Nicaragua A country

Appendix 2
Chronology
Central America declares its independence from Spain.
U.S. troops intervene briefly in Nicaragua.
Liberals and Conservatives finally agree to name Managua as the capital.
In the first major U.S. intervention, the U.S. Navy bums down a Nicaraguan town
following an insult to millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt.
In order to secure the rights to a canal for the United States, mercenary William
Walker hires an amiy, invades Nicaragua, and declares himself president.
Walker reestablishes slavery in the country and is subsequently recognized by
Washington.
Walker is overthrown and constitutional rule reestablished.
Under the Treaty of Managua, part of the Atlantic coast is declared a reserve
under British protection, although Nicaraguan sovereignty over the region is
recognized.
Nationalist Jose Santos Zelaya comes to power.
U.S. troops intervene four times in the next five years.
The Atlantic coast is "reincorporated" and the British pull out.
The British relinquish all claims to the Mosquito coast in the
Harrison-Altamirano Treaty, granting certain protections to Miskito and
Creole populations.
U.S. troops intervene.
United States places Nicaragua under customs receivership, controlling the
country's revenues for the next 38 years.
U.S. Marines begin 20 years of repeated occupation of Nicaragua.
Bryan-Chamorro Treaty confirms status as U.S. protectorate.
Conservative Emiliano Chamorro elected president.
U.S. Marines land and occupy the country almost continuously until 1933,
mounting what would become Central America's first counterinsurgency war
against a peasant army, led by Augusto C. Sandino, the "General of Free Men."
On June 16, U.S. planes launched the first aerial bombardment of a civilian
population in history as part of effort to defeat Sandino and his supporters.
More than 300 residents of Ocotal lose their lives.
Liberal Juan Bautista Sacasa elected president.
After failing to defeat Sandino's guerrilla amiy, the Marines withdraw, having
established the .Nicaraguan National Guard with Anastasio Somoza Garcia as
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Sandino is murdered.
Sacasa removed by Somoza's forces; presidential election won by Somoza.
Somoza reelected; new constitution promulgated.
Somoza assassinated; National Assembly selects his son Luis to complete the
t e r m i n o f fi c e .
Luis Somoza elected president.
Carlos Fonseca, Tomas Borge, and Silvio Mayorga form the FSLN.
Somoza associate Rene Schick elected president.
With the National Guard as the centerpiece, the United States sponsors the
formation of CONDECA to coordinate Central American military action
against "internal subversion."
Luis Somoza dies; his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle elected president.
Congress dissolves itself, abrogates the constitution, and transfers executive
power to President Somoza pending new constitution.
Earthquake devastates Managua; Somoza named chairman of National
Emergency Committee and declares martial law.
Somoza reelected.
FSLN raid in Managua.
Martial law lifted.
Formation of Group of 12 (Los Doce), prominent Nicaraguan political figures
and intellectuals opposed to the regime.
Major FSLN offensive.
Pedro Joaqum Chamorro, editor of La Prensa and leading opposition figure, is
assassinated.
National Guard sent in to break national strike.
Formation of the Nicaraguan Democratic Movement (MDN).
Formation of the Broad Opposition Front (FAQ).
FSLN commandos seize National Palace.
FSLN-led insurrection takes Masaya, Leon, Chinandega, and Estelf for several
days.
Formation of the National Patriotic Front (FPN).
FSLN units take Leon and Matagalpa, and begin march on Managua.
The FSLN triumphantly enters Managua and installs a revolutionary government.
Revolutionary government launches massive National Literacy Crusade which
reduces illiteracy from more than 50 percent to 13 percent in five months.
Inauguration of the Council of State.
U.S. Congress approves $75 million economic-aid package for Nicaragua.
Health care campaigns reduce infant mortality rate 40 percent in relation to
pre-revolutionaiy figures.
Promulgation of the Agrarian Reform Law.
United States cuts off $9.8 million in food aid to Nicaragua.
Washington suspends all bilateral aid to Nicaragua, but continues support to
private sector and Catholic church.
CHRONOLOGY
213
Reagan administration authorizes $19 million to destabilize Nicaraguan
government, giving the CIA a green light to organize ex-National Guardsmen
into a counterrevolutionary army based in Honduras.
In the wake of increasing contra activity on the Atlantic coast, the government
decides to relocate Miskito communities from the Rib Coco further inland at
the Tasba Pri resettlement. Some 10,000 Miskitos flee to Honduras.
Following contra destruction of two bridges in the north, the government
declares a state of emergency.
U.S. Congress approves $5.1 million in economic assistance for the Nicaraguan
private sector.
Standard Fruit violates its agreement to administer banana industiy until 1985
when it announces its immediate withdrawal from Nicaragua, leaving 3500
unemployed.
U.S. Congress approves $24 million in covert aid to the contras.
The Contadora Group, formed by Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama,
declares an avoidance of the outbreak of war between Nicaragua and Honduras
to be the initial focus of its negotiating mission.
More than 5,000 U.S. and Honduran troops take part in the Big Pine military
maneuvers near the Nicaraguan border.
First large-scale invasion of contras from Honduran territory. In the United
Nations Nicaragua denounces U.S. support for the contras; only El Salvador,
Honduras, and the United States vote against the Nicaraguan motion.
Pope John Paul II visits Nicaragua.
Washington reduces Nicaragua's sugar import quota by 90 percent.
U.S. Treasury Department announces official policy of opposing all multilateral
loans to Nicaragua.
Patriotic Military Service (draft) instituted.
The contras launch their "Black September" offensive, including sea- and
air-based attacks against petroleum installations and key economic
infrastructure, and ground attacks against the principal entry points on the
country's northern and southern borders.
CONDECA is reestablished with the ex-plicit goal of pressuring Nicaragua, and
the FDN immediately solicits CONDECA's support in its contra war.
Contra offensive deepens with heavy fighting in the north and south, eight aerial
attacks, and sabotage actions against the ports of Corinto and Sandino.
Government implements an amnesty program for contras who lay down their
CIA and Navy units assist the contras in the mining of Nicaraguan harbors in
gross violation of international law. Seven ships are damaged by the mines.
Diverse sectors of the international community condemn the U.S. mining of
Nicaraguan ports.
More than 35,000 U.S. troops surround Nicaragua as the Pentagon
simultaneously stages maneuvers off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in
Honduras.
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May The International Court of Justice orders the United States to suspend support
for the contras and the mining of Nicaraguan ports.
Sep. Two members of Civilian Military Assistance, a rightwing U.S. group aiding the
contras, are shot down in a helicopter flying over Nicaragua.
Nicaragua agrees to proposed Contadora Peace Plan; Reagan administration asks
Honduras, El Salvador, and Costa Rica to demand changes in the plan.
Nov. Nicaragua holds first free elections in history. The FSLN's candidate Daniel
Ortega is elected to a six-year presidential term with 67 percent of the vote
against six opposition parties. Reagan denounces the elections as a sham.
1985
Feb. Economic stabilization package implemented.
May White House declares trade e.mbargo against Nicaragua.
June U.S. Congress approves $27 million in "humanitarian" aid to the contras.
1986
June $100 million contra aid package approved by U.S. Congress.
Oct. U.S. mercenary Eugene Hasenfus shot down and captured during a contra
resupply mission.
N o v. I r a n - C o n t r a s c a n d a l b r e a k s i n Wa s h i n g t o n .
1987
Jan. New constitution signed.
Aug. Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua sign
the Esquipulas II Peace Accords.
Nicaragua becomes the first signatory to the Esquipulas accords to form a
National Reconciliation Commission.
Sep. National Assembly approves the Autonomy Statute for the Atlantic region.
La Prensa is allowed to resume publication after a one-year suspension; the
church hierarchy's Radio Catolica is permitted to resume broadcasting. The
government announces an end to all prior censorship of the media.
President Ortega announces a unilateral suspension of offensive military
operations for the month of October to cover three zones totaling 1,450 square
kilometers.
Nov. Following several meetings with House Speaker Jim Wright, President Ortega
announces a new 11-point proposal for achieving a cease-fire, disarmament,
amnesty, and the integration of the contras into civilian life. Nicaragua also
agrees to name Cardinal Obando y Bravo as mediator between the government
and the contras.
Nicaragua releases 985 political prisoners, 200 of whom are ex-National
Guardsmen.
Dec. The first in a series of indirect meetings is held between the contras and the
Nicaraguan government in Santo Domingo under the mediation of Obando.
Among other things, the contras demand a general amnesty, an end to the
military draft, the creation of new police and military forces, and the
dismantling of "military" cooperatives.
1988
Jan.
Nicaragua announces its willingness to enter into direct talks with the contras and
lifts the five-year state of emergency.
C H R O N O L O G Y
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Economic reform measures decreed, spearheaded by a currency change.
Provisional government-contra cease-fire signed in Sapoa.
After another round of dialogue with the government, the contras break off
peace talks.
Hurricane Joan passes through Nicaragua, leaving an estimated $800 million in
damages.
llie Costa del Sol summit of Central American presidents calls for the
elaboration of a plan to disband the contra army.
Following a pardon granted by the National Assembly, 1,894 e.\-National
Guardsmen are freed from prison.
U.S. Congressional Bipartisan Accord results in the approval of $49.75 million in
non-lethal aid to keep the contras intact.
In compliance with the Costa del Sol accords, Nicaragua's media and electoral
l a w s a r e m o d i fi e d .
President Ortega and representatives from 20 opposition parties sign an accord
further modifying the electoral law and procedures, suspending the draft during
the campaign period, and calling on the Central American presidents to
approve a contra demobilization plan.
The Central American presidents approve a plan to have a United Nations force
oversee contra demobilization, to be completed by December 5th.
National Opposition Union (UNO) selects La Prensa's Violeta Chamorro and
the Independent Liberal Party's (PLI) Virgilio Godoy to lead the opposition
ticket in the 1990 presidential elections.
U.S. Congress appiDves overt aid to support the "election process." In reality the
aid is used to back the UNO campaign.
Following a sharp escalation in contra attacks against civilians, the government
suspends its unilateral cease fire and launches an offensive.
Representatives from the government and contras meet face to face for the first
time in over a year to work out a plan for contra demobilization. After 12 days
of meetings, the talks are suspended.
UNO campaign rally in Masatepe degenerates into riot. An FSLN activist is
killed.
U.S.-based polling firm announces that its latest surveys have increased the
FSLN's probable margin of victory for February's elections. The latest poll
shows Daniel Ortega with 51 percent of respondents' preference and Violeta
Chamorro with 24 percent.
UNO's closing campaign rally draws an estimated 60,000 people, by far the largest
opposition rally since 1979. Three days later an estimated 400,000 attend the
FSLN's closing rally.
UNO's electoral upset gives Violeta Chamorro 54.7 percent of the vote to Daniel
Ortega's 40.8 percent, margins which were closely maintained in races for
legislative seats.
Contra forces transfer en masse from their base camps in Honduras into the
Nicaraguan countryside to avoid demobilization.
Washington formally lifts the five-year trade embargo against Nicaragua.
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FSLN and UNO negotiators sign a Transition Protocol stipulating the basic
conditions for the transfer of power on April 25. The document calls for strict
adherence to the existing legal order and constitution, including respect for the
"structural integrity" of the security forces.
Violeta Chaniorro assumes the presidency and names her cabinet. General
Humberto Ortega remains as head of the Armed Forces.
After several days of talks, contra leader Israel Galeano signs an agreement
promising to begin disarming his troops on May 8 in order to conclude by the
previously agreed upon date of June 10. The accord promises a series of
incentives for the contras, including the establishment of semi-autonomous
"development poles."
A nationwide public-sector strike drags on for five days before ending with a
negotiated accord.
President Chaniorro sends reform proposals to the legislature on the University
Autonomy Law, the Civil Service Law, and the Labor Code, and issues two
decrees calling for the rollback of Sandinista agrarian reform.
Congress approves an aid package for Nicaragua totaling more than over $300
million.
June
Contra demobilization officially ends. 19,613 armed and unarmed contras were
demobilized and became eligible for international and Nicaraguan government
assistance programs.
The army initiates a plan to cut its ranks in half, to 41,000 troops, by the end of the
y e a r.
July
A nationwide general strike, called by the pro-Sandinista National Workers
Federation (FNT) paralyzes the country. The compromise accord signed by
union representatives and the government is systematically violated by the
latter in the following days and weeks.
Sources: Gerald Greenfield and Sheldon Maran, eds.. Labor Organizations in Latin
America (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987); "Chronology of Key Events in the
Atlantic Coast, 1979-89," Envio, April 1989, p. 30; "For the Record: Chronolo^of
Nicaragua's Compliance," Central America Bulletin, June 1988, pp. 8-9; Conflict in
Central America (London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1987), pp.68-70; Tom Barry
and Debra Preusch, The Central America Fact Book (New York: Grove Press, 1986),
pp.312-318.
J
Appendix 3
Abbreviations
Nicaraguan Association of Biologists and Ecologists
A D R A
A I D
A I F L D
A M N L A E
Adventist Development Relief Agency
U.S. Agency for International Development
American Institute for Free Labor Development
A N C
Nicaraguan Women's Association
Conservative National Action
A N D E N
National Educators Association
A N P D H
Nicaraguan Human Rights Association
Area of Peoples Property
Democratic Revolutionary Alliance
A P P
a r d e
A T C
Rural Workers Association
CAUS
Trade Union Action and Unity Confederation
C A V
A n t o n i o Va l d i v i e s o E c u m e n i c a l C e n t e r
C D C
Civilian Defense Committee
C D S
Nicaraguan Democratic Coordinator
CDS
Sandinista Defense Committee
CEFOJ
Youth Training Center
CENIDH
Nicaraguan Human Rights Center
C E PA D
Evangelical Committee for Aid to Development
CEPRODEC
Center for the Promotion of Community Development
CEPS
Center for Health Studies
C G T
General Confederation of Workers
CGT-I
Independent General Confederation of Workers
C I A M
Center for Research and Action for Women's Rights
C I AV
Commission for Support and Verification
C I D C A
Center for Research and Documentation on the Atlantic Coast
C L T
Workers Struggle Committee
C M A
Civilian Material Assistance
CNES
CNPEN
National Council for Higher Education
National Council of Evangelical Pastoi-s of Nicaragua
CNPPDH
National Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Human Right
CONAPRO
National Confederation of Professionals
CORDENIC
Commission for the Reconstruction and Development of Nicaragua