From Movable Type to Moving Type - Evolution in

From Movable Type to Moving Type - Evolution in
technological mediated Typography
Gerhard Bachfischer and Toni Robertson
Interaction Design and Work Practice Laboratory,
Faculty of Information Technology, University of Technology, Sydney
Broadway Campus, Building 10, Level 4, 235-253 Jones Street Ultimo
e-mail: gerhard@it.uts.edu.au and toni@it.uts.edu.au
Abstract. Written texts are more and more consumed in a multitude of different
environments and media: on screens or device displays, at home, in offices or in
public spaces, in quiet, private places or in noisy surroundings; mediated by new
technologies such as mobile phones or personal digital assistants. This paper traces
the development of typography from Gutenberg’s invention of movable type to
today’s dynamic moving texts. It proposes and explores the argument that the
typographic landscape we engage with is experienced rather than read. From the
Crystal Goblet approach in typography to the often playful interactions with type in
new media, a ‘new reader’ emerges, who is at the same time reader in a classic sense
but also viewer of a typographic performance and and finally user or even creator
(see Apple’s ‘LiveType’ for instance) of technological mediated typography.
Introduction
In April 2003, Apple introduced LiveType, a software add-on for generating moving type for
broadcast digital media. The purpose of LiveType was to ease the creation of moving type for
title sequences in Apple’s Final Cut, a non linear editing software package. It is much more
sophisticated than any previously developed piece of software for this market segment. With
LiveType came LiveFonts, the first ever typefaces, with characters that were animated entities
rather than static glyphs. Here movement presents itself as intrinsic feature of a typeface for
the first time. But what are the implications of a development which makes enhanced typographic possibilities available for a semi-professional market?
This paper tries to answer this question by tracing the development of moving type and
deepening our understanding of typographically enhanced texts. Such an understanding is
critical in times where more and more written texts are consumed in a multitude of different
environments and media: on screens or device displays; at home, in offices or in public
spaces; in quiet, private places or in noisy surroundings; mediated by new technologies such
as mobile phones or personal digital assistants. How type works in technologically mediated
environments is integral to designing optimised communication processes with the user.
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From Reading to Viewing Type
Typography has developed since the 15th century when Johannes Gutenberg invented
movable type and opened the possibility of reproducing texts efficiently for the western
culture. The mobility of type refers to the individual letters of varying sizes, which were cast
with a device Gutenberg had invented. These metal letters could be reused and recombined
to infinite arrays of sequences for the reproduction of texts. The implications were manifold,
impressively showcased in Elisabeth Eisenstein’s ‘The Printing Press as an Agent of Change’
[9]. Printed texts were a means for preserving speech - consequently literacy increased as the
reading or deciphering of alphabetic signs was imperative to gaining knowledge.
The treatment of text over the next few centuries amounts into what Beatrice Warde
describes in her essay ‘The Crystal Goblet’ [37] as transparent or invisible typography. She
argues for typography as the pure container for textual content. Legibility is emphasized, the
gap between the reader and the author has to be bridged with the help of effortless reading.
Type setting became the invisible craft. Type is seen as a non-intrusive servant.
Warde’s essay can be seen as reaction to a more experimental approach to typography taking
place at the beginning of the 20th century. Dadaists and Futurists in the 1920s and 1930s later Concrete Poetry during the 1950s and 1960s - freed type from the mechanical grid of
reproduction [5], resulting in floating typographic compositions, figurative use of letters and
fragmented typographic treatment. This development was nurtured by the Bauhaus school
and the proclamation of a New Typography, a typography devoted to the modern age
[29, 36].
Figure 1. Dadaists, Futurists and later Concrete Poetry stressed the visual dimension
of a text in the production of poetic meaning: F. T. Marinetti’s ‘Les Mots en liberté
Futuristes - Lettre d’une jolie femme à un Monsieur Passeiste’, Poem, 1912
In contrast to Beatrice Warde’s view on textual form as invisible interface between reader
and author, this new, expressive form of typography takes up the role of an interpreter of
content. Although still bridging the gap between reader and author, typography now predigests content according to beliefs and tastes of its individual designer, interpreting the
content in a specific, semantically relevant way. Where legibility was key to please the reader
of consecutive texts in the Crystal Goblet approach, the reader in Dada or later in Concrete
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Poetry is viewing a text, engaging with its positioning on the page and the formal relations
constituted within the text and expressed through diversity in typographic treatment (weight,
size, colour, etc...).
The groundwork for literally moving type was laid when cinema started to explore the
possibility of flying titles and expressive, animated type. Although early works of Saul Bass e.g. title sequences for Alfred Hitchcock’s ‘Vertigo’ (1958) or ‘Psycho’ (1961) - were
designed using traditional production methods for cinema (e.g. multiple exposure, cel
animation, etc...) [23] the shift to computational devices broadened the way for moving type,
further nurturing expressive typography. Kyle Cooper with his visually groundbreaking work
for the intro sequence in the film ‘Seven’ (1995) not only made type move in unpredictable
ways, anticipating the tension of this thriller in its title, he also created a trend amongst
visual designers to engage with the expressive possibilities of type in motion. Education in
typography and movement proliferated, showcased and primarily framed in books like
Woolman and Bellantoni’s ‘Moving Type: Designing for Time and Space’ [41].
Figure 2. The animated movie titles of Kyle Cooper revived the view on type as an
expressive means of communication far from typography seen as an invisible art.
The significance of expressive moving type was brought to public attention through the
means of popular culture, primarily television and cinema, music videos and commercials.
The use of moving type fitted the broadcast media. Messages were short; slogans or punchlines for penetration of audiences in new ways, constantly begging for attention. In his essay
‘Entranced by Motion, Seduced by Stillness’ [42] Michael Worthington describes expressive
typography in general as broadcast type, and states that by using moving type in broadcast
media “the story is read to us in a particular voice” [42 p39] - the reader attends to a visual
narrative, he or she becomes a viewer. A story is told and this stresses the relation to oral
history rather than writing [25].
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Typography and Computing
The representation of text has always been a concern of language processing in computer
science, although researchers in the area have primarily focused on a computer mediated
optimisation of the reading process. In the mid 1980’s a technique called Rapid Serial Visual
Presentation (RSVP) was introduced [28, 29], which is very effective in presenting text in
limited spaces and small screens. Movement occurs mainly along the time axis and it leads
to 3-4 fold increases in reading speed, from an average reading speed of 300 to 400 words
per minute up to 2,000 words per minute [1]. One of the prototypes developed using RSVP
and typographic movement is the Speeder Reader. It allows people to navigate a text space
using the driving wheel metaphor [1]. The steering wheel acts as navigational tool to switch
from one lane - one stream of text - to the next. An accelerator pedal controls display speed;
subchapter navigation is mapped onto the gear stick. The user is in control of both spatial
and temporal movement.
Since moving type was increasingly produced and viewed on computational devices, it
seemed a clear progression to shift attention to the additional expressive possibilities of type
in a digital computerised environment. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology began
research in kinetic typography in the mid 1980’s. Muriel Cooper’s Visible Language
Workshop produced prototypes of multi-dimensional information displays incorporating
type. The Information Landscape project made its first appearance in 1994 [33] and created a
stir among the graphic design community. Using a Silicon Graphics workstation, the
presentation was a continuous flight through three dimensional, dynamic data space,
visualising hierarchical, financial and geographic information [33]. This project gave birth to
several investigations into Typographic Space [30, 34], all of which were concerned with
typographic expression in a multidimensional space as well as the expressive possibilities of
movement in those spaces.
John Maeda followed in Cooper’s footsteps, after her death in 1994, with the work done in
his Aesthetics and Computation Group at MIT [33]. Maeda represents a new breed of
technologist with computer science and design/typography educational background. The
computational mastering of motion and the resulting interaction possibilities with users were
design goals for Maeda’s Aesthetics and Computation Group. Not only did he develop his
own prototypes, e.g. Flying Letters or 12 o’clocks both part of his Reactive Books series [20],
he encouraged his students to expand typography as a system into the computational realm.
Active and Interactive Type
When considering the interactive possibilities in a computer mediated text, one form that
immediately springs to mind is hypertext. Hypertext provides a structure for non-linearity in
texts, where in-text links connect a consecutive, linear piece of writing with a conceptually
connected text or image structure somewhere else in the information space of the internet
(e.g. a bibliographic reference, an email address or anything of possible related interest).
Initially conceptualised by Vannevar Bush through his Memex idea [7], hypertext has been
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widely recognised and advocated as the interactive possibility in computer mediated texts [6,
13, 15]. Although important, hypertext is only one text focused interaction possibility within
a digital environment [16]. When the visual display possibilities of screen environments
developed to the point where they could compete with the richness of print, the expressive
and furthermore interactive possibilities of typography itself increased.
Figure 3. Muriel Cooper and Lisa Straussfeld’s ‘Information Landscape’ project
(left) and John Meada’s work ‘12 o’clocks’ (right) represents the transgression from
reading to viewing and finally using text actively in multi-dimensional computer
mediated environments.
When in 1991 Multiple Master fonts were introduced by Adobe Systems [8], the aim was to
‘empower’ the users by giving them control over various parameters of a typeface. This
control was executed via a sliderbar. Users of a font were encouraged to generate their own
version of it on the fly. The slider could be used to manipulate a Multiple Master font within
predefined boundaries, for instance make it slimmer/fatter (weight) or wider/narrower
(width) without distorting the form. No one could anticipate that the Multiple Master
technology was put to use to animate a font. Lucas de Groot, a typographer from the
Netherlands used the Multiple Master font sliders to generate movement with his typeface
‘Move Me MM’ [22] published in Fuse 11 [10], a CD-ROM magazine devoted to
experimental typography. By moving the sliders back and forth de Groot’s font morphed
between character and graphic icon, creating short animations. In a way this unintended use
of a software technology anticipated the enhancement in typographic expression using
movement and interactivity.
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Figure 4. Lucas de Groot’s typeface ‘Move Me MM’ morphed between character and
graphic icon, creating short animations controlled by the user. This interaction between the user and the typeface was not intended by the Multiple Master font technology at all.
At the same time, John Maeda and his Aesthetics and Computation Group followed the path
from the expressive approach of typographic movement to computational kinetic typography,
furthering interaction with type. The development from reader to viewer to user is displayed
in the thesis work of David Small [31], Peter Sungil Cho [8] and Yin Yin Wong [40]. Several
projects developed at MIT during the 1990s make this slightly revised view on enhanced
type on screen graspable.
Referring to claims made earlier in a proposal by MIT [24], David Small worked out a
project called Virtual Shakespeare [31]. In Virtual Shakespeare, Small wanted to address a
question asked in the proposal: Why should text move or change over time at all? At least
five reasons were considered in the paper: “to convey information that itself is changing, to
pace the observer, to save [screen or display] real estate, to amplify and to get attention.” [24,
p12]. Instead of an expressive piece of typographic work, Small wanted to create an
interactive piece. He wanted the user to be able to navigate a large body of text - in this case
the works of William Shakespeare - in a space without confined borders. The sheer amount
of text seemed to emphasise interaction with users and diminish the expressive possibilities
implied. Small created a prototype of truly interactive type [42], where the transition from
reader (attending a consecutive text) to user (navigating a structured typographic space)
takes place. It has to be stressed here, that this typographic space is neither a book space,
where typography acts as the invisible servant, nor film space where one attends an
expressive typographic performance; it is something different, a truly enhanced typographic
space, enriched by the possibility of user interaction.
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Further on in Small’s work, the interaction component of typographic treatment became even
more apparent. In the Stream of Consciousness project, later developed into an art
installation called Interactive Poetic Garden [39], David Small and Tom White combined the
possibilities of computer mediated type with a garden environment including stones, water
and plants.
Figure 5. David Smalls Interactive Poetic Garden: “The computer is used to drive a
video projector, creating the illusion of text floating on the surface of the water as it
flows through the garden. [The user] can control the flow of words, blocking or
stirring them up, causing them to grow and divide into new words that are eventually
pulled into the drain, then pumped back to the head of the stream, only to tumble
down again.” [31, pp74-75]
Seeing people interacting with text, which has been treated typographically to suit the
display circumstances (most importantly evoking ‘floating’ behaviour and being open for
interaction), one can see the potential of enhanced textual display possibilities. David Small
describes the responses of audiences as warm and enthusiastic, emphasising the experiential
dimension of his installation.
“Some people were content to passively watch the words, others would repeatedly
damn up the words into chumps and then release them, and others would attack the
words so that they divided out of control and filled the water with hundreds of words.
Even very young children were able to explore the water and stones and the “lights”
which shone on the water.” [31, p77]
The true beauty of this project lies in the rich and open ended interaction with type in an
unusual form, which goes far beyond the passive reception of expressive typographic
performance. If text in expressive typography is interpreted by the designer, text in an
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interactive environment is interpreted by audiences in new, non-content related ways within
a set of possibilities constructed by the designer.
Another extension of the interactive possibility of text is displayed in Peter Sungil Cho’s
gestural interface to perform Letterspace, a tool for manipulating type within a three
dimensional screen environment [8]. In Letterspace the user can morph individual letters into
different ones or move letters in a three dimensional space, rotate them around or make them
disappear into the background. Again, the gestural interface and the interaction with type
overpowers the content component of the text, but shows the possibility of engagements and
enhancements in experience people will gain from typographic interaction with textual
entities.
Progressing from the interaction with individual letters or words was key for a different
group of researchers and their Active Text project [16, 17]. Active Text follows the tradition of
the 1950s and 1960s Concrete Poets, where the visual appearance of text is seen as
influential in producing meaning from a text. Active Text empowers the user to treat and
interact with the visual appearance of text in dramatic ways, set glyphs, words or paragraphs
in motion, separate them, manipulate size or inflict them with dynamic motion behaviours or
even deconstruct them completely [16, 17].
Experiencing Type
As shown throughout this paper, typography functions in a range of ways, from non-intrusive
invisible servant of content to an active, performing agent of it. Reading, as in deciphering
glyphs is not the only way to derive meaning from texts, because as we have seen the formal
aspects of a typeface (e.g. shape, size, colour, etc...) as well as the combination and placement of it in a given space can create or change literal meaning. Dadaists and Futurists
played freely with formal and spatial aspects of texts. The new formal grammar they introduced constituted a layer on top of the literal, contextual meaning which we have learned to
‘read’ in our western culture. The italian Futurist F. T. Marinetti explaind his work during the
1920s as follows:
“I am against what is known as the harmony of [type]setting. When necessary, we shall
use three or four columns to a page and twenty different type faces. We shall represent
hasty perceptions in italic and express scream in bold type [...] a new, painterly, typographic representation will be born on the printed page.” [32, p47]
In todays typographic landscape three or four columns of text on a page are quite common,
cueing of texts (italic, bold, SMALL CAPS, etc...) to emphasize words or text passages is a
standard means of typographic design. It is also reflected in our daily use of emails and SMS
(Short Messaging Services) to create emphasis or raise one’s (typographic) voice - e.g.
SCREAM. Michael Worthington’s broadcast type [42], where the reader attends to a visual
narrative, is part of our daily textual environment and we have learned to read the visual
qualities in typographically enhanced messages.
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Readers, who have become viewers through the means of expressive typography, now are
presented with movement as an additional quality in texts. This new quality of movement
enhances the expressive, broadcast nature of a message. Typographic design and movement
together reveal the playfulness of visible language in our new media, shown for example in
projects from the Visible Language Workshop or the the Aesthetics and Computation Group
at MIT. Typographic design and movement provoke interaction with type - for the creators of
typographic messages (changing typefaces, styles and spatial arrangements) and for the
readers/viewers who engage with texts in a more physical, playful or interactive way. In both
cases we become users of texts, modern readers who engage with texts in all their literal and
formal aspects.
A Change in Research Focus
During the last century research has focused on reading text in a consecutive linear fashion
and has therefore mainly concerned itself with legibility [4, 12, 19, 26, 35, 38]. When a shift
towards viewing type, not necessarily reading it in a traditional sense, happened with the
introduction of moving type to popular culture, research has scarcely recognised this change.
Although cultural and media studies use the term ‘reading’ to describe the process of making
meaning out of film [23], art [11], photographs [2, 3] or advertising [14], understanding text
as a viewer has never fully been explored.
When we read a consecutive text, immersed in its content, truly living in book space, we are
scarcely aware of the connotative dimension of type, as long as it does not interfere with our
immersive state of reading. Beatrice Warde’s Crystal Goblet approach [37] calls for exactly
that: a non-intrusive textual treatment, typography as a servant for the reader. On the other
extreme, immersion in a typographic performance never happens in book space, it is in fact a
different sort of reading experience - the most drastic example might be an English-speaker’s
engagement with text in China [21]: “[it] is purely associative. His or her cognitive attention
is freed from its capacity to apprehend and register meaning.” Those two examples occupy
opposite sites of the reading spectrum: on one side non-intrusive typography, the invisible art
of designing for legibility; on the other side the experience of typographic form, presented in
different layers of meaning creating expressions (movement as one of them). When finally
the user of a text enters the field, those two sides have to be unified in a holistic approach to
reading, in a view that approaches reading as an embedded phenomenon of life, in all its
different manifestations.
Because of the shift in how we consume texts today, that is described in this paper, it is
suggested here, that technological mediated texts have to be researched using a wider range
of methodologies informed by user centred methods, based on a model of the ‘new reader’.
In order to explore the notion of this ‘new reader’ our future work will be directed towards
observing the effect of enhanced textual display on readers, viewers or users of text. The
possibility to research an immersive environment in a museum context provides a valuable
context for a qualitative study using this new focus on human experience in typographic
space. The project in question is the ‘Bystander Field Prototype’, an immersive ‘feedback’
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environment for exhibiting and dramatically interacting with semiotic, aesthetic and
emotional patterns in archived imagery [18] currently in its final stages of development at the
University of Technology in Sydney. Part of the display environment will be textual
information in several levels (e.g. poetic and narrative), using expressive and kinetic
typography. The effect on the user will feed into further development of immersive
environments that include moving type.
Figure 6. The ’Bystander Field Prototype’ is an opportunity to research the subjective experiential component of text in an immersive environment.
These studies will further increase our understanding of the ‘new reader’ who is on the one
hand engaged with the interpreting of technologically mediated and typographically
enhanced texts in all its manifestations, and on the other hand involved in the production of
these texts as a user of applications such as Apple’s LiveType. Moving Type can be of
advanced semantic relevance when it comes to bridging the gap between technologically
mediated text and this ‘new reader’.
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