The role of time in consumer behaviour and market

Transcription

Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha
Departamento de Administración de Empresas
Área de Comercialización e Investigación de Mercados
The role of time in consumer behaviour and
market segmentation. Three contributions
from a multidisciplinary perspective
El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y
la segmentación de mercados. Tres contribuciones
desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar
Juan Antonio García Martín
Director: Arturo Molina Collado
Talavera de la Reina, 2014
Time is one of the most powerful influence on our thoughts, feelings, and actions,
yet we are usually totally unaware of the effect of time in our lives.
Philip G. Zimbardo & John N. Boyd
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION
ABSTRACT
The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three
contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective
Time has been the subject of numerous studies in multiple disciplines such as economics,
education, geography, psychology, and sociology. All human actions related to
consumption involve the allocations of time and money. However, in marketing literature,
far more attention has been paid to the latter than to the former. This doctoral thesis
adopts an interdisciplinary approach in order to describe the role of time in consumer
behaviour and market segmentation. It also considers both objective measures of time use
(Studies 1-3) and subjective measures related to time perspective (Study 3). The objective
of the first study is to identify and describe the time use patterns of Spanish consumers at
weekends. The data used have been obtained from the Time Use Survey collected by the
Spanish National Statistics Institute. The results obtained reveal the existence of nine
segments or clusters which are different, not only with regard to their propensity to engage
in each activity and the average time allocated to this (what), but also their sociodemographic profiles (who) and the timing or activity rhythms (when). This study provides
information for leisure-related businesses since it may enable them to organise their leisure
proposals/activities for weekends (as regards both duration and schedules), bearing in
mind the specific consumer profile that they wish to attract. The objective of the second
study is to evaluate the effectiveness and profitability of time use in a destination as a
segmentation criterion in tourism. The empirical analysis took place in the historic city of
Toledo (Spain), and was based on information obtained from 799 day-trippers and tourists.
The results obtained reveal the existence of four segments as regards day-trippers and
another four as regards tourists. What is more, there are significant differences in the
spending and future intentions of the clusters of day-trippers and tourists. Lastly, the
objective of the third study is to explore the role of five time perspectives (past-negative,
past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future) and having a balanced
time perspective on the amount of free time available, leisure benefits sought and leisure
activities. The results obtained from a sample of 320 undergraduate and Master’s degree
students from the University of Castilla-La Mancha show that how they understand time is
a key predictor of their leisure choices. This study also reveals that having a balanced time
perspective is a healthy way to enjoy leisure time. The doctoral thesis is organised in five
chapters. The first introductory chapter presents an overview of the state of research
regarding time from a multidisciplinary perspective. The second, third, and fourth chapters
present the three aforementioned empirical studies, while in the fifth chapter a summary
of this doctoral thesis’s contributions is provided.
5
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN
RESUMEN
El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de
mercados. Tres contribuciones desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar
El tiempo ha sido objeto de numerosos estudios en varias disciplinas como la economía, la educación, la geografía,
la psicología y la sociología. Todas las acciones humanas relacionadas con el consumo implican la asignación de
tiempo y dinero. Sin embargo, en la literatura de marketing, se ha prestado mucha más atención a este último
recurso que al primero. Esta tesis doctoral adopta un enfoque multidisciplinar con el fin de describir el papel del
tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Además, considera tanto medidas
objetivas de utilización del tiempo (Estudios 1-3) como medidas subjetivas relacionadas con la perspectiva
temporal (Estudio 3). El objetivo del primer estudio es identificar y describir los patrones de uso del tiempo de
los consumidores españoles durante los fines de semana. Los datos utilizados se obtuvieron de la Encuesta de
Empleo del Tiempo del Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto
la existencia de nueve segmentos o grupos que son diferentes, no sólo en su propensión a participar en cada
actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta (qué), sino también en sus perfiles sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de
actividad (cuándo). Este estudio proporciona información para los negocios relacionados con el ocio, ya que puede
ser de utilidad para ayudar a organizar sus propuestas o actividades durante los fines de semana (en cuanto a
duración y horarios), teniendo presente el perfil específico de consumidores que desean atraer. El objetivo del
segundo estudio es evaluar la eficacia y la rentabilidad del uso del tiempo en un destino como criterio de
segmentación en turismo. El análisis empírico se llevó a cabo en la ciudad histórica de Toledo (España), y se basó
en la información obtenida de 799 excursionistas y turistas. Los resultados obtenidos revelan la existencia de
cuatro segmentos de excursionistas y otros cuatro de turistas. Además, existen diferencias significativas en el
gasto y las intenciones de comportamiento futuras de los distintos grupos de excursionistas y turistas. Por último,
el objetivo del tercer estudio es explorar cómo cada una de las cinco perspectivas temporales (pasado-negativo,
pasado-positivo, presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y futuro) consideradas y el hecho de tener una
perspectiva temporal equilibrada influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo libre disponible, los beneficios buscados
con el ocio y las actividades de ocio realizadas. Los resultados obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 320
estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha muestran que la forma en qué se entiende
el tiempo es un indicador clave de las decisiones de ocio. Este estudio también sugiere que el hecho de tener una
perspectiva temporal equilibrada es una forma saludable de disfrutar del tiempo libre. La tesis doctoral se
estructura en cinco capítulos. En el primer capítulo introductorio se presenta una visión general del estado de la
investigación en relación con el tiempo desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar. En los capítulos segundo, tercero
y cuatro se presentan los tres estudios empíricos anteriormente mencionados, mientras que en el quinto capítulo
se ofrece un resumen de las principales contribuciones de esta tesis doctoral.
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION: THE TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
CHAPTER 2.
TIME USE PATTERNS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS AT WEEKENDS: IN
SEARCH OF WHAT, WHO AND WHEN
19
35
2.1.
Introduction
35
2.2.
Literature review
37
2.2.1.
The role of time in consumer behaviour: a brief review
37
2.2.2.
From lifestyle segmentation to market segmentation based on time
2.2.3.
2.3.
2.4.
39
Heterogeneity in time use and its determinants
40
Method
43
2.3.1.
Data and sample profile
43
2.3.2.
Instruments
45
2.3.3.
Data analysis
45
Results
2.4.1.
2.5.
use
46
Number of time-use patterns and usefulness of the indicators and
covariates
46
2.4.2.
Profiles of clusters: in search of what and who
51
2.4.3.
Activity rhythms: in search of when
58
Discussion and conclusions
60
7
CHAPTER 3.
MARKET SEGMENTATION BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL
ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO, SPAIN
65
3.1.
Introduction
65
3.2.
Literature review
66
3.2.1.
The key role of time use: from marketing and leisure to tourism
66
3.2.2.
Market heterogeneity: towards a tourism market segmentation based on
3.2.3.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
time use
69
Time use, tourist experience and outcomes
72
Method
73
3.3.1.
Data collection and sample profile
73
3.3.2.
Instruments
74
3.3.3.
Data analysis
76
Results
78
3.4.1.
Market segmentation based on time use
78
3.4.2.
Differences in outcome variables
84
CHAPTER 4.
87
EXPLORING THE ROLE OF TIME PERSPECTIVE IN LEISURE
CHOICES
93
4.1.
Introduction
93
4.2.
Literature review
94
4.2.1.
94
8
Time perspective
4.3.
4.4.
4.2.2.
Balanced time perspective
98
4.2.3.
Time perspective and leisure choices
99
Method
104
4.3.1.
Data collection and sample profile
104
4.3.2.
Instruments
105
4.3.3.
Data analysis
106
Results
4.4.1.
107
Confirmatory factor analyses: time perspectives and leisure benefits
sought
4.4.2.
4.5.
107
Relationship between time perspectives and the amount of free time
available
109
4.4.3.
Relationship between time perspectives and leisure benefits sought
110
4.4.4.
Relationship between time perspectives and leisure activities
111
4.4.5.
Relationship between a balanced time perspective and leisure choice 117
CHAPTER 5.
CONCLUSIONS
118
127
REFERENCES
133
APPENDIX A
159
APPENDIX B
161
APPENDIX C
165
9
APPENDIX D
169
APPENDIX E
171
VITA
173
10
LIST OF TABLES
Tabla 1.1.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática
entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar
Tabla 1.2.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática
entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar
Table 2.1.
26
Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal
dimensions
Table 2.2.
24
38
Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered
weekend samples
44
Table 2.3.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of Spanish consumers
46
Table 2.4.
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers:
indicators
Table 2.5.
47
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates
49
Table 2.6.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators
53
Table 2.7.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates
55
Table 2.8.
Differences in multi-tasking style and computer/Internet use between
clusters of Spanish consumers
Table 2.9.
Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers
and kind of day
Table 3.1.
57
58
Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published
between 2008 and 2012: tourism journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation
Report Social Sciences Edition®
70
11
Table 3.2.
Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each
activity by day-trippers and tourists
Table 3.3.
75
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions
to revisit and recommend it
76
Table 3.4.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists 79
Table 3.5.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers
80
Table 3.6.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists
81
Table 3.7.
Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates
82
Table 3.8.
Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates
84
Table 3.9.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers
85
Table 3.10.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists
86
Table 4.1.
Time perspective scales
95
Table 4.2.
Time perspective dimensions and features
97
Table 4.3.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives
108
Table 4.4.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought
109
Table 4.5.
Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time
available
Table 4.6.
Stepwise
110
hierarchical
regression
analyses
predicting
sought
Table 4.7.
benefits
111
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure
activities: test of parallel lines and goodness-of-fit
12
leisure
112
Table 4.8.
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure
activities: parameter estimates
114
Table 4.9.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models
117
Table 4.10.
Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters
117
Table 4.11.
Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices
122
13
LIST OF FIGURES
Figura 1.1.
Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre
los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo
27
Figure 2.1.
Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation
42
Figure 2.2.
Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers
59
Figure 3.1.
Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages
77
Figure 4.1.
Research objectives
101
15
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION:
THE
TIME
RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION:
THE
TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
entre población rural y urbana, como el
primer gran proyecto internacional de
investigación empírica sobre este tópico y
el precursor de la multitud de encuestas
de empleo del tiempo que posteriormente
Como Durán y Rogero (2009) señalan,
se han desarrollado en distintos países.
intentar definir qué es el ‘tiempo’ no es
En este sentido, el Centre for Time Use
una tarea tan sencilla como a priori
Research (CTUR) de la Universidad de
pudiera parecer. La última edición del
Oxford tiene registrada la realización de
Diccionario de la Real Academia Española
encuestas de uso del tiempo en casi 100
(2001)
países distintos (Fisher & Tucker, 2013) y
ofrece
diecisiete
acepciones
distintas de este término. Este dato, a
ofrece
medio camino entre lo curioso y lo
procedente de más de 60 bases de datos
revelador, ya proporciona una pista sobre
de 25 países distintos a través de su base
la
de datos denominada Multinational Time
enorme
interdisciplinariedad
existente en el estudio del tópico del
tiempo.
De
encontrar
hecho,
múltiples
resulta
información
armonizada
Use Study (Fisher & Gershuny, 2013).
posible
definiciones
y
En cuanto al ritmo de vida, éste hace
enfoques a la hora de estudiar el tiempo
referencia a la velocidad con la que se
dependiendo de cuál sea la disciplina en
realizan
la que éste ha sido objeto de análisis.
estudio de Levine y Norenzayan (1999),
las
distintas
actividades.
El
centrado en analizar el ritmo de vida en
McGrath y Tschan (2004) distinguen
31 países utilizando observaciones del
cuatro
los
comportamiento, encuentra que éste fue
vida
significativamente más rápido en climas
cotidiana de las personas: uso del tiempo,
más fríos, en países más desarrollados
ritmo de vida, percepción del tiempo y
económicamente
orientación temporal.
individualistas.
El primer aspecto, uso del tiempo,
Por su parte, la percepción del tiempo
representa cómo un individuo distribuye
se refiere a cómo los seres humanos
este recurso en la realización de distintas
juzgan el paso del tiempo, estudiando,
actividades diarias, tales como trabajar y
por ejemplo, las estimaciones que los
estudiar,
individuos
realizan
duración
percibida
procesos
aspectos
básicos
temporales
cuidados
domésticas
o
de
en
la
personales,
tiempo
libre.
tareas
Suele
y
en
culturas
sobre
de
cuál
más
es
la
intervalos
considerarse el trabajo de Szalai (1972),
temporales específicos o sus sentimientos
centrado en analizar las diferencias en el
sobre el paso del tiempo (Grondin, 2008;
tiempo dedicado a actividades diarias
McGrath & Tschan, 2004).
19
Por último, la orientación temporal,
largo plazo puede alcanzar un mayor
también
perspectiva
desarrollo económico estarían los tres
temporal, en inglés time perspective
siguientes: (1) una elevada importancia
(TP), se define como la importancia
del ahorro; (2) el ‘trabajo duro’ como un
relativa que los individuos otorgan al
aspecto
pasado, presente y futuro (Lennings,
detrimento del ocio; y (3) el mayor
1996).
sido
énfasis que se pone en la mejora de la
extensamente estudiado como un rasgo
educación de los individuos que forman
de la personalidad en psicología (Sircova
parte de esa sociedad.
denominada
Este
aspecto
ha
socialmente
valorado,
en
et al., 2014; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Además, la orientación temporal también
Los cuatro aspectos temporales descritos
puede ser entendida como una dimensión
anteriormente, uso del tiempo, ritmo de
cultural susceptible de ser utilizada para
vida, percepción del tiempo y orientación
evaluar las diferencias transculturales
temporal, se pueden agrupar, a su vez,
entre sociedades y explicar las razones
en dos grandes categorías. Por una
del
en
parte, la primera incluiría el uso del
cuestiones de tipo económico y/o social
tiempo y los ritmos de actividad, ya que
(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).
ambos aspectos tienen en común el
Así, por ejemplo, estos últimos autores
análisis del tiempo como un recurso
encuentran correlaciones positivas entre
susceptible de ser medido o cuantificado
el grado de orientación al largo plazo y el
objetivamente, atendiendo, por ejemplo,
crecimiento económico, en países que
a cuánto tiempo dedica cada sujeto a una
partían de un nivel inicial de desarrollo
actividad
más bajo, y correlaciones negativas entre
frecuencia de realización de la misma. Por
ambas variables, en el caso de los países
otra parte, la percepción del tiempo y
más desarrollados. En otras palabras, el
orientación temporal se pueden agrupar
grado de orientación al largo plazo de una
en una segunda categoría, puesto que
sociedad parece ser un factor que se
suponen el análisis del tiempo desde un
relaciona directamente con el hecho de
punto de vista subjetivo, basándose en
que algunos países se hayan movido
las
desde la ‘pobreza’ a la ‘riqueza’, pero no
sentimientos asociados al tiempo por
ayuda a que las sociedades que ya están
parte de los individuos.
éxito/fracaso
de
los
países
concreta
o
percepciones,
a
cuál
es
cogniciones
la
y
desarrolladas alcancen todavía mayores
niveles de ‘riqueza’ (Hofstede et al.,
La primera de estas dos categorías, es
2010). Entre los argumentos que pueden
decir, la que versa sobre los aspectos
esgrimirse para explicar el motivo por el
objetivos
que, bajo determinadas condiciones, una
profusamente estudiada dentro de la
sociedad con una elevada orientación a
sociología.
20
del
Así,
tiempo,
los
ha
sociólogos
sido
han
puesto especial énfasis en analizar las
con mayor detalle el interés por el
diferencias en el uso del tiempo según
estudio
distintas variables sociodemográficas y,
subjetivos del tiempo según el área
más
temática,
concretamente,
en
función
del
de
aspectos
así
objetivos
como
la
y
evolución
género. De hecho, el uso del tiempo es
experimentada por la investigación de
una variable tremendamente útil para
estos tópicos entre 2008 y 2012.
comprender el papel asignado a mujeres
y hombres en una sociedad. Una revisión
Se utilizó la herramienta en inglés para
exhaustiva
realizar
del
estado
actual
de
la
la
consulta,
se
consideraron
investigación sociológica sobre el uso del
exclusivamente
artículos
tiempo puede consultarse en el trabajo de
académicas
se
Durán y Rogero (2009). Por su parte, la
temporal a trabajos publicados entre
segunda
2008 y 2012. Es decir, las actas de
categoría,
que
incluye
los
y
revistas
el
período
limitó
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, ha
congresos,
sido un tópico de investigación recurrente
trabajos fin de grado y fin de master, los
en el ámbito de la psicología. Dentro de
documentos de trabajo y los libros no
esta disciplina se ha generado una gran
fueron considerados debido a que, en
cantidad de investigación empírica al
muchos
abrigo de lo se ha denominado psicología
realizar
del
temática
tiempo
(Fraisse,
1963;
Grondin,
las
en
tesis
casos,
una
doctorales,
resultaba
asignación
y,
en
su
área
calidad
académica
aspectos
subjetivos
cuestionable al carecer de revisión por
vinculados al tiempo no se circunscribe
pares. Por otra parte, la razón por la que
exclusivamente a estas dos disciplinas.
no se incluyeron en el análisis los artículos
Sin
relación
publicados en 2013 fue que cada vez es
exhaustiva, el tiempo ha sido objeto de
más habitual que las revistas académicas
estudio en otras disciplinas, tales como la
publiquen en su sitio web los avances
economía, la educación, la geografía o la
online
medicina. En el ámbito de las artes y las
aparecerán
humanidades, los filósofos, historiadores,
números (los denominados como articles
lingüistas,
in press). Sin embargo, esta práctica,
ánimo
incluso
de
y
exponer
antropólogos,
músicos
o
una
escritores,
artistas
e
plásticos,
pensada
de
cuanto
un
2008). Sin embargo, el estudio de los
objetivos
era,
imposible
a
otros,
los
artículos
incluidos
para
hacer
menos,
aceptados
en
que
próximos
accesibles
los
también han convertido al tiempo en un
trabajos aceptados lo más rápido posible,
objeto continuado de su atención (Durán
podría sesgar el análisis presentado en
& Rogero, 2008).
esta tesis, puesto que Google Scholar
indexa también los artículos en prensa,
Se
recurrió
a
Google
Scholar
asignando como fecha de publicación el
(http://scholar.google.com/) para ilustrar
momento de su aparición en el sitio web
21
hasta su inclusión en un volumen y
identificados
fueron
número definitivo de la revista. En este
revistas multidisciplinares (29.42%) o
sentido, es muy probable que en el año
de medicina (20.82%). Entre los temas
2014 todavía existan artículos en prensa
estudiados en relación con el uso del
aparecidos en 2013 y que éstos estén
tiempo dentro de la medicina es posible
pendientes de su inclusión en próximos
encontrar desde trabajos que utilizan la
números, lo que conduciría directamente
variable
a una sobrestimación del número de
propagación de enfermedades infecciosas
artículos publicados en 2013.
o la duración óptima de un determinado
tiempo
publicados
para
modelizar
en
la
tratamiento, hasta otros que analizan la
En
la
Tabla
1.1
se
presentan
los
relación entre el
tiempo dedicado a
resultados relativos al interés por el
diferentes actividades (ejercicio físico,
estudio
del
ocio, vida sedentaria, etc.) y el riesgo de
tiempo según área temática entre 2008
sufrir ciertas enfermedades (ya sean de
y 2012. Los términos concretos utilizados
tipo cardiaco u obesidad, entre otras) o
para la búsqueda en el título del artículo
los patrones de uso del tiempo de sujetos
aparecen recogidos en la nota al pie de
con enfermedades o lesiones crónicas
esta misma tabla. Entre 2008 y 2012 es
concretas.
Dentro
posible
publicados
en
de
aspectos
identificar
un
objetivos
total
artículos que contienen
de
en su
826
de
los
artículos
revistas
de
ciencias
título
sociales, que suponen el 13.80% del
alguno de los términos de búsqueda
total, predominan estudios sobre las
considerados. Además, se observa que en
diferencias en el uso del tiempo según
estos cinco años se ha incrementado en
variables sociodemográficas, desde un
un 55.20% el número de estudios
enfoque sociológico, y otros en los se
publicados sobre aspectos objetivos del
analiza cómo el uso del tiempo influye
tiempo, pasando de 125 artículos en el
sobre el rendimiento académico, desde un
año 2008 a 194 en el 2012.
enfoque más próximo a la educación. En
este último caso, hay que tener presente
En cuanto al área temática, ésta fue
que el tiempo es uno de los inputs más
medida a partir del área en el que la
relevantes del proceso educativo y, por
revista está indexada en SCImago Journal
esta razón, diversos estudios empíricos lo
Rank o Journal Citation Reports® o, en
han
caso de no aparecer en ninguno de estos
alcanzados por los estudiantes (Díaz,
dos
García, & Molina, 2014).
índices,
consultando
información
relacionado
con
los
resultados
sobre los objetivos y el alcance de cada
revista en su propio sitio web. Los datos
A gran distancia, en cuarta y sexta
presentados en la Tabla 1.1 muestran que
posición, respectivamente, se encuentran
más
las áreas de economía, econometría y
22
del
50%
de
los
artículos
finanzas, con 73 artículos publicados, y
no mercado (realizada en el interior de los
empresas,
y
hogares) y el resto se dedica a otras
artículos
actividades, entre las que se incluyen la
publicados entre 2008 y 2012. En el
educación o la búsqueda de trabajo.
ámbito de la economía y la empresa, el
Resulta especialmente llamativo que esta
origen del interés por el estudio del
última actividad no llegue a absorber ni el
tiempo se puede situar en el trabajo de
6% del descenso de las horas de trabajo
Becker (1965). Siguiendo los postulados
remunerado.
administración
contabilidad,
con
36
de este autor, el tiempo se considera un
recurso sujeto a restricciones (igual que
Ingeniería,
el dinero) que los individuos dedicarán a
ambientales completan la lista de las
la realización de distintas actividades con
áreas temáticas en las que más se han
el objetivo de maximizar su función de
estudiado
utilidad. Dentro de estas áreas, también
tiempo
existen estudios que abordan el tópico del
porcentajes que no superan el 4% en
tiempo
ninguno de los tres casos. Cabe destacar
para
relacionadas,
analizar
por
cuestiones
aspectos
entre
2008
ciencias
objetivos
del
2012,
con
y
que la mayoría de los estudios publicados
productividad del trabajo, el proceso de
en revistas de ingeniería versan sobre la
asignación
distintas
modelización de los patrones de uso del
actividades en el interior de los hogares,
tiempo a la hora de viajar empleando
o la relación entre la situación de la
distintos medios de transporte.
economía
y
tiempo
el
Recientemente,
uso
a
con
los
y
la
de
ejemplo,
psicología
del
Hurst
y
Adicionalmente, la Tabla 1.1 también
usando
la
proporciona información, para cada área
American Time Use Survey entre 2003 y
temática o año, sobre la/s revista/s con
2010, analizan cómo, en un contexto de
más artículos publicados, así como las
recesión, el descenso en las horas de
citas promedio recibidas y el número de
trabajo remunerado se asigna a otras
citas
actividades
Destaca el hecho de que los artículos
Karabarbounis
Aguiar,
tiempo.
(2013),
como
pueden
ser
tareas
del
artículo
sobre
autores
ocio
publicados en las áreas de economía,
a
econometría y finanzas, y medicina
actividades como dormir o ver la TV que
(con un número de citas promedio de
suponen más de las dos terceras partes)
13.48 y 13.36, respectivamente) reciben
absorbe más del 50% del descenso de las
por término medio un mayor número de
horas de trabajo remunerado, algo menos
citas que el resto. En el otro extremo, los
del 30% de ese tiempo se sustituye por
artículos sobre el tópico del uso del
actividades vinculadas a la producción de
tiempo
(principalmente
que
tiempo
el
dedicado
en
objetivos
referenciado.
domésticas, ocio, educación, etc. Estos
encuentran
aspectos
más
las
del
tiempo
publicaciones
de
23
ingeniería
y
ciencias
ambientales
tienen la media de citas más baja, con
3.45
y
3.17
citas
por
artículo,
respectivamente.
Tabla 1.1.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas
académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.
Concepto
Número de
artículos
Porcentaje
Revista con más
artículos publicados
(número)
Citas recibidas
M (DT)
Por el artículo
más citado
8.93
(24.14)
460
7.46
(10.97)
81
13.36
(46.35)
460
Social Indicators
Research (16)
8.15
(12.36)
77
8.84%
Review of Economics of
the Household (8)
13.48
(20.79)
99
51
6.17%
Animal Behaviour (3)
6.47
(14.53)
95
36
4.36%
Monthly Labor Review (7)
5.11
(5.86)
19
Ingeniería
33
4.00%
Transportation Research
Record (10)
3.45
(6.15)
32
Psicología
27
3.27%
Journal of Research on
Adolescence (2)
9.37
(13.64)
53
Ciencias ambientales
12
1.45%
Science of the Total
Environment (3)
3.17
(2.73)
7
Otras áreas temáticas
65
7.87%
6.63
(12.48)
75
826
100.00%
8.93
(24.14)
460
16.21
(43.62)
460
12.83
(29.68)
361
9.42
(17.33)
151
ÁREA TEMÁTICA
826
100.00%
Multidisciplinares
243
29.42%
Medicina
172
20.82%
Ciencias sociales
114
13.80%
73
Economía,
econometría y
finanzas
Agricultura y ciencias
biológicas
Empresas,
administración y
contabilidad
AÑO DE
PUBLICACIÓN
Electronic International
Journal of Time Use
Research (16)
Journal of Spinal Cord
Medicine (6)
Animal Behaviour,
Feminist Economics,
Transportation Research
Record (3)
Social Indicators
Research (10)
British Journal of Learning
Disabilities, Review of
Economics of the
Household (4)
2008
125
15.13%
2009
172
20.82%
2010
153
18.52%
2011
182
22.03%
Feminist Economics (8)
5.36
(8.92)
96
23.49%
American Economic
Review, Journal of
Science and Medicine in
Sport, PLoS One (3)
3.73
(9.48)
89
2012
194
Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time use’, ‘use of time’,
‘time spent’, ‘spending time’, ‘time allocation’, ‘allocation of time’, ‘time budget’. Fecha de consulta en
http://scholar.google.com/: 2 de junio de 2014.
24
En cuanto a los aspectos subjetivos del
enfermedad de Parkinson, esquizofrenia,
tiempo, el interés por su estudio según el
etc.) afectan a la percepción subjetiva del
área temática entre 2008 y 2012 aparece
tiempo. El resto de áreas temáticas
en la Tabla 1.2. En este caso, el número
registran porcentajes comprendidos entre
total de artículos identificados en el
el
periodo considerado se sitúa en 573,
sociales, y el 2.27%, en el de artes y
registrándose
humanidades. Llama la atención que, en
un
incremento
del
61.96% entre 2008 y 2012.
el
6.28%,
en
el
caso
de
ciencias
periodo analizado, sólo se hayan
identificado
19
artículos
Las revistas multidisciplinares y de
publicaciones
psicología se sitúan, con diferencia,
administración y contabilidad en cuyo
como
título
las
más
interesadas
en
la
de
en
aparezcan
empresas,
los
términos
de
publicación de trabajos vinculados con los
búsqueda introducidos relativos a los
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, tales
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo.
como percepción del tiempo o TP, ya que,
de
forma
conjunta,
un
Por último, señalar que, como se observa
porcentaje del 58.64%. En el caso de la
en la Tabla 1.2, los artículos publicados
psicología, la TP ha sido ampliamente
en
relacionada
y
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo tienen
comportamientos de todo tipo, entre los
más probabilidad de ser citados (en
que se pueden citar, por poner algunos
promedio tienen casi 20 citas por artículo)
ejemplos, la preocupación ambiental y la
que
realización de conductas orientadas a la
cualquier otra área temática, mientras
conservación
que los artículos de las revistas de
con
registran
actitudes
del
medio
ambiente
revistas
los
de
neurociencia
publicados
en
revistas
bioquímica,
Verdugo, Fraijo-Sing, & Pinheiro, 2006),
molecular no llegan, en promedio, a
el ejercicio y la comida sana (Joireman,
dos citas por trabajo. La mayoría de los
Shaffer, Balliet, & Strathman, 2012) o el
artículos publicados en las revistas de
bienestar
Duncan,
esta última área guardan relación con el
Sutherland, Abernethy, & Henry, 2008),
estudio de la orientación temporal o TP
entre otros muchos. En tercer lugar se
entre personas de edad avanzada.
(Drake,
y
de
(Arnocky, Milfont, & Nicol, 2014; Corral-
subjetivo
genética
sobre
biología
sitúan las revistas de medicina, en las
que se han publicado el 13.09% de los
A partir del análisis presentado en las
artículos
Tablas 1.1 y 1.2 es posible señalar que la
publicados
identificados.
en
principalmente,
este
Los
caso
cómo
trabajos
abordan,
atención
prestada
distintas
empresas, administración y contabilidad a
aspectos
en
objetivos
el
y
área
de
enfermedades (Trastorno por Déficit de
los
subjetivos
Atención con Hiperactividad – TDAH,
relacionados con el uso del tiempo es
25
bastante escasa, en comparación con
los
otras áreas. Descendiendo al ámbito del
objetivos como subjetivos, a la hora de
marketing
comportamiento del
explicar las decisiones y comportamientos
consumidor, esta circunstancia resulta
de los consumidores (Bergadaà, 1990;
aún más paradójica, sobre todo si se tiene
Davies & Omer, 1996; Feldman & Hornik,
en cuenta que numerosos modelos de
1981; Hauser, Urban, & Weinberg, 1993;
comportamiento
Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay, 1996;
y del
del
consumidor
aspectos
Lane,
temporales,
propuestos en la década de los 80 y 90
Kaufman,
&
han incidido en la importancia de incluir
Robinson & Nicosia, 1991).
tanto
Lindquist,
1991;
Tabla 1.2.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas
académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.
Concepto
ÁREA TEMÁTICA
Multidisciplinares
Número de
artículos
Porcentaje
Revista con más
artículos publicados
(número)
573
100.00%
170
29.67%
PLoS One (9)
Psicología
166
28.97%
International Journal of
Psychology (37)
Medicina
75
13.09%
Journal of Vision (8)
Ciencias sociales
36
6.28%
Time & Society (5)
Neurociencia
26
4.54%
Frontiers in Integrative
Neuroscience (7)
25
4.36%
Gerontologist (15)
19
3.32%
Un artículo por revista
Ingeniería
16
2.79%
Artes y humanidades
13
2.27%
Otras áreas temáticas
27
4.71%
573
100.00%
Bioquímica, genética y
biología molecular
Empresas,
administración y
contabilidad
AÑO DE
PUBLICACIÓN
2008
92
16.06%
2009
101
17.63%
2010
94
16.40%
2011
137
23.91%
2012
149
26.00%
Psychology (26)
Psychological Science
(4)
Psychology & Health
(6)
Frontiers in Integrative
Neuroscience (5)
Psychology (11)
Citas recibidas
M (DT)
10.54
(22.86)
10.97
(19.79)
11.87
(29.44)
6.16
(8.76)
11.14
(16.70)
19.31
(34.36)
1.84
(8.79)
6.26
(10.62)
17.94
(36.43)
5.00
(8.75)
12.74
(23.52)
10.54
(22.86)
17.04
(38.00)
15.36
(23.35)
12.99
(26.89)
8.19
(12.92)
3.88
(7.76)
Por el artículo
más citado
229
159
229
41
81
140
44
37
134
30
105
229
229
159
184
77
77
Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time perception’, ‘time
perceptions’, ‘time perspective’, ‘time perspectives’, ‘time orientation’, ‘time orientations’, ‘time attitude’, y ‘time
attitudes’. Fecha de consulta en http://scholar.google.com/: 11 de junio de 2014.
26
Lo descrito en el párrafo anterior no
LaMondia, 2010; Shores & Scott, 2007).
quiere decir, en ningún caso, que los
Realizando
aspectos temporales hayan sido obviados
principales líneas de investigación
sistemáticamente dentro de los estudios
que dentro del comportamiento del
de
consumidor
marketing
consumidor,
y
comportamiento
simplemente
sugiere
del
la
abordar
el
una
se
síntesis
han
análisis
de
de
encargado
los
las
de
aspectos
existencia de huecos de investigación
objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo, es
que
cubrir
posible encontrar cuatro grandes grupos
2000;
(Figura 1.1).
es
necesario
(Chetthamrongchai
&
Davies,
Figura 1.1.
Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre los aspectos objetivos y
subjetivos del tiempo.
Modelos
generales de
comportamiento
del consumidor
Influencia de la
perspectiva
temporal sobre
las actitudes y
comportamientos
de los
consumidores
Principales líneas
de investigación
Psicología de las
esperas
Diferencias en la
valoración del
tiempo y el
dinero por parte
de los
consumidores
27
Dentro de la primera línea se pueden
estrategia de marketing se debe poner en
incluir
ofrecer
los
modelos
comportamiento
generales
el
producto
o
servicio
más
consumidor.
económico o la mejor relación calidad-
Éstos han estudiado el tiempo y el dinero
precio; mientras que para el de ‘pobres’
como dos de los recursos disponibles por
en términos de tiempo pero ‘ricos’ en
el individuo y, por tanto, como factores
términos de dinero, la clave está en hacer
que influyen dentro del proceso de
que el producto sea fácilmente accesible,
decisión
&
siendo necesario centrarse, por tanto, en
en
el diseño de un adecuado sistema de
de
del
de
compra
(Hawkins
Mothersbaugh,
2010).
cuenta
recursos
ambos
Teniendo
de
manera
distribución.
conjunta es posible identificar, al menos,
cuatro
segmentos.
Dos
ellos,
También dentro de esta misma línea se
totalmente opuestos entre sí y que están
pueden incluir los trabajos que se centran
alcanzando cada vez más peso en las
en analizar los resultados posteriores a
sociedades modernas, a pesar de que
la compra, por ejemplo, en términos de
siguen
intenciones o comportamientos de lealtad
representando
porcentaje
población,
menor
hacia el producto, marca o empresa. En
denominados como ‘ricos’ en términos de
este sentido, existe abundante literatura
tiempo y dinero (por ejemplo, un rico
que considera el tiempo como un coste
heredero)
dos
de cambio (Burnham, Frels, & Mahajan,
recursos (por ejemplo, una mujer cabeza
2003). De tal forma que los consumidores
de
pueden decidir seguir siendo fieles a un
y
la
un
los
familia
de
de
‘pobres’
en
monoparental)
son
estos
(Jäckel
&
Wollscheid, 2007). En los otros dos casos
producto,
(es decir, ‘ricos’ en términos de tiempo
esfuerzo en términos de tiempo que
pero ‘pobres’ en términos de dinero y
supone buscar y analizar información
‘pobres’ en términos de tiempo pero
sobre otras alternativas disponibles y
‘ricos’
adaptarse a las mismas.
en
términos
comportamiento
de
de
dinero),
compra
el
marca
o
empresa
por
el
estará
condicionado por el recurso que sea más
Dentro de una segunda línea, que podría
escaso. De esta forma, por ejemplo, un
vincularse con la psicología de las
desempleado estará más predispuesto a
esperas,
malgastar su tiempo que su dinero a la
literatura
hora de buscar información, evaluar las
diversas como pueden ser, por citar
alternativas de compra disponibles y
algunos ejemplos, la influencia de la
adquirir/contratar un producto/servicio.
música (McDonnell, 2007; Oakes, 2003)
Así, para el segmento de ‘ricos’ en
o los aromas (McDonnell, 2007) en el
términos de tiempo pero ‘pobres’ en
tiempo
términos de dinero, el énfasis de la
predisposición a esperar, o el estudio
28
también
que
existe
aborda
percibido
de
abundante
cuestiones
espera
y
tan
la
de las esperas en el caso del comercio
realizan una valoración diferente del
electrónico (Ryan & Valverde, 2003). A
coste de oportunidad asociado a su
pesar de que las investigaciones en este
tiempo o dinero (Okada & Hoch, 2004).
ámbito
los
En concreto, parece que los consumidores
sus
están más predispuestos a malgastar
esfuerzos en eliminar las esperas por su
su tiempo que su dinero. Es lo que
influencia negativa sobre la satisfacción
algunos
del
estudios
justificación elástica (Hsee, 1995). En
recientes como el de Gavilán y García de
otras palabras, a la hora de tomar
Madariaga (2009) concluyen que, en
decisiones sobre el uso del tiempo, la
contra de lo que cabría esperar a priori, la
gente
espera
efectos
constantemente su tiempo como se ven
negativos. Así, en el caso de los servicios
obligados a hacer los personajes que
que cumplen cuatro premisas básicas
viven en los barrios humildes de la
(existencia de otras alternativas factibles,
película In time (Abraham, Newman,
atribución de la espera a causas externas
Niccol, & Niccol, 2011).
suelen
empresarios
cliente
no
recomendar
que
con
a
concentren
el
servicio,
siempre
tiene
autores
no
han
trata
de
denominado
optimizar
al propio cliente o proveedor del servicio,
concurrencia de ciertos riesgos asociados
En esta película de ciencia ficción, las
a la elección y posibilidad de que tengan
personas dejan de envejecer al cumplir
lugar limitaciones en la capacidad de
los veinticinco años, ya que el gen
suministro), la espera actúa como indicio
responsable del envejecimiento humano
del
y
ha sido desactivado, pero a partir de ese
predispone al sujeto a esperar de una
momento sólo tienen un año más de vida.
forma más satisfactoria. Estos autores
Transcurrido ese año, mueren a menos
argumentan que el funcionamiento de la
que ‘ganen’ más tiempo y rellenen con él
espera
regla
sus ‘relojes vitales’, que portan en sus
heurística de decisión (las personas se
antebrazos izquierdos. En esta sociedad
basan
de
futurista, el tiempo se ha convertido en
principios para reducir la compleja tarea
‘dinero’ y es la forma de pagar cualquier
de evaluar y decidir) y, por esa razón,
necesidad o lujo. Las personas viven en
nuestro
como
‘zonas horarias’ distintas, en función de
consumidores ante las esperas suele ser:
su estatus social. Así, mientras que los
‘si esperamos es mejor y si es mejor,
pobres viven en barrios humiles (para
estamos dispuestos a esperar’ (Gavilán &
ellos, el trabajo diario es imprescindible
García de Madariaga, 2009, p. 72).
para ganar unas cuantas horas más de
valor,
es
en
estimula
la
asimilable
un
número
elección
a
una
limitado
razonamiento
vida, y pagar los bienes y servicios que
En tercer lugar, otros estudios se centran
les
en
diarias), los ricos residen en la zona más
evaluar
cómo
los
consumidores
permiten
cubrir
sus
necesidades
29
lujosa y pueden vivir durante siglos. En la
Méndez
película, cada ‘zona horaria’ está cercada
impulsividad,
y, continuando con el símil del dinero, se
diferentes comportamientos durante la
cobran costosos peajes en tiempo para
actividad de estar de compras (Karande &
evitar
Merchant,
que
la
gente
‘pobre’
pueda
&
Davies,
la
2005);
prudencia
2012),
la
la
y
tendencia
los
a
la
progresar y acceder a niveles sociales
compra por impulso (Lee & Song, 2011) y
más altos.
distintos patrones de compra (SarabiaSanchez,
2005);
la
compra
de
A partir del argumento de la película In
alimentos (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,
time, se puede entender la razón por la
2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009); y los
que los consumidores no se comportan en
beneficios buscados con el consumo de
la vida real de la misma forma al tomar
alimentos
decisiones relacionadas con el tiempo y
Dacko, 2013).
ecológicos
(Mohsen
&
con el dinero: simplemente, no son
conscientes de la enorme restricción
A pesar de la importancia del tiempo para
temporal
comprender
existente
en
sus
vidas.
el
comportamiento
del
Estudios como el de Okada y Hoch (2004)
consumidor, no cabe duda de que este
desmontan la validez de otros intentos
recurso
previos,
la
mucho menos estudiado que el dinero
por
(Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). En
como
propuesta
de
los
basados
Becker
en
(1965),
ha
sido,
sentido,
comparativamente,
modelizar el uso tiempo como si siguiera
este
los
tres
estudios
el mismo patrón que el uso del dinero.
empíricos incluidos en esta tesis doctoral
pretenden cubrir algunos de los huecos de
Una
cuarta
línea
de
investigación
investigación
existentes
dentro
del
destacada dentro de los estudios de
marketing con aportaciones procedentes
marketing
del
de distintas disciplinas como pueden ser
consumidor es la que vincula la TP (que
la psicología o la sociología. En concreto,
puede ser definida como la importancia
las tres investigaciones tienen en común
relativa
al
que se centran en analizar el papel de los
pasado, presente y futuro) con distintos
aspectos temporales (ya sea el uso del
tipos de actitudes y comportamientos
tiempo
de los consumidores. Aunque Usunier y
comportamiento del consumidor y,
Valette-Florence
una
por tanto, como criterios/bases válidas
extensa revisión en este sentido, la TP ha
para segmentar el mercado (es decir,
sido relaciona principalmente con: las
como
actitudes y los comportamiento hacia la
utilizadas
publicidad (Kaynak, Kara, & Apil, 2011;
sujetos
Martin, Gnoth, & Strong, 2009; Rojas-
heterogéneos entre sí).
30
que
y
comportamiento
los
sujetos
(2007)
asignan
ofrecen
o
la
TP)
variables
para
para
entender
susceptibles
encontrar
homogéneos
de
grupos
internamente
el
ser
de
y
El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) propone
españoles usan el tiempo es objeto de
utilizar la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo
continuo
realizada por el Instituto Nacional de
Hamermesh, 2014) y, probablemente,
Estadística entre el 1 de octubre de 2009
constituye
y el 30 de septiembre de 2010 como
característicos y diferenciadores de esta
aproximación al análisis de los estilos de
sociedad, sirva como ejemplo el título de
vida.
la
un artículo reciente de The New York
conceptualización de Anderson y Golden
Times: ‘Spain, Land of 10 P.M. Dinners’
(1984), quienes sugieren que existe una
(Yardley, 2014).
Esta
propuesta
sigue
debate
uno
(González
de
los
&
rasgos
más
imprecisión conceptual y operativa en la
forma en que el constructo estilos de vida
El segundo estudio (Capítulo 3) evalúa
ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado en la
la eficacia del uso del tiempo en un
literatura
destino
de
comportamiento
del
turístico
como
segmentación.
(1984) proponen limitar la definición de
realizado se desarrolla en la ciudad de
estilos de vida a patrones de conducta
Toledo
manifiesta, sin incluir otros aspectos
información
como intereses u opiniones que formarían
excursionistas y turistas. A partir de una
parte de la
estilo
exhaustiva revisión de la literatura en la
cognitivo de los individuos, pero no de los
que se analizan cuáles son las principales
estilos de vida propiamente dichos.
variables de segmentación en el ámbito
o del
(España),
análisis
de
consumidor. Por ello, Anderson y Golden
psicografía
El
criterio
y
se
empírico
basa
obtenida
en
de
la
799
del marketing turístico, se concluye que
En concreto, el propósito de esta primera
las
investigación es identificar y describir
motivaciones
distintos patrones de uso del tiempo de
utilizadas como bases de segmentación
los consumidores españoles durante los
en este ámbito concreto. Sin embargo, la
fines
una
efectividad de estos dos criterios de
contribución relevante, sobre todo si se
segmentación puede ser reducida en el
tiene en cuenta que las dimensiones
caso específico de un destino cultural
temporales rara vez se han utilizado como
donde,
criterios/bases
visitantes pasean por el casco antiguo de
de
semana.
de
Ésta
segmentación
estudios
empíricos
previos.
parte,
no
han
investigaciones
se
es
anteriores
Por
en
otra
encontrado
que
hayan
la
actividades
por
ciudad
realizadas
han
sido
ejemplo,
o
las
ampliamente
casi
visitan
o
todos
museos
los
y
monumentos. La segunda investigación
empírica de esta tesis da un paso más en
abordado esta cuestión en el contexto
este
sentido,
al
proponer
una
socio-cultural español, lo que constituye
segmentación basada en la medición del
otra justificación adicional del interés del
tiempo dedicado a cada actividad y
estudio. Además, la forma en que los
evaluar las diferencias existentes entre
31
los
distintos
relación
como
grupos
con
identificados
variables
en
relación con la falta de tiempo y la
fundamentales
insatisfacción con el disfrute del ocio no
son
el
gasto
efectuado,
intenciones
de
comportamiento
y
las
se encuentra en la cantidad de tiempo
la
disponible, sino en la incapacidad para
imagen después de visitar la ciudad.
manejar este recurso con éxito a hora
extraer el máximo provecho de cada hora
Por último, el tercer estudio (Capítulo 4)
del día. Además, añade que la falta de
explora cómo cada una de las cinco TP
efectividad
(pasado-negativo,
pasado-positivo,
entrenamiento a la hora mejorar la forma
presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y
en que se usa el tiempo y conseguir los
futuro), propuestas por Zimbardo y Boyd
resultados esperados se debe a que el
(1999),
énfasis se ha puesto, tradicionalmente,
y
el
perspectiva
hecho
de
temporal
tener
una
equilibrada
en
de
modificar
los
programas
directamente
de
los
(entendida como una perspectiva flexible
comportamientos, sin entender que la
o adaptable a cada situación, sin sesgo
clave se encuentra en la psicología del
hacia
concreta)
tiempo (Boniwell, 2012). En este sentido,
influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo
este último estudio pretende ser valioso a
libre
beneficios
la hora de aportar nuevas evidencias
buscados con el ocio y las actividades
sobre si determinadas TPs o, tal vez, el
de
resultados
hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal
obtenidos proceden de una muestra de
equilibrada se pueden llegar a considerar
320 estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la
como orientaciones sanas para disfrutar
Universidad
del tiempo libre.
una
zona
temporal
disponible,
ocio
los
realizadas.
de
Los
Castilla-La
Mancha
(UCLM).
A pesar de que, como se comentó
anteriormente,
las
TPs
han
sido
ampliamente relacionadas con diferentes
actitudes y comportamientos (hacia la
publicidad, las compras, el consumo de
productos ecológicos, etc.), existen pocos
estudios empíricos que investiguen el
papel que la orientación temporal tiene en
las
elecciones
consumidores
2005;
de
ocio
(Philipp, 1992;
Shores
&
Scott,
de
los
Shores,
2007).
Recientemente, Boniwell (2012) señala
que, en la sociedad actual, el problema en
32
CHAPTER 2.
TIME USE PATTERNS OF
SPANISH
CONSUMERS
AT
WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF
WHAT, WHO AND WHEN
CHAPTER 2. TIME USE PATTERNS OF
time, money, and space (Feldman &
SPANISH
Hornik,
CONSUMERS
AT
1981).
Of
course,
activities
WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT,
related to consumption are no exception
WHO AND WHEN
to
this
statement.
Time
use
should
therefore be a topic of interest for
marketing
and
consumer
researchers,
2.1.
Introduction
behaviour
particularly
when
considering that the time spent on each
activity can be viewed as an indicator of
Time
use
studies
detailed
lifestyles
information on the roles of personal care
enormous
(Basner et al., 2007), study (Dolton,
Ratchford, & Yang, 2013). However, as
Marcenaro,
Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000, p.
&
provide
Navarro,
2003),
and
point
that
it
economic
out,
also
has
impact
(Luo,
employment and family care (Freeman &
82)
Schettkat, 2005), volunteer work (Hook,
expenditures
2004), social life and entertainment,
extensively, the issue of time allocation
sports and outdoor activities, hobbies and
has received relatively little attention’.
have
‘while
an
been
monetary
studied
games, the mass media (Frey & Benesch,
2008; Harvey, 1990; Nimrod, 2007), and
More specifically, we focus our attention
travel
in
on literature on market segmentation
people’s lives. Time use additionally
(grouping consumers into clusters or
offers a valuable framework with which to
segments,
discover
by
homogeneous and heterogeneous with
quantifying and comparing activity levels
regard to other segments). Although
(Farber,
&
some studies which carry out consumer
Morency, 2011). From a social policy
segmentation on the basis of different
perspective, time poverty (not having
time
enough time to do the things one needs
perspectives do exist (Avello, Gavilán,
to do) may be more important than
Blasco, & Abril, 2010; Chetthamrongchai
income poverty, and generates social
& Davies, 2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009;
costs (less time to volunteer, to socialise
McDonald, 1994), very few propose a
with family and friends, or to relax), which
market segmentation based on time use
are important determinants of life quality
(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,
and emotional well-being (Spinney &
2009). This circumstance is particularly
Millward, 2010).
striking if we bear in mind that consumers
(Srinivasan
barriers
Paéz,
&
to
Bhat, 2008)
inclusion
Mercado,
Roorda,
have
which
attitudes,
commonly
are
internally
perceptions
been
or
segmented
All human actions involve the allocations
according to the products and services
of three resources to varying degrees:
that they purchase and consume, when
35
these behaviours are really related to the
Firstly, the study of time use patterns at
allocation of time to various activities
weekends is a key aspect since these
(Kamakura, 2010).
patterns have an effect on well-being
that
is
highly
relative
other
The purpose of this study is therefore to
determinants
identify
time use
weekends are more valuable not because
patterns of Spanish consumers at
they are a rest period from work but
weekends.
relevant
rather because they allow us to share
contribution if we bear in mind that
social time with others (Young & Lim,
temporal dimensions (i.e. both subjective
2014).
and
describe
This
the
is
a
of
to
well-being,
and
measures related to time attitudes and
objective measures of time use) have
Secondly,
rarely
consumers
been
criteria/bases
used
in
as
segmentation
previous
the
time
can
budget
freely
that
allocate
is
empirical
highest on a weekend day because
studies. Moreover, no previous research
contracted time (amount of time spent on
has investigated this issue in the Spanish
paid work or study, including associated
socio-cultural context. The three main
travel) is quite low for a large part of the
research questions, which are closely
Spanish population.
linked to the search for what, who, and
when, are as follows:
Thirdly, the available data are crosssectional (interactions of an individual
(1)
Are there different clusters of
and a specific day), signifying that if we
Spanish consumers based on the
had considered all the days of the week it
time spent on each activity at
would
weekends? (What)
distinguish which time use patterns are
have
been
impossible
to
explained by differences in personal
(2)
Do
socio-demographic
variables
affect
cluster
preferences and which are caused by
the day of the week.
membership? (Who)
The remainder of this chapter is divided
(3)
Do clusters differ as regards their
into four sections, the first of which
timing
shows a literature review. The second
or
activity
rhythms?
(When)
provides a description of the method
used, while our results are reported in the
As a starting point, it is important to
third section. Conclusions, implications,
clarify
limitations,
why
we
have
analysis to weekends.
36
limited
our
and
future
research
discussed in the last section.
are
2.2.
Literature review
factors, such as awe, expand people’s
perceptions
2.2.1.
of
time,
and
make
alter
life
decision
The role of time in consumer
making,
feel
more
behaviour: a brief review
satisfying (Rudd, Vohs, & Aaker, 2012).
Advances in objective time measures
Schary (1971, p. 51) pointed out that
have, on the other hand, shown for
‘time
example
that
consumer
marketing because it has not been part of
(acquired
over
time
the accepted framework of consumer
consumption) has both a direct and an
behaviour’. Since then various studies
indirect impact (via its influences on
carried out in the 1980s and ‘90s have
consumption
concentrated on partially remedying this
patterns and preferences towards an
situation by emphasising the importance
activity (Luo et al., 2013).
has
been
largely
ignored
in
motives)
expertise
through
on
past
time
use
of including the time approach as regards
both
subjective
and
objective
time
With
regard
to
the
theoretical
and
measures in consumer behaviour models
empirical developments described above,
(Bergadaà, 1990; Davies & Omer, 1996;
the scant amount of attention that has
Feldman & Hornik, 1981; Hauser et al.,
been paid to temporal dimensions
1993; Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay,
(time
1996; Kaufman et al., 1991; Robinson &
perspectives,
Nicosia, 1991).
segmentation criteria is paradoxical.
More recently, on the one hand, research
Table 2.1 provides a summary of the
focused on subjective time measures
empirical studies reviewed that have
has shown, among other things that
proposed consumer segmentation based
people are more willing to waste their
on time. Upon studying this table, various
time than their money (Okada & Hoch,
aspects stand out. First, there is a
2004); time orientation is an essential
predominance of research that uses a
starting point for understanding some
subjective
purchase patterns (e.g. impulsiveness or
segmentation base in comparison to that
means of payment) (Sarabia-Sanchez,
which uses an objective measure (five
2005); compared to wasting time, gaining
studies as opposed to two). Second,
a windfall of ‘free’ time, or spending time
almost all the studies reviewed focus on
on oneself, spending time with others
very specific subjects (e.g. shopping,
relaxes
constraints,
food shopping, or leisure), with the
increases feelings of time affluence, and
exception of that of Kamakura (2009).
can
Third, some researchers have used small
perceived
lessen
time
time
pressure
(Mogilner,
Chance, & Norton, 2012); and emotional
attitudes,
and
time
sample sizes
perceptions
or
time
as
use)
measure
(Avello
et
al.,
as
a
2010;
37
Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). All of
carry out new empirical research based
the above therefore justify the need to
on time use as segmentation criterion.
Table 2.1.
Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal dimensions.
Authors (year)
McDonald (1994)
Specific
subject
Shopping
Segmentation
criteria/bases
Time perceptions
(sense of purpose,
structured routine,
effective
organisation, lack of
present orientation,
and persistence)
Sample size
Clusters
(Percentage)
Country
448
individuals
aged 45 or
over
1. Routine managers
(51%)
2. Aimless wanderers
(37%)
3. Purposeful organisers
(12%)
United
States of
America
Food
shopping
Time attitudes (past,
present and future
orientations, time
pressure, and
succession) and
shopping attitudes
210
respondents
Leisure
Temporal orientations
or TPs (pastnegative, pastpositive, presentfatalistic, presenthedonistic, and
future)
Study 1 (S1):
148
undergraduate
students
Study 2 (S2):
437
respondents
aged 18 or
over
Leisure
Leisure budgets, time
use (five activities),
temporal distribution,
and perceptions of
leisure time
3776 working
day diaries
Dobson and Ness
(2009)
Food
shopping
Time attitudes
(pressure,
succession-planner,
present-traditional,
past-secure, future,
past-tradition, and
present-planner) and
shopping attitudes
744
undergraduate
students
Kamakura (2009)
Timestyles
Time use (18
activities)
12,687
individuals/
diaries
Shopping
Time perceptions
(time pressure,
temporal orientation,
efficiency, planning,
routine, and
succession) and
hedonic shopping
motivations
257 women
aged between
30 and 50
years old
Chetthamrongchai
and Davies
(2000)
Shores (2005)
Jäckel and
Wollscheid (2007)
Avello et al.
(2010)
38
1. Convenience seekers
(29%)
2. Time-pressured
convenience seekers
(28%)
3. Apathetic but regular
(23%)
4. Hedonists (20%)
1. Present-hedonistic
(S1: 20%, S2: 7%)
2. Future (S1: 20%, S2:
27%)
3. Present-fatalistic (S1:
20%, S2: 6%)
4. Past-positive (S1:
18%, S2: 43%)
5. Past-negative (S1:
11%, S2: 9%)
6. Undifferentiated (S1:
11%, S2: 8%)
1. Cluster with a
medium leisure time
(50%)
2. Time-poor cluster
(33%)
3. Time-rich cluster
(17%)
1. Methodical, valueseeking, apathetic,
time-pressured
traditional females
(36%)
2. Hedonistic,
succession-planning
past-secure females
(33%)
3. Futuristic,
spontaneous male
convenience seekers
(31%)
A-B. Timestyles on a
working day (34%)
C. Timestyle of students
(5%)
D-F. Timestyles of
homemakers (35%)
G-K. Timestyles focused
on personal care and
free time (26%)
1. Efficient/recreational
(29%)
2. Erratic (34%)
3. Pragmatic (37%)
England
United
States of
America
Germany
England
United
States of
America
Spain
2.2.2.
From lifestyle segmentation
the basis of four dimensions: values, life
to
visions,
market
segmentation
based on time use
aesthetic
styles,
and
media
preferences.
From a theoretical perspective, the need
However, none of the proposals described
to segment the market on the basis of
in the previous paragraph are consistent
time use refers to the concept of lifestyles
with
as a means of discovering the activities
Golden (1984), who conclude that there
carried out by consumers in their daily
is
lives. The concept of lifestyle has been
imprecision as regards the lifestyle
addressed by various disciplines (e.g.
construct
sociology,
or
literature. These authors suggest a clear
environmental sciences) and related to
distinction between lifestyle (restricting
many different problems (Jensen, 2009).
the
This interdisciplinary interest
characteristic
psychology,
marketing,
signifies
a
the approach
of Anderson
conceptual
in
and
operational
consumer
definition
of
and
behaviour
lifestyle
patterns
of
to
overt
that in our literature review we have
behaviour) and psychographic variables
found almost as many definitions of
or cognitive style (characteristic patterns
lifestyle as there are disciplines in which
of thinking, feeling, and perceiving). In
this concept has been studied.
this respect, Jensen (2009, p. 225)
defines lifestyle as ‘a pattern of repeated
In the areas of marketing and consumer
acts that are both dynamic and to some
behaviour, lifestyle segmentation has
degree hidden to the individual, and they
been
identify
involve the use of artefacts’. Thus, von
homogeneous groups of consumers and
Normann (2009) for example presents
to
strategies
the results from an empirical study of
(Cahill, 2006). Plummer (1974) points out
German children in which a segmentation
that lifestyle measures people’s activities
analysis was conducted based on their
in terms of: how they spend their time,
lifestyles measured with leisure time
their interests and opinions, and certain
activities selected. This research reveals
demographic
Lifestyles
four lifestyles: family-centred children,
have therefore been measured using
outdoor and sociable youth, multimedia
different
kids, and culture-oriented youth.
used
extensively
implement
to
marketing
characteristics.
versions
of
the
Activities,
Interests and Opinions (AIO) Scale
(Wells & Tigert, 1971) in a number of
McDonald (1994, p. 360) suggests that
studies,
consumers ‘assign time to activities based
such
as
that
conducted
by
Kucukemiroglu (1999). Vyncke (2002)
on
opportunities
subsequently advised against the use of
associated with lifestyle characteristics,
the AIO Scale, and identified lifestyles on
which
is
consistent
and
with
constraints
the
social-
39
psychological perspective that time use
work, housework, and leisure. As (1978)
represents
denominates these four kinds of time as:
an
indicator
of
lifestyles’.
Various authors have followed this idea to
necessary
go a step further and indicate that time
health, and hygiene), contracted time
use methodologies can provide valuable
(amount of time spent on paid work or
empirical evidence about lifestyles (Luo
study,
et al., 2013), while other researchers
committed time (time budget dedicated
have performed segmentations based on
to unpaid work such as housework,
data concerning how people allocate their
childcare,
time
2007;
volunteer work and meetings, and travel
Kamakura, 2009). Jäckel and Wollscheid
related to these activities), and leisure
(2007) use the German Time Use Survey
time (remaining time, when the time for
data collected from 2001 to 2002 and find
necessary, contracted
three lifestyles (a group with medium
activities is removed). Some authors refer
leisure time, a time-poor cluster, and a
to the last dimension (leisure time) as
time-rich cluster) which differ in their
free time, which is a standard measure of
leisure budgets, activities (media, social
time poverty (Spinney & Millward, 2010).
activity, sports, hobbies and games, and
However, in practise, people may spend
relaxing), temporal distribution (morning,
more time than is strictly necessary on
afternoon, and evening), perceptions of
each of the three previous dimensions
leisure time (not enough, enough, or too
(i.e. they spend more time on personal
much
socio-
care than necessary, work longer, or
demographic profiles. Kamakura (2009)
spend more time on unpaid household)
proposes a time-allocation model and
(Goodin, Rice, Bittman, & Saunders,
applies it to data from the American Time
2005). According to these authors, this
Use Survey collected in 2006, identifying
leads to what they denominate as ‘time-
eleven timestyles that define the different
pressure
ways in which American people allocate
recommend that time poverty should be
their time to 18 daily activities (Table
measured
2.1).
‘discretionary time’ (time left to them
(Jäckel
leisure
&
Wollscheid,
time),
and
time
and
(eating,
associated
shopping
illusion’
using
and
the
and
and
they
sleeping,
travel),
services,
committed
therefore
concept
of
after they do the minimum they need to
2.2.3.
Heterogeneity in time use and
do as regards personal care, paid work
its determinants
and unpaid household labour).
As Feldman and Hornik (1981) indicate,
In addition to having to choose between
the
the
spending time on one activity or another,
consumer’s allocation of the resources to
individuals may combine (both actively
four components of time: necessities,
and passively) two or more activities at
40
basic
choice
consists
of
the same time. In this respect, previous
these unobservable individual differences
research has confirmed the prevalence of
is likely to produce a biased assessment
multi-tasking,
of
multi-tasking
suggesting
style
that
affects
the
life
priorities’.
Our
first
research
people’s
question (RQ1) was, therefore: Are there
understanding of time use and the time
different clusters of Spanish consumers
that they spend participating in different
based on the time spent on each activity
activities (Kenyon, 2008).
at
weekends?
aforementioned
Based
on
studies
2007;
the
(Jäckel
Kamakura,
&
This leads us to pose a relevant question:
Wollscheid,
2009;
What do various individuals’ differences
Yamamoto & Kitamura, 1999), we can
in time allocation depend on? According
draw a tentative conclusion as follows:
to Yamamoto and Kitamura (1999), these
differences may be owing to observed
Proposition
and unobserved factors. On the one
clusters of Spanish consumers based on
hand, some differences in time use can be
the
accounted for by measures explanatory
weekends.
socio-demographic
environmental
on
are
each
different
activity
at
or
With regard to observed heterogeneity,
Godbey, 2000), which have been widely
Robinson and Godbey (2000) classify the
dealt with in previous empirical and
background factors that affect how people
theoretical studies, and which will be
spend
discussed later. On the other, some other
biological factors; role factors; status
differences cannot be accounted for by
factors;
observed
geographic factors; and temporal factors
explanatory
are
called
(Robinson
spent
There
&
these
aspects
variables
time
1:
variables,
and
‘unobserved
their
time
locational,
into
five
groups:
ecological,
or
(Figure 2.1).
heterogeneity’ (Yamamoto & Kitamura,
1999).
The importance of all these factors has
been widely analysed in literature, that
With regard to the latter (unobserved
which has been most frequently studied
factors), Feldman and Hornik (1981)
being gender. This is not only because
indicate that time dedicated to each
there are large gender differences as
activity will depend on its subjective
regards time use, but also because of its
meaning for the consumer. Kamakura
importance for social policies (Robinson &
(2009, p. 335), meanwhile, points out
Godbey, 2000; Shaw, 1991). Current
that there are many explanations why
studies from Spain thus report gender
‘one should expect individuals to differ in
differences in the allocation of leisure
the value they assign to the competing
time to sports and cultural activities
daily activities. Any analysis that ignores
(Muñiz, Rodríguez, & Suárez, 2014). With
41
regard to age, previous empirical studies
literature
have
same
leisure time in relation to income (Jäckel
conclusions: older people have more
& Wollscheid, 2007). These authors have
leisure time, but they tend to spend less
discovered differences in leisure time use
time with others than young people
as regards not only gender, age and
(coinciding
income,
consistently
with
reached
the
the
disengagement
on
but
inequalities
also
concerning
family
status,
employment,
and
theory). This may explain why older
education,
people have more freedom than younger
professional status. Kamakura (2009),
people to spend time alone or because
meanwhile, profiles the eleven time-
they have fewer people around (i.e.
styles
smaller, less diverse, and more family-
marital status, presence of children
centric networks than younger people)
younger than 12 at home, family income,
(Marcum, 2013). There is also extensive
occupation, and day of the week.
based
on
gender,
age,
race,
Figure 2.1.
Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation.
Role factors



Work hours
Marital status
Number of children
Status factors
Biological factors






Sex
Age
Nationality or race
Education level
Income
Occupation
Activities/behaviour
Ecological factors



Housing type
Size of place or urban
area
Region
Temporal factors



Day of the week
Month or season
Year
Source: adapted from Robinson and Godbey (2000, p. 17).
42
The second research question (RQ2)
their time at weekends will be associated
was:
with differences in timing or activity
Do
socio-demographic
variables
affect cluster membership? The research
proposition
based
on
the
research
question above is:
Proposition
2:
Clusters
rhythms.
of
Spanish
2.3.
Method
2.3.1.
Data and sample profile
consumers based on the time spent on
each activity at weekends differ with
This research uses data from the Time
regard
status,
Use Survey (TUS) collected by the
occupation, education level, presence of
Spanish National Statistics Institute from
children younger than 10 at home, and
1 October 2009 to 30 September
family income.
2010, in order to obtain information
to
age,
sex,
marital
concerning all the weeks in the year. The
In the present study, the variable ‘day of
TUS
the week’ is not particularly relevant,
strategy
since we have limited our analysis to
census sections (they were grouped into
weekends. However, in order to take a
strata within each Spanish region based
step further in the analysis of time use,
on the size of the municipality to which
we also wish to investigate the question
the section belongs) at first stage. The
of when each type of activity takes
second stage units were selected from
place.
and
lists of family dwellings in each of these
Wollscheid (2007) have found differences
sections. Only those people aged 10 or
in
time
over residing in private residences were
evening)
studied in the TUS. These people filled out
among the three lifestyles that they
an individual questionnaire and an activity
identified. More specifically, the cluster
diary on a pre-established day. More
containing medium leisure time and the
comprehensive details about the data
time-poor
collection process are available in the
In
the
(morning,
this
respect,
distribution
of
afternoon,
cluster
Jäckel
leisure
and
spend
a
higher
applied
with
percentage of their leisure time budget in
methodological
the morning in comparison with the time-
Spanish
rich cluster. The third research question
(2011).
a
two-stage
stratified
report
National
sampling
sampling
prepared
Statistics
of
by
Institute
(RQ3) was therefore: Do clusters differ as
regards their timing or activity rhythms?
The public-use microdata files for the TUS
And our research proposition is:
include
information
individuals/diaries
Proposition 3:
Market
about
(Spanish
19,295
National
segmentation
Statistics Institute, 2012), individuals’
based on how Spanish consumers spend
interactions and a specific day. The 7559
43
weekend
diaries
beforehand
in
were
selected
accordance
with
the
memory effect may have significantly
affected the outcomes of this study (e.g.
objectives of the study. Of these, only
omission
2118 individuals completed their diary
imprecision in timing or activity rhythms,
throughout or at the end of the pre-
etc.). This was nevertheless a sufficiently
established
the
large sample size for statistical analysis.
diary
Furthermore, we compared the socio-
retrospectively (i.e. one or more days
demographic profile of the original (n =
after
for
7559) and filtered weekend (n = 2118)
equality of means were performed to
samples. No substantial deviations were
assess whether the effect of memory
observed, and only two specific deviations
caused a bias in the reported time. We
of above four percentage points (in
found significant differences (p < 0.05) in
absolute value) from the original weekend
the average time spent on 60% of the
sample were detected. These were in
activities considered. Our sample was
occupation (employee = 4.84%) and
therefore reduced to 2118 individuals/
educational level (primary education = -
diaries
5.36%) (Table 2.2).
remaining
the
weekend
5441
filled
reported
owing
day,
while
out
day).
the
T-tests
to the fact
that
the
of
short-duration
activities,
Table 2.2.
Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered weekend samples.
Variable
AGE
SEX
Male
Female
MARITAL STATUS
Single
Married/living as a couple
Widowed
Separated/divorced
OCCUPATION
Employee
Unemployed
Student
Retired
Homemaker
Other occupation
EDUCATION LEVEL
Without any formal education
Primary education
Secondary education
Post-secondary non-tertiary education
Tertiary education
CHILDREN YOUNGER
THAN 10 AT HOME
None
At least one
Original weekend
sample
(n = 7559)
47.66
Filtered weekend
sample
(n = 2118)
44.58
Deviations from the
original weekend
sample
-3.08
46.09%
53.91%
46.08%
53.92%
-0.01%
0.01%
28.06%
59.20%
8.04%
4.70%
30.26%
59.54%
6.14%
4.06%
2.20%
0.34%
-1.90%
-0.64%
43.23%
10.69%
10.60%
15.76%
12.44%
7.28%
48.07%
10.62%
13.41%
12.23%
10.95%
4.72%
4.84%
-0.07%
2.81%
-3.53%
-1.49%
-2.56%
3.97%
34.30%
34.41%
11.59%
15.73%
2.56%
28.94%
37.06%
11.99%
19.45%
-1.41%
-5.36%
2.65%
0.40%
3.72%
77.58%
22.42%
74.69%
25.31%
-2.89%
2.89%
Notes: The filtered sample was composed of people who completed the diary throughout or at the end of the
pre-established weekend day.
44
2.3.2.
Instruments
profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers
and their activity rhythms, we presented
The TUS consisted of four information
the
collection
classification
tools
(Spanish
National
aggregated
of
data
based
four
kinds
on
of
the
time
Statistics Institute, 2011): a household
(necessary, contracted, committed, and
questionnaire;
leisure time) proposed by As (1978), and
an
individual
questionnaire; an activity diary; and a
also
used
weekly work schedule (which was not
(2010).
by
Spinney
and
Millward
used in this research). The individual
and
household
questionnaires
2.3.3.
Data analysis
provided us with information about the
socio-demographic profile of the sample
The research propositions were tested
(who).
by
applying
analysis
(LCCA).
Time use data were collected using a 24-
significant
hour
segmentation
diary
(divided
into
10-minute
latent
class
The
cluster
LCCA
advantages
over
procedures
has
other
(Oppewal,
intervals, from 6:00 am to 6:00 am of the
Paas, Crouch, & Huybers, 2010) and has
following day) in which each respondent
been used in other market segmentation
was
main/principal
studies based on time use (García, 2013;
activity (what) and secondary activity
Kamakura, 2009). The proposed model
performed simultaneously (multi-tasking
included a series of indicators (what:
style), in addition to whether she/he used
minutes spent by Spanish consumers on
a
28
asked
computer
performing
to
report:
or
these
the
Internet
activities;
when
activities
at
weekends)
and,
in
timing
accordance with previous research, also
(when); location or means of transport
incorporated certain relevant covariates
(where); and social context (with whom).
(who:
The activity code system used in the TUS
occupation, education level, presence of
was an adaptation of the Activity Coding
children younger than 10 at home, and
List 2008 proposed by Eurostat (2009) for
family income) with which to predict
harmonised European time use surveys.
cluster
This is hierarchical, with a maximum of
parameters were estimated using Latent
three levels. For our analyses, the 33
Gold® 4.5, while additional univariate
second-level activities were aggregated
and
into 28 categories. In addition, in order
conducted using IBM® SPSS® Statistics
to facilitate the interpretation of the
19.0.
age,
sex,
marital
membership.
bivariate
The
analyses
status,
model
were
45
2.4.
Results
better fit (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000). The
results presented in Table 2.3 indicate
2.4.1.
Number of time-use patterns
that, according to the CAIC, there were
and
nine time use patterns for Spanish
usefulness
of
the
indicators and covariates
consumers at weekends.
The first step in the LCCA is the selection
After determining the number of clusters
of
(nine), we evaluated the usefulness of
the
appropriate
number
of
clusters/segments based on statistical
the
criteria, such
significant
as
consistent
Akaike
indicators
and
p-value
covariates.
(i.e.
p
<
A
0.05)
information criterion (CAIC) (Wedel &
associated with the robust Wald statistic
Kamakura, 2000). This signifies that the
means that the indicator discriminates
LCCA is highly appropriate for research in
between the clusters in a statistically
which the number of clusters is unknown
significant manner (Vermunt & Magidson,
a priori. The number of time use patterns
2005a). The robust Wald p-value was
were
10
used to assess the significance of the
incorporated
covariates in similar way. Tables 2.4 and
between one (sample homogeneity) and
2.5 show the estimated parameters for
10 clusters (sample heterogeneity with 10
the
patterns). Lower CAIC values indicate a
respectively.
determined
models,
each
of
by
considering
which
indicators
and
covariates,
Table 2.3.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of Spanish consumers.
Model
Log-likelihood
(LL)
CAIC(LL)
Number of
parameters
Classification
errors
One cluster
-314,227.76
628,940.39
56
0.00
Two clusters
-276,991.89
555,126.67
132
0.00
Three clusters
-266,408.89
534,618.69
208
0.00
Four clusters
-256,359.20
515,177.33
284
0.00
Five clusters
-252,070.96
507,258.89
360
0.00
Six clusters
-245,875.62
495,526.22
436
0.00
Seven clusters
-242,449.94
489,332.89
512
0.01
Eight clusters
-241,620.23
488,331.50
588
0.01
Nine clusters*
-235,769.30
477,287.66
664
0.00
Ten clusters
-235,563.56
477,534.21
740
0.00
Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.
46
Firstly, 27 out of 28 indicators had a
consumers based
significance level associated with the
patterns at weekends (RQ1). With regard
robust Wald statistic that was lower than
to the indicator measuring the time spent
0.05, indicating that the time allocation in
on other personal care, its p-value
these activities allows the sample to be
(0.12) was greater than 0.05, suggesting
grouped into nine clusters (Table 2.4).
that the time spent on this activity was
There was, therefore, empirical support
not significantly different between
for
clusters.
the
segmentation
of
Spanish
on
their time use
Table 2.4.
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.
Indicator
Cluster 1.
People who
pursue
domestic
activities
Cluster 2.
Sleepyheads
and couch
potatoes
Cluster 3.
Weekend
workers
Cluster 4.
Book and
radio/music
lovers
during
leisure time
Cluster 5.
DIY handypeople
Sleeping
11.96
89.03
-39.27
-14.89
22.56
Eating and drinking
7.19
4.33
-8.49
1.19
17.96
Other personal care
0.90
-1.91
-4.56
4.94
0.15
Employment
-61.38
-61.38
241.72
-61.31
-61.38
Study
Travel related to employment
and study
Household management
-26.40
12.75
-26.40
-26.40
10.18
-7.78
-7.78
19.08
-7.78
-7.78
2.22
-9.28
-9.28
-9.28
-9.28
Food management
39.28
-24.01
-16.47
14.20
-25.46
Household upkeep
19.22
-7.44
-11.12
9.87
-2.68
Making and care of textiles
16.31
-14.58
-11.35
5.39
-13.93
Gardening and pet care
-0.86
-15.91
-4.13
-15.44
50.97
Construction and repairs
-8.82
-8.82
-8.82
-8.82
23.36
Shopping and services
11.75
-16.99
-2.26
6.86
2.82
Childcare
17.17
-22.03
5.45
2.60
-21.83
Adult household care
-4.61
-4.61
-4.61
-1.55
-4.61
Volunteer work and meetings
Travel related to committed
activities
Social life
1.55
-17.87
-17.87
7.22
-15.49
7.32
-14.04
-4.89
9.86
2.74
-1.92
17.17
-15.55
8.10
10.26
-15.40
4.08
14.93
11.83
-15.34
Entertainment and culture
Resting and time out
-5.16
6.67
7.69
-2.31
-5.30
Sports and outdoor activities
14.43
22.10
-13.94
4.90
-0.73
Arts
-9.12
-9.12
-9.12
-9.12
-9.12
Computing
-10.77
18.84
-11.36
-12.83
23.66
Games
-19.80
10.84
-19.80
13.87
25.25
Reading
4.08
-20.05
-13.83
34.80
1.50
Watching TV and videos
34.26
53.10
-25.96
9.14
8.20
Listening to radio and music
Travel related to leisure
activities and other
unspecified time
-8.74
-8.74
-8.74
32.19
-8.74
-6.88
6.64
-1.06
11.76
2.06
47
Table 2.4. (Continued)
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.
Cluster 6.
Art lovers
with quite
a lot of
leisure
time
Indicator
Cluster 7.
People
committed
to caring
for
relatives
Cluster 8.
Eclectics
(4.30%)
Cluster 9.
People
who mix
leisure
time and
studies
Robust
Wald
statistic
p
Sleeping
18.18
-44.24
-45.62
2.28
235.78
0.00
Eating and drinking
-6.43
-10.22
-8.73
3.20
32.94
0.00
Other personal care
4.89
-3.07
1.06
-2.40
12.87
0.12
Employment
-60.41
69.09
56.41
-61.38
462.64
0.00
Study
and study
-26.40
-26.40
52.50
56.57
158.63
0.00
-7.78
10.66
16.94
-7.78
244.32
0.00
23.12
11.17
-2.47
3.11
162.17
0.00
Food management
19.04
16.56
6.29
-29.43
463.31
0.00
Household upkeep
1.03
7.55
-2.14
-14.28
113.89
0.00
12.96
7.84
0.26
-2.91
459.53
0.00
5.99
-2.37
-4.04
-14.21
244.34
0.00
-8.82
26.64
-5.85
-0.07
80.69
0.00
Childcare
-4.78
5.67
-4.24
1.16
534.58
0.00
-22.03
35.25
27.33
-21.91
287.06
0.00
6.24
-4.61
22.97
-4.61
41.25
0.00
activities
Social life
-9.00
47.10
-4.69
9.06
292.05
0.00
-4.16
8.66
-3.49
-1.99
671.67
0.00
2.69
-8.67
-3.64
-8.44
31.34
0.00
-15.40
-15.40
0.09
30.62
191.28
0.00
-10.03
-11.78
-8.05
28.25
65.01
0.00
6.29
-11.95
-26.76
5.67
111.31
0.00
39.08
-9.12
0.66
14.96
66.32
0.00
4.27
-9.15
-6.48
3.82
76.69
0.00
Games
10.22
-19.80
-3.10
2.33
222.33
0.00
Reading
5.66
-3.36
-9.44
0.64
95.91
0.00
29.93
-48.00
-38.14
-22.53
189.15
0.00
unspecified time
-1.68
-6.54
2.69
8.30
105.32
0.00
-12.66
-11.53
-10.32
21.98
47.41
0.00
significantly
affect
cluster
Arts
Computing
Secondly, with regard to the covariates
did
(RQ2),
membership (p = 0.31). This signifies
significant
effects
were
not
observed for age, sex, marital status,
that
occupation,
exhibited
education
level,
and
all
nine
time
similar
use
patterns
frequency
presence of children younger than 10
distributions in relation to the family
at home (p < 0.05). The family income
income (Table 2.5).
48
Table 2.5.
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates.
Covariate
AGE
Cluster 1.
People who
pursue
domestic
activities
Cluster 2.
Sleepyheads
and couch
potatoes
Cluster 3.
Weekend
workers
Cluster 4.
Book and
radio/music
lovers
during
leisure time
Cluster 5.
DIY handypeople
0.00
-0.01
0.00
0.03
-0.02
Male
-0.43
0.20
0.08
-0.18
0.54
Female
0.43
-0.20
-0.08
0.18
-0.54
Single
-0.59
-0.01
-0.06
0.14
-0.13
0.10
-0.72
-0.22
0.04
0.21
Widowed
0.91
1.17
0.52
0.51
-0.63
Separated/divorced
-0.42
-0.45
-0.24
-0.69
0.55
Employee
-0.45
-0.97
1.43
-0.59
-0.34
Unemployed
-0.03
-0.41
0.24
-0.01
-0.37
Student
-0.84
0.81
-0.35
-0.22
1.23
Retired
0.24
0.08
-0.97
0.15
0.22
Homemaker
0.07
-0.38
0.14
0.26
-1.89
Other occupation
1.01
0.87
-0.50
0.40
1.14
-0.24
0.15
0.61
-0.03
0.31
Primary education
0.26
0.09
0.18
-0.03
0.42
SEX
MARITAL STATUS
OCCUPATION
EDUCATION LEVEL
Secondary education
0.08
-0.16
0.08
-0.06
-0.14
Post-secondary non-tertiary
education
0.03
0.08
-0.36
0.26
-0.26
Tertiary education
-0.13
-0.16
-0.50
-0.15
-0.33
None
-0.24
0.41
-0.36
-0.35
0.43
At least one
0.24
-0.41
0.36
0.35
-0.43
Under 1201
-0.07
-0.12
-0.08
-0.15
-0.17
1201-2000
0.01
-0.13
0.18
-0.11
-0.10
2001-3000
-0.03
-0.02
-0.05
0.26
0.23
Over 3000
0.09
0.15
-0.40
0.08
0.02
Do not know/no answer
0.01
0.12
0.35
-0.07
0.02
CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN
10 AT HOME
FAMILY INCOME (€)
49
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates.
Covariate
AGE
Cluster 6.
Art lovers
with quite
a lot of
leisure
time
Cluster 7.
People
committed
to caring
for
relatives
Cluster 8.
Eclectics
(4.30%)
Cluster 9.
People
who mix
leisure
time and
studies
Robust
Wald
statistic
p
0.00
0.00
0.01
-0.01
15.89
0.04
Male
-0.22
-0.09
-0.02
0.12
107.79
0.00
Female
0.22
0.09
0.02
-0.12
Single
-0.39
-0.32
1.47
-0.11
-0.48
0.62
0.98
-0.54
82.84
0.00
Widowed
0.66
-0.13
-3.90
0.88
Separated/divorced
0.21
-0.17
1.44
-0.23
Employee
-0.77
1.25
-0.02
0.45
Unemployed
-0.48
0.63
-0.21
0.64
Student
0.46
-4.66
1.04
2.54
214.27
0.00
Retired
0.57
0.31
-1.21
0.60
Homemaker
0.55
0.56
0.11
0.56
Other occupation
-0.34
1.91
0.29
-4.79
-1.10
0.49
0.48
-0.67
Primary education
0.14
-0.36
-0.82
0.13
Secondary education
0.24
0.12
-0.06
-0.09
53.19
0.01
education
0.18
-0.22
0.29
0.00
Tertiary education
0.54
-0.02
0.11
0.64
None
0.46
-0.33
-0.38
0.37
81.25
0.00
At least one
-0.46
0.33
0.38
-0.37
Under 1201
0.07
-0.05
0.21
0.36
1201-2000
-0.15
0.15
0.17
-0.01
2001-3000
0.13
-0.08
-0.15
-0.29
35.49
0.31
Over 3000
0.25
-0.31
-0.15
0.27
Do not know/no answer
-0.30
0.28
-0.07
-0.34
SEX
MARITAL STATUS
OCCUPATION
EDUCATION LEVEL
10 AT HOME
FAMILY INCOME (€)
50
2.4.2.
Profiles of clusters: in search
Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch
of what and who
potatoes. This group represents 17.20%
of the sample. This cluster is more
Tables 2.6 and 2.7 show the profiles of
focused on necessary and leisure time
the clusters of Spanish consumers. The
(13.99 and 8.41
average times reported by the people
respectively) than the other clusters. The
belonging to each cluster in Table 2.6 are
most salient features are that the people
expressed
facilitate
in this cluster spend almost eleven hours
interpretation although, as noted above,
sleeping and more than three hours
the model estimation was performed
watching TV and videos. More than 60%
using the minutes spent on each main
of them are single.
in
hours
to
hours on average,
activity. Table 2.7 provides information
on the average age and the frequency
Cluster 3. Weekend workers. This
distribution of the other covariates for
cluster contains 13.14% of the sample.
each time use pattern. The only non-
These people spend an average of more
significant covariate (family income) has
than five hours working on a weekend
been omitted here for reasons of space.
day. Approximately 60% are men, almost
The first row in these tables contains the
all are in the labour market, and this
name assigned to each cluster, in addition
cluster contains the highest proportion of
to its relative size. The grey shaded cells
people
mark the highest values (averages or
(46.03%).
with
a
secondary
education
percentages) of rows across the clusters.
A summary of the features of the nine
Cluster
4.
Book
and
radio/music
time use patterns of Spanish consumers
lovers during leisure time. The relative
at weekends is presented below.
size of this group is 9.10%. These leisureoriented people (7.79 hours on average)
Cluster
1.
People
pursue
can be differentiated from others in that
domestic activities. This first cluster is
they spend more than two hours reading
the most numerous, representing 35.81%
and listening to radio and music, while the
of the sample. These people, together
weekend sample average reported in
with the consumers in Cluster 7, are those
these two activities is less than half an
who dedicate most time to committed
hour.
activities
proportion of older females.
(more
particularly
food
who
than
five
hours),
management
This
group
contains
a
higher
and
household upkeep. This cluster contains
Cluster 5. DIY (Do It Yourself) handy-
the
females
people. 7.27% are people who are
(almost 70%) and more than half of them
characterised by the fact that they spend
are not employed.
half of their committed time (3.31 hours
highest
percentage
of
51
on average) pursuing activities related to
Cluster
8.
gardening and pet care, and construction
represents 4.30% of the sample. They
and repairs. These consumers are those
carry out a wide range of activities on a
who spend most time eating and drinking,
weekend day; their time is fairly equally
computing, and playing games. In this
distributed in the pursuit of contracted,
cluster, almost 80% are men and more
committed and leisure activities (3.69,
than 39% have a primary education.
4.04,
and
Eclectics.
4.69
hours
This
on
group
average,
respectively). Nearly 40% of this group
Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot
lives in a home without children under 10
of leisure time. This group contains
years old.
4.79% of the sample. Like Clusters 2, 4,
and
9,
they
leisure-oriented
Cluster 9. People who mix leisure
consumers (7.39 hours on average), but
time and studies. The remaining 3.89%
they have a high propensity towards
are
carrying out activities linked with arts on
predilection for spending part of their time
a weekend day (0.80 opposed to 0.06
pursuing activities linked to leisure, such
hours on average for the overall sample).
as entertainment and culture, resting and
Most of the people in this group are
time out, and travel related to leisure
women (63.44%) and live in a home
activities and other unspecified time.
without
Furthermore,
children
are
younger
than
10
(91.19%).
Spanish
consumers with
together
a
with
high
the
consumers in Cluster 8, they spend the
highest amount of time on study. This
Cluster 7. People committed to caring
cluster has higher proportions of young
for relatives. The relative size of this
(M = 33.87) and single (60.88%) people,
group is 4.50%. This cluster exemplifies
and students (41.44%).
time poverty on a weekend day, with less
leisure time (3.81 hours on average) in
Kamakura (2009, p. 353) indicates that
comparison to the other clusters owing to
‘average
the fact that more time is spent on
across
committed activities (particularly food
misleading because not all participants
management, childcare, and volunteer
engage in all activities during a day’. As
work and meetings) (6.20 hours on
suggested
average). With regard to the socio-
calculated the propensity to engage in
demographic profile, 84.16% are married
each
or
(incidence
living
as
a
couple,
78.79%
are
time
allocations
individuals
by
are
Kamakura
activity
rates)
computed
potentially
(2009),
within
(Appendix
we
clusters
A).
An
employed, and 40.91% live in a home
examination of this table leads to similar
with children younger than 10.
conclusions to those regarding Table 2.6.
Both tables show that Spanish consumers
52
were correctly grouped based on their
therefore as regards the average amount
individual differences in the propensity to
of hours spent on each activity (Table
engage in each activity (Appendix A), and
2.6).
Table 2.6.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.
Cluster 3.
Weekend
workers
(13.14%)
Cluster 4.
Book and
radio/music
lovers
during
leisure time
(9.10%)
Cluster 5.
DIY handypeople
(7.27%)
13.99
11.59
12.32
13.14
Indicator (hours)
Cluster 1.
People who
pursue
domestic
activities
(35.81%)
Cluster 2.
Sleepyheads
and couch
potatoes
(17.20%)
1. NECESSARY TIME
12.80
Sleeping
9.59
10.87
8.73
9.14
9.76
Eating and drinking
2.29
2.24
2.03
2.19
2.47
Other personal care
0.92
0.88
0.83
0.99
0.91
2. CONTRACTED TIME
0.00
0.65
5.50
0.00
0.61
Employment
0.00
0.00
5.05
0.00
0.00
Study
and study
3. COMMITTED TIME
0.00
0.65
0.00
0.00
0.61
0.00
0.00
0.45
0.00
0.00
5.21
0.95
2.12
3.89
3.31
0.19
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Food management
1.54
0.48
0.61
1.12
0.46
Household upkeep
0.91
0.46
0.40
0.75
0.54
0.51
0.00
0.05
0.33
0.01
0.25
0.00
0.20
0.01
1.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.54
0.48
0.00
0.25
0.40
0.33
Childcare
0.65
0.00
0.46
0.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.00
activities
4. LEISURE TIME
0.32
0.00
0.00
0.42
0.04
0.36
0.00
0.15
0.40
0.28
5.99
8.41
4.79
7.79
6.93
Social life
0.79
1.11
0.56
0.96
0.99
0.00
0.32
0.51
0.45
0.00
0.19
0.38
0.40
0.23
0.18
1.02
1.15
0.55
0.86
0.77
Arts
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Computing
0.22
0.71
0.21
0.18
0.79
Games
0.00
0.51
0.00
0.56
0.75
Reading
0.45
0.05
0.15
1.35
0.41
2.79
3.42
1.78
1.67
2.35
unspecified time
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.68
0.00
0.53
0.76
0.63
0.84
0.68
53
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.
Cluster 6.
Art lovers
with quite a
lot of leisure
time
(4.79%)
Cluster 7.
People
committed
to caring for
relatives
(4.50%)
Cluster 8.
Eclectics
(4.30%)
Cluster 9.
People who
mix leisure
time and
studies
(3.89%)
Total
12.74
11.51
11.58
12.52
12.70
Sleeping
9.69
8.65
8.63
9.43
9.58
Eating and drinking
2.06
2.00
2.02
2.22
2.21
Other personal care
0.99
0.86
0.93
0.87
0.91
0.02
2.48
3.69
1.38
1.20
Employment
0.02
2.17
1.96
0.00
0.85
Indicator (hours)
1. NECESSARY TIME
2. CONTRACTED TIME
Study
0.00
0.00
1.31
1.38
0.27
and study
0.00
0.31
0.41
0.00
0.09
3. COMMITTED TIME
3.86
6.20
4.04
2.27
3.63
0.54
0.34
0.11
0.21
0.12
Food management
1.20
1.16
0.99
0.39
1.01
Household upkeep
0.61
0.71
0.55
0.35
0.67
0.46
0.37
0.25
0.19
0.28
0.36
0.23
0.20
0.03
0.23
0.00
0.59
0.05
0.15
0.07
0.20
0.38
0.21
0.30
0.31
Childcare
0.00
0.95
0.82
0.00
0.41
0.18
0.00
0.46
0.00
0.03
0.15
1.08
0.22
0.45
0.24
activities
0.16
0.38
0.18
0.20
0.24
7.38
3.81
4.69
7.83
6.46
Social life
0.87
0.68
0.76
0.68
0.84
0.00
0.00
0.26
0.77
0.20
0.10
0.08
0.14
0.74
0.26
0.89
0.58
0.34
0.88
0.89
Arts
0.80
0.00
0.16
0.40
0.06
Computing
0.47
0.24
0.29
0.46
0.37
Games
0.50
0.00
0.28
0.37
0.24
Reading
0.48
0.33
0.23
0.39
0.40
2.71
1.41
1.58
1.84
2.48
0.12
0.04
0.19
0.28
0.09
unspecified time
0.44
0.46
0.48
1.01
0.63
4. LEISURE TIME
54
Table 2.7.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates.
Cluster 3.
Weekend
workers
(13.14%)
Cluster 4.
Book and
radio/music
lovers
during
leisure time
(9.10%)
Cluster 5.
DIY handypeople
(7.27%)
36.93
41.49
51.58
38.83
31.00%
54.87%
60.33%
42.49%
76.56%
69.00%
45.13%
39.67%
57.51%
23.44%
Single
13.86%
60.64%
28.74%
20.42%
44.11%
72.58%
28.68%
64.77%
70.24%
50.71%
Widowed
9.63%
7.94%
1.44%
6.74%
0.64%
Separated/divorced
3.93%
2.74%
5.06%
2.59%
4.55%
Employee
43.73%
28.46%
86.20%
40.48%
43.84%
Unemployed
13.17%
10.13%
6.01%
12.48%
Student
2.62%
38.41%
2.88%
3.93%
30.62%
Retired
14.87%
12.35%
1.28%
21.38%
13.76%
Homemaker
18.07%
4.12%
3.28%
17.41%
0.65%
7.54%
6.53%
0.36%
4.30%
3.06%
2.37%
3.84%
1.80%
3.08%
2.60%
Cluster 1.
People who
pursue
domestic
activities
(35.81%)
Cluster 2.
Sleepyheads
and couch
potatoes
(17.20%)
50.07
Male
Female
Covariate
AGE
SEX
MARITAL STATUS
OCCUPATION
Other occupation
8.06%
EDUCATION LEVEL
Primary education
31.05%
35.93%
18.82%
29.30%
39.07%
Secondary education
35.66%
35.06%
46.03%
33.40%
34.96%
education
11.78%
10.94%
13.15%
14.60%
9.12%
Tertiary education
19.14%
14.22%
20.19%
19.63%
14.25%
None
71.48%
87.98%
61.71%
72.34%
86.32%
At least one
28.52%
12.02%
38.29%
27.66%
13.68%
10 AT HOME
55
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates.
Covariate
AGE
Cluster 6.
Cluster 7.
Art lovers
People
with quite a
committed
lot of leisure to caring for
time
relatives
(4.79%)
(4.50%)
Cluster 8.
Eclectics
(4.30%)
Cluster 9.
People who
mix leisure
time and
studies
(3.89%)
Total
49.44
44.52
38.23
33.87
44.58
Male
36.56%
52.56%
48.35%
51.14%
46.08%
Female
63.44%
47.44%
51.65%
48.86%
53.92%
Single
28.04%
11.64%
41.76%
60.88%
30.26%
57.02%
84.16%
51.65%
33.04%
59.54%
SEX
MARITAL STATUS
Widowed
6.91%
1.05%
0.00%
2.43%
6.14%
Separated/divorced
8.03%
3.15%
6.59%
3.65%
4.06%
78.79%
60.44%
37.69%
48.07%
8.87%
8.39%
10.99%
9.72%
10.62%
Student
11.13%
0.00%
17.58%
41.44%
13.41%
Retired
22.89%
4.20%
2.20%
7.31%
12.23%
Homemaker
19.58%
6.52%
7.70%
3.84%
10.95%
Other occupation
1.97%
2.10%
1.10%
0.00%
4.72%
0.99%
2.10%
3.30%
1.29%
2.56%
Primary education
29.51%
11.90%
12.09%
30.70%
28.94%
Secondary education
35.98%
42.99%
39.56%
32.78%
37.06%
13.64%
18.68%
8.51%
11.99%
24.64%
29.37%
26.38%
26.73%
19.45%
None
91.19%
59.09%
61.54%
85.40%
74.69%
At least one
8.81%
40.91%
38.46%
14.60%
25.31%
OCCUPATION
Employee
Unemployed
35.56%
EDUCATION LEVEL
education
Tertiary education
8.89%
10 AT HOME
56
In
order
more
(Cluster 4), art lovers with quite a lot of
comprehensive analysis of what they
leisure time (Cluster 6), and people who
spend their time on, we assessed multi-
pursue domestic activities (Cluster 1)
tasking style, and computer/Internet use
spend part of their time doing two or more
when performing a principal or secondary
activities at the same time than those
activity (a broader category than the
people
principal activity called ‘computing’). Each
sleepyheads and couch potatoes (Cluster
individual was assigned to a cluster
2) and weekend workers (Cluster 3).
according to the probability of her/him
Secondly, both the DIY handy-people
having
pattern.
(Cluster 5) and the sleepyheads and
Differences were found both among the
couch potatoes (Cluster 2) spend more
clusters identified in multi-tasking style
time using the computer or the Internet
and in computer/Internet use (p < 0.05).
when
Firstly, it is more probable that the book
secondary activities than the consumers
and radio/music lovers during leisure time
in Clusters 1, 3, 4, and 7 (Table 2.8)
a
to
attain
specific
time
a
use
in
the
clusters
performing
their
containing
principal
or
Table 2.8.
Differences in multi-tasking style and computer/Internet use between clusters of Spanish consumers.
Hours
Cluster
Performing various
activities at the
same time
Using computer/
Internet in the main
or secondary
activity
M (SD)
Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities
3.64 (3.24)
0.26 (0.66)
Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes
2.92 (3.22)
1.02 (1.76)
Cluster 3. Weekend workers
2.69 (3.03)
0.58 (1.47)
Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time
4.24 (3.28)
0.39 (0.90)
Cluster 5. DIY handy-people
3.60 (3.31)
1.15 (1.70)
Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time
4.08 (3.11)
0.77 (1.38)
Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives
3.73 (2.96)
0.42 (0.91)
Cluster 8. Eclectics
3.79 (3.08)
0.97 (1.54)
Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies
3.56 (3.21)
0.71 (0.91)
LEVENE TEST
F
1.18
41.51
p
0.31
0.00
F
5.80
17.69a
p
0.00
0.00
ANOVA/WELCH TEST
POST HOC TESTS (TUKEY HDS/GAMES-HOWELL TEST)
p < 0.05
C1 > C2, C3;
C4 > C2, C3;
C6 > C2, C3
C2
C3
C5
C6
C8
C9
>
>
>
>
>
>
C1, C3, C4, C7;
C1;
C1, C3, C4, C7;
C1;
C1, C4;
C1
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; C1-9: Cluster 1 to 9; aAsymptotically F distributed.
57
Table 2.9.
Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers and kind of day.
Pearson chi-square test
Kind of day
χ (df)
p
2
Ordinary/unusual day
8.41 (8)
0.39
Busy day (yes/no)
9.26 (8)
0.32
Sick leave day (yes/no)
10.56 (8)
0.23
Holiday or vacation day (yes/no)
12.66 (8)
0.12
Travel day (yes/no)
11.56 (8)
0.17
32.00 (24)
0.13
Quarter of the year (IV/2009, I/2010, II/2010, III/2010)
Bearing in mind that the TUS data are
membership
cross-sectional
an
variables related to the kind of day (p >
individual and a specific day) rather than
0.05), suggesting that the nine time use
longitudinal, it might be necessary to ask
patterns
to what extent the nine clusters identified
individual differences and not to the
above really do correspond with the time
kind of day.
use
patterns
(interactions
developed
by
of
and
were
the
aforementioned
really
owing
to
different
individuals and are not explained by the
2.4.3.
existence of weekend days with different
Activity rhythms: in search of
when
characteristics.
The activity rhythms were measured
Robinson and Godbey (2000) point out
through the percentage of people who
the fact that temporal factors (e.g. day of
spent their time on the same kind of
the week, month or season of the year, or
activity
year) can greatly affect how time is spent.
committed, and leisure activities) at the
Although all the diaries used in this
same time on a weekend day (Figure
research were related to a weekend day
2.2). The last line graph, entitled ‘Total’,
(Saturday or Sunday), we believed that it
provides the activity rhythms of the
would be appropriate to analyse the
Spanish consumers on a weekend day:
statistical
the
from 6:00 to 10:00, most people spend
(cluster
their time in necessary activities; from
membership) and the kind of day (i.e.
11:00 to 13:00, about 40% spend their
an ordinary/unusual day, a busy day, a
time on committed activities; from
sick leave day, a holiday or vacation day,
14:00 to 15:00, the necessary time is
a travel day, and quarter of the year).
predominant; from 16:00 to 23:00, a
nine
association
time
use
between
patterns
higher
Table 2.9
(necessary,
percentage
of
contracted,
people
pursue
shows that no statistical
leisure activities; and from midnight,
associations were found between cluster
almost all perform necessary activities.
58
100%
100%
Cluster 5. DIY handy-people
Cluster 7. People committed to caring
for relatives
Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time
and studies
Necessary time
Contracted time
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
100%
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
Cluster 3. Weekend workers
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
100%
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic
activities
100%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
100%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
100%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
100%
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
Figure 2.2.
Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers.
Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch
potatoes
Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers
during leisure time
Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of
leisure time
100%
Cluster 8. Eclectics
100%
Total
Committed time
Leisure time
59
Figure 2.2 is extremely valuable since it
2009). The main conclusions obtained
highlights some differences between and
as regards the three research questions
similarities in the timing in the nine
posed are detailed as follows.
clusters (RQ3).
With
regard
to
the
first
research
It is thus interesting to observe that
question, nine clusters based on the time
almost
spent on each activity at weekends have
all
the
clusters
are
focused,
although with different intensities, on
been
leisure activities during a weekend
domestic
afternoon, with the exception of the
couch potatoes, weekend workers, book
cluster that contains people committed
and radio/music lovers during leisure
to caring for relatives (Cluster 7). The
time, DIY handy-people, art lovers with
sleepyheads and couch potatoes (Cluster
quite
2) and those who mix leisure time and
committed
studies (Cluster 9) are the only people
eclectics, and people who mix leisure time
whose
clearly
and studies. All the activities considered
predominates over other types of time in
are relevant as regards segmenting the
the
workers
consumers into these nine groups, with
maximum
the exception of the time dedicated to
leisure
morning.
(Cluster
3)
time
The
also
weekend
contains
the
identified:
a
people
activities,
lot
of
to
personal
who
pursue
sleepyheads
leisure
caring
for
relatives,
other
contracted activities from 10:00 to 13:00.
significant differences can be observed in
More detailed interpretations for each
the relative size of the various groups.
cluster of Spanish consumers could be
The
extracted from Figure 2.2.
domestic
three
What
people
percentage of people who carry out
first
care.
time,
and
(people
activities,
is
who
more,
pursue
sleepyheads
and
couch potatoes, and weekend workers)
2.5.
comprise 66.15% of the sample, while the
set size of the last four (art lovers with
The objective of the first study has
quite
been to identify and describe the time use
committed
patterns
eclectics, and people who mix leisure time
of
Spanish
consumers
at
weekends. This is relevant from both
a
lot
of
to
leisure
caring
time,
for
people
relatives,
and studies) does not reach 18%.
academic and professional perspectives,
particularly when bearing in mind the
That which is described in the paragraph
scant
above
amount
of
previous
empirical
has
important
practical
research in the sphere of consumer
implications for marketers and public
behaviour oriented towards carrying out a
policy makers since it may help them to
market segmentation based on time use
understand which time use patterns are
(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,
more
60
or
less
common
amongst
the
Spanish at weekends. From the point of
younger than 10 at home. However,
view of social policy, the fact that two of
unlike what we expected to find a priori
the three largest groups (those who
based on the empirical evidence (Jäckel &
pursue domestic activities and weekend
Wollscheid, 2007), we have found no
workers)
at
differences in family income among the
weekends should be the object of more
nine groups identified. This result may, in
in-depth
when
part, be because over 20% of the sample
has been
chose the ‘do not know/no answer’ option
indicated by diverse authors, social time
when responding to this question, which
during weekends has a great impact on
considerably reduces the discriminant
emotional
power of this variable.
bearing
are
time-poor
analysis,
in
mind
clusters
particularly
that, as
well-being
(Young
&
Lim,
2014).
In
relation
to
the
third
research
It is also noteworthy that two of the
question, we have discovered that the
groups that spend most time carrying out
nine clusters identified are associated
various activities at once (Clusters 4 and
with various timing or activity rhythms
6) are clusters with quite a lot of leisure
during a weekend. This information is
time. This does not coincide with what has
truly valuable as regards allowing leisure-
been found in other previous studies
related business to organise their leisure
which suggest that the multi-tasking style
proposals/activities
is almost exclusive to consumers who
(concerning both duration and schedule)
need a response to strong time pressure
by considering the specific profile of the
(Kenyon,
2008).
consumers that they wish to attract. For
therefore
to
It
is
conclude
reasonable
that
for
the
weekend
time
example, the target market of a book
management strategies based on multi-
release event or a cultural activity should
tasking styles not only respond to little
be the subjects belonging to Clusters 4
free time but also to personal tendencies
and 6 (book and radio/music lovers
and preference as regards the way in
during leisure time, and art lovers with
which time is organised (independently of
quite a lot of leisure time). In order to
the time pressure experienced).
influence the public, they should therefore
programme these events to take place in
With respect to the second research
the afternoon/evening (between 16:00
question, we have been able to conclude
and 20:00 at weekends), since a greater
that the various time use patterns are
proportion of the consumers in these two
effectively associated with differences in
groups enjoy their leisure during this time
socio-demographic profile as regards age,
span. Similar practical implications can be
gender, marital status, occupation, level
extracted for other types of activities
of education, and presence of children
related to the leisure industry.
61
In interpreting the results of this study,
interest, particularly when bearing in
several
mind that in Spain there is even a
limitations
should
be
considered.
National
Commission
for
the
rationalisation of schedules and their
Firstly, two of these limitations are related
standardisation
to the characteristics of the method that
Union
is used internationally in the sphere of
Commission
time use surveys: the data used are
things, that private TV channels should
cross-sectional, and to make advances
bring forward their prime-time shows in
in this respect it would be interesting to
order to encourage Spanish people to go
be able to have longitudinal panel data
to bed earlier. Whatever the case, it
(Kamakura, 2009); and the method
would certainly be interesting to carry out
used
participants’
cross-cultural studies in order to be able
capacity, constancy and motivation if
to obtain a more in-depth analysis of the
they are to complete an exhaustive
differences
activities
countries.
requires
the
diary
(Jäckel
this
research
&
Wollscheid,
2007).
Secondly,
has
focused
exclusively on weekends for the reasons
given in the Introduction of this chapter.
Nevertheless, in future studies it would be
interesting
methodology
to
apply
followed
additionally analyse the
the
in
same
order
existence
to
of
rich/poor clusters in terms of weekday
leisure time.
Finally, the findings are circumscribed to
the sphere of Spanish consumers. We
do not believe that this detracts from the
importance of the research, since we are
dealing with a country with certain very
interesting
cultural
particularities
as
regards schedule (e.g. a considerable
percentage
of
consumers
are
still
watching TV at midnight). In fact, we
consider that this increases the study’s
62
with
countries.
proposes,
and
other
This
European
National
among
similarities
other
between
CHAPTER 3.
MARKET
SEGMENTATION
BASED ON TIME USE: AN
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS IN THE
HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO,
SPAIN
CHAPTER 3. MARKET SEGMENTATION
times,
and
attraction
opening
BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL
(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). Constraints
ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF
have been
TOLEDO, SPAIN
categories: intrapersonal (psychological),
classified in
interpersonal
hours
three major
(interactions
and
relationships), and structural (financial
and temporal) (Crawford, Jackson, &
3.1.
Introduction
Godbey, 1991;
Nyaupane, Morais, &
Graefe, 2004). Time is considered as a
Time use is a frequent research topic in
structural constraint that predetermines
the literature appertaining to a wide
the activities which can be pursued at the
range of disciplines, such as sociology,
destination
economics,
Andronikidis, 2013).
urban
planning,
and
(Vassiliadis,
Priporas,
&
transportation (Kamakura, 2009). The
lack of time in modern societies has
Visitors need to determine not only how
become
important
much time is needed to travel to and from
problems (Anderson, Golden, Umesh, &
the destination, but also how much time
Weeks, 1992) given that, unlike money,
should be allocated to each activity in
it is impossible to postpone its use
order to experience the place visited
(Kamakura, 2009). In fact, lack of time
(Haldrup, 2004). Examinations of time
and excess of information may even
use and activity patterns allow a more
eclipse the importance of money. It may
exhaustive understanding of visitors’
occur that people with relatively high
decisions, which can lead to better
incomes are poor as regards free time
marketing strategies and more economic
(income-rich/time-poor), and not having
growth (LaMondia, 2010). On the one
the time needed to carry out their leisure
hand, time allocated to activities provide
activities may lead to dissatisfaction in
useful insights into decisions that might
their lives (Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007).
improve
one
of
the
most
levels
of
services
at
destinations (Zhang et al., 2012). On the
Within the area of tourism, time and
other hand, time is an important resource
money are the two scarce resources
in the touristic experience (Prebensen,
that are of most importance to visitors
Vittersø, & Dahl, 2013). Increasing the
(Zhang, Zhang, & Kuwano, 2012), be
quality of time use during travel may
they day-trippers (those who do not
therefore
spend the night at the destination) or
satisfaction and the probability of them
tourists (those who do). All touristic visits
revisiting and recommending it to others,
have a time limit and are conditioned by
which
the schedules of public transport, meal
competitive position to improve.
will
serve
to
permit
increase
the
visitors’
destination’s
65
Despite the fact that time is a precious
of time use in tourism, which is followed
resource
by
for
visitors,
relatively
little
a
presentation
of
the
method.
specifically relating to tourism and time
Empirical results (market segmentation
has
years
based on time use and differences in
(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). In this
outcome variables) are then analysed
respect, and based on an in-depth review
before our final conclusions are drawn,
of
and
been
the
written
current
in
recent
tourism
literature,
LaMondia (2010, p. 11) points out that
‘the understanding
many
and
future
research
opportunities are discussed.
of time use and
activities within this field is incomplete
and
limitations
opportunities
for
3.2.
Literature review
3.2.1.
The key role of time use: from
further
analysis currently exist’. This chapter in
fact fills one of the many existing gaps by
marketing
evaluating time use at the destination as
tourism
and
leisure
to
a segmentation criterion/base in tourism.
This is a relevant contribution if we bear
Empirical and theoretical research has
in mind that we have been unable to find
recently
any
marketing, leisure, and tourism areas
previous
empirical
studies
that
been
the
the basis of this segmentation criterion.
consumers/visitors’ behaviour when they
More specifically, the study presented
decide how to spend their time. The
herein has two research objectives.
researchers who most stand out in the
The first is to identify the various
first
segments of visitors to the historic city
marketing and consumer studies, are
of Toledo as regards both day-trippers
Okada and Hoch (2004), who focus their
and tourists, according to the amount of
interest
time spent pursuing different activities.
different evaluation of the opportunity
The second is to determine whether
cost associated with their time or money.
there
their
The second group of studies is focused
spending, the image that they have of
on factors that determine timestyle and
the destination after visiting it, and their
its influence on leisure activities (Cotte &
intention to revisit and recommend as
Ratneshwar, 2003). In the third group,
regards the various segments identified
tourism researchers incorporate time
according to their time use.
use and activity patterns into their studies
differences
in
group,
on
which
how
factors
in
that
any
which
out
analyse the heterogeneity of visitors on
are
study
carried
is
influence
related
to
consumers make a
in a number of ways, including how time
The remainder of the third chapter is
use and activities are integrated into the
organised as follows. The next section
tourism decision-making process, and the
focuses on a literature review of the role
role of preferences and perceptions in
66
determining
time
use
and
activities
(LaMondia, 2010).
associated with the time available to them
at the destination. On the other hand, a
high
proportion
of
visitors
have
a
Within the first group of researches,
high/medium need for variety (Barroso,
Okada and Hoch (2004) find differences
Martín, & Martín, 2007), signifying that
in the way that people spend time versus
they attempt to optimize their time
money. Specifically, it would appear that
because they will probably not return to
consumers are more willing to waste their
the destination. In this context, the
time than their money. This is owing to
ambiguity
the fact that individuals are flexible in
substantially reduced. In an experiment
valuing their time, and if the experience
in which athletic shoes could only be paid
is negative, they infer a lesser value to
in time, a negative outcome could be
the
exchange
relativized and a consumer could say ‘It
transaction (Okada & Hoch, 2004), since
cost me no money, just time’ or ‘At least
it is more difficult to make an evaluation
I didn't pay money’ (Okada & Hoch,
of the opportunity cost of time (Soman,
2004). However, in the case of tourist
2001). Some authors have referred to
activities, including those on which no
this as ambiguity of the value of time or
money is spent (e.g. a visit to a museum
elastic justification (Hsee, 1995). An
whose entrance is free), the result of an
important question therefore arises: are
unsatisfactory experience would probably
visitors really arbitrary when evaluating
be ‘It was a huge waste of time’. It would
their
therefore appear that on a tourist visit
time
time
spent
during
in
the
their
stay
at
a
destination?
of
the
value
of
time
is
‘Time is gold’, thus making it an asset
that is similar to or perhaps even more
The
characteristics
of
a
tourist
trip
valuable than money.
suggest that visitors are not so arbitrary
when making decisions regarding how to
In
spend their time. On the one hand, the
Ratneshwar (2003, p. 560) point out that
existence of a trip plan (i.e. visitors are
‘leisure
required to consider a number of facets
patterns can be explained, at least in part,
such as travel destination, activities,
by people’s timestyles’. Feldman and
accommodation, attractions, or length of
Hornik (1981, p. 407) define timestyle as
trip) (Park, Nicolau, & Fesenmaier, 2013)
‘the allocation of time among the various
and the constraints imposed by activities
activities’. Cotte and Ratneshwar (2003)
that are finite in space and time (Xiao-
propose
Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012) are common to
determined by four key dimensions:
almost all tourist trips. This helps visitors
social orientation (time for self versus
to
time
calculate
the
opportunity
cost
the
second
group,
behaviours
that
with/for
and
timestyles
others);
Cotte
and
consumption
should
be
temporal
67
orientation (the relative significance of
destination
past,
spontaneous trip decision making, and
present
or
orientation
future);
planning
(analytic
spontaneous);
and
versus
polychronic
extent
of
travel
tendency,
advance
level
planning)
of
have
significant impacts on the number of
orientation (multi-tasking style versus
unplanned
stops.
one-thing-at-a-time style).
independent
In
visitors
the
or
case
of
backpackers,
previous studies report partially mixed
The aforementioned dimensions acquire
results as regards trip planning. Hyde and
tremendous relevance when carrying out
Lawson (2003) conclude that backpackers
an analysis of timestyles in tourism. In
experience an evolving itinerary, are
the first place, with regard to social
willing to take risks, and possess a desire
orientation,
to
the
composition
of
the
experience
the
unplanned;
while
travel group (tour group, travelling alone,
Hottola (2005) identifies that almost all
presence of children, etc.) conditions the
the backpackers surveyed in India have
activities
the
to some degree planned their tourist trip
destination (LaMondia, 2010). In other
and timetables earlier. Lastly, during a
words,
and/or
tourist visit it is customary to perceive
obligatory activities (Cotte & Ratneshwar,
time in terms of one-thing-at-a-time,
2003). In the second place, time use can
although visitors can perform more than
vary
past
one activity at the same time (Vassiliadis
experiences or familiarity with the
et al., 2013) (e.g. strolling and shopping,
destination.
walking and seeing monuments, etc.).
to
be
there
are
greatly
visitors
carried
out
voluntary
according
First-time
consume
the
at
to
and
repeat
destination
in
substantially different ways (i.e. first-time
In the third group, tourism researchers
visitors are interested in exploring, and
incorporate time use and activity patterns
repeaters are more interested in passive
into their studies in a number of ways
consumption) (McKercher, Shoval, Ng, &
(LaMondia,
Birenboim, 2012). In the third place, with
have commonly ignored the ‘where’,
regard to planning orientation, Hwang
concentrating
and Fesenmaier (2011, p. 412) point out
‘what’ (Fennell, 1996); while tourism
that ‘unplanned attraction visits are a
researchers who are geographers have
substantial part of pleasure travel’. These
focused on spatial-temporal behaviour
authors find that trip plan characteristics
patterns
(planned
of
Vassiliadis et al. (2013), who belong to
activities planned, and number of planned
the former, examine time distribution and
stops)
and
the activity allocation of visitors to ski
(past
travel
length
of
stay,
trip/visitor
experience,
number
characteristics
number
of
purposes, travelling with children, multi-
68
2010).
Non-geographers
on
(McKercher
the
et
‘when’
al.,
and
2012).
resorts using an analysis based on time
blocks.
Within the geographic sphere, the time-
permitting the normal notions of time to
space concept introduced by Hägerstrand
be suspended (Wilson & Richards, 2008).
(1970) in order to develop a type of socio-
More recently, Hottola (2012) suggests
economic web model, has had a great
that time-budget studies with a focus on
influence on the way in which tourism and
metaspaces could be one instrument to
leisure are conceived (Coles & Hall, 2006;
research whether independents visitors
Hall, 2005, 2012). Hägerstrand (1970)
spend less time in metaspacial retreats
proposes that the combined effect of
and interact more with the local people
three types of constraints (capability,
than package visitors.
coupling,
and
authority
constraints)
condition
the
individual’s
ability
to
3.2.2.
Market
heterogeneity:
move/change from one place/activity to
towards
another. In this respect, Shoval (2012)
segmentation based on time
proposes the following
use
adaptation
of
a
tourism
market
these time geography constraints for
tourists’ time-space activity: capability
Various theoretical and empirical studies
constraints (the need for a minimum
suggest the utility of time use as a
amount of sleep and food, the kind of
segmentation criterion (Davies & Omer,
transport used, and the length of stay);
1996; Kamakura, 2009; Schary, 1971).
coupling constraints (the composition
Davies and Omer (1996, p. 264) conclude
of the travel group); and authority
that ‘any new approach will need to
constraints
provide
opening
(e.g.
hours
attractions,
the
the
for
existence
museums
schedules
of
of
an
understanding
of
how
and
customers interact with time so as to help
public
us to develop a way of analysing or
transport, etc.). The contributions of
segmenting
Hottola (2005) are also important, as are
services
those of Wilson and Richards (2008) who
related’. The market segments that are
refer to metaworlds (also termed as
created by time choices could be more
tourist bubbles, enclaves, or touristic
meaningful
metaspaces). Hottola (2005, p. 2) defines
criteria/bases used (Schary, 1971). In
metaworlds as ‘realities placed in time
this
and space that differ from the dominant
empirically proves that individuals differ
reality’. Visitors feel
that they have
in their usage of time in a full day; and
control in these tourist bubbles, and that
people are diverse in both their needs and
they can manage the stress of learning
many
and their cultural confusion, leading them
unobserved heterogeneity in different
to
people’s time priorities.
relax
(Hottola,
2005),
and
thus
markets
whose
other
goods
consumption
than
respect,
for
many
Kamakura
factors,
which
is
and
time
of
the
(2009)
leads
to
69
According
to
Wedel
and
Kamakura
indexed in the 2011 Journal Citation
(2000), market segmentation involves
Report
portioning a heterogeneous market into
between 2008 and 2012 (Table 3.1).
smaller homogenous markets. A market
After refining the search results, a total of
can be segmented in a number of ways
90 studies were identified as being
using
empirical
observable/unobservable
direct
versus
(i.e.
inferred
measurement)
general/product-specific
(i.e.
independent
of
circumstances
versus
Social
Sciences
articles
methodological
or
Edition®
(i.e.
without
theoretical
reviews,
book
reviews,
papers,
corrections,
proceedings
or
editorial
tourism
market
related to the particular circumstances)
materials)
bases. Six conditions have been put
segmentation (i.e. without businesses
forward as determining the effectiveness
clusters, or segmentation of companies,
and profitability of market segmentation
residents, non-travellers and countries)
strategies: identifiability, substantiality,
(Appendix B). Surprisingly, in spite of
accessibility, stability, actionability, and
the growing interest in this research topic,
responsiveness
no tourism studies have been found that
(Wedel
&
Kamakura,
2000).
on
papers,
identify segments of visitors according to
the time dedicated to pursuing various
Tourism
researchers
have
suggested
activities at the destination.
diverse segmentation criteria/bases
and have applied them in order to
As will be observed in Table 3.1, 18 of
understand visitors’ behaviours. Bigné,
the
Gnoth,
activities
and
Andreu
(2007),
and
90
articles
and
analysed
motivations
propose
as
a
Tkaczynski, Rundle-Thiele, and Beaumont
segmentation criterion (e.g. Nimrod &
(2009), provide excellent summaries of
Rotem, 2010; Park & Yoon, 2009). The
research
studies in this group evaluate the market
on
segmentation.
tourism
More
market
specifically,
the
heterogeneity
based
on
the
various
segmentation of cultural and heritage
activity types participated in or the main
visitors has been the topic of numerous
purpose
empirical studies (Galí & Donaire, 2006;
effectiveness
Tchetchik, Fleischer, & Shoval, 2009).
criterion may be reduced in the case of a
of
the
trip.
of
this
However,
the
segmentation
specific cultural destination (such as that
In order to provide a more complete
considered in the research presented
overview
herein), where, for example, almost all
of
current
tendencies
in
tourist segmentation, we have used
individuals
the Web of Science® database to analyse
monuments. In spite of this, none of the
the
studies analysed quantify how much
empirical
segmentation
articles
published in the 12 tourism journals
70
visit
museums
time is dedicated to each activity.
and
Table 3.1.
Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published between 2008 and 2012: tourism
journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation Report Social Sciences Edition®.
Concept
Percentage (N = 90)
SEGMENTATION CRITERIA/BASES
100.00%
Activities and motivations
20.00%
Environmental behaviour and attitudes
8.89%
Expenditure
6.67%
Price sensitivity
5.56%
Spatial-temporal patterns
5.56%
Loyalty intentions and behaviours
4.44%
Tourism decision-making process
4.44%
Destination familiarity
3.33%
Satisfaction and destination image
3.33%
Mixed bases
13.33%
Other unobservable tourism-specific bases (benefits sought, perceptions…)
6.67%
Other observable tourism-specific bases (length of stay, frequency…)
6.67%
Other unobservable general bases (lifestyles and psychographic variables)
Other observable general bases (demographic, geographic and socio-economic
variables)
JOURNAL NAME
6.67%
4.44%
100.00%
Tourism Management
31.11%
International Journal of Tourism Research
16.67%
Journal of Travel Research
13.33%
Tourism Economics
7.78%
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research
6.67%
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research
Other tourism journals indexed in 2011 JCR Social Sciences Edition®
PUBLICATION YEAR
6.67%
17.77%
100.00%
2012
30.00%
2011
28.89%
2010
18.89%
2009
7.78%
2008
14.44%
Five of the empirical studies of those
attractions/nodes/points, time spent at
published
2012
each point, total time of the visit, length
on
of the itinerary, area visited, dominant
spatial-temporal patterns (Lee & Joh,
movement patterns, etc. (Lee & Joh,
2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,
2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,
2010; Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012; Zakrisson
2010).
present
between
a
2008
segmentation
and
based
& Zillinger, 2012). In this group of works,
which
were
principally
developed
by
The paper of Zakrisson and Zillinger
geographers, the emphasis is on the
(2012) presents the results from four
‘where’, but not on the ‘what’. Visitors are
case studies (two event studies and two
therefore segmented on the basis of
destination studies). In all four cases,
variables such as number of accessible
there are three mobility patterns (main
71
attraction
visitors,
specialists,
and
wanderers). These authors’ results also
visitors,
we
therefore
propose
the
following:
show that negative experiences are more
often associated with mobility patterns
Proposition
1:
There
are
different
than positive experiences.
segments within the groups of both daytrippers and tourists in the historic city of
Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) identify seven
Toledo based on the time spent on each
clusters of spatial-temporal behaviour
activity.
patterns in the Summer Palace, located in
Beijing (China). These spatial-temporal
We also hope that it will be possible to
behaviour patterns can be determined by
profile each of the segments with
four factors: temporal behaviour factors
different
(total time at an attraction, plan time,
incorporating
entrance time, exit time, and total stay
covariates (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000):
time);
factors
previous visits (McKercher et al., 2012);
factors
tour group (LaMondia, 2010); and socio-
exhibitions,
demographic variables (age and place of
general sightseeing, admiring the flowers,
residence). Nevertheless, in this last
and
path
case it is important to stress that previous
characteristic factors (stay-points, length
studies have found the role of socio-
of space-time path, areas visited, and
demographic
stay time in a sequence). However, Xiao-
segmentation of cultural visitors to be
Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) do not measure
very limited (Galí & Donaire, 2006; Xiao-
the time that the visitors spend on each
Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012).
spatial
(districts);
(walking,
behaviour
activity
choice
photography,
other
activities);
and
time
use
some
patterns
relevant
variables
by
external
in
the
activity, only whether or not they pursue
a specific activity. Accordingly, the work
of
these
authors
as
regards
3.2.3.
the
Time use, tourist experience
and outcomes
discriminate power of activity choice
factors is consequently virtually non-
Many tourism scholars have criticised
existent (e.g. in almost all the clusters the
certain
main activities were photography and
demographic or geographic variables) for
general sightseeing).
their failure to predict future behaviour.
segmentation
bases
(e.g.
Tkaczynski et al. (2009) emphasise the
Bearing
aforementioned
importance of the segmentation bases
studies on individuals’ heterogeneity as
used in tourism being able to accurately
regards time use in their daily lives
predict
(Kamakura, 2009), along with the various
intentions to revisit and recommend the
behaviour patterns of a destination’s
destination).
72
in
mind
the
future
visitor
One
behaviour
critical
aspect
(i.e.
is,
therefore,
to
analyse
how
time
use
resource in the co-creation of value that
conditions the tourist experience and
contributes
outcome variables (spending, post-visit
involved
destination
destination (Prebensen, Vittersø, et al.,
image,
and
intentions
to
revisit and recommend it).
to
in
how
visitors
interactions
become
with
the
2013). In the light of the discussion
above, the way in which time is used at
Dellaert,
Ettema,
and
Lindh
(1998)
the
destination
determine
existence
framework to describe visitors’ sequential
experience,
choices
of
image, and intentions to revisit and
consist
of
components,
pre-travel
choice
which
differences
post-visit
(e.g.
recommend
destination, lodging, travel mode, length
Uysal, 2013).
it
in
the
propose a constraint-based conceptual
travel
of
will
tourist
destination
(Prebensen,
Woo,
&
of stay, etc.) and during-travel (e.g.
attractions to visit, travel route to follow,
Given the findings on time use, tourist
day-to-day expenditure, etc.). Activity
experience and outcome variables, we
participation, time use and expenditure
propose the following:
during trip are usually interrelated (Zhang
et al., 2012). This suggests that groups of
Proposition 2:
visitors with different time use will also
based on time use will be associated with
have
differences in expenditures, post-visit
different
spending
patterns.
Market
Nevertheless, the money spent on some
destination
image,
and
expenditure items is not expected to be
revisit and recommend it.
segmentation
intentions
to
conditioned by the way in which time is
used at the destination, since it concerns
3.3.
Method
3.3.1.
Data collection and sample
pre-travel choices (e.g. transportation/
travel mode and lodging).
profile
Visitors spend money, time, and effort
during their tourist trip because they want
The data were collected by surveying 810
to do so. ‘That being so, tourist resources
visitors to Toledo in March and April
such as involvement, time, and effort are
2010. The historic city of Toledo has been
important inputs in our measures of
a UNESCO World Heritage City since 1986
overall
(Prebensen,
and it was one of the Spanish cities that
Vittersø, et al., 2013, p. 254). Visitors
was most visited in 2012, according to
experience the destination over time
data from the Collective Accommodation
during the course of a trip, encountering
Occupancy Survey (CAOS) compiled by
different
rhythms
the Spanish National Statistics Institute.
(Haldrup, 2004). Time is an important
A two-stage sampling strategy was used.
experience
places
at
value’
different
73
A quota sampling was first developed by
and hotels (64.19%) were the most
using the CAOS data for 2009, and the
frequent type of accommodation.
surveys were proportionally distributed
between visitors residing both in Spain
3.3.2.
Instruments
and abroad. It was therefore possible to
establish a quota of 30% as regards the
The questionnaire was structured in four
proportion of foreign visitors surveyed.
sections. The first section contained
Convenience sampling was then carried
questions concerning how the visit had
out in the principal tourist areas of the city
been planned and its characteristics,
in order to select the units that would be
while the last referred to the socio-
surveyed.
demographic data used to characterise
the sample.
Of the 810 questionnaires collected, 11
were
eliminated
were
The second part of the questionnaire
incorrectly
adopted a diary approach in order to
completed. This resulted in 799 usable
record the primary activities performed
questionnaires. With regard
to the
by visitors within a day (from 10:00 am
profile of the visitors surveyed, 51.44%
to 10:00 am of the following day). This
were between 25 and 44 years of age,
approach was used to document visitor
and 53.57% were women. More than half
time allocation and has been used in
were married or living as a couple
recent studies related to tourism and
(58.20%), while 33.67% were single.
leisure (Vassiliadis et al., 2013; Xiao-Ting
With regard to their experience of the
& Bi-Hu, 2012). All time-diary primary
destination, 67.08% had not visited the
activities were grouped into 9 and 12
city in the last five years. Only 12.39%
major activity categories for day-
were visiting the city as part of a tour
trippers
group. More than 90% had planned their
Table 3.2 shows the non-parametric
trip, the average amount of information
Spearman correlations of the time spent
sources used to do this being 2.22. Day-
on each of these activities as regards both
trippers accounted for 61.20% of the
day-trippers
total sample (n = 489) and tourists
information provided indications of the
accounted for the remaining 38.80% (n =
degree
310). As regards the latter group, the
activities
average stay in the city was 2.26 nights,
complementary.
incomplete
74
or
because
had
been
they
and
to
tourists,
and
tourists.
which
were
respectively.
the
This
various
substitutive
or
Table 3.2.
Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each activity by day-trippers and tourists.
Activities
A1. Walking
about
A2. Guided
visits
A3. Shopping
A4. Visiting
museums and
monuments
A5. Gathering
information
A6. Having
drinks
A7. Eating
A8. Sport and
health
A9. Nightlife
A10. Sleeping
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
-0.35*
0.01
-0.14*
0.20*
-0.08
0.05
-0.31*
-0.24*
0.00
-0.23*
-0.04
0.00
0.07
-0.01
-0.11
-0.21*
-0.04
0.10
-0.11
-0.06
-0.04
0.04
0.11
-0.08
-0.12*
-0.27*
0.12*
0.10
0.05
0.05
-0.20*
-0.11*
0.06
-0.15*
-0.14*
0.12*
0.04
-0.03
0.20*
0.10*
0.16*
A6
A7
A8
-0.14*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
-0.12*
0.09*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.12*
-0.16*
0.15*
0.12*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.08
-0.32*
-0.06
0.10*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.04
-0.55*
0.04
0.12*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.12*
-0.34*
0.21*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.02
-0.14*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.21*
-0.33*
n.a
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
-0.08
0.22*
A9
0.09
-0.04
0.17*
-0.01
0.12*
A10
A11
A12
-0.02
-0.10
-0.23*
-0.19*
0.12*
0.00
0.01
-0.16*
-0.24*
A11. Travelling
-0.10
-0.07
-0.17*
-0.24*
0.04
-0.23*
-0.41*
-0.02
-0.13*
-0.35*
A12. Rest of
time (outside/at
the destination)
0.03
-0.03
0.06
-0.10
0.25*
-0.04
-0.01
-0.07
-0.12*
0.17*
-0.25*
n.a.
n.a.
-0.52*
-0.06
Notes: Values above the diagonal: day-trippers; Values below the diagonal: tourists; n.a.: not applicable; *p <
0.05.
The third section contained information
(2007), Lam and Hsu (2006), and were
about the spending that had taken place
also used by Ramkissoon and Uysal
on eight separate items (seven in the case
(2011). All items were measured with an
of the day-trippers), the visitors’ image of
11-point
the destination after visiting it, and
strongly disagree (0) to strongly agree
intentions to revisit and recommend it.
(10). A confirmatory factor analysis
Spending per person per day was
was employed and produced satisfactory
calculated using the data over the size of
results
the trip group and the duration of the trip.
acceptable
This was for later analysis. Destination
(Schumacker & Lomax, 2010) (Table
image was measured with two items also
3.3). Once completed, the items used to
used by García, Gómez, and Molina
measure each of these three concepts
(2012). The measurement scales for the
were
intentions to revisit and recommend
measures derived were standardised (by
were slightly modified versions of items
subtracting the mean and dividing by its
adopted from Alén, Rodríguez, and Fraiz
standard deviation).
Likert
scale,
indicating
a
reliability
added,
and
ranging
good
fit,
and
the
from
and
validity
aggregated
75
Table 3.3.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions to revisit and recommend it.
Concept/Item
Loading
α
CR
AVE
Square correlation
IMA
REV
REC
DESTINATION IMAGE (IMA)
IMA1. The image that I have of Toledo is
as good as or even better than that of
0.56*
0.69
0.74
0.60
1.00
0.20
0.39
other similar destinations
IMA2. My overall image of Toledo is very
0.94*
positive
INTENTION TO REVISIT (REV)
REV1. I would like to visit Toledo within
0.40*
0.57
0.70
0.58
0.20
1.00
0.31
the next 12 months
REV2. If I can, I have the intention of
1.00*
coming back to Toledo in the future
INTENTION TO RECOMMEND (REC)
REC1. I would encourage my family and
0.89*
friends to visit Toledo
0.93
0.93
0.82
0.39
0.31
1.00
REC2. I would recommend Toledo to
0.91*
anyone that asks me
REC3. I would give good references of
0.93*
Toledo to others
Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 11) = 46.73 (p < 0.01); Bentler-Bonett
normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.98; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative fit
index (CFI) = 0.98; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.98; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.98; root mean-square
error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06.
Notes: α: Cronbach’s alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; *p < 0.05.
3.3.3.
Data analysis
Akaike
information
criterion
(AIC),
Bayesian information criterion (BIC) or
Figure
3.1
shows
the
research
consistent Akaike information criterion
propositions proposed in this work, along
(CAIC) (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000), and
with the data analyses carried out and the
the LCCA is therefore particularly useful
software packages used.
when the number of clusters is unknown
a priori, as is the case in this research.
The first proposition was tested by
applying
latent
class
analysis
a
As is shown in Figure 3.1, the proposed
segmentation method, also referred to as
model included a series of indicators
latent class cluster analysis (LCCA) or
(time spent by day-trippers and tourists
mixture-model
on
clustering
Magidson,
2002).
significant
advantages
(Vermunt
LCCA
&
a
series
of
activities)
and
also
has
incorporated some relevant covariates
other
(previous visits in the last five years, tour
segmentation procedures (Oppewal et al.,
group, age, and place of residence) with
2010). However, the main reason for
which to predict class membership. The
choosing the LCCA was that the selection
latent class cluster model for mixed
of a suitable number of clusters/segments
indicators
is based on statistical criteria, such as
variables) with covariates is formally
76
The
as
over
(continuous
and
ordinal
defined as Equation (1) (Vermunt &
vector of indicators; Zi is the vector of
Magidson, 2002).
covariates; θ denotes the vector of all
unknown parameters to be estimated;
f Yi Zi ,   
   f y
J
K
k 1
k zi
j 1
k
ij
 jk

(1)
and fk(yij|θjk) is the conditional density
function. In order to reduce the number
Where:
of
i is an index to denote a particular case
belonging to cluster k given covariate
(each
values zi,
day-tripper
or
tourist
in
the
parameters,
the
probability
of
πk|zi, will generally be restricted
sample); K is the number of clusters and
by a multinomial logit model. Full details
k is a particular cluster; J denotes the
of the parameter estimation model
total number of indicators and j denotes a
with Latent Gold® 4.5 can be found in
particular indicator; Yi represents the
Vermunt and Magidson (2002, 2005b).
Figure 3.1.
Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages.
Indicators (time use)


Day-trippers (n = 489): 9
activities
Tourists (n = 310): 12
activities
Outcome variables

Number of clusters of daytrippers/tourists


Covariates




Previous visits in the last five
years
Tour group
Age
Place of residence

Spending per person per day
(€): 7 and 8 spending items
for day-trippers and tourists,
respectively
Destination image
(M = 0, SD = 1)
Intention to revisit
(M = 0, SD = 1)
Intention to recommend
(M = 0, SD = 1)
Proposition 1. Market segmentation
based on time use
Proposition 2. Differences
in outcome variables
Latent class cluster analysis
(Latent Gold® 4.5)
One-way analysis of variance/Welch test
(IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0)
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.
77
With regard to the second proposition,
of chance resulting from a local solution,
the
following the recommendation of Oppewal
differences
in
outcome
variables
among the identified clusters of day-
et al. (2010).
trippers and tourists were studied by:
Once the number of clusters had been
(1)
The
one-way
analysis
of
established (four), the significance of
variance (ANOVA) procedure
the indicators and covariates was
when the homogeneous variance
evaluated. A significant p-value (i.e. p <
assumption was correct; or
0.05) associated with the robust Wald
statistic
(2)
The
Welch
test
when
the
variances were heterogeneous.
means
that
the
indicator
discriminates between the clusters in a
statistically significant way (Vermunt &
Magidson, 2005a). It is also possible to
3.4.
Results
profile
the
evaluating
3.4.1.
clusters
the
by
analogously
usefulness
of
the
Market segmentation based
covariates. Tables 3.5 and 3.6 show the
on time use
estimated parameters for the four
clusters of day-trippers and tourists,
The first proposition was tested by
respectively.
carrying out two LCCAs of day-trippers
and visitors. The first step in the LCCA is
First, the p-value associated with the
the selection of the best number of
robust Wald statistic was less than 0.05
clusters/segments. Five models were
for
considered, each of which incorporated
displayed in Table 3.5, indicating that
between one (sample homogeneity) and
these made a significant contribution
five clusters. Table 3.4 shows a summary
towards discriminating between the four
of the statistics for the latent class cluster
clusters of day-trippers. With regard to
models of day-trippers and tourists. The
the indicator measuring the time spent
results indicate that there were four
during the day having a drink, sitting in
groups
bars,
of
day-trippers
and
tourists
eight
out
etc.,
its
of
nine
p-value
indicators
was
quasi-
according to the CAIC. A model with a
significant (i.e. p < 0.1), signifying that
lower CAIC value is preferred to a model
there was empirical support for the
with a higher CAIC value (Wedel &
market segmentation of day-trippers
Kamakura, 2000). Furthermore, in order
based on time use (proposition 1).
to
avoid
sub-optimal
solutions,
we
estimated each model 10 times with
Two out of four covariates introduced in
different random start values to ensure
the
that the results were not the consequence
(previous visits in the last five years and
78
analyses
to
profile
the
clusters
age) were not significant (p = 0.33, and
destination), had a p-value that was
p = 0.11, respectively). This means that
greater than 0.05, signifying that the
all
values
four
clusters
exhibited
similar
of
these
indicators
were
not
frequency distributions in relation to the
significantly different between clusters.
previous experience with the destination
There was also empirical support for
and the day-trippers’ ages.
the market segmentation of tourists
based on the time dedicated to pursuing
Second, 10 out of 12 indicators had a
different activities (proposition 1).
significance level associated with the
robust Wald statistic that was lower than
With regard to the covariates, significant
0.05, indicating that the time allocation in
effects were observed for previous visits
these activities does allow the tourists to
in the last five years and tour group. The
be segmented in four clusters (Table
remaining covariates (age and place of
3.6).
residence) did not significantly affect
Only
two
indicators,
gathering
information and rest of time (at the
cluster membership (p > 0.05).
Table 3.4.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists.
Kind of
visitors/Model
Log-likelihood
(LL)
CAIC(LL)
Number of
parameters
Classification
errors
DAY-TRIPPERS
One cluster
-6221.94
12,774.72
46
0.00
Two clusters
-5906.78
12,331.41
72
0.05
Three clusters
-5682.43
12,069.71
98
0.04
Four clusters*
-5544.82
11,981.50
124
0.07
Five clusters
-5505.81
12,090.48
150
0.08
One cluster
-5085.15
10,331.97
24
0.00
Two clusters
-3852.75
8096.21
58
0.00
Three clusters
-3534.08
7687.92
92
0.00
Four clusters*
-3269.59
7388.00
126
0.00
Five clusters
-3166.99
7411.83
160
0.01
TOURISTS
79
Table 3.5.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers.
Cluster 1.
Brief daytrippers and
shoppers
Variable
Cluster 2.
Cultural
day-trippers
Cluster 3.
Day-trippers
who are
‘wanderers’
Cluster 4.
Hyperactive
and guided
day-trippers
Robust Wald
statistic
p
INDICATOR
Walking about
-0.25
0.92
0.03
-0.70
34.32
0.00
Guided visits
-0.13
-0.23
-0.06
0.42
21.56
0.00
Shopping
0.23
0.10
-0.74
0.31
999.93
0.00
-0.95
0.69
-0.41
0.67
97.78
0.00
-1.20
1.41
-0.87
0.66
32.61
0.00
Having drinks
-0.04
-0.11
-0.07
0.22
6.55
0.09
Eating
-0.17
-0.08
-0.17
0.42
50.25
0.00
Travelling
-0.71
-0.47
-0.48
1.66
57.46
0.00
Rest of time
(outside the
destination)
2.16
-1.03
2.06
-3.19
516.18
0.00
6.91
0.33
17.18
0.00
21.73
0.11
26.73
0.00
Visiting museums
and monuments
Gathering
information
COVARIATE
Previous visits in the
last five years
None
0.07
0.02
0.04
-0.12
One time
-0.12
0.12
-0.34
0.34
Two or more times
0.05
-0.14
0.31
-0.22
Tour group
Yes
-0.21
-0.41
-0.07
0.68
No
0.21
0.41
0.07
-0.68
Age
Under 25
0.18
0.19
-0.02
-0.34
25-34
0.27
-0.26
0.46
-0.47
35-44
-0.20
0.04
-0.05
0.20
45-54
-0.55
0.34
-0.12
0.34
55-64
-0.04
-0.09
-0.23
0.37
Over 64
0.35
-0.21
-0.04
-0.10
Place of residence
80
Spain
-0.29
-0.62
-0.05
0.96
Other country
0.29
0.62
0.05
-0.96
Table 3.6.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists.
Cluster A.
Tourists
who are
‘wanderers’
Variable
Cluster B.
Relaxed and
cultural
tourists
Cluster C.
Guided
tourists
Cluster D.
Hyperactive
and nocturnal
tourists
Robust
Wald
statistic
p
INDICATOR
Walking about
0.87
0.52
-0.22
-1.17
68.11
0.00
Guided visits
-0.66
-0.66
1.05
0.27
166.16
0.00
Shopping
-0.25
0.14
0.04
0.06
16.54
0.00
-0.05
0.21
-0.12
-0.04
415.39
0.00
0.15
-0.38
0.16
0.07
2.10
0.55
Having drinks
-0.18
0.10
-0.10
0.17
9.80
0.02
Eating
-0.18
0.18
0.05
-0.06
8.26
0.04
Sport and health
-0.29
-0.29
-0.29
0.86
68.56
0.00
Nightlife
-0.34
0.25
-0.63
0.72
26.61
0.00
Sleeping
0.49
0.35
-0.11
-0.74
19.27
0.00
Travelling
0.39
-0.43
0.08
-0.03
8.36
0.04
Rest of time (at the
destination)
0.03
0.01
0.07
-0.11
6.21
0.10
14.42
0.03
9.78
0.02
5.76
0.98
3.75
0.29
Visiting museums
and monuments
Gathering
information
COVARIATE
Previous visits in
the last five years
None
0.25
-0.47
0.34
-0.12
One time
0.02
0.11
0.00
-0.13
Two or more times
-0.27
0.37
-0.34
0.24
Tour group
Yes
-0.20
-0.80
0.45
0.55
No
0.20
0.80
-0.45
-0.55
Age
Under 25
-0.01
0.06
-0.17
0.12
25-34
0.12
0.09
-0.25
0.04
35-44
0.26
0.01
0.26
-0.54
45-54
-0.04
0.06
-0.02
0.00
55-64
-0.09
0.14
0.10
-0.15
Over 64
-0.23
-0.37
0.07
0.52
Place of residence
Spain
-0.09
-0.16
-0.20
0.46
Other country
0.09
0.16
0.20
-0.46
81
Table 3.7.
Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates.
Cluster 1. Brief
day-trippers
and shoppers
(31.13%)
Variable
Cluster 2.
Cultural daytrippers
(29.50%)
Cluster 3. Daytrippers who
are
‘wanderers’
(22.10%)
Cluster 4.
Hyperactive
and guided
day-trippers
(17.26%)
Total (Daytrippers)
INDICATOR
(HOURS)
Walking about
3.76
4.93
4.04
3.31
4.09
Guided visits
0.31
0.25
0.35
1.04
0.43
Shopping
0.98
0.44
0.00
1.05
0.62
1.20
3.33
1.73
2.82
2.22
0.22
0.44
0.24
0.36
0.31
Having drinks
0.70
0.63
0.68
0.96
0.72
Eating
1.13
1.23
1.13
1.72
1.26
Travelling
1.08
1.32
1.31
3.45
1.61
Rest of time
(outside the
destination)
14.63
11.43
14.52
9.28
12.74
Total
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
Visiting
museums and
monuments
Gathering
information
COVARIATE
Tour group
Yes
13.05%
9.17%
11.72%
37.02%
15.75%
No
86.95%
90.83%
88.28%
62.98%
84.25%
Spain
60.17%
43.47%
71.61%
93.96%
63.60%
Other country
39.83%
56.53%
28.39%
6.04%
36.40%
Place of
residence
Table 3.7 shows the profiles of the
characteristics of each of the clusters
clusters
are the following:
of
day-trippers
obtained
(number of hours dedicated to each
activity and frequency distribution of
Cluster
covariates).
non-significant
shoppers (DT1). This contains 31.13%
covariates were omitted. The first row
of the sample of day-trippers. These
shows the name assigned to each cluster,
people spend little time pursuing activities
in addition to its relative size. Shaded
at the destination (they spend almost 15
cells indicate the most relevant features
hours outside the city and more than an
in
hour
82
each
The
cluster.
The
main
1.
Brief
travelling).
day-trippers
However,
they
and
are,
together with day-tripper Cluster 4, the
characteristics of each of the clusters
people who spend most time shopping
are the following:
(almost an hour).
Cluster
Cluster
2.
Cultural
A.
Tourists
who
are
day-trippers
‘wanderers’ (TA). This first segment is
(DT2). This group represents 29.50% of
the most numerous, representing 34.97%
the sample. The most salient feature is
of tourists in the historic city of Toledo.
that they spend more than three hours
These people, together with the tourists
visiting museums and monuments and
in Cluster B, are those who spend most
almost five hours strolling around the
time walking around the city and sleeping
streets in the historic city. This cluster
contains the highest percentage of those
Cluster
B.
Relaxed
day-trippers who do not visit the city with
tourists
(TB).
a tour group (90.83%) and who live
27.08% of the tourist sample. These
abroad (56.53%).
people have a high propensity towards
This
and
cultural
cluster
contains
carrying out activities linked with culture
Cluster
3.
Day-trippers
who
are
(they visit museums and the interiors of
‘wanderers’ (DT3). This group has a
monuments for more than three hours
relative size of 22.10%. Their visit to the
per day), and relaxation (having a drink,
city is short, and they spend most of their
eating and sleeping). They are also
time pursuing
do not
tourists with a wide previous experience
generate an income for the destination
of the destination, since 42.88% of them
(such as, for example, strolling around).
had already visited the destination in the
activities that
last five years.
Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided
day-trippers (DT4). 17.26% are day-
Cluster C. Guided tourists (TC). The
trippers who are characterized by the fact
relative size of this group is 26.35%. The
that they carry out a wide range of
tourists
activities. They are also those who spend
differentiated from the rest in that they
most time on guided visits, having a drink
spend almost two hours on guided tours.
and eating. This is the cluster with a
They are also tourists with little previous
higher proportion of those day-trippers on
experience of the destination.
in
this
cluster
can
be
organised trips and who live in Spain
(93.96%).
Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal
tourists (TD). The remaining 11.60%
Table 3.8 shows the name assigned to
are tourists with a high predilection for
each cluster of tourists, in addition to its
spending time pursuing activities linked to
relative
the city’s nightlife, sports and health.
size
and
profile.
The
main
83
Table 3.8.
Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates.
Cluster A.
Tourists who
are
‘wanderers’
(34.97%)
Variable
Cluster B.
Relaxed and
cultural
tourists
(27.08%)
Cluster C.
Guided
tourists
(26.35%)
Cluster D.
Hyperactive
and nocturnal
tourists
(11.60%)
Total
(Tourists)
INDICATOR
(HOURS)
Walking about
4.76
4.40
3.67
2.72
4.14
Guided visits
0.00
0.00
1.71
0.93
0.56
Shopping
0.72
1.11
1.01
1.03
0.94
2.86
3.13
2.80
2.87
2.92
0.53
0.00
0.54
0.45
0.38
Having drinks
0.93
1.20
1.01
1.28
1.06
Eating
1.96
2.32
2.18
2.08
2.13
Sport and health
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.14
0.13
Nightlife
0.91
1.50
0.63
1.97
1.12
Sleeping
8.46
8.32
7.86
7.23
8.12
Travelling
2.28
1.46
1.97
1.86
1.92
Rest of time (at
the destination)
0.60
0.57
0.63
0.45
0.58
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
78.83%
57.12%
80.44%
66.36%
71.94%
One time
14.72%
23.82%
14.68%
19.62%
17.74%
Two or more
times
6.45%
19.06%
4.88%
14.01%
10.32%
Yes
3.67%
1.18%
14.69%
13.99%
No
96.33%
98.82%
85.31%
86.01%
Visiting
museums and
monuments
Gathering
information
Total
COVARIATE
Previous visits in
the last five
years
None
Tour group
3.4.2.
Differences
in
outcome
variables
7.10%
92.90%
4 categories of day-trippers and tourists
(as many as the amount of clusters
identified). Each visitor in the sample was
We finally contrasted proposition 2. The
therefore assigned to a group according
cluster
saved
to the probability of their having a specific
beforehand as a new variable containing
time use pattern. Their influence on
84
membership
was
spending, post-visit destination image,
recommend
the
destination.
If
the
and intentions to recommend and revisit
greatest amount of money spent and
are analysed below. This analysis is a key
intentions to recommend are considered,
aspect in the evaluation of time use as a
then the brief day-trippers and shoppers
segmentation criterion.
(DT1) (70.83 € per person per day, 0.11
standard deviations over the mean), and
The analysis presented in Table 3.9
the cultural day-trippers (DT2) (73.44 €
shows that the cluster membership of the
per
day-trippers, and therefore the ways of
deviations over the mean) were the
allocating their time whilst visiting the
clusters
city, does influence in three of the
destination.
seven spending items considered (food
differences were found as regards the
bought in stores, tickets for museums,
destination image after the visit and
exhibitions and similar, and shopping for
intentions to revisit it in the future in the
local crafts) and their intentions to
various clusters identified.
person
of
per
day,
most
0.06
interest
However,
no
standard
to
the
significant
Table 3.9.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers.
Variable
SPENDING PER
PERSON PER DAY
(€)
Bars and restaurants
Food bought in stores
Tickets for museums,
exhibitions and similar
Hiring guides
Shopping for local
crafts
Transportation
Other expenses
DESTINATION
IMAGE
INTENTION TO
REVISIT
INTENTION TO
RECOMMEND
M DT1
(SD)
M DT2
(SD)
70.83
73.44
(123.21) (111.84)
M DT3
(SD)
M DT4
(SD)
46.17
(37.14)
57.74
(42.32)
19.72
(36.59)
2.72
(5.76)
19.10
(15.16)
3.14
(6.85)
15.77
(14.62)
1.52
(3.56)
19.05
(17.41)
3.40
(6.86)
4.52
(10.57)
10.27
(15.05)
5.56
(7.72)
6.47
(7.63)
2.10
(16.65)
18.03
(64.15)
20.77
(42.91)
2.93
(7.89)
-0.09
(1.07)
0.02
(1.06)
0.11
(0.89)
2.84
(10.86)
14.09
(33.57)
22.65
(64.56)
1.30
(8.21)
0.14
(0.94)
-0.15
(1.05)
0.06
(0.87)
1.85
(5.37)
2.20
(10.97)
16.32
(18.76)
2.94
(10.48)
-0.09
(1.09)
0.07
(1.02)
0.03
(1.05)
1.56
(4.55)
10.39
(18.72)
15.14
(19.07)
1.91
(3.66)
0.05
(0.81)
0.11
(0.72)
-0.34
(1.25)
Levene test
ANOVA/
Welch test
F
p
Post hoc
tests
(p < 0.1)
F
p
2.19
0.09
1.32a
0.27
2.89
0.04
3.44a
0.02 DT2 > DT3
2.78
0.04
4.94a
DT2 >
0.00 DT1, DT3,
DT4
0.93
0.43
0.27
0.85
6.35
0.00
10.18a
0.00
1.20
0.31
0.75
0.52
3.31
0.02
1.33a
0.27
3.52
0.02
1.73a
0.16
6.27
0.00
1.75a
0.16
9.59
0.00
2.81a
0.04
DT1, DT2,
DT4 > DT3
DT1, DT2
> DT4
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; DT1: Cluster 1. Brief day-trippers and shoppers; DT2: Cluster 2.
Cultural day-trippers; DT3: Cluster 3. Day-trippers who are ‘wanderers’; DT4: Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided
day-trippers; aAsymptotically F distributed.
85
With regard to the tourists (Table
(80.17 € per person per day). However, it
3.10),
was more probable that the hyperactive
differences
were
found
both
among the clusters identified in four of
and
the eight spending items (bars and
standard
restaurants,
museums,
would revisit the destination than the
exhibitions and similar, hiring guides, and
clusters containing ‘wanderers’ (TA) and
shopping for local crafts) and in the
guided tourists (TC), whilst the relaxed
intention to recommend and revisit.
and cultural tourists (TB) (0.15 standard
If spending is considered, then the most
deviations over the mean) would be more
attractive cluster for the destination is
likely to make positive recommendations
that denominated as guided tourists (TC)
to others than the guided tourists (TC).
tickets
for
nocturnal
tourists
deviations
over
(TD)
(0.52
the
mean)
Table 3.10.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists.
Variable
SPENDING PER
PERSON PER
DAY (€)
Bars and
restaurants
Food bought in
stores
Tickets for
museums,
exhibitions and
similar
Hiring guides
Shopping for local
crafts
Transportation
Lodging
Other expenses
DESTINATION
IMAGE
INTENTION TO
REVISIT
INTENTION TO
RECOMMEND
M TA
(SD)
M TB
(SD)
M TC
(SD)
M TD
(SD)
57.58
(34.54)
69.05
(54.95)
80.17
(136.56)
74.83
(54.65)
11.87
(10.08)
1.78
(3.06)
18.09
(13.20)
2.08
(3.69)
14.74
(11.62)
3.39
(5.44)
19.37
(21.67)
1.94
(3.44)
3.31
(2.90)
4.15
(4.07)
5.20
(5.48)
5.70
(7.31)
0.00
(0.00)
2.42
(3.01)
12.82
(16.99)
23.01
(17.36)
2.37
(7.54)
0.03
(1.03)
-0.15
(0.98)
0.04
(1.01)
0.00
(0.00)
3.97
(6.73)
17.73
(39.23)
20.71
(22.63)
2.32
(5.00)
-0.12
(1.00)
0.07
(1.05)
0.15
(0.96)
3.02
(4.84)
6.35
(8.50)
23.41
(126.77)
20.94
(18.97)
3.12
(8.22)
-0.01
(0.94)
-0.09
(0.99)
-0.26
(1.00)
4.82
(12.21)
5.32
(7.91)
9.77
(10.02)
21.86
(20.06)
6.05
(19.71)
0.23
(1.03)
0.52
(0.82)
0.13
(0.98)
Levene test
F
p
ANOVA/
Welch test
F
p
Post hoc
tests
(p < 0.1)
7.94
0.00
5.03a
0.00
TB > TA
6.88
0.00
1.94a
0.13
9.48
0.00
3.75a
0.01
TC > TA
37.46
0.00
14.67b
0.00
TC > TA, TB;
TD > TA, TB
9.43
0.00
7.08a
0.00
TC > TA
2.14
0.09
1.46a
0.23
0.75
0.52
0.28
0.84
3.13
0.03
0.57a
0.64
0.10
0.96
1.07
0.36
1.58
0.19
4.43
0.01
TD > TA, TC
0.29
0.83
2.73
0.04
TB > TC
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; TA: Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’; TB: Cluster B. Relaxed
and cultural tourists; TC: Cluster C. Guided tourists; TD: Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists;
Asymptotically F distributed; bANOVA, Welch test cannot be performed because at least one group has zero
a
variance.
86
3.5.
empirical
link
between
individuals’
internal priorities and their behaviour
The objective of this study has been to
(Anderson et al., 1992). Since it is an
empirically evaluate the utility of time use
observable
as a segmentation criterion of the visitors
time use function is very good or good in
to the historic city of Toledo. The results
terms
have allowed us to obtain four segments
accessibility,
of day-trippers (brief day-trippers and
responsiveness
shoppers, cultural
2000).
day-trippers, those
tourism-specific
of
identifiability,
base,
substantiality,
stability,
Its
(Wedel
principal
the
&
and
Kamakura,
weakness
is
who are ‘wanderers’, and hyperactive and
actionability. However, bearing in mind
guided
to
that unobservable tourism-specific bases
another four for tourists (‘wanderers’,
stand out because of their actionability, it
relaxed
might
day-trippers),
and
cultural
in
addition
tourists,
guided
be
possible
to
increase
the
tourists, and hyperactive and nocturnal
effectiveness and profitability of tourism
tourists). We also discovered that the
market segmentation based on time by,
various segments identified according to
for
the time spent pursuing each activity can
presented in this research (time use) with
be
other subjective measures related to time
differentiated
spending
items
as
regards:
and
certain
intentions
example, combining the criterion
to
attitudes (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,
recommend the destination, in the case of
2000): time orientation, time pressure,
both day-trippers and tourists; and the
and succession during the touristic visit.
intentions to revisit, in the case of
tourists.
The study presented herein may also
have
practical
implications
for
From the academic point of view, after
Destination Management Organisations
carrying out a detailed analysis of the
(DMOs)
empirical studies on tourism that have
develop their activities at the destination.
been published, it was concluded that
Both the size and profile of the groups
activities or motivations have been widely
identified, and the differences between
used as segmentation bases. However,
the outcome variables would therefore
this research takes one step further in
provide
that it proposes a segmentation based on
configuring the activities on offer in the
the measurement of the time dedicated to
destination.
each
activity.
This
chapter
and
tourism companies that
useful
information
when
therefore
situates the time use at the destination as
More
specifically,
a valuable segmentation criterion that will
example, that one of the tourist groups
be useful to tourism researchers since it
that
establishes a more direct conceptual and
denominated as ‘wanderers’ (TA), who
is
relatively
it
highlights,
large
is
for
that
87
spend
a
lot
pursuing
In spite of the interest value of this study,
activities that do not generate income for
it is necessary to bear in mind a series of
the
limitations.
city.
of
their
However,
time
the
other
three
segments of tourists (who are more
interesting in terms of spending or their
Firstly, it is focused solely on the historic
intentions to revisit and recommend) are
city
smaller. This indicates the need to reflect
information concerning time use in other
upon
places (e.g. sun and beach, nature, or
the
destination’s
promotion
of
Toledo.
The
destinations)
collection
strategies, since it is principally attracting
urban
would
a group of tourists of little actual value
valuable for further research.
be
of
very
(spending) and future for the destination
(revisiting and recommendation). It has
Secondly, the data concerning time use
further been concluded that both the
have been obtained by using a diary, as
hyperactive
day-trippers
has occurred in other recent studies such
(DT4), and the guided tourists (TC) who
as that of Vassiliadis et al. (2013).
spend most of their time on guided visits,
Although the various methods with which
are
to obtain information on time use that are
those
and
who
guided
are
least
likely
to
recommend the destination. This may be
available
(observation,
owing to the fact that they do not have
questionnaires
free control over part of their time.
System (GPS) technology, among others)
Whatever the case may be, these findings
have their advantages and disadvantages
indicate that if the destination’s future
(Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012), in future
competitive position is to be improved,
studies,
then it is not appropriate to promote the
obtained by combining Global Positioning
use of guided visits to excess.
System
this
(GPS)
and
Global
diaries,
Positioning
information
technology
could
with
be
a
questionnaire (Tchetchik et al., 2009).
Finally, the cultural day-trippers (DT2),
and the relaxed and cultural tourists (TB)
Thirdly, it would be interesting to analyse
are those who are of most interest to the
how the differences in time use influence
destination, at least as regards their
other variables that have not been
intentions to recommend it. It might
considered in this research, such as
therefore be possible to set up initiatives
satisfaction
such as a single entrance ticket for the
emotions (Prebensen, Woo, et al., 2013;
city’s monuments and museums, since
Zakrisson & Zillinger, 2012).
or
positive
and
negative
this would encourage visitors to spend
more time pursuing this type of activities,
Lastly, the study required visitors to
which
indicate how much time they spent
might
make
them
feel
more
inclined to recommend the destination.
88
pursuing the principal activities at each
moment. In future works it will be
necessary to bear in mind that visitors
may pursue various activities at the same
time (Vassiliadis et al., 2013) and to
analyse whether a multi-tasking style is
related to greater stress or anxiety during
the visit to the destination.
Despite
these
segmentation
limitations,
proposed
the
in
this
research could be useful in other
areas, such as shopping centres. Time
is a critical variable for the managers of
this type of establishments, since the
longer that people stay, the more likely it
is
that
they
will
spend
money.
Segmenting visitors to shopping centres
according
to
the
amount
of
time
dedicated to each activity may therefore
permit the marketing strategies applied in
this area to be improved (García, Molina,
& Gómez, 2012).
89
CHAPTER 4.
EXPLORING THE ROLE OF
TIME
PERSPECTIVE
LEISURE CHOICES
IN
CHAPTER 4. EXPLORING THE ROLE OF
recently concluded that personality plays
TIME
a key role in predicting why people choose
PERSPECTIVE
IN
LEISURE
CHOICES
to pursue leisure activities. However,
most leisure studies do not account for
the way in which individuals view time
and how this affects leisure choices
4.1.
Introduction
(Shores & Scott, 2007).
The centrality of time orientation or
Urry (1994) connects time and leisure as
time perspective (TP), which is used to
a means to explain social identity and
explain general attitudes towards life
society’s evolution. He suggests that
and the reasons for human behaviour,
society has gone from being clock-time
has
psychology
oriented in which people are focused on
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999; Zimbardo,
the future and long-term planning, and
Keough, & Boyd, 1997), and consumer
the leisure is organised and regulated by
behaviour (Bergadaà, 1990; Davies &
the clock, to the current society in which
Omer, 1996).
both the glacial and the instantaneous
been
recognised
in
sense of time co-exist. Those people with
The concept of TP is based on the idea
a glacial sense of time are oriented
that people place emphasis on the past,
towards the past, and they feel the weight
present or future (Bergadaà, 1990). The
of
relative
instantaneous sense of time are highly
significance
that
individuals
history,
while
those
oriented
whether people prefer to look back at
present context that may be, for example,
events and accomplishments, live in the
associated with independent travellers.
here
now,
whatever
may
or
look
unfold’
turmoil
an
attach to each time frame ‘indicates
and
towards the
with
of the
forward
to
Shores and Scott (2007) show that TP has
(Cotte
&
a
stronger
relationship
leisure
Ratneshwar, 2003, p. 560). TP is widely
benefits
regarded as an important aspect of
variables. Philipp (1992) concludes that
overall personality (Davies & Omer,
future-oriented people appear to seek
1996; Fraisse, 1963; Shores, 2005) and
many specific leisure activities more
individuals’
been
frequently than past-oriented or present-
demonstrated to have more influence on
oriented people. It can thus be stated that
their behaviour as regards leisure in
there are signs that different TPs might
comparison
influence consumers’ leisure preferences
personalities
to
have
other
settings
socio-demographic
(Brandstätter, 1994; Diener, Larsen, &
(Cotte
Emmons,
1992; Shores, 2005; Shores & Scott,
Larsen,
1984;
1986).
Emmons,
Barnett
Diener,
(2013)
&
has
&
than
with
Ratneshwar,
2003;
Philipp,
2007).
93
Furthermore, with the exception of some
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Like Barnett
studies in the field of positive psychology,
(2013), leisure time and free time are
most research has focused on analysing
considered interchangeable terms in the
biased TPs without studying a balanced
present study. The proximity of both
time perspective (BTP). People with a
terms is reflected by Shores (2005, p. 2)
BTP have the ability to be flexible in
who uses Mannell and Kleiber’s (1997)
shifting from one TP to another; they are
conception to describe leisure ‘as an
supposed to be adaptive to the past,
activity chosen with relative freedom
present, and future (Boniwell & Zimbardo,
usually undertaken during free time with
2004). A BTP has been associated with
the potential to provide a feeling of joy,
subjective
control or mastery’.
previous
well-being.
studies
However,
have
no
investigated
differences in leisure choices between BTP
The
rest
of
the
fourth
chapter
is
and non-BTP groups.
organised as follows. The next section
provides a brief overview of some related
Despite findings that TP may be a key
research
aspect in leisure choices, most research
presents the data and methodology used.
linking both aspects has emerged from
The empirical results are presented in the
qualitative studies or small samples
third
sizes
limitations
(Shores
&
Scott,
2007).
The
growing research related to TPs and
works.
section.
and
The
second
Concluding
future
section
remarks,
research
are
addressed in the last section.
having a BTP (Sircova et al., 2014;
Wiberg, Sircova, Wiberg, & Carelli, 2012)
4.2.
Literature review
4.2.1.
Time perspective
and leisure (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003),
has not stimulated their joint analysis,
leading to an important research gap.
The effective operationalization of TP
The
to
requires an adequate conceptualisation
contribute to the research on leisure and
of this construct. Due to its complexity,
consumer behaviour by exploring the
different definitions have been used in the
role of five TPs (past-negative, past-
literature (Díaz-Morales, 2006). The lack
positive,
present-
of a precise definition of TP has
hedonistic, and future) and having a
stimulated the development of multiple
BTP on the amount of free time available,
scales with a single temporal category
leisure
leisure
(Bond & Feather, 1988; Joireman et al.,
activities. The five TPs were measured by
2012; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, &
an adaptation of the Zimbardo Time
Edwuards,
Perspective
Zaleski, 1996; Zuckerman, Eysenck, &
94
purpose
of
this
study
present-fatalistic,
benefits
sought
and
Inventory
is
(ZTPI)
1994;
Wohlford,
1966;
Eysenck, 1978) or two different time
construct, and provides a definition of TP
frames (Rappaport, 1990; Usunier &
as ‘a cognitive operation that implies both
Valette-Florence,
4.1).
an emotional reaction to imagined time
None of these methods has been widely
zones (such as future, present or past)
accepted because of their low reliability,
and a preference for locating action in
unstable
scoring
some temporal zone’ (p. 72). Zimbardo
difficulties (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004;
and Boyd (1999, p. 1271) define TP as
D’Alessio,
‘the often non-conscious process whereby
factor
2007)
(Table
structure,
Guarino,
De
or
Pascalis,
&
Zimbardo, 2003; Shores & Scott, 2007).
the continual flows of personal and social
experiences are assigned to temporal
However, our review of the literature
categories, or time frames, that help to
shows that most authors provide a wider
give order, coherence, and meaning to
definition
three
those events’. More recently, Corral-
temporal categories. One of the most
Verdugo et al. (2006) use Zimbardo and
frequently
Boyd’s (1999) conception to define TP as
of
TP
cited
consisting
definitions
of
of
TP
is
provided by Lewin (1951), who defines TP
‘one
fundamental
as ‘the totality of the individual’s views of
construction of psychological time, which
his psychological future and psychological
includes
past existing at a given time’ (p. 75).
classifying human experience in past,
Lennings (1996) highlights cognitive,
present and future ‘compartments’’ (p.
affective and conative aspects of the
139).
those
dimension
cognitive
in
the
processes
Table 4.1.
Time perspective scales.
Scale – Authors (year)
Time Competence Scale – Shostrom (1964)
Time Reference Inventory – Roos and Albers (1965a, 1965b)
Thematic Apperception Test – Wohlford (1966)
Circles Test – Cottle (1967)
Experimental Inventory – Cottle (1968)
Time Attitude Scale – Nuttin (1985)
Sensation Seeking Scale – Zuckerman et al. (1978)
Time Structured Questionnaire – Bond and Feather (1988)
Time Lines – Rappaport (1990)
Stanford Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo (1990)
Consideration of Future Consequences Scale – Strathman et al. (1994)
Future Anxiety Scale – Zaleski (1996)
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000)
Time Styles Scale – Usunier and Valette-Florence (2007)
Consideration of Future Consequences–14 Scale – Joireman et al. (2012)
Temporal categories
Past
Present
Future
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X (a)
X
X (a)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X (b)
X
X
X
X (c)
X (c)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X (d)
Notes: (a) double past and future: near and distant; (b) double present: hedonist and fatalist; (c) double past:
negative and positive; double present: hedonistic and fatalistic; (d) double future: CFC-future and CFCimmediate.
95
The relative emphasis or habitual focus on
negative, past-positive, present-fatalist,
any time frames (usually of past, present,
present-hedonist,
and future) is defined as TP, which has
theoretical foundation of ZTPI combines
cognitive,
social
motivational, emotional, cognitive, and
Zimbardo,
social processes that are presumed to
2004). Furthermore, the formation of
contribute to TP and to be influenced by it
TP is influenced by three factors: the
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Although the
socialisation
five subscales of the ZTPI are related to
emotional
components
and
(Boniwell
individual’s
&
process
cultural
(e.g.
values,
an
dominant
many
and
psychological
constructs,
religious orientation, kind of education,
remain
socioeconomic
family
conceptual
independence
experiences
Zimbardo,
2004;
modelling),
status,
or
personal
distinct,
future.
their
(Boniwell
Zimbardo
&
Boyd,
or personal successes), and situational
psychometric properties and it has
forces (e.g. being on holiday or under
been used to predict different behavioural
survival stresses) (Boniwell, Osin, Linley,
and personal features for more than a
&
decade (Boniwell et al., 2010; Corral-
Boniwell
&
Zimbardo, 2004).
has
&
1999).
2010;
ZTPI
they
throughout life (e.g. traumatic events
Ivanchenko,
The
maintaining
The
good
Verdugo et al., 2006; Drake et al., 2008;
Mello & Worrell, 2006; Shores & Scott,
Based
on
the
above
2007). Some modifications include short
definitions have commonly included three
versions, such as the 36-item ZTPI, which
temporal categories (past, present, and
is suitable for cross-cultural comparisons
future),
(Sircova
an
fact
that
adequate
the
measurement
et
al.,
2014);
three
main
instrument for the assessment of TP must
dimensions: past, present and future
consider at least these three time frames.
orientations (Karande & Merchant, 2012);
The TP scales used to measure these
or two dimensions: past and future
three temporal categories are shown
(Webster, 2011).
in
Table
4.1
Chetthamrongchai
(e.g.
&
those
Davies,
of
2000;
Table 4.2 shows the main features of the
Cottle, 1967; Nuttin, 1985; Zimbardo,
five
1990). However, these instruments have
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; D’Alessio et
the
the
al., 2003; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
instruments mentioned above (i.e. low
Firstly, the past-negative perspective
reliability, unstable factor structure, and
reflects a generally pessimistic, negative
scoring difficulties). The ZTPI, which was
or aversive view or attitude towards the
developed by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
past, presenting a potentially disturbing
to solve the shortcomings of previous
portrait. These negative attitudes may be
scales,
the
96
same
has
disadvantages
five
as
dimensions:
past-
TPs,
result
based
of
on
actual
several
studies
experiences
of
unpleasant
or
traumatic
the
openly love adventures and risk taking.
negative reconstruction of benign events,
High levels of self-monitoring have been
or a mixture of both. This dimension
cited
suggests
present-fatalistic
trauma,
pain,
events,
and
regret.
for
individuals
or
with
dominant
present-hedonistic
Secondly, past-positive perspective is
TPs, and they are therefore presumed to
related
positive
be able to adapt and feel secure in
construction of the past. This dimension
different surroundings. Fifthly, future-
reflects
often
oriented people are dominated by a
attitude
striving for future ambitious goals and
to
a
a
nostalgic
warm,
sentimental,
and
towards
past
the
and
pleasurable,
nostalgic
on
rewards, and place an emphasis on
maintaining relationships with family and
planning and punctuality. They are self-
friends. A common feature of both past-
responsible
negative and past-positive orientations is
always bear in mind the consequences,
that they act and decide in response to
contingences, and probable outcomes of
recurrent situations that reflect their past
present
experiences. They do not take chances,
individuals feel pressed for time but are
tend to be conservative, and are not
willing to sacrifice present enjoyment in
attracted to new experiences. Thirdly,
order to achieve their career objectives,
present-fatalistic
whilst delaying gratification and avoiding
represents
a
with
emphasis
perspective
fatalistic,
helpless,
and
and
decisions
super-achievers,
or
actions.
and
These
time-wasting temptations.
hopeless attitude towards the future and
life. Present-fatalistic people believe that
Table 4.2.
the
Time perspective dimensions and features.
future
is
uninfluenced
by
predestined
individual
and
actions,
whereas the present must be borne with
Dimension
resignation because they tend to see
themselves as puppets in the hands of
Pastnegative
fate. They tend to be dissatisfied with
their present life and are ready to take the
blame for their failures and to deny their
Pastpositive
achievements. Fourthly, the presenthedonist
perspective
suggests
an
orientation towards present pleasure with
little concern for future consequences.
Presentfatalist
Presenthedonist
Present-hedonistic people live for the
moment,
value
hedonistic
pleasures,
Future
Features
Depressive, anxiety, unhappiness,
low self-esteem, aggression,
shyness, temperamental, choleric,
conservative, cautious, avoiding
changes and new experiences
Self-esteem, friendliness,
energetic, nostalgic, happy, without
past regrets, warm, pleasurable,
sentimental, conservative,
cautious, avoiding changes and
new experiences
Aggression, depression, hopeless,
anxious, choleric
Ego under-control, novelty seeker,
sensation seeker, energetic,
impulsive, passionate
Conscientiousness, hard worker,
energetic, impulses under-control,
innovator, seek reward
enjoy high-intensity activities, seek thrills
Source: Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004); D’Alessio et
and new sensations, avoid pains, and
al. (2003); Zimbardo and Boyd (1999).
97
The
literature
possibility
review
of
reveals
qualitatively
the
simultaneous
bias
towards
different
different
temporal frames have a BTP, which is the
versions of the future derived from the
state and the ongoing process of being
anxiety and frustrations of trying to fit in
capable of operating in a temporal
with society’s schedule-driven emphasis
mode
(Spears & Amos, 2012). The future-
situation in which they find themselves.
negative perspective involves worrying
According to Zimbardo (2002), in an
about the future and anticipating negative
optimally BTP, the past, present and
outcomes, which results in a poor ability
future components ‘blend and flexibly
to enjoy the present (Carelli, Wiberg, &
engage,
Wiberg, 2011; Mello & Worrell, 2006;
demands and our needs and values’.
Wiberg
Students with a BTP may thus focus
et
al.,
2012).
These
that
is
appropriate
depending
a
situation’s
intensively
consequences are not included in the
excellent
ZTPI, and this may therefore show that
celebrating intensively the end of these
this
exams,
comprehensive
investigate a
is
not
scale
fuller
a
sufficiently
with
which
spectrum
of
studying
the
interpretations of the future with negative
instrument
on
on
to
marks
and
in
on
to
their
enjoying
achieve
exams,
on
themselves
to
during family events. They choose to
TP.
work hard when it is time to work, enjoy
Nevertheless, it continues to be the
themselves
leading
celebrations, and to be close to their
scale
used
to
measure
TP
(Boniwell et al., 2010).
when
it
is
time
for
families when it is a family moment. It is
supposed that they are able to switch
4.2.2.
among
different
temporal
frames
depending on task features, situational
The description of different TPs makes it
considerations, and personal resources
possible to note the main differences as
(Wiberg et al., 2012).
regards how the temporal view may
shape
actions,
These
individuals’
and
thoughts,
dispositional
dimensions
feelings,
tendencies.
measure
People
with
a
BTP
therefore
score
higher on past-positive, future, and
people’s
present-hedonist, but lower on past-
propensity to have each type of time
negative and present-fatalistic (Drake
orientation. Nevertheless, for example,
et al., 2008). This is the more functional
people who are predominantly present
or
oriented could also think about their
dysfunctional orientations (past-negative
future (Cotte, Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2004).
and present-fatalist), high scores on the
ideal
functional
profile
ones
with
low
scores
(past-positive
on
and
In their study, Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
future), and a moderate score on the
suggest that individuals that have a
remaining present-hedonist orientation
98
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; Sircova et
research linking TP and leisure is based on
al., 2014). According to this, people who
qualitative studies or small sample sizes,
have a BTP have a positive attitude
with the sole exception of the study by
towards their past, enjoy the present and
Shores and Scott (2007).
focus on future goals (Zimbardo & Boyd,
1999). Empirical research has focused
Considering the circumstances described
almost
above, it would appear that a theoretical
entirely
on
the
relationship
between having a BTP and subjective
framework
derived
well-being (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake
behaviour
is
et al., 2008; Gao, 2013; Wiberg et al.,
understand the role of TP in leisure
2012). They agree that having a BTP is a
choices. Davies and Omer (1996) propose
more optimal alternative to living life than
a time allocation model for this. These
the slavery of belonging to a specific
authors point out that, in the ‘inter-
temporal
have
activity’ process, the amount of time
associated a BTP with more positive
spent on each three major blocks or
emotions, subjective happiness, and life
activity
satisfaction. Wiberg et al. (2012) refer to
discretionary
other
from
time) is determined by both exogenous
having a BTP, such as a purpose in life
(e.g. culture, social structure, economic
(Shipp, Edwards,
situation,
frame.
specific
These
benefits
&
studies
derived
Lambert, 2009),
types
from
needed
(paid
time,
consumer
to
work,
and
legislation,
better
non-
discretionary
etc.)
and
better psychological health (Zimbardo &
endogenous variables (e.g. age, sex,
Boyd, 1999), and patience as a virtue
TP as an important aspect of overall
(Schnitker & Emmons, 2007).
personality, etc.). In what they label as
the ‘intro-activity’ allocation process, time
4.2.3.
Time perspective and leisure
is allocated and reallocated to different
choices
activities within each activity type in the
same way as above. Lastly, the outcomes
Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004) emphasize
of
both
processes
that TP affects attention, perception,
particularly in terms of satisfaction, and
decision-making and actions, and that it
this evaluation is another input to the
is one of the most powerful influences on
allocation process. This model proposed
almost all aspects of human behaviour.
by Davies and Omer (1996) explicitly
Paradoxically, only a few studies (Cotte &
recognizes the influence of TP on the
Ratneshwar, 2003; Philipp, 1992; Shores,
amount of time spent on leisure (in
2005; Shores & Scott, 2007) investigate
the ‘inter-activity’ process) and the time
the effects of TP on leisure choices: the
allocated to different leisure activities
amount of free time available, benefits
(in the ‘intro-activity’ process). However,
sought, and activities. Furthermore, most
they
conclude
that
are
the
evaluated,
exogenous
99
variables are likely to dominate the
highlight exciting leisure activities (Martin
former decisions, whereas endogenous
et al., 2009). Consequently, it can be
variables, including TP, are more likely to
argued that TP does not necessarily
determine the latter.
determine participation/non-participation
in
Bergadaà
(1990)
introduces
an
leisure
activities,
but
rather
the
content of the activities.
alternative theoretical model in which
TP (that is, an orientation toward present,
More recently, Cotte and Ratneshwar
past, or future formed by a mix of
(2000,
personal
environmental/social
theoretical approach with which to
aspects) leads to different motivations,
examine how timestyle influences the
plans and types of products and services
choice of leisure goals, and impacts on
purchased. TP also influences consumers’
consumers’ decisions regarding leisure
attitudes and how they organise and
products,
choose
self-
Cotte and Ratneshwar (2000) assume
organised versus non-organised, personal
that consumer behaviour is goal-driven,
choice versus external selection, etc.).
and that leisure consumption implies the
More
a
consumption of discretionary time. They
qualitative study, this author describes
then point out that ‘leisure behaviours
the differences between present and
and
future orientation as regards two products
explained, at least in part, by people’s
related to leisure: holidays and books.
timestyles’ (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003, p.
Present-oriented people prefer package
560). These authors suggest that an
holidays and reading books for relaxation,
individual’s
whereas future-oriented individuals have
dimensions: social orientation, temporal
a greater preference for self-organised
orientation,
trips
enriching
polychronic orientation. The objective of
informative
our research has led us to focus our
books (Bergadaà, 1990). Similarly, Martin
attention on temporal orientation (the
et al. (2009) suggest that both future-
relative significance of past, present or
oriented
people
future) or TP, as we have called it. Cotte
could read magazines. However, future-
and Ratneshwar (2003) conclude that TP
oriented people could read magazines
appears to influence not only day-to-
that discuss issues such as investments
day leisure activities but also more
and retirement incomes (e.g. Fortune),
major leisure consumption decisions.
while present-oriented people, who tend
Their qualitative research has led them
to
to
and
products/services
specifically,
designed
experiences
and
engage
to
and
and
(e.g.
based
provide
reading
present-oriented
in
on
sensation-seeking
behaviours, could read magazines that
100
2003)
have
services
consumption
state
and
planning
a
activities.
patterns
timestyle
that
proposed
can
has
four
orientation,
past-oriented
be
and
people
concentrate on activities such as visiting
the neighbourhoods in which they grew
The
theoretical
up and talking to old friends on the phone.
qualitative
Present-oriented people’s leisure choices
(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,
are more likely to be based on hedonic
2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) allow
pursuits (e.g. casino gambling, shopping,
us
playing on the Internet, or going out with
precisely (Figure 4.1). Surprisingly, few
friends or family for dinner). Future-
quantitative studies have examined the
oriented individuals often pursue personal
impact of TP on leisure choices. Although
development activities such as cookery
there is little empirical evidence, the main
classes, golf classes, or poetry discussion
findings of previous quantitative studies
groups.
are described in more detail below.
to
studies
define
our
models
and
reviewed
above
objectives
more
Figure 4.1.
Research objectives.
Objective 1
Objective 4a
Amount of free time available
on…


Weekdays (FTW)
Sundays (FTS)
Time perspectives (TPs)





Past-negative (NEG)
Past-positive (POS)
Present-fatalistic (FAT)
Present-hedonistic (HED)
Future (FUT)
Leisure benefits sought
Objective 2
Objective 4b





Sociability (SOC)
Physical fitness (PHY)
Learning and competence
testing (LEA)
Spirituality (SPI)
Risk taking (RIS)
(BTP)
Objective 3
Objective 4c
Frequency of engaging in
leisure activities
(how often people had spent time
on 25 leisure activities in the
previous month)
101
The first research objective
is to
One
of
these
internal
personality.
TPs and the amount of free time
undergraduate student sample, Barnett
available.
(2013) finds that the facets of the Big Five
introduces
concept
the
of
(2005),
social
TP
to
who
psychological
leisure
studies,
personality
in
dimensions
a
is
evaluate the relationship between the five
Shores
Thus,
attributes
large
(neuroticism,
extraversion, openness to experience,
hypothesises that TPs prove to have
agreeableness,
and
conscientiousness)
significant relationships to the amount of
were predictive of six desired outcomes
residual time (defined as time not spent
(new experiences, challenges and skills,
at work) and time allocated to leisure. In
internal rewards, social interaction, feel
a study with 148 undergraduate students,
good, and active engagement).
no differences were observed in the
amount of residual time between each TP.
With regard to the relationship between
Conversely, significant differences were
TP, as an important influence on overall
observed in the percentage of residual
personality, and leisure benefits sought,
time allocated to leisure for respondents
the only empirical research to have been
with different TPs. What is more, present-
conducted on this specific issue is that by
fatalistic
Shores and Scott (2007). These authors
and
present-hedonistic
individuals averaged more than twice the
selected
six
benefit
domains
(family
amount of recreation time than future-
togetherness, physical fitness, learning,
oriented respondents (Shores, 2005).
competence testing, spirituality, and risk
taking), which provided information about
Our second research objective is to
the
empirically determine whether the five
sociability,
TPs have an influence on the leisure
psychological state goals. These benefit
benefits sought. The answer to the
domains are the only ones for which a
question ‘why do people engage in leisure
theoretical basis exists in TP literature.
activities’ has motivated a great deal of
These authors’ two key findings are as
research in leisure studies (for a more
follows.
detailed review, see Dillard & Bates,
influence of TP on leisure benefits is more
2011). More specifically, leisure studies
important
have described how internal attributes
variables (e.g. age, gender, income,
(inputs) are related to personal benefits
etc.). Second, for the six leisure benefits,
that
past-negative
individuals
(outputs)
(Shores
seek
and
acquire
&
Scott,
2007).
desired
outcomes
related
achievement,
First,
they
than
and
show
to
and
that
the
socio-demographic
present-fatalistic
people were least likely to describe any
However, there is a lack of systematic and
benefit
comprehensive research on this topic
respondents classified as future-oriented
(Barnett, 2013; Shores & Scott, 2007).
and past-positive attributed the highest
102
as
important,
whereas
level of importance to all leisure benefits
were linked to a future time orientation.
sought except risk taking. Shores and
This is why Philipp (1992, p. 663)
Scott (2007, p. 98) therefore concluded
concludes that
that
time
‘appear to seek many specific leisure
perspectives are good and healthy time
activities much more frequently than
perspectives for shaping our free time’.
those individuals with a past or present
‘past-positive
and
future
future-oriented
time orientation’. No
other
people
empirical
The third objective is to explore whether
studies have been found which have
TPs predict how often people spend
examined the relationship between TPs
time on different leisure activities.
and a wide range of leisure activities,
Philipp (1992) provides tentative support
although there are studies in which a
for the hypothesis that TPs are associated
single
with participation in leisure activities. The
reported (Epel, Bandura, & Zimbardo,
Experimental Inventory used by Cottle
1999;
(1968) was used as a basis to assess five
Lukavska, 2012).
leisure
activity
Karande
&
has
Merchant,
been
2012;
time orientations (i.e. distant past, near
past, present, near future, and distant
For instance, Epel et al. (1999) report that
future), and 149 respondents were asked
the future orientation of homeless adults
to report whether they had participated in
living in shelters (N = 82) was related to
each of 39 leisure activities during the last
less time spent watching TV and passing
year. Philipp (1992) reports that 15 of the
time, whereas present orientation was
39 activities (38%) were significantly
related to more time spent on these
associated
activities.
with
orientations.
one
or
of
In
a
study
with
306
undergraduate students, Karande and
to
Merchant (2012) found that present time
bars/nightclubs, going to movies, going to
orientation influences impulsiveness, and
concerts, reading a newspaper, reading
that the latter affects the consumer’s
for
were
recreational shopper identity, which in
orientation
turn influences shopping behaviour (i.e.
(camping,
pleasure,
associated
and
with
a
the
time
leisure
activities
Seven
more
going
swimming)
past
(composed of distant past and near past),
browsing,
whereas going to amusement parks and
frequency, number or stores shopped at,
going to zoos were the only two activities
time spent shopping, and dollars spent).
related
Nine
TPs even predict the extent to which 154
vehicles,
respondents waste their time playing
activities
to
present
(driving
orientation.
off-road
online
concerts, horseback riding, playing indoor
significant negative correlation was found
sports,
between future TP and the amount of time
outdoor
sports,
swimming, and watching sporting events)
(Lukavska,
shopping
fishing, going to bars/nightclubs, going to
playing
games
socializing,
2012):
a
spent on this activity.
103
The fourth objective of our research is
and, most importantly, to identify the
to investigate differences in leisure
potential benefits of each activity. On the
choices between BTP and non-BTP
other hand, individuals with a BTP also
groups. As noted in the section above,
make the most of their leisure time
almost all previous research into BTP has
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003) and may
focused on its influence on well-being.
spend less time on passive entertainment
This study is in fact the first to link BTP to
or boring activities.
the
amount
of
free
time
available,
benefits sought, and leisure activities.
Following the discussion in the previous
Nevertheless, research in the field of
paragraph, in the current study we expect
positive
that:
psychology
(Boniwell,
2012)
provides support for the key role of a BTP
in the ability to use leisure time in a
(a)
The amount of free time available
positive and healthy way, while Boniwell
for BTP and non-BTP groups will
and Zimbardo (2003) point out that a BTP
be similar;
is related to the way in which people use
their time and is useful for solving the
(b)
BTP group will be more likely to
dilemmas of work-leisure balance. As
describe all of the leisure benefits
Boniwell
sought as important; and
(2012,
p.
80)
clarifies,
‘a
balanced use of time does not mean equal
allocation of time to work and leisure, it
(c)
Differences between
BTP and
does not even necessarily mean investing
non-BTP groups will be observed
more time into leisure’. It is a matter of
as
quality rather than quantity. Individuals
participation in activities that are
with
intimately
a
BTP
seek
quality
leisure
regards
the
frequency
of
associated
with
entertainment
(e.g.
experiences, rather than having more
passive
free time. Furthermore, it seems clear
watching TV) or activities without
that a satisfying use of leisure time is
content (e.g. resting and time
characteristic of a balance in our TP
out).
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). On the one
hand, people with a BTP have the ability
4.3.
Method
4.3.1.
Data collection and sample
to be flexible in shifting from one TP to
another and are capable of adopting a TP
that is appropriate to the situation in
profile
which they find themselves (Boniwell,
2012; Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). This
A total of 374 undergraduate and
ability allows them to be fully involved in
Master’s degree students from the
the leisure activities in which they engage
UCLM answered a questionnaire about TP
104
and leisure in December 2013. The
(Sircova et al., 2014). The original ZTPI
UCLM is a Spanish public university at
consisted of 56 items, but we decided to
which more than 31,000 students are
use a shortened version of 20 items (four
enrolled.
was
for each TP) based on the results (i.e.
the
items with the highest factor loadings) of
software
a previous study conducted in Spain
(https://www.surveymonkey.com/). The
(Díaz-Morales, 2006). A 5-point Likert
average duration of the survey was 17
scale was used, ranging from strongly
minutes. After deleting incomplete cases,
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
The
questionnaire
administered
online
using
SurveyMonkey®
we retained 320 usable questionnaires
for data analysis.
The second section was dedicated to
leisure choices: the amount of free time
The average age of the participants was
available, benefits sought, and activities.
22.28 years (SD = 3.67), with a range of
Two questions were about the amount of
18 to 43 years of age. The distribution by
free time available on weekdays and
sex was 57.19% females and 42.81%
Sundays (hours), respectively, referring
males.
were
more specifically to the time that had
undergraduate students, while 13.75%
been available the previous week. The
were Master’s degree students. A small
leisure benefits sought were measured
proportion
of
using 15 items on a 5-point Likert scale
performed
paid
The
majority
the
(86.25%)
sample
work.
(16.25%)
Nearly
65%
ranging from not at all important (1) to
reported living in the family home. Over
very important (5). We used 14 items
75% of the respondents resided in an
from Shores and Scott (2007) and added
urban area. The average family size was
an additional item from Barnett (2013)
4.03 members (SD = 1.07), and the
related to sociability: ‘to be with my
monthly family income per capita was, on
friends’. The respondents also reported
average, 387.68 € (SD = 287.29).
how often they had spent time on 25
leisure
4.3.2.
Instruments
month.
activities
The
during
choice
of
the
these
previous
leisure
activities was based on studies conducted
The questionnaire consisted of three
by Rodríguez and Agulló (1999) and von
sections
Normann (2009). A pre-test with 20
(Appendix
C).
The
first
section included 20 items derived
undergraduate
from the ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd,
confirmed the appropriate selection of
1999). The ZTPI is considered to be a
activities. The response options were
reliable and valid measure of five TPs:
never (1), once a month (2), more than
past-negative,
present-
once a month but less than once a week
fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future
(3), once a week (4), more than once a
past-positive,
students
further
105
week but less than once a day (5), and
and significant control variables were also
daily or almost daily (6).
included. Five different link functions
(cauchit, complementary log-log, logit,
The
last
section
collected
socio-
negative log-log, and probit) can be used
demographic information (i.e. age,
to obtain a set of candidate models
sex, education level, paid work, living in
(Norusis, 2012). This author suggests
the family home, family size, and family
that the researcher may delimit the link
income). These variables were used to
functions a
characterise the sample and as control
distribution of the dependent variables
variables in the subsequent analyses.
(Appendix D). More specifically, the
priori
depending
on
the
cauchit function is a reasonable choice
4.3.3.
Two
Data analysis
confirmatory
when the outcome has many extreme
factor
analyses
values,
the
function
is
complementary
appropriate
log-log
when
higher
(CFA) of the TPs and leisure benefits
categories are more probable, the logit
sought scales were conducted using EQS
model is suggested when the outcome is
6.1 for Windows. The normalised estimate
uniformly distributed, the negative log-
of Mardia's coefficients of multivariate
log function is more suitable when lower
kurtosis were high (11.81 and 17.66,
categories are more probable, and the
respectively), indicating multivariate non-
probit function provides better predictions
normality.
when the outcome is normally distributed.
likelihood
The
robust
estimation
maximum
method
was
However, there is no general method that
therefore used. Stepwise hierarchical
can be used to choose the proper link
regression analyses were then used to
function (Khan & Almas, 2013). We used
evaluate the relationship between the five
the
TPs and the amount of free time available
goodness-of-fit to monitor the candidate
(Objective 1) on the one hand, and the
models and choose the proper ones, as
leisure benefits sought (Objective 2) on
suggested by Khan and Almas (2013).
test
of
parallel
lines
and
the
the other. Exogenous variables were
entered
hierarchically in
two
blocks:
With regard to the relationship between a
control variables (block 1), and TPs (block
BTP and leisure choices (Objective 4),
2).
various
approaches
can
be
used
to
operationalize BTP (for a more detailed
The impact of TPs on each leisure activity
review, see Wiberg et al., 2012; Zhang,
(Objective
using
Howell, & Stolarski, 2013). We have used
ordinal regression analyses in which
a cluster-analysis to operationalize the
leisure benefits sought, amount of free
BTP using the standardised scores of the
time available on weekdays and Sundays
five ZTPI subscales, as proposed by
106
3)
was
examined
Boniwell et al. (2010). These authors
loadings
applied a hierarchical cluster analysis in
respectively).
order to identify the BTP and non-BTP
corrections, the overall model fit was
groups. Nevertheless, we performed a
adequate (Schumacker & Lomax, 2010).
latent class cluster analysis (LCCA)
Regarding reliability, the ordinal alpha (O-
using Latent Gold® 4.5 owing to its
α), recommended by Gadermann, Guhn,
significant
other
and Zumbo (2012) for Likert-type items
procedures (Oppewal et al., 2010). The
with 2 to 7 response options, ranged from
differences between BTP and non-BTP
0.74 for past-positive to 0.84 for present-
groups as regards the amount of free time
hedonistic, while the composite reliability
available and the leisure benefits sought
(CR) values exceeded the threshold of
(Objectives 4a and 4b, respectively) were
0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). All
analysed using t-tests, whereas the
loadings were significant (p < 0.001) and
differences in how often the respondents
above
had spent time on 25 leisure activities
extracted (AVE) values greater than or
(Objective 4c) were conducted using
close
Mann-Whitney U tests. All regression
convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker,
and bivariate analyses were performed
1981).
with IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0.
construct was higher than the squared
advantages
over
(0.42,
0.28,
Having
0.60.
to
and
0.32,
made
these
Average
0.50
variance
indicated
Moreover,
the
AVE
sufficient
for
each
correlations for all pairs of constructs
4.4.
Results
(Fornell
&
Larcker,
1981)
and
discriminant validity was ensured.
4.4.1.
Confirmatory factor analyses:
time perspectives and leisure
A CFA for the leisure benefits sought
benefits sought
scale allowed us to group 15 items into
five
benefit
domains:
sociability,
As a starting point, the 20 items from the
physical fitness, learning and competence
shortened version of the ZTPI were
testing,
subjected to a CFA in order to assess the
(Table 4.4). This factor structure was
adequacy of the five-factor model:
very similar to that identified by Shores
past-negative,
present-
and Scott (2007), except for the fact that
fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future
these authors examine ‘learning’ and
(Table 4.3). Three items (‘POS3. I get
‘competence
nostalgic about my childhood’, ‘FAT4.
domains, whereas we grouped them into
Often luck pays off better than hard
a single construct owing to their high
work’, and ‘HED4. I try to live my life as
correlation. The results from the CFA
fully as possible, one day at a time’) were
indicated an acceptable fit for the five-
deleted
factor model, adequate reliability levels,
owing
past-positive,
to
low
standardised
spirituality,
testing’
and
as
risk
two
taking
distinct
107
and
satisfactory
convergent
(loadings
weighted
arithmetic
analyses,
means
in
for
the
which
the
above 0.60, with the exception of ‘SOC3.
subsequent
To be with my friends’ = 0.46; and AVE
weights were the standardised loadings
above 0.50) and discriminant validity.
derived from the previous CFA. Appendix
E provides the descriptive statistics
The scores for the five TPs and leisure
regarding the five TPs and leisure
benefits
benefits sought.
sought
were
calculated
as
Table 4.3.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives.
Concept/Item
Loading
O-α
CR
AVE
0.80
0.79
0.74
Square correlation
NEG
POS
FAT
HED
FUT
0.49
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.72
0.47
0.00
1.00
0.07
0.00
0.06
0.79
0.75
0.50
0.00
0.07
1.00
0.03
0.11
0.84
0.80
0.58
0.01
0.00
0.03
1.00
0.08
0.81
0.79
0.49
0.03
0.06
0.11
0.08
1.00
PAST-NEGATIVE (NEG)
NEG1. I think about the bad things that have
happened to me in the past
NEG2. It’s hard for me to forget unpleasant
images of my youth
NEG3. Painful past experiences keep being
replayed in my mind
NEG4. The past has too many unpleasant
memories that I prefer not to think about
0.62***
0.71***
0.78***
0.67***
PAST-POSITIVE (POS)
POS1. Familiar childhood sights, sounds,
smells often bring back a flood of wonderful
memories
POS2. Happy memories of good times spring
readily to mind
POS4. I enjoy stories about how things used
to be in the ‘good old times’
0.72***
0.66***
0.67***
PRESENT-FATALISTIC (FAT)
FAT1. It doesn’t make sense to worry about
the future, since there is nothing that I can
do about it anyway
FAT2. Since whatever will be will be, it
doesn’t really matter what I do
FAT3. You can’t really plan for the future
because things change so much
0.71***
0.74***
0.66***
PRESENT-HEDONISTIC (HED)
HED1. I take risks to put excitement in my
life
HED2. It's important to put excitement in my
life
HED3. Taking risks keeps my life from
becoming boring
0.68***
0.82***
0.77***
FUTURE (FUT)
FUT1. I complete projects on time by making
steady progress
FUT2. I am able to resist temptations when I
know that there is work to be done
FUT3. Meeting tomorrow’s deadlines and
doing other necessary work comes before
tonight’s play
FUT4. When I want to achieve something, I
set goals and consider specific means for
reaching those goals
0.66***
0.77***
0.71***
0.63***
Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 109) = 144.22 (p = 0.01); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.90; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative
fit index (CFI) = 0.97; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.97; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.95; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.03.
Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.
108
Table 4.4.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought.
Concept/Item
Loading
O-α
CR
AVE
SOC
Square correlation
PHY
LEA
SPI
RIS
SOCIABILITY (SOC)
SOC1. To do something
0.89***
with my family
SOC2. To bring my family
0.78
0.76
0.53
1.00
0.02
0.14
0.10
0.02
0.78***
closer together
SOC3. To be with my
0.46***
friends
PHYSICAL FITNESS
(PHY)
PHY1. To get exercise
0.91***
PHY2. To keep physically
0.96
0.94
0.84
0.02
1.00
0.17
0.05
0.06
0.95***
fit
PHY3. To feel good after
0.89***
being physically active
LEARNING AND
COMPETENCE TESTING
(LEA)
LEA1. To develop my
0.77***
knowledge about things
0.91
0.87
0.62
0.14
0.17
1.00
0.15
0.21
LEA2. To learn about
0.87***
things
LEA3. To test my abilities
0.84***
LEA4. To learn what I am
0.67***
capable of
SPIRITUALITY (SPI)
SPI1. To grow and
0.97***
develop spiritually
0.92
0.90
0.81
0.10
0.05
0.15
1.00
0.03
SPI2. To reflect on my
0.83***
spiritual values
RISK TAKING (RIS)
RIS1. To take risks
0.63***
RIS2. To chance
0.80***
0.84
0.81
0.59
0.02
0.06
0.21
0.03
1.00
dangerous situations
RIS3. To experience the
0.86***
risks involved
Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 80) = 197.13 (p < 0.001); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.92; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.93; comparative
fit index (CFI) = 0.95; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.95; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.83; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07.
Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.
4.4.2.
Relationship
between
time
demographic
characteristics,
future
perspectives and the amount
orientation had negative impacts on the
of free time available
leisure time available on weekdays and
Sundays, while the present-hedonistic
Table 4.5 shows the outcomes of the two
perspective had a positive effect on the
stepwise hierarchical regression analyses
amount of hours spent participating in
used to determine the proportions of
leisure
variance in the amount of free time
significant effects were observed for
available
the other TPs examined (i.e. past-
explained
on
by
weekdays
the
TPs
and
and
Sundays
control
variables. After controlling for socio-
activities
negative,
on
weekdays.
past-positive,
and
No
present-
fatalistic).
109
Table 4.5.
Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time available.
Amount of free time
available on weekdays
Standardised
∆R2
coefficients
(b*)
Block/Exogenous variable
BLOCK 1. CONTROL VARIABLES
0.09***
Sex (1 = female)d
Amount of free time
available on Sundays
∆R2
b*
0.03**
-0.15**
Paid work (1 = yes)d
-0.21***
Family size
-0.13*
0.09†
Family income per capita
-0.11†
BLOCK 2. TIME PERSPECTIVES
0.07***
0.05***
Past-negative
Past-positive
Present-fatalistic
Present-hedonistic
0.10†
Future
-0.23***
TOTAL R2
0.16
F
-0.21***
0.08
12.21***
8.63***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.
4.4.3.
Relationship
between
perspectives
and
time
leisure
benefits sought
explained.
Neither
past-negative
nor
present-fatalistic were associated with
the five leisure benefits sought. The pastpositive perspective had positive impacts
As
explained
earlier,
the
significant
on
sociability,
and
learning
and
control variables (i.e. age, sex, education
competence testing. Respondents who
level, living in the family home, or family
scored high on the present-hedonistic
size) were entered in the regression
perspective were more likely to seek risk-
equations in the first block and TPs were
taking benefits and less likely to seek
added
The
learning and competence testing benefits
coefficients of determination indicated
from leisure. Future TP had positive
that for four of the five leisure benefits
effects on learning and competence
sought, with the exception of spirituality,
testing, physical fitness, sociability,
more than 10% of the variance was
and spirituality (Table 4.6).
110
in
the
second
block.
Table 4.6.
Stepwise hierarchical regression analyses predicting leisure benefits sought.
Block/
Exogenous
variable
BLOCK 1.
CONTROL
VARIABLES
Physical
fitness
Sociability
∆R2
b*
∆R2
0.09***
b*
0.06***
Learning and
competence
testing
∆R2
b*
0.00
Spirituality
Risk taking
∆R2
∆R2
b*
0.11†
Sex (1 = female)d
0.13*
Education level (1
= master's
degree)d
Living in family
home (1 = yes)d
-0.24***
0.12*
0.10*
0.10†
-0.17***
-0.10†
Family size
BLOCK 2. TIME
PERSPECTIVES
0.01†
0.06**
Age
b*
0.15**
0.14***
0.05***
0.12***
0.01*
0.23***
Past-negative
Past-positive
0.36***
0.12*
Present-fatalistic
Present-hedonistic
-0.15**
Future
TOTAL R2
0.11*
0.22***
0.23
F
0.11
22.97***
0.47***
0.30***
0.12
13.09***
0.11*
0.07
14.20***
0.24
4.62***
48.69***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.
4.4.4.
Relationship
perspectives
between
and
time
leisure
activities
discussed
below,
indicating
that
the
location parameters are equivalent across
the levels of the dependent variable.
When assessing model fit, Pearson and
Ordinal regression analyses were used to
deviance statistics (p > 0.05) indicated
explore how TPs predicted how often
a good fit to the data. Unfortunately, both
people had spent time on each leisure
goodness-of-fit
activity
month.
viewed with great caution. They are
Leisure benefits sought, amount of free
sensitive to empty cells when estimating
time available on weekdays and Sundays,
models with continuous covariates, as in
and significant control variables were also
our case. The Nagelkerke pseudo R2,
included in the ordinal regression models.
which appears to best exhibit palindromic
The test of parallel lines was non-
invariance (Smith & McKenna, 2012), was
significant (p > 0.05) in the models
accordingly used to evaluate goodness-
during
the
previous
statistics
should
be
111
of-fit for our models. The Nagelkerke
parameters and coefficients for significant
R values for the 25 models ranged from
control variables have been omitted for
0.04 (for travel and tourism, and going for
brevity, but are available upon request.
a walk) to 0.47 (for sports) (Table 4.7).
As can be seen in columns 1-6, 23 of the
Although these values were suitable for
25 leisure activities were significantly
an exploratory study, the Nagelkerke R
associated with one or more TPs. 10 of
2
2
was below 10% in seven activities,
these
23
activities
(reading
comics,
indicating that the predictors did not
shopping, nightlife, watching TV, surfing
explain much of the variance in these
the Internet, listening to the radio and
activities.
music, using social networks, attending
concerts, attending sporting events, and
Table 4.8 shows the model parameter
going to the cinema) were significantly
estimates.
associated with more than one TP.
The
non-significant
Table 4.7.
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: test of parallel lines and
goodness-of-fit.
Leisure activity
Reading comics (d)
Test of parallel lines
χ2 (df)
p
Nagelkerke
pseudo R2
7.24 (52)
1.00
0.26
Shopping (c)
37.29 (48)
0.87
0.11
Nightlife (e)
68.49 (52)
0.06
0.18
Watching TV (b)
63.74 (48)
0.06
0.12
Reading books (printed or eBooks) (c)
51.73 (44)
0.20
0.07
Surfing the Internet (b)
38.08 (44)
0.72
0.11
Listening to the radio and music (c)
51.29 (40)
0.11
0.08
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services (b)
45.01 (36)
0.14
0.17
Using social networks (b)
58.14 (48)
0.15
0.12
Sports (c)
52.41 (52)
0.46
0.47
Travel and tourism (e)
22.87 (44)
1.00
0.04
Attending concerts (d)
23.91 (44)
0.99
0.13
Attending sporting events (d)
54.43 (52)
0.38
0.20
Playing a musical instrument (d)
21.55 (48)
1.00
0.13
Attending the theatre or similar activities (c)
56.60 (44)
0.10
0.14
Collaborating with associations (e)
12.67 (44)
1.00
0.09
Going to the cinema (d)
27.96 (42)
0.95
0.12
Going for a walk (a)
60.07 (44)
0.05
0.04
Watching online videos (c)
55.87 (52)
0.33
0.16
Resting and time out (c)
50.41 (44)
0.23
0.13
Playing video games or online games (c)
59.36 (48)
0.13
0.16
Going out for a drink (e)
64.67 (48)
0.05
0.06
Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) (b)
45.59 (48)
0.57
0.14
Going to restaurants (e)
44.60 (48)
0.61
0.06
Visiting museums and art galleries (d)
27.65 (52)
1.00
0.20
Notes: Link function: (a) cauchit; (b) complementary log-log; (c) logit; (d) negative log-log; (e) probit.
112
Past perspectives (i.e. past-negative and
associated with reading newspapers and
past-positive)
magazines.
had
different
roles
in
predicting how often certain activities had
been performed in the previous month.
Although it was not the objective of our
Past-negative perspective had negative
study, Table 4.8 also provides evidence
impacts on reading comics, shopping, and
regarding the extent to which there was a
nightlife;
relationship
orientation
whereas
was
past-positive
significantly
and
between
each
benefit
sought and leisure activity (columns
positively associated with reading comics,
7-11).
watching TV, reading books, surfing the
positive impacts on collaborating with
Internet, listening to the radio and music,
associations and some activities related to
and talking on the phone and using
the arts and culture (i.e. reading comics,
instant messaging services. The present-
attending concerts, playing a musical
fatalistic
associated
instrument, attending theatre or similar
with eight activities. It had an inverse
activities, and visiting museums and art
relationship with surfing the Internet,
galleries). With regard to the significant
using social networks, and sports; and a
control variables (columns 12 and 13),
direct relationship with watching TV,
we can highlight that sex was significantly
travel and tourism, attending concerts,
associated
attending sporting events, and playing a
Being female was associated with a higher
musical instrument. Mixed (positive and
propensity to participate in activities such
negative) results were similarly found for
as shopping, talking on the phone and
the relationship between the present-
using instant messaging services, and
hedonistic perspective and nine leisure
using social networks; while being male
activities, and had a positive relationship
was related to reading comics, nightlife,
with shopping, watching TV, using social
sports, attending sporting events, playing
networks, going for a walk, and watching
a musical instrument, watching online
online videos; and a negative relationship
videos, playing video games, and reading
with attending concerts, attending the
newspapers
theatre or similar activities, collaborating
interpretations can be made for living in
with
the
the family home and paid work, family
cinema. With regard to future TP, it was
income, family size, age, and education
negatively associated with eight activities
level, which were related to six, five, four,
(shopping, nightlife, listening to the radio
two
and music, attending sporting events,
respectively. The amount of free time
going to the cinema, resting and time out,
available
playing video games or online games, and
influenced the frequency of participation
going out for a drink) and positively
in five and eight activities, respectively.
perspective
associations,
and
was
going
to
For
example,
with
and
on
and
one
11
spirituality
leisure
activities.
magazines.
leisure
weekdays
and
had
Similar
activities,
Sundays
113
Table 4.8.
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.
Exogenous variable
Leisure activity
Time perspectives (columns 2-6)
Pastnegative
Reading comics
-0.44*
Shopping
-0.21†
Nightlife
-0.14†
Pastpositive
0.42**
Reading books (printed or eBooks)
0.32*
Surfing the Internet
0.44*
Listening to the radio and music
0.46*
0.27*
0.24†
-0.53**
0.75**
-0.25†
Sports
-0.23†
Travel and tourism
0.13†
Attending concerts
0.14†
Attending sporting events
0.20†
0.27†
-0.19*
-0.37**
0.43**
Attending the theatre or similar activities
-0.42*
Collaborating with associations
-0.25*
Going to the cinema
-0.19†
Going for a walk
0.21†
Watching online videos
0.30†
Playing video games or online games
-0.29†
-0.31*
Using social networks
Future
-0.25**
0.25†
Playing a musical instrument
Presenthedonistic
0.49*
Watching TV
Talking on the phone and using instant
messaging services
Presentfatalistic
-0.25*
-0.43**
-0.30†
Going out for a drink
-0.24**
Reading newspapers and magazines
(printed or online)
0.19†
Going to restaurants
Visiting museums and art galleries
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
114
Exogenous variable
Leisure benefits sought (columns 7-11)
Leisure activity
Sociability
Physical
fitness
Reading comics
Shopping
Learning
and
competence
testing
-0.69†
Risk
taking
0.83***
-0.35*
Nightlife
-0.12*
Watching TV
-0.30**
Spirituality
-0.29*
-0.37†
0.34†
0.58*
-0.40*
-0.30*
Talking on the phone and using instant
messaging services
-0.38**
Sports
1.47***
-0.52*
Travel and tourism
Attending concerts
-0.24†
0.37*
0.12†
0.40***
0.38*
Attending the theatre or similar
activities
0.48***
0.21**
Going to the cinema
Going for a walk
0.28†
-0.48**
0.25†
-0.29*
Reading newspapers and magazines
(printed or online)
0.27†
-0.20*
0.15†
0.66***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
115
Exogenous variable
Leisure activity
Significant control variables (p < 0.1)
(columns 12-13)
Positive parameter
Reading comics
Negative parameter
Female; Home; Income
Shopping
Female
Size
Nightlife
FTS
Age; Female
Watching TV
Home; FTS
Work
FTS
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services
Female
Female; FTS
Sports
FTS
Travel and tourism
Work
Attending concerts
FTW
Female; FTW
Size
FTS
Female; FTW
Work
Female
Attending the theatre or similar activities
Income
Going to the cinema
Home
Work; Home
Going for a walk
Age; Size
Income
Size
Female; Home
FTW
FTS
Female
FTS
FTW
Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)
Work
Female
Education; Income
Work; Income
Home
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Female: sex (1 = female); Education: education level
(1 = master's degree); Work: paid work (1 = yes); Home: living in the family home (1 = yes); Size: family size;
Income: family income per capita (€); FTW: amount of free time available on weekdays; FTS: amount of free
time available on Sundays.
116
4.4.5.
Relationship
balanced
between
time
a
The first cluster (59.69%) was labelled
perspective
non-BTP and included individuals with
and leisure choice
high
scores
in
past-negative
present-fatalistic
perspectives
and
(0.14
We conducted a LCCA in order to identify
and 0.35 standard deviations over the
groups with and without a BTP. Five
sample mean, respectively). The second
models were considered, each of which
cluster (40.31%) was a BTP group that
incorporated
between
was characterised by high scores as
homogeneity)
and
one
five
(sample
clusters.
We
regards
future,
past-positive
and
selected the most parsimonious model
present-hedonistic subscales, and low
according
scores
to
the
consistent
Akaike
as
regards past-negative and
information criterion (CAIC). Lower CAIC
present
fatalistic
values indicate a better fit (Wedel and
4.10). Each individual was assigned to a
Kamakura, 2000). The results presented
group
in Table 4.9 indicate that there were two
pattern: 191 were individuals with a non-
clusters.
BTP and 129 had a BTP.
according
perspectives
to
his/her
(Table
response
Table 4.9.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models.
Model
Log-likelihood
(LL)
Number of
parameters
CAIC(LL)
Classification
errors
One cluster
-2267.80
4603.28
10
0.00
Two clusters*
-2219.60
4581.34
21
0.11
Three clusters
-2188.50
4593.59
32
0.18
Four clusters
-2165.78
4622.60
43
0.19
Five clusters
-2148.41
4662.32
54
0.20
Table 4.10.
Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters.
Indicator
Robust Wald
statistic
Standard deviations from the sample mean
p
Cluster 1. Non-balanced
time perspective (59.69%)
Cluster 2. Balanced time
perspective (40.31%)
Past-negative
5.18
0.02
0.14
-0.20
Past-positive
17.58
0.00
-0.28
0.41
Present-fatalistic
25.56
0.00
0.35
-0.52
Present-hedonistic
10.28
0.00
-0.22
0.32
146.33
0.00
-0.62
0.92
Future
117
Firstly, the BTP effects on the amount of
4.5.
free time available on weekdays and
Sundays were evaluated using t-tests.
This chapter has reviewed theoretical
The non-BTP group spent more time (p
models derived from consumer behaviour
< 0.05) pursuing leisure activities on
(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,
weekdays (4.89 hours on average) and
2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) to
Sundays (7.29 hours on average) than
propose and test an integrated model that
the BTP group (3.69 and 6.52 hours on
analyses how TPs (past-negative, past-
average, respectively).
positive,
present-fatalistic,
present-
hedonistic, and future) and having a BTP
Secondly, the scores obtained by the
have an influence on the amount of free
BTP group for four of the five leisure
time available, the leisure benefits that
benefits sought
to be
individuals seek, and how often people
significantly higher than those of the non-
spend time on different leisure activities.
BTP group: sociability (Mnon-BTP = 3.83,
From an academic point of view, the
MBTP = 4.17, t = -4.31, p = 0.00); physical
findings of this study shed light on the
fitness (Mnon-BTP = 3.52, MBTP = 3.84, t = -
role of TP in leisure choices, which is a
2.85, p = 0.00); learning and competence
relevant contribution when bearing in
testing (Mnon-BTP = 3.98, MBTP = 4.27, t =
mind the scarcity of empirical research on
-4.00, p= 0.00); and spirituality (Mnon-BTP
this topic (Philipp, 1992; Shores, 2005;
= 2.93, MBTP = 3.19, t = -2.11, p = 0.04).
Shores
No significant differences were found in
contribution is that, in spite of the
the case of risk taking (Mnon-BTP = 3.46,
growing interest in the field of positive
MBTP = 3.43, t = 0.23, p = 0.82).
psychology as regards associating a BTP
were found
&
Scott,
2007).
A
further
with positive outcomes for individuals
Thirdly, the frequency of engaging in
(e.g. subjective well-being) (Boniwell,
22 of the 25 activities was similar in
2012), no previous study has examined
both
were
the relationship between a BTP and
significant differences between the non-
leisure choices. The main conclusions
BTP and BTP groups as regards going out
obtained in this chapter are as follows.
for
groups.
a
However,
drink
10,584.50,
(Mann-Whitney
=
-2.21,
p
=
U
=
0.03),
First, with regard to the relationship
nightlife (Mann-Whitney U = 9489, z = -
between TPs and the amount of free
3.58, p = 0.00), and resting and time
time available, our findings are similar
out (Mann-Whitney U = 9588, z = -3.46,
to those of Shores (2005). We can
p = 0.00). Non-BTP group engaged in
therefore conclude that the future TP is
these leisure activities more often than
associated with less free time on both
BTP group did.
weekdays
118
z
there
and
Sundays,
while
the
present-hedonistic
a
time owing to the high demands that they
positive effect on the amount of hours
daily impose upon themselves in their
spent
on
work or studies. Whatever the case may
weekdays. Lens, Paixão, Herrera, and
be, the results obtained have allowed us
Grobler (2012, p. 330) have recently
to
hypothesised that future TP ‘may have
understand time is a key predictor of why
less important consequences for leisure
they engage in leisure activities.
pursuing
perspective
leisure
has
activities
reach
a
conclusion:
how
people
and social life than for educational and
vocational
activities’.
However,
our
Thirdly, some interesting conclusions
results show that this is not the case,
have been reached after analysing the
since being future-oriented is one of the
results
most important predictors in the amount
relationship between TPs and leisure
of free time available, which is a key
activities.
obtained
as
regards
the
aspect in leisure.
On the one hand, it is noted that the
With regard to the second objective,
past-positive TP is directly associated
which
with the frequency of participation in a
is
between
related
TPs
to
and
the
relationship
leisure
benefits
greater
number
of
activities.
It
is
sought, it is possible to summarise the
positively related to six of the 25 leisure
findings obtained as follows: past-positive
activities, some of which may evoke the
TP is strongly associated with sociability;
past (e.g. listening to music and the
future TP is intensively related to physical
radio, or reading books) or are activities
fitness, and learning and competence
that involve the creation and maintenance
testing; and present-hedonistic TP is a
of social networks (e.g. talking on the
key predictor of risk taking. These results
phone
are
services).
completely
features
of
coherent
each
TP:
with
the
past-positive
and
and
and
associated
reward);
and
present-
instant
messaging
Next,
the
present
perspectives
(friendliness); future (conscientiousness
seeking
using
(i.e.
present-hedonistic
present-fatalistic)
with
five
are
positively
activities.
Both
hedonistic (novelty seeker). However, it is
present orientations are associated with
striking that past-positive (happy and
watching TV, as was also reported by Epel
without past regrets) is not associated
et al. (1999); meanwhile, the present-
with spirituality, and that future is the
hedonistic
only TP that is, albeit weakly, connected
shopping, as we expected based on
with this leisure benefit. This could be
previous studies (Karande & Merchant,
explained by the fact that future-oriented
2012).
people have a greater need to disconnect
associated with reading newspapers, and
and seek spiritual benefits in their free
would thus appear to be a TP that reduces
perspective
Future
TP is
is
related
to
only positively
119
the frequency of participation in certain
amount of free time available is not
leisure activities (e.g. listening to the
similar to that of non-BTP group, since the
radio and music, resting and time out,
former has less free time than the latter
playing a musical instrument, or playing
on
video games or online games). The
However,
results obtained as regards future TP are
importance on four of the five benefits
opposite to those obtained by Philipp
(sociability, physical fitness, learning and
(1992), who found that future-oriented
competence
people
leisure
while there is no difference in the case of
activities more frequently than other
case of risk taking. Perhaps the capacity
individuals. Two possible explanations for
that BTP group has to adapt to different
this may be that: (1) more than 20 years
situations may be the reason why these
have
(1992)
people are prepared to recognise the
published his work, which may have
various benefits derived from each of the
influenced leisure preferences and the
leisure activities that they pursue. BTP
types of activities pursued; and (2) there
and non-BTP groups participate in almost
are significant differences between the
all leisure activities to a similar extent,
methods
(e.g.
with the exception of going out for a
sample sizes, how the variables were
drink, nightlife, and resting and time out.
measured, or the statistical techniques
These three activities are pursued to a
used). Past-negative is not positively
lesser extent by BTP group.
tend
elapsed
used
to
seek
since
in
many
Philipp
both
studies
both
weekdays
BTP
and
group
testing,
Sundays.
places
and
more
spirituality),
related to the frequency of participation in
any leisure activity.
The conclusions drawn in the previous
paragraph allow us, in part, to refine
On the other hand, it should be stressed
those obtained by Shores y Scott (2007),
that 10 of the 25 activities are related (be
who
it positively or negatively) to more than
future orientations are healthy TPs for
one
shaping our free time. Based on the
TP.
For
example,
past-positive,
consider
that
empirical
TPs
with
having a BTP is what guarantees a more
watching TV. Perhaps each TP differs from
adequate and healthy enjoyment of
each other in the type of TV programs
leisure. In fact, it is probable that this
watched. This suggests that TP not only
capacity to make the most of one’s leisure
influences the decision to engage in a
time (independently of whether one has
leisure activity, but also its content.
more or less free time) is one of the
positively
associated
presented
and
present-fatalistic and present-hedonistic
are
evidence
past-positive
here,
reason why numerous previous studies
With regard to the fourth objective,
have
unlike what was expected, BTP group’s
between having a BTP and subjective
120
reported
a
direct
relationship
well-being.
A
considerable
BTP
therefore
potential
for
offers
frequently used by the TP in question. For
practical
example, advertising in newspapers and
interventions in leisure education or
magazines might
counselling. The focus of leisure time
effective when targeting a public with a
management
develop
future TP, while advertising in social
interventions based on an understanding
networks might be more appropriate as
of people’s TP biases that unconsciously
regards transmitting messages that are
dominate their lives and leisure time.
intended
These techniques may be useful to attain
audience. We can therefore state that TPs
a BTP and for solving the dilemmas of a
are valuable segmentation criteria for
work-leisure
marketers.
techniques
balance
can
(Boniwell
&
for
prove to be
a
more
present-hedonistic
Zimbardo, 2003). The BTP group is also
an attractive segment for leisure service
In interpreting the results of this study,
providers. The fact that individuals with
several
a BTP are more likely to seek a large
considered. The first set of them is
number of leisure benefits makes them a
related to the fact that TPs in this
target market when launching new leisure
research have been conceptualised and
products/services, since it is probable
operationalized as personality traits, as
that they will capture the additional
was done in almost all previous studies
benefits that these provides more quickly.
(Guignard,
2014).
limitations
should
Apostolidis,
This
&
be
Demarque,
individual-differences
Two important practical implications
approach to TPs thus presents interesting
have also been derived from our synthesis
results regarding TP outcomes in the
of the findings shown in Table 4.11.
amount of free time available, benefits
Firstly, leisure-related
businesses can
sought and leisure activities. However,
obtain information about which leisure
TPs can also be studied from two other
products are more or less appropriate for
points of view that are different from
each
that of personality traits.
TP.
For
example,
past-positive
oriented people seek benefits related to
sociability
along
with
competence
testing,
therefore
target
a
publishing
industries,
companies.
groups,
or
learning
and
On
are
Western societies, future TP subscale
book
might be a normative construct (i.e.
music
people may present themselves as having
telephone
high future TP if they seek to gain
and
they
market
for
radio
mobile
Secondly,
and
companies
the
one
hand,
in
contemporary
can
approval and, on the whole, people
create advertising messages that are
attribute more value to the high future TP
adapted to each TP and emit them using
target than the low one) (Guignard et al.,
the means of communication that is most
2014).
121
Table 4.11.
Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices.
Leisure choices
AMOUNT OF FREE TIME
AVAILABLE ON…
Weekdays
Sundays
LEISURE BENEFITS
SOUGHT
Sociability
Physical fitness
Learning and competence
testing
Spirituality
Risk taking
FREQUENCY OF ENGAGING
IN LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Reading comics
Shopping
Nightlife
Watching TV
Reading books (printed or
eBooks)
Listening to the radio and
music
Talking on the phone and
using instant messaging
services
Sports
Travel and tourism
Attending concerts
Attending the theatre or
similar activities
Collaborating with
associations
Going to the cinema
Going for a walk
Playing video games or online
games
Reading newspapers and
magazines (printed or online)
Visiting museums and art
galleries
Pastnegative
Time perspectives
PastPresentPresentpositive
fatalistic
hedonistic
Future
+
+
+
-
Balanced
time
perspective
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
-
+
On the other hand, although Zimbardo
2014) may change individuals’ TPs
and Boyd (1999) point out that a TP may
and
become a relatively stable dispositional
Interestingly, Shavit et al. (2014) show
characteristic, recent research findings
that a risky activity (e.g. skydiving)
suggest that environmental factors
affects TP (i.e. people become present-
(Lahav, Benzion, & Shavit, 2011) or risky
oriented) even when people voluntarily
activities (Shavit, Rosenboim, & Shani,
choose to engage in the activity and also
122
consequently
their
actions.
when the activity is limited in time and
from
does not require long-term engagement.
further constraint is that the sample is
This
from
suggests
should
use
that
future
experimental
research
a
population
Western
samples.
cultural
A
context:
to
Spain. Research by Hofstede et al. (2010)
analyse to what extent engaging in a
highlight how cultures differ in their time
leisure activity may affect an individual’s
orientation (long-term versus short-term
TP. For example, our results have shown
orientation). These authors have found
that
present-
differences between societies with a long-
hedonistic orientation go shopping more
term orientation, which focus on fostering
frequently, while those with greater past-
future rewards, particularly perseverance
positive
frequently
and thrift; and countries with a short-
engage in activities such as listening to
term orientation, which focus on fostering
the radio and music or reading books. It
virtues related to the past and present, in
would
particular,
students
with
orientation
be
designs
general
greater
more
interesting
to
conduct
respect
for
tradition,
experiments in order to analyse whether
preservation of ‘face’, and fulfilling social
shopping or listening to the radio and
obligations.
The
four
music might modify individuals’ TPs, thus
countries
as
regards
making people more oriented towards
orientation are East Asian (South Korea,
present-hedonistic
past-positive,
Taiwan, Japan and China), and with three
respectively, after having participated in
exceptions (Malaysia, Thailand, and the
these two activities. Future research of
Philippines), all the other South and
this type may help towards a better
Southeast Asian countries appear in the
understanding of which leisure activity
top half of the table (Hofstede et al.,
characteristics can be associated with
2010). Consequently, future research
each TP.
directions could include how TPs affects
or
highest-scoring
long-term
leisure choices in East Asian countries and
The second set of limitations concerns
cross-cultural
the sample used in this study: a sample
Western versus East Asian cultures).
of
320
Although
Spanish
the
university
use
of
a
comparisons
(e.g.
students.
relatively
Thirdly, when interpreting the results it
homogeneous sample of students is
is necessary to bear in mind that the
suitable for an exploratory study, and
explanatory power of some models is
while some of the studies reviewed used
relatively low (see Tables 4.5 to 4.7) and
smaller samples (e.g. Epel et al., 1999;
that some leisure activities are never
Karande & Merchant, 2012; Lukavska,
pursued by the vast majority of the
2012; Philipp, 1992), it would be valuable
sample (e.g. reading comics, playing a
to evaluate whether the results presented
musical
here are consistent with those derived
concerts) (see Appendix D). The extent
instrument,
or
attending
123
of an individual’s involvement in leisure
activities may be influenced by a large
number of factors and constraints
(Ajzen & Driver, 1991; Godbey, Crawford,
& Shen, 2010), some of which have not
been considered in this research. Some
alternative relationships could also be
considered. For example, it is possible
that the amount of free time available and
leisure benefits sought are mediating
variables in the relationship between TPs
and leisure activities. That is to say, it
could be argued that, in the first stage,
TPs determine the amount of free time
available and leisure benefits sought, and
that these variables may in turn influence
the frequency of participation in one type
of leisure activity or another. These
relationships
incorporating
can
only
indirect
be
tested
effects
in
by
our
model, but it is obvious that further
theoretical development is necessary.
Finally, despite the fact that using the
ZTPI has allowed us to explore the
relationships between five TPs and having
a BTP and leisure choices in great detail,
recent studies also reveal the possibility
of qualitatively different versions of
future orientation (Spears & Amos,
2012) or a future-negative orientation
(Andretta, Worrell, & Mello, 2014). In
future studies it would be interesting to
analyse
the
role
of
these
different
versions of future orientation in leisure
choices.
124
CHAPTER 5.
conclusions
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS
relevancia que el tiempo tiene a la hora
de analizar el comportamiento humano,
éste ha sido mucho menos estudiado en
marketing que en otras áreas. Una vez
El punto de partida de esta tesis doctoral
identificados los huecos de investigación
ha consistido en presentar una visión
existentes, los tres estudios empíricos
general
realizados dentro de esta tesis doctoral
del
estado
investigación
actual
sobre
el
de
la
tópico
del
(Capítulos
2-4)
se
han
centrado
en
tiempo, centrada tanto en los aspectos
mostrar la utilidad que los aspectos
objetivos como subjetivos, en distintas
temporales
disciplinas
comprender
(economía,
psicología,
sociología,
concretamente,
en
comportamiento
educación,
etc.)
el
y,
más
ámbito
del
del
tienen
el
a
la
hora
de
comportamiento
del
consumidor y segmentar el mercado. De
esta
forma,
las
tres
investigaciones
consumidor.
empíricas han incluido: una aproximación
Partiendo de esta revisión de la literatura
a los estilos de vida utilizando mediciones
(Capítulo 1), se han identificado cuatro
del uso del tiempo dedicado a diferentes
líneas
en
actividades (Estudio 1); una evaluación
comportamiento del consumidor sobre los
de la eficacia del uso del tiempo como
aspectos
del
criterio de segmentación en el ámbito del
tiempo. La primera se encuadra dentro de
marketing turístico (Estudio 2); y un
los
de
análisis exploratorio de la influencia que
y
las TPs tienen en las decisiones de ocio
considera el tiempo como un recurso
(Estudio 3). Además, en cada uno de
disponible por el individuo y, por tanto,
estos capítulos, se ha realizado una
como un factor que influye en las distintas
revisión crítica de la literatura previa y se
etapas
han
de
investigación
objetivos
y
modelos
comportamiento
del
subjetivos
generales
del
proceso
consumidor
de
decisión
de
destacado
compra. La segunda se circunscribe a la
contribuciones
denominada
profesionales.
como
psicología
de
las
las
principales
académicas
y
esperas. La tercera se centra en analizar
las diferencias en la valoración del tiempo
El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) ha
y el dinero por parte de los consumidores.
mostrado el enorme potencial que las
Y,
la
encuestas de empleo del tiempo tienen a
influencia de la TP (time perspective)
la hora de identificar y describir los
sobre las actitudes y comportamientos de
estilos de vida de los consumidores.
los consumidores.
Aunque
finalmente,
la
cuarta
evalúa
este
información
tipo
han
de
sido
fuentes
de
ampliamente
A partir de esta revisión de la literatura se
utilizadas en el ámbito de la sociología,
ha concluido también que, a pesar de la
muy
pocos
estudios
dentro
del
127
comportamiento
han
por Anderson y Golden (1984), quienes
la
diferencian claramente entre estilos de
heterogeneidad en el uso del tiempo
vida (entendidos, exclusivamente, como
como una posible aproximación a la
patrones de conducta manifiesta) y
segmentación por estilos de vida. En esta
psicografía o estilo cognitivo (que incluiría
primera
los intereses y opiniones).
recurrido
a
del
ellas
consumidor
para
aplicación
analizar
empírica
se
han
utilizado los datos procedentes de la
Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo del
Otra contribución de este trabajo, desde
Instituto
el punto de vista de la política social, se
Nacional
de
Estadística
de
España, recogidos entre el 1 de octubre
encuentra
de 2009 y el 30 de septiembre de 2010,
identificado: (1) que dos de los tres
para identificar nueve segmentos o
grupos de mayor tamaño son segmentos
grupos de consumidores españoles
con poco tiempo libre durante los fines
según su forma de usar el tiempo
de semana; y (2) que el segundo de estos
durante
tres
los
fines
de
semana.
en
grupos,
el
el
hecho
formado
de
haber
por
los
Ordenados de mayor a menor tamaño, los
denominados como dormilones y ociosos,
nueve grupos identificados han sido los
aunque sí podría catalogarse como un
siguientes:
y
segmento de ricos en términos de tiempo
ociosos, trabajadores de fin de semana,
libre, está integrado por sujetos que
entusiastas de la lectura y la radio/música
dedican buena parte de ese tiempo al
durante su tiempo libre, manitas del
ocio pasivo (por ejemplo, pasan más de
bricolaje, aficionados al arte con bastante
tres horas viendo la TV y vídeos). Estos
tiempo libre, comprometidos con los
hallazgos siguieren la necesidad de un
cuidados
y
análisis y debate más profundo, ya que el
mezcladores de ocio y estudios. Estos
tiempo de ocio durante los fines de
grupos son diferentes entre sí, no sólo en
semana tiene un gran impacto en el
su
bienestar emocional de las personas.
domésticos,
familiares,
propensión
a
dormilones
eclécticos,
participar
en
cada
actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta
(qué),
sino
también
en
sus
perfiles
Además, la información sobre los ritmos
sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de
de actividad es realmente valiosa para las
actividad (cuándo).
empresas relacionadas con el sector
del ocio. En este sentido, la investigación
Este primer estudio es relevante desde un
presentada en esta tesis doctoral ayuda a
punto de vista académico, ya que ha
este tipo de negocios a la hora de tomar
propuesto efectuar el análisis de los
decisiones sobre cómo organizar sus
estilos de vida recurriendo a datos de uso
propuestas o actividades de ocio
del
se
durante los fines de semana (tanto en
enmarcaría dentro de la línea propuesta
términos de duración como de horario),
128
tiempo.
Esta
contribución
teniendo en cuenta el perfil específico de
Desde un punto de vista académico, el
consumidores que deseen atraer.
segundo trabajo presentado en esta tesis
doctoral
El
objetivo
segundo
una
contribución
estudio
innovadora para el marketing turístico,
(Capítulo 3) ha consistido en evaluar
ya que no se ha encontrado ningún
empíricamente la utilidad del uso del
estudio empírico previo en este ámbito
tiempo como criterio de segmentación de
que proponga la utilización del uso del
los visitantes en un destino turístico. En
tiempo
la revisión de la literatura de este capítulo
segmentación.
se han
del
supone
identificado
como
criterio
de
distintas razones
(tales como, la existencia de cierto grado
Adicionalmente, el tamaño y perfil de
de planificación o de un número limitado
los
de actividades alternativas a realizar en el
diferencias
destino) que permiten argumentar que
variables
los visitantes no son arbitrarios a la hora
intenciones de comportamiento futuras)
de decidir cómo usan su tiempo durante
proporciona información útil para que las
su estancia en el mismo y que, por tanto,
organizaciones
en este contexto ‘el tiempo es oro’. Los
configurar las actividades que se ofrecen
resultados obtenidos a partir de los datos
en el destino. Entre las implicaciones
procedentes de 799 visitantes en la
prácticas que se han obtenido cabe
ciudad de Toledo han permitido identificar
destacar
cuatro segmentos de excursionistas
necesidad
(fugaces y compradores, motivados por la
estrategias de promoción del destino,
cultura,
ya
callejeros,
y
guiados
e
grupos
identificados
entre
de
dos.
que
de
ellos
resultado
y
primer
reflexionar
éste
está
las
en
las
(gasto
empresas
En
y
e
puedan
lugar,
sobre
la
las
atrayendo
hiperactivos) y otros cuatro de turistas
principalmente a un grupo de turistas
(callejeros, motivados por la cultura y el
callejeros que no generan ingresos para
descanso,
e
la ciudad (tienen poco valor actual en
hiperactivos). Además, también se ha
términos de gasto) y tampoco parecen
encontrado que los diferentes segmentos
muy útiles a la hora de generar valor en
identificados según el tiempo dedicado a
el futuro (no son los que tienen mayor
la
se
probabilidad de recomendar o revisitar el
diferencian en el dinero gastado en
destino). En segundo lugar, el estudio
distintas partidas y en las intenciones
también ha puesto de manifiesto lo
de recomendar el destino, en los casos
perjudicial que puede resultar, para la
de excursionistas y turistas; y en las
posición competitiva futura del destino,
intenciones de volver a visitar la
seguir
ciudad
relacionados con las visitas guiadas,
guiados,
realización
en
turistas.
el
de
y
noctámbulos
cada
futuro,
actividad
en
el
de
los
incentivando
los
servicios
ya que los excursionistas y turistas que
129
dedican más tiempo a esta actividad son
cuarto lugar, una mayor orientación hacia
los que menor probabilidad tienen de
el presente hedonista se traduce en una
recomendar el destino.
mayor cantidad de tiempo libre disponible
a diario, una elevada propensión a la
Finalmente, el tercer estudio (Capítulo
búsqueda de beneficios relacionados con
4)
(pasado
la toma de riesgos y una mayor frecuencia
presente
de realización de ciertas actividades como
fatalista, presente hedonista y futuro) y el
ir de compras, utilizar las redes sociales,
hecho de tener una BTP (balanced time
o ver vídeos o películas online. En quinto
perspective) con las decisiones de ocio
lugar, estar orientado al futuro se asocia
(en términos de cantidad de tiempo libre
con una menor cantidad de tiempo libre,
disponible, beneficios buscados con el
tanto a diario como durante los fines de
ocio
de
semana, conduce a una búsqueda más
Los
intensa de beneficios relacionados con el
resultados obtenidos a partir de una
aprendizaje y la adquisición de nuevas
muestra de 320 estudiantes de Grado y
competencias durante el ocio, y actúa,
Máster de la UCLM han arrojado luz sobre
principalmente,
el papel de la TP en las decisiones de
inhibidor para la realización de un gran
ocio. Concretamente, en primer lugar, se
número de actividades de este tipo.
ha encontrado que estar orientado al
Finalmente, en sexto lugar, los hallazgos
pasado
del estudio han permitido concluir que el
ha
relacionado
negativo,
y
pasado
frecuencia
diferentes
las
positivo,
de
actividades
negativo
inversamente
realización
de
con
TPs
realización
de
ocio).
se
la
relaciona
frecuencia
actividades
como
de
leer
como
un
elemento
hecho de tener una BTP garantiza un
disfrute más adecuado del ocio.
comics, ir de compras o salir de fiesta por
la
noche.
una
La TP ha sido ampliamente estudiada en
positivo
el ámbito de la psicología y también
redunda, principalmente, en la búsqueda
existen investigaciones previas que la
de
la
relacionan con diferentes actitudes y
sociabilidad durante el tiempo libre y se
comportamientos hacia la publicidad, las
asocia directamente con la frecuencia de
compras,
realización
ecológicos,
orientación
En
segundo
hacia
beneficios
de
el
lugar,
pasado
relacionados
actividades
con
como
leer
el
consumo
etc.
productos
embargo,
el
ámbito
wasapear. En tercer lugar, la orientación
consumidor, escasas investigaciones
hacia el presente fatalista se relaciona
cuantitativas han analizado el papel de
directamente,
una
la orientación temporal en las decisiones
de
de ocio con un nivel de detalle como el
actividades vinculadas con ir a conciertos
presentado en el tercer trabajo de esta
o tocar algún instrumento musical. En
tesis
mayor
130
frecuencia
ejemplo,
de
con
realización
doctoral.
comportamiento
en
libros, hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o
por
del
Sin
de
Más
del
concretamente,
ningún trabajo previo ha relacionado el
mercados. A pesar de las limitaciones de
hecho
las
los tres trabajos empíricos presentados,
decisiones de los consumidores en este
esta tesis abre nuevas e interesantes
ámbito.
las
líneas para futuras investigaciones que,
contribuciones académicas de este
sin duda, son susceptibles de contribuir a
cuarto
una
de
tener
Por
una
estas
capítulo
BTP
dos
con
razones,
también
pueden
ser
calificadas como significativas.
mejor
comprensión
del
comportamiento de los consumidores.
Adicionalmente, los hallazgos del estudio
han sugerido importantes implicaciones
prácticas para la educación del ocio y
el tiempo libre, al permitir poner en
marcha
programas
entrenamiento
que
educativos
orienten
y
a
de
los
individuos hacia TPs que permitan un
disfrute más sano del ocio. En el ámbito
empresarial, las implicaciones para los
negocios relacionados con el ocio
también son claras. En este sentido, esta
última investigación ha proporcionado
información a estas empresas acerca de
los productos de ocio que son más o
menos
apropiados
para
cada
TP.
Además, facilita la creación de mensajes
publicitarios adaptados a cada TP que
sean emitidos a través de los medios de
comunicación
utilizados
con
mayor
frecuencia por la TP en cuestión. Teniendo
en cuenta estas implicaciones prácticas es
posible concluir que las TPs son bases
de
segmentación
valiosas
para
las
empresas de ocio.
Por tanto, esta tesis doctoral ha realizado
una aportación notable en la investigación
de los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del
tiempo en relación con el comportamiento
del consumidor y la segmentación de
131
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APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS
OF SPANISH CONSUMERS
1. Necessary time
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Cluster 4.
Book and
radio/musi
c lovers
during
leisure
time
(9.10%)
100.00%
Sleeping
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Eating and drinking
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Other personal care
96.70%
94.79%
95.36%
100.00%
97.40%
2. Contracted time
0.00%
23.29%
Employment
0.00%
0.00%
Study
0.00%
23.29%
Travel related to employment and
study
3. Committed time
0.00%
0.00%
100.00%
59.45%
Indicator (incidence rates)
Cluster 1.
Cluster 2.
People who Sleepyhead
pursue
s and
domestic
couch
activities
potatoes
(35.81%)
(17.20%)
Cluster 3.
Weekend
workers
(13.14%)
Cluster 5.
DIY handypeople
(7.27%)
100.00%
76.79%
0.52%
25.97%
73.21%
0.52%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
25.97%
56.79%
0.00%
0.00%
94.27%
100.00%
77.50%
15.96%
0.00%
0.00%
Food management
84.04%
43.29%
56.79%
80.73%
49.35%
Household upkeep
68.60%
44.11%
38.57%
68.23%
53.25%
42.08%
0.00%
12.50%
34.90%
19.79%
0.00%
13.93%
3.13%
49.35%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
33.12%
49.74%
0.00%
33.57%
47.92%
48.05%
Childcare
26.78%
0.00%
28.21%
25.52%
1.30%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
12.50%
0.00%
25.59%
0.00%
0.00%
activities
4. Leisure time
52.24%
0.00%
27.86%
99.34%
100.00%
95.71%
Social life
53.83%
49.86%
43.57%
64.06%
0.00%
11.78%
24.64%
24.48%
21.37%
20.27%
28.93%
26.04%
23.38%
55.41%
49.59%
36.79%
55.73%
46.75%
Arts
Computing
Games
0.00%
17.81%
0.00%
0.00%
35.62%
0.00%
30.73%
56.77%
100.00%
0.00%
5.84%
6.49%
44.81%
100.00%
47.40%
0.65%
0.00%
0.00%
15.71%
17.71%
38.31%
39.61%
21.10%
0.00%
38.02%
0.00%
Reading
34.70%
24.66%
18.57%
47.40%
32.47%
93.27%
88.77%
80.36%
90.10%
91.56%
Travel related to leisure activities
and other unspecified time
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
45.31%
0.00%
54.09%
61.10%
55.36%
72.92%
61.69%
APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS
OF SPANISH CONSUMERS (CONTINUED)
Cluster 6.
Art lovers
with quite
a lot of
leisure
time
(4.79%)
100.00%
Cluster 7.
People
committed
to caring
for
relatives
(4.50%)
100.00%
Sleeping
100.00%
Eating and drinking
100.00%
Other personal care
Indicator (incidence rates)
1. Necessary time
Cluster 8.
Eclectics
(4.30%)
Cluster 9.
People who
mix leisure
time and
studies
(3.89%)
Total
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
95.05%
97.89%
100.00%
96.34%
96.65%
2. Contracted time
3.96%
57.89%
71.43%
48.78%
23.84%
Employment
3.96%
53.68%
38.46%
0.00%
13.98%
Study
0.00%
0.00%
37.36%
48.78%
Travel related to employment and
study
3. Committed time
0.00%
37.89%
47.25%
0.00%
11.24%
93.07%
100.00%
87.91%
89.02%
88.24%
35.64%
28.42%
14.29%
24.39%
10.25%
Food management
79.21%
77.89%
65.93%
43.90%
67.75%
Household upkeep
59.41%
66.32%
59.34%
54.88%
57.79%
41.58%
35.79%
36.26%
19.51%
26.20%
29.70%
22.11%
16.48%
6.10%
16.15%
9.89%
17.07%
5.43%
Childcare
9.40%
0.00%
43.16%
22.77%
40.00%
28.57%
42.68%
35.84%
0.00%
40.00%
40.66%
1.22%
19.31%
19.80%
0.00%
20.88%
0.00%
2.97%
15.84%
41.05%
17.58%
23.17%
16.67%
activities
4. Leisure time
24.75%
55.79%
32.97%
40.24%
37.44%
99.01%
96.84%
100.00%
98.78%
98.96%
Social life
62.38%
53.68%
52.75%
51.22%
52.50%
0.00%
0.00%
16.48%
42.68%
9.92%
17.82%
16.84%
19.78%
31.71%
22.71%
52.48%
34.74%
30.77%
53.66%
49.15%
Arts
44.55%
0.00%
18.68%
29.27%
Computing
26.73%
20.00%
26.37%
43.90%
23.98%
Games
34.65%
0.00%
26.37%
20.73%
13.55%
Reading
40.59%
32.63%
23.08%
31.71%
31.40%
89.11%
83.16%
80.22%
74.39%
88.43%
16.83%
9.47%
17.58%
31.71%
7.32%
Travel related to leisure activities
and other unspecified time
48.51%
55.79%
60.44%
73.17%
160
4.06%
58.55%
APPENDIX B: LIST OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON TOURISM MARKET
SEGMENTATION PUBLISHED BETWEEN 2008 AND 2012. TOURISM JOURNALS
INDEXED IN 2011 JOURNAL CITATION REPORT SOCIAL SCIENCES EDITION®
Author (Year)
Brida, Bukstein, Garrido,
and Tealde (2012)
Bronner and de Hoog
(2012)
Chen and Lin (2012)
Chiang (2012)
do Valle, Pintassilgo,
Matias, and André
(2012)
Dolnicar, Yanamandram,
and Cliff (2012)
Figini and Vici (2012)
Figueiredo, Eusébio, and
Kastenholz (2012)
Harrington, Ottenbacher,
Staggs, and Powell
(2012)
Herrero, Sanz, Bedate,
and del Barrio (2012)
Kim and Ritchie (2012)
Title of article
Cruise passengers' expenditure in the Caribbean port of call of
Cartagena de Indias: A cross-section data analysis
Economizing strategies during an economic crisis
Segmenting mainland Chinese tourists to Taiwan by destination
familiarity: A factor-cluster approach
Applying a new model of customer value on international air
passengers' market in Taiwan
Tourist attitudes towards an accommodation tax earmarked for
environmental protection: A survey in the Algarve
Journal
name
TE
ATR
IJTR
IJTR
TM
ATR
The contribution of vacations to quality of life
Off-season tourists and the cultural offer of a mass-tourism destination:
The case of Rimini
How diverse are tourists with disabilities? A pilot study on accessible
leisure tourism experiences in Portugal
Generation Y consumers: Key restaurant attributes affecting positive
and negative experiences
Who pays more for a cultural festival, tourists or locals? A Certainty
analysis of a contingent valuation application
Motivation-based typology: An empirical study of golf tourists
TM
IJTR
JHTR
IJTR
JHTR
Landauer, Pröbstl, and
Haider (2012)
Lew and Ng (2012)
Managing cross-country skiing destinations under the conditions of
climate change - Scenarios for destinations in Austria and Finland
Using quantile regression to understand visitor spending
Masiero and Nicolau
(2012)
Masiero and Nicolau
(2012)
Nicolau (2012)
Tourism market segmentation based on price sensitivity: Finding similar
price preferences on tourism activities
Price sensitivity to tourism activities: Looking for determinant factors
Asymmetric tourist response to price: Loss aversion segmentation
JTR
Prayag (2012)
Paradise for who? Segmenting visitors' satisfaction with cognitive image
and predicting behavioural loyalty
Visitor attendance motivations at consumer travel exhibitions
IJTR
Determinants of spending: An evaluation of three major sporting events
IJTR
Testing heterogeneous image in cultural/non-cultural tourism markets:
A latent model approach
Assessing the viability of university alumni as a repeat visitor market
IJTR
Evaluation of segment attractiveness by risk-adjusted market potential:
First-time vs. repeat visitors
Nationality as a segmentation criterion in tourism research: The case of
international tourists' expenditures while on trips in Norway
Psychographic insights from a South Carolina protected area
JTR
Rittichainuwat and Mair
(2012)
Saayman and Saayman
(2012)
Sánchez and Pulido
(2012)
Schofield and Fallon
(2012)
Shani, Reichel, and Croes
(2012)
Thrane and Farstad
(2012)
Weaver (2012)
Wong and Rosenbaum
(2012)
Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu
(2012)
Zakrisson and Zillinger
(2012)
Alegre, Cladera, and Sard
(2011)
Alegre, Mateo, and Pou
(2011)
Barquet, Brida, Osti, and
Schubert (2011)
Bojanic (2011)
Beyond hardcore gambling: Understanding why mainland Chinese visit
casinos in Macau
Intra-attraction tourist spatial-temporal behaviour patterns
TM
JTR
JTR
TE
TM
TM
TE
TM
JHTR
TG
Emotions in motion: Tourist experiences in time and space
CIT
Analysing the influence of tourist motivations on tourist expenditure at
a sun-and-sand destination
A latent class approach to tourists’ length of stay
TE
An analysis of tourists' expenditure on winter sports events through the
Tobit censorate model
The impact of age and family life experiences on Mexican visitor
shopping expenditures
TM
TE
TM
161
Choi (2011)
Dolnicar, Grabler, Grün,
and Kulnig (2011)
Ene and Schofield (2011)
Fuchs and Reichel (2011)
Hyde and Harman (2011)
Implicit prices for longer temporary exhibitions in a heritage site and a
test of preference heterogeneity: A segmentation-based approach
Key drivers of airline loyalty
An integrated approach to consumer decision making for budget city
breaks: The role of emotion
An exploratory inquiry into destination risk perceptions and risk
reduction strategies of first time vs. repeat visitors to a highly
volatile destination
Motives for a secular pilgrimage to the Gallipoli battlefields
TM
TM
IJTR
TM
TM
Kattiyapornpong and
Miller (2011)
Kim, Kim, Gazzol, Park,
Kim, and Park (2011)
Kim, Timothy, and Hwang
(2011)
Konu, Laukkanen, and
Komppula (2011)
Kruger,Saayman, and Ellis
(2011)
Lo, McKercher, Lo,
Cheung, and Law
(2011)
Mair (2011)
Social structure and psychographic explanations of destination
preference of Australians' travel to South-East Asia
Factors affecting the travel expenditure of visitors to Macau, China
Exploring air travellers' voluntary carbon-offsetting behaviour
JST
Moeller, Dolnicar, and
Leisch (2011)
Needham, Rollins,
Ceurvorst, Wood,
Grimm, and Dearden
(2011)
Nicolau (2011)
The sustainability-profitability trade-off in tourism: Can it be overcome?
JST
Motivations and normative evaluations of summer visitors at an alpine
ski area
JTR
Differentiated price loss aversion in destination choice: The effect of
tourists’ cultural interest
Why do visitors go to museums? The case of 921 Earthquake Museum,
Wufong, Taichung
Demand elasticity estimates for New Zealand tourism
TM
Ryan and Hsu (2011)
Schiff and Becken (2011)
Understanding Japanese tourists’ shopping preferences using the
Decision Tree Analysis method
Using ski destination choice criteria to segment Finnish ski resort
customers
Segmentation by genres: The case of the Aardklop National Arts
Festival
Tourism and online photography
Sievänen, Neuvonen, and
Pouta (2011)
Tangeland (2011)
APJTR
TE
TM
TM
IJTR
TM
APJTR
TM
National park visitor segments and their interest in rural tourism
services and intention to revisit
Why do people purchase nature-based tourism activity products? A
Norwegian case study of outdoor recreation
Tangeland and Aas (2011) Household composition and the importance of experience attributes of
nature based tourism activity products - A Norwegian case study of
outdoor recreationists
Weaver and Lawton
Visitor loyalty at a private South Carolina protected area
(2011)
Winter (2011)
Battlefield visitor motivations: Explorations in the Great War town of
Ieper, Belgium
Barbieri and Mahoney
Cultural tourism behaviour and preferences among the live-performing
(2010)
arts audience: An application of the univorous–omnivorous
framework
Catlin, Jones, Jones,
Discovering wildlife tourism: A whale shark tourism case study
Norman, and Wood
(2010)
Collins-Kreiner and Israeli Supporting an integrated soft approach to ecotourism development:
(2010)
The Agmon Lake, Israel
Devesa, Laguna, and
The role of motivation in visitor satisfaction: Empirical evidence in rural
Palacios (2010)
tourism
Dey and Sarma (2010)
Information source usage among motive-based segments of travelers
to newly emerging tourist destinations
Dolnicar (2010)
Identifying tourists with smaller environmental footprints
SJHT
Gnoth and Zins (2010)
Cultural dimensions and the international tourist role scale: Validation
in Asian destinations?
Segmentation of different types of Hallyu tourists using a multinomial
model and its marketing implications
Tourism behaviour in Seoul: An analysis of tourism activity sequence
using multidimensional sequence alignments
Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas
APJTR
Achieving voluntary reductions in the carbon footprint of tourism and
climate change
JST
Kim, Lee, and Chon
(2010)
Lee and Joh (2010)
Marques, Reis, and
Menezes (2010)
McKercher, Prideaux,
Cheung, and Law
(2010)
162
SJHT
TM
JTR
IJTR
IJTR
CIT
TG
TM
TM
JST
JHTR
TG
JST
Najmi, Sharbatoghlie, and Tourism market segmentation in Iran
Jafarieh (2010)
Nimrod and Rotem (2010) Between relaxation and excitement: Activities and benefits gained in
retirees' tourism
Park and Kim (2010)
A comparison of different approaches to segment information search
behaviour of spring break travellers in the USA: Experience,
knowledge, involvement and specialisation concept
Park and Njite (2010)
Relationship between destination image and tourists' future behavior:
Observations from Jeju Island, Korea
Shani, Wang, Hutchinson, Applying expenditure-based segmentation on special-interest tourists:
and Lay (2010)
The case of golf travelers
Xia, Evans, Spilsbury,
Market segments based on the dominant movement patterns of tourists
Ciesielski, Arrowsmith,
and Wright (2010)
Choi and Lee (2009)
Understanding US traveler behavior to Asian countries: A secondary
analysis approach
Craggs and Schofield
Expenditure-based segmentation and visitor profiling at The Quays in
(2009)
Salford, UK
Gyimothy (2009)
Casual observers, connoisseurs and experimentalists: A conceptual
exploration of niche festival visitors
Park and Yoon (2009)
Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: A Korean case study
Roca, Villares, and Ortego
(2009)
Shuo, Ryan, and Liu
(2009)
Tchetchik, Fleischer, and
Shoval (2009)
Correia, Silva, and Moço
(2008)
Dolnicar and Leisch
(2008)
Dolnicar and Leisch
(2008)
Dolnicar, Crouch,
Devinney, Huybers,
Louviere, and Oppewal
(2008)
Füller and Matzler (2008)
IJTR
IJTR
IJTR
APJTR
JTR
TM
APJTR
TE
SJHT
TM
Assessing public perceptions on beach quality according to beach users'
profile: A case study in the Costa Brava (Spain)
Taoism, temples and tourists: The case of Mazu pilgrimage tourism
TM
Segmentation of visitors to a heritage site using high-resolution timespace data
Portuguese charter tourists to long-haul destinations: A travel motive
segmentation
An investigation of tourists' patterns of obligation to protect the
environment
Selective marketing for environmentally sustainable tourism
JTR
TM
JHTR
JTR
TM
Tourism and discretionary income allocation. Heterogeneity among
households
TM
TM
Kim, Kim, Park, and Guo
(2008)
Litvin (2008)
Customer delight and market segmentation: An application of the
three-factor theory of customer satisfaction on life style groups
Cave tourism: Tourists' characteristics, motivations to visit, and the
segmentation of their behavior
Sensation seeking and its measurement for tourism research
Luo and Deng (2008)
The new environmental paradigm and nature-based tourism motivation
McKercher (2008)
Segment transformation in urban tourism
TM
Pestana, Butler, and
Correia (2008)
Sedmak and Mihalič
(2008)
Tan and Lo (2008)
Heterogeneity in destination choice tourism in Africa
JTR
Authenticity in mature seaside resorts
ATR
A benefit-based approach to market segmentation: A case study of an
American specialty coffeehouse chain in Hong Kong
Destination product characteristics as useful predictors for repeat
visiting and recommendation segmentation variables in tourism: A
CHAID exhaustive analysis
JHTR
Vassiliadis (2008)
APJTR
JTR
JTR
IJTR
Notes: ATR: Annals of Tourism Research; APJTR: Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research; CIT: Current Issues
in Tourism; IJTR: International Journal of Tourism Research; JHTR: Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research;
JST: Journal of Sustainable Tourism; JTCC: Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change; JTR: Journal of Travel
Research; SJHT: Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism; TE: Tourism Economics; TG: Tourism
Geographies; TM: Tourism Management.
163
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT TIME PERSPECTIVE AND LEISURE
(SPANISH)
Mi nombre es Juan Antonio García, soy profesor de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha y estoy realizando un
estudio para mi tesis doctoral sobre las actividades de ocio de los estudiantes universitarios. Todos los datos
recopilados serán tratados de forma totalmente anónima y no se utilizarán para identificar al encuestado.
La cumplimentación de este cuestionario sólo le supondrá 15 minutos. Antes de comenzar a responder es muy
importante que tenga presente que no existen respuestas buenas o malas. Por favor, lea con calma las preguntas
y responda con total sinceridad a las mismas.
Muchas gracias por su colaboración.
1. Piense en sus características personales e indique, por favor, en qué grado cada una de las siguientes
En desacuerdo
Ni en desacuerdo ni de acuerdo
De acuerdo
Totalmente de acuerdo
Pienso a menudo en las cosas malas que me han ocurrido en el pasado
Es difícil olvidar las imágenes desagradables de mi infancia
Las experiencias dolorosas del pasado permanecen en mi memoria
El pasado tiene demasiados momentos desagradables que prefiero no recordar
Las imágenes, sonidos y olores de mi infancia me traen recuerdos maravillosos
Los recuerdos felices de los buenos momentos están muy presentes en mi mente
Tengo nostalgia de mi infancia
Me divierten las historias sobre cómo eran las cosas en mi infancia
No tiene sentido preocuparme por el futuro ya que, de todos modos, no puedo
hacer nada
Ya que las cosas serán como tengan que ser, realmente no me preocupa lo que
pase
Uno no puede planificar el futuro porque las cosas cambian mucho
Con frecuencia la suerte es más importante que el trabajo duro
Me arriesgo para poner animación en mi vida
Es importante poner excitación en mi vida
Arriesgarme de vez en cuando hace que mi vida no sea tan aburrida
De una vez por todas, voy a disfrutar de la vida tan plenamente como sea posible
Termino mis proyectos a tiempo, avanzando de manera estable y continua
Soy capaz de resistirme a las tentaciones cuando sé que tengo tareas que hacer
Prefiero planificar el día siguiente y cumplir con los plazos antes que pensar en la
diversión
Cuando quiero conseguir algo, me fijo unas metas y pongo los medios para
conseguirlas
Totalmente en desacuerdo
afirmaciones refleja una característica suya. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1 indica “totalmente en
desacuerdo” y 5 “totalmente de acuerdo”.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
165
2. Piense en el día de ayer e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes actividades.
Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas.
Horas
Dormir
▼
Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)
▼
Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)
▼
Trabajo remunerado
▼
Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)
▼
Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)
▼
Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)
▼
3. ¿Cómo considera que fue el día de ayer?
Habitual
Inusual
4. Piense en el pasado domingo e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes
actividades. Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas.
Horas
Dormir
▼
Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)
▼
Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)
▼
Trabajo remunerado
▼
Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)
▼
Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)
▼
Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)
▼
5. ¿Cómo considera que fue ese domingo?
Habitual
Inusual
6. Piense en las actividades que le gusta hacer durante su tiempo libre e indique cómo de importantes
166
Poco
importante
Algo
importante
Bastante
importante
Muy
importante
Hacer cosas en familia
Estar cerca de mis familiares
Estar con mis amigos
Hacer ejercicio
Mantenerme en buena forma física
Sentirme físicamente activo
Desarrollar mis conocimientos
Aprender nuevas cosas
Desarrollar mis habilidades y capacidades
Saber de lo que soy capaz
Crecer y desarrollarme espiritualmente
Reflexionar sobre mis inquietudes espirituales
Experimentar cosas nuevas
Vivir situaciones arriesgadas
Atreverme a afrontar riesgos
Nada
importante
son los siguientes aspectos a la hora de elegir esas actividades. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1
indica “nada importante” y 5 “muy importante”.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
7. Pensando en el último mes, ¿con qué frecuencia estima que ha realizado las siguientes actividades de
Ninguna vez
Una vez al mes
Varias veces al mes
Una vez a la semana
Varias veces a la semana
Todos o casi todos los días
ocio?
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o wasapear
Escuchar música o radio
Viajar y hacer turismo
Ir de compras
Ir a restaurantes
Salir a tomar algo durante el día
Ir a conciertos de música
Salir de fiesta por la noche
Ir al cine
Jugar a videojuegos
Navegar por Internet
Utilizar las redes sociales
Ver vídeos o películas online
Ver la televisión
Ir al teatro u otros espectáculos similares
Tocar algún instrumento musical
Ir a museos o exposiciones de arte
Asistir a espectáculos deportivos
Hacer deporte
Pasear y caminar
Leer libros (eBook y/o en papel)
Leer comics
Leer prensa (revistas o periódicos online y/o en papel)
Colaborar con asociaciones
No hacer nada, relajarse o descansar
8. ¿Qué estudios está cursando actualmente?
▼
9. Campus de la UCLM en el que cursa esos estudios.
▼
10. ¿Dónde se aloja a diario durante este curso académico?
Domicilio familiar
Piso alquilado/compartido
Residencia universitaria
11. ¿En qué localidad está viviendo a diario durante este curso académico?
167
12. ¿Cuántos habitantes tiene esta localidad?
Menos de 2.001 habitantes
Entre 2.001 y 5.000 habitantes
Más de 100.000 habitantes
13. Para finalizar, indique, por favor, sus características sociodemográficas.
Respuesta
168
Sexo
▼
Edad
▼
¿Realiza algún trabajo remunerado?
▼
Número de personas en la unidad familiar (incluido usted)
▼
Ingresos netos mensuales aproximados de la unidad familiar
▼
APPENDIX D. FREQUENCIES AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR LEISURE
ACTIVITIES
Leisure activity
Talking on the phone
and using instant
messaging services
Listening to the radio
and music
Travel and tourism
Shopping
Attending concerts
Nightlife
Going to the cinema
Playing video games or
online games
Watching TV
Attending the theatre or
similar activities
Playing a musical
instrument
Visiting museums and
art galleries
Attending sporting
events
Sports
Going for a walk
Reading books (printed
or eBooks)
Reading comics
Reading newspapers and
magazines (printed
or online)
Collaborating with
associations
Never (1)
Once a
month
(2)
Percentage
More
than once
a month
Once a
but less
week (4)
than once
a week
(3)
1.25%
1.25%
0.00%
0.31%
0.31%
1.88%
2.19%
38.44%
11.56%
15.00%
8.13%
81.56%
13.75%
45.31%
51.56%
40.31%
30.00%
26.88%
8.44%
13.44%
18.75%
28.44%
7.81%
0.31%
2.81%
9.69%
4.38%
73.75%
More
than once
a week
but less
than once
a day (5)
Daily or
almost
daily (6)
Mdn
5.63%
91.56%
6
4.38%
26.88%
64.38%
6
13.75%
35.94%
30.00%
31.88%
2.19%
29.06%
18.44%
11.25%
5.00%
14.69%
19.06%
28.13%
1.25%
26.25%
7.19%
6.25%
1.88%
6.88%
8.75%
21.88%
0.94%
11.56%
0.63%
13.44%
0.63%
0.94%
0.31%
1.56%
0.63%
0.63%
0.00%
9.69%
2
3
3
4
1
3
2
1
0.94%
1.56%
7.19%
2.81%
16.88%
2.19%
3.13%
16.25%
6.56%
5.00%
2.50%
3.44%
18.75%
6.25%
2.50%
14.38%
10.00%
27.50%
17.19%
1.56%
79.69%
79.06%
20.63%
62.81%
0.31%
6
6
4
6
1
85.00%
5.63%
0.31%
3.44%
2.50%
3.13%
1
76.25%
17.50%
4.06%
0.94%
0.94%
0.31%
1
59.38%
16.56%
10.63%
9.69%
2.81%
0.94%
1
21.25%
8.44%
26.56%
9.69%
6.56%
8.13%
16.56%
17.19%
17.19%
11.88%
12.81%
11.88%
22.50%
24.06%
18.75%
18.13%
30.94%
17.50%
4
5
3
87.50%
14.38%
3.44%
5.63%
1.88%
13.75%
4.38%
9.38%
1.88%
25.00%
0.94%
31.88%
1
5
76.56%
11.56%
4.06%
4.38%
2.81%
0.63%
1
6.88%
21.56%
26.25%
13.44%
4
3.44%
28.44%
Notes: Mdn: median. The grey shaded cells mark the highest percentage for each leisure activity.
169
APPENDIX E. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR TIME PERSPECTIVES AND LEISURE
BENEFITS SOUGHT
Variable
Time perspectives
Past-negative
Past-positive
Present-fatalistic
Present-hedonistic
Future
Leisure benefits sought
Sociability
Physical fitness
Learning and competence testing
Spirituality
Risk taking
Minimum
Maximum
M (SD)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.27
4.79
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
2.73
4.02
2.25
3.39
3.55
(0.84)
(0.71)
(0.86)
(0.90)
(0.76)
1.37
1.00
1.79
1.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
3.96
3.65
4.09
3.04
3.45
(0.71)
(1.00)
(0.64)
(1.09)
(0.90)
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.
171
VITA
Juan A. García is a PhD candidate in the
Department of Marketing at the University of
Castilla-La
Mancha
interests
include
(Spain).
His
consumer
research
behaviour,
environmental psychology, and time studies. His
research has been published in several Spanish
and international journals such as Current Issues
in Tourism, Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección
de la Empresa, Journal of Language and Social
Psychology,
Innovar,
Psyecology,
Tourism
Management, Universia Business Review, or
Scan to discover his research!
Universitas Psychologica.
More
information
about
his
research
is
available
at
http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan_Garcia51/publications
Department of Marketing, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avenida Real Fábrica de Sedas
s/n, 45600 Talavera de la Reina, Spain. Email: juan.garcia@uclm.es
173

The role of time in consumer behaviour and market

Transcription

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