An Archaeologist`s Guide to Mining Terminology

AUSTRALASIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, I5, I997
An Archaeologist'sGuideto Mining Terminology
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NEVILLEA. RITCHIEAND RAY HOOKER
The authors present a glossary of mining terminology commonly used in Australia and New Zealand. The
definitions and useagescomefrom historical and contemporary sources and consideration is given to those
most frequently encounteredby archaeologists. The terms relate to alluvial mining, hard rock mining, ore
processing,and coal mining.
Thereare literally thousandsof scientificand technicalterms
which have been coined to describevariousaspectsof the
miningand processingof metalliferousandnon-metallicores.
meanings,
or their
Many termshavea wide varietyof accepted
meaningshavechangedover time. Othertermswhich usedto
with sluice-mining)are
be widely used(e.g.thoseassociated
seldom used today. The use of some terms is limited to
restrictedmining localities (often arising from Comish or
other ethnic mining slang),or they are used in a sensethat
noteda number
differsfrom the norm;for instance,Henderson
of local variantswhile working in minesat Reeftonon the
WestCoastof New T.ealand.l
In the nineteenthcentury mining engineeringwas a
particularlyinnovativefield, especiallywith regard to ore
treatmentsand processingmachinery.The more innovative
mining companiesupgradedtheir plant periodically,while
with outmodedequipmentand systemsor
otherspersevered
stuckwith techniqueswhich were in voguewhen their plant
was established.Researchfor this glossaryhas highlighted
regionaldifferencesin miningtechnologyandtechniques.
The following lists havebeencompiledby the authorsto
assist archaeologists(especially those involved in site
recording)to:
. recognise physical features and often long obsolete
machinerycomponents
on historicminingsites;
. encouragethe use of established
or well-definedtermsto
accuratelydescribemachineryand site featuresto avoid
confusion;
. enablethe more accurateinterpretionof mining methods
from the survivingfield evidence;
. facilitatemoreaccuratecodingof mining sitetypesfor the
purposes of comparativeanalysis and research,and
management;
. assist in understanding terms frequently cited in
miningliterature.
contemporary
The cited terms are restrictedto physical featuresor
with mining,ie potentialarchaeological
machineryassociated
features.For convenience,
they havebeenallocatedinto four
groups,viz. termsassociated
with:
technologyandlandforms;
l. alluvialmining andassociated
technology;
2. hardrock miningandassociated
or processing
machinery;
3. ore processing
with coal mining.
4. termsspecificallyassociated
i sof
Some equipmentand techniquesare common to both
alluvial (particularlydeeplead)and hard rock mining.These
with tunnelling,watersupply,motive
includeitemsassociated
power,and ore crush"ingand treatmenl.They reflect similar
meansof overcomingcommon problems.Where termshave
multiplemeaningsand are associated
with differentaspectsof
in each
mining,e.g.tailings,theyarecited,whereappropriate,
group; otherwise they are cited in the category they most
specificallyrefer to. The authorshaveattemptedto cover all
and the
the termsassociated
with mining and ore-processing,
resultantmodifiedlandformsand relicswhich arelikely to be
encounteredby or to be of relevanceto field archaeologists
working in mining regionsparticularlyin New Zealandbut
also in the wider Australasia.Significantexamples,regional
variants,the dateof introductionof technologicalinnovations,
and specificallyNew 7na\andusagesare also noted.Related
terms and terms which are defined elsewherein the text are
printedin italics.
While many of the terms will be familiar to Australian
archaeologists,
the authorshave not specificallyexamined'
Australian historical mining literature nor attempted to
incorporatethe numeroustermsassociated
with Comish-type
mining and copper refining in Australia. An unpublished
glossaryof thesetermsby JackConnelland someotheruseful
Australianmining referencesare cited in the bibliography.2
Although manganeseand copper mining in New Zealand(on
Kawau Island c.1841-1842) predatesany other form of
mining,by any standards
it was small scaleandneverlikely to
amountto muchbecauseof the smallsizeof theorebodies,the
distanceto markets,andproblemsassociated
with smeltingthe
ore.
TERMSASSOCIATED
WITH ALLUVIAL MINING
alluvial gold: gold found in alluvium,ie riverineor estuarine
depositsof sandor gravel.Alluvial denotesthe materialhas
beenwashedand transportedby water.
amalgamatingtables:referprocessing
section.
auriferous:havinggold content.
banjo/banjoing: (the term banjo is also applied to a short
handledshovel)This methodof alluvial goldminingwasused
extensivelyon the Hill End and Tambaroorafields in New
South Wales.3The method involves the excavationof a
circular hole in a creek bank into which washdirt is
stockpiledreadyfor washing.Next a trenchwas dug between
the stockpiling-holeand the creek (or water-hole).This
createda banjo-likefeature,hencethe derivationof the term.
The stockpiling hole was always dug at a slightly higher
elevationthan the trench.The latter was lined with rocks or
houseda wooden sluice box. The method of washing and
recoveringgold involvedusinga gold pan as a ladle to splash
waterup the trenchand into the stockpileto washsomeof the
washdirt down the trench. In practice the lighter dirt was
supposedto be carried down into the waterholeor stream
while the heaviergold was trappedin the stonesor in' the
sluice-boxlaid in the trench.Despitethe presenceof many
Australianminersin New Zealandduring the first goldrushes
in Otago, banjoing is not mentionedin the New Zealand
mining literatureand any field evidenceof it has long since
disappeared.
beachlead: concentration
of fine gold in old marinesediments
(usuallyconsolidated
and buried).Beachleadsareoften some
distancefrom modernshorelinesand at differentheights(see
bLacksanding).
Fig. 1: A portable gold table being used
Jbr b lacksanding at C har lesnwn, Wesr
Coast, South Island, New Zealand. Note
the woodenflumes in the background
(D epa rtment of Conserv ation colle cti on,
Westland).
bedrock: in alluvialminingparlance,thehardrock underlying
alluvium.Oftentherichestauriferousdepositswerelocatedon
the alluvium/bedrockinterface.
blacksanding: a form of mining restrictedto the WestCoastof
the South Island. Blacksand mining (blacksanding)
commencedbelatedlywhen it was realisedthat the extensive
black magneticironsandbeachesof the WestCoastcontained
rich depositsof fine gold (often in beachleads).The presence
of gold in worthwhile quantities within sea-beachesis
relatively uncommon on a worldwide level. Blacksanders
oftenemploysmallwheeledsluiceboxeswhich can be readily
movedalonga beach(Fig. I ). SeeHookerfor description.a
blasting: in some hydraulic claims, a small tunnel was
excavatedat the baseof a work face and a number of kegs of
powder introduced and ignited. The resultant blast was
intended to loosen the washdirt and save a considerable
amountof waterwhich would otherwisebe requiredto break
down the face.Blastingwas principallyemployedduring dry
seasons
or in dry locationsto savewater becausemuch more
waterwas requiredfor breakingdown banksthanfor washing
the freeddirt.
blocking out: removingwashdirtby driving or shaftingdown
to a leadand excavating
a gallery(which wasusuallytimbered
up and large stonesstackedto supportthe roof).
bonanza(jeweller'ssftop):small alluvial leads(or patchesof
ore) of exceptionalrichness.
bottom: an indurated layer below an auriferous alluvial
deposit.Often the bottom and bedrock are one and the same
(seefalsebottom).
bucket elevator: a manually operatedor more typically
poweredcontinuouschainofbucketsusedto raisewashdirtfor
further processing.
California pump: in their simplestform Califomia pumps
consistof an elongatedwoodentroughalong which a canvas,
rope,or leatherbelt couldrevolvebetweentwo woodenwheels
at either end of the box. Tight-fitting wooden slats were
attachedto the belt.When the lower end of the appliancewas
placedin wateranda crankhandleattachedto the upperwheel
was tumed manually,waterwas elevatedfrom the lower level
into a flume at the upperend of the pump.The
anddischarged
term is alsousedto describea pumpmadeof tin cansattached
to an endlessbelt,ie a crudebucketelevator.
cement: a tough conglomerate composed of rounded or
angularfragmentsof rock and black sandcementedby iron
oxide. The gold was usually freed from the cementby first
crushingit in a battery.
claim: an area of land which has been peggedand legally
assignedto a mineror mining company(by virtue of a license
or miner'sright) to work for a specifiedperiod.A claim was
generallysmallerand cheaperbut less securethan a mining
lease.
cleaningup: seewashingup.
cradle: a simplebut effectivemanuallyoperateddeviceused
by diggers to separategold from washdirt by meansof a
rocking motion. Cradleswere an advanceon the basic gold
pan (seepanning) andwere much fasterto usethan a pan.
crevicing: the recovery of gold, usually by picking and
scraping,from crevicesin bedrock or the induratedbasesof
streambeds.
dam (mining dam): a structureof earth,masonry,concreteor
timberbuilt acrossa watercourse
to impondwater,usuallyfor
alluvial mining purposessuch as hydraulic sluicing. As
opposedto reservoirswhich are water storagescreatedby
either excavatinga depressionor by erecting an earthen,
wooden, concrete or masonry structureusually on a flat
terrace.Incomingwaterwasusuallyfed in by waterraces,and
deliveredto work sitesby eitherracesor piping.In practice,in
New Zealand at least, there was virtually no distinction
between dams and reservoirs. Wardens Courts were
responsiblefor issuingdam licenseswhich encompassed
any
structurefor storing water for mining purposes.Reservoirs
tendsto be usedfor the storageof potablewatersupplies.
deadman (holdfast):a log or similarlyshapedobjectusedfor
anchoringor manipulatinggold dredgesin riversor ponds,or
in tenestrial situationsfor manoeuvringdevices such as
winches or cranes used for shifting large boulders (they
probably had many other applicationson the goldfields).
'Dead men' were usuallyburiedin a trenchat right anglesto
the direction of pull, in locations where there were no
convenientlysitedtreesor boulderswhich could be usedfor
the samepurpose.
deep leads: ancientalluvial depositsoften buried beneatha
considerablethicknessof non-auriferousstrata. They are
usually worked by sinking a shaft from which tunnelsare
drivenonto the leads(seehardrock miningdefinition).
ditch: seerace.
dredgingplanl usuallyusedin referenceto plantsdesignedto
recovergold-richtailings(the dischargefrom mine batteries)
which haveaccumulated
in rivers.harbours.estuaries
etc. The
plants combine two different gold recovery technologies,
alluvial dredging (bucket or suction) to recover tailings
dischargedinto the waterwaysfrom upstreamquartz batteries,
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(Peele194I :579).
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and hard rock gold recovery treatments,notably the cyanide
process,to recoverthe bullion from the dredgedtailings.Four
dredging plants have operated in New Zr,aland,Judd's at
Thames,a small operationat Coromandel,and the two gold
dredgingoperationsin the North Islandon the OhinemuriRiver
(OhinemuriRiverSyndicate's,
andtheWaihi-Paeroa
Extraction
Co.). The site of the laner, the fifth largestproduceron the
Ohinemurifield,hasconsiderable
potential.
interpretation
drift/drifting: loose alluvial material. Mining into it was
calleddrifting (seehard rock mining definition).
dr-v--blowing:
grainsof alluvialgold from
a way of separating
sandon arid Australiangoldfields.The dirt was droppedfrom
a height,enablingthe wind to blow away the lighterdust but
not theheaviergold particles.
elevator pond: (see hydraulic elevating) the depression
remaining(usuallywater-filled)followinghydraulicor bucket
elevatin-q.
face:the work facein an alluvialclaim.
false bottom: a consolidatedand usually non-auriferous
stratumon which alluvial gold is concentrated,
beneathwhich
thereis one or morelower bedsof washdirt,the lowestbeing
the truebottom.
flume/fluming: woodenchannellingused in conjunctionwith
\\'aterracesto conveywaterto a claim.Typicallyfluming built
on wooden trestles was used to span depressionsor was
anchoredto rock facesto bypasssheerslopes.In the absenceof
plentifultimberto buildflumingto bridgegullies(e.g.in Central
Otago),waterracebuilderswere obligedto go the long way, ie
follow thehillsidecontoursto maintainheight(seesiphon).
fly-catching/fly-catchers:the placing of gold-tablesin the
bed of a streambelow the outfall from a sludgechannel.It is
estimatedthat no more than 60 per cent of the gold was
capturedby claim owners,some4Opercentescapingwith the
tailings dischargeddown sludge channels.Much of the
escapinggold was caught in the fly-catchers.Restrictedto
ancient beach-leadworking areas on the West Coast, e.g.
Charleston,
Addison'sFlat.
fool's gold: iron sulphide(pyrites)commonlyfound in quartz,
coal measures
and alteredrocks.Often mistakenfor gold by
the uninitiated,it is virtually valueless.In the pastit hasbeen
usedasa sourceof sulphur.
fork/stoneforks: therewere two main types:a long-handled
multi-prongedfork was used to clear stonesout of tailrace
boxing,while a sturdytwo-prongedfork with the tinesbentat
right anglesto the handle was used to clear stonesfrom
tailraces.
c to ( o l L l r t&u .r r J'
gauge box: a woodenor steelvertically sliding plate which
enabled(by specificpositioningof the plate)a measuredflow
of water to be directed from a supply race into a claim head
race(seehead).
gold dredge:vessels(consistingof one or more pontoons)on
which variousforms of dredgingequipmentwere mountedin
order to extract auriferous gravels from river beds, and later
river marginsandterraces(Fig. 2).s
- spoon dredges: floating platforms on which a large
'spoon'(composedof a steelhoop and a rawhidebag)was
mounted.The spoon(latermadewith a strengthened
lip to
provide a better cutting edge) was attachedto a pivoted
arm which wasloweredinto the waterto scoopup a loadof
the basalgravels,then winched back on to the dredge.
- cunent wheeler: small dredgeswhich employedpaddlewheelsto tum an endlesschain of buckets.First usedon
the Molyneux(Clutha)in 1868.As currentwheelerswere
restricted to locations where there was a strons current
they were soonsuperseded.
- suction dredges:althoughsuctionis an effectivemeansof
dredging fine material, suction dredgesgenerally proved
unsuccessful on the goldfields; the suction pipes
continually clogged with stones,and the high specific
gravity of gold often resulted in everything but the gold
being lifted. Suction dredgingon sea-beachclaims also
provedto be inefficient, becauseinvariablytherewaseither
too much sandor too much water.
- steam-powered,continuous bucket dredges: the first
steam-powered (self-powered) bucket dredge, the
Dunedin, began operating on the Clutha River near
Alexandra in 1881. It proved far superior in terms of
gravel extraction and gold recovery. The type soon
becamethe mainstayof the industryhere and overseas.
Steam-powereddredges were able to work into river
banks, greatly expanding the scope of dredging
operations.
The developmentof the steam-powered
bucket
gold dredge is recognisedas New Zealand'sgreatest
contribution to alluvial gold winning technology (see
tailings elevator).
- electric-powered bucket dredges: a later development;
essentiallythe same gold recovery technologyas the
steam-powered
dredges,but electricalpower enabledthe
constructionof more powerful dredgesand considerably
lowered operating costs. The first electrically driven
dredgewas establishedon a claim in the upperShotover
River,Otago,in 1894by the SandhillsGoldminingCo.
woter source
stuicebox
toitings
elevotorhole
-
l50m
-,
water-powered bucket dredges (hydraulic dredges):
generallyusedto describedredgeson to which water was
piped aboard and used to drive Pelton wheels to power
machineryincluding the excavatingbuckets.The lack of
sufficientwater power (head or fall) limited the use of
hydraulicdredges,althoughthey were usedextensivelyin
some areas,e.g., Waipori and Cardrona. Some dredges
combinedsluicing and mechanicalexcavatingto enable
themto progressinto alluvialdeposits.
gold tables: broad slightly inclined flat tables(often mounted
on wheels)coveredwith plush(matting)overwhich fine gold
bearingbeachsandswere washedto recoverthe gold content.
ground sluicing: a basicmethodof alluvial mining whereby
auriferousterracemarginswere brokendown by directing low
pressurewater over them (free running water divertedfrom a
headrace)to assisttheir breakingup with bar and pick. The
dislodged materal was then sluiced, ie directed through
channelsto sluice-boxesin which the gold was trappedin
riffles.
gutters: incised ancient streamchannelsin bedrock or older
alluvium which tendto trap and concentrate
alluvial gold into
distinctleadsand consequently
providerich pickings.Gutters
usuallyunderlielateralluvialdeposits.
head: a measureof waterflow and volume.When water was
sold to claimholders,a chargewas madeat so much a headfor
so many hours. A head was approximately I cubic foot per
second(cusec)and was measuredby an outlet gateof specific
size (seegaugebox) at the point wherea branchraceto a claim
drewwaterfrom a main supplyrace.A racemanwasemployed
on main supply racesto tum water on (ie divert water) to
specificclaims as required,to patrol the systemlooking for
any defectsand to undertakerepairs.
hurdy-gurdy wheel: similar in appearance
and operationto a
Peltonwheelor similar impactwheel.The term is sometimes
usedsynonymouslyin referenceto Peltonwheels.The original
hurdy-gurdy wheels had flat buckets cast into the
circumferenceof the wheel.They weredesignedfor using high
head pressures.Large hurdy-gurdywheels were sometimes
connectedthrough gearing to derrick-hoistsand used to lift
heavyboulderson hydraulicclaims.6
hydraulic elevating:In 1880J. R. Perryintroducedhydraulic
elevatingwhile working in GabrielsGully in the Tuapeka
district. Elevatorsemploy the Venturi hydraulic principle
whereby energy releasedby the expansionof high pressure
water dischargedthrougha narrow pipe and a speciallyshaped
orifice (a Venturi) createsa powerful suction which lifts
material(waterandbasalgravels)up a largerinnerpipe so that
they can be passedthrough sluice boxes to recover the gold
content(Fig. 3). Elevators(bucketand hydraulic)were used
where there was insufficient fall (ie the ground being worked
wastoo deepto allow thedisposalof tailings).Sometimesthey
were usedin seriesto elevatewashdirtfrom deep workings.
They were mainly usedon the Otago goldfields, most notably
6
Fig.3: Simplified diagram oJ'a hydraulic
elevutor in operation (Ritchie 1986).
at St Bathans.The large boulderscommon in West Coast
fluvio-glacialgravelswere more than most elevatorscould
cope with, althoughhydraulicelevatingwas also used to a
limited extent on the West Coast beaches(see Ritchie for
descriptionof field evidenceof elevatingin the Upper Clutha
area).7
hydraulicking (hydraulic sluicing): a mining techniquein
which a jet of water is directedagainstan alluvial depositto
breakit down.The method,developedin Californiain 1852,
was introducedinto New Zealand by Califomian diggers
initially using canvashoses.The introductionof steel pipes
(madefrom rivetedsections)andcastiron monitors(moveable
nozzles) in the 1870s lead to high pressure sluicing
superseding
the earlier method.The methoddid away with
muchof the pick and shovelwork involvedin groundsluicing
and was the only practicalmeansof mining deep deposits.
Hydraulic sluice workingsusually have steepworking faces
(comparedto groundsluicing)becausethe waterwas directed
upslopeto underminethe work faces.
iron pipes:first usedin California,theyrapidlysuperceded
the
canvashosesused prior to that.8In 1856 a San Francisco
companycommencedthe manufactureof wrought iron pipes
for hydraulicmining,so their usewaswell established
prior to
the onsetof sluicing(c.1870)on the New T,ealand
goldfields.
Graduallya whole rangeof pipe sections,elbows(bends)and
associated
components,
e.g. gatevalves,were developed.The
pipe sectionscould be hot rivetedinto standardlengths(hence
the presenceof a smithy on many alluvial claims),and each
unitjoined by connectingflanges.
koura: Maori term for gold. A transliterationof the English
term.
lead: (pronouncedleed) a well-definedbed of auriferous
wash-dirtin a terraceor streambed.
long tom: essentiallya trough (sluice box) for washingthe
gold from auriferousgravels,first usedin Califomia in 1850.
Theywerethe nextstepup from a cradleenablingthe working
of largerclaimsand a betterrecoverypercentage.
They were
usuallyworkedby two men. Washdirtwas shovelledinto an
inclinedwoodentrough about 4 metreslong with a uniform
width of c.450millimetresmountedon a frameor legs.Water
was poweredin at the upper end while the material was
agitatedwith a shovel.Largestoneswerepickedout, while the
restof the materialpassedovera gratingat the lowerend.Fine
materialdroppedthrough onto a seriesof riffles anangedlike
thosein a cradlewhile the restof the materialwas discharged
out the lowerend.UsuallyLong Tomswereplacedat the edge
of a creekwhich sweptthe tailingsaway.
monitor (giant nozzle,sluicegun, nozzle):deviceconsisting
ofa pivotablesteelbarrelwith interchangable
brassnozzlesfor
directing high pressurewater brought by pipeline onto a
sluice-face
for the purposeofbreakingit downand passingthe
materialthroughsluiceboxes.In practice,it seemsthe terms
monitor and nozzle are frequentlyused synonymously,but
Fig.4: Chinesepaddocking claim at
Blaclcw'ater,WestCoast South I slanrl,
New Zealanrl. The photograph shows
the overburden stripped ofi, auriferous
gravels being shovelled into a long tom
type box-sluice, und waste rock strtcked
behind the work lace (Department oJ
Conserv at io n coIIect ion, Westland ).
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strictly speakingthe latter term refersto the interchangeable
brassfittingson the end of a monitor.The namewas probably
derivedfrom the swivel-firingCivil War gunboatof the same
name.Inventedin Califomiain 1853,monitortechnologywas
further refined over the next 20 years.9The most powerful
nozzleswere known as Giants. They could be swivelled
uithout intemrptingthe water flow. The developmentof a
built-in deflectorwas an importantinnovation.Prior to thenit
was necessaryfor one or more men to move a monitor
manually backwardsand forwards, or up and down with
considerableexertionand often coupledwith dangerto the
operators.The deflectingdeviceenabledone man to easily
handlethe largestGiant.Men who operatedmonitors/nozzles
rreredescribedas nozzlemen.
nugget:a largepieceof alluvial gold, as distinctfrom a lump
or massof gold embeddedin solidrock.
paddock/paddocking(stone to grass): (1) an excavation
madefor procuringwashdirtin shallowground;(2) a wooden
bin or areafor the storageof washdirt; (3) to paddocka claim
meantto work it systematically
by meansof a seriesof small,
shallowpits, or altemativelyto excavateout the whole mass
leavinga largesquarepit (Fig. 4). In flood-proneareason the
\VestCoast,ground waspaddocked,the aim being to get as
much wash-dirtas possibleout and storedabovethe known
flood level,so thatwashingcould proceedif the river rose.On
theWestCoastthe phrasesloneto grasswas usedto describe
the actof gettingore out and stockpilingit in a paddock.
panning: the use of a fossickingdish or gold pan to test or
recoveralluvial gold, usuallyin the gravelsof river or stream
beds.The first gold pans,hand-forgedby local blacksmiths,
appeared
in the 184Osin the UnitedStates.
Pelton wheel: the Pelton wheel was the culminationof a
30 year quest to design a betler water wheel. Prior to the
inventionof the Pelton wheel all kinds of curved buckets
(attachedto the rims of waterwheels)had beentried to utilise
water flows more effectively.Louis Peltonof Comptonville,
California,conceivedthe idea of a wheel lined with buckets
with vertical fins which split the water deliveredthrougha
high pressurenozzle on impact. His patent wheels had
and
considerable
advantages
over conventionalwater-wheels
rapidly gainedfavour.They were much smaller,more readily
transportable,
ableto be drivenwith a muchsmallervolumeof
water,and had easily replaceableparts.Companiesin New
Zealandand elsewhereobtainedthe right to manufacturethem
means
and they soonbecamethe predominantwater-powered
of driving machineryon the goldfields.
placer mining: a term of Spanishorigin usedextensivelyin
North Americanliteratureto describethe mining of alluvial
deposits; essentially a synonym for alluvial mining.
Placer/alluvialmining involvesusing water to wash(alluvial)
gravels to recovergold and/or other heavy metals such as
platinum and tin. As water flows over gravels (placed in
devicessuchas cradles,long toms,or sluiceboxes),dirt and
the bulk of the lighter non-auriferousmaterial are washed
away,while the heavy metal particles(e.g. gold) sink to the
bottom and are trappedbehind rffies which are periodically
cleanedto enablethe gold to be recovered.
pothole mining (potholing): seetailings,pothole.
puddle: processof soakingalluvial gravelsto breakdown the
stickyclay content.
puddling machine/puddling site: a machine designedto
agitategold-bearinggravelto get rid of heavyclay, which is
washedawayin water.Puddlingwasusedextensivelyon some
of theAustraliangoldfieldswhereheavyclayswerea problem
puddlersiteis similarto
The configurationof a horse-powered
that found on a horse-powered
Chileanmill stte.It consistsof
a circulartroughexcavated
in the groundaroundwhich a horse
dragsa pair of rakeswhich stir up auriferousgravelsplacedin
the trench and causeadheringclay to be washedoff. Like a
Chilean mill roller, the rakes in a puddler are pivoted at a
centralpoint obliging the horseto walk continuouslyaround
the perimeterof the puddlingtrench.
race (water race): an aqueductor channel(usuallyopen)for
conductingwater to or from a mining site.Large water races
from a permanentsourcewere called supplyraces.Typically
water would be drawn from a supply race or a local water
sourceand storedin holding dams from where it would be
conveyed by head-racesto individual claims. Tail-races
usuallyboxedwith rffies in the uppersectionand pavedwith
woodenblocks or flat rocks in the lower reachestook the finer
water-bometailings (sludge)from claims to where it was
dischargedonto lower lying ground or more frequentlyinto
existing water-coursesand rivers. Racesare calledditches in
Americanminingliterature.
reservoir: seedam.
A stoning tray being used to remove excessrock rubble from a
operation,West Coast, South Island, New Zealand (Department
of C onservation coll ect io n, Westland ).
riffleJripples: bars or cleatson the bottom of a cradle, Long
Tbm,sluice-boxor tail-racefor catchingailuvial gold.Rippleis
believedto be of Australianorigin andwasusedto describethe
cleatson amalgamatingtables.
rock-sluices:largesluicesor tail-raceswerefrequentlypaved
with stonebecauseof its greaterdurabilitythan wood.Rocksluiceswerevery effectivegold-catchers
but were much more
difficult and tediousto clean-up.However,this aspectalso
madeit muchmorediffrcultfor thievesto stealgold (ie cleanup) from the sluiceswhentheywereunattended
at night.
rotary screen: seetrommel.
siphon:pipingusedto conveywateroveran obstacleor across
a depressionand deliver it to a lower level by meansof
pressure.
atmospheric
The availabilityof iron pipesfrom about
1890 revolutionisedrace building. Previouslyit had been
necessaryto go around,or spangullies with expensive
fluming
on trestles.Iron pipescould be laid directlyon trestles(in lieu
of fluming),but theconstructionof siphonsdown onesideof a
gully and up to a race(at a slightly lower level) on the other
side was the preferredmeans of conveying water across
depressions.
sludge(channel):viscousmud or silrladen water.Underthe
mining legislationin New Znaland,the govemmentcould
gazettethat certainrivers were deemedto be sludgechannels,
in which case miners could apply for a right to discharge
sludgefrom alluvial or hard rock mining directly into them.
All the riverson the SouthIslandWestCoastweredesignated
sludge channels.The Ohinemuri River is the predominant
North Island example. Sludge channel was also used to
describe major tailraces (often constructed by the N.Z.
Governmentto facilitate mining). Mining parties paid a
'channel-fee'allowing them to dischargesludgeand tailings
8
into a particularsludgechannel.On the Kumaragoldfield it
amountedto about30 per centof what the minerswerepaying
for water drawn from the Governmentraces.The short, often
high-capacitytailracesfrom battery sitesto a nearbyriver are
alsosometimesdescribedas sludgechannels.
sluice:seehydraulicsluice.
sluice box: a long trough with a loose bottom on which there
are rffies or holes.The washdirt (conveyedin flowing water)
is passedthrough the box where the gold and other heavy
metals is trappedin the riffles or falls through into the false
bottom section.Long Tomswere essentiallyportablesluice
boxes.
sluice face: essentiallya work face; artificially createdterracefacescreatedby sluicingawayterracemargins.
stone barrow: a low slung wheelbarrowused to cart away
large boulders which would otherwise have blocked or
damageda nilrace, or movethemfrom any otherinconvenient
location.
stone trays: a steel tray somethinglike a modem dragline
bucketwhich was suspended
from a horizontalaerialropeway
(Fig. 5). A secondaryrope enabledthe tray to be raisedor
lowered,or movedalongthe main rope.At the work face,the
tray wouldbe loweredto enablelargestonesto be stackedin it.
It was then raised and run out along the main rope to a
dumping area, where the tray was tripped, depositingthe
stoneswell awayfrom the work area.Two rciling forms result
from this technology:conical andlinear mounds.
stoningout: removinglargestonesfroma tailrace,usuallyby
meansof a stone-fork.
surfacing/surfacer: West Coast terms associated with
blacksanding,
describingthe workingof sea-beach
claims,and
the diggerswho worked them.
tailings (alluvial): the solid waste from alluvial mining
operations.Finer materialwas usually washedinto adjacent
watercourses.
Cobblesandbouldersremainedeitherwithin the
claim or adjacent.Tailingsare often the dominantfeatureon
old alluvial mining sites.Their form is directly relatedto the
topography,the nature of the substrate,the position of the
washdirt, the depth of overburden,the water supply, the
availablehead,the mannerof the water'sapplication,and the
lay of the land with regardto dumping the wastematerial.
The arrangementof tailings is an indicator of mining
techniquesusedand availabletechnology.t0
Alluvial tailings
can be grouped into three basic categories:hand-stacked,
mechanically-hydraulicaLlystacked, and dredge tailings (the
latterbeing a specialised
form of the secondcategory).Handstackedtailingstendto be neaterand smallerin areathanthose
depositedmechanicallyor hydraulically.
Almost withoutexceptiontailingswerestackedon worked
out or wastegroundunlessthere was no altemativesuch as
when a claim was started.At this stageit was often necessary
to elevate(usuallyby meansof an inclined tramway)large
volumesof heavycobblesout of the workingsand stackthem
on virgin ground.Suchtailingsarelikely to be indicativeofthe
first working on a particular claim. Understandablythese
unworkedareasare often workedby later mining companies.
This pattemis well illustratedon the Kumaragoldfieldon the
WestCoastwherethe high percentage
of largebouldersin the
alluvium necessitated
their stackinginitially on virgin ground
to facilitatethe workingof specificclaims.
tailings (alluvial, hand-stacked):seeRitchie 1981for a full
II
discussion.
- parallel tailings: visually the simplestform of tailings,
consistingof parallel rows of handstackedcobblesand
bouldersusuallyalignedat or nearright anglesto a river or
stream.Sitesof this typeseldomexceed100by I 50 metres
in areaand the stonerows areusuallylessthan 1.5 metres
high. They are frequentlylocatedright on the edge of a
.ld it
r)'ing
often
:r :ue
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iater)
Eavy
false
.luice
Taceaway
do r
nient
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ining
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rnin_q
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rf the
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n the
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r tull
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i and
,er o r
ETICS
retres
ofa
riverbank.A variation of this form, curved tailings. is
essentiallysimilar.The stackedrows are curvedbut still
parallelto one another.
box tailings: this form of tailings is a variationof the
paralleltype, but differs in that the rows of stackedcobbles
are containedin a box which is formedby eitherunworked
ground, or more usually, a row of stackedtailings across
the lower (and frequently the upper)end of the workings.
The box arrangementappearsto be an improvementon the
simple parallelmethodof working becauseall the goldbearingsluice water would have beenchannelledthrough
one end tailrace. There are severalgood examplesof this
typein theupperCluthavalley.
herringbone tailings: tailings of this type, if neatly
stacked,are generallyconsideredto be the most interesting
form because of their symmetry. The characteristic
'herringbone'patternwas producedby hand stackingof
cobblesand boulders uncoveredwithin terracegravels
The stoneswere stacked
during slrice mining operations.
in parallellinesat anglesto a centraltailrace,the working
face encroachingfrom the lower end of a claim. This
offeredthe minimum impedimentto the sluicewaterflow
which caniedthe gold-bearing
sediments
downthe tailrace
andthrougha sluicebox wherethegoldwastrapped,while
the rest of the material dischargedinto a watercourseor
formed fans below the workings. Becausecobblesand
boulderstendedto block the tailracesand trap the gold
before it reachedthe sluice box, the stoneswere hand
stacked into rows to enable the system to work as
efficientlyas possible.Oncea retainingwall was formed,
cobblesand coarsegravelswere forked behind the wall.
Retainingwalls are an importantfeatureof virtually all
forms of hand-stacked
tailings.They were erectedin any
to containthe tailingsand
situationwhereit wasnecessary
preventthem from impedingthe tailrace,and in confined
situations,e.g. one claim aboveanother,wheretherewas
no placeto dump the wasterock exceptwithin one'sown
claim.
Herringbone tailings frequently consist of several
by ridgesof largely
herringbonecompartments
separated
unworkedmaterialalong which the waterwas distributed
in pipes.Herringbonetailingsareoftenvery extensiveand
in termsof humaneffort.They
represent
a hugeinvestment
are generally associatedwith ground sluicing or lowpressurehydraulic sluice workings into river terrace
Someof the bestexamplesin New Zealandarein
_sravels.
the vicinity of Cromwell.
fan tailings: this type are a crossbetweenparalleltailings
and the heningboneform. They were constructedon
groundwhich containedlesscoarsematerialthan that in
which herringboneformationsare frequentlyformed.Fan
tailings are derivedfrom both ground and low-pressure
hydraulic sluicing. The fan patternswere createdby the
minershand-stacking
the cobblesandboulders(freedfrom
the terracegravels)in rowsconvergingon a singlepoint in
the tailrace where rffies were located to trap the gold,
whilst the spoil was washedto lower ground or into a
nearbyriver.
blow down tailings: tailings of this type result from a
system of sluicing known as blowing down (Ritchie
l98l:55). The introductionof the methodis creditedto a
Russianminer. Subsequentlyit has been used for the
working of wide stretchesof poor alluvial ground in
Central Otago. Its greatestapplicationhas been in the
Cromwell areawhereit was introducedbefore 1880.The
methoddiffersfrom ordinarygroundor hydraulicsluicing,
which begin at the lowest point of the groundand were
worked forward on a rising bottom. In the blow down
acrossthe baseof a
svstem.a maintailrac€wasexcavated
slopeto be worked.A sidegutterwas thenextendedup one
or both boundariesof the claim. Waterwas conveyedto the
top of the claim by race or pipeline and sluicing
commencedby working downslope.A strip of ground
about 3 metres wide was thus worked either side of the
gutterwhich actedas a channelfor the loosenedmaterialto
be carried down the tailrace.This processwas repeated,so
that the groundwascut away in parallelslices.Workingsof
this type are typically locatedalong old terracerisers.
- amorphous tailings (hummocky tailings): catch-allterms
to describestonetailingswith no coherentpatterning.At
first glance this type appears to be the result of
indiscriminatestackingof cobblesin low moundsor heaps
during sluicing operations.A closerexaminationusually
revealsshallowwinding channelsthreadingbetweenthe
moundsand leadingto a low point where presumablya
sluicebox was located.Amorphoustailings are typically
locatedon river marginsand on ground with minimal fall,
the pattem often being in part attributableto the uneven
surfaceofthe basalmaterialor bedrock.
- small claim tailings (pothole tailings): the term pothole
mining was coined by Ritchie to describethe principal
method of gold working during the early days of the
goldrushesin CentralOtago.lzDuring
nineteenth-century
this phasethe miners concentratedon working the stream
and river beds,which were dividedinto individualclaims
measuring24 by 24 feet (7.23 by 7.23 metres)per miner.
The minersdug into the gold bearinggravelswith pick and
shoveland raisedthe gravel with the assistanceof a whip
or a counterbalancedlifting arm. The gravel was then
pannedor cradled.The resultingtailings reflect the mining
method.As a consequence
the creekbedsand surrounding
low ground becamedotted with hummocky circular and
oblongmounds,occasionallyseparated
by waterchannels.
Althoughthe individualclaimsweresmall,whennumbers
of suchworkingswereestablished
in closeproximity,e.g.
at Gabriels Gully, the aggregatewas quite extensive.
Excellentsurvivingexamplesof this type can be seenin
the flats of the Bendigo Creeknear Cromwell, a legacyof
the 1862-1865 rush there, and on the Lisle-Denison
goldfieldsin Tasmania.l3
Despitethe fact that largetracts
of riverbedswere workedthis way, survivingexamplesof
the type are uncommon.The former tailings have been
obliteratedby freshetsor laterminingventures.
tailings (alluvial, stackingmechanicallyassisted):
- finger tailings: this form of tailings results from the
dumping of tailings from trucks (sklps)in more or less
level moundsor rows radiatingfrom a point source,such
as the headof a tailrace where the sluice box was located
or at the head of an inclined tramway(refer definition).
The lines reflect the pattem of dumping, the tracks being
extendedalong each ridge as it was formed. A shallow
depressionmarking the line of the tram tracks and
remnantsof tram track often remain along the crests,and
the tracksoftenpassthroughcuttingsor depressions.
- radial fan tailings (descending): formed in locations
where adequatefall and spaceallowed. Due to the steep
fall, large cobblesand small boulderscould be washed
down throughthetailrace. Often a slight indentationon the
crestsmarkswherethe boxingwas situated.The latterwas
extendedor radiatedasrequired.
- conical tailings: where stonetailingshave beendumped
from a point source either at the head of an incline
tramway (horse-or water-powered),or from a stoningtray
which was anchoredto a singlecentralpoint, the resultant
tailings form distinctiveconical mounds.There are some
fine exampleson the Kumaragoldfieldon the WestCoast.
The object of the exercisewas to minimise the ground
coveredwith tailines.
-
linear mounds: linear formationsof contiguousconical
moundscreatedby the depositionof stonetailingsdumped
from a stoning tay. As the anchor points of a cableway
(from which a stoning tray was suspended)were
progressivelyshifted as sluicing advanced,the tailings
tendedto fall in linearmoundswith undulatingcrestsoften
at right anglesto the sluiceface.
tailings (dredge):dredgetailings usually consist of extensive
seriesof overlappingmoundsof coarsetailings(cobblesand
boulders) dischargedfrom gold dredges.There is a marked
differencein heightand patterningbetween'early'and 'late'
dredge tailings. In 'early' dredgesthe larger coarse material
passedthrough the screen(seetrommel)and via a shoot over
the stem of the dredge.The fine materialwas often discharged
on top of the coarse material resulting in low undulating
mounds. The larger 'later' dredges created high parallel
concentricrows of tailings superimposedon the sinuous
coursethat the dredgeworked.After the adventof the tailings
stacker or elevator in 1894, dredge tailings were able to be
stacked20 metresor more high.
tailings stacker (elevator): a device credited to Cutten Bros
Engineering,Dunedin in 1894 for stackingdredge tailings
well aft of a dredge.Prior to this innovationdredge-masters
were constantlyfrustratedbecausethe excavatedspoil tended
to flow back undertheir dredgesand thwart their operation.
Tailingsstackers,
essentiallyan endlessbelt on a hugegantry,
enabledtailingsto be stackedin high moundswell clearof the
stemof a dredge,in so doing creatingthe distinctivewinding
tailing pattems.
tailrace: a channelor aqueductfor conveyingdirty water and
tailings away from a mine site. Usually the sluice boxesor
rffies wereplacedat the headof the tailrace.
tailrace tunnels:tailracetunnels(alsocommonlydescribedas
sludge channels)were used extensivelyon the West Coastto
facilitateworkingclaimson the fluvio-glacialgravelterraces,
e.g. at ShamrockCreekand on the Kumaragoldfield.t+The
lack of fall in these locations thwarted sluicing, so long
inclinedtunnelswere drivenfrom an adjacentvalley (e.g.the
Taramakauvalley) to facilitate drainageand remove tailings
from the work area.The tailracetunnelswhich camein under
the areasto be worked were accessedby one or more shafts
which servedas drain-holesand enabledthe minersto sluice
down to the level on which leads of alluvial gold were
concentrated.Becausethere was no working space in the
claimsinitially,the gold savingboxesoftenhadto be installed
in the headofthe tunnelsand maintainedthereuntil spacehad
been created outside the tunnel portals. The fall was
particularlyimportant,the more the betterbecauseit enabled
larger tailings to be dischargedthrough a tailrace. Large
bouldersencountered
whilst drivingthe tunnel,or blockingthe
raceswere alwaysproblematical.
Before mining commenced
each day (ie before the water was turned on) it was usual
practicefor someoneto checkthe tailracefor blockages.The
full length of tailrace tunnels were boxed so that the waterbornetailingswould not scourthe tunnel-surfaces
and cause
collapses.
The wastematerialwasusuallydischarged
on to the
valleyfloor or into a river at the lowerend.
trommel (rotary screen): a powered rotating cylindrical
sieve,of various sizes,for cleaningand sizing aurifereous
gravelsor ore. The developmentof trommelsis perhapsbest
exemplifiedby their role on the steampoweredbtcket dredges
developedin New Tnaland in the 1880s for recovering
auriferousgold. Trommels(usually called screenson gold
dredges)constitutedan important part of the gold saving
apparatusand were a major componentof the machinery(a
few dredgesemployedvibratoryscreens).
Spoilbroughtup by
the buckefchainwas dischargedinto the upper end of the
trommel.As the materialmoveddown towardsthe lower end it
wassprayedwith powerfuljets of waterfrom a pipelocatedin
10
the centreof the screen.The gold bearingwashfell throughthe
about I centimetrediameterperforationson to goldsaving
tables on either side of the screen.Large rocks and any
material that did not fit through the perforationsmoved to a
shootat the stem of the dredgewhere it was dischargedinto
the river,or in the caseof laterdredgesit was lifted by means
of an elevator and stackedwell clear of the dredge (see
tailings, dredge for further details). Trommels mounted on
wheelsor steelrunnersfor manoeuvrabilityare an important
elementof modemday alluvialgold recoveryplants.
tunnelling: seedefinitionin hardrock section.
turbines: water-poweredturbines were essentiallyfurther
developments
of the conventionalwaterwheel and thePelton
wheel.A turbineconsistsof a fully encasedrotor drivenby the
impactof waterfed on to it througha pipe;the energyoutput
being relatedto the pressure(the head)and the volume of the
water.Turbinesgenerate
considerable
speedandpowerbut low
torque, consequentlythey were generallynot suitable for
poweringstamperbatteriesbecausetoo much gearingdown
was required.They also requirea consistentwater supply to
work efficiently;evena smallamountof wear greatlyreduces
a turbine'sefficiency.
washdirt (pay dirt): theauriferousportionofalluvial deposits
(gravel,sand,clay or cement).
washing up (cleaning up): the processof collecting the
material (gold, other heavy metals and sand) trapped in
tailrace rffies and,separatingthe gold from the other heavy
metals.
water balances:a variationof the self-actingtram technology
(seeincline tramway).Waterbalancesworkedin the opposite
manner.A ballasttank full of water going downwardwould
haul a loadedtruck upward.When both had beenemptied,the
truck, beingheavier,would retum to the bottom for refilling.
Becausethe tank usuallytook a long time to fill, jigs (incline
tramways)were generallypreferred.
water right: historically,an authority grantedby Warden's
Courts to draw a specifiedamountof water from a race or
streamfor mining purposes.
Waterrights wereeagerlysought
after and keenlyhisputedin the Warden'sCourts.They were
granted directly to claimholdersand to companieswhich
specialised
in supplyingwaterto miners.
water wheels:overshotwaterwheelswere the mostuniversal
motiveforceon the goldfields.They wereusedto drivea wide
rangeof equipmentincludingpumps,winches,stampbatteries
and mills, and electricgeneratingplants.Waterwheelsranged
from 5 to over20 metresin diameterandweregenerallyovera
metre wide. Some were able to be driven forwards or
backwardsby movingthe wateroutletfore or aft of top-deadcentre.When usedin reversewater wheelsenabledmaterial,
e.g. pulp in treatmentplants,to be elevatedfrom one level to
another.In New Zealand,they were then termed elevatorsor
elevatingwheels;whereasthey werecalledraff or raft wheels
in Australia.Water wheels(mademainly from timber) were
preferred for their simplicity, economy and reliability.
Machinerywas sometimesdrivendirectlyoff the centralshaft
but usually the energywas transferredvia a circular toothed
rack bolted towards the circumferenceof the wheel. This
engagedgearingon an intermediateshaft via which pulleys
and drive-beltstransferedthe power to a battery or other
machines.Although waterwheelscontinuedto be used,they
weregraduallysuperseded
by Peltonwheelsandturbines.
windsail: a canvassail suspended
from a pole adjacentto a
shaft to divert fresh air into the shaft. Used on the arid
Australiangoldfields.
wing dam: low barriersusually madeof stoneor timber for
eitherdeflectinga streamso that it erodesits own banks,or for
the purposeof dewateringa portionof the streamchannelso
that it canbe workedin a dry state.
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TERMS ASSOCIATED
WITH HARD ROCK MINING
adit (dive or drift): a horizontal or gently inclined tunnel
driven from the surface(typically into a hillside or outcrop)for
the purposeof intersectingor mining an ore body (Fig. 6).
Adits were also driven to intersectshaftsfor the purposeof
dewatering.Adits are usually drivenwith a slight inclinationto
enableladen mine trucks to run downhill and out of the mine.
The empty truck is then pushedback up to the work face. A
slightslopealsoenablesgroundwaterto drainout of a mine.
aerial ropeway (aerial tramway): a large-capacity,very
economicalsystemfor conveyingore or coal from a mine to a
processingor storagefacility. Transportis effectedby meansof
by carriersfixed to an
steelbuckets(or aerial sftrps)suspended
endlesssteelrope strungalong pulleyson pylons.The buckets
r.r'ereusuallyfilled manuallyfrom a chuteat the upperend and
emptiedautomaticallyat the lower end.Aerial tramwayswere
generallyconsideredsuperior to self-actinginclines in most
situations. Aerial systems required minimal surface
preparation,could traverseundulatingterrainmore readily,and
required much less maintenance.Aerial ropewaysare called
'flying foxes'in Australia;in New Z,ealand,'flying
fox' is used
to describea deviceprincipally usedfor crossingrivers.They
from a pulley which runs
consistof a seator cagesuspended
along a cablestretchedacrossthe river.The userpulls the cage
below the cableway.
acrossby haulingon ropessuspended
air receiver: large elongatedriveted steelvesselusedto hold
compressed
air at a pressureof 9G-100psi. Like boilersthey
had to be certificatedand havea numberstampedon them. If
this numbercan be locatedthe history of the receiver(and
thereforepart of the site's history) can be raced through
\linistry of Transport boiler records.Air receiverswere
;ommonly sited in a small building near a mine entrance.
Compressed
air (theair-feed)wastypicallydeliveredvia pipes
to undergroundworkingsat 90-100 poundsper squareinch
and used to drive rock-drilLs, mechanical loaders, hoists,
\entilatingfans,and othermachines,
whereit wasnot feasible
ro use,or wheretherewas no provisionfor electricity.While
the efficiencyof compressed
air is very low (c.20per cent),it
\\as very versatileenergy form and assistedin ventilation,
particularlyin deadends.
air shaft: a shaft specifically driven to connect with
underground
workingsto provideventilation.
attle: mullock, ie waste rock. A Comish term still used in
South Australia to describemullock and/or crushedwaste
rock.usuallyassociated
with coppermining.
anticline: the arch of a fold within strata.
back: theoverhead
ceilingor roofofa stope,drive or crosscut.
in a mine.Also usedin
backs(back reel): provenorereserves
referenceto the thicknessof ore above a particularpoint
underground.
beamengine(or bob
beam engine/pump:the steam-powered
engine) was developedin Britain in the first half of the
eighteenthcentury for dewateringmines. Over the next
100 yearsnumerousrefinementswere patented.One variant,
the Cornishbeamengine,was usedextensivelyin tin mines.
Beamenginesconsistof a largelever(5 to 15 metreslong, ie
the beamor bob) which transmitsthe motion impartedby a
pistonto eithera connectingrod or pump rod or both. In the
1840sthe technologywas transferredto the SouthAustralian
copper mines and on to the goldminesof Victoria.tsThe
Westem Springs pump at MOTAI, Auckland, is the most
notablesurviving beamenginein New Zealand.Other former
notableexampleswere employedat the KawauIslandcopper
mine, and on the No. 5 shaft at the Martha mine, Waihi.
Substantialrernnantsof the distinctiveComish pumphouses
still surviveat the last mentionedlocations.Australianmining
F.dtuE5 of o lrPical
qsdadin
t d'grmd
ana d.6ih of a tb|..
,
*'lsdft
/ ltlnd
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Nfirhtl
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of tMwtzn
l
Brlfrkwrctlwll*v
of t@n qadz raf
quartzmine(Moore
andRitchie
Fig.6: Features
of a typicalurulergrourul
1996:34).
engineersdevelopeda variant of the beam engine in which a
centrally pivoted arm supportsbeamson either side of it, as
opposedto the usual situationwherethe beamis pivotedfrom
its centrepoint. A fine working example of an Australian
enginecanbe seenat SovereignHill, Ballarat,Vic.
bearers (timber bearers): heavy horizontal beams,
sometimeshitched into the rock walls, used to support the
timbering in a shaft, or support superimposedsets. Shaft
bearerswereusuallyinstalledevery30 feet.
Blondin: the name given to variousforms of aerial cableway.
The term is derived from Blondini, the famous tight-rope
walker. Blondins were principally used for open-pit working,
especiallyfor conveyingsolid blocks of stonefrom quarriesto
othersites.The Blondin erectedby the CoromandelGraniteCo.
to conveygranitefrom their quarry to their wharf at Parituis a
notable(but now demolished)New Zealandexample.Blondins
usuallyrequiredat leastone massivesetof sheerlegsor a pylon
from which a heavy counterweightwas suspendedto keepthe
cable taut under load. Typically the cradle or carrier ran out
along a near-horizontalwire until it hit a stop,which tripped a
load to
mechanismwhich automaticallyloweredthe suspended
the ground. Blondins were often powered by elecuicity
producedby a turbine locatedon a nearbywatercourse.
blow: large section of reef exposedon surfaceand usually
worked by opencasr methods.
bob wall: the front wall of a Comish engine house,usually
about 1.5 to 2 metresthick, on which the beam (bob) was
hingedby a gudgeon(hingepin).
bonanza (jeweller's Dor): small patchesof ore or alluvial
leadsof exceptionalrichness.
brace: landing platform on a headframeto which ore and
mullock are raised; usually the same height as the mullock
dumpand mill entrance.
lt
buck reet name given to large quafiz reefs in which there is
little or no gold or silver.
cage: the car or carrier usedto hoist men and materialsup and
downa shaft.
caps: heavy timbers placedhorizontally on top of one or two
vertical timbersQtrops)to supportthe roof of a drive or tunnel
(seesets,lath, sill), or bord (seecoal mining terms).
chamber: (l) a largecavernexcavatedas part of underground
workings for the placementof pumps,engines,winding gear
and other machinery;(2) the loadingareaadjacentto theshaft
on eachmine level; known as a plat (derivedfrom German)in
the U.S.A.andAustralia.
chute (shoot):a channelcut in rock, or constructed
of timber,
via which ore waspassedfrom a higherto a lower level in an
undergroundmine, or outsideit, e.g. from an adit portal to a
groundtramway.
collar: timbering, steelwork, concrete or masonry erected
aroundthe entranceto a shaft, usually about the first 3 metres
from the ground surfaceto a headframebrace, to reducethe
risk ofthings falling down andpreventfrettingofthe entrance.
collar height the height of the entrance(s)to an underground
mine (specificallyoneaccessed
by a shafi)abovesealevel.
Cornish pumphouse: (seebeam enginelpump,enginehouse)
Distinctivetall structures
which housedComishbeamengines
used for dewateringmines.The shell of the most notable
Comish pumphousein New Zealand,is preservedadjacentto
the Martha mine at Waihi, while otherssurviveat the copper
minesat MoontaandBurrain SouthAustralia,andat theDuke
of Cornwallgold mineat Fryerstown,
Victoria.
costean: a trench dug into the ground surface to find and
exposequaraveinsor ore bodies.
country rock: a rock massenclosedor intersectedby lodes,
veins,or reefs.Commonlythe predominantrock type found in
a particulararea.
cribbing: close settingof timber supports,usedin locations
wherethe countryrocftis soft or very wet.
cross-cut:a tunnel drivenacrossthe courseof a reef.As shafts
were sunkto new levels,cross-cutswereexcavated
to cut the
reefs approximatelyat right angles,after which driving was
commenced in both directions along the reef. Further
crosscuttingcontinueduntil the farthestreef was openedup.
Usuallyriseswere cut to upperlevelsfrom long cross-cutsto
ensureadequateventilation.Cross-cutswere also made to
connectadits on the samelevel..
deepfeads:mineralveinsat greatdepthsin a mine(alluvialor
hardrock) workedby 'deepsinking', ie excavatingdeepshafts.
development work: tunnelling(driving), shaft-sinkingand
associatedwork undertakento gain accessto reefs in order to
commencestopingat variouslevels.
dredgingplant: seedefinitionin alluvialsection.
drifter drill: a heavy pneumaticallydriven drill used for
driving in hardground(Fig. 7). Drifter drills aremountedon a
verticalsteelcolumn which is wedgedbetweenthe roof and
floor of a drive. As the face advanced, the drill was
periodicallyrepositioned.
dip: the inclination of shata or a vein measuredfrom the
horizontalat right anglesto thestrike.Sometimes
expressed
as
so many feet horizontallyper so many feet vertically.
dolly pot: colloquialname for a mortar and pestleused by
;irospectorsin the early days to powder piecesof ore, whici
theythenpannedto recoverthe gold.Ifthe gold wasvery fine
they sometimesroastedthe specimenon a shovelto bum out
sulphides,then powderedit and mixed it with mercury.The
resulting amalgam was then heated in a retort which
vapourised
the mercuryleavingthegold behind.
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Fig.7:DriJterdrill rigged
Jbrdrilling(McArat988).
drive: (sometimescalled a drift or adit| ahorizontalor slightly
inclined undergroundtunnel which is excavated(drifted. or
driven)alongthe courseof a yeln.Drives(andotherforms of
mining tunnels)have the following recognisedfeatures- a
roof, floor, face (work face),and walls (side walls). ,Drivine
north'refersto a tunnelbeingdrivenin a northerlydirection.
dump: seemullockdump.
dyke (dike): an intrusive,oftenparallelsided,bodyofigneous
rock which cuts through pre-existingstrata.In the Thames
mining areathey were also calledhard bars.
enginehouse:a stmcturefor housingmine winding,hauling,
andpumpingengines.They aremorelikely to be calledpumphouses,if pumpingwas their predominantpurpose,or boilerhousesif they housed boilers. The masonry ruins of the
engine/pump-house
(built in 1848)at the KawauIslandcopper
mine site is a notable New Zealand example while good
examplesare found in SouthAustraliaat Burra and Moonta.
The terms engine-house,pump-house,winding-house,and
boiler-house
are often interchanged,
dependingon the interest
or emphasisof a particularwriter, e.g. all of thesetermsare
used in referenceto the Kawau Island structurementioned
above.The brick boiler houseat the Big River mine on the
WestCoastis a notableexampleof thatgenre.
face: the working face of a drive or adit; ie the part to be
excavated
next.
fault (ioint): a sheerplane or fracturezone in a rock mass
wheretherehasbeendisplacement
of the sidesrelativeto one
another.Thereareseveralkindsoffaulting.
filling shaft: (seegloryhole)a shaftfrom thesurfacevia which
filf was conveyedor droppedto backfill stopes.Tl.reyusually
leavedeepcirculardepressions.
footwall (stepwall):,the massof rock on the undersideof an
inclinedfault planeor vein of ore.
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South Island, New Zealand (Department
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Francis turbines: high-volumewater-driventurbine usedto
powermachinery.
gadd: a smallrock wedgeor chisel.
gallery: sometimesusedas a synonymto describea level or
drive in a mine, but usually more often refersto a stopedarca
* ithin theabove.
gangue:usually used to describenon-metallicor low-value
menllic mineralsin an ore,which areconsidered
waste.
gl,or1-hole:
an opencastexcavationinto which ore and/orrock
uas dumped,then takenby level and shaftto the surfacefor
treatment,
or to stopeswhereit wasusedfor backfill.
gossan(oxidisedzone): oxidisedrock overlyinga sulphide
b'odr (seesuLphidezone\.
gpuge:to mineonly the richestportionof a mineraldeposit.
bammer and tap: rock-drillingprocessusuallyinvolvingtwo
rrlen. one being responsiblefor holding and periodically
rotating a hand-heldpercussionsteel drill, while his mate
rnlermittentlystruck it with a heavyhammerto promotethe
dnllin_e
action.
hanging wall: massof rock abovean inclinedfault planeor
.tin of ore (seefootwall).
hard bars: seedyke.
headframe:alsoknown aspoppetheads.Thesteelor wooden
iramework erected over a shaft (Fig. 8). They had to be
srronglybuilt to withstandthe weightof the load beinglifted
ind the lateralstresses
on the headsheave(the massivenarrow
grooved pulley over which the steel winding rope ran).
Consequently
theirdesignevolvedovertime.
hoppers Qtaddocks):ore holding bins in both above- and
below-groundsituations.Stamphoppersin large mills held
rufflcientore for 24 hoursoperation.
(seeinclineshaft).
incline:(l) an inclinedunderground
passage
Sometimesdescribedas a decline.(2) a slopingembankment
on a rail or tramway.
incline shaft (underlie or underlay): a principal entranceto a
mine slopingat about 45 degreesto follow the dip of an ore
bodl'.
incline tramways (self acting, jig): there were two basic
s\ stems employing two parallel sets of tram-tracksand
utilisingthe weightof a loadedtruck going downwardto pull
an empty truck up an adjacentline. This was achievedeither
by a a singlerope running round a bull wheel at the upperend
of the incline,or two ropeswoundin oppositedirectionson to
a winch drum, so that one was wound in while the otherwas
paid out. Usually the top truck would be loadedfrom a storage
bin aboveit, and dischargeautomaticallywhen it reachedthe
bottom. Then the processwould be reversed.Usually inclines
only had threerails, the middle one diverging to let the trucks
pass.The inclineson the Wairongomaigoldfield nearTe Aroha
are probably the most notable surviving examples in New
Tnaland.
jackhammer: a hand-heldpercussivedrilling machineused
mainly for down-drilling, e.g. foundation holes, or shaftsinking,in mines.
jig (self actingincline tramway): seeabove.
kibble (kibbal): (derivedfrom German kubel, a bucket)a
wooden or steel barrel-shapedcontainer used to haul ore or
water up from a mine. Usually used on small scalemining
ventures in associationwith a windlass. Larger capacity
kibbles,known as 'sinking kibbles',were usedin conjunction
with poppet heads to sink main shafts. The barrel shape
minimisedthe catchingof the lip on the sidesof the shaft.
lagging: secondarytimbers placedbehind the main timber
supports in a shaft or drive to hold back rubble or loose
countryrock.
laths: heavytimbersplacedhorizontallyalong the sidesof a
tunnel or drive betweenthe outer surfaceof theprops and the
walls to preventrock (or coal)falling inwards.
feader(feeder):A smallore-richvelnextendingfrom a larger
one.
levels: Undergroundmines are establishedas a series of
horizontal workings or levels which are usually numbered
from the surfacedown. In mines developedon quartz veins,
the levelsvariedfrom c.20 to 100 verticalmetresapart.The
levels are connectedby vertical shafts or steeply inclined
passages
(seerise and winze).In someminessub-levelswere
established.They were termedintermediatelevels andusually
prefixedby the levelnumberbeneath.
lode (reeJ):part ofan ore zoneor rock masscontainingseveral
veins spacedcloselyenoughso that they and the intervening
rock canbe minedas oneunit by driving,or stopingif thelode
is steeplyinclined.
magazine: a secure ventilated structure or locker used for
storingexplosives.
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mineralisation: the presenceand distribution of minerals in
ore. The term is also used to describethe processor account
for the presenceand distributionof mineralsin ore.
moil: a heavy pointed steelbar usedfor driving shot holes in
soft ground.
mucking: removal of blasted-downore from a face or stope.
The menand machineswho do this work arecalled'muckers'.
mullock: an old Comish mining term used to describe the
waste rock from a mining operation. Whereas the ore is
stockpiledand treatedto recoverminerals,mullock (aule in
South Australia) is the barren material which is deemednot
worth treating.It is usually dumpedin radiatingheapsbelow a
mine drive, or theshaftsaccessingundergroundmines,or used
to backfill stopes.
notches (hitches): indentationsexcavatedin the roof or walls
of a mine drive to securesupportingtimbers.
open-cut (opencast): method of mining where a lode or ore
body outcropsat or near the surfaceand can be mined without
resortingto undergroundmethods.With modem machineryto
efficiently remove the overburden it is now possible to
opencast mine to much deeper levels than in the past.
Commonlyusedto mine stockworksystems.
ore: a naturalmineraldepositof variouselements.The term is
usually used in situationswhere at least one element is a
sought-after
metal,e.g.gold.An ore-body(orereserve)may be
workedif testsindicatethat thereis enoughmetal-orein it so
that it is economicallyfeasibleto work.
outcrop: a location where a lode, reef, or stratumis exposed
on the naturalgroundsurface.
oxidised zone (gossan):the upper part of an ore-body which
has beenalteredby oxygenand weathering,usuallywith the
loss or chemical modification of some of the mineralisation.
cf. sulphidezone.
paddock (hopper):box-shapedwoodenore storagebins (also
seealluvial mining definition of paddock).
paddocked one:storedor stockpiledore.
Pelton wheel:the inventionof Louis Peltonof Comptonville,
Califomia,the Peltonwheelwas the culminationof a 3O-year
questto designa betterwaterwheel.Peltondesigneda wheel
with small replaceablecups or buckets regularly spaced
around its outsidecircumference.It was driven by a high
pressurejet of water (usuallyundera headof 80 feet or more)
which struckthe buckets,tuming the wheel and the shafting
attached to it. Pelton wheels (many were manufacturedin
Thames, others were manufactured and imported from
Australia,England,andthe UnitedStates)werewidely usedin
the early daysof goldminingto drive batteriesand providea
cheap form of power. The speed,therefore the power of a
Peltonwheel,couldbe regulatedby a deflector(if fitted)or by
adjustingthe incomingwaterflow.
picked stone: rich piecesof ore, e.g. quartz picked out for
showinggold or assaying.
plat seechamber.
popper drill: a relatively light drill mounted on
pneumatically-operated
telescopicleg;usedfor boringholesin
an upwarddirection(seedrifter drill).
portal: surfaceentryto an adit (drive)or tunnel.In mining,the
term is usually used in referenceto the main entrancesto
undergroundmines,or the timberedor masonryentrancesto
adits/drives.
poppet head: seeheadframe(poppetheadis distantly derived
from puppet,ie. a thing manipulated
by linesfrom above).
powerhouses:the buildings at a mine or battery where the
main switchgearand controlswere situated.Originally the
term appliedto actualon-sitegeneratingequipmentsuch as
producer-gasplants,or coal-firedsteamturbines.
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prop: any wooden post or support used in underground
workings.
propylitic alteration: rock alteredby hydrothermalaction and
containingmineralssuch as calcite,chlorite and quartz,the
latter often being auriferous.
prospecting trench (costean): a trench excavated in an
outcropor rock masswith a view to prospectingor locatinga
reef.
pump-house: a building housing pumps for dewateringa
mine. The ruins of the Kawau copper mine's engine/pumphouseand the Marthamine'sComishpumphouse
at Waihi are
the two pre-eminentsurviving examplesin New Znaland,
while good examplescan be found in South Australia at
MoontaandBurra.
quartz: a hard denseform of silica commonly occuringas
veins in countryrock. Quartzveins or reefsare of economic
significanceif they contain large concentrations
of desired
mineralssuchas gold, silver,or mica.As quartzis the ultimate
sourceof mostalluvialand reef gold, exposedquartzreefsare
soughtand sampledto ascertainthe presenceof gold, other
soughtmineralsandtheirconcentrations.
rake/rakeline: a rake refersto a string of ore-truckshauledby
a mine locomotive or horses. The Waihi Gold Mining
Company's Waihi-Waikino rakeline is the pre-eminent
exampleof its type in New Zealand.
raise (rise): a verticalshaftexcavatedupwardsfrom a lower
passage.
reef: often used synonymously with lode. Prominent
concentrations
of quartz(or othermineraliferous)
veinswithin
countryrock.
rising: upwards excavation(a rise) involving the use of
stronglybuilt compartmentalised
timber-structures
known as
serswhich servedas a working surfaceand temporaryore bin.
Riseswereabout2.5 metresby 1.2metresin sectionandmight
extendfrom one level to another(c.50 metres)or from a stoDe
to the levelabove.
rock-drills: a genericterm for a range of compressedairdrivendrills usedto boreholesfor explosives.
sets: pre-cuttimber framesused for proppingthe sidesand
roofs of drives. Typically sets are placed 4 feet apart. More
sophisticated
square-frame
setswere usedto provideworking
surfacesduringstoping(seerising).
shaft: a verticalor nearverticalpassage
to provideaccessfrom
the groundsurfaceto underground
levels,or from one level to
another.The shaftsof established
mineswereusuallytimbered
(especiallyin unstableground) and usually subdividedinto
three sections. Typically two were used as winding
compartments/
haulagewaysfor lift cages(or a bosun'schair),
and the third containeda ladderwayas well as drainageor
ventilationpiping etc. The division of the shaft into two or
more compartmentsalso createdan unevenairflow (the air
rising in one sectionand sinkingin the other(s)which assisted
ventilationand helpedpreventthe formationof foul air (air
with little or no oxygen).
shaft collar (collar height): the height of the entranceto a
mine shaftabovesealevel or a local datum. The collar refered
to the frameworkaroundthe neck of the shaft.
shoot (chute)'.seechute
sill: heavytimbersset into the groundor floor of a tunnelor
drive to hold supportinglegs (props)apart.The useof sills is
generallyrestrictedto areaswhereconsiderable
pressures
are
presenton the sidewallsof a tunnel.A sill is alsoa geological
term usedto describea massof igneousrock intrudedbetween
otherrock types.
sink, sinking: the processs,usually aided by explosives,of
excavatingshaftsfor accessto lower levelsin mines.
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skimps: a Comish term for tailings, only used in South
Australia.
skip (ore skips,handcarts,trucks): smallrail-mounted,side
or end-tippingore carts used for conveyingore or mullock
from a workfaceto the surfaceof a mine.The menwho pushed
them were called truckers.The ore bucketsattachedto aerial
ropewaysare known as buckets or aerial skips (see aerial
ropeway).
sludgechannel:seedefinitionin alluvialsection.
stationary engine: term coveringall types of steamengine
mountedon a foundationto provide a fixed energysourcefor
pumping,winding,anddrivingmachinery.
steels:the rodsor drills usedfor boringholeswith the aid of a
pneumaticdrill, or a handdrill operatedby a sledgehammerin
Ae caseof lhe hammer and tap method.Explosivesare then
placedin the holesand detonatedto breakout the work face
;rndadvancethe drive or shaft.
stock, stockwork: country rocft containing so many fine
srringersor veinlets that it may be more economicalto
.\cavateandcrushall therock ratherthantheveinletsalone.
stope:an underground
excavationfrom which ore is extracted,
usuallyaboveor belowa driveor workinglevel.The processis
;alled stoping.Once the ore body has been removedthe
resultantchamberis sometimesdescribedas stopedout. The
shapeof a stope,which is ofteninclined,dependson thewidth,
hei_ehtand extent of an ore body. Timber sets are used to
provideworkingplatformswhen stopingsteeplyinclinedreefs
(see str.r//s).Stopes were often backfilled with
'rr lodes
This
materialis describedasstope-fillings.
-tullock.
strike: thedirectionor bearingof a seam,vein,fault etc with a
:,.rizontalsurfaceat the point of intersection.
The strikeof the
:,rr.intnrock is usually mentionedin relationto the angleof
: . : ol a v ein.
stringers: fine and often convoluted offshoots of the main
:netalIiferousreefs(approximately
synonymous
with veinlet).
wooden
props
sulls:
cut to fit and placed acrossa stope to
::;rent the side walls from collapsingor sloughingoff, or to
lrsFrort a platform for the ore to land on when overhand
q:{in,g.ie miningupwardsfrom a particularlevel,as opposed
:: vnderhandmining (ie excavatingdownwardsfrom a floor
. : r elt .
sulphide zone: the unweathered,
usually larger and deeper
rnn of a mineraldeposit.The ore in a sulphidezoneis usually
:.:rder and more difficult to treat thanthat in the oxidisedzone
:.33rthe surface.
srmp/sumphole: the base of a mine shaft where water
.a;,-umulates
and from which mine water is removed by
:umping or a drainageadir. Sumpsat the baseof a shaftalso
:nabledthem to be drainedby the use of speciallydesigned
::iling buckets.These were lowered down a shaft using the
i rnder.When the bucket reachedthe water-filledsump, its
:3-- openedautomatically,allowing it to fill. On lifting the
:a-.eclosed,enablinga full load of waterto be broughtto the
>urfacewherethe bucketwas triggeredagainand its contents
:efeased
intoa drain.Also seesumpin processing
section.
tailings:from hardrock mining,referdefinitionin processing
-.-cIion.
tram/tramway: narrowgaugelines(c.450to 600 millimetres)
rith a level or gentledownhill gradientalong which trucks
* ould be pushedoneat a time by a miner,or pulledin rakesof
tralf a dozenor more by a horse,dependingon weight and
distance.The act of haulingore away from a stopeis called
rramming or trucking. Aerial ropeways are sometimes
Jescribedasaerialtrams.
tributers: miners who work a section of an ore body
t'elongingto a companyon their own account,and pay as
rovaltya percentage
of the valuethey recover.Tributerswere
often allowed to work sectionsof mines that were no lonser
viablefor companies.
trucking: the loading of ore from stopesor elsewherein a
mine and its transportto processingsites.When trucked, ore is
conveyedin woodenor steeltrucks(skips,rnbs).Seetramway.
tunnel: the term tunnel originatesfrom Comish miners who
referredto an adit or drive as a tunnel.Strictly speakingan adit
doesnot becomea tunneluntil it is driventhrougha rock mass,
e.g. a ridge or an ore body, enablingfree passagethrough it.
tunnelling: essentiallythe sameas driving. The excavationof
tunnelVaditsto gain accessto leadsin alluvium,or to enable
haulage, or the passage of water (in races) through
consolidatedgroundor hard rock. The roofs of tunnelsthrough
weak ground were generally supportedwith timber props.
Some timbers, e.g. red beech (on the West Coast) were
favouredbecauseof their tendencyto talk, ie makedistinctive
squeakingnoiseswhennearingthepoint ofcollapse.
underlie (or underlay): Australiantermsfor an incline shafi.
vein (lode): a generalterm for a narrowbody of ore with depth
andlengthbut relativelysmallthickness.
whim (whimsies): strictly speakingany devicefor winding up
a rope, but normally used to describea vertically mounted
winding drum (poweredby a horsewalking round it) usedfor
raising ore from a mine. As the horse moved a rope passing
over a pulley suspendedabovethe shaftgraduallywound on to
the drum, which in tum elevatedthe suspendedload. Field
evidenceof the existenceof a whim is usually in the form of
flat circular areas(c.l0 to 15 metresin diameter),often marked
by a shallow circular depressionwhere the horse walked, and
occasionallytimber or steelremnantsof the winding drum at
the centrepoint.Whims were also usedfor hauling ore up or
down incline tramways,and for lifting pumprodsout of shafts
when servicingCornishengines.Two whims of unconventional
form wereusedfor haulingcoal to fire steamboilersat theAjax
quartz mine neer Reefton on the West Coast. The
archaeologicalevidence indicates the winding drums were
positionedin an excavatedwell beneaththe horsetrack, rather
thanabovethe horsesas is the moreusualsituation.
whip: a structurecontaininga pulley mountedover a shaft.A
roperunning over the pulley was attachedto a horse.When the
horse was led away from the shaft, it pulled suspendedloads
up the shaft. The term is also used to describe a
counterbalancedpole used to lift washdirt or sterile material
from smallalluvialworkings.
winch: usedfor hoisting materialsand winze-sinking.Usually
poweredby small,reciprocating,
compressed-air
engines.
winding engine/gear: steam or electric engines installed
adjacentto the main shaftsin undergroundmines to raise and
lower the cages which conveyed men and materials to the
various levels. Since the lives of the miners dependedon the
winders,theyhad to be maintainedto a high standard,and the
drivershad to be certificated.Many winding engineshad two
winding drums, so that one cagecounterbalanced
the other.
Substantialremainsof winding gear on old mining sites in
New Zealandare now limited to the Big River and Inglewood
mines (Murray Creek goldfield) on the West Coast. In
Australia examples survive on the Croydon goldfield in
Seealsodefinitionof enginehouse.
Queensland.r6
windlass: a wooden roller with a crank at one end mounted
over a shaft. When the crank was tumed it wound up a rope
attachedto a kibble and consequentlylifted the latter out of a
shaft.
winze: a generallysmall-sectionvertical or steeplyinclined
shaft or passageexcavatedfrom one level to another in
underground
workingsusuallyalongthe line of a reef.Winzes
do not reach the surface, and were usually excavated
downwardsfrom an upperlevelto a lower one.
r5
TERMS ASSOCIATBDWITH PROCESSING
ORE TO RECOVBRTHE METAL CONTENT
agitation: generally refers to the agitation of slimed ore in
variousforms of agitationvessels(such as vats or B & M talt
tanks), either to keep it in suspensionor to circulate or
oxygenate it, particularly with regard to dissolving the
preciousmetal content.Compressed
air was used to agitate
pulverisedgold-oresbecauseit increased
the efficiencyof the
cyanideamalgamationprocess(seecyanideprocess).
alloy: a compoundmixture of two or more metals.
amalgam; when mercury (quicksilver)is added to finely
crushedquartz containingfine gold it createsa mixture (an
amalgam)of gold and other preciousmetalswhich are then
separated,
usually by retorting ofl the mercury.
amalgamating: processby which fine gold was recoveredby
passingit over mercury-coated,
copperamalgamatingplates.
The fine gold amalgamatedon the plateslaid on tables (see
amalgamntingtables) extendingout from the mortar boxes
below the stampsin batteries,or extensivetables erectedon
beachsluicingor blacksandingsites.The gold was periodically
collected by retorting the amalgam.Amalgamatingwas also
doneto someextentin grindingpans,e.g.Berdans(Fig.9).
RAILEYS PATENT
GNINDI NG SDAMALCAMATINC
PAN
FOR GOLD AND SILYER
OR ES
Fig. 9: Diagram of Railey's Putent Grinding arul Amalgamuring pan
for treating gold arul silver ores (Annual Journal of the House oJ'
RepresentativesI 887 Vol.l , Section C5, oppositep. 72).
amalgamating tables (gold tables, or tables): surfaces
coveredwith copperor Muntz sheeting(seeMuntz metal) for
amalgamatinggold particleswith mercury.Thoseassociated
with stamper batteries were relatively small whereas
amalgamatingtables associatedwith beach sluicing claims
(particularlyon the West Coast)were often quite extensive.
One at Charlestonwas 102 feet long and covered with
816 squarefeet of coppersheeting(Faris 1941:177).
Small
mobiletablesusingeitherplushor copperamalgamating
plates
wereusedfor black-sanding
(seedefinitionin alluvialsection).
amalgamating drums: mostly used on West Coastalluvial
claims to assistin the separationof extremelyfine gold and
blacksandtrappedon blanket tables.This materialtogether
with a quantityof mercurywould be put into a drum mounted
on an axle and rotatedby meansof a smallovershotor pelton
wheel. Severalhours of tuming would ensure the gold
amalgamated
with the mercuryandcould laterbe retofted.
arrastra: the mostelementaryform of crushingplant.Earliest
forms consistof boulders(mullers)draggedround a paved
circular gutter by a horsedrawnswinging arm. Later they
consistedof fixed circular pans in which crushedore was
further ground by poweredrevolving weightstogetherwith
mercury (for amalgamating) and water. Chilean mills and
Berdanpans areslightly more advanceddevicesbasedon the
same principle. Arrastras,used extensivelyin the United
States,seemto havefound little favourin Australasia.
Thereis
no record of the usage of horse-drawnarrastrasin New
T,ealand
andfew reportsof theirusagein Australia.
assay:the processof determiningthe gold and silvercontent
of ore. Usuallyabout4O0gramsof pulverisedore was melted
with fluxesin a crucible-fumace,
thenthe resultantleadbutton
wascupelled(seecupellation)in a mffie-furnace until all the
basemetals were absorbedor vapourised.The bead which
remainedconsistedof gold and silver.This was weighedand
the silverparted in hot nitric acid which was thenpouredoff,
leavingjust pure gold. This was reweighed,the difference
being the weight of the silver fraction.The quantitieswere
calculatedin ounces,pennyweights
and grainsperton.
B & M tanks (tanlrs,conical tanks, pachucas):tall tanks
(usuallymadeof steel,sometimesconcreteor wood) usedin
the cyanide process(Fig. l0). Compressedair was forced
throughthe conicalbasesof the tankscreatinga powerfulairlift which agitatedand aerateda chargeof finely crushedore
(slimesor pulp) andpotassiumcyanidefor aboutfive days(see
agitation).The tankswere designedand patentedin 1902by
C. F. Brown, GeneralManagerof the Komata Reefs Gold
Mining CompanynearPaeroa.The concreteand steelremains
I
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Fig. I0: Puchucatutks
(ulso known as Brown
agitators, afer the
inventor, or cyanide
ugitution tanks)ut the
Victoria huttery site,
Wuikino, North Island,
Nex' Zealand (N. Ritchie ).
5
't!l
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r
la
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riated
:ireas
h im s
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* ith
Small
rlates
:ur ial
.trand
r3Iher
unt e d
)t iton
gold
l.
'lliest
:ai ed
rhey
\\ A S
:
'nit h
i and
rn the
.'n i t e d
:3 ral s
\ew
l.ntent
xl te d
_',i.rtton
rll the
.rhich
J and
-1 nff
:rance
\\ efg
trnks
in
--d
:orced
.rl air:d ore
s ( s ee
G o ld
n ains
.:.-\
1t a
: . , ir c )
of the B & M tanksat the Victoriabatterysite,Waikino,and
theconcretetanksat the Union batterysiteat Waihi havebeen
classifiedB by the New ZealandHistoricPlacesTrust.
ball mill: usedto describecylindricalmills wherethe lengthis
less than or roughly equal to that of the diameter(seetube
nriil). Initially developedfor relativelycoarsegrinding,when
usedin conjunctionwith classiferstheywereoftenemployed
dry, was
for fine grinding.The ore,usuallywet but sometimes
pulverisedby the actionof steelballs (from I to 4 inchesin
diameter initially) tumbling within the revolving cylinder
supportedon hollow trunnions.The feed was fed in through
the trunnionat one end and dischargedat the othereitherby
:r erflowing,or throughpowereddischargegates.
i4
*"*
a
*s
""
*Nii;
basemetal: generalnamefor chemicallyreactivemetalssuch
.. lead.copperand zinc, as opposedto the preciousor 'noble'
::tals suchasgold and platinum,which arelessreactive.
battery: seestamperbattery.
beneficiate:the processingof oresto regulatethe sizeof the
:roduct, remove unwanted constituents,and improve the
:uality. purity or assaygrade.In essence,the concentrating
.rJ preparation
of ore for smelting.
inclinedrevolvingcast iron
Berdan (pan): a frame-mounted
:isin between0.6 and 1.25metresin diametercontaininga
::.rr v steel weight (sometimesa piece of stonewas used)
rrur\\n dSa muller (Fig. I I ). The slow revolvingactioncauses
lrl muller to finely grind the ore, particularlyconcentrates.
3lrdan's 'Gold-orePulveriser,WasherandAmalgamator'was
-.:ented in new York in i852. Early models were over
I :retresin diameter,were heated,and had multiplemullers.
3:rJans becamepopularfor fine grindingaftercyanidingwas
". ::l) adopted.Mercurywasaddedto the Berdansto form an
:* :.{.rm rviththefinely groundgold (ie theycouldbe usedfor
..--.:r srinding or amalgamatingor both). Berdans were
::nmonll erectedin parallelin the largercrushingbatteries.
l::i rrerewidely usedin New Tnalanduntil earlythiscentury
:--.: :heir remainsare relativelycommonon old mining sites.
-: s.'riesof sevenmountedBerdanpans at the Invincible
-- -. :lre nearGlenorchyin CentralOtagois one of the finest
:, -i.rS eramplesin New Tnaland.
Blake crusher: to reducethe cost of pulverisingores to a
rock crushers (either jaw or gyratory) were
-.::mum. to crush the ore initially, as thesewere the most
::.:lo1ed
:: rnomical machinesthat were availablefor this purpose.
':luruS machineswere usedin New ZealandincludingGiant,
but for efficiency,
.''-":ge.Lambertonand the Blake-Marsden,
:: r:om\'. and durability, the latter (the 'Blake-Marsden
1-.'.:riser', morecommonlyknownas the Blakecrusher)was
..-i:l) recognisedas the optimum machine.Blake-type
::r>hers rverereciprocating-action
machines,which crushed
.:: t'1 direct pressurebetweena fixed plate and a swinging
comparedwith gyratory
.... Thel'hadonemajordisadvantage
::-rhirs in that the latter produceda more consistentsize
::r\luct which was the ideal for furtherprocessing.
Gyratory
:::>herswerealsolessproneto gettingfeedblockages.
blanket tables:after crushing(in a battery)the pulp (fine|y
::-.hed rock andore) waspassedover eitheramalgamoting
or
:.:nketrng tables,or both sequentially.Blanket tableswere
,.::rlar to amalgamating
tablesbut weresurfacedwith plushor
::iFet 'blankets'.The heavy metal content settledor was
:"pped in the weave.The blanketswereperiodicallyremoved
ld *ashed in tubs to recover concentrates.
Most of the
:l.rnketsusedin N.Z. mills weremanufactured
by the Mosgeil
\\'"rollen Mills near Dunedin, especiallyfor mill use. The
:.rtenalcostl2 shillingsperyard(2 yardswide)andhadto be
::placedeverythreemonths.
blanketings:heavymetalstrappedin the blanketson blanket
:,;ble
s.
* ,r,
$41ail
if
;r"n i,
i' ..;,
j,;.
Fig. I l: A row ol sevenberdansat the Invincible mine site, ReesValley,
central Otalao,South Island, Nev'Zealand (N. Ritchie).
blast furnace: the origins of blast furnace technologyare
obscurebut theyaregenerallythoughtto havebeendeveloped
in what is now Northem Europe before AD 1400. Many
innovationsand associated
terminology(beyondthe scopeof
this glossary;refer chapterson iron and steel in industrial
archaeologytexts)haveoccurredin blast furnacetechnology
over the ensuingcenturies,one of the mostnotableoccurring
in 1709 at Coalbrookdale,
Shropshire,when AbrahamDarby
perfectedthe techniqueof smeltingiron ore with coke,rather
than charcoal.Blast furnacesenabledmuch greaterquantities
of iron and othermetalsto be producedbecausetheycould be
chargedcontinuouslywith ore andcharcoalor cokewhich was
fed into the top of the fumace and gradually descended
throughit. In the processwaterandothervolatilesweredriven
off in the uppersection,and the ore was reducedto flowing
metal.The efficiencyof the processwas greatlyenhancedby
blowing air into the fumace(originallyby bellows)becauseit
reactedwith the charcoal/cokeand increasedthe rate of the
reductionof the ore. Earthy impuritiesfused to form a slag,
which togetherwith the moltenmetalwasfunnelleddown into
a hearth in the base of the furnace, where the densermetal
accumulatedat the bottom with the slag overlying it.
Periodicallythe moltenmetalcouldbe tappedoff andcast(see
pig iron).
bfister copper:producedina converterduringthelaststageof
a conventionalsmelting process,blister copper,'the end
product of smelting copper sulphides,consistsof a black
blistery porous matte. This nearly pure copper requires
rehningbeforeit canbe usedcommercially.
blowers: powerfulfans used to createthe jet of air injected
into blastfumaces.
buddle: namegivento a rangeof deviceswhich usea sloping
surfaceto separateparticlesof differentdensitiesfrom a slurry.
The most common form, known as a round buddle or round
table,usedthecentrifugeprincipleanda circulatingwaterflow
t7
in addition to gravity. The water sprayswashedthe finely
groundmetalresiduesand other impuritiesinto launders,bul
the separationwas achievedby gravity. They were often used
for reprocessingtailings dischargedfrom battery sites. One
buddlecould concentratethe ore from ten stamps.
bullion: commonlyusedto describebarsof semi-refinedeold
or silver.Sometimesusedin a more specificsense,e.g.
lold
bullion or silver bullion. The term is also usedas a general
name for the metal productof a smelter,e.g. lead, cast into
ingotsor bars.Bullion usuallyrequiresfurtherrefiningbefore
it can be usedcommercially.
calcining:sameprocessasroasting.
Chilean Mill: the earliestform of ChileanMills likety to be
found on Australasiangoldfieldsconsistof a circular trench
around which a large steel cappedwheel was pulled by a
horse,in so doing crushingquartz placedin the trough.A
similar technologyis commonlyusedfor puggingclay in the
brickmakingindustry.The crushedquartz dust was washed
awaywhile the heavierfreedgotd particlesaccumulated
in the
base of the trough from which they were periodically
recovered.
TraditionalChileanmill sitesarequitecommonon
some of the Australiangoldfields,e.g. Victoria.The authors
are unawareof the existenceof any traditionalChileanmill
sitesin New Zealand.Modem Chileanmills are ore-milline
machinesconsistingof a revolvingiron pan in which ore ii
crushed by two vertically mounted wheels which revolve
againstthe baseof the pan.
chlorination: usually refers to the Freiberg chlorination
processby which metalsare leachedout of crushedore in a
chlorinesolution.The processwas developedby Carl plattner
in 1858.tr Barrel chlorination,in which bleachpowder and
acid were addedto a cylinder of crushedore, was the most
commonmethod.Althoughchlorinationwas usedextensively
(especiallyin the UnitedStates),it was soondropped
overseas
in favour of cheaper pan amalgamation technology, and
eventuaffycompletelysuperceded
by theadventofthe cyanide
process.Only one companyin New Z.ealand
is known to have
usedchlorination.In 1898ProgressMines Ltd. at Reeftonon
theWestCoastestablished
a chlorinationplantbut only usedit
for a few years before adopting cyanidisation.The latter
technology had many advantagesover chlorination.The
cyanideprocessenabledtherecoveryof silverandothermetals
which could not be achievedwith chlorination.The latter
processrequiredone tonne of chemicals(mainly bleaching
powder)to treatabout l4 tonnesof ore,whereasone tonneof
cyanide and zinc would treat 100 tonnes of ore. The
chlorinationprocessalso required pre-roastingof the ore,
necessitating
the installationof fumacesand the purchaseof
fuel.18The Newbury-Vautinchlorinationprocesswas widely
used in Australia,Chlorinatedtailingsare a brick red (ferric
oxide)colour.te
classifierVclassifying-boxes:
a wide varietyof machinesused
to separate(classify)the coarserparticlesof pulp. In larger
plants classifierswere arrangedin successivegroups,each
refining the pulp a further step.Classifyingprocessesare often
alternatedwith concentratingprocessesin a mill because
concentration
works moreefficientlywith particlesof uniform
size.
cleaning up: periodiccollectionof gold trappedon blanket
tables, or other alluvial gold catching devices,e.g. from
stamperbattery mortarboxeswherecleaningup referredto the
recoveryof concentrates
from sands;alsousedto describethe
periodic separationof amalgamfrom, for example,the copper
plateson amalgamatingtables.
coke: (see coke in sectionon coal mining). the usual and
preferredfuel for base metal smelting. lf Jote was in short
supply,coal, firewoodand charcoalwere sometimesused in
smelters.
l8
complex ores (mundic, refractory, or pyrite ores): ores
containingseveralmineralsulphidesand requiringa seriesof
treatmentsto separate
andrecoverthe preciousmetalportions.
concentrates: processedfinely-crushedore containing a
mixtureof metallicsulphidesandheavydesiredmetalssuchas
gold and silver(seeconcentrating).
concentrating:the processof separating
the heavyfractionof
the pulverisedore from the lighter material.Machinesfor
concentratingwere called concentrators.WitJteytables, jigs,
andbuddleswere threeof the main typesof concentratorsused
in New Znaland,.
concentration: refers to methods used to increase the
proportion of economic metal by pre-crushingore and
mechanicallydiscarding the barren rock particles before
smelting.Concentration
is usuallydonewith basemetaloresto
reduce the volume of material that has to be smeltedand
consequently
lower smeltingcosts.
cone separators:largediametercones(c.15feet in diameter)
usedto separate(ie classify)the coarseand fine fractionsof
pulverised ore (sand and slimes)after the concentrateshave
passedover Wilfleytables.Tltelighterfractionwaslifted by an
upcurrentof water through the invertedcone and creamedoff
via an annular launder around the top perimeter.Larger
particleswere washedout via a nozzle in the bottom of ihe
cone into intermediatesandvats,wherethey drained,prior to
being shovelled into larger concrete sand-trearment
vats
(usuallyin a tankshed).
conicaltanks: seeB & M tanks.
converter: a machine,usuallya steelcylinderwhich can be
rotatedto differentpositionsfor charging,pouringslag and
pouringmetal,which is employedin the lastpartof thecopper
smeltingprocess.Convertersare lined with firebrickswhich
areconsumedin the processandhaveto be replacedregularly.
The processinvolvesmixing moltencoppermatte produced,
in
a blast fumace with silica. A powerful air blast is blown
throughthe mixturefor an hour or so until thecoppersulphide
is oxidised to copper metal. The productsproducedin a
converterareslag andblister copper,the latterhavinga copper
contentof 99 percentor more.
crucibles:potsfor meltingor smeltingsubstances
in a fumace.
Usuallyceramic.
crusher: various machines for breaking down rock by
crushingit. SeeHuntingdonmill, jaw crusher,Blake crusher,
roller crusher. Three stages of crushing are generally
recognised-primarycrushing employing jaw crushers or
stonebreakers;secondary crushing employing batteries
(stamps);and tertiary crushingor grinding usingBerdans and
othergrindingmachines.
crushing rolls: pairsof powerfulsteelrollersusedto crushore
andflux to a uniform small particle size before the material
goes into a smeltingfumace. Particularlyused prior to the
smeltingof basemetal ores to increasethe efficiencyof the
smeltingprocesss.
cupel: a small ceramicbowl made of specialheat resistant
claysusedfor refininggold. The processknownas cupellation
(seedss4)).
cupellation:partof the processof assaying.
cyanide process:the McArthur-Forrestcyanideprocesswas
patented
by Scottishchemistsin 1887.The patentrightswere
held by the CasselGold ExtractionCompany.In 1889the first
actualfield test in the world was conductedby New Zea\and
Crown Mines Company at Karangahakeon behalf of the
Cassel Company.2o11't. introduction of cyaniding on a
commercialscalewasa revolutionaryworld first,enablinglow
gradeoresto be workedprofitablyand 90 per centof the gold
and about 50 per cent of the silver to be recoveredfrom all
gradesof ore.The methodologygavea tremenclous
impetusto
I
!
I
I
: ores
ries of
nions.
m ga
uch as
donof
es for
;
iio c
s used
€ the
a and
before
res to
d and
nEter)
ons of
; have
i by a n
pd off
[-ar_ser
of the
rior to
t vats
;an be
:g and
:opper
*'hich
ularly.
rced in
blown
rlphide
l ina
ropper
llnace.
ck by
rusher,
rrrally
a/.t or
rneries
as and
rsh ore
nrerial
ro the
of the
sistant
'llation
is was
5 \\'ere
he first
.ealand
of the
ona
ng low
te gold
om all
etus to
the Ohinemuri mines. Within a few years it was widely
adoptedby many goldmining companiesin New Tealandand
overseas.It was first used in Australiain 1892,but became
especiallypopularafter the patentrights expiredin 1897 (in
which year the New Traland governmentacquiredthe patent
rightsfrom the CassellCompany).In thebasicprocess,finelypulverisedore (lessthan 200 mesh size) is submittedto the
actionof a dilute potassiumcyanidesolution(by percolation
five daysin a tank.The pregnant
throughit) for approximately
cyanidesolutionwas then drawnoff (by vacuumfiltration in
more advancedplants) and passedthrough wooden boxes
where the gold and silver contentprecipitated(as a black
sludge) on zinc shavings,after which the solution was
recirculated.
Later it was found that the processworkedmore
air was usedto agitatethe solution,
effectivelyif compressed
o\ygen andwaterbeingan essentialpartof the process.Many
of the largernorthem mills in New Zealand,e.g. the Crown
andVictoria,did mostof theirgold-savingby cyaniding.
The cyanideprocessenabledso much extra gold to be
old tailings.
recoveredthat it becameeconomicto re-process
In Australiavirtually all the old tailingswerere-treatedabout
the turn of the century, and many were done again in the
1930s.Theseepisodesoften representthe most conspicuous
lvidence on gold mining sites. Cyanide tailings are a
.-haracteristic
bone-whitecolour.Timberwork within cyanide
tailingstendsto preservevery well but iron corrodesrapidly.zt
The adventof the cyanideprocessalso madeit economicalto
Jred-ee
riverineand marineareaswheretailingsfrom batteries
hadbeendischarged
to submitthemto cyanidetreatment.See
Jredgingplant.
cl.anide tanks (leaching vats): wooden, steel or concrete
':nks used for containmentof pulp undergoingcyanide
l33tment.
distributer: a multi-armeddevice (similar in principle to a
:ient garden sprinkler) which distributespulp evenly into
4anide tanks.
dressinlo dress: processof sorting ore into its various
:rrnponents,usually by mechanicalmeans,e.g. vannersor
i.:j,tlt tables.
Ihright-Lloyd sintering plant: a plantdesignedto roastlead
:s-:s before smeLting,consistingof an endlessbelt which
palletsof ore throughan ignition fumaceand
'iosll carried
--l'lenunder a strong air blast to oxidise the sulphurbefore
r Ir* hargi ng automatically.
dut: abbreviationfor pennyweight.A pennyweightequals
'-1 grains.480 grainsequalonetroy ounce.
Edrr.ardsRoaster: a roasterdevelopedin Ballarat,Victoria,
-:.rout 1897 for the continuousroasting of gold ores. It
:.rnsistedof a long steelchamberheatedby a fumacebeneath,
,:r *hich a thin layer of crushedore was agitatedand moved
.-ug by mechanicalrabbles.On the Chillagoegoldfield in
Srnsland and at other AustralianminesEdwardsroasters
i:re usedto treatleadore sulphides.
feeder(ore feederor self-feeder):a machineconsistingof a
::orage hopper and an intermittentlytriggereddischarging
rechanismfor feedinga regulatedamountof ore (or coal) into
i sranperbatteryor othercrushingdevice.Regularityof feed
of a
:nro crushingmachineryis critical for the maintenance
.tladv throughput, effective crushing, and minimising
::echanicalwear on the machineryfrom uneven running.
\\}en large quantitiesof ore piled up in a mortar box, it
thefall of the stamps,impairingtheirmovementand
--ushioned
:thciency and occasionedmore frequentbreakagesof the
nreens.Feedersenablethe input of ore into mortarboxesin
,:ontrolledquantities,the ideal depth above the dies being
..: to 2 inches.The term is often used in referenceto a
Challengefeeder(Fig. 12). in which a circularcastiron plate
,about60 centimetres
diameter)mountedin the chutebeneath
Fi14.12: A Challenge Ore Feeder,one of a number of similar rypesof
machinery for feeding a consistentllow oJ ore into batteries and other
types oJ crushing or grincling machinery (Davies I 894).
the hopperis rotatedin shortjerksby a bevelgear,actuatedby
a striking mechanismattachedto the battery camshaft,thus
spilling the ore on it into the mortar box at regular intervals.
When the level of the ore in a mortar box dropped,the stamper
shafttappetwould move more distancewhich by meansof the
abovemechanismcausedthe feederto dischargemoreore.
The principal self-feedersused in Australasiawere the
Challenge,Tulloch, Roller and Hendy ImprovedChallenge
suspensionfeeder.Archaeologicalevidenceof feedersis often
difficult to definebecausethe machinesconsistof many small
and not readily identifiablecomponentswithin a wooden
framework. Once the latter has decomposed the steel
componentsare freed and tend to get scatteredabout a site.
There are now few substantially intact feeders on historic
mining sites in New Zealand.The Blacks Point Museum
battery near Reeftonhas a working Challengefeeder,as does
the Hauraki ProspectorsAssociationbattery at Thames.There
is a substantiallycompleteChallengefeederat the Big River
mine nearReefton,and rernnantsof feeders(of unknowntype)
at the Mount Greenlandmine near Ross and at the Brittania
mine north eastof Westport.
flotation: method of mineral separationin which a froth
createdin water by variousreagentsfloats somefinely crushed
mineralswhich wereskimmedoff, while otherssankandwere
drained off. Flotation, virtually the last word in fine gold
savingtechnology,was undertakenin flotation cells. It was
first used on a large scale to treat silver-leadores at Broken
Hill in 1896,and subsequently
hasbecomealmostuniversalin
base metal plants.It was also extensivelyused in Western
Australiato treatdifhcult telluridegold ores.Flotationhasnot
been usedextensivelyin New 7.ea\and.A notableexampleof
its use here was in the later plant at the Blackwatermine,
Waiuta,WestCoast.
flue: (l) an enclosedchannelfor conveyingheat(hot ai1 and
noxiousgases)from a smelteror fumace;a long brick or steel
stnrcture(often built againsta slope)to producean up-draught
to increasethe efficiency of a smelting fumace or oven, or to
improvemine ventilation.A flue leadsto a chimney(almost
always vertical,and also known as a stack or smokestack).
Square sectionedfreestandingchimneys known as Welsh
stackswere used on smelters,and round stacks(known as
Comish chimneysor stacks)were used on boilers (almost
withoutexceptionfor no knownreasonexcepttradition);(2) a
woodenchute to conveymine water.
r9
fluxes:
- chemicals or other substances,e.g. ironstone (ferrous
silicate)addedto a chargeof ore and fuel in a furnaceor
converterto lower the melting temperatureand modify the
chemicalprocesses
occurring.
- chemicalsor substances
addedto an assaysampleduring
refining to effect a more rapid fusion than would be
possibleby heatingthe mineralalone.Limestone,sodium
carbonate,borax, and microcosmicsalt were the most
commonlyusedassayingfluxes.
grizzlieslgrizzly-bins: bins located above crushers in a
stamperbattery.Trucks of quartz were tipped into the bins
which had bars(grizzlies)about2 inchesapartat the top; the
hner materialwent through,the coarsematerialwas conveyed
to the crushers.Large chunksof rock on the grizzlieswere
often broken manually with a knappinghammer.
gyratory crusher: for initial or primary crushing of ore the
choice was limited to either jaw or gyratory crushing
machines,althoughthe latter were often usedfor secondary
crushing after the ore was initially broken down in jaw
crushers.Gyratorycrushersconsistof a circularshellwith the
inner sidesinclinedtowardsa centralorifice.A verticalshaft,
supportedby a spider,passesthroughthe lower opening.The
shaft,eccentricallymovedat the bottomand equippedwith a
conical crushinghead,crushedthe ore betweenthe inclined
sidesof the shell and the crushinghead.The crushingaction
was continuousand rapid and lessproneto cloggingup than
jaw crushers.Gyratorycrushersalso produceda productof a
moreconstantsize.SeeBLakecrusher.
Huntington Mill: a roller mill designedfor crushingquartz
oreby meansof verticallymountedrollersin combinationwith
centrifuging.Huntington mills consist of circular cast-iron
basins 3 feet 6 inches deep. Inside the basins (two sizes,
3 feet 6 inchesand 5 feet in diameter)horizontalrollerswere
suspended
slightly off verticalso that their weight kept them
pressedagainstthe rim of the revolvingpan. According to
Gordon, severalHuntington mills were imported from the
USA and used in New Zealandbut there appearto be few
surviving examples.22
Despite being cheaperand easier to
erectthanstampbatteries,New Zealandmillmenprefenedthe
latter.The first documented
usageof a Huntingtonmill in New
Zealand was at Nenthom around 1890. The Nenthom
specimenis now on displayat the GoldenPoint batterynear
Macraesin Otago. Huntington mills were not popular in
Australiaeither.Apparentlytheywereconsidered
lessdurable
andnot reliableenoughfor usein remotelocations.
Huntington-Herberlein Plant: patentedplant designedto
treatdifficult lead sulphideores.Ore wascrushed,mixedwith
crushedlimestoneand heatedin an air blast in a cone-shaped
kettle beforesmeltingin a conventionalfumacefollowed by
further treatmentin a converter.The Chillagoesmeltersin
employeda Huntington-Herberlein
plant but after
Queensland
problems with the charges tending to clinker into
unmanageable
massesit was replacedwith a Dwight-Lloyd
sinteringplant.
jaw crusher faw breaker or stonebreaker):a machinefor
crushingrock or ore.It consistsof a massiverectangular
frame
with a fixed crushingsurfaceat oneend.Ore is crushedby the
actionof a heavysteelpoweredplateor jaw which is arranged
to swing internallyso that it crushesanythingbetweenit and
the fixed surface.Typically,jaw crusherswere designedto
reduceore to chunks2.5 inchesin size.
jiggers: vibratory machinesfor concentratingcoarsesand,
commonlyused in the cyanideprocess.They consistof two
water-filledboxes,one with a short-strokeplunger,the other
fitted with a sieve or hopper.The latter containeda finely
perforatedplate and bedding which caught heavy minerals
(suchas gold and scheelite)and waterand sandwerepumped
through.
20
kettles (separators): solid metal vesselsused to contain
amalgamand free mercuryafter they had beendrawn off from
settlers.
kilns (roasting pits or ovens):prior to i 900 ore was often
dried in kilns or pits beforecrushing.Roastingand drying ore
wasdonefor two main reasons- to fractureparticularlyhard
ore beforecrushing,and/orto oxidisesulphidesand makethe
gold moreamenablelo amalgamationandchemicaltreatment.
Ore roastingwas practisedin manypartsof Australiafrom the
1850son. There are two traditionalroastinqoven desisnsdeepcircularpit ovens(resembling
lime kilnit. and beeh]veshapedovens(similar to beehivecoke ovens).The former are
generally excavatedvertically into a slope. Short tunnels
providedaccessto chutesin thebaseofeach kiln via which the
dried ore was removedcontinuously.Roughly a ton of wood
per ton of ore was required,the wood being loadedinto the
kiln in alternating5 feet thick layerswith the ore. pit kilns
usually had a capacityof 50 to 100 tons of ore. In New
Zealand roasting pits or kilns are unique to the Hauraki
goldfieldbecauseof the presence
of complexoreswhich made
gold recoveryvery difficult prior to the adventof the cyanide
process.In New Z,ealandfine examples of subterranean
roastingpits exist at the Woodstock-Talisman,
Victoria, and
Try Fluke batterysites.Ore drying and dry-crushingbecame
obsoleteafter the advent of cyanidation.The quartz dust
derivedfrom dry crushinghad previouslyresultedin many
deathsfrom silicosis.In Australiagood examplesof beehive
roastingovensexist at Maldon,Vctoria and Hill End, NSW.
Later,patentsteelovenswereused,e.g. the Edwardsfumaces
at Kalgoorlie.
knapping hammer: A heavylong-handledhammer,the head
of which tapersto a striking face measuringapproximately
8 centimetres
by 3 centimetres
for maximumbreakingimpact.
Used for manuallybreakinglumps of ore, e.g. large lumps
caughton Srizzlies(seedefinition).
launders: wooden channelsused to conveypuLp from one
treatmentstageto thenextin a cyanideplant.
leach: to dissolvemineralsor metalsout of ore by use of a
suitablesolvent,typically cyanideor chlorine solutions,or
acid; also usedto describethe use of the cyanideor similar
processesto recover fine gold from tailings dumps by
percolation.
leachate:liquid thathaspercolatedthroughsoil, rock, tailings
etc. In old mining locations it often iontains very high
concentrations
of sulphidesandothercompounds.
Mackay Pan (Improved Mackay Pan): severalimproved
amalgamatingpans (over and above Berdan pans) were
devised.The Mackay Pan is notable becauseit is of New
(Fraser& Sons,Auckland).It employed
Z,e.aland
manufacture
a seriesof cylindricaldiscsof varyingdiameterswhich ground
materialbetweenthemandagainstthe sideof the pan.
matte (regulzs): an intermediateproduct of the copper
smeltingprocess.Matte is producedin a blast fumace,and
consistsof coppermetal,coppersulphidesand iron silicates.
Mattenormallycontains40 percentto 55 per centcopperand
is furtherrefinedin a converter.
milling: term used to describethe crushing of ore (hence
'stampmills').
muffle-furnace: a small fumace usedfor cupellationof lhe
leadbuttonsrecoveredfrom the meltingof an assaysamplein
a cruciblefumace.
Muntz metal: a metalalloy consistingof 60 per cent copper
and 4Oper cent zinc, namedafter its inventor.The metal was
first usedon amalgamatingtabLesby Thamesmillmenin 1875
in lieu of purecopperplates,when thesewere in shortsupply.
It proveda durableand effectivealternativeespeciallywhen
poor ore was beingcrushed.23
At the time Muntz was readily
available from local ironmongers who imoorted it for
-flr
i lI tl,"u
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_ Z I N C P R E C I P'LAi.
ITATINO BOXES
' :. I 3: Plan arul elevation oJ zinc precipitating boxes (source unknown).
.heathing vessels' hulls. Muntz metal was favoured in
:reterenceto copperby many of the northemmills, e.g. the
Victoriaat Waikino becausethe amalgamdid not adhereso
iirmll and thereforewas more readily descaled(removed)
:rom Muntzplates.
ore feeders:seefeeders.
Pachucatank: Australianterm for B & M tank.
pan amalgamation:this methodwas developedfor treating
::mplex metallic ores, especiallythose with high silver
:-rntent(suchas thosefound in the Ohinemurigoldfield).It
.:iiolred heatingpulp in largemetaltubs(pans)with steamto
r:,lmot€ amalgamationTherewere two main variantsof the
:,;thod: the Washoeprocess,and the ReeseRiver process.
differedin that the latter involvedroastingthe crushed
-:: :n a fumacefirst. After treatmentin the pans.the ore was
-:.:1
- -::irged inlo settLers.
trercolation: a process whereby pulp and cyanide solution
-::i mix.edtogetherin a vat for a specificperiod without
:::'.etion(ust allowedto percolate).
pE iron: crude iron from a smelting fumace was cast
:rrrnalll in depressions
in a bed of sand to produce
--:lleable blocks known as pigs. Pig iron is now madeby
-;:hines. the size of the pig being determinedby the
: : ri enienceof handling.
precipitation boxes (zinc boxes): wooden multi:r:rpanmentedboxes which containedzinc shavingsonto
-:.i.-h the bullion contentin cyanidetreatedpulp precipitated
(Fig. 13).Seezincslimes.
'. i blacksludge
pulp: is producedby stamperbatteriesand otherore crushing
-;,-hines. It consistsof hnely crushedore mixed with water,
;ontainstwo fractions:coarsersandsands/imeswhich are
-:i
:-L:rnelvseparated
for furthertreatment.
Seealsospitzkasten.
pr ritic smelting: technique of smelting copper ores by
-- ..;ng the sulphurcontentof the ore as the fuel, with very
:..: or no additionalfuel in the fumace.Requiresa powerful
:": rlast for rapidoxidationof the sulphur.Pyriteis an old term
: : i s ulphide.
reduction: the processof breakingdown ore to recoverits
::t.f,l content.
refining: the process of extracting impurities (including
r:-trls) from gold or other molten metals.The first known
:3trning processwas that of cementationwherebyplatesof
:".1J *.ere stackedin earthenpots surroundedby powdered
!:.ine or ceramicdust.The pots were then heateduntil they
:i.r$ed red. This was hot enough to enable many of the
.npurities to seepinto the pot walls or the dust but not hot
i:rrrughto melt the gold. In the sixteenthcenturyinquartation
; as developedto removethe main impurity in gold, ie silver.
Th; processinvolvedmeltinggold with at leastthreetimesits
i iight of silver,thengranulating
themixtureby pouringit into
water. The granuleswere then boiled in nitric acid which
dissolvedall the silver,leavingthe gold.
These two refining methods led to the advent of the
chlorine processwhich was developedin Australiain 1869.
The processinvolved melting gold bullion in clay pots and
bubblingchlorinegas throughit which reactedwith the silver
to form chloridewhich was skimmedoff. The silverwas then
recoveredby electrolysisin anothervessel.In 1902 the process
of electrolysisfor purifying gold was perfectedand has been
widely usedeversince.Althoughthe processmay takethreeto
four daysthe end resultis gold of 99 per centor betterpurity.
The processinvolvesimmersingplatesof gold in a solutionof
hydrochloricacid in a porcelaincell. The platesare attached
with gold or silverhookson to a seriesof metalrodswhich act
as an anode.In each cell thick plates of impure gold are
altematedwith thin platesof pure gold. The latter act as a
cathode.The solutionis thenheatedto 60 degreesCelsiusand
continuouslystirred.When an electriccurrentis applied,gold
dissolvesoff the anodeplatesand precipitates
on thecathodes.
The silvercontentbecomesinsolublechlorideand falls to the
bottomof the cell. Otherimpuritiessuchas platinumdissolve
into the solutionandcanbe recoveredby otherprocesses.
Refiningis the last stageof copperproduction,raisingthe
purity of the metal typically to 99.6 per cent copper.Copper
refining could be done very preciselyby controlledsmelting
but was more usually done by electrolysis.Typically blister
copperanodesweresuspended
in a solutionof coppersulphate
through which an electric currentwas passed,causingpure
copperto be depositedon thecathode.
refinery: becauseof the natureof refining and the valueof the
products, it is often undertakenin structures(refineries) in
nearby towns or some distancefrom the actual mine sites.
Typically refineries are secure well-ventilated buildings.
Althoughthe interiorhasbeengutted,theGrandJunctionmine
refinerybuildingat Waihi is a good survivingexampleof this
typeof stmcture.
refractory: often used to describe complex ores that are
difficult or costly to treat for the recoveryof gold and silver.
The Karangahakeores were often describedas refractory,as
werethe oresfrom the Mount Lyell mine in Tasmania.
regulus(matte)'.sulphiderich matteusuallycastin ingotform
afterthe roastingof copperores.
retort: a heavycastiron pot in which amalgamis heatedin a
fumace(often in a specialisedretort room) to separatethe gold
and mercuryfractions.The evaporatedmercurycondensesin a
coolingtube(whichextendsfrom thelid of theretort)enabling
it to be recoveredand reused.The gold (retortedgold) remains
in the body of the retort.After beingallowedto cool, the gold
was scrapedout carefullyand weighed,then takento a bank
whereit wascastinto ingots,assayedandpaidfor accordingto
its value(basedon its purity).
revolving ore-dryer: seerotary kiln.
2l
roasting (calcining): the process of roasting, burning or
calciningany ore to break it down and bum off or remove
problematicalor unwantedimpuritiessuchas sulphides.As a
pre-treatment
prior to the smeltingof basemetalores,heating
the ore andholdingit at a high temperature
for a time oxidised
sulphidesandsimplifiedthechemistryof the smeltingprocess.
The roastingof hard auriferousquartzmadeit more brittle and
thereforeeasierto crush.It also burnt out the sulphides,such
as pyrites and bismuth, which hinderedamalgamationand,
separationof the gold content,and helpedto congealminute
gold fragmentswhich otherwisetendedto float on the water
surfaceduring crushingand amalgamation.
Roastingquartz
involvedheatingit to a temperature
which was insufficientto
smelt the ore. Typically the deep circular kilns used for
roastingwere loadedthus:a layer of wood was placedon the
bottomof the kiln and upright pieceswere placedaroundthe
sides;thenthe kiln was built up with alternatelayersof quartz
and wood; the top was heapedand coveredwith earth or
crushedrock, the objectbeingto obtaina slow combustionof
the wood and so avoid intenseheat. If properly calcined,
quartzis friable,free from slag,andofa whitecolourstreaked
with red.
roasting furnace: usedin someplantsto pre-treatsandsprior
to cyanidetreatment.
roasting (or drying) ovens: these perform essentiallythe
samefunctionas a roastingkiln or pit but are much smaller
andfabricatedof steel.
roasting pit: seetiln.
rod mill: seetubemill.
roller crusher: a machinefor breaking down rock or ore by
crushingit betweenone or more steelcylinders.The material
to be crushed was fed in at the top and after treatment
discharged below. Typically the rollers were mounted
horizontally,but the Huntingdoncentrifugalroller quartzmill
(crusher) (see Huntingdon mill) contained three vertically
mountedrollers.Roller crusherswere usedin the Australian
copperindustryfrom the 1840s- thenusuallyknownasrolls,
now Cornishrolls.2a
rotary kiln: a revolvingore dryer, typically consistingof a
long steel cylinder (similar in form to that of a tube mill).
Pulverisedore is fed into one end and gradually moved
throughthe cylinder by its rotation.Heat is directedfrom a
firebox at the lower end throughthe drying cylinder,in so
doing roastingthe ore, causingit to breakdown and bum off
sulphidesetc. The most notablesurvivingexamplein New
Tnalandis on the Luck at Last mine site near Whangamata,
Coromandel.
Althoughtherevolvingoredryershavelong been
removedfrom the site,the brick fireboxesand flue structures
still existand the generallayoutof thefacility is still apparent.
self-feeders:seefe eders.
settlers (separators):large steel tubs with rotating stining
arms used to separateamalgam from pulp; the heavier
amalgam and free mercury settled to the bottom of the tub
where it was drawn off into kenles.The amalgamwas then
retorted(in a retort furnace)which vapourisedthe mercury
which was then condensedfor re-use.What remainedwas
silver/goldbullion which wasrefinedin a fumaceandcastinto
ingots.
slag: glassy or crystalline byproduct (predominantlyiron
silicates)from the smeltingof metallic ores.Typically slag,
while still liquid, was dischargedoutsidea smelterwhere ir
solidifiedinto hardblack masses.
At the KawauIslandcopper
smelterit was castinto blocksand usedas a buildingmaterial.
This was also doneat the coppersmelterin Kapunda,South
Australia.
slimes: the pulp producedby crushingconsistsof a coarser
fraction known as sands and a finer fraction known as slimes
- while bothcontainminuteparticlesof.preciousmetals,that
22
in the slimeswas largelyunrecoverable
prior to the adventof
cyaniding.
smelter: a purposebuilt structurewith appropriatefumaces,
kilns,or ovens,ventilation,sumpsetc.for smeltingores.
smelting: the processof extractinga metal from its ores by
heatingin a reducingenvironment;
the chemicalreductionof a
metal oxide with carbonmonoxidein a furnace.Prior to the
advent of Ihe cyanide process, mining companiesoften
resortedto smeltingrefractoryauriferousores,which is not
normally practical for gold recovery because the high
temperaturesrequiredfor smelting necessitateconsiderable
fuel costs.Smeltingis the standardmethodfor treatingcopper
ores. The process involves isolating the metal from the
chemicalcompoundsin which it occursnaturally,and heating
it to meltingpoint.The higherdensityof the liquid metalthen
causesit to separatefrom the lighter ore. Smeltingis usually
done in several stages because the chemical reactions
occurringduringthe processneedto be carefullycontrolled.
smelting furnace:(technicallymeltingratherthansmelting)a
small round fumaceapproximately1.2 metreshigh in which
the final melting of gold was undertakenprior to pouring it
into mouldsto producebullionbars.
spitzkasten(initial classifier):a devicewhich wasoften used
before a concentrator.Spitzkastenswere shaped like an
invertedpyramidand useda downwardcurrentto separate
the
coarsesandfraction from the frnerslimes.
stamper battery (stamp mills): a mill for crushingore by
meansof a sequenceof stampingmotions achievedby the
altematelifting and droppingof heavystampsby meansof a
poweredcamshaft(Fig. la, seestamps).InNew Zealandthe
termbatteryis commonlyusedto describethe structurewhich
housedstamperbatteries(Fig. 15).In the USA theyareusually
describedas [Califomian]stampmills.
The basic design,made of wood, was in use in Roman
times. Water-poweredwooden stamps are called Comish
stampsin Australia.They were used in the coppermines at
Burraand Kapundafrom c.l85l until at leastthe 1870s.The
all-metalCalfornia stamp evolvedvery rapidly in Califomia
from theCornishstampin theperiod1850-1852,
althoughthe
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rm
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Fig- l4: A ten heud stampbatteryshow'ingthe main structuralJ'eatures
(Cordon 1894 oppositep.312).
hent of
rlnaces,
s.
oresby
ion of a
r to the
s often
r is not
e high
derable
copper
Jm the
heating
ral then
usually
' ,/ ,/ t $JEtf,F
////' ./ ,/ ,/ , ariatiahptii,
' ,/ ,/ ,/
table
'/ /--'
//'/,lCRUSHlNGf
/ ./ 7-7- /-7-7-
Fig. I 5: Features of a rypical
( Co romanrlel, N ew Zealarul) stamper
battery showing the three main
proc cesses: p r imary cr ushing, Jine
grinding, and cyanide treatment
(M oore arul'Ritchie I 996 : 34 ).
cmillde tailkt
sCtlOnS
rlled.
:lting)a
r uhich
uring it
en used
like an
filte the
ore by
b1 the
m s of a
and the
l uhic h
usually
Roman
Comish
rines at
0s. The
.lifomia
ueh the
:: 6
:turCs
t'irstreliableevidenceof their useon theAustraliangoldfields
is 1856.The basic designwas established
by 1860 and they
have changedvery little since. Descriptionsof commonly
components
arelistedbelow.
lound stamper-battery
If waterwas readilyavailableit was generallyusedas the
motivepower source.Coal and wood fired boilerswere used
nhere fuel was plentiful or in locationswhere there was
limited water. Some of the larger batterieswere driven by
:lectric motorsanddynamos,e.g.thoseof the PhoenixQuartz
\lining Companyat Bullendale,Otago,and the Waihi Gold
\lining Company's Victoria battery at Waikino. Stamp
:etterieswere by far the most popularmeansof crushingore
.:J cementedalluvial depositsin New Z,eal,and,
eventhough
--:posedly superiormethodshad beendevised.The American
--:nrngauthority,H. A. Rickard,considered
thatThames(and
rr.sibly other)New Zealandmillmenusedthemto crushores
; hich werenot suitedfor batterycrushing.2s
Stamperbatteries
rulls) were popular becausethey were relatively cheap,
.:mple,and durable,easyto transportand repaiqand readily
i: rilable. It soon reached a stage where it was hardly
:3!-essary
to orderone from a foundry;therewereso manyup
:-.r saleor lying abandoned
on miningsites.
- cams:curvedarmsfixed to a poweredshaft(the camshaft)
* hich sequentially
raisethe stampsin a batteryto facilitate
ore-crushing.Once raisedeach stampfree-fallsonto the
orecontainedin themortarbox (seedefinitionbelow).
- dies: replaceable
hammeringsurfacesin the mortarboxes
in a battery(stampmill). Thoseon the Haurakigoldfield
*ere locally manufacturedof cast iron, weighed 80 to
I 16 poundseach,variedin thicknessfrom 3 to 5 inches,
andwhenwom out andreplacedweighed35 to 45 pounds.
For every ton of ore crushedthe weight of the dies was
reduced
by 5.5to 8.5ounces.26
- guides: iron or hardwood cross-membersmounted
betweenthekingpostsin a battery.They enablethe stamper
shafts to move up and down but rigidly control their
horizontalmovement.
- kingposts: vertical wood or pre-caststeel posts which
supportthe stampersin a battery.
- mortar boxes:the largecast iron boxesfitted with heavy
cast iron dies in which five head (usually) of stamps
droppedonto ore or cement(seealluvial section)reducing
it to a pulp which then passedthrough mesh screens
{commonlyat the rate of about7 tons in 24 hours).The
crushedmaterial was then usually subjectedto further
reductionprocessesincluding:amalgamationscreening,
classifying, or further ground (in Berdans or other
machines).In somebatteriesmercurywas placedin the
with freedeold.
baseof the mortarboxesto amalsamate
shoes:the replaceablehammerheadsattachedto the base
of eachstampshaft in a battery.Each shoehas a protusion
which fitted a socket in the end of the shaft. In New
Zealandshoesusually weighed 168 to 215 poundseaeh
and variedin depthfrom 9 to 10 inches.Their weightwas
reducedby 6 to l6 ouncesper ton of ore crushed.
- stamps (or stampers): each battery (stamp mill) was
composedof variousnumbersof stampsusuallyin groups
of five Wr mortar box. Each stamp consists of a shaft
with a stampingshoe attachedto its lower end, and a
tappet positioned at about the midpoint. Large battery
complexessuch as the Mctoria battery at Waikino had
stampswhich weighed 1 250 poundseach.The stamps,
driven by a camshaftso they lifted and fell in a particular
sequence,(1-4-2-5-3 was preferred in New Znaland),
pulverisedthe ore after it had been reducedinitially to
2.5 inch size by crushers.The stampingsurfaces(shoes
and dies)had to be replacedregularly.
- tappets: thimble-shapedcomponentsattachedto the shafts
(shanks)of stampers.
The tappetsweredesignedto engage
the camson thecamshaftwhich in turn lifted eachstamper
in sequence.
stamp sands:essentiallytaiLings,the resultof crushingore in
a battery/stampmill. The fine waste sand fraction of the
original ore after its metal content has been removed.
Frequentlydischargedinto waterwaysin the past,or flushed
downslope from a battery often creating a distinctive site
feature and indicator of the former existence of a battery
upslope. This is the material which was reprocessedin
dredgingplants.
-
sulphide ore: usuallyusedto describelead or copperoresin
which the metalis chemicallycombinedwith sulphur.These
ores were usually difficult to treat and were roastedto oxidise
the sulphurbeforesmelting.
sump: a sink or pit belowa smeltingfumacedesignedto retain
moltenmetal.Also seeminingdefinitionin hardrock section.
tailings: from hard rock mining are the portions of washed,
crushedore (usuallyin a finely groundstateafter processing)
which are consideredtoo impoverishedto treatfurther,and are
discarded(commonly into rivers last century). See stamp
sands.
tanks (leaching vats): an integral componentof cyanidation
technology.Thoseusedwith Casselcyanidationplant usually
had an internal diameter of 20 feet and were initially
constructedon the northem goldfields of 3-inch thick heart
kauri. Later riveted steel tanks becamecommonplace.The
larger sandvats were squareconcreteor steelstructures.
ZJ
[,r
br
nil
q&
nil
ril
Fig. 16: A rube mill, one oJ'
a range of machines usedJbr
grinding ore prior to cyanide
treutment lVictoriu battery site.
Waikirc, North Island, New
Zealanel: N. Ritchie).
n
rbr
f,
d
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ril
ry
f
,il
-rl
IH
r[
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Fig. 17: Afrue vanner (Young1978:140).
q
qt
ilq
*
H
d
N+s'
tap hole: a hole near the baseof a fumace for the controlled
draining of slag.
tapping: the processof removingliquid s/cg from a fumace.
tube mills: mechanically powered rotating cylinders into
which middlepulp wasdischarged
througha hollow shaft(Fig.
16). Each tube mill was partly filled with imported flints
(siliceousconcretions)
which crushedreducedore to lessthan
200 meshsize.If flints were not availablesteelballs or scraD
iron was used.Discardedvestigialflints or roundedpiecesoi
steel are a diagnostic feature around former tube mill sites.
Tube mills are similar in principleto ball mills, but differ in
that their length is much greaterthan their diameter;hence
they generallyhavegreatercapacityand were favouredin the
largermills suchas the Victoriabatteryat Waikino.The tube
mills installedin the Victoria were 18 feet long and 4 feet
9 inches in diameter.They were considereda significant
technological innovation, proving to be by far the most
economicalandefficientmeansof milling theWaihi ores.Rod
mills are similar to tube mills but differ in that the crushins
was achieved by the action of a mass of steel rods (3 oi
4 inchesshorterthanthe lengthof the mill) ratherthanflints or
steelballs.
tuyere: portsfor injectingair into smeltingfumaces,reronsor
boilers.
vanners: ore dressing (concentrating/separating)
machines
incorporatinga wide inclined fabric or rubber belt stretched
24
EI
eil
fit:fl
r
betweentwo rollers (Fig. 17). Crushedore fed onto the belt
was carriedup the incline,againsta currentof flowing water
which washedaway the light waste.The heavyfraction was
carriedover the end of eachbelt and collected.Widely used
initially, they bowed ovt to Wilfley tablesbecauseof the latter's
higher efficiency and ability to separatevarious gradesof
material for further treatments.Archaeologicalevidenceof
vannersis usually in the form of the cast steelends of the
rollersscatteredaboutwithin batterysites.Frue and Triumph
vannerswere the most popularmodelsusedin New Zealand.
To the authors' knowledge,no intact examplesof these
machineshavesurvivedin New 7.e,aland.
vats: largewoodenor concretetanks(usuallyopen-topped)
in
which cyanide or other percolation treatmentswere carried
out.
waterjacket blast furnaces:the standardfurnaceemployed
by the basemetalindustryat the turn of the centurywas a tall
steelstructure,rectangularin section,in which ore, fuel and
fluxes were charged in alternatelayers. Oxygen for the
reactionswas providedby blastsof compressed
air produced
by mechanical blowers. Waterjacket blast fumaces
incorporatedan ingeniousinnovation,viz. an steel jacket
through which water circulated,similar in principle to the
operationof a car radiator,to keep the walls of the fumace at
about 100 degreesCelsiusmuch lower than the l000-plus
degreesCelsius reached in the interior during smelting.
q:
r|rt!
'f
n
n
nM["11
l*{td
$&
hn
rF
nd
.,.:a
Tlllffi
q@
j
lDrl{uli
&l
i:I!il
JiiLIlqll
lnf|fi
rr
u iI[
xnnf
!
-.rr4
iliMa,ntu
d
^:rru
Consequentlywaterjacketfumaceslastedmuch longer than
the olderbrick-linedfurnaceswhich hadto be rebuiltregularly
3s the brickswere actuallyconsumedin the smeltingprocess.
.\fter a few hours of firing, moltens/dg andmattewere tapped
rt the bottomof a fumace.A fumacewith a 50-toncapacity
'*ould require l0 to 15 tons of fuel and fluxes.The output
'* ould be aboutl0 tonsof matteand30 tonsof slag,therestof
rirematerialbeinglost or discharged
asgasor dust\f ilfley tables: shakingtablesinventedby Rittinger in 1844
-:nd developed by Wilfley for use in separating (or
:.,ncentrating)the heavyfractionof pulverisedore from the
.:ehterfraction.The main componentof each machineis a
..:ghtly sloping,often linoleum-covered,
table.Wilfley tables
-.': a reciprocatingactioncreatedby a spring-loaded
retum
*-::h causesheavyparticlese.g.gold,aidedby a steadywater
:-.:'i. to movetowardstheendof thetableeachtime it is jerked
,-.ar^k
by the spring.The materialwas dischargedinto a tub or
::annels(launders)via which it wasconveyedto the next part
:: the plantfor furthertreatmentsuchascyanidisation.
Wilfley
":les were a major advance over vanners becausethey
:::t'le d variousgradesof materialto be separated.
rinc slimes: a black precipitatecontaininggold particles
::"rrred on zinc shavingsin precipitation boxes(zinc boxes),
r ::rtegralpartof the cyanideprocess.Slimeswerewashedin
:t.l iIo dissolvethe zinc), thendried andsmeltedwith fluxes
:: :3.-overthe gold. Zinc slimesusuallyconsistedof 56 per
: : : : bullion.
TER}TSLARGELY ASSOCIATED
\\ ITH COAL MINING
-3:140).
hack balance: massive counterweight, commonly a block of
" .--:::3. used to maintain tension on a cableway, whether
*ct:.ded or in the form of an endless rope running over
ri- ei i on a haulage. When a cableway is demolished or
= :r-ited. the back balance is often left at the original site.
:..a:r. balances are an integral part of cable haulage systems
-s: i..r haulingcoal or ore.
mnlr shovel: large round-mouthed shovel used for loading
: -a tr".ken from a face. The Bradv was the favoured brand in
".:- Zealandmines.
re belt
: \\'ater
xl was
1- used
lalter's
Jes of
nce of
of the
iumph
:aland.
these
rd ) i n
--arried
ploved
s a tall
el and
lr the
lJuced
rnaces
lacket
Io the
ulce at
O-plus
elti n g .
fi&!'rier: a block of coal left unworked in a mine as protection
;::.:.!t tlooding, fire, gas, or other danger; or to maintain
'\entilating districts' within a mine; or to form a
{:;:jt-' '- j-rn between adjacent mines.
IErLr\ se cdps.
lrrrb-house: buildings housing showers and ablution facilities
'-r' :-r.-rs to change, and clean up after coming off their shift.
* -r-r",-lotheswere kept in the bath-house through the week;
:'.i,:: miner's gear being suspended from the roof to dry.
: -:. .i rng examples on the Huntly coalfields have a distinctive
a:.tir3nce. They consist of a central room (with a ridgeline
':-:-..rtor) for changing and clothes storage, with shower
'.a:..:lres in lean-to's on either side. The bath-house at
i .:it'all on the West Coast has a New Zealand Historic
:'=-:i Trust B classification.
h*hire oven: used in coke production. Beehive-shapedcoke
, . i:: \\ ere by far the most common form of coke oven during
:€
:ate nineteenth and early twentieth century. The
: :'r:'-.nction of the ovens involved specialistbrickmaking and
;..:rg skills and the end result is visually interesting.Typically
:i,.i i\ cre built in rows back-to-back.This permitted the use of
: : -rnmon flue, conserved heat and generally added efficiency
rmproved the quality of the coke. The Brunner mine
--:
: --::rpler on the Grey River near Greymouth contains the best
r-:. :r ing examples of beehive coke ovens in New Zealand.
bench: a relatively level underground working floor or surface
:::eild to enablethe minins of a coal seam.
bord: an undergroundmine passageway
made throughsolid
coal by the bord and pillar mining method, usually 2 to
5 metreswide.
bord and pillar mining (room and pillar): a methodof coal
mining wherebya grid systemof roads (bords) is established
leavingpillarsof coal. Most of the pillarscan be minedlater
and the roof allowed to collapse(which in tum often causes
ground subsidence).
The remainingstandingcoal pillars are
called stumps.Evidence of earlier bord and pillar mining is
oftenvisiblein exposedsectionsin open-castmines.
bins: large wooden or steel coal stoftrgestructuresusually
designedfor loading trucks or railway wagons,and usually
incorporatingscreensto grade the coal to desired sizes (see
screens).On the WestCoastbins were usedfor storingcoal for
many weeks because the ever-changing river bars often
delayedthe arrival or departureof colliers (coal ships).
bratticetlrattice cloth: heavy sackingor fire resistantfabric
used in a mine passageto confine the air and force it into
working areas(line canvasor line curtain). Brattice material
was usually storedin a brattice shed or store near a mine
entrance.Also used to excludeventilationto specificareas,
e.g.to controlmineheatingor fires.
breaker props: large wooden props set in a group at a goaf
edge.They are usedto break off the goaffal/ at a given point
and preventthe fall extendingalong the roadway(bor{.
briquette: smallovoid mini-bricksof compressed
fine coal or
semi-cokebound with coal-tar, pitch or bitumen. Despite
much consideration
by coal mining interests,it appearsonly
three briquette plants have ever been establishedin New
Znaland.A briquetting works was establishedat Westportin
1907 to increasethe utilisation of slack coal from the
SeddonvilleColliery but closedin 1912,largely becausethe
pitch used to bind the briquettesmade them prohibitively
expensive(Morgan & Bartrum 1915:45).In the late 1950s
StateCoal Minesinstalleda German-made
briquettingplantat
Ngakawaubut its use was discontinuedbecausethe resultant
briquettesproducedtoo much smokewhen burnt. A briquette
manufacturingand carbonisationplant was establishedby
WaikatoCarbonisationLtd at Rotowaro,Huntly coalfieldin
l93l andcontinuedin operationuntil 1985.The defunctplant
and its interestingtechnologyare still standing.The New
Tnaland,Historic PlacesTrust has recentlydeclaredthe site an
historic conservation area. The plant produced briquettes
which sold on the New Znaland domestic market under the
tradenameCarbonettes(seecarbonisation).
caps (Dars):heavytimbersplacedhorizontallyon top of one
or two vertical timbers Qtrops)to supportthe roof of a tunnel
(seesers).
cars: essentiallymodem versionsof mine skips or trucks.
Small rail-wheeledwagonsdesignedfor carryingcoal, ore or
waste material underground,and to the surface.Once manhauled, they are now usually moved by attachmentto
ropeways,or pulled by small electric shuttle-cars.In the
Waikatocoal minescars referto the vehiclesusedto haulcoal
from faces to conveyorswhich take it to the surface.Skrps
attachedto ropewaysprovide transportto the surfacefor men
and equipment only. Some cars are modified for specific
haulagepurposes,e.g. carting props and caps,or consistof
specilisedequipmentsuch as winches and pumps, cement
mixers,andotherequipmentperrnanently
attachedto bogies.
carbonisation:thedistillationofcoal to producecoke,gasand
liquid by-productssuchas tar and creosote.In 1931Waikato
CarbonisationLtd establisheda carbonisingplant (a Lurgi
Spulgas retort) and auxiliary briquette plant at Rotowaro,
Huntly to providean outlet for largequantitiesof slackcoal
(fine coal) which at that time was being dumpedfor lack of a
market. The carbonisationplant, the first in the Southem
25
hemisphere,and subsequently
the only one in the country,
closeddownin 1985,but it is still standing(referbriqueue).
cavil: the allocation of a working place to a miner; done by
meansof a draw.
cleat parallelcleavageplanesor partingsacrosscoal beds
known as the cleat of the coal, along which the coal breaks
moreeasilythanin the otherdirection.
clipping shed: an integral part of an endlessroad haulage
system.A shedor locationwhereskipsare manuallyclipped
(with individualsteelrope clips)onto a movingendlessrope
so thattheycanbe hauledeitherinto or out of a mine.The men
involvedin this work were calledclippers.Chain clips were
later replacedby grippers.
coal-cutter(mechanised):a machinefor cuttingsolidcoal for
a distanceof up to 3 metresin front of it (dependingon the
stability ofthe roof;. The cutter,attachedto a boom which can
move horizontallyor vertically,may be ball or banel shaped.
coke: the solid residue left after bituminous coal has been
Foundrieswereoneof the mainusen of the product.
carbonised.
coke ovens: ovensdesignedto carbonisecoal and produce
coke.Thereare two main forms: oblong andbeehive.
colliery: an altemativeterm for a coal mine and its associated
structuresand buildings.The term seemsto have lost favour
thesedays.
conveyor:methodfor transporting
coalby meansofa seriesof
endlessbelts(ie a conveyorbelt).Rubberconveyorbeltsareno
longer allowed in New Znaland undergroundmines because
safetyregulationsrequiremodernconveyorbelts to be antistaticand fire resistant.
conventionalmining: a systemwhich is olderthancontinuous
miningandemploysthecyclicaloperations
of cutting,drilling,
shooting,andloading.
continuous mining: mining by meansof mechanicalcoal
cutting machines(many different types and sizes) which
removecoal from a facewith rotatinscutterbladesandload it
into shuttlecars.
creeper/creeperloops: usually sited at the end of rope-road
haulages,creepersare endlesschainswith hookswhich catch
on to the axlesof skipsand pull them arounda loop or to a
point where they can be manuallyclipped on to the main
haulageagain.
cross-cut: (l) opening at an angle to a main working or
opening;(2) a roadwaydrivenbetweentwo parallelroadways
to connectthem.
deputy: person in charge of one section of an underground
mine.
dip (decline):usuallyrefersto the gradientof a coal seam.On
the West Coast it is sometimesused to describethe point
where the main incline intersectsother undersroundmine
roads.27
dog-watch:midnightto 7 a.m.work-shift.
dolly car: controlcar perrnanently
attachedto a drift haulage
rope.The termdolly-caris alsosometimes
usedin referenceto
skips.
drift: an inclinedaccessfrom the surfaceto an underground
coal seam,or from one seam to another.A drift (tunnel)
usuallycontainsa conveyorbelt for haulingcoal,and,/ora carhaulingsystemfor conveyingmen and materialsto and from
the work faces.
downthrow: amount of displacement,measuredvertically,
beiweentheupperandlowerportionsofa coal seamdisplaced
by a downthrowor normalfault.
endlessmpe (rope road): a ropehaulageusingeithergravityor
a drivencee-wheelto impart motion to an endlessrope.Gravity
drivenropesutilisetheweightof loadedstlpsgoingdown-grade
26
to haul empty skips up. Where a hauler winch providesthe
motivepowerempty skipsarehauled'inbye'(inwardsby) the
inboundmotion of the ropewhich runsarounda sheave(pulley)
setbelowtheroad.Full skipsarehauled'outbye'(outwards
by)
the outboundmotion of the rope. A tensiondevice keepsthe
ropetight on the cee-wheel(seereturn whee[).
fans: prior to the advent of poweredfans, mines installed
chimneysor flues(andmaintainedfires)to createa convection
draughtwhich drew air up the chimneyand in consequence
through the mine, e.g. the Blackball mine. From the 1890s
onwards,mine ventilationwas improvedby installingrotary
fansto forceair throughthe workings.Thereweremanytypes.
In New 7r.aland,the Cappelfan predominated
initially.They
were later superseded
by Sirius or Sirocco/ars housedin
concreteor brick structures(seefan-house).
fan-house:a structuresitedat the retum airway portal where
ventilation fans and drive-motors are housed. In some
instances
fan-houses
werebuilt into theportal.
fault: a breakor dislocationin the continuityofa coal seamor
rock strata.Therearemanykindsof fault.
feeder (breaker feeder): equipmentdesignedto aid and
controltheflow ofcoal from onesystemto another,e.g.from a
bin onto a conveyor.Optimum flow is achievedby the
mechanicalbreakingof largelumpsof coal into smallerpieces
andits controlleddischargefrom onesystemto thenext.
firedamp: explosivegases,especiallymethane,releasedfrom
coal onceit hasbeenworked.To reducethe risk of explosions
underground
mineshaveto be continuallyventilatedby means
of hugeextractorfans(see/ans, fan-house).
flame safety lamp (FSL): an enclosed lamp used for
measuring
the presence
of methane,
or blackdamp(a mixtureof
nitrogenandcarbondioxide).Basedon the Davy Safetylamp.
flotation: a wet processfor the separation
of coal from n,aste
rock. Coal particlesare floated to the surfaceby either air
bubblesin a liquid mediumor by chemicalfroth flotation.The
processis not commonly used in New Zealand. It was
employedat the Strongmanmineon theWestCoast.
gantry: a structurewhich carriesa coal conveyorfrom where
it emergesfrom a mine to the top of nearbybins or screensto
facilitate their loading.Gantrysare also used on rope-road
haulagesto maintaina consistent
grade.
goaf (gob): an areaabandoned
and left to collapseusuallyby
removingmostof the remainingpillarsof coal (seestumps).
haulage: portal of a drift tunne| The term is also used to
describea specificendlessrope systemor its alignmentor
route.
hauler: winchesdriven by electricity,water or steamwhich
providethe motivepowerfor endlessropecablewaysor other
forms of 'overland'haulagesystems.Once established'main
haulers'used
in coaland ore miningwereusuallymaintained
on the one site until the mine closed.Smallermore portable
haulerswereusedin minesto haul materialsfrom one levelto
anotheror to themainhauler(s).In theloggingindustry,highly
portable'log haulers'areroutinelyusedto dragfelled treesto
skids(ie loadingsites).
heading:a roadwaydrivenparallelto thedirectionofcleavage
in a coal seam(often at right anglesto bords).Describedas
riseheadingsor dip headingsdependent
on the grade.
hydraulic jacks: used to supportthe roof during longwall
mining. None are presentlyin operationin New Zealand(see
longwaLlmining).
hydraulic stowage:thefilling of workedout sectionsof a coal
seamby pumpingin a slurry of waterand sandor rock. The
water drains away leaving the residue which tends to
consolidate,
thussupportingthe overlyingrock and preventing
collapseof the superincumbent
strata.
r-il
ffi
mrr
,ru
E5
rm
ltu
rd
t
,GI
ir
I
hr
iG
I
:iiw.
.l
n
f,!il
un
il
rh
ifi0 1*
ruu
iG
fl
[r,l|
il
rrfr
jn
:f
qF
llirli4
litEG
riut,
fl
,,uli tr
Ntut
riltr
pr
ilrM
il
u&8u
]m
1m
ilrrfiil
ulirtti.
riil(0f,
JlE ]t
"ll,u t
rusro
1i:..:l|D
1r
.fi@r:
Trf
:r:
i:nr
j"Ti
-
f]Tftjiil
-ir
:Jis the
t,) ) the
pulley)
irds by)
the
-ps
.nstalled
:r\actlon
: I 890s
i rotary
:i tvpes.
y. They
'u s . d in
rvhere
'i
:. some
<am or
rrd and
: tiom a
b1 the
:r pieces
tl
<d from
:los i o n s
i means
.sd for
. rture of
lt \\'aste
i i he r a i r
:,,rn.The
It was
:r where
- ri-ns to
:pe-road
.ur l l y b y
.r'rps).
used to
::Tlentor
n t rh i c h
..r other
:d' ma i n
::ntained
Nrtable
: l e v e lt o
-.. hi g h l y
- UCtr)
tU
-:ib e d a s
-.'ngwall
.:nd (see
li a coal
rk. The
::nds to
-:r enting
hldro-mining: the New Zealanddefinitionof hydro-mining
liffers from that overseas.In New Z.ealandit refers to the use
rf waterchannelsto carrycoal from a faceto an underground
.ump from whereit is conveyedto the surface.It is the sole
Teansof mining at the Bennydalemine in the southWaikato,
'.rhere the coal seamsare blown then sluiced.Overseas,it
::fers to the useof high pressurewaterdeliveredby a monitor
: r cut or sluicecoal from a face.
incline(selfacting):seelig.
jig: a self-actingincline/endless
rope-road,
by which full skrps
::.,-endingthe slopepull up empty ones.Poweris only used
' : brakingpurposes.Also a deviceusedfor removingstone
'- :r coal.
jr -b\': areaoff the main rope-roadwherefull or empty skips
-.-: .:rtionedbeforebeingclippedto therope.
x,lmp-room(cap-room):a room or buildingin which miners'
-.:-.rmps are storedand recharged.Typically personalself-:', r3 apparatus
is storedin the samestructure.
r;rths.heavywoodenboardsplacedalong the roof and walls
:::.iien rvoodenor steelsetsto preventcave-ins.Boardsare
--:: becausethey flex and give early waming of potential
' - : : t: ms.suchas rock heaveor collapse.
f ng\rall mining: a relativelymodemsystemof workingcoal
- .":r.h a panel of coal is extractedon a broadfront or long
'.-: The roof is supported
by hydraulicjacks(shields)which
.:. :.:red forwardas thefaceadvances.
:ule a smalllocomotive(usuallybatteryor electricpowered)
' . - - . : ulr ngc oa ltu b s .
'gtn-pit (open-cast,open-cut):an open excavationcreated
" -.:. .-oal seamsare worked from the surface.Open-pit is
- -: :lrnrmonlyusedin New Znaland,open-caston the West
..:. :nd open-cutin Australia.
:s-it] tchocks):a methodof supportingthe roof of a coal
.;:-' rr stackingpropsor similar largetimbersin horizontal
: -. .:Jh altematingdirection)so that the weightof the roof
-.-.:ned on thepig-sty.Pig-stysareusedat locationssuch
. - ::-:.-tionsand wide openingsin underground
minesto
(if
::3
roof
necessary)
in
considered
the
absence
of
-::,
L:l>.
-
!':
Lr,,ttom: the seam level in a mine shaft or the bottom
.:----:
i Il C tl Ol .
: "rh<ad the area surrounding the top of a coalmine shaft or
The t er m als o enc om pas s est h e a s s o c i a t e d
-.,:-.:rula ge .
-:--.rii\
and buildings such as haulers,screens,workshops,
- -*::_. ,-hlrgingrooms etc.
:.r-'.pr .olid wooden posts used in underground mines (coal
--: -::, in conjunction with laths to prop up the walls and
-:- r: tunnels.The props are cut to length as required. Props
-:: -:,rllr set under a cap or head board.
-:: hole: tslang) small mine where coal was worked without
-:i:,-l lo an1 designedlayout.
itrrres:
that part of a coal resource which can be
: - . - r:lll!'allYmined.
*trurn tair. airway): air or ventilation that has passedthrough
-- -::_::oundworkings and may containgas or dust.
:i:urns. roadways used for the movement of retum air from
.-: r:i3 back to the main fan.
:tturn rlheel (carriage): the large horizontally mounted
- - :: . .rt each end of an endlessrope cableway.Retum wheels
-: :'..^untcdon a caniage which moves to maintain a constant
':-: rr on the cable. The tension is maintained by a back
--..;':-.. a large suspendedcounterweightlocated behind the
-::-:: irheel caniage.
:jb ::me siven to the coal walls of a roadway; the sides of
- , . :illa rs.
ripper: a machinefor extractingcoal (and soft ores)by tearing
the materialfrom a face.
rising main: pipes in shaftor drift for conveyanceof drainage
water to the surface.
rob: to extract more coal from pillars previously left for
support.
rolling seam: a coal seamwhich has been warpedby ground
pressures
to producea seriesof anticlinesand synclinesgiving
it a wave-likeappearance
in section.
room and pillar: a systemof coal miningessentiallythe same
as bord and pillar. A seamofcoal is dividedinto a seriesof
rooms prior to mining and the intervening pillars are left to
supportthe groundabove.
rope-clip:initially a shortlengthof chainwrappedaroundthe
rope and attachedto a skip. They developedinto portablesteel
devicesto attach(clip) skipsto a rope-road.Typicallytheclips
were securedby strikinga locking platewith a hammer.This
actionlockedthejaws of theclip ontotherope.Eachclip hada
steelring which was usedto attacheachskip to the cable.In
some instancesskips were securedby screw-threadedropeclips.
rope-road: seeendlessrope.
rotary drill: a drill which operatesby rotationrather than
percussion.
seal:a permanent
or semi-permanent
closureof a roadway(see
stopping).
section:coal minesare divided into a numberof sectionsor
workingareas.
sets:a completeunit of roof supportconsistingof props,caps
andlaths.
screens:usually incorporatedin (storage)bins. Substantial
wooden or steel structures designed to separatecoal into
varioussize rangesfor differentindustrialand domesticuses
by passingit over a range of mesheson rotary screensor
shakers.Before screeningthe coal is passedover grizzly bars
which take out over-sizedrun-of-mine coal. Coal grades
include s/ccft,domestic,nuts, peas,fines, and slimes.Slack
coal by definitionhasan uppersizelimit and is generallyused
in coal-firedboilers.
seam:a layeror bed of coal.
shaker: a vibratory screen for separatingcoal into various
grades.
shearer: a machine used in longwall mining that uses a
rotating action to shear the material from a coal face as it
traverses
alongit.
Sirocco fan: with the introductionof electricity into mines in
the 1890s,high speedmotors were soon used to drive small
fans for ventilation.During 1898, an Englishman,Samuel
Davidson,patentedthe Siroccofan which featureda seriesof
smallcurvedbladesaroundthe circumference.When tested,the
fan had a capacityfar aheadof any otherfan. The first example
went into use at the PeltonColliery,Durham in 1902.Once
collieries realisedthat Sirocco fans were much more efficient
thanall precedingfan-typesandcost lessto constructand run,
theygainedrapidindustryacceptance
andwerewidely used.
slack coal: prior to aboutWorld War Two slack coal was used
to describefine coal for which therewas little market.Now it
is generallyusedto describecoal with a specificupper size
limit and is widely usedin self-feedingcoal-firedboilers(see
screens).
shaft-mine: a coal mine which is accessedbv shaftsrather
thaninclines.
skip (truck, car, dolly-car): a tub-like wheeledcontainermade
of wood or steelfor conveyingcoal (or ore). Their capacity
variesfrom about 0.5 tons (when used in narow seams)to
10 tonsin fully mechanised
mines(seecars).
27
slope-mine:a coalminewhich is cut at a l0 to l7 degreeangle
into a mountainside.
slurry: the conveyance
ofcoal, ore,or othersolid materialsby
water either via a pipeline or fluming. One of the most
remarkablehistoric hydraulic systemsin New Zealand was
established
in the 1930son theWestCoastof the SouthIsland.
It involvedover3 kilometresof surfaceandsuspended
fluming
to convey coal from Hunter's Coal Mine to coal bins
establishedon an offshoreisland(SealIsland)from whereit
was shipped.In the 1940s 8.5 kilometresof fluming (see
definitionin alluvial mining section)was usedto conveycoal
from the CascadeCreekmine, Dennistonto the railhead.
sooty-back:a zoneof crushedcoal alonga fault or joint plane.
Often proneto collapse.
spider: a spikedcandle-holder,
alsousedin underground
gold
mining.The spikecanbe impaledin minetimbers.
rylint: coal of inferior quality ofrencontainingdirt bandsor
concretions.
Shalesplintsarethe mostcommon.
sprag: a pieceof timberplacedbetweena prop and the rjb to
preventthe rib falling; a woodenor steelspikeplacedin skip
wheelspokesto preventthe axle from tuming and controlthe
rate of descentdown grades.
steel:a drill rod.
stone drive (stone-driving):a drive (driving) throughsolicl
rock to provideaccessto a coal seam.
stone dusting: the sprayingof finely ground limestoneor
other non-combustible
and non-siliceousdust onto coal, to
reducethe possibilityof coal dustexplosions.
stoppings:a structure(temporaryor permanent)built across
an undergroundmine road to control ventilation,to limit the
risk of mine fires through spontaneous
combustion,or the
spreadof poisonousor explosivegases.Stoppingsalsoprevent
unauthorised
accessto old undergroundworkingsfor safety
reasons.
stowing:backfillinga goafto preventsubsidence.
stripping: processof removingcoal, often used to describe
bulk removalas in open-castoperations;
alsousedto describe
the removalof overburden.
stumps: seebord and piLLarmining.
subsidence: the deformation of superincumbentstrata or
surroundingground (usually evidenced by dropping or
slumping)asa resultof theremovalof a coalseam(or orevein).
sump: a water reservoirin a coal seam;or the bottom few
metresof a shaft('well') wheregroundwateraccumulates
and
from whereit is pumpedto thesurface.
swing-shift: sometimesused to describe the rotation of
working shifts for different periodsof time, but commonly
usedto describethe6 p.m.to midnightshift in coal mines.
tamping rod: a woodenrod usedfor tampingshotholes.
tippler (tumbler): a rotating frame used for automatically
dischargingcoal (or otherores)from skrpsor railway wagons.
A tippler is usuallymountedover a hopperor a conveyorto
enablethe coalor oreto be loadedinto bunkersor ontoanother
meansof transporte.g.rail wagonsor roadtransport.
tramming (trucking): pushingfull or empty skips by hand;
moving mobile machinesunder their own power is also
describedas tramming.
underviewer: mine manager'schief assistant,in chargeof
underground
work.
upcast: a shaft or other mine openingthroughwhich air is
ventedto the surface,afterventilatingmineworkings.
ventilationchimneys:tall (20 metreplus)chimneysbuilt over
air shafts.By meansof a furnacein the baseof the chimneya
draughtwas createdwhich suckedfoul air up from the mine
workingsbelow.The needfor tall ventilationchimneyswas
28
superseded
by the adventof hugeelectricfans(seefan-house).
The impressiveround or squarechimneyswere usuallymade
of bricks.Two of the bestsurvivingexamplesin New ZealanrJ,,
relicsof the Blackballmine,arelocatednearBlackballon the
West Coast of the South Island. Another fine example,
althoughthreateningto collapse,still standson the Tynside
mine sitebesidethe Grey River nearGreymouth.
wedge:a wedge-shaped
pieceof timberto tightenpropsin place;
steelwedgesarealsousedfor anchoringslot androof bolts.
wongawilli: a system of undergroundmining devisedat the
Wongawillimine,southof Wollongongin the Illawaradistrict,
New SouthWales,latelastcentury.It differsfrom the traditional
bord and pillar melhod in that areas of coal are mined by
working in tunnels excavatedin a herringbonepattern.The
herringbonetunnelsare driven off bords.The methodenablesa
higher extractionrate than traditionalbord & pil/ar mining. As
the coal is workedout the roof is allowedto fall which usually
resultsin surfacesubsidence.
The methodis cunently being
usedat theHuntlyEastmineat Waikato,New Zealand.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to John Gumbley, Department of Conservation,
Hamilton (formerly Coalcorp geologist, Huntly) and Harry
Bell (Coal Mines Inspector, Hamilton) for information about
the definition and usage of many of the coal mining terms; Jim
Staton (Conservation Officer, Department of Conservation,
Hokitika), Phil Moore (geologist, Waihi Beach), Dr Rod
Clough (Heritage Consultant, Auckland) and Dr peter Bell
(Heritage Consultant, South Australia) for useful suggestions
and amendments which have been incorporated into the final
text. Peter Bell also provided some of the illustrations used.
NOTES
I Henderson
l9l7 l 14.
2 Connelln.d.
3 Drinkwater1982:75.
4 Hooker1983.
5 HeamandHargreaves
1985.
6 B ow i e1905:185.
7 RitchieI 981:64.
8 Bowie 1905:49.
9 Bowie 1905;ICS Reference
Library1908.
I 0 RitchieI 981.
11 R i tchi e1981.
l2 Ritchie198162.
13 Coroneos1993.
l 4 H ooker1982.
l5 see Drew and Connell 1992 and Milner this volume for
furtherdetails.
16 seeWegner1995.
17 E i ssl er1898.
18 Thornton1982:13.
l 9 P .B el l pers.comm.1991.
20 P ark1913.
2l P .B el l pers.comm.1991.
22 Gordon1894:315.
23 R i ckard1898:179.
24 P.Bell pers.comm.1991.
25 Rickard 1898.See Dreadon(1966:13-15)for a detailed
account of battery operation and the processesright
throughto the stageof bankingthe gold.
26 RickardI 898:21
2.
27 J. Statonpers.comm.
I
fi
il
m
rf
m
u
I:
:m
u
M
m
m
i
m
I
ry
l
M
j
,
ru
iI
ilm
I
ii
li,illfl
n
.h{n
!
..*tlli
- 4OUSe).
.y made
Zealand,
.i on the
rample,
Tr nside
:n place;
I at the
district,
"ditional
:m. The
n.rbles
a
:rng.As
: usually
I' being
:n auon,
j Hany
:n about
::ns:Jim
:n atlon,
Dr Rod
':er Bell
g3strons
:he final
,rsed.
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