.
moleskine – n. f.
mongolisme – n. m.
moniteur, trice – n.
monitorage – n. m.
monitoring – n. m.
monoclonal, ale, aux –
adj.
morne – adj.
morphème – n. m.
morse – n. m.
MOS – n. m.
motel – n. m.
motion – n. f.
motoneurone – n. m.
motopaver – n. m.
motor-home – n. m.
motorship – n. m.
mot-valise – n. m.
mound – n. m.
moviola – n. f.
mucoviscidose – n. f.
muffin – n. m.
mule-jenny – n. f.
multidimensionnel,
elle – adj.
multigrade – adj.
multilinéaire – adj.
multimètre – n. m.
multiprocesseur – n.
m. et adj. m.
muntjac – n. m.
muon – n. m.
music-hall – n. m.
must – n. m.
mustang – n. m.
mutant, ante – adj. et
n.
myosotis – n. m.
nabla – n. m.
napalm – n. m.
narcoanalyse – n. f.
narcodollars – n. m. pl.
natif, ive – adj. et n.
navel – n. f.
navicert – n. m.
nébulisation – n. f.
nébuliseur – n. m.
neck – n. m.
nectarine – n. f.
négatif, ive – adj. et n.
négocier – v.
negro-spiritual, als – n.
m.
néguentropie – n. f.
néoblaste – n. m.
néolithique – adj. et n.
m.
néonatal, ale – adj.
néonatologie – n. f.
néoprène – n. m.
net – n. m.
neuropsychologie – n.
f.
neutron – n. m.
névrose – n. f.
new-look – n. m. inv.
et adj. inv.
newsmagazine – n. m.
nicol – n. m.
night-club – n. m.
niveau – n. m.
niveleuse – n. f.
noble – adj. et n.
no man's land – n. m.
inv.
nominé, ée – adj.
non-conformiste – n.
et adj.
non-directif, ive – adj.
non-linéaire – adj.
non-retour – n. m.
non-sens – n. m. et
adj.
non-stop – adj. inv. et
n. inv.
non-violence – n. f.
nord – n. m. et adj.
inv.
norrois, oise – n. et
adj.
novélisation – n. f.
NTSC – n. m.
nubuck – n. m.
nuisance – n. f.
numérologie – n. f.
nursage – n. m.
nurse – n. f.
nursery – n. f.
nylon – n. m.
objecteur – n. m.
obsolescence – n. f.
obstétricien, ienne – n.
obstruction – n. f.
occlusion – n. f.
occurrence – n. f.
off – adj. inv. et adv.
office – n. m.
officiel, ielle – adj. et
n.
offset – n. m.
offshore – adj. inv. et
n. m.
O.K. – adv. et adj. inv.
okapi – n. m.
oléfine – n. f.
oléoduc – n. m.
ondinisme – n. m.
one man show – loc.
subst. m.
one-step – n. m.
onlay – n. m.
open – adj. inv.
opérande – n. m.
opérationnel, elle –
adj.
opératique – adj.
opossum – n. m.
opportuniste – n. et
adj.
opportunité – n. f.
opsine – n. f.
optimisation – n. f.
optimiser – v. tr.
optoélectronique – n.
f. et adj.
ordalie – n. f.
ordinal, aux – n. m.
ordinateur – n. m.
ordre – n. m.
oriel – n. m.
ostéopathe – n.
ostéopathie – n. f.
ouah – interj.
ouest-allemand, ande –
adj. et n.
out – adv. et adj. inv.
outlaw – n. m.
output – n. m.
outrigger – n. m.
outsider – n. m.
over arm stroke – n.
m.
overdose – n. f.
overdrive – n. m.
ovni – n. m.
oxer – n. m.
oxford – n. m.
pacemaker – n. m.
pacfung – n. m.
pack – n. m.
package – n. m.
packaging – n. m.
paddock – n. m.
paddy – n. m. inv.
pager – n. m.
pair – n. m.
pairesse – n. f.
pal – n. m.
palace – n. m.
pale-ale – n. f.
paléolithique – adj. et
n. m.
paletot – n. m.
palladium – n. m.
palynologie – n. f.
pamphlet – n. m.
pamphlétaire – n.
pamplemousse – n. m.
pancosmisme – n. m.
pandémonium – n. m.
152
panégyriste – n.
panel – n. m.
panorama – n. m.
panthéisme – n. m.
panthéiste – adj. et n.
paquebot – n. m.
par – n. m.
paracétamol – n. m.
parian – n. m.
parka – n. f. ou m.
parkérisation – n. f.
parking – n. m.
parkinson – n. m.
partenaire – n.
partenariat – n. m.
partition – n. f.
parton – n. m.
passing-shot – n. m.
passivation – n. f.
patate – n. f.
patch – n. m.
patchouli – n. m.
patchwork – n. m.
patentage – n. m.
paternalisme – n. m.
patrilinéaire – adj.
patrilocal, ale, aux –
adj.
patronnesse – adj. f. et
n. f.
pattern – n. m.
pattinsonage – n. m.
pauliste – adj. et n.
paupériser – v. tr.
paupérisme – n. m.
pause – n. f.
P.C. – n. m.
pécan – n. m.
pedigree – n. m.
pédiment – n. m.
peeling – n. m.
peep-show – n. m.
pellet – n. m.
pemmican – n. m.
pénalisation – n. f.
pénaliser – v. tr.
penalty – n. m.
pénéplaine – n. f.
péniche – n. f.
pénicilline – n. f.
penny – n. m.
penthouse – n. m.
pentode – n. f.
pep – n. m.
peppermint – n. m.
peptide – n. m.
perceptionnisme – n.
m.
performance – n. f.
performatif – n. m.
pergélisol – n. m.
permafrost – n. m.
permalloy – n. m.
permissif, ive – adj.
permissivité – n. f.
permittivité – n. f.
personnalisme – n. m.
pesticide – n. m. et
adj.
pétition – n. f.
pétrel – n. m.
phanie – n. f.
phénologie – n. f.
phloème – n. m.
phonématique – adj. et
n. f.
photo-finish – n. f.
photogénique – adj.
photographie – n. f.
photon – n. m.
phraséologie – n. f.
phytotron – n. m.
pianola – n. m.
piccalilli – n. m.
pickles – n. m. pl.
pickpocket – n. m.
pick-up – n. m. inv.
picr(o)pidgin – n. m.
piémont – n. m.
pilchard – n. m.
ping-pong – n. m. inv.
pin's – n. m.
pin up – n. f. inv.
pionnier, ière – n. et
adj.
pipe – n. f.
pipeline – n. m.
piper-cub – n. m.
pipi-room – n. m.
piquer – v.
pitchpin – n. m.
pixel – n. m.
placard – n. m.
placebo – n. m.
plaid – n. m.
plan – n. m.
planning – n. m.
plantation – n. f.
planteur, euse – n.
plastic – n. m.
plateforme – n. f.
play-back – n. m. inv.
play-boy – n. m.
plein-emploi – n. m.
plénum – n. m.
pli – n. m.
pliocène – adj. et n. m.
ploutocrate – n. m.
ploutocratie – n. f.
plum-cake – n. m.
plum-pudding – n. m.
plutonisme – n. m.
p.m. – loc. adv.
poinsettia – n. m.
point – n. m.
pointer – n. m.
poker – n. m.
polaroïd – n. m.
pole position – n. f.
policeman – n. m.
politicien, ienne – n. et
adj.
polo – n. m.
polyembryonie – n. f.
polyribosome – n. m.
polysome – n. m.
pomélo – n. m.
poney – n. m.
pongé – n. m.
pool – n. m.
pop – adj. inv.
pop art – n. m.
pop-corn – n. m. inv.
popeline – n. f.
population – n. f.
porridge – n. m.
portable – adj.
porter – n. m.
porteur, euse – n. et
adj.
portfolio – n. m.
portland – n. m.
portlandien – n. m.
positionnement – n. m.
positionner – v. tr.
positon – n. m.
possiblement – adv.
poster – n. m.
postmoderne – adj.
potassium – n. m.
potentialisation – n. f.
potentialiser – v. tr.
potlatch – n. m.
potto – n. m.
poudingue – n. m.
poule – n. f.
practice – n. m.
praxis – n. f.
prédictif, ive – adj.
prédiquer – v. tr.
préférentiel, ielle –
adj.
prégnance – n. f.
prégnant, ante – adj.
premier, ière – adj. et
n.
prépayer – v. tr.
préraphaélite – n. m. et
adj.
presbytérianisme – n.
m.
presbytérien, ienne –
n.
présentation – n. f.
présidentiel, ielle –
adj.
press-book – n. m.
presse-bouton – adj.
inv.
pressing – n. m.
pression – n. f.
pressurisation – n. f.
pressuriser – v. tr.
prêt-à-porter – n. m.
prévalence – n. f.
primage – n. m.
primal, ale, aux – adj.
prime – n. f.
prime time – n. m.
prion – n. m.
privilégié, iée – adj. et
n.
problème – n. m.
procédure – n. f.
processeur – n. m.
processif, ive – adj.
producteur, trice – adj.
et n.
production – n. f.
professionnaliser – v.
tr.
professionnel, elle –
adj. et n.
profil – n. m.
progénote – n. m.
progiciel – n. m.
programmer – v. tr.
progressif, ive – adj.
projectif, ive – adj.
projet – n. m.
promotion – n. f.
promotionnel, elle –
adj.
prompteur – n. m.
propène – n. m.
propfan – n. m.
proprioceptif, ive –
adj.
prorogation – n. f.
proroger – v. tr.
prospect – n. m.
prospecter – v. tr.
prospecteur, trice – n.
prospection – n. f.
protéide – n. m.
proton – n. m.
providence – n. f.
providentiel, ielle –
adj.
proxémique – n. f.
psychédélique – adj.
psychodrame – n. m.
pub – n. m.
public, ique – adj. et n.
m.
publiciste – n.
public-relations – n. f.
pl.
pudding – n. m.
puddler – v. tr.
puffin – n. m.
pugiliste – n. m.
pullman – n. m.
pull-over – n. m.
pulsar – n. m.
pulsé – adj. m.
punch – n. m.
punch – n. m.
punching-ball – n. m.
punk – n. et adj.
purée – n. f.
puritain, aine – n. et
adj.
puseyisme – n. m.
push-pull – n. m. inv.
putt – n. m.
putter – n. m.
153
putto – n. m.
puzzle – n. m.
P.V.C. – n. m. inv.
pyjama – n. m.
pyrex – n. m.
pyridoxine – n. f.
Q.I. – n. m. inv.
Q-mètre – n. m.
quadruplex – n. m.
quaker, quakeresse –
n.
quakerisme – n. m.
qualification – n. f.
qualifié, iée – adj.
qualité – n. f.
quantification – n. f.
quantifier – v. tr.
quantum – n. m.
quarantième – adj. et
n.
quartette – n. m.
quartile – n. m.
quart-monde – n. m.
quasar – n. m.
quassine – n. f.
quaternion – n. m.
quercitron – n. m.
quichenotte – n. f.
quick – n. m.
quille – n. f.
quinine – n. f.
quintette – n. m.
quorum – n. m.
quota – n. m.
QWERTY – adj. inv.
r – n. m. inv.
racer – n. m.
rack – n. m.
racket – n. m.
racketteur – n.
m.efunden
radar – n. m.
rade – n. f.
radian – n. m.
radical, ale, aux – adj.
et n.
radiomètre – n. m.
radôme – n. m.
radoter – v. intr.
raft – n. m.
rafting – n. m.
ragtime – n. m.
raid – n. m.
raider – n. m.
rail – n. m.
railroute – n. m.
rallye – n. m.
RAM – n. f. inv.
rami – n. m.
ranch – n. m.
rand – n. m.
randomisation – n. f.
randomiser – v. tr.
ranger – n. m
raout – n. m.
rap – n. m.
rash – n. m.
rastaquouère – n. m. et
adj.
rating – n. m.
ratio – n. m.
ray-grass – n. m. inv.
rayonne – n. f.
réactance – n. f.
ready-made – n. m.
inv.
réaliser – v. tr.
réarmement – n. m.
rebours – n. m.
récession – n. f.
récital – n. m.
record – n. m.
recordman – n. m.
recordwoman – n. f.
récursif, ive – adj.
redingote – n. f.
référence – n. f.
référent – n. m.
référentiel, ielle – adj.
reflex – adj. et n. m.
réflexible – adj.
reformage – n. m.
réformiste – n. et adj.
réfrangible – adj.
reggae – n. m. et adj.
inv.
réhoboam – n. m.
relation – n. f.
relax – adj. et n.
relaxation – n. f.
relaxer – v. tr.
réluctance – n. f.
reluquer – v. tr.
rem – n. m.
remake – n. m.
remix – n. m.
renaturation – n. f.
rente – n. f.
rentrée – n. f.
réorchestration – n. f.
répartition – n. f.
réplication – n. f.
reporter – v. tr.
reporter – n.
répresseur – n. m.
reprint – n. m.
reprographie – n. f.
reps – n. m.
réservation – n. f.
réserve – n. f.
résident, ente – n. et
adj.
résidentiel, ielle – adj.
résilience – n. f.
résilient, iente – adj.
résine – n. f.
résistivité – n. f.
respectabilité – n. f.
responsabilité – n. f.
responsable – adj. et n.
restauration – n. f.
restaurer – v. tr.
résumé – n. m.
retard – n. m.
retriever – n. m.
rétrospective – n. f.
rétrovirus – n. m.
révertant – n. m.
revisiter – v. tr.
revitalisation – n. f.
revitaliser – v. tr.
revival – n. m.
revolver – n. m.
revolving – adj. inv.
revue – n. f.
rewriter – v. tr.
rewriter – n. m.
rewriting – n. m.
rhéologie – n. f.
rhéostat – n. m.
rhum – n. m.
rhumb – n. m.
rickettsie – n. f.
rickshaw – n. m.
rideau – n. m.
riff – n. m.
rifle – n. m.
rift – n. m.
rigorisme – n. m.
rime – n. f.
ring – n. m.
ripper – n. m.
ripple-mark – n. f.
R.N.I.S. – n. m.
roadster – n. m.
rob – n. m.
rock – n. m. et adj.
inv.
rockeur, euse – n.
rocking-chair – n. m.
rodéo – n. m.
roi – n. m.
roller – n. m.
rollier – n. m.
ROM – n. f.
romantique – adj.
romsteck – n. m.
rookerie – n. f.
roquette – n. f.
rosbif – n. m.
rosicrucien, ienne –
adj. et n.
rot – n. m.
rotary – n. m.
roténone – n. f.
rouge – adj. et n.
rough – n. m.
round – n. m.
routine – n. f.
royalties – n. f. pl.
rubéfaction – n. f.
ruflette – n. f.
rugby – n. m.
rugbyman – n. m.
rugissant, ante – adj.
runabout – n. m.
rush – n. m.
rye – n. m.
sabbatique – adj.
saccharine – n. f.
sachem – n. m.
sacral, ale, aux – adj.
sacralisation – n. f.
S.A.E. – adj.
saga – n. f.
saloon – n. m.
salut – n. m.
sammy – n. m.
sanatorium – n. m.
sanctuaire – n. m.
sanderling – n. m.
sandwich – n. m.
sarcastique – adj.
sati – n. f. et m. inv.
saumâtre – adj.
saveur – n. f.
savoir-faire – n. m.
inv.
scalaire – adj.
scalp – n. m.
scalper – v. tr.
scanner – n. m.
scanner – v. tr.
scat – n. m.
scenic railway – n. m.
schilling – n. m.
schipperke – adj. et n.
m.
schlass – n. m.
schooner – n. m.
science-fiction – n. f.
scone – n. m.
sconse – n. m.
scoop – n. m.
scooter – n. m.
score – n. m.
scotch – n. m.
scotch – n. m.
scotcher – v. tr.
scotch-terrier – n. m.
scotisme – n. m.
scottish – n. f.
scoured – n. m.
scout, scoute – n. m. et
adj.
scrabble – n. m.
scraper – n. m.
scratch – adj. inv.
scratcher – v.
script – n. m.
script – n. m.
script-girl – n. f.
scrub – n. m.
scull – n. m.
sea-line – n. m.
secrétariat – n. m.
sectoriel, ielle – adj.
sécurité – n. f.
sédimentologie – n. f.
seersucker – n. m.
segmental, ale, aux –
adj.
ségrégué, ée – adj.
séjour – n. m.
sélect, ecte – adj.
154
sélecter – v. tr.
sélectif, ive – adj.
sélection – n. f.
self – n. f.
self – n. m.
selfself-control – n. m.
self-government – n.
m.
self-induction – n. f.
self-made-man – n. m.
self-service – n. m.
semaine – n. f.
sémantique – n. f. et
adj.
sémème – n. m.
semi-chenillé, ée – adj.
sémiotique – n. f. et
adj.
senior – n. et adj.
séniorité – n. f.
senseur – n. m.
sensible – adj.
sentier – n. m.
sentimental, ale, aux –
adj.
septique – adj.
séquelle – n. f.
séquenceur – n. m.
séquentiel, ielle – adj.
sérotonine – n. f.
sérumalbumine – n. f.
session – n. f.
set – n. m.
setter – n. m.
sévère – adj.
sex-appeal – n. m.
sex-ratio – n. f.
sex-shop – n. m. ou f.
sex-symbol – n. m.
sexy – adj. inv.
shaker – n. m.
shampoing – n. m.
shérif – n. m.
sherry – n. m.
shilling – n. m.
shimmy – n. m.
shipchandler – n. m.
shit – n. m.
shocking – adj. inv.
shoot – n. m.
shooter – v.
shopping – n. m.
short – n. m.
show – n. m.
show-business – n. m.
inv.
show-room – n. m.
shrapnel – n. m.
shunt – n. m.
shunter – v. tr.
si – adv.
sida – n. m.
side-car – n. m.
signaliser – v. tr.
silentbloc – n. m.
silicium – n. m.
silicose – n. f.
silurien, ienne – adj.
simaruba – n. m.
simoun – n. m.
sinécure – n. f.
single – n. m.
singleton – n. m.
sirli – n. m.
sistership – n. m.
sit-in – n. m. inv.
skate-board – n. m.
skating – n. m.
sketch – n. m.
ski-bob – n. m.
skif – n. m.
skinhead – n.
skipper – n. m.
skye-terrier – n. m.
sleeping – n. m.
slice – n. m.
slicer – v. tr.
slip – n. m.
slip – n. m.
slogan – n. m.
slow – n. m.
smart – adj. inv.
smash – n. m.
smasher – v. intr.
smocks – n. m. pl.
smog – n. m.
smoking – n. m.
smolt – n. m.
smurf – n. m.
snack-bar – n. m.
snif – interj.
snifer – v. tr.
snob – n. et adj.
snow-boot – n. m.
soap-opéra – n. m.
socialisme – n. m.
société – n. f.
sociodrame – n. m.
sociolinguistique – n.
f. et adj.
sociométrie – n. f.
socquette – n. f.
soda – n. m.
sodium – n. m.
software – n. m.
soja – n. m.
sol – n. m.
solderie – n. f.
solifluxion – n. f.
sombre – adj.
somite – n. m.
sommet – n. m.
sonar – n. m.
sophistication – n. f.
sophistiqué, ée – adj.
sororité – n. f.
souchong – n. m.
soucoupe – n. f.
soul – adj. inv. et n. m.
souris – n. f.
sous-développé, ée –
adj.
souverain, aine – adj.
et n.
spallation – n. f.
spardeck – n. m.
sparring-partner – n.
m.
spartéine – n. f.
speakeasy – n. m.
speaker – n. m.
speakerine – n. f.
spéciation – n. f.
spectre – n. m.
speech – n. m.
speed – n. m. et adj.
speedé, ée – adj.
speed-sail – n. m.
spencer – n. m.
spider – n. m.
spin – n. m.
spinnaker – n. m.
spirite – adj. et n.
spleen – n. m.
spoiler – n. m.
sponsor – n. m.
sponsoring – n. m.
sponsorisation – n. f.
sponsoriser – v. tr.
sport – n. m.
sportwear – n. m.
spot – n. m. et adj. inv.
spoule – n. m.
sprat – n. m.
spray – n. m.
springer – n. m.
sprint – n. m.
sprinter – v. intr.
sprinteur – n. m.
sprue – n. f.
square – n. m.
squash – n. m.
squat – n. m.
squatter – v. tr.
squatteur – n. m.
squaw – n. f.
squeezer – v. tr.
stabile – n. m.
stade – n. m.
staff – n. m.
stagflation – n. f.
stalagmomètre – n. m.
stand – n. m.
standard – n. m. et adj.
inv.
standard – n. m.
standardisation – n. f.
standardiser – v. tr.
stand-by – n. inv. et
adj. inv.
standing – n. m.
star – n. f.
starking – n. f.
starlette – n. f.
star-système – n. m.
starter – n. m.
starting-block – n. m.
starting-gate – n. m.
station-service – n. f.
stayer – n. m.
steak – n. m.
steamer – n. m.
steeple – n. m.
steeple-chase – n. m.
stencil – n. m.
steppage – n. m.
steppeur – n. m.
stéradian – n. m.
stéréoscope – n. m.
stérique – adj.
sterling – adj. inv.
sterne – n. f.
stetson – n. m.
steward – n. m.
stick – n. m.
stick – n. m.
stilton – n. m.
stock – n. m.
stock-car – n. m.
STOL – n. m.
stop – interj. et n. m.
stop-over – n. m. inv.
stopper – v.
stoppeur – n. m.
story-board – n. m.
stout – n. m. ou f.
stress – n. m.
stressant, ante – adj.
stresser – v. tr.
stretch – n. m.
stretching – n. m.
string – n. m.
stripage – n. m.
stripper – n. m.
stripper – v. tr.
stripping – n. m.
strip-tease – n. m.
strontium – n. m.
structure – n. f.
stud-book – n. m.
studio – n. m.
styliste – n.
stylographe – n. m.
suave – adj.
subaquatique – adj.
subrogé, ée – adj.
subsidence – n. f.
subsidiarité – n. f.
sucré, ée – adj.
sud – n. m.
suédois, oise – adj. et
n.
suffragette – n. f.
suggestif, ive – adj.
suite – n. f.
sulky – n. m.
sunlight – n. m.
supérette – n. f.
superman – n. m.
supermarché – n. m.
supernova – n. f.
superproduction – n. f.
superstar – n. f.
supertanker – n. m.
superviser – v. tr.
superviseur – n. m.
155
supervision – n. f.
supporter – v. tr.
supporter – n. m.
supramoléculaire –
adj.
suprasegmental, ale,
aux – adj.
suprématie – n. f.
surbooking – n. m.
surdose – n. f.
surf – n. m.
surfer – v. intr.
surfeur, euse – n.
surimposer – v. tr.
surmultiplication – n.
f.
surprise-partie – n. f.
suspens – adj. m. et n.
m.
suspense – n. m.
swahili, ie – n. m. et
adj.
swap – n. m.
sweater – n. m.
sweat-shirt – n. m.
sweepstake – n. m.
swing – n. m.
sympatrique – adj.
symposium – n. m.
synapse – n. f.
synclinal, ale, aux – n.
m. et adj.
synopsis – n. f. et m.
syntactique – n. f.
syntone – adj.
systémique – adj. et n.
f.
table – n. f.
tabloïd – n. m.
tabou, e – n. m. et adj.
tacle – n. m.
tag – n. m.
take-off – n. m. inv.
talkie-walkie – n. m.
talk-show – n. m.
tallipot – n. m.
tam-tam – n. m. inv.
tandem – n. m.
tandouri – adj. et n. m.
tangerine – n. f.
tango – n. m.
tank – n. m.
tanker – n. m.
tansad – n. m.
tarmac – n. m.
tarpon – n. m.
tartan – n. m.
tasse – n. f.
T.A.T. – n. m.
tatouer – v. tr.
taxi-girl – n. f.
taxiway – n. m.
taxol – n. m.
taylorisme – n. m.
technicolor – n. m.
technocratie – n. f.
technologie – n. f.
technostructure – n. f.
teddy-bear – n. m.
tee – n. m.
teenager – n.
tee-shirt – n. m.
téflon – n. m.
téléachat – n. m.
téléonomie – n. f.
télépathie – n. f.
téléphérage – n. m.
télescoper – v. tr.
télescopique – adj.
télesthésie – n. f.
télétex – n. m.
télétype – n. m.
télex – n. m.
telson – n. m.
temps – n. m.
tender – n. m.
tennis – n. m. et f.
tennis-elbow – n. m.
tennisman – n. m.
tenseur – n. m. et adj.
m.
termaillage – n. m.
terminal, aux – n. m.
terminus – n. m.
termite – n. m.
terpinol – n. m.
test – n. m.
tête – n. f.
tette – n. f.
thallium – n. m.
thane – n. m.
théisme – n. m.
théiste – n. et adj.
thermodynamique – n.
f. et adj.
thésaurus – n. m.
thréonine – n. f.
thriller – n. m.
thyrotrophine – n. f.
thyroxine – n. f.
ticket – n. m.
tie-break – n. m.
tilbury – n. m.
tilt – n. m.
timing – n. m.
tipi – n. m.
tique – n. f.
toast – n. m.
toasteur – n. m.
toffee – n. m.
tomawak – n. m.
tombolo – n. m.
tommy – n. m.
tom-pouce – n. m. inv.
tong – n. f.
tonic – n. m.
tonnage – n. m.
tonus – n. m.
top
topologie – n. f.
tornade – n. f.
torpédo – n. f.
torpille – n. f.
tory – n. m.
tosser – v. intr.
totem – n. m.
totémisme – n. m.
touche – n. f.
toupie – n. f.
tourisme – n. m.
touriste – n.
tourne-pierre – n. m.
tourner – v.
tour-opérateur – n. m.
township – n. f. ou m.
toxoplasmose – n. f.
tract – n. m.
trader – n. m.
trade-union – n. f.
trafic – n. m.
training – n. m.
tramping – n. m.
trampoline – n. m.
tramway – n. m.
tranquillisant, ante –
adj. et n. m.
transaction – n. f.
transactionnel, elle –
adj.
transcriptase – n. f.
transducteur – n. m.
transe – n. f.
transept – n. m.
transférentiel, ielle –
adj.
transferrine – n. f.
transfert – n. m.
transistor – n. m.
transitionnel, elle –
adj.
translocation – n. f.
transnational, ale, aux
– adj.
transpondeur – n. m.
transsexualisme – n.
m.
transsexuel, elle – adj.
et n.
transvestisme – n. m.
trappeur – n. m.
travailliste – n. et adj.
traveller's chèque – n.
m.
travelling – n. m.
trekking – n. m.
trenail – n. m.
trench-coat – n. m.
trial – n. m. et f.
tribal, ale, aux – adj.
trick – n. m.
tridimensionnel, elle –
adj.
triforium – n. m.
trimaran – n. m.
trimmer – n. m.
trip – n. m.
trivial, iale, iaux – adj.
trolley – n. m.
trop – adv. et nominal
truc – n. m.
truisme – n. m.
trust – n. m.
tub – n. m.
tudesque – adj.
tumbling – n. m.
tuner – n. m.
tunnel – n. m.
turf – n. m.
turnep – n. m.
turn-over – n. m.
tussah – n. m.
tussor – n. m.
tweed – n. m.
tweeter – n. m.
twill – n. m.
twin-set – n. m.
twist – n. m.
type – n. m.
ufologie – n. f.
ultramicroscopique –
adj.
underground – adj.
inv. et n. m.
union – n. f.
unitarien, ienne – n.
unitarisme – n. m.
upérisation – n. f.
uppercut – n. m.
upwelling – n. m.
uronique – adj.
usine – n. f.
utilitaire – adj. et n. m.
valable – adj.
vamp – n. f.
vamper – v. tr.
van – n. m.
vanity-case – n. m.
variétal, ale, aux – adj.
vaseline – n. f.
vasopresseur – n. m.
vecteur – adj. et n. m.
vectoriel, ielle – adj.
végétarien, ienne –
adj. et n.
végétarisme – n. m.
véloski – n. m.
velvet – n. m.
ventilateur – n. m.
véranda – n. f.
verdict – n. m.
version – n. f.
versus – prép.
viaduc – n. m.
vibord – n. m.
victoria – n. f.
vidéo – adj. inv. et n.
f.
vidéoclub – n. m.
vidéodisque – n. m.
vidéotex – n. m.
vintage – n. m.
V.I.P. – n. m. inv.
virginal – n. m.
visualiser – v. tr.
vitamine – n. f.
156
vobulateur – n. m.
vocodeur – n. m.
vol – n. m.
volapuk – n. m.
volcanologie – n. f.
volley-ball – n. m.
volleyer – v. intr.
volleyeur, euse – n.
vote – n. m.
voter – v.
voyage – n. m.
vulcanisation – n. f.
vulcaniser – v. tr.
vulgarisme – n. m.
vumètre – n. m.
wading – n. m.
wagon – n. m.
walkman – n. m.
walk-over – n. m. inv.
wallaby – n. m.
wapiti – n. m.
wargame – n. m.
warning – n. m.
warrant – n. m.
wasp – n. et adj.
water-ballast – n. m.
water-polo – n. m.
waterproof – adj. inv.
et n. m.
wattman – n. m.
W.-C. – n. m. pl.
week-end – n. m.
welter – n. m.
western – n. m.
wharf – n. m.
whig – n.
whipcord – n. m.
whisky – n. m.
whist – n. m.
white-spirit – n. m.
wigwam – n. m.
winch – n. m.
winchester – n. f.
wintergreen – n. m.
wishbone – n. m.
wombat – n. m.
woofer – n. m.
xénon – n. m.
yacht-club – n. m.
yachting – n. m.
yachtman – n. m.
yack – n. m.
yankee – n. et adj.
yard – n. m.
yearling – n. m.
yeoman – n. m.
yéyé – n.
yiddish – n. m. inv.
yorkshire-terrier – n.
m.
youpi – interj.
yuppie – n.
zapper – v. intr.
zapping – n. m.
zidovudine – n. f.
zip – n. m.
zonage – n. m.
zoom – n. m.
zoosémiotique – n. f.
157
c. Lo ZINGARELLI – “ingl” in complete text (3109) + “amer” in
complete text (55) [3126]
abolizionismo
abolizionista
abscissione
abstract
accettore
account
account executive
acculturazione
ace
acid music
acro (2)
acting out
action painting
adattivo
addendum
addisoniano
adsorbire
advertisement
advertising
advisor
aerodina
aerodinamica
affidabile
affluent society
africander
afrikander
afrikaner
after hours
after-shave
agenzia
agnosticismo
agnostico
agreement
agribusiness
aids
airbag
airbus
Airedale terrier
air-terminal
alchemico
alieno
allibratore
alligatore
all right
alta fedeltà
altoparlante
AM
ambientalismo
ambientalista
amerindiano
amerindio
amlira
amoerro
ampicillina
amplidinamo
anastatico
anatra
anchorman
anecoico
anglicanesimo
anglicano
anglo-normanno
anteprandiale
antiblocco
antidumping
antilope
antiquarium
antiracket
antiskating
appeal
appeasement
appendicite
approccio
aquaplaning
area manager
area test
aridocoltura
armonica
armoricano
array
art director
ASA
Asdic
aspettuale
assenteismo
assertivo
asset
assist
associazionismo
assolutismo
assolutista
assortativo
astensionista
astrobussola
atollo
atomizzare
ATP
attinicità
attuariale
audience
audiometrista
audit
Auditel
auditing
auditor
austerity
authority
autocarro
autocross
autofocus
autogrill®
autoimmunità
autoinduzione
automazione
autoreverse
autospeaker
autostop
avionica
avventista
azeotropico
azzonamento
baby
baby boom
baby-doll
baby killer
baby pusher
baby-sitter
baby-sitting
bacitracina
backgammon
background
backstage
back-to-back
backup
bacon
badge
badminton
baia (2)
ballast
balloon
banana split
banconota
band
bandana
bandeggio
bang
banjo
bantam
bar (1)
barbecue
barber hauler
barile
bario
barmaid
barman
barn
barometro
baronetto
bas-bleu
baseball
baseline
Basic
basic English
basico
basket
basket-ball
basset hound
bass reflex
batch
batch processing
batisfera
baud
bazooka
beach volley
beagle
bear
beat (1)
beat (2)
beatnik
beauty
beauty-case
beauty center
beauty farm
bebè
be-bop
beeper
beguine
begum
behaviorismo
bending
benefit
benzofenone
bermuda
bermudiana
†bernacla
best seller
betatrone
BeV
bicicletta
biciclo
bid bond
big
big bang
big match
biker
billing
binder
bingo
biologismo
biomedicale
bionica
bip
bip bip
bird watcher
bird watching
birmano
bisex
bistecca
bit
bitter
black-bottom
black comedy
black-jack
black music
black-out
black power
blazer
blimp
blind trust
blinker
blister
blitz
blizzard
blob
bloc-notes
blondin
bloom
blouse
blow-up
blue chip
blue-jeans
blue movie
blues
bluff
board
boat people
bob
158
bobtail
bocciare
body
body art
body building
body copy
boicottare
boiler
bolina
bomber
bomber jacket
bond
bonderizzazione
bonobo
bonus
boogie
boogie-woogie
bookmaker
boom
boomerang
booster
bootleg
bop
borderline
boss
boston
bounty killer
bourbon
bowling
bow-window
box
boxe
boxer
boxeur
box office
boy
boy-friend
boy-scout
brain-storming
brain trust
brand image
brand manager
brandy
break (1)
break (2)
break dance
breakdown
break even
breakfast
breaking
breakpoint
breeding
brent
bric (1)
bridge
brief
briefing
brik
bristol®
British thermal unit
broadcast
broker
brokerage
Browning®
brown sugar
browser
Bruce
brucite
brum
brunch
bruxismo
budget
budino
buffer
bug
bulge
bull
bulldog
bulldozer
bullionismo
bungalow
bungee jumping
bunker (1)
bunker (2)
burberry®
burlesque
bus (1)
bus (2)
bushel
business
business class
business game
businessman
business school
busker
buy-back
buyer
buy-out
bye-bye
by night
by-pass
byte
cab
cabina
cablogramma
cache
cachi (1)
caddie
café-society
caimano
cairn
cajeput
cajun
cake
cake-walk
calcocite
caleidoscopio
call
call-girl
callistenia
callistenico
calorizzazione
calutrone
calypso
camber
cambrì
camcorder
camera (2)
cameraman
camp
camper
camping
campus
candid camera
canguro
canister
cannibalizzare
cantabrigiano
canter
cantilever
canvassing
canyon
cap
capital gain
caravan
caravanning
carborundum®
card
cardigan
cardinalità
cardioversione
career woman
cargo (2)
carol
car pool
carrageen
carronata
carter
cartismo
cartonista
cartoon
cartoonist
carving
cash
cash and carry
cash dispenser
cash flow
cashmere
cast
casting
casual
catboat
catch
catcher
catering
caterpillar®
catgut
caucus
cavallo vapore
CD
CD-ROM
cefalosporina
celluloide
cement-gun
cent
centrattacco
centravanti
centriolo
chairman
challenge
challenger
chamberless
charleston
charter
chat line
cheap
check-in
checklist
check panel
check-up
cheek to cheek
cheeseburger
chemiochemiotassi
chèque
cherry-brandy
chetone (2)
cheviot
chewing-gum
chi è?
chintz
chip
chippendale
chopper (1)
chopper (2)
chow chow
chromakey
cibernetica
cicca (1)
ciclizzazione
ciclo (2)
ciclocross
ciclone
cicloparaffina
ciclostile
ciclotrone
cincin
cinebox
cineforum
cinemascope
cinetoscopio
cip (2)
circadiale
circadiano
circonferenziale
citizens' band
citosina
city
city bike
city car
clacson
clan
clap
clearance
clearing
clergyman
cliccare
click
client
clinch
cline
clinker
clip (1)
clip (2)
clipper
cloromicetina
clown
cloze
club
clubhouse
club-sandwich
cluster
coach
cobbler
Cobol
cocker
cockney
159
cocktail
cocktail-party
coffee break
coffee grinder
coherer
coil
coke
cold type
collassare
collasso
college
collider
collie
colloquiale
colloquialismo
colomba (2)
colonizzare
colonizzazione
colored
colossal
coloured
colt
columnist
combinazione (2)
combo
comedian
comfort
comic
comitativo
comitato (1)
commando (1)
commercial
commercial paper
commodity
commodoro
commoner
compact
compact disc
compact-stereo
compattatore
compilation
complementazione
comportamentismo
compost
compostare
compound
comptometer®
computazionale
computer
computer animation
computer art
computer crime
computer game
computer graphics
computer music
condor
conformismo
conformista
confortabile
conforto (2)
congeniale
connection
consigliori
consumatorismo
consumer benefit
consumerismo
container
contattologia
contenitore
contoide
contraccettivo
contraccezione
contraddanza
contrastivo
controller
conurbazione
convention
convenzione
conversazionale
coolie
cool jazz
copy
copyright
copywriter
cordless
core (3)
core business
coreferente
coreferenza
corner
corn-flakes
cornico
coroner
corporate image
corporation
corretto
costing
costituzionale
costituzionalismo
cotesto (2)
cotidale
cottage
counselling
count down
counterpurchase
countertrade
country
cover girl
cover story
cow-boy
CQR
crack
cracker
cracking
craniopago
crash
crash test
crawl
credit card
credit manager
credito
credit officer
crest
cricket
criogenico
criterium
cromlech
croquet
cross (1)
cross (2)
cross-country
crossing over
crossover
crouch
crown
cruciale
cruise
cruiser
crup
cult
cult book
cultivar
cult movie
culto (1)
cunningham
curling
curry
curtain wall
cutter
cutting
cybercyberpunk
cyberspazio
cyborg
daiquiri
dalton
daltonismo
dammar
damping
dance music
dancing
dandy
Danforth
dark
darts
darwinismo
data (2)
database
data entry
data processing
-day
day after
day-hospital
daylight
D-day
deadline
deaggettivale
dealer
deb
debugging
decadico
deck
declassificare
decoder
decommissioning
decriptare
dedendum
dee-jay
de-escalation
deetimologizzazione
default
deferrizzazione
deflazione (1)
defogliante
degu
deionizzare
deionizzazione
deissi
delay
delezione
delicious
delivery order
demo (2)
demodulare
denim
denotatum
deodorante
deodorizzare
deplezione
depoliticizzare
depressione
depressurizzare
deprivare
deprivazione
deragliare
derby
derealizzazione
deregolamentare
deregolamentazione
deregolare
deregulation
derivare (2)
derrick
derustizzazione
design
designatum
designer
desk
desktop
desktop publishing
detective
detector
deterrente
deterrenza
detossicazione
detrusore
deuce
deuterio
devocalizzazione
devon
devoniano
diacolor
diasistema
dicarbossilico
dicco (2)
dielettrico
difenilchetone
diffusionale
diffusionismo
digitale (3)
digitalico
dik dik
diluviale (2)
diminutivale
dimmer
dinamizzazione
dinghy
diplomatizzare
directory
direttività
dirt-track
dirty tones
disambiguare
disambiguazione
disappunto
disc-jockey
disco-dance
160
disco-music
discount
disimpegno
disinsettazione
disintegrare
dispensario
dispenser
display
disrupzione
dissolvenza
distale
distanziare (2)
distribuzionale
distruttività
dittafono®
dixieland
DNA
dock
docking
do-it-yourself
dolby®
dollaro
dolly
dominion
doomwriting
dopamina
dopare
doping
doppiare (2)
dosimetrico
dot
Down
draga
dragone (3)
dragster
drawback
dreadnought
drenare
dribblare
dribbling
drink
dripping
drive
drive-in
driver
drone
drop (1)
drop (2)
droplock
dropout
drop shot
drugstore
dry
dugongo
dulcimer
dum-dum
dumper
dumping
dune buggy
duty free shop
ebanite
ecoide
ecolabel
econometria
economizzatore
ecotono
ecstasy
ectipografia
ecu
editing
editor
editore (2)
editoriale (2)
egotismo
egotizzare
eiettabile
elaidinizzazione
elettrete
elettricità
elettrocuzione
elettrodo
elettroesecuzione
elettrolisi
elettrolitico
elettrolito
elettronegatività
elevatore
elevone
elfo
elibus
elicone
elio
eliporto
elson
emagramma
e-mail
emergenza (2)
emico
endorsement
endurance
enduro
enfasi
engineering
entertainer
entertainment
environment
eocene
eparina
episcopalismo
epsomite
eptano
equalizzare
equalizzatore
equalizzazione
equazionale
esaustivo
escalation
escapismo
-ese (2)
eskimo (1)
eskimo (2)
esonimo
espiantazione
esploso (2)
espresso (2)
est
establishment
esternalità
etico (3)
etnocentrico
etnocentrismo
eufuismo
eugenetica
eugenico
euroamericano
eurobond
eurocity
euronight
eutenica
evergreen
evitazione
executive
exit poll
export
extended play
extra-large
extrastrong
eye-liner
fabianismo
fabiano
faccia a faccia
factoring
factor
fai da te
fair play
fairway
falco
fall-out
falotico
fan
fan club
fantascienza
fantasy
fanzine
farad
faraday
far west
fashion
fasore
fast food
fathom
fatticità
fault
feedback
feeling
fence
feniano
fenotipo
†ferlino
ferry-boat
festival
fetch
fiberglass
fibreglass
fiction
fifo
fifty-fifty
fighter
file
filetico
filibustering
filler
film
film-maker
film-strip
final cut
fine settimana
finish
finn
firmware
first-lady
fiscal drag
fisherman
fish eye
fissionabile
fissione
fitina
fitness
fitotrone
fix
fixing
flag
flanella
flangia
flangiare
flap
flash
flashback
flashing
flatting
flight-recorder
flint
flip-book
flip-flop
flipper
flirt
float
floater
floating
flock
flop
floppy disk
flow chart
fluff
fluidizzazione
fluoborato
fluoborico
flussaggio
flutter
fly and drive
flyby
flying dutchman
flying junior
FM
focus group
folclore
foliazione
folk
folklore
folk music
folk-rock
folk-singer
folk-song
follow-up
fondamentalismo
fondamentalista
fondazionale
fonemica
fonemico
fonologizzazione
fonoscopio
football
footing
forcing
forfait (2)
forfaiting
161
forfeit
formalina
formattare
Fortran
forum
forward
fosbury
fotonico
foxhound
fox-terrier
fox-trot
frac
frame
franchisee
franchising
franchisor
franklin (1)
franklin (2)
freak
free climber
free climbing
free jazz
free-lance
free rider
free shop
freestyle
freezer
fringe benefit
frisbee®
full
full contact
full immersion
full time
funk
funky
fuorilegge
furfurolo
fusion
future
fuzzy logic
gadget
gaelico
gag
gallone (2)
game
gancio
gang
gangster
gap
garden-party
gargoilismo
garnett
gasolio
-gate
gateway
gaviale
gay
gazebo
geco
gel
gelazione
gelignite
general manager
genetica
gennaker
genoa
genocidio
genotipo
gentiluomo
gentleman
gentleman driver
gentleman rider
geodimetro
georgiano (2)
gerboa
getter
getto (2)
geyser
ghinea (1)
ghost writer
giaconetta
giainismo
giannetta (3)
gibberellina
giddap
giga (2)
gigabyte
gilbert
gill
Gillette®
gincana
gin-fizz
ginger
ginnare
gin tonic
girl
girlfriend
giungla
giurì
glamour
glasnost
glicol
globe-trotter
glossematica
gluone
glutammico
goal
gobbo (2)
go-kart
gol
golden delicious
golden gol
golden share
golf (1)
golf (2)
good-bye
goodwill
gospel
gossip
gourmet
gps
grabber
grader
graffito
grafofono
grammo-equivalente
graphic design
grattacielo
gravitare
gravitazione
green
green-keeper
greyhound
grill
grill-room
grinder
grizzly
grog
groggy
groom
groupware
grover
growl
grunge
grunt
guar
guardrail
guest star
guidoslitta
guinness®
gulp
guttaperca
gymkhana
hacker
haiku
hair stylist
half-duplex
halibut
hall (1)
Hall (2)
hallo
hamada
hamburger
hammerless
hamster
handball
handicap
handicapper
handling
happening
happy end
hard
hard-boiled
hard bop
hard copy
hard-core
hard-cover
hard discount
hard disk
hard rock
hard top
hardware
Hare Krishna
hascish
hazard
headline
hearing
heavy metal
hello
help
henry
hesitation
hickory
hi-fi
highball
high fidelity
high life
high school
high society
high-tech
high technology
hip
hip-hop
hippy
hit
hit-parade
HIV
hobby
hockey
holding
holter
home banking
home base
home computer
home page
home video
homing
honing
honky-tonky
hook
hooligan
horror
horsepower
hostess
hot dog
hotel
hot jazz
hot line
hot money
hot pants
hot rodding
house boat
house music
hovercraft
hub
Hula-Hoop®
hully-gully
human relations
humour
hunter
hurling
huroniano
husky
hutu
hydrobob
hydrofining
hydroforming
hydrospeed
iceberg
ice-field
icnologia
identikit
idioletto
idiotipo
idrante
idronimo
idropulsore
ietografo
igloo
ignizione
illocutivo
illocutorio
image maker
imagismo
162
imagista
impaccamento
impatto (1)
impeachment
impedenza
imperialismo
imperialista
implantazione
implementare
import
import-export
impressivo
imprinting
impulsare
in (2)
incanto (1)
inclusive tour
indantrone
indessicale
indoor
industrial design
industrial designer
inflativo
inflazione
informante
inincrocio
inning
in progress
input
insider
insider trading
insight
instant-book
instant movie
intelligence
interamericano
intercezione
intercity
interconsonantico
intercooler
interculturale
interfaccia
interferone
intergalattico
interlocale
intermediale
intermetallico
intermodale
internal auditing
internal auditor
Internet
Interpol
inter-rail
interrelato
interrelazione
intersoggettività
intervista
interzonale
Intranet
intrattenitore
intrigare
invasivo
investigativo
iole
ipermarket
ipermercato
ipertesto
ipnologia
ipnotismo
ipnotizzare
iponimo
Irish coffee
irrelato
isabella (2)
ISO
isolazionismo
isolazionista
isosterico
isotopico
istituzionalismo
Italian style
item (2)
IUD
iuta
jab
jack
Jacuzzi®
jamming
jam-session
jazz
jazz-band
jeans
jeep®
jersey
jet
jetlag
jet liner
jet-set
jet-society
jigger
jingle
job
jobber
job sharing
jockey
jodhpurs
jogger
jogging
joint-venture
jojoba
jolly
joule
joystick
juke-box
jumbo
jumbo jet
jump
jungle style
junk bond
kamala
karaoke
kart
karting
kashmir
kay-way
kazoo
kelvin
ketch
ketchup
Kevlar®
keyword
kick boxing
kidnapper
kidnapping
kiefer
killer
kilobyte
kilocaloria
kiloton
kilt
king
king-size
kit
kiwi
kleenex®
klystron
knickerbockers
knock down
knockout
know how
K.O.
koala
konjak
krill
kumquat
kung fu
K-way®
laburismo
laburista
lacrosse
ladar
lady
laghista
lamb's wool
land art
Land Rover®
lappare (2)
lappatura
laptop
large
laser
lasso (4)
lateralizzazione
latimeria
latin lover
latitudinarismo
lattarina
laurenziano (2)
laurenzio
lawsonite
lay-out
lazurite
leader
leadership
lealismo
lealista
lease-back
leasing
LED
Lem
lemming
lettering
leveraged buy-out
leveraggio
lewisite (1)
lewisite (2)
liberal
liberalizzare
liberalizzazione
liberiano (1)
liberoscambista
liberty
lib-lab
libro-game
lidar
lie detector
lifeboat
lifo
lift
liftare
lifting
light
lignina
lillipuziano
lima (2)
lime
limerick
liminale
limonitizzazione
linciare
line
lingotto
link
linkage
linoleum
linotype®
lipogrammatico
lipogrammatismo
lipstick
lisolo
lisozima
Lisp
listeria
litchi
live
living
living theatre
loader
lob
lobbismo
lobbista
lobby
locomotiva
locutivo
lodge
loft
log
logotipo
Lombard
lompo
long drink
long play
long playing
longseller
look
loop
looping
loran
lord
love story
LSD
luddismo
lugger
lumpo
lunch
163
luncheonette
lycra®
lycra-stretch
lyddite
macadam
macadamizzare
made in
made in Italy
madison
maelstrom
magazine
magnetostrizione
magnetron
maharajah
Mah-jong®
maiden
mailing
mail order
mainframe
mainstream
maizena
major
majorette
make-up
malgascio
malto
management
manager
manciù
Mandrake
manganina
mangostano
mangrovia
manismo
manufacturing
manutenibilità
mappare
Marconi
marijuana
marine
marker
market
marketer
marketing
marketing-mix
marketing-oriented
market leader
market maker
markhor
mark-up
mascara (2)
mascon
maser
masonite®
massimale
mass media
master
Mastermind®
mat
match
match ball
match point
match winner
materialismo
materialista
matetico
maxwell
mayday
media (2)
medium (1)
medium (2)
medley
meet
meeting
megabyte
megaparsec
megaton
megatrend
mel
melanismo
mellotron
melt-down
melting pot
memorial
mercerizzare
merchandiser
merchandising
merchant bank
mercurocromo®
mereologia
merger
mesofase
metaetica
metal
metaldetector
metallofono
metanale
metateoria
meter
metodismo
metodista (1)
micanite®
microcalcolatore
microchip
microcomputer
microprocessore
middle class
midimidrange
milady
miler
milonite
milord
mimeografo
mimicry
mine-detector
miniminicalcolatore
minicomputer
minigolf
minigonna
minimal art
minimale
minimalismo
minimal music
minimarket
minimizzare
minimum tax
minoritario
miss
missaggio
mister
mitosi
mix
mixage
mixare
mixer
mixeraggio
mixing
moa
mod
modern dance
modern style
mohair
moicano
moire
money manager
monitor
monitore (3)
monoparentale
Monopoli®
monotype
montgomery
mood style
moog®
Moon boot®
morfallassi
morfolina
mormone
Morse
motel
motilità
motocross
motorcaravan
motorhome
motorsailer
motorscooter
moto-sidecar
mountain bike
mouse
movie
moviola
moxibustione
mozione (2)
mps
mullah
multiflash
multigrade
multilateralismo
multimedia
multimodale
multiplatore
multipletto
multiplexer
multiplexing
multivisione
muscovite
musical
music-hall
must
mustang
muting
mutone
mystery
naftalene
naftalico
naftenato
naftene
nagana
naia (1)
naloxone
nanofarad
narco- (2)
narratage
navaho
navicert
naziskin
nebulizzare
neck
neologistico
neper
net
nettunio
network
neurina
neurone
new age
new deal
new entry
New Jersey
new look
news
newsletter
newsmagazine
newton
new wave
night
night-club
nightglow
nipplo
nitrosile
no comment
no contest
no frost
nominalizzare
nominalizzazione
nomination
nomologico
nonconformista
non-metallo
non profit
non proliferazione
nonsense
non stop
nord
norite
notebook
novellizzazione
nuclearizzare
nuclearizzazione
nucleazione
nude-look
numerologia
nurse
nursery
nursing
nut
nutella®
nylon®
oaks
occorrenza (2)
off
off
office
office automation
164
off-limits
off-line
offset
off-shore
offside
ognitempo
O.K.
okay
old fashion
ombudsman
omnium
omogenato
omosessuale
omosessualità
on
onatura
ondatra
on-demand
one-step
on line
on the road
on the rocks
op art
open
open-ended
open space
operazionale
operazionismo
operone
opinion leader
opinion maker
op là
opossum
optacon®
optical
optical art
optimist
option
optional
opzionale
orango
orbiter
oribi
orienteering
ormonale
ormone
orthicon
osteriggio
ostruzionismo
ostruzionista
ottimizzare
out
outdoor
outing
output
outrigger
outsider
outsourcing
over
overoverbooking
overboost
overcoat
overdose
overdrive
overfishing
overflow
overlay
overnight
oversize
overtime
ovest
ovonica
oxer
oxford
oxoniano
pace car
pacemaker
pack
package
packaging
packfong
padda
paddock
paletot
palettizzare
pallabase
pallacanestro
pallanuoto
pallet
palm top
pamphlet
pancake
pandemonio
pandiculazione
panel
pangolino
panteismo
panteista
Pantone®
pants
paperback
paperino
pap-test
par
paraconsistente
paraflying
paraldeide
parasailing
paratormone
parboiled
paria (1)
parkerizzazione
Parkinson
parsec
partner
partnership
partone
part time
party
password
patchwork
paternalismo
pattern
pauperismo
pauperizzazione
pay-off
pay-out
pay per view
pay-tv
peak time
peck
pecten
pedigree
peeling
peep-show
pellet
pellettizzare
pemmican
penalità
penalty
pen computer
penepiano
penice
penny
pentecostale (2)
peptogeno
peptonizzazione
performance
performativo
performer
peridurale
perlocutorio
permafrost
permagelo
permalloy
personal
personal computer
personalismo
pervasivo
pesticida
petapettineo
petting
Pfennig
phillipsite
photo finish
Photofit®
photoflood
picchiatello
pick-up
picnic
pidgin
pidgin-english
piedipiatti
piercing
pierre
pigiama
pile
pilling
pin (1)
pin (2)
ping-pong®
pinnacolo (2)
pin-up
pin-up girl
pipa (2)
pipeline
pitcher
pitch pine
pit stop
pittografia
pittorialismo
pixel
plaid
planning
plantageneto
plasmalogeno
plasmodio
platforming
play
playback
playboy
player
playgirl
playmaker
play-off
play-out
plop
plot
plotter
plug-in
plugo
plum-cake
plus
plutocrate
plutocratico
plutocrazia
pocket
pocket book
pointer
poker
polarografo
polemizzare
pole position
policeman
polifosfato
polinomiale
politicizzare
polluzione (2)
polo (2)
pomelo
ponderale
pony
Pony Express®
pool
pop
pop art
popcorn
popeline
pop-jazz
pop-music
pop star
populazionista
populismo
populista
pornoshop
pornoshow
pornostar
porridge
portfolio
portland
posse
post
Postcard®
poster
Post-it®
postmoderno
powellite
pragmatica
pragmatismo
pragmatista
pram
prefabbricare
prefabbricazione
preformismo
premier
165
preppy
preprint
preraffaellita
presbiterianesimo
presbiteriano
press-agent
pressing
pressurizzare
price-earning
prime rate
prime time
prione (2)
privacy
processare (2)
processore
product manager
profetismo
proibizionismo
proibizionista
project manager
Prolog
promo
promoter
promotion
promozionale
prompt
pronominalizzare
propriocettore
propriocezione
prospettore
prospezione
prossemica
proteasi
psichedelico
psicotecnico
pub
public company
public relations
publishing
puddellare
pudding
puddinga
puffino
pull
pullman
pullover
pulp
pulpare
pulque
pulsar
pulsogetto
pulsometro
punch (1)
punch (2)
punching-bag
punching-ball
punk
punk-rock
puritanesimo
puritano
pusher
put
putt
putter
puzzle
quacchero
quad
quantificare
quantificazione
quark
quarterback
quartile
quasar
quasi-particella
quercitrone
quiz
racer
rack
racket
racon
rada
radar
radical-chic
radicale
radioattività
radioattivo
radiochimica
radome
rafting
raglan
ragtime
raid
rajah
rally
rally cross
RAM
rambismo
ranch
rand
random
randomizzare
randomizzazione
range
ranger
ranking
rap
Rapidograph®
rapper
rash
rastafarianismo
rastafariano
ratele
rating
rattan
rave
reacher
readership
reading
ready
ready made
realizzare
reception
receptionist
recital
record
recordista
recordman
recovery
redingote
reduttasi
reef
refill
reflex
reforming
reggae
regimental
reificazione
relax
reliability
rem (1)
REM (2)
remainder
remake
rennina
reologia
replay
reportage
reporter
reprint
reprocessing
reset
residence
residence house
resistore
responsabilità
responsività
restyling
retour match
retrofit
revival
revivalismo
revolver
rhythm and blues
riduzionale
riff
riflettorizzare
ring
ripper
RISC
risciò
rivoltella
RNA
road movie
road show
roaming
roast beef
rock
rockabilly
rock and roll
rocker
rock-jazz
rock'n roll
rockstar
rolfing
roll-bar
roller
Rollerblade®
rollo
roll-on roll-off
ROM (2)
romantico
rompighiaccio
rood
roof
roof garden
rotativa
rotore
rotta (3)
rough
round
rover
rovinografia
royalty
rubber
rugby
rullo
rum
rumble
rumor
rupia (2)
rush
rutherford
saggio (3)
saggista
saheliano
sahib
sakè
sales engineer
salesman
sales manager
salmonella
saloon
saltrato®
sampan
samurai
sandwich
sanforizzare
sanitizzare
santuario
sari
sarong
sartoriale
satanismo
saturniano
saxhorn
scacchiere
scaloppa
scalpo
scanner
scanning
scat
scattering
scellino
sceriffo (1)
scespiriano
schettinare
†schincherche
schooner
sciamanismo
sciamano
sciantung
science fiction
scientismo (2)
scienza
sciita
scissiparità
sciuscià
scooner
scoop
scooter
score
scotch
scout
scrambler
scraper
166
scratch
screening
screen saver
scripofilia
scripofilo
script
scrollare (2)
secretina
securitizzazione
seduttivo
seedling
segnapassi
self-control
self-government
self help
self-made man
self-service
semelfattivo
semiosi
semiotica
sempreverde
sensore
sensualizzare
sensuoso
sepoy
sequel
sequoia
serendipità
serial
serial killer
servente
server
servizio
sessualizzazione
set
set ball
set point
setter
sex appeal
sex-shop
sex symbol
sexy
shake
shaker
shampoo
shampooing
shantung
share
shareware
shea
shearling
shed
sheffield
sherpa
sherry
shetland
shiftare
shimmy
shock
shocking
shogunato
shopper
shopping
shopping center
short
shorts
short track
show
showboat
show business
showdown
showgirl
showman
showroom
ShowView®
shrapnel
shunt
shuntare
shuttle
sidecar
sievert
sigh
silenziatore
silesia
siltite
siluriano
silverplate
simmetrizzare
simposio
sinaitico
sincrosincrotrone
single
singleton
sinopsi
sintattica
sinterizzare
sir
sit-com
sit-in
situation comedy
ska
skate-board
skating
skeet
skeg
skeleton
sketch
ski-bob
skiff
ski-lift
skiman
skimmer
skinhead
ski-pass
skipper
ski-roll
ski-stopper
skunk
Skylab
skylight
slam (1)
slam (2)
slang
slapstick
slat
slebo
sled dog
sleeping-car
slice
slide
slinky
slip
sloca
slogan
sloop
slop
slot
slot-machine
slow
slum
slurp
smack
small
smart set
smash
smog
smoking
snack
snack-bar
snap
sniff
sniffare
snipe
snob
snobbare
snobismo
snort
snowboard
soap opera
sociosociometria
sodio
soft
softball
soft-core
soft drink
software
software house
sol (2)
soling
solitone
solvato
soma (3)
sommativo
sommazione
sonar
sonico
soprasegmentale
sort
S.O.S.
sottocodice
soul
soul jazz
soul music
sound
spacelab
space shuttle
spallazione
spaniel
sparring partner
sparteina
spazioporto
speaker
special
speciazione
specie-specificità
specie-specifico
specimen
speedway
spelling
spencer
spider
spidometro
spike
spin
spinnaker
spinning
spin off
spiritismo
spiritual
spit
splash
splashdown
splatter
spleen
split
splitting
spoiler
sponsor
spoon
sport
sport-fisherman
sportsman
sportswear
spot (1)
spot (2)
spratto
spray
spreadsheet
spring
sprinkler
sprint
sprinter
sprue
spy story
square dance
squash
squaw
squirting
staff
stage
stagnazione
stallo (2)
stand
stand alone
standard
standardizzare
stand-by
standing
star
stark delicious
starlet
star system
start
starter
station wagon
statore (2)
status
status symbol
stayer
staziografo
stazione
steadicam®
steamer
steeplechase
stella
stellina
167
sten
stenografia
steppare
sterlina
sterling
sterna
steward
stick
stilista (2)
stilografica
stoccaggio
stock
stock-car
stokes
stop
stopper
-story
story board
stovaina®
stratigrafia (1)
stratofortezza
streaking
streamer
stress
stretch
stretching
stretch-pack
strike
strip (1)
strip (2)
strip-tease
striscia
strong
strumentalismo
stub
studio
stunt car
stunt-man
styling
Subbuteo®
subliminale
sud
sudoriparo
suffragetta
suffragismo
suffragista
sufi
sufismo
suggestivo
sulky
summit
sunnita
superbowl
superdose
supereterodina
superette
superman
supermarket
supersonico
superstar
supervisione
supervisore
superwelter
supportare (2)
supporter
supremazia
surah
surf
surfactante
surf-boat
surf-casting
surfer
surfing
surgelato
surra
survival
survivalismo
suspense
swahili
swap
sweater
swing
switch
tabloid
tabù
tabulazione
Tacan
tackle
tagmema
taguan
taicun
takeaway
take off
take-over
talent scout
talk show
tallolio
talonide
Tampax®
tandem
tangelo
tangram
tanica
tank
tapa
tap dance
tape monitor
tap-in
target
tartan
Tarzan
task force
Tasmanian®
tassema
tatuare
taurina
taxi
taxi-girl
taylorismo
tea
teach-in
teak
team
team-teaching
tea-room
teaser
tebaina
Technicolor®
techno
tecnicalità
tecnocrate
tecnocratico
tecnocrazia
teddy boy
tee
teenager
tee-shirt
telebeam
telecamera
telecopiatore
telecopiatrice
telecopiatura
teleferica
telemark
telemarketing
Telepass®
telepatia
teleprocessing
teleschermo
teletex
teletext
telex
telferaggio
tell
tempest
temple-block
tender
tenderometro
tennis
tensore
teodolite
tepee
terminal
termostabile
terranova
terrier
terrifico
test
tester
testimonial
tetrafluoroetilene
TeV
texture
thermos
thesaurus
thriller
thrilling
thyratron®
tick
ticket
tie-break
tight
tilbury
tilt
time out
timer
time sharing
timing
tindalizzazione
tip top®
tiristore
tiroxina
toast
toboga
toddy
toiletries
tomahawk
ton (2)
toner
toni
top
top class
top gun
topless
top management
top manager
top model
topping
top rate
top secret
top spin
top ten
top-weight
tornado
torpedine (2)
tory
totem
totemico
totemismo
touch-down
toupie
tour conductor
tour leader
tour operator
tower
trackball
tracking (1)
tracking (2)
trackpad
trade mark
trade-off
trade union
traducianesimo
traduciano
tradunionismo
trailer
trainer
training
tram
tramp
trance
transazionale
transcontainer
transessuale
transetto
transfer
transferasi
transferrina
transformer®
transiente
transistor
transponder
transporter
tranvai
tranvia
trapper
traps
trasformazionale
trasforme
trash
traslitterare
traslitterazione
traveller's cheque
trawl
trawler
trawler-yacht
treatment
168
trekking
trench
trench coat
trend
trendy
trial
tricloroetilene
tridimensionale
trim
trip
triple-sec®
tripletta
trolley
trolleybus
trotter
truca
truck
trudgen
truismo
trust
TSH
T-shirt
tubeless
tubing
tumbler
tuner
tunnel
turbogetto
turf
†turfa
turismo
turista
turnaround
turnover
tussah
tussor
tutor
tutsi
tv-movie
tweed
tweeter
twill
twin-set
twirling
twist
two-beat
two step
tycoon
typophone
†ubino
udienza
UFO (2)
uligano
ulna
ulster
ultraforming
ultraleggero
umore (2)
umorismo (2)
under
undercut
underground
understatement
unicamerale
unionismo
unionista
unisex
unitarianismo
unitariano
uppercut
up-to-date
upwelling
urochinasi
utility
vagone
vamp
van
vang
vapore
varecchi
varistore
vaselina
vasomotilità
vegan
vegetarianismo
vegetariano
velocimetro
velocross
ventilatore
venture capital
verbigerazione
verdetto (2)
vermiculite
vernazione
versus
vessel
vestigiale
Viacard®
viadotto
victoria
victoria regia
videovideo art
videoclip
videofrequenza
videogame
videomusic
videotape
Videotex®
vidicon
vigilante (2)
vinci
vip
virginale (2)
virgin naphtha
visiting professor
vistavision
visualizer
visualizzare
Viton®
vocalist
vocoder
vocoide
volapük
volley
volley-ball
vombato
†vomiturazione
vorticale
vorticismo
voucher
vroom
vudù
vulcanizzare
vulcanizzazione
wad
wafer
wagon-lit
wagon-restaurant
walkie-cup
walkie-talkie
Walkman®
walk-over
wampum
wapiti
war game
warrant
wash-and-wear
wash-board
wasp
water
water closet
waterloo
water polo
waterproof
watt
wawa
way of life
weekend
welfare
welfare state
wellerismo
welter
wesleyano
west
West Coast
western
whig
whisky
whist
wigwam
wild card
wilderness
winch
winchester
windsurf
windsurfer
windsurfing
wine cooler
woofer
word processing
word processor
workshop
work-song
work-station
wow (1)
wow (2)
wrestling
yacht
yacht broker
yachting
yachtsman
yak
yankee (1)
yankee (2)
yard
yawl
yearling
yesman
yiddish
yorkshire
Yorkshire terrier
yo-yo®
yuppie
zapping
zenana
zero coupon bonds
zip
zippare
zombie
zonazione
zoning
zonizzare
zoo
zoom
zorilla
zumare
169
C. ENGLISH WORDS ACCORDING TO MICROSOFT SPELL
CHECK
a. DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch : English words, Microsoft
® Word, spell check [1809]
Aborigine
Abort
Abstract
Acid
Acid House
Action
Action-Painting
Adapter
Advantage
Adventist
Aerobic
Agitation
Agitator
Agreement
Aids
Airbag
Airbus ®
Airline
Airmail
Airport
Alderman
Ale
ALGOL
Alien
Alligator
American Way of Life
Analyst
Anchorman
Anchorwoman
Anode
Apartment
Appeal
Appeasement
Approach
Aquaplaning
ASCII-Code
ASEAN
Assembler
Assembling
Assist
Atoll
Attack
Austerity
Automation
Average
AWACS
Baby
Babysitter
Babysitting
Bachelor
back
Back
Backgammon
Background
Backhand
Backlash
Backslash
Back-up
Bacon
Badminton
Ballyhoo
Band
Bandit
Bandleader
Banjo
Banker
Banking
Baptist
Bar
Barbecue
Bark
Barkeeper
Barrel
Base
Baseball
BASIC
Basketball
Basset
Batter
Bazooka
Beagle
Beam
Beat
Beatnik
Beauty
Bebop
Bed and Breakfast
Benchmark
Benchmarking
Big Business
Bike
Biker
Bilge
Bingo
Bit
Blackout
Blank
Blazer
Blend
Blind Date
Blizzard
Blockbuster
Bloody Mary
Blow-out
Blow-up
Blues
Bluff
Board
Boarding-School
Bobby
Bobsleigh
Bobtail
Bodybuilding
Bodyguard
Bodysuit
Boiler
Bombast
Bond
Bonus
Booklet
Bookmark
Boom
Booster
Boot
Boot
Bootlegger
Boss
Bossing
Bottleneck
Bowler
Bowling
Bowls
Box
Boxer
Boy
Boyfriend
Brainstorming
Branding
Brandy
Break
Break-even-Point
Bridge
Briefing
Broiler
Broker
Browning
Browser
Brunch
Budget
Bug
Buggy
Bulldozer
Bullterrier
Bully
Bungalow
Bunker
Bunny
Burger
Burn-out
Bus
Business
business as usual
Business-Class
Butler
Butterfly
Button
bye-bye
Bypass
Byte
Cab
Cable-Transfer
Cache
CAD
Caddie
Caddy
Cafeteria
Calf
California
Call-by-Call
CAM
Camcorder
Camp
Camper
Camping
Campus
Candle-Light-Dinner
Cannabis
Canvassing
Cape
Caravan
Cardigan
care of
Cargo
Carol
Carport
Carrier
Cartoon
Cartoonist
Carver
Carving
cash
Cash
cash and carry
Casting
Castle
Castor ®
Catch-as-catch-can
Catcher
Caterer
Catering
Caterpillar
Catwalk
CB-Funk
CD
CD-Player
Cent
Centre-Court
Chairman
Chairwoman
Champion
Champions League
Change
Charleston
Chart
Charter
Chasuble
170
Chat
Check
Check
Checklist
Checkpoint
Check-up
Cheeseburger
Cherry-Brandy
Chesterfield
Cheviot
Chief
Chillies
Chill-out-Room
Chinatown
Chintz
Chip
Chippendale
Choke
Chow-Chow
Christian Science
Chutney
CIA
CIP
City
Claim
Clan
clean
Clearing
Clerk
clever
Cleverness
Clinch
Clip
Clipper ®
Clog
Cloth
Clown
Cluster
Coach
Coaching
Coat
Cob
Cobbler
COBOL
Coca Cola ®
Cockney
Cockpit
Cocktail
c.o.d.
Code
Coke
College
Collie
Colonel
Colt ®
Combo
Comeback
Comedy
Comedy-Show
Coming-out
Common Sense
Commonwealth
Compact Disc
Compiler
Computer
Concept-Art
Connection
Constable
Consulting
Container
Contest
Controller
Controlling
Convenience-Foods
cool
Cool Jazz
Coolness
Cop
Copyright
Core
Corned Beef
Corned Pork
Corner
Corporate Identity
Cottage
Cotton
Couch
Count
Countdown
Counter
Counterpart
Countertenor
Countess
County
Court
Cover
Cover-up
Cowboy
Cowgirl
Cox' Orange
Crack
Crack
Cracker
Crash
Cream
Crew
Crime
cross
Cross
Cross-over
Cruise-Missile
Cruising
Cup
Curling
curricular
Curriculum
Cursor
Cut
Cutaway
Cutter
Cyberspace
Daddy
Daily Soap
Dame
Dancing
Dandy
Darling
Darts
Dash
Date
D-Day
Deadline
Deal
Dealer
Debugging
Decoder
Deep-Freezer
Deficit-Spending
Defroster
Delicious
Demonstration
Denomination
Denotation
Deodorant
Department
Derby
Design
Designer
Desktop-Publishing
Desperado
Devon
Digest
Digit
digital
Dildo
Dime
Dimmer
Dingo
Dinner
Dip
Direct Mailing
Discount
Disengagement
Diskette
Dispatcher
Displaced Person
Display
Dixieland
DNA
Dock
Docking
do it yourself!
Dolby-System
Dollar
Dolly
Domain
Dope
Doping
Dover
Dow-Jones
down
Download
Drain
Dream-Team
Dress
Dressing
Dribbling
Drill
Drink
Drive
Drive-in-Kino
Driver
Drop-out
Drops
Drugstore
Drum
Drummer
dry
Dual-Band-Handy
Duke
Dumdum
Dummy
Dumping
Dunking
Duty-free-Shop
DVD
DVD-Player
Dynamo
E
Eagle
Earl
easy
Ecstasy
Edinburgh
Editor
Editorial
EFTA
Egghead
Eire
Electronic Cash
Electronic Commerce
Emitter
Emoticon
Empire
Emulation
Emulator
Encoder
Encoding
Encounter
Engineering
English spoken
Entertainer
Entertainment
Environment
environmental
Equipment
ESA
Esquire
Essay
Essential
Establishment
Event
Evergreen
Everybody's Darling
Exchange
Expander
Export
Express
Extended
extra dry
Extruder
Eyeliner
Facility-Management
Fact
Factoring
Factory of the Future
Factory-Outlet
Fading
fair
Fairness
Fake
Fallout
Fan
Fantasy
FAQ
171
Farad
Farm
Farmer
Fashion
Fast Food
FBI
Feature
Feedback
Feeling
Fellow
Fellowship
Fender
Festival
Fiche
Fieldwork
Fight
Fighter
File
Filibuster
Film
Final
Finish
Firewall
First Lady
Fisheye
Fission
fit
Fitness
Fitting
Fix
Fixing
Fizz
Flame-out
Flap
Flash
Flashback
Flashlight
Fleece
Flip
Flipchart
Flipper
Float
Floating
Floor
Flop
Floppy Disk
Flotation
Flower- Power
Flyer
Flying Dutchman
Fog
Folder
Folk
Folklore
Folksong
Font
Foot
Football
Forehand
Foreign Office
Form
FORTRAN
Forward
foul
Foul
Four-Letter-Word
Frame
Franchise
Freak
Free Jazz
Freestyle
Free TV
Frisbee
Full Dress
Full House
Full Service
Full Speed
Full-Time-Job
Fun
Functional Food
Funk
G-7-Staat
Gadget
Gag
gaga
Gagman
Gallon
Gang
Gangster
Gangway
Gate
GATT
gay
Gecko
Geisha
Geld
Gentleman
Gentleman's
Agreement,
Gentlemen's ...
Gig
Gig
Gig
Gigue
Gimmick
Gin
Ginger
Gin Tonic
Girl
Girlie
Give-away
Glamour
Global Player
Globetrotter
Goal
Goalie
Go-goGo-go-Boy
Go-go-Girl
Go-in
Golden Delicious
Golden Goal
Golden Twenties
Golf
Golfer
Gong
goodbye
Goodwill
Gorilla
Go-slow
Gospel
Graffito
Grammy [Award]
Grand Old Lady
Grand Old Man
Grapefruit
Grass
Greenback
Greenhorn
Greyhound
Grill
Grog
groggy
Groove
Groupie
Grubber
Grunge
G-String
Guide
Guinea
Gully
Habit
Habituation
Hack
Hacker
Hair-Stylist
Halloween
Ham and Eggs
Hamburger
Handicap
Handicapper
Handling
Handout, Hand-out
Hands
Handy
Handyman
Hang-over
Happening
happy
Happy few
Hardcopy
Hardcore
Hardcover
Hardtop
Hardware
Havelock
HD-Diskette
Headline
Headliner
Hearing
heavy
Held
Heliport
Helium
Henry
hey
Hickory
high
Highball
High Church
High End
High Fidelity
Highlife
Highlight
High Society
Highway
Hijacker
Hillbilly
hip
Hip-Hop
Hippie
Hipster
Hit
Hitchhiker
HIV
Hobby
Hockey
Hole
Holidays
Holocaust
Holster
Homeland
Homepage
Honey
Honeymoon
hooked
Hooligan
Hootenanny
Hop
Hop
Hornpipe
Horror
Horse
Horsepower
Host
Hostess
Hotdog
Hot Jazz
Hotline
House
Hovercraft
HTML
Hula-Hoop
Human Counter
Human Engineering
Humbug
Humorist
Hundredweight
Hunter
Husky
Hustle
Hut
Hydrant
Hydrofoil
Hype
Hyperlink
Hypertext
Icing
Icon
Image
Impact
Impeachment
Implementation
Import
Imprint
in
in
Incentive
Inch
Incoming
in concert
incorporated
Independence Day
Indian
Industrial Design
172
Industrial Engineering
informal
Ingot
Inlaid
Inlay
Input
Insert
Insertion
Insider
instant
Instrumental
Interface
internal
international
Internet
Interpreter
Interview
Intranet
Intro
Investment
Ion
Ionisation
Iridium
Irish Coffee
Irish Stew
ISDN
ISO
Isolationist
Jackpot
Jacuzzi
Jamboree
Jazz
Jeans
Jeep
Jersey
Jesus People
Jet
Jetlag
Jetliner
Jigger
Jingle
Jingo
Jitterbug
Jive
Job
Jobber
Jogging
Joint
Joint Venture
Jo-Jo
Joker
Joystick
Jukebox
Jump
Junk-Art
Junkie
Juror
Jury
just in time
Jute
Juxtaposition
Keeper
keep smiling
Ketchup
Key-AccountManagement
Keyboard
Kick
Kick-and-rush
Kick-down
Kid
Kidnapper
Kidnapping
Killer
Kilt
King
Kitchenette
Kiwi
Kiwi
knock-out
Know-how
Kraut
Krill
Krypton
Ku-Klux-Klan
Kumquat
Kung-Fu
Label
Labour Party
Lacrosse
Lady
ladylike
Lag
Lambskin
Laptop
Laser
Lasso
last, not least
Late-Night-Show
Latin Lover
Latino
Law and Order
Layout
LCD
Leader
Lean Management
Lean Production
Learning by Doing
Leasing
Level
Lifestyle
Lift
Lift
Lifting
light
Limerick
Limit
Link
Linoleum
Linotype
live
Lob
Lobbyist
Location
Loch
Loft
Log
Loge
Logger
Logo
Look
Looping
Lord
Lordship
Lore
Lori
Loser
Lost Generation
Lot
Lotion
Louisiana
Lounge
love
Lover
LP
Lunch
made in ...
Magnum
Mailbox
Mailing
Mainliner
Mainlining
Mainstream
Maisonette
Major
Majorette
Make-up
Mall
Management
Management-Buy-out
Manager
Manchester
Manchester
Mandrill
Mangrove
Mann
Manpower
Manual
Marina
Marker
Marketing
Mary Jane
Mascara
Maser
Master
Match
Mediation
medium
Medium
Medium
Medley
Meeting
meets
Melton
Memorial
Memory
Merchandising
Merlin
Meson
Message
metallic
Methodist
Microburst
midi
Military
mini
Minimal Art
Minimal Music
Mink
mint
Miss
Missile
Missing Link
Mist
Mister
Mixed
Mixed Drink
Mixed Media
Mixed Pickles
Mixer
Mob
Mobile
mode
Mode
Model
Modem
Modern Jazz
modular
Mogul
Mohair
Moiré
Moleskin
Monarchist
Monitor
Monopoly
Monotype
Monster
Morphing
Motel
Motion-Picture
Mount
Movie
Muffin
Mulch
Mull
Multimedia
Multiplex
Multitasking
Mummy
Mumps
Musical
Mustang
Mystery
Nabob
NAFTA
Namedropping
NASA
NATO
Navaho, Navajo
Navel
Necking
Nelson
Neon
Neptunium
Net
Network
Neutron
New Age
Newcomer
New Look
News
Newsgroup
173
Newsletter
Newton
New Wave
Nibble
Nobody
no future
no iron
Non-Book
Non-Essentials
North Dakota
Notebook
Notepad
Novel Food
Nugget
null
Nylon
OAPEC
OAU
Odds
OECD
Off
Offbeat
Office
off limits
offline
offshore
offside
okay
Oldie
on
on call
One-Man-Show
One-Night-Stand
online
on the road
on the rocks
Op-Art
OPEC
Open-Air-Festival
open end
Opening
Open Shop
Operating
Operator
Opossum
Opposition
Optical Art
optional
Oral History
Orbit
orbital
Orbital
Order
Oscar
out
Outback
Outcast
Outdoor
Outfit
Outfitter
Outing
Outlaw
out of area
Outplacement
Output
Outsider
Outsourcing
Overall
overdressed
Overdrive
Overflow
Overkill
Pace
Pacemaker
Pad
Paddock
Pager
Palaver
Palladium
PAL-System
Pamphlet
Panel
Panorama
Pantry
Panty
Paper
Paperback
Par
Paragliding
parboiled
Park
Parka
Park-and-ride-System
Parsec
Parser
Parsing
Partner
Party
Pass
Patchwork
Pattern
Payback
Paying Guest
Pay-per-View
Pay-TV
Peak
Peanuts
Pedigree
Peeling
Peer
Peerage
Pellet
Penalty
P.E.N.-Club,
PENClub
Penholder
Penny
Penthouse
Pep
Percussion
Performance
permanent press
Permit
Petticoat
Petting
Pica
Pick-up
Pie
Pier
Piercing
Pilling
Pin
pink
Pint
Pin-up-Girl
Pipe
Pipeline
Pit
Pixel
Plaid
Plastics
Play-back
Playboy
Playgirl
Playmate
Play-off
PLO
Plot
Plotter
Plutonium
Pocketbook
Pogo
Pointer
Point of Sale
Poker
Political Correctness
Poll
Polo
Pony
Pool
Pop
Pop-Art
Popcorn
Popper
Porridge
Port
Portable
Porter
Post
Post
Poster
Pot
Pot
Pound
Power
Premier
premium
Presenter
Pressure-Group
Preview
Primary
Primetime
printed in ...
Printer
Printing-on-Demand
Prisoner of War
Producer
Product-Placement
Professional
Profiler
Progressive Jazz
Prohibition
Proliferation
prominent
Promoter
Promotion
Propeller
Provider
Pub
Publicity
Public Relations
Puck
Pudding
Pullover
Pulp
Pulsar
Pumps
Punch
Punk
Puppet
Purser
Push
Pusher
Push-up-BH
Putt
Puzzle
Puzzler
Pyjama
Quark
Quarter
Quarterback
Quarterdeck
Quasar
Queen
Quenching
Quickie
Quilt
Quiz
Rack
Racket
Radar
Radio
Raft
Rafting
Raglan
Ragtime
Rally
RAM
Ramie
Ranch
Rancher
Ranger
Ranking
Rap
Rating
Rattan
Rave
Reader
Readymade
Realignment
Real-Time-System
Rebound
Receiver
Recital
Recycling
Redingote
Referee
Referent
Reformer
Reggae
registered
Rehabilitation
relaxed
Relaxing
174
Release
Releaser
relevant
Relish
Remake
Remix
REM-Phase
Rendezvous
Report
Reporter
Reprint
Research
Researcher
Reservation
Retrieval
Retriever
Retrovirus
Return
Reverend
Reverse
Review
Revival
Revolution
Revolver
Rhythm and Blues
Rips
RNA
Roadster
Robber
Robinson
Rock
Rock and Roll
Rocker
Rodeo
roger
Roll-back
ROM
Rooming-in
Rotary Club
Rotor
Routing
Rowdy
Royal
Rubber
Rubber
Rugby
Rum
Run
Runway
Rye
Sabbatical
Safe
Safer Sex
Sago
Saloon
Sample
Sampler
Sandwich
SAS
Scaling
Scanner
Scanning
Scat
Scene
Scheck
Science-Fiction
Scientology
Score
Scotch
Scout
Scrabble
scratch
Scratching
Screen
Screening
SDI
SDP
Seal
Sealskin
SEATO
Secret Service
Seersucker
Segregation
Seller
Sensor
sentimental
Separate
Separatist
Sequel
Sequoia
Sergeant
Serial
Serve-and-Volley
Server
Service
Session
Set
Set
Setter
Sex
Sex and Crime
Sex-Appeal
sexy
Shag
Shake
Shaker
Shampoo
Shanty
Share
Shareholder
Shareholder-Value
Shareware
Sheriff
Sherry
Shirt
Shit
shocking
Shooting
Shop
Shopping
Shorts
Short Story
Shouting
Show
Showdown
Showman
Shredder
Shrimp
Shuffle
Shuffleboard
Shuttle
Sideboard
Sightseeing
Silk
Single
Single
Sinn
Sioux
Sir
Sitcom
Sit-in
Six Days
Sixty-nine
Skateboard
Skateboarder
Skater
Skeleton
Sketch
Skiff
Skinhead
Skinner-Box
Skipper
Skull
Skunk
Skyjacker
Skylight
Skyline
Slack
Slacker
Slang
Slapstick
Sleeper
Slice
Slick
Slip
Slipper
Slogan
Sloop
Slot
slow
Slum
small
Smalltalk
smart
Smash
Smiley
Smog
Smoking
SMS
Snack
Snail-Mail
Sniff
Sniffing
Snob
Snooker
Snow
Snowboard
Snowboarder
Snowboarding
Soccer
Social Costs
Society
Sodium
soft
Softball
Softcopy
soften
Softie
Software
Sonar
Song
Songwriter
sophisticated
Sorter
SOS
Soul
Sound
Soundtrack
South Dakota
Spaniel
Sparring
Speaker
Special
Speech
Speed
Spider
Spike
Spillage
Spin
Spinnaker
Spin-off
Spiritual
Spiritual Song
Spleen
Splendid Isolation
Splitting
Spoiler
Sponsor
Sponsoring
Sponsorship
Sport
Sportswear
Spot
Spotlight
Spray
Sprayer
Spread
Spreading
Sprinkler
Sprint
Sprinter
Spurt
Squash
Squaw
Stagflation
Stainless Steel
Standard
Stand-by
Standing
Standing Ovations
Stand-up
Star
Stars and Stripes
Start
Starter
Start-up
Statement
Steak
Sterling
Stern
Stetson
Steward
Stewardess
Stick
Sticker
Stock
175
stoned
stop
Stop-over
Story
Straddle
straight
Straps
Stretch
Strip
Stripper
Striptease
Strontium
Stunt
Stuntman
Styling
Stylist
Sub
Subwoofer
Suffragette
Sulky
Sunbelt
Super-G
Supervision
Supervisor
Supreme Court
Surfboard
Surfer
Surfing
Surprise-Party
Survey
Swap
Swapper
Sweater
Sweatshirt
Sweepstake
Sweet
Sweetheart
Swing
Swing
Swinger
swinging
Swinging
Synchronisation
Syncopated Music
Synthetics
Tab
Tabulator
Tachometer
Tag
Tag
Take
Take-off
Take-over
Talk
Talker
Tandem
Tank
Tanker
Tape
Tarot
Tartan
Task
Taskforce
Tattoo
Taxiway
T-Bone-Steak
Teach-in
Teak
Team
Teamwork
Teaser
Teddy
Tee
Teen
Teleprompter ®
Television
Telex
Tender
Tennis
Terminal
Terrier
Test
thermal
Thrill
Thriller
Ticker
Ticket
Tie-Break
Time-out
Timer
Timesharing
Timing
Toast
Toaster
Toddy
Toffee
Token
Tomahawk
Tommy
Toner
Tonic
Tool
top
Top
Top
topless
Topspin
Tory
Totem
Touch
tough
Tourist
Tower
Township
Trace
Track
Trackball
Trademark
Trading
Traditional Jazz
Trailer
Trainee
Trainer
Training
Training on the Job
Tram
Tramp
Tramway
Trance
Transfer
Transistor
Transmitter
Transponder
Trap
Trapper
Trash
Trawl
Trawler
Treatment
Trekking
Trend
trendy
Trial
Trick
tricky
Trifle
Trigger
Trip
Trolley
Tropical
Trouble
Truck
Trucker
Trust
Trustee
Tube
tubeless
Tuner
Tuning
Tunnel
Turf
Turkey
Turn
Turnaround
Tutor
Tweed
Twill
Twist
Twist
Tycoon
Ulster
UN
Uncle Sam
Underdog
underdressed
Underflow
Underground
Understatement
UNESCO
UNICEF
Union Jack
Unisex
unplugged
Update
Upgrade
up to date
URL
USA
USB
User
Vamp
Van
Ventilator
Veranda
Video
video-, Video-
Video-on-Demand
VIP
Viper
Virus
Viscount
vital
Vitamin
Voicemail
volley
Volley
Volleyball
Voucher
V. S. O. P.
Wad
Wafer
Walkman
Wallaby
WAP
Wapiti
Warm-up
Warp
Warrant
wash and wear
waterproof
Waterproof
Watt
WC
Wedge
Wedgwood
Weekend
Wellness
Western
Westerner
Whig
Whirlpool
Whisky
Whist
Whistler
WHO
Who's who
Wigwam
Wildcard
Winder
Windjammer
Window
Women's Lib
Workaholic
Workout
Workshop
Workstation
World Games
World Wide Fund for
Nature
World Wide Web
Worst Case
wow
Wrestling
Yankee
Yard
Yellow Press
Yips
YMCA
Youngster
Yuppie
YWCA
176
Zapping
Zebra
Zimbabwe
Zombie
Zoom
177
b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert: English words, Microsoft ® Word, spell
check [1316]
abalone – n. m.
aberration – n. f.
ablation – n. f.
A.B.S. – n. m.
accession – n. f.
acculturation – n. f.
ace – n. m.
acquisition – n. f.
acre – n. f.
actualisation – n. f.
adaptation – n. f.
admittance – n. f.
A.D.N. – n. m.
affidavit – n. m.
afro – adj. inv.
after-shave – n. m. inv.
airbag – n. m.
albacore – n. m.
ale – n. f.
alligator – n. m.
alternative – n. f.
aluminium – n. m.
a.m. – loc. adv.
anaconda – n. m.
anion – n. m.
antitrust – adj.
apache – n. et adj.
aquaplaning – n. m.
arc – n. m. inv.
argent – n. m.
argon – n. m.
A.R.N. – n. m.
arrow-root – n. m.
artefact – n. m.
ASA – n. m. inv.
ASCII – n. m.
ASIC – n. m.
aspartame – n. m.
atoll – n. m.
attaché-case – n. m.
attention – n. f.
attorney – n. m.
attraction – n. f.
auburn – adj. inv.
audit – n. m.
automate – n. m.
automation – n. f.
auto-stop – n. m.
baby – n. m.
baby-boom – n. m.
baby-foot – n. m. inv.
baby-sitter – n.
baby-sitting – n. m.
backgammon – n. m.
background – n. m.
bacon – n. m.
badge – n. m.
badlands – n. f. pl.
badminton – n. m.
baffle – n. m.
ballast – n. m.
ball-trap – n. m.
banana split – n. m.
inv.
bang – interj. et n. m.
inv.
banjo – n. m.
bar – n. m.
barbecue – n. m.
barmaid – n. f.
barman – n. m.
barn – n. m.
barracuda – n. m.
bas-bleu – n. m.
base – n. f.
base-ball – n. m.
basic – n. m.
basket – n. m.
bateau – n. m.
battle-dress – n. m.
inv.
bay-window – n. f.
bazooka – n. m.
beagle – n. m.
beat – adj. inv.
beatnik – n.
be-bop – n. m.
because – conj. et
prép.
best-seller – n. m.
bicycle – n. m.
big-bang – n. m.
bile – n. f.
bill – n. m.
bingo – n. m.
bit – n. m.
bitter – n. m.
black – n. et adj.
black-bass – n. m. inv.
black-jack – n. m.
black-out – n. m. inv.
black-rot – n. m.
blazer – n. m.
blinder – v.
blister – n. m.
blizzard – n. m.
bloc – n. m.
bloc-notes – n. m.
bloomer – n. m.
blue-jean – n. m.
blues – n. m.
bluff – n. m.
blush – n. m.
boat people – n. m.
inv.
bob – n. m.
bobsleigh – n. m.
bobtail – n. m.
body – n. m.
bodybuilding – n. m.
bogie – n. m.
bondage – n. m.
boogie-woogie – n. m.
bookmaker – n. m.
boom – n. m.
boomerang – n. m.
booster – n. m.
bootlegger – n. m.
boots – n. f. pl.
boss – n. m.
boulder – n. m.
bourbon – n. m.
bowling – n. m.
bow-window – n. m.
box – n. m.
box – n. m.
boxer-short – n. m.
box-office – n. m.
boy – n. m.
boycott – n. m.
boy-scout – n. m.
brain drain – n. m.
brainstorming – n. m.
brain-trust – n. m.
brandy – n. m.
break – n. m.
break – n. m.
breakfast – n. m.
brick – n. m.
bridge – n. m.
bridge – n. m.
briefer – v. tr.
briefing – n. m.
broker – n. m.
brook – n. m.
brunch – n. m.
brushing – n. m.
budget – n. m.
bug – n. m.
buggy – n. m.
bugle – n. m.
building – n. m.
bulldozer – n. m.
bull-finch – n. m.
bull-terrier – n. m.
bun – n. m.
bungalow – n. m.
bunker – n. m.
bus – n. m.
bush – n. m.
business – n. m.
businessman – n. m.
bye-bye – interj.
by-pass – n. m. inv.
byte – n. m.
cab – n. m.
cabin-cruiser – n. m.
caddie – n. m.
caddie – n. m.
cake – n. m.
cake-walk – n. m.
californium – n. m.
call-girl – n. f.
calypso – n. m.
camp – n. m.
camping – n. m.
camping-car – n. m.
campus – n. m.
canter – n. m.
cantilever – adj. inv. et
n. m.
capacitance – n. f.
car – n. m.
cardigan – n. m.
car-ferry – n. m.
cargo – n. m.
cartoon – n. m.
cash – adv. et n. m.
cash-flow – n. m.
casting – n. m.
catalpa – n. m.
catalyse – n. f.
catamaran – n. m.
catch – n. m.
catgut – n. m.
cathode – n. f.
C.B. – n. f.
CD-ROM – n. m. inv.
cellular – n. m.
cent – n. m. et f.
challenge – n. m.
challenger – n. m.
chambray – n. m.
chapeau – n. m.
charge – n. f.
charter – n. m.
cheap – adj. inv.
check-list – n. f.
check-up – n. m. inv.
cheddar – n. m.
cheeseburger – n. m.
cheese-cake – n. m.
cherry – n. m.
chewing-gum – n. m.
chintz – n. m.
chip – n. m.
chips – n. f. pl.
chisel – n. m.
choke-bore – n. m.
chorus – n. m.
chow-chow – n. m.
chutney – n. m.
C.I.F. – adj. ou adv.
clam – n. m.
clamp – n. m.
clap – n. m.
clash – n. m.
clean – adj. inv.
clearing – n. m.
clergyman – n. m.
climax – n. m.
clip – n. m.
clip – n. m.
clipper – n. m.
clone – n. m.
close-combat – n. m.
clown – n. m.
club – n. m.
club – n. m.
club-house – n. m.
178
cluster – n. m.
coach – n. m.
coalition – n. f.
cob – n. m.
cocker – n. m.
cockney – n. et adj.
cockpit – n. m.
cocktail – n. m.
code – n. m.
coke – n. m.
cold-cream – n. m.
colonisation – n. f.
coloniser – v. tr.
come-back – n. m. inv.
commando – n. m.
commodore – n. m.
commune – n. f.
communication – n. f.
compact, e – adj. et n.
m.
compilation – n. f.
compiler – v. tr.
compost – n. m.
compound – adj. inv.
et n.
compulsion – n. f.
concentration – n. f.
concertina – n. m.
condom – n. m.
condominium – n. m.
consortium – n. m.
constable – n. m.
contact – n. m.
container – n. m.
contraception – n. f.
conurbation – n. f.
convent – n. m.
convention – n. f.
convertible – adj. et n.
m.
convict – n. m.
cookie – n. m.
cool – adj. inv.
coolie – n. m.
copyright – n. m.
cordite – n. f.
corned-beef – n. m.
corner – n. m.
corn-flakes – n. m. pl.
coroner – n. m.
corporation – n. f.
corral – n. m.
correct, e – adj.
cortisone – n. f.
cosy – adj.
cosy – n. m.
cottage – n. m.
country – n. f. ou m.
inv.
court – n. m.
covenant – n. m.
cover-girl – n. f.
cow-boy – n. m.
cow-pox – n. m. inv.
crack – n. m.
crack – n. m.
cracker – n. m.
cracking – n. m.
crash – n. m.
crasher (se) – v. pron.
crawl – n. m.
cricket – n. m.
critique – n. et adj.
cromlech – n. m.
crooner – n. m.
croquet – n. m.
cross-country – n. m.
crossing-over – n. m.
inv.
croup – n. m.
crown-glass – n. m.
inv.
cruiser – n. m.
curling – n. m.
curry – n. m.
custom – n. m.
cutter – n. m.
cyan – n. m.
cycle – n. m.
cyclone – n. m.
dada – n. m.
dancing – n. m.
dandy – n. m.
dead-heat – n. m.
dealer – n. m.
dealer – v. tr.
delirium tremens – n.
m. inv.
dengue – n. f.
denim – n. m.
derby – n. m.
derrick – n. m.
design – n. m.
designer – n.
desk – n. m.
desperado – n. m.
destroyer – n. m.
digest – n. m.
digit – n. m.
dinghy – n. m.
dingo – n. m.
direction – n. f.
disco – n. m. et adj.
discount – n. m.
dispatcher – n. m.
dispatcher – v. tr.
dispatching – n. m.
distribution – n. f.
division – n. f.
dock – n. m.
dodo – n. m.
dog-cart – n. m.
dollar – n. m.
dominion – n. m.
dope – n. f.
doper – v. tr.
doping – n. m.
drain – n. m.
drawback – n. m.
dressing-room – n. m.
dribble – n. m.
drift – n. m.
drifter – n. m.
drill – n. m.
drink – n. m.
drive – n. m.
drive-in – n. m. inv.
driver – n. m.
driver – v.
drone – n. m.
drop-goal – n. m.
drugstore – n. m.
drummer – n. m.
drums – n. m. pl.
dry – adj. inv. et n. m.
dry farming – n. m.
duffel-coat – n. m.
dumping – n. m.
duplex – n. m.
dyke – n. m.
ecstasy – n. f.
engineering – n. m.
EPROM – n. f.
escalator – n. m.
esquire – n. m.
establishment – n. m.
excise – n. f.
expertise – n. f.
exportation – n. f.
exporter – v. tr.
expression – n. f.
extra-dry – adj. inv.
eye-liner – n. m.
factoring – n. m.
fading – n. m.
fair-play – n. m. inv.
fairway – n. m.
fan – n.
farce – n. f.
far west – n. m. inv.
fast-food – n. m.
fax – n. m.
feed-back – n. m. inv.
feeder – n. m.
feeling – n. m.
ferry-boat – n. m.
festival – n. m.
fiat – n. m. inv.
fifty-fifty – loc. adv. et
n. m.
film – n. m.
finish – n. m.
finitude – n. f.
fish-eye – n. m.
fission – n. f.
flash – n. m.
flash-back – n. m.
flasher – v.
flexion – n. f.
flint-glass – n. m. inv.
flipper – n. m.
flipper – v. intr.
flirt – n. m.
flirter – v. intr.
flock-book – n. m.
flop – interj. et n. m.
fluorescence – n. f.
flush – n. m.
F.O.B. – adj. inv.
foil – n. m.
folk – n. m. et adj.
folklore – n. m.
football – n. m.
footing – n. m.
forcing – n. m.
formalisation – n. f.
formaliser – v. tr.
format – n. m.
forsythia – n. m.
fox-hound – n. m.
fox-terrier – n. m.
fox-trot – n. m. inv.
freak – n.
free-jazz – n. m. inv.
free-lance – adj. inv. et
n.
free-martin – n. m.
freezer – n. m.
fuel – n. m.
full – n. m.
full-contact – n. m.
fun – n. m.
funk – n. m. et adj.
funky – n. m. et adj.
inv.
fusel – n. m.
GABA – n. m. inv.
gadget – n. m.
gag – n. m.
gagman – n. m.
gallon – n. m.
gang – n. m.
gangster – n. m.
gap – n. m.
garden-party – n. f.
gauche – adj. et n.
gay – adj. inv.
gentleman – n. m.
gentleman-farmer – n.
m.
– n. m.
gentry – n. f.
geyser – n. m.
gift – n. m.
gigue – n. f.
gimmick – n. m.
gin – n. m.
gin-rummy – n. m.
girl – n. f.
glamour – n. m.
glass – n. m.
globe-trotter – n.
goal – n. m.
goal-average – n. m.
golden – n. f.
gold point – n. m.
golf – n. m.
gospel – n. m.
grade – n. m.
grader – n. m.
179
gramophone – n. m.
granny smith – n. f.
inv.
grapefruit – n. m.
green – n. m.
grill – n. m.
grog – n. m.
groggy – adj. inv.
groom – n. m.
groupie – n.
guidance – n. f.
gutta-percha – n. f.
h – n. m. inv.
habituation – n. f.
haddock – n. m.
haggis – n. m.
half-track – n. m.
hall – n. m.
hamburger – n. m.
handicap – n. m.
happening – n. m.
happy end – n. m. ou f.
happy few – n. m. pl.
hard – adj. et n. m.
hardware – n. m.
harmonica – n. m.
has been – n. m. inv.
hello – interj.
herd-book – n. m.
hickory – n. m.
hi-fi – n. f. inv. et adj.
inv.
highlander – n. m.
high-tech – n. m. inv.
hip – interj.
hippie – n. et adj.
hit-parade – n. m.
HIV – n. m.
H.L.A. – adj.
hobby – n. m.
hockey – n. m.
holding – n. m. ou f.
hold-up – n. m. inv.
holster – n. m.
home – n. m.
homespun – n. m.
home-trainer – n. m.
hooligan – n. m.
hormone – n. f.
horse-ball – n. m.
horse-power – n. m.
inv.
hot – adj. inv.
hot-dog – n. m.
house-boat – n. m.
hovercraft – n. m.
humour – n. m.
hurricane – n. m.
husky – n. m.
hydrofoil – n. m.
ICBM – n. m. inv.
iceberg – n. m.
illumination – n. f.
I.L.S. – n. m.
immature – adj.
impeachment – n. m.
importation – n. f.
importer – v. tr.
in – adj. inv.
incorruptible – adj.
inductance – n. f.
inexhaustible – adj.
inflation – n. f.
influence – n. f.
information – n. f.
inlay – n. m.
inoculation – n. f.
input – n. m.
insane – adj.
insert – n. m.
insertion – n. f.
intelligence – n. f.
interchangeable – adj.
intercourse – n. f.
interface – n. f.
interlock – n. m.
interlope – n. m. et
adj.
interlude – n. m.
interview – n. f.
introspection – n. f.
ion – n. m.
ISBN – n. m.
ISO – n. m. inv.
isooctane – n. m.
isotope – n. m.
item – n. m.
jack – n. m.
jackpot – n. m.
jamboree – n. m.
jam-session – n. f.
jazz – n. m.
jazzman – n. m.
jazzy – adj. inv.
jean – n. m.
jeep – n. f.
jenny – n. f.
jerk – n. m.
jet – n. m.
jet-set – n. m. ou f.
jet-stream – n. m.
jigger – n. m.
jingle – n. m.
job – n. m.
jockey – n. m.
jodhpur – n. m.
jogger – v. intr.
jogging – n. m.
joint – n. m.
joint venture – n. f.
joker – n. m.
juke-box – n. m. inv.
jumping – n. m.
jungle – n. f.
junior – adj. et n.
junkie – n. et adj.
jury – n. m.
jute – n. m.
karma – n. m.
keepsake – n. m.
ketch – n. m.
ketchup – n. m.
kick – n. m.
kidnapper – v. tr.
kidnapping – n. m.
kilt – n. m.
kipper – n. m.
kit – n. m.
kitchenette – n. f.
kiwi – n. m.
kiwi – n. m.
klaxon – n. m.
knickerbockers – n. m.
pl.
knock-down – n. m.
inv.
knock-out – n. m. inv.
et adj. inv.
know-how – n. m. inv.
koala – n. m.
krypton – n. m.
kumquat – n. m.
label – n. m.
lad – n. m.
lady – n. f.
laser – n. m.
lasso – n. m.
lasting – n. m.
LAV – n. m. inv.
lawrencium – n. m.
leader – n. m.
leadership – n. m.
leasing – n. m.
leghorn – n. f.
lemon-grass – n. m.
inv.
lepton – n. m.
liberty – n. m. inv.
lift – n. m.
lifter – v. tr.
lifting – n. m.
light – adj. inv.
lime – n. f.
limerick – n. m.
liner – n. m.
linkage – n. m.
links – n. m. pl.
linotype – n. f.
lion – n. m.
liqueur – n. f.
lisp – n. m.
listing – n. m.
live – adj. inv.
living-room – n. m.
loader – n. m.
lob – n. m.
lobby – n. m.
loch – n. m.
lock-out – n. m. inv.
lock-outer – v. tr.
loft – n. m.
loge – n. f.
look – n. m.
looping – n. m.
loran – n. m.
lord – n. m.
lorry – n. m.
loser – n. m.
lot – n. m.
lump – n. m.
lunch – n. m.
lyric – n. m.
macadam – n. m.
macho – n. m.
mackintosh – n. m.
made in – loc. adj.
magazine – n. m.
magenta – n. m.
mail-coach – n. m.
mailing – n. m.
maintenance – n. f.
majorette – n. f.
malnutrition – n. f.
malocclusion – n. f.
malt – n. m.
mambo – n. f.
management – n. m.
manager – n. m.
manager – v. tr.
mandrill – n. m.
mangrove – n. f.
manifold – n. m.
marijuana – n. f.
marina – n. f.
marine – n. m.
marketing – n. m.
marlin – n. m.
marshal – n. m.
marshmallow – n. m.
martini – n. m.
mascara – n. m.
maser – n. m.
mastiff – n. m.
match – n. m.
match-play – n. m.
maul – n. m.
meeting – n. m.
melting-pot – n. m.
merchandising – n. m.
mess – n. m.
message – n. m.
micro-instruction – n.
f.
microphone – n. m.
mile – n. m.
milk-bar – n. m.
milk-shake – n. m.
milord – n. m.
MIRV – n. m. inv. et
adj. inv.
miss – n. f.
missile – n. m.
mixer – v. tr.
mobile – adj. et n. m.
mobile home – n. m.
modern style – n. m.
inv.
mohair – n. m.
monitoring – n. m.
motel – n. m.
motion – n. f.
motor-home – n. m.
180
mot-valise – n. m.
mound – n. m.
muffin – n. m.
mule-jenny – n. f.
music-hall – n. m.
must – n. m.
mustang – n. m.
mutant, ante – adj. et
n.
napalm – n. m.
navel – n. f.
neck – n. m.
nectarine – n. f.
net – n. m.
neutron – n. m.
new-look – n. m. inv.
et adj. inv.
newsmagazine – n. m.
night-club – n. m.
noble – adj. et n.
no man's land – n. m.
inv.
non-stop – adj. inv. et
n. inv.
non-violence – n. f.
NTSC – n. m.
nuisance – n. f.
nurse – n. f.
nursery – n. f.
nylon – n. m.
obsolescence – n. f.
obstruction – n. f.
occlusion – n. f.
occurrence – n. f.
off – adj. inv. et adv.
office – n. m.
offset – n. m.
offshore – adj. inv. et
n. m.
okapi – n. m.
one man show – loc.
subst. m.
one-step – n. m.
open – adj. inv.
opossum – n. m.
optimisation – n. f.
optimiser – v. tr.
out – adv. et adj. inv.
outlaw – n. m.
output – n. m.
outrigger – n. m.
outsider – n. m.
over arm stroke – n.
m.
overdose – n. f.
overdrive – n. m.
oxford – n. m.
pacemaker – n. m.
pack – n. m.
package – n. m.
packaging – n. m.
paddock – n. m.
paddy – n. m. inv.
pager – n. m.
pair – n. m.
pal – n. m.
palace – n. m.
pale-ale – n. f.
palladium – n. m.
pamphlet – n. m.
panel – n. m.
panorama – n. m.
par – n. m.
parka – n. f. ou m.
parking – n. m.
partition – n. f.
passing-shot – n. m.
patch – n. m.
patchouli – n. m.
patchwork – n. m.
pattern – n. m.
pause – n. f.
P.C. – n. m.
pedigree – n. m.
peeling – n. m.
peep-show – n. m.
pellet – n. m.
pemmican – n. m.
penalty – n. m.
penny – n. m.
penthouse – n. m.
pep – n. m.
peppermint – n. m.
peptide – n. m.
performance – n. f.
permafrost – n. m.
pesticide – n. m. et
adj.
photo-finish – n. f.
photon – n. m.
piccalilli – n. m.
pickles – n. m. pl.
pickpocket – n. m.
pick-up – n. m. inv.
pidgin – n. m.
pilchard – n. m.
pin's – n. m.
pin up – n. f. inv.
pipe – n. f.
pipeline – n. m.
piper-cub – n. m.
pixel – n. m.
placard – n. m.
placebo – n. m.
plaid – n. m.
plan – n. m.
planning – n. m.
plantation – n. f.
plastic – n. m.
play-back – n. m. inv.
play-boy – n. m.
plum-cake – n. m.
plum-pudding – n. m.
p.m. – loc. adv.
poinsettia – n. m.
point – n. m.
pointer – n. m.
poker – n. m.
pole position – n. f.
policeman – n. m.
polo – n. m.
pool – n. m.
pop – adj. inv.
pop art – n. m.
pop-corn – n. m. inv.
population – n. f.
porridge – n. m.
portable – adj.
porter – n. m.
portfolio – n. m.
poster – n. m.
potassium – n. m.
potlatch – n. m.
practice – n. m.
praxis – n. f.
press-book – n. m.
pressing – n. m.
pressurisation – n. f.
prime – n. f.
prime time – n. m.
production – n. f.
programmer – v. tr.
promotion – n. f.
prorogation – n. f.
prospect – n. m.
proton – n. m.
providence – n. f.
pub – n. m.
public-relations – n. f.
pl.
pudding – n. m.
puffin – n. m.
pull-over – n. m.
pulsar – n. m.
punch – n. m.
punch – n. m.
punching-ball – n. m.
punk – n. et adj.
purée – n. f.
push-pull – n. m. inv.
putt – n. m.
putter – n. m.
puzzle – n. m.
pyjama – n. m.
pyridoxine – n. f.
Q.I. – n. m. inv.
qualification – n. f.
quantification – n. f.
quantifier – v. tr.
quantum – n. m.
quartile – n. m.
quasar – n. m.
quick – n. m.
quinine – n. f.
quorum – n. m.
quota – n. m.
QWERTY – adj. inv.
r – n. m. inv.
racer – n. m.
rack – n. m.
racket – n. m.
radar – n. m.
radian – n. m.
raft – n. m.
rafting – n. m.
ragtime – n. m.
raid – n. m.
raider – n. m.
rail – n. m.
RAM – n. f. inv.
ranch – n. m.
randomisation – n. f.
randomiser – v. tr.
ranger – n. m
rap – n. m.
rash – n. m.
rating – n. m.
ratio – n. m.
ray-grass – n. m. inv.
ready-made – n. m.
inv.
record – n. m.
redingote – n. f.
reflex – adj. et n. m.
reggae – n. m. et adj.
inv.
relation – n. f.
relax – adj. et n.
relaxation – n. f.
remake – n. m.
remix – n. m.
reporter – v. tr.
reporter – n.
reprint – n. m.
reps – n. m.
résumé – n. m.
retard – n. m.
retriever – n. m.
revitalisation – n. f.
revival – n. m.
revolver – n. m.
revolving – adj. inv.
revue – n. f.
rewriter – v. tr.
rewriter – n. m.
rewriting – n. m.
rifle – n. m.
rift – n. m.
rime – n. f.
ring – n. m.
ripper – n. m.
ripple-mark – n. f.
R.N.I.S. – n. m.
roadster – n. m.
rob – n. m.
rock – n. m. et adj.
inv.
rocking-chair – n. m.
roller – n. m.
ROM – n. f.
rot – n. m.
rotary – n. m.
rouge – adj. et n.
rough – n. m.
round – n. m.
routine – n. f.
royalties – n. f. pl.
rugby – n. m.
runabout – n. m.
rush – n. m.
rye – n. m.
saccharine – n. f.
181
sachem – n. m.
S.A.E. – adj.
saga – n. f.
saloon – n. m.
sanatorium – n. m.
sandwich – n. m.
savoir-faire – n. m.
inv.
scalp – n. m.
scalper – v. tr.
scanner – n. m.
scanner – v. tr.
scat – n. m.
scenic railway – n. m.
schooner – n. m.
science-fiction – n. f.
scone – n. m.
scoop – n. m.
scooter – n. m.
score – n. m.
scotch – n. m.
scotch – n. m.
scotch-terrier – n. m.
scoured – n. m.
scrabble – n. m.
scraper – n. m.
scratch – adj. inv.
script – n. m.
script – n. m.
script-girl – n. f.
scrub – n. m.
scull – n. m.
sea-line – n. m.
seersucker – n. m.
self – n. f.
self – n. m.
selfself-control – n. m.
self-government – n.
m.
self-induction – n. f.
self-made-man – n. m.
self-service – n. m.
senior – n. et adj.
sensible – adj.
session – n. f.
set – n. m.
setter – n. m.
sex-appeal – n. m.
sex-ratio – n. f.
sex-shop – n. m. ou f.
sex-symbol – n. m.
sexy – adj. inv.
shaker – n. m.
sherry – n. m.
shilling – n. m.
shimmy – n. m.
shit – n. m.
shocking – adj. inv.
shoot – n. m.
shooter – v.
shopping – n. m.
short – n. m.
show – n. m.
show-business – n. m.
inv.
show-room – n. m.
shrapnel – n. m.
shunt – n. m.
side-car – n. m.
single – n. m.
singleton – n. m.
sit-in – n. m. inv.
skate-board – n. m.
skating – n. m.
sketch – n. m.
ski-bob – n. m.
skinhead – n.
skipper – n. m.
sleeping – n. m.
slice – n. m.
slip – n. m.
slip – n. m.
slogan – n. m.
slow – n. m.
smart – adj. inv.
smash – n. m.
smocks – n. m. pl.
smog – n. m.
smoking – n. m.
snack-bar – n. m.
snob – n. et adj.
snow-boot – n. m.
soda – n. m.
sodium – n. m.
software – n. m.
sol – n. m.
sombre – adj.
sonar – n. m.
sophistication – n. f.
soul – adj. inv. et n. m.
sparring-partner – n.
m.
speakeasy – n. m.
speaker – n. m.
spectre – n. m.
speech – n. m.
speed – n. m. et adj.
speed-sail – n. m.
spider – n. m.
spin – n. m.
spinnaker – n. m.
spleen – n. m.
spoiler – n. m.
sponsor – n. m.
sponsoring – n. m.
sport – n. m.
spot – n. m. et adj. inv.
sprat – n. m.
spray – n. m.
sprint – n. m.
sprinter – v. intr.
square – n. m.
squash – n. m.
squat – n. m.
squatter – v. tr.
squaw – n. f.
stabile – n. m.
staff – n. m.
stagflation – n. f.
stand – n. m.
standard – n. m. et adj.
inv.
standard – n. m.
standardisation – n. f.
stand-by – n. inv. et
adj. inv.
standing – n. m.
star – n. f.
starter – n. m.
starting-block – n. m.
starting-gate – n. m.
station-service – n. f.
steak – n. m.
steamer – n. m.
steeple – n. m.
steeple-chase – n. m.
stencil – n. m.
sterling – adj. inv.
steward – n. m.
stick – n. m.
stick – n. m.
stilton – n. m.
stock – n. m.
stock-car – n. m.
STOL – n. m.
stop – interj. et n. m.
stop-over – n. m. inv.
stopper – v.
story-board – n. m.
stout – n. m. ou f.
stress – n. m.
stretch – n. m.
stretching – n. m.
string – n. m.
stripper – n. m.
stripper – v. tr.
stripping – n. m.
strip-tease – n. m.
strontium – n. m.
structure – n. f.
stud-book – n. m.
studio – n. m.
suave – adj.
subsidence – n. f.
suffragette – n. f.
suite – n. f.
sulky – n. m.
sunlight – n. m.
superman – n. m.
supernova – n. f.
superstar – n. f.
supervision – n. f.
supporter – v. tr.
supporter – n. m.
surf – n. m.
surfer – v. intr.
suspense – n. m.
swap – n. m.
sweater – n. m.
sweat-shirt – n. m.
sweepstake – n. m.
swing – n. m.
symposium – n. m.
synapse – n. f.
synopsis – n. f. et m.
table – n. f.
tag – n. m.
take-off – n. m. inv.
talk-show – n. m.
tam-tam – n. m. inv.
tandem – n. m.
tangerine – n. f.
tango – n. m.
tank – n. m.
tanker – n. m.
tarmac – n. m.
tarpon – n. m.
tartan – n. m.
T.A.T. – n. m.
taxi-girl – n. f.
taxiway – n. m.
teddy-bear – n. m.
tee – n. m.
teenager – n.
tee-shirt – n. m.
temps – n. m.
tender – n. m.
tennis – n. m. et f.
tennis-elbow – n. m.
terminus – n. m.
termite – n. m.
test – n. m.
thallium – n. m.
thane – n. m.
thriller – n. m.
ticket – n. m.
tie-break – n. m.
tilt – n. m.
timing – n. m.
tipi – n. m.
toast – n. m.
toffee – n. m.
tong – n. f.
tonic – n. m.
tonnage – n. m.
tonus – n. m.
top
totem – n. m.
township – n. f. ou m.
tract – n. m.
trader – n. m.
trade-union – n. f.
training – n. m.
tramping – n. m.
trampoline – n. m.
tramway – n. m.
transaction – n. f.
transept – n. m.
transistor – n. m.
travelling – n. m.
trekking – n. m.
trench-coat – n. m.
trial – n. m. et f.
trick – n. m.
trimmer – n. m.
trip – n. m.
trolley – n. m.
trop – adv. et nominal
trust – n. m.
tub – n. m.
tumbling – n. m.
tuner – n. m.
tunnel – n. m.
turf – n. m.
turn-over – n. m.
tussah – n. m.
182
tweed – n. m.
tweeter – n. m.
twill – n. m.
twin-set – n. m.
twist – n. m.
type – n. m.
underground – adj.
inv. et n. m.
union – n. f.
uppercut – n. m.
vamp – n. f.
van – n. m.
vanity-case – n. m.
velvet – n. m.
verdict – n. m.
version – n. f.
versus – prép.
vintage – n. m.
virginal – n. m.
volley-ball – n. m.
vote – n. m.
voter – v.
voyage – n. m.
vulcanisation – n. f.
wading – n. m.
wagon – n. m.
walkman – n. m.
walk-over – n. m. inv.
wallaby – n. m.
wapiti – n. m.
warning – n. m.
warrant – n. m.
wasp – n. et adj.
water-ballast – n. m.
water-polo – n. m.
waterproof – adj. inv.
et n. m.
W.-C. – n. m. pl.
week-end – n. m.
welter – n. m.
western – n. m.
wharf – n. m.
whipcord – n. m.
whisky – n. m.
whist – n. m.
white-spirit – n. m.
wigwam – n. m.
winch – n. m.
wintergreen – n. m.
wishbone – n. m.
wombat – n. m.
woofer – n. m.
yacht-club – n. m.
yachting – n. m.
yard – n. m.
yearling – n. m.
yeoman – n. m.
yuppie – n.
zapping – n. m.
zip – n. m.
zoom – n. m.
183
c. Lo ZINGARELLI – English words, Microsoft ® Word, spell check GB
[1803]
abstract
account
account executive
ace
acid music
acting out
action painting
addendum
advertisement
advertising
advisor
affluent society
after hours
after-shave
agreement
agribusiness
aids
airbag
airbus
Airedale terrier
air-terminal
all right
AM
anchorman
antidumping
appeal
appeasement
aquaplaning
area manager
area test
array
art director
ASA
asset
assist
ATP
audience
audit
auditing
auditor
austerity
authority
baby
baby boom
baby-doll
baby killer
baby pusher
baby-sitter
baby-sitting
backgammon
background
backstage
back-to-back
backup
bacon
badge
badminton
ballast
balloon
banana split
band
bang
banjo
bantam
bar (1)
barbecue
barmaid
barman
barn
bas-bleu
baseball
baseline
Basic
basic English
basket
basket-ball
basset hound
bass reflex
batch
batch processing
baud
bazooka
beach volley
beagle
bear
beat (1)
beat (2)
beatnik
beauty
beauty-case
beauty farm
be-bop
beeper
bending
benefit
best seller
bid bond
big
big bang
big match
biker
billing
binder
bingo
bird watcher
bird watching
bit
bitter
black-bottom
black comedy
black-jack
black music
black-out
black power
blazer
blimp
blind trust
blinker
blister
blitz
blizzard
blob
bloc-notes
bloom
blouse
blow-up
blue chip
blue-jeans
blue movie
blues
bluff
board
boat people
bob
bobtail
body
body art
body building
body copy
boiler
bomber
bomber jacket
bond
bonus
boogie
boogie-woogie
bookmaker
boom
boomerang
booster
bootleg
bop
borderline
boss
bounty killer
bourbon
bowling
bow-window
box
boxer
box office
boy
boy-friend
boy-scout
brain-storming
brain trust
brand image
brand manager
brandy
break (1)
break (2)
break dance
breakdown
break even
breakfast
breaking
breakpoint
breeding
bridge
brief
briefing
British thermal unit
broadcast
broker
brokerage
Browning®
brown sugar
browser
Bruce
brunch
budget
buffer
bug
bulge
bull
bulldog
bulldozer
bungalow
bunker (1)
bunker (2)
burlesque
bus (1)
bus (2)
bushel
business
business class
business game
businessman
business school
buy-back
buyer
buy-out
bye-bye
by night
by-pass
byte
cab
cache
caddie
café-society
cairn
cake
cake-walk
call
call-girl
calypso
camber
camcorder
camera (2)
cameraman
camp
camper
camping
campus
candid camera
canister
canter
cantilever
canvassing
canyon
cap
capital gain
caravan
card
cardigan
career woman
cargo (2)
carol
car pool
cartoon
184
cartoonist
carving
cash
cash and carry
cash dispenser
cash flow
cashmere
cast
casting
casual
catch
catcher
catering
caterpillar®
catgut
caucus
CD
CD-ROM
cement-gun
cent
chairman
challenge
challenger
charter
chat line
cheap
check-in
checklist
check panel
check-up
cheek to cheek
cheeseburger
cherry-brandy
cheviot
chewing-gum
chi è?
chintz
chip
chopper (1)
chopper (2)
citizens' band
city
city bike
city car
clan
clap
clearance
clearing
clergyman
click
client
clinch
cline
clinker
clip (1)
clip (2)
clipper
clown
club
clubhouse
club-sandwich
cluster
coach
cobbler
Cobol
cocker
cockney
cocktail
cocktail-party
coffee break
coffee grinder
coil
coke
cold type
college
collie
colossal
coloured
colt
columnist
combo
comedian
comfort
comic
commando (1)
commercial
commercial paper
commodity
commoner
compact
compact disc
compact-stereo
compilation
compost
compound
computer
computer animation
computer art
computer crime
computer game
computer graphics
computer music
condor *
connection
consumer benefit
container
controller
convention
coolie
cool jazz
copy
copyright
copywriter
cordless
core (3)
core business
corner
corn-flakes
coroner
corporate image
corporation
costing
cottage
counselling
count down
country
cover girl
cover story
cow-boy
CQR
crack
cracker
cracking
crash
crash test
crawl
credit card
credit manager
credit officer
crest
cricket
cromlech
croquet
cross (1)
cross (2)
cross-country
crossing over
crossover
crouch
crown
cruise
cruiser
cult
cult book
cult movie
curling
curry
curtain wall
cutter
cutting
cyberdaiquiri
damping
dance music
dancing
dandy
dark
darts
data (2)
database
data entry
data processing
-day
day after
day-hospital
daylight
D-day
deadline
dealer
debugging
deck
decoder
decommissioning
de-escalation
default
delay
delicious
delivery order
demo (2)
denim
derby
deregulation
derrick
design
designer
desk
desktop
desktop publishing
detective
detector
deuce
dimmer
dinghy
directory
dirt-track
dirty tones
disc-jockey
disco-dance
disco-music
discount
dispenser
display
DNA
dock
docking
do-it-yourself
dolly
dominion
doping
dot
Down
drawback
dreadnought
dribbling
drink
dripping
drive
drive-in
driver
drone
drop (1)
drop (2)
dropout
drop shot
drugstore
dry
dulcimer
dumping
dune buggy
duty free shop
ecstasy
editing
editor
e-mail
endorsement
endurance
engineering
entertainer
entertainment
environment
escalation
espresso (2)
establishment
eurobond
evergreen
executive
exit poll
export
extended play
extra-large
eye-liner
factoring
factor
fair play
fairway
185
fall-out
fan
fan club
fantasy
farad
faraday
far west
fashion
fast food
fathom
fault
feedback
feeling
fence
ferry-boat
festival
fetch
fibreglass
fiction
fifty-fifty
fighter
file
filibustering
filler
film
film-maker
film-strip
final cut
finish
firmware
first-lady
fiscal drag
fisherman
fish eye
fitness
fix
fixing
flag
flap
flash
flashback
flashing
flatting
flight-recorder
flint
flip-book
flip-flop
flipper
flirt
float
floater
floating
flock
flop
floppy disk
flow chart
fluff
flutter
fly and drive
flyby
flying junior
FM
focus group
folk
folklore
folk music
folk-rock
folk-singer
folk-song
follow-up
football
footing
forcing
forfeit
Fortran
forum
forward
foxhound
fox-terrier
fox-trot
frame
franchisee
franchising
freak
free climber
free climbing
free jazz
free-lance
free rider
free shop
freestyle
freezer
fringe benefit
full
full contact
full immersion
full time
funk
funky
fusion
future
fuzzy logic
gadget
gag
game
gang
gangster
gap
garden-party
-gate
gateway
gay
gazebo
gel
general manager
gentleman
gentleman driver
gentleman rider
geyser
ghost writer
gigabyte
gill
Gillette®
gin-fizz
ginger
gin tonic
girl
girlfriend
glamour
glasnost
globe-trotter
goal
go-kart
golden delicious
golden share
golf (1)
golf (2)
good-bye
goodwill
gospel
gossip
gourmet
grabber
grader
graffito
graphic design
green
green-keeper
greyhound
grill
grill-room
grinder
grizzly
grog
groggy
groom
growl
grunge
grunt
guar
guest star
gulp
hacker
haiku
hair stylist
half-duplex
halibut
hall (1)
Hall (2)
hamburger
hamster
handball
handicap
handicapper
handling
happening
happy end
hard
hard-boiled
hard bop
hard copy
hard-core
hard-cover
hard discount
hard disk
hard rock
hard top
hardware
Hare Krishna
hazard
headline
hearing
heavy metal
hello
help
henry
hesitation
hickory
hi-fi
highball
high fidelity
high life
high school
high society
high-tech
high technology
hip
hip-hop
hit
hit-parade
HIV
hobby
hockey
holding
home banking
home base
home computer
home page
home video
homing
honing
hook
hooligan
horror
horsepower
hostess
hot dog
hotel
hot jazz
hot line
hot money
hot pants
house boat
house music
hovercraft
hub
Hula-Hoop®
human relations
humour
hunter
hurling
husky
iceberg
ice-field
igloo
image maker
impeachment
import
import-export
imprinting
in (2)
inclusive tour
indoor
industrial design
industrial designer
inning
in progress
input
insider
insider trading
insight
instant-book
instant movie
intelligence
186
internal auditing
internal auditor
Internet
inter-rail
Intranet
Irish coffee
ISO
Italian style
item (2)
IUD
jab
jack
Jacuzzi®
jamming
jam-session
jazz
jazz-band
jeans
jeep®
jersey
jet
jetlag
jet liner
jet-set
jet-society
jigger
jingle
job
jobber
job sharing
jockey
jodhpurs
jogger
jogging
joint-venture
jolly
joule
joystick
juke-box
jumbo
jumbo jet
jump
jungle style
junk bond
kazoo
ketch
ketchup
keyword
kick boxing
kidnapper
kidnapping
killer
kilobyte
kiloton
kilt
king
king-size
kit
kiwi
knickerbockers
knock down
knockout
know how
koala
krill
kumquat
kung fu
K-way®
lacrosse
lady
lamb's wool
land art
Land Rover®
laptop
large
laser
lasso (4)
lay-out
leader
leadership
lease-back
leasing
LED
lemming
lettering
leveraged buy-out
liberal
liberty
lib-lab
lie detector
lifeboat
lift
lifting
light
lima (2)
lime
limerick
line
link
linkage
linoleum
linotype®
lipstick
Lisp
litchi
live
living
living theatre
loader
lob
lobby
lodge
loft
log
Lombard
long drink
long play
long playing
look
loop
looping
loran
lord
love story
LSD
lunch
luncheonette
macadam
made in
made in Italy
maelstrom
magazine
magnetron
maharajah
Mah-jong®
maiden
mailing
mail order
mainframe
mainstream
major
majorette
make-up
management
manager
Mandrake
manufacturing
marijuana
marine
marker
market
marketer
marketing
marketing-mix
marketing-oriented
market leader
market maker
mark-up
mascara (2)
maser
mass media
master
Mastermind®
mat
match
match ball
match point
match winner
mayday
media (2)
medium (1)
medium (2)
medley
meet
meeting
megabyte
megaton
melt-down
melting pot
memorial
merchandiser
merchandising
merchant bank
merger
metal
meter
microchip
microcomputer
middle class
midimidrange
milady
midrange
milady
miler
milord
mimicry
mine-detector
miniminicomputer
minimal art
minimal music
minimum tax
miss
mister
mix
mixer
mixing
mod
modern dance
modern style
mohair
money manager
monitor
monotype
mood style
Moon boot®
Morse
motel
mountain bike
mouse
movie
mullah
multimedia
multiplexing
muscovite
musical
music-hall
must
mustang
muting
mystery
neck
net
network
neurone
new age
new deal
new entry
New Jersey
new look
news
newsletter
newsmagazine
new wave
night
night-club
no comment
no contest
no frost
nomination
non profit
nonsense
non stop
notebook
nude-look
nurse
nursery
nursing
nut
nylon®
oaks
187
off
off
office
office automation
off-limits
off-line
offset
off-shore
offside
okay
old fashion
ombudsman
on
on-demand
one-step
on line
on the road
on the rocks
op art
open
open-ended
open space
opinion leader
opinion maker
opossum
optical
optical art
optimist
option
optional
orienteering
orthicon
out
outdoor
outing
output
outrigger
outsider
outsourcing
over
overoverbooking
overcoat
overdose
overdrive
overflow
overlay
overnight
oversize
overtime
oxford
pace car
pacemaker
pack
package
packaging
paddock
pallet
palm top
pamphlet
pancake
panel
pants
paperback
pap-test
par
parboiled
Parkinson
parsec
partner
partnership
part time
party
password
patchwork
pattern
pay-off
pay-out
pay per view
peak time
peck
pedigree
peeling
peep-show
pellet
pemmican
penalty
pen computer
penny
performance
performer
permafrost
personal
personal computer
petting
photo finish
photoflood
pick-up
picnic
pidgin
piercing
pile
pilling
pin (1)
pin (2)
pin-up
pin-up girl
pipeline
pitcher
pitch pine
pit stop
pixel
plaid
planning
play
playback
playboy
player
playgirl
playmaker
play-off
play-out
plop
plot
plotter
plug-in
plum-cake
plus
pocket
pocket book
pointer
poker
pole position
policeman
polo (2)
pony
Pony Express®
pool
pop
pop art
popcorn
pop-jazz
pop-music
pop star
porridge
portfolio
posse
post
Postcard®
poster
Post-it®
pram
premier
preppy
press-agent
pressing
price-earning
prime rate
prime time
privacy
product manager
project manager
promo
promoter
promotion
prompt
pub
public company
public relations
publishing
pudding
pull
pullover
pulp
pulsar
punch (1)
punch (2)
punching-bag
punching-ball
punk
punk-rock
pusher
put
putt
putter
puzzle
quad
quark
quarterback
quartile
quasar
quiz
racer
rack
racket
radar
radical-chic
rafting
raglan
ragtime
raid
rajah
rally
rally cross
RAM
ranch
random
range
ranger
ranking
rap
rash
rating
rattan
rave
readership
reading
ready
ready made
reception
receptionist
recital
record
recovery
redingote
reef
refill
reflex
reforming
reggae
regimental
relax
reliability
REM (2)
remainder
remake
replay
reportage
reporter
reprint
reprocessing
reset
residence
residence house
retrofit
revival
revolver
rhythm and blues
ring
ripper
RISC
RNA
road movie
road show
roaming
roast beef
rock
rock and roll
rocker
rock-jazz
roll-bar
roller
roll-on roll-off
ROM (2)
rood
188
roof
roof garden
rough
round
rover
royalty
rubber
rugby
rum
rumble
rush
sahib
sales engineer
salesman
sales manager
salmonella
saloon
sampan
samurai
sandwich
sari
sarong
scanner
scanning
scat
scattering
schooner
science fiction
scoop
scooter
score
scotch
scout
scrambler
scraper
scratch
screening
screen saver
script
seedling
self-government
self help
self-made man
self-service
sequel
sequoia
serial
serial killer
server
set
set ball
set point
setter
sex appeal
sex-shop
sex symbol
sexy
shake
shaker
shampoo
shampooing
shantung
share
shareware
shed
sherry
shimmy
shock
shocking
shopper
shopping
short
shorts
short track
show
showboat
show business
showdown
showgirl
showman
showroom
shrapnel
shunt
shuttle
sidecar
sigh
single
singleton
sir
sit-com
sit-in
situation comedy
skate-board
skating
skeet
skeleton
sketch
ski-bob
skiff
ski-lift
skimmer
skinhead
ski-pass
skipper
ski-roll
ski-stopper
skunk
skylight
slam (1)
slam (2)
slang
slapstick
slat
sled dog
sleeping-car
slice
slide
slinky
slip
slogan
sloop
slop
slot
slot-machine
slow
slum
slurp
smack
small
smart set
smash
smog
smoking
snack
snack-bar
snap
sniff
snipe
snob
snort
snowboard
soap opera
soft
softball
soft-core
soft drink
software
software house
sol (2)
soling
soma (3)
sonar
sort
soul
soul jazz
soul music
sound
space shuttle
spaniel
sparring partner
speaker
special
specimen
speedway
spelling
spider
spike
spin
spinnaker
spinning
spin off
spiritual
spit
splash
splashdown
splatter
spleen
split
splitting
spoiler
sponsor
spoon
sport
sport-fisherman
sportsman
sportswear
spot (1)
spot (2)
spray
spreadsheet
spring
sprinkler
sprint
sprinter
spy story
square dance
squash
squaw
squirting
staff
stage
stand
stand alone
standard
stand-by
standing
star
stark delicious
starlet
star system
start
starter
station wagon
status
status symbol
steamer
steeplechase
sterling
sterna
steward
stick
stock
stock-car
stokes
stop
stopper
-story
story board
streaking
streamer
stress
stretch
stretching
stretch-pack
strike
strip (1)
strip (2)
strip-tease
strong
stub
studio
stunt car
stunt-man
styling
sulky
summit
superman
supermarket
superstar
supporter
surf
surf-boat
surf-casting
surfer
surfing
survival
suspense
swap
sweater
swing
switch
tabloid
tackle
takeaway
take off
take-over
189
talent scout
talk show
tandem
tangelo
tank
tap dance
tape monitor
tap-in
target
tartan
Tarzan
task force
Tasmanian®
taxi
taxi-girl
tea
teach-in
teak
team
team-teaching
tea-room
teaser
Technicolor®
teddy boy
tee
teenager
tee-shirt
telemarketing
teleprocessing
telex
tell
tempest
temple-block
tender
tennis
tepee
terminal
terrier
test
tester
testimonial
texture
thermos
thesaurus
thriller
thrilling
tick
ticket
tie-break
tight
tilt
time out
timer
time sharing
timing
tip top®
toast
toddy
toiletries
tomahawk
ton (2)
toner
top
top class
top gun
topless
top management
top manager
top model
topping
top rate
top secret
top spin
top ten
top-weight
tornado
totem
touch-down
tour conductor
tour leader
tour operator
tower
trackball
tracking (1)
tracking (2)
trade mark
trade-off
trade union
trailer
trainer
training
tram
tramp
trance
transfer
transformer®
transistor
transponder
trapper
traps
trash
traveller's cheque
trawl
trawler
trawler-yacht
treatment
trekking
trench
trench coat
trend
trendy
trial
trim
trip
triple-sec®
trolley
trotter
truck
trust
TSH
T-shirt
tubeless
tubing
tumbler
tuner
tunnel
turf
turnaround
turnover
tussah
tutor
tweed
tweeter
twill
twin-set
twirling
twist
two-beat
two step
tycoon
UFO (2)
ulna
under
undercut
underground
understatement
unisex
uppercut
up-to-date
utility
vamp
van
venture capital
vermiculite
versus
vessel
videovideo art
videotape
vigilante (2)
virgin naphtha
visiting professor
vocalist
volley
volley-ball
voucher
wad
wafer
wagon-lit
wagon-restaurant
walkie-talkie
Walkman®
walk-over
wampum
wapiti
war game
warrant
wash-and-wear
wash-board
wasp
water
water closet
waterloo
water polo
waterproof
watt
way of life
weekend
welfare
welfare state
welter
west
West Coast
western
whisky
whist
wigwam
wild card
wilderness
winch
windsurf
windsurfing
wine cooler
woofer
word processing
word processor
workshop
work-song
work-station
wow (1)
wow (2)
wrestling
yacht
yacht broker
yachting
yachtsman
yak
yard
yawl
yearling
Yorkshire terrier
yo-yo®
yuppie
zapping
zero coupon bonds
zip
zombie
zoning
zoo
zoom
190
D. DIRECT LEXICAL BORROWINGS – English Internationalisms
in DDUWB, LNPR, LOZ, LMADF, PS, WBÜA [765 words]
acid house
action painting
aftershave
Aids
air bag
Airbus
ale
Algol
a.m., AM
(aquaplaning)
audit
(auto-stop)
(autoreverse)
baby
baby boom
babysitter
babysitting
backgammon
background
bacon
badge
badminton
ballast
banjo
bar
barbecue
baseball
BASIC, basic
basketball
bazooka
(beach volleyball)
beagle
beat
beatnik
(bébé)
bebop
best-seller
big bang
biker
bingo
bit
bitter
blackout
black power
blazer
blister
blizzard
Bloody Mary
blue-chip
(blue-jeans)
blues
bluff
boat people
bob
bobsleigh
bobtail
body
body-building
boogie-woogie
boom
booster
boss
Bourbon, bourbon
bowling
box
boxer
boy
boyfriend
Boy Scout
brainstorming
brain trust
brandy
break
bridge
briefing
broker
browning
browser
brunch
budget
bug
bulldozer
bull terrier
bungalow
bunker
bus
business
businessman
bye-bye
bypass
byte
cab
caddie
call-girl
camp
camping
campus
(canyoning)
cardigan
cargo
cartoon
cash
cash and carry
cash flow
casting
catch
catcher
caterpillar
CD
CD-ROM
cent
chairman
challenge
challenger
charleston
charter
checklist
check-up
cheeseburger
cherry brandy
chewing gum
chintz
chip
Chippendale
chow-chow
c.i.f.
(cinemascope)
(cinerama)
city
clan
clearing
clip
clipper
clown
club
cluster
coach
COBOL
Coca-Cola
cockney
cocktail
(cocooning)
code
Coke
cold cream
collie
colt
combo
compact
compact disc
computer
container
cool
copyright
(corned beef)
corner
cornflakes
cottage
cover girl
cowboy
crack
cracker
crash
cross
cross-country
curling
curry
cutter
dancing
dandy
dealer
denim
Derby
design
designer
(Devon)
digest
disco
discount
Dixieland
DNA
dock
do-it-yourself
dolly
doping
dragster
dribbling
drink
Drive
driver
drop-out
drugstore
drums
drummer
dry
dumdum
dumping
duty-free shop
ecstasy
ecu
e-mail
enduro
engineering
establishment
export, exportation
eyeliner
(factoring)
(fading)
fair play
fallout
fan
fanzine
farad
fast food
feedback
feeling
ferry, ferry boat
festival
fifty-fifty
film
191
Finish
First Lady
fitness
fixing
flash
flashback
flipper
flirt
Flop
FM
folk
folklore
folk music, folk
song
football
(forcing)
Fortran
(fosbury)
fox terrier
freak
(free jazz)
freelance
freezer
frisbee
full
funk
gadget
gag man
gag
gang
gangster
gap
(garden-party)
gay
gentleman
gentleman’s
agreement
getter
gimmick
gin
(Gin Tonic)
girl
glamour
globe-trottter
goal
golf
goodbye
gospel
grapefruit
green
greyhound
grill
grog
groggy
groupie
grunge
hacker
Hallowe’en
hamburger
handicap
happening
(happy end)
(happy few)
hard rock
hard-top
hardware
heavy metal
hickory
hi-fi
high life
high school
high-tech
hip
hip hop
hippie
hit
hit parade
HIV
hobby
hockey
hooligan
horsepower
hot dog
(hot jazz)
hovercraft
hula hoop
(hully-gully)
hunter
husky
impeachment
import
in
input
insert, insertion
Internet
Irish coffee
ISBN
ISO
item
jackpot
Jacuzzi
jamboree
jam session
jazz
jeans
jeep
jersey
jet
(jet liner)
jet set
jet stream
jigger
jingle
job
jockey
(jogging)
joint
(joint venture)
joystick
jukebox
jumbo, jumbo jet
jump
junkie
(kart)
(karting)
kelvin
ketchup
kidnapper
kidnapping
killer
kilt
kit
kiwi
knickerpocker,
knickerpockers
knock-down
knockout
know-how
koala
krill
kumquat
label
lady
lambswool
(land art)
(Land Rover)
laser
lasso
(Latin lover)
layout
leader
leadership
leasing
lias
liberty
lift
(lifting)
light
limerick
linoleum
Linotype
live
lob
lobby
loch
loft
(long drink)
look
looping
lord
loser
LSD
lunch
(made in)
mailing
majorette
make-up
management
manager
marine
marker
marketing
(marketing mix)
mascara
maser
match
medium
medley
meeting
memorial
merchandising
(minimal art)
Miss, miss
Mister, mister
mohair
motel
motocross
mountain bike
muffin
multimedia
music hall
mustang
navel
net
network
New Age
new look
news
newton
nightclub
non-stop
nurse
nylon
Off,. off
office
off-limits
off-line
offset
offshore
OK
(one-man-show)
on-line
on the rocks
op art
open
opossum
out
output
outsider
overdose
overdrive
oxer
Oxford
pacemaker
pack
paddock
pager
(paletot)
pamphlet
panel
192
paperback
par
parka
party
patchwork
pattern
pedigree
peeling
peep-show
pellet
penalty
penny
penthouse
PEP, pep
peformance
pick-up
Pidgin English
(piercing)
ping-pong
Pin-up
(pin-up girl)
pipeline
pixel
plaid
(planning)
playback
playboy
(playgirl)
plum pudding
pointer
poker
pole position
polo
pony
pool
pop
pop art
popcorn
porridge
porter
poster
premier
pre-print
prime time
promotion
pub
public relations
pudding
pullover
pulp
pulsar
punch
punching ball
punk
putt
puzzle
quark
quasar
quiz
rack
racket
radar
(rafting)
raglan
ragtime
RAM
ranch
rand
ranger
rap
rating
ready-made
recital
redingote
reggae
relax
remake
remix
reporter
reprint
retriever
revival
revolver
rhythm and blues
riff
RNA
(road movie)
roadster
rock
rock and roll
rock’n’roll
rodeo
roller
ROM
round
rugby
rush
rye
saloon
sandwich
scanner
scat
science fiction
scooter
score
Scotch, scotch
scout
scratch
script
self-government
(self-made man)
serial
server
set
setter
sex appeal
(sex-shop)
sexy
shaker
sherry
shocking
shopping
shopping centre
show
show business
showroom
shuttle
single
sir
sitcom
sit-in
skateboard
(skating)
skeleton
sketch
skinhead
skipper
skunk
(skylab)
slang
slapstick
slice
slip
slogan
sloop
slow
slum
smart
smash
smog
smoking
snack
snack bar
snob
snowboard
soap opera
soft
softball
soft drink
software
sol
sonar
soul
(spacelab)
sparring partner
speaker
speech
spider
spin
spinnaker
spiritual
spleen
spoiler
sponsor
sport
sportsman
sportswear
spot
spray
sprinkler
sprint
squash
squaw
staff
standard
standby
standing
star
start
starter
sterling
steward
stick
stock
stop
stopover
stress
stretch
(stretching)
stripper
striptease
studio
sulky
superstar
supporter
suspense
Swahili
swap
sweater
swing
tag
take-off
talk show
tandem
tank
tanker
tartan
team
tearoom
teaser
techno
teddy, teddy bear
tee
teenager
teletext
telex
tender
tennis
terminal
test
thesaurus
thriller
ticket
tie-break
time-sharing
timing
toast
toffee
Tommy
top
193
topless
top secret
topspin
Tory
totem
township
trade mark
trade union
training
tram
tramp
tramway
transistor
trash
trekking
trench coat
trend
trial
trip
trolley
trolleybus
trust
T-shirt
tubeless
tuner
tunnel
turf
turnover
tweed
tweeter
twill
twinset
twist
underground
understatement
up to date
vamp
van
versus
video
videoVIP
volley
volleyball
voucher
walkie-talkie
Walkman
wallaby
wapiti
war game
warrant
(wash and wear)
waterproof
watt
weekend
western
Whig
whisky, whiskey
whist
wigwam
wild card
wow
Yankee
yard
Yorkshire terrier
yuppie
(zapping)
zoom
194
E. DIRECT LEXICAL BORROWINGS IN LMADF, PS AND WBÜA
Total number of words: 313 (=40,92% of the Internationalisms [765])
a. Les mots anglais du français (166 words = 53,03%)
acid house
action painting
Aids
Airbus
basketball
(beach volleyball)
biker
black power
blue-chip
(blue-jeans)
boxer
boyfriend
browning
browser
cash and carry
catcher
caterpillar
CD
chairman
charleston
cherry brandy
(cinemascope)
city
clan
collie
colt
combo
compact disc
computer
cross
Dixieland
DNA
do-it-yourself
dolly
dribbling
drop-out
drugstore
dumdum
duty-free shop
e-mail
export
fallout
farad
First Lady
fitness
fixing
folk music, folk
song
(fosbury)
Gin Tonic
goodbye
greyhound
grunge
hacker
hard rock
hard-top
heavy metal
high life
high school
hip hop
hit
hot jazz
hula-hoop
(hully gully)
hunter
import
Internet
jam session
jeans
jersey
(jetliner)
joystick
jumbo, jumbo jet
jump
killer
krill
land art
(Land Rover)
(Latin lover)
layout
(long drink)
make-up
marker
marketing mix
medley
(minmal art)
mister, Mister
motocross
mountain bike
multimedia
network
New Age
news
newton
off-limits
off-line
on-line
on the rocks
op art
paperback
party
Pidgin English
piercing
pin-up girl
(playgirl)
pony
pre-print
pulp
quark
quiz
raglan
rhythm and blues
RNA
(road movie)
rock and roll
rock’n’roll
serial
server
shopping centre
shuttle
sir
sitcom
skeleton
skunk
(skylab)
slang
slapstick
sloop
slum
snack
snowboard
soft
softball
soft drink
(spacelab)
spiritual
sportsman
sportswear
sprinkler
standing
start
team
tearoom
teaser
techno
teletext
time-sharing
topless
top secret
topspin
trade mark
tram
tramp
trash
trend
trolleybus
T-shirt
tubeless
understatement
up to date
volley
voucher
walkie-talkie
wash and wear
watt
wild card
wow
195
b. Parole Straniere (66 words = 21,09%)
ale
Algol
Bloody Mary
bull terrier
(canyoning)
c.i.f.
(cinerama)
Coca-Cola
cocooning
code
cold cream
collie
cool
corned beef
digest
drums
drummer
(fading)
gag man
gimmick
gin
grapefruit
groupie
Hallowe’en
happy few
hippie
insert, insertion
jackpot
jamboree
jet stream
joint
junkie
label
lias
loch
loser
muffin
navel
(one-man-show)
pager
parka
penthouse
PEP, pep
plum pudding
porter
pulsar
remix
reprint
retriever
roadster
rodeo
rye
skipper
smart
speech
stopover
stripper
tag
tanker
teddy, teddy bear
toffee
Tommy
township
tramway
video
wallaby
c. Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen (81 words = 25,88%)
a.m., AM
audit
(autoreverse)
baby boom
badge
ballast
bitter
blister
bob
body
booster
Bourbon, bourbon
businessman
catch
CD-ROM
challenge
challenger
club
compact
curry
denim
disco
ferry, ferry boat
flirt
FM
forcing
freelance
freezer
full
gap
green
hi-fi
hit parade
ISBN
item
kelvin
kit
knock-down
koala
leadership
liberty
LSD
marine
music hall
nurse
offset
OK
open
overdose
Oxford
pack
(paletot)
peep-show
Pin-up
planning
punching ball
relax
roller
round
rush
scooter
script
sex-shop
showroom
skating
sol
sparring partner
staff
stress
stretching
studio
superstar
supporter
suspense
Swahili
thesaurus
trade union
turnover
tweeter
versus
wargame
196
F. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
airbag
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»¤:bag/
/»¤:–b¤k/
/¤Äbag/
/er»b¤g/ or Engl. /»¤Ÿ¢Ãbëg/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»bi:g(Ÿ)l/
/»bi:gŸl/
/bigl/
/»bÍigJ/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»blÍzŸd/
/»blÍz–t/
/blizaÄ/
/blÍzŸ¢d/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»bu:m/
/bu:m/
/bum/
/bum/ or Engl. /bäum/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»brŸäkŸ/
/»broäkŸ/
/bÄ‘kóÄ/
/»br‘ker/ or Engl. /»b¢oäkŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»bÍznÍs/
/»bÍznÍs/
/bizn¤s/
/»biznes/ or Engl. /bÍznŸs/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»k—:dÍg(Ÿ)n/
/»kardigan/ or Engl. /»k—:dÍgŸn/
/kaÄdigS/
/»kardigan/ or Engl. /»kh—:¢dÍgŸn/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»tÉ—:tŸ/
/»tÉartŸ/ or /ÉartŸ/
/ÉaÄt¤Ä/
/»tÉarter/ or Engl. /»tÉh—:¢tŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/kŸn»teÍnŸ/
/k‘n»te:n–/ or Engl. /kŸn»teÍnŸ/
/kTt¤n¤Ä/
/kon»t¤iner/ or Engl. /kŸn»th¤ÍnŸ¢/
beagle
blizzard
boom
broker
business
cardigan
charter
container
197
cross-country
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/kr“s»kåntri/
/kr‘s»kantri/
/kÄ‘skuntÄi/
/»kh¢“sÃkånt¢i/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/dråÍv/
/draif/ or Engl. /draÍv/
/dÄajv/
/draiv/ or Engl. /d¢aev/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/Í»stabliÉm(Ÿ)nt/
/Ís»t¤blÍÉmŸnt/
/¤stabliÉm¤nt/
/es»tabliÉment/ or Engl. /Í»stëblÍÉmŸnt/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»flaÉbak/
/»flëÉbëk/
/flaÉbak/
/fl¤É»b¤k/ or Engl. /»flëÉÃbëk/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/fŸäk/
/foäk/
/f‘lk/
/f‘lk/ or Engl. /foäk/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»gadíÍt/
/»gëdíÍt/
/gadí¤t/
/»gadíet/ or Engl. /»gëdíÍt/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»glŸäbtr“tŸ/
/»glo:bŸtr‘t–/ or /»glo:ptr‘t–/ or Engl. /gloäbtr‘tŸ/
/gl‘btÄ‘tóÄ/ or /gl‘btÄ‘t¤Ä/
/glob»trotter/ or Engl. /»gloäbÃt¢“tŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»hap(Ÿ)nÍñ/
/»h¤pŸnÍñ/
/»ap(Ÿ)niñ/
/»¤ppenin(g)/ or Engl. /»hëpnÍñ/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»hu:lÍg(Ÿ)n/
/»hu:lÍgn/
/»uligan/ or /»uligS/
/»uligan/ or Engl. /»häulÍgŸn/
drive
establishment
flashback
folk
gadget
globe-trotter
happening
hooligan
198
impeachment
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/Ím»pi:tÉm(Ÿ)nt/
/Ím»pi:tÉmŸnt/
/impitÉm¤nt/
/im»pitÉment/ or Engl. /Ím»phÍitÉmŸnt/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»åÍrÍÉ»k“fÍ/
/»aÍrÍÉ»k‘fÍ/
/ajÄiÉk‘fi/
/airiÉ»k‘ffi/ or Engl. /»aeŸ¢ÍÉ»kh“fi/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»díÍgŸ/
/»díÍgŸ/
/(d)íigóÄ/ or /(d)íig¤Ä/
/»díÍgŸÅ/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»díu:kb“ks/
/»díu»kb‘ks/
/íykb‘ks/ or /díukb‘ks/
/díub»b‘ks/ or Engl. /»díäukÃb“ks/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»k¤tÉŸp/ or /»k¤tÉåp/
/»k¤tÉap/
/k¤tÉóp/
/»k¤tÉap/ or Engl. /»kh¤tÉŸp/ or Engl. /»kh¤tÉåp/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/låÍt/
/laÍt/
/lajt/
/laet/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»manÍdím(Ÿ)nt/
/»mënÍdímŸnt/
/manaímS/ or /manadím¤nt/
/manadíment/ or Engl. /»mënÍdímŸnt/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»nju:»läk/
/»nju:»läk/
/njuluk/
/nju»läk/ or Engl. /»njäu»läk/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»ŸävŸdråÍv/
/»oävŸdraÍv/
/‘vóÄdÄajv/
/over»draiv/ or Engl. /»oävŸ¢Ãd¢aev/
Irish coffee
jigger
jukebox
ketchup
light
management
new look
overdrive
199
performance
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/pŸ»f‘:m(Ÿ)ns/
/pŸ»f‘:mŸns/
/p¤Äf‘ÄmSs/
/per»f‘rmans/ or Engl. /pŸ¢»f‘:¢mŸns/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»pŸälÃpŸ»zÍÉ(Ÿ)n/
/»poälpŸ»zÍÉŸn/
/polpozisjT/
/polpo»ziÉÉon/ or Engl. /phoäJpŸÃzÍÉn/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»pŸästŸ/
/»poästŸ/
/p‘st¤Ä/
/»p‘ster/ or Engl. /»phoästŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/rÍ»såÍt(Ÿ)l/
/ri»saitl/
/Äesital/
/»r¤tÉital/ or /r¤tÉi»tal/ or Engl. /¢ÍsaetJ/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»sanwÍdí/ or /»sanwÍtÉ/
/»z¤ntvÍtÉ/
/sSdwi(t)É/
/»s¤ndwitÉ/ or Engl. /»sënwÍdí/ or Engl. /»saenwÍtÉ/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»skanŸ/
/»sk¤n–/
/skan¤Ä/
/s»kanner/ or Engl. /»skënŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»såÍŸns»fÍkÉ(Ÿ)n/
/»saÍŸns»fÍkÉŸn/
/sjSsfiksjT/
/»saeŸns»fÍkÉn/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»É“kÍñ/
/»É‘kÍñ/
/É‘kiñ/
/*»É‘kkin(g)/ or Engl. /»É“kÍñ/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»sw¤tŸ/
/»sve:t–/
/switóÄ/ or /sw¤tóÄ/
/»sw¤ter/ or Engl. /»sw¤tŸ¢/
pole position
poster
recital
sandwich
scanner
science fiction
shocking
sweater
200
take-off
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»teÍk»“f/
/»teÍk|‘f/
/t¤k‘f/
/tei»k‘f/ or Engl. /»th¤ÍkÃ“f/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»ôrÍlŸ/
/»ôrÍlŸ/
/sÄilóÄ/
/»triller/ or Engl. /»ô¢ÍlŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/tŸäst/
/to:st/
/tost/
/t‘st/ or Engl. /thoäst/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»tju:nŸ/
/»tju:nŸ/
/tyn¤Ä/ or /tynóÄ/
/»tjuner/ or Engl. /»thjäunŸ¢/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»åndŸgraänd/
/»åndŸgraänd/
/óndóÄgÄaund/ or /Xd¤ÄgÄ(a)und/
/ander»graund/ or Engl. /»åndŸ¢g¢aond/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»w“r(Ÿ)nt/
/va»rant/ or /v‘rŸnt/ or Engl. /»w‘rŸnt/
/vaÄS/
/»w“:Ÿ¢nt/ (Engl.)
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/wi:k»¤nd/ or /»wi:k¤nd/
/»wi:k|¤nd/
/wik¤nd/
/wi»k¤nd/ or Engl. /»wÍkÃ¤nd/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/»jåpi/
/»jäpi/ or Engl. /»jåpi/
/»jupi/
/»juppi/ or Engl. /»jåpi/
COD
DDUWB
LNPR
LOZ
/zu:m/
/zu:m/
/zum/
/*dzum/ or Engl. /zäum/
thriller
toast
tuner
underground
warrant
weekend
yuppie
zoom
201
G. QUESTIONNAIRES
a.
French
(1)
Questionnaire
(2)
Survey results
(3)
b.
German
(1)
Questionnaire
(2)
Survey results
(3)
202
(1) Questionnaire “FRENCH“
Au secours!!!Anglomanie!!! Je m'appelle Philippa Maurer-Stroh et je fais des études de la
linguistique anglaise à l'université de Klagenfurt, Autriche. J'aimerais te demander du
secours concernant ma diplôme. Il s'agit d'une enquête: "Les mots anglais dans la langue
française" et ton opinion sur ce sujet. Ça ne durerait que 3 minutes à peu près. Alors, je te
prie de prendre ton temps à répondre aux questions posées et de me renvoyer le
questionnaire, s'il te plaît. Ce questionnaire est anonyme et les réponses ne servent qu'à
l'exposé d'une statistique de l'emploi actuel de la langue française.
Marques d'une croix la réponse qui vale pour toi -> remplacer o par x
(est possible de donner plusieurs réponses)
1. J'emploie des mots anglais
o
plutôt dans la vie professionnelle
o
plutôt dans la vie quotidienne
o
o
par écrit
de vive voix
o
o
o
o
o
ils sont plus courts et plus précis – Exemple(s):
il n'y pas de mot français – Exemple(s):
ils sont en vogue – Exemple(s):
il y a des expressions internationalement fixées – Exemple(s):
pour éviter la répétition d'un mot – Exemple (s):
2. parce qu'
3. J'emploie aussi
o
4. Les mots anglais
o
o
o
o
des formes hybrides (mot anglais + mot français)
(par exemple: marketing téléphonique)
enrichissent la langue française
sont la conséquence du rôle dominant des États-Unis dans plusieurs
secteurs
pour moi signifient une forme de vantardise
passent inaperçus pour moi
5. Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans les domaines
o
sport - exemple(s):
o
technique - exemple(s):
o
Internet - exemple(s):
o
la langue juvénile - exemple(s):
o
publicité - exemple(s):
o
économie - exemple(s):
o
sciences - exemple(s):
o
politique - exemple(s):
Âge :
Sexe :
Merci !!!
203
(2) Survey results "FRENCH"
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
shorter and more precise
no equivalent
"in"
internationally fixed / used
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
snobbism / showing-off
not recognised any longer
sports
techniques & technology
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
no equivalent
"in"
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
sports
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
1
x
2
x
x
x
x
x
x
3
x
x
4
x
x
x
x
5
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
8
x
x
x
x
9
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
12
13
14
15
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
10
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
22
f
27
m
20
f
29
m
55
m
53
f
37
f
40
m
37
f
28
f
31
f
34
f
38
f
53
f
16
x
17
18
x
19
x
20
21
22
x
23
x
24
x
x
25
26
x
27
x
x
28
x
x
x
x
x
29
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
37
f
21
m
x
27
f
30
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
25
m
30
m
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
45
f
34
m
35
f
x
21
f
45
f
17
f
45
f
31
f
25
f
32
f
19
m
204
(3) Examples of Anglicisms “FRENCH”
shorter & more precise
loader, week-end (au lieu de fin de semaine), bus (au lieu d’autobus), faire un backup, week-end,
management, business, mail, e-mail, rollers, self control, looping, marketing, hub (plutôt qu’une plate-forme
logistique), download, trash, week-end (pour fin de semaine), chewing-gum (pour gomme à macher), weekend, today (aujourd’hui), car (voiture), floppy (lecteur de disquette)
no equivalent
bug (informatique), corner (sport), planing, être fair play, handball, football, week-end, cluster, club, footing,
skate, hamburger, playstation, week-end, chewinggum, piercing, twist, management, marketing, webmaster,
parking, planning, week-end, marketing, start-up, basket ball, football (même si ce n’est pas le même sport
aux USA), roller, sandwich, planning, briefing, football
“in”
parking, toaster, cool, surfer, merchandising, faire un come back, cool, fun, hit
internationally fixed/used
marketing, manager, PC, jean (pantalon), web, stop, print service, mail, windows, week-end, sandwich,
process, web, mail
avoid repetition
soft (pour logiciel), hard (pour matériel informatique)
hybrid forms
au Québéc on fait que ça, scanner des documents, être trop speed, surbooker, être full up, meeting politique
sports
corner, penalty, coach, goal, football, handball, être fair play, handball, football, football, club de golf, goal,
jet ski, water polo, smash, corner, match, KO, goal, football, corner, penalty, corner, lap, football, basketball,
dunk, goal
technology
beam, transceiver, IFR (instrument flight rules), VFR (visual flight rules), domaine informatique, bug, CD,
cash-flow, turnover, zoning, process, travelling, switch, freeze, chiller, vocabulaire lié à l’industrie, dans
l’informatique, en informatique, network, chipset, string, character
internet
explorer, browser, e-mail, surfer, mail, reset, browser, connect, download, upload, tous les termes
informatiques, e-mail, smiley, windows, enter, frame, e-mail, net, web, cookie, download, web, mail, chat,
mail (courier), web (toile) , download (chargement), forward (renvoi), mail, web, mail, hacker, PC
youth language
yo, what’s up?, c’est top, boom, speed, rave, move, les textes rap, skate, fun, hit
advertising
marketing, marketing, Siemens: Be inspired
business & economy
bull and bear, market maker, trader, net economy, revolving, reporting, business plan, marketing
science
politics
meeting, soft-law
205
(1) Questionnaire „GERMAN“
Hilfe !!! Anglomanie !!! Mein Name ist Philippa Maurer-Stroh, ich studiere englische
Sprachwissenschaft an der Universität Klagenfurt, Österreich, und würde für ca. 3 Minuten
Deine Hilfe bezüglich meiner Diplomarbeit benötigen. Es handelt sich um die Umfrage:
„Englische Fremdwörter in der deutschen Sprache“ und Deine Einstellung zu diesem
Thema. Bitte nimm‘ Dir also kurz die Zeit, die Fragen zu beantworten und schick‘ mir die
Antwort dann bitte zurück. Dieser Fragebogen ist anonym, die Antworten sollen allein der
Erfassung einer aktuellen Statistik zum Sprachgebrauch dienen.
Bitte Zutreffendes ankreuzen -> o durch x ersetzen
(Mehrfachnennungen sind möglich)
1. Ich verwende englische Fremdwörter
o
eher im Beruf
o
eher im Alltag
o
o
meistens schriftlich
meistens mündlich
o
o
o
o
o
sie oft kürzer und präziser sind – Beispiel(e):
es kein deutsches Wort gibt – Beispiel(e):
sie gerade modern und „trendy“ sind – Beispiel(e):
einige Begriffe international festgelegt sind – Beispiel(e):
um Wortwiederholungen zu vermeiden – Beispiel(e):
2. weil
3. Ich verwende auch
o
Mischformen aus engl. und dt. Wörtern
(z.B. Börsencrash, Last-minute-Reise)
4. Die englischen Fremdwörter
o
bereichern die deutsche Sprache
o
sind die Folge der amerikanischen Führungsrolle in vielen Bereichen
o
sind für mich ein Zeichen der Prahlerei
o
fallen mir gar nicht mehr auf
5. Englische Fremdwörter fallen mir besonders auf in den Bereichen
o
Sport - Beispiel(e):
o
Technik - Beispiel(e):
o
Internet - Beispiel(e):
o
Jugendsprache - Beispiel(e):
o
Werbung - Beispiel(e):
o
Wirtschaft - Beispiel(e):
o
Wissenschaft - Beispiel(e):
o
Politik - Beispiel(e):
Alter:
Geschlecht:
Danke !!!
206
(2) Survey results "GERMAN"
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
no equivalent
"in"
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
sports
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
no equivalent
"in"
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
sports
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
1
2
x
x
x
x
x
3
x
x
x
4
5
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
20
f
29
m
16
m
16
17
x
18
x
19
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
53
m
20
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
21
m
21
f
x
x
x
54
m
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
38
m
10
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
12
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
13
x
14
x
15
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
40
m
52
f
46
f
25
f
55
f
27
m
26
m
57
m
34
m
21
x
x
22
x
23
x
24
x
x
25
x
26
x
x
27
x
28
29
30
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
27
m
32
m
25
m
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
30
m
x
x
x
x
x
25
m
9
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
8
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
24
m
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
29
m
x
x
x
x
x
7
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
33
m
23
m
23
m
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
24
f
27
m
29
m
207
(3) Examples of Anglicisms "GERMAN"
check' das mal, handout (statt Tischvolrage), cu (Wir sehn uns), shit, mail, crab, jesus, fuck, joke, task,
Internet, Email, Lobby, chat, Smalltalk, download, cd-rom, Callboy, docking, jetten, mobben, Mobbing,
campen, Cape, Slum, catchen, Scanner, shit, EBIT, net income, interest bearing payables, Pilotensprache, top
no equivalent
Internet, router, switch, Mainboard, RAM, init, display, outfit, computer, software, hardware, carport, sehr
viele Ausdrücke aus der Computerwelt, email, download, web, freefly, slider, exit, tracking, Birdie, Eagle
(alle Golfausdrücke)
“in”
correct, cool, amazing, cool, super, cool, lamer, cool
download, disc, computer, DVD, stock, computer, gangway, first class, spray, bar, Computerbranche:
account, domain, server, workstation, download, update, match, ok, computer, Computerterminologie,
Fauchausdrücke in der Mathemathik und Physik, cleared for take off, email, UNO, NATO (englische
Abkürzungen, die aber deutsch ausgesprochen werden), Roaming, WWW, Pilotensprache, in der Mode,
neue Medien
avoid repetition
yes, Teenager, Carport, Dancefloor, Rack, Cartoon, Printer
hybrid forms
Webseite, Mailadressen, Download-Kapazität
sports
Finish, Match, Corner, Goal-y. Corner, Timeout, Poolposition, foul, goal, in, out, fair, grip, intermediate,
handling, fairplay, freefly, superbike, Birdie, Eagle, Out, Team, Bodycheck
technology
Router, Switch, airbag, conditioner, Workstation, Server, Client, Workshop, Motherboard, harddisk,
keyboard, CD-ROM, RAM, Hoovercraft (anstatt Luftkissenboot), ethernet, high tech, Overdrive, Handy,
LCD Display, Supply Chain Management
internet
domaine, website, net, website, homepage, Browser, Provider, Homepage, Site, Download, browser, server,
download, upload, link, Webcam, web, chat, Internet Solution, explorer, send, download, call by call, Email,
download, webpage, email, cd-rom, server, internet, internet, WWW, connection, download, mailbox, world
wide web
youth language
cool, DJ, o.k., Mega, Cool, Happy, Event, cool, cool, lamer, looser, cool, shopping, cool, cool, fuck you,
sorry, cool, trendy, cool, cool, kids, k.o., cool
advertising
style, more than a bank, red bull, in, kids, crunchchips
business & economy
Management, Sale (statt Ausverkauf), Broker, Deal, Teamwork, Workshop, Public Relations, Marketing,
Business Solution, cashflow, up, down, high or low (Börse), cash flow, Deal, net income, EBIT, cover, cash
flow
science
die englische Sprache ist Standard für Forschungsarbeiten
politics
208
(1) Questionnaire “ITALIAN“
Aiuto !!! Anglomania !!! Mi chiamo Philippa Maurer-Stroh e faccio gli studi della
linguistica inglese all'università di Klagenfurt, Austria. Vorrei pregarti di tua assistenza per
la mia tesi. Si tratta di un'inchiesta sulle parole inglesi nella lingua italiana e la tua opinione
su quest'argomento. Allora, ti prega di sacrificare 3 minuti del tuo tempo per rispondere
alle domande e di rimandarmi le risposte. Questo questionario è anonimo e serve soltanto
dall'esposizione di una statistica sull'uso attuale della lingua italiana:
Segni con una croce quel che è giusto per te -> sostituire o con x
(è possibile di dare più di una risposta)
1. Mi servo delle parole inglesi
o
sopratutto nella vita professionale
o
sopratutto nella vita quotidiana
o
o
per lo più in iscritto
per lo più a voce
o
o
o
o
sono più corte e più precise – esempio:
non c'è una parola italiana – esempio:
sono alla moda – esempio:
ci sono delle espressioni che sono fissate internazionalmente –
esempio:
per evitare la ripetizione di una parola – esempio:
2. perché
o
3. Mi servo anche
o
4. Le parole inglesi
o
o
o
o
delle combinazioni (parola inglese + parola italiana)
(p.e. aumento record, azienda leader, calciatore-manager)
arricchiscono la lingua italiana
sono la conseguenza della posizione altolocata degli Stati Uniti in
vari settori
per me significano una forma di millanteria
non ne me accorgo più
5. Le parole inglesi si usano di più nei settori di
o
sport - esempio:
o
tecnica - esempio:
o
internet - esempio:
o
lingua dei giovani - esempio:
o
pubblicità - esempio:
o
economia - esempio:
o
scienza - esempio:
o
politica - esempio:
età:
sesso:
Grazie !!!
209
(2) Survey results "ITALIAN"
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
no equivalent
"in"
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
sports
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
working life
everyday life
in writing
orally
no equivalent
"in"
avoid repetition
hybrid forms
enrichment
due to US dominance
sports
internet
youth language
advertising
business & economy
science
politics
Age
Gender
1
x
2
3
x
x
x
x
x
4
x
x
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7
x
x
8
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
18
19
x
20
x
x
21
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
17
x
x
x
x
16
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
32
f
22
23
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
33
f
48
m
37
f
36
f
24
25
x
26
x
27
x
x
x
x
x
x
15
x
x
x
x
x
x
41
f
14
x
x
x
30
f
x
x
x
x
22
f
x
x
x
x
x
28
m
x
x
x
x
x
53
m
13
x
x
26
m
12
x
x
42
f
x
x
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
10
x
x
x
x
9
x
x
x
x
5
x
x
x
x
x
x
26
f
x
x
54
m
28
x
x
29
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
42
f
30
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
42
f
x
40
m
x
29
f
35
f
x
35
f
x
46
f
x
32
f
26
f
30
f
32
f
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
26
f
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
26
f
26
f
36
f
30
m
210
(3) Examples of Anglicisms "ITALIAN"
week end, e-mail, hard disk, link, e-mail, leader, budget, pls, thks, asap, shirt, bug, task, top, e-mail, summit
no equivalent
floppy disk, plug-in, goal, sport, trading on line, future, benchmark, file, mouse, hardware, software,
download, file, compact disc, tutor, manager, account, hardware, software, deliverable, craft, hobby, raster
scanning, raster scanning, film (esiste la parola italiana ‘pellicola’ ma non si usa per indicare i film), deploy,
implementation, run, bug
“in”
week-end, software, hardware, ok, feeling, feeling, link, trend, target, know how, chat, internet, topten,
shopping
fare un backup, computer, hardware, software, update, meeting, hot-dog, world wide web, leader, weekend,
record, business, e mail, e-mail, leader, manager, cooperative learning, stop, email, pop corn, manager, vip,
fan
avoid repetition
target (scopo), range (gamma)
hybrid forms
sports
basket, volley, basket (perchè non pallancanestro?), corner, goal, match-point, coach, personal trainer, set,
match, beach volley, outside, performance, personal trainer, football, basket, hockey, ski-lift, rollerblades,
tennis, skateboard, surf, windsurf, corner, beachvolley, starter, goal, corner, goal, quasi tutto il gergo del
mondo del calcio
technology
personal computer, standard, player, hardware, transistor
internet
lynch, software, hardware, plug-in, default, account, provider, internet, web, e-mail, hosting, housing, e-mail,
web, provider, download, browser, email, forward, reply, attach, load, download, shareware, freeware,
provider, browser, download, e-mail, world wide web, provider, password
youth language
week-end, ko, no problem, techno music, jeans, T-shirt, pullover, boxer, cover, cool
advertising
spot, spot, film, spot, reclame, spot, advertising, spot, molti slogan sono in inglese
business & economy
budget, business, trading on line, trust, budget, blue chips, business, capital gain, manager, leader,
coordinator, job description, budget, knowhow, budget, marketing, insider trading, core business
science
peacemaker
politics
devolution, devolution, summit, golpe, breafing, staff, black bloc, devolution, privacy, welfare

Philippa Maurer

Transcription

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