What Every Language Teacher Should Know About the Brain and

Transcription

S e p p o Te l l a (Ed.) : From Brawn to Brain: Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education
From Brawn to Brain:
Strong Signals in
Foreign Language Education
Proceedings of the ViKiPeda-2007
Conference in Helsinki,
May 21–22, 2007
Seppo Tella (Ed.)
University of Helsinki
Department of Applied Sciences of Education
Research Report 290
ISBN 978-952-10-3863-1 (nid.)
ISBN 978-952-10-3864-8 (pdf)
ISSN 1236-2867
Yliopistopaino
2008
Research Report 290
Editorial Board:
Jarkko Hautamäki
Juhani Hytönen (Chairperson)
Arto Kallioniemi
Leena Krokfors
Jari Lavonen
Kirsti Lonka
Mikko Ojala
Erkki Pehkonen
Jukka Rantala
Heikki Ruismäki
Sirpa Tani
Seppo Tella
Kari Uusikylä
Mauri Åhlberg
Kari Perenius (Secretary)
Available from:
P.O. Box 9 (Siltavuorenpenger 20 R)
00014 UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI
Phone + 358 9 191 29603
Fax + 358 9 191 29611
http://www.helsinki.fi/behav/kirjasto/palvelut/
julkaisumyynti/index.htm
Research Report 290
ISBN 978-952-10-3863-1 (nid)
ISBN 978-952-10-3864-8 (pdf)
ISSN 1795-2158
Layout: Kari Perenius
Cover layout: Seppo Tella
Cover photo (Sunset in Bhutan): Seppo Tella
Strong Signals in Foreign
Language Education
Helsinki 2008
Research Report 290
Seppo Tella (Ed.)
Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education
Proceedings of the ViKiPeda-2007 Conference
in Helsinki, May 21–22, 2007
Helsinki 2008
ISBN 978-952-10-3863-1 (nid)
ISBN 978-952-10-3864-8 (pdf)
ISSN 1795-2158
Yliopistopaino
2008
From Brawn to Brain: Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education
Preface
This collection of articles is based on the presentations given during the
ViKiPeda-2007 (Foreign Language Education) Conference in Helsinki
on May 21–22, 2007. ViKiPeda-2007 continued a series of conferences
focusing on foreign language education, teaching and research. The
first ViKiPeda Conference was held at the University of Jyväskylä in
1999, very much thanks to the initiative of Professor Viljo Kohonen,
University of Tampere, and Professor Pauli Kaikkonen, University of
Jyväskylä. The second ViKiPeda Conference was held at the University
of Tampere in 2001, the third at the University of Oulu in 2003, and the
fourth at the University of Turku in 2005. In 2009, the ViKiPeda Conference will be organised by the University of Joensuu.
ViKiPeda-2007 represents an important step in this series of conferences. As its predecessors, ViKiPeda-2007 made it possible for some
60 experts on foreign language education, teaching and research to
come together, to exchange ideas of mutual interest, and to network
with colleagues from different universities.
It was a great pleasure to have two international Keynote Speakers
at our conference: Dr Daniel S. Janik from Hawai’i, USA, and Dr Elena
Borzova from Russia.
The ViKiPeda-2007 web page is at http://vikipeda2007.seppotella.
fi. It gives access to the Keynote Speakers’ CVs, the programme and
the abstracts.
I would like to thank the Finnish Ministry of Education for the grant
that made it possible to organise ViKiPeda-2007, to invite two international guests, and to publish these conference proceedings. I would
also like to thank the following sponsors, whose contributions to ViKiPeda-2007 were highly appreciated: CICERO Learning for covering
an important part of the international travel costs, and Finn Lectura,
Otava, Suomen Tietokirjailijat, Tammi and WSOY for special treats
between the lectures. Their book exhibitions were also an important
part of the Conference.
I am very grateful to the Members of the Local Organising Committee, whose work was invaluable when solving different kinds of technical, logistical and scientific problems: Dr Pirjo Harjanne, Dr Raili
Hildén, Dr Esa Penttinen and Dr Leena Vaurio. Professor Annikki
Koskensalo from the University of Turku, the main organiser of the
previous ViKiPeda, gave us important advice based on their own experiences two years earlier, thank you very much indeed, Annikki!
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Seppo Tella (Ed.)
My special thanks go to the authors of the articles published in this
book. This way an exchange of knowledge and expertise can be shared
and fully disseminated. But we must not forget the vivid discussions
during the ViKiPeda-2007, all informal exchanges of ideas and enthusiasm that was so concretely tangible thanks to all participants.
When finalising these proceedings, I had once again a good chance
to lean on Mr Kari Perenius’s expert knowledge of layout. Thank you
Kari!
Professori Juhani Hytönen, Director of the Department of Applied
Sciences of Education, has kindly given us permission to publish the ViKiPeda-2007 Conference Proceedings in the Research Reports series
of the Department of Applied Sciences, University of Helsinki.
Helsinki, March 1, 2008
Seppo Tella
Chair of the Organising Committee
Director, Research Centre for Foreign Language Education (ReFLEct)
Vice Dean, Professor, University of Helsinki
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Table of Contents
Preface
Keynote Speeches
What Every Language Teacher Should Know
About the Brain ..................................................................................1
Daniel S. Janik
Teachers As Change Agents: Critical Thinking Tasks
in a Foreign Language Classroom and Reflections
on Printed Materials .........................................................................29
Elena V. Borzova
**
Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education,
With a View To Future Visions.........................................................55
Pirjo Harjanne & Seppo Tella
Transdifferenz und Transkulturalität:
Neue Konzepte für die Fremdsprachendidaktik? ..........................85
Annikki Koskensalo
On the Significance of the CEFR and ELP in FL Education:
Findings from Recent Research .....................................................99
Viljo Kohonen
Foreign Language Anxiety in Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) Classes and in Traditional
Language Classes ..........................................................................129
Marja-Kaisa Pihko
A Survey of the Ethical Value World of Students
of Foreign Language Teaching .....................................................143
Esa Penttinen
Textsorten in finnischen Lehrbüchern
für den Deutschunterricht .............................................................159
Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann
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Seppo Tella (Ed.)
Landeskunde im Fremdsprachenunterricht –
Landeskundliche Kenntnisse bei Studienanfängern der
universitären Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung.............169
Birgit Kretschmann
Multiple Aspects of Validity Theory in the Service
of an Oral Proficiency Assessment Project .................................189
Raili Hildén
Von der Lehramtsstudentin zur jungen
Fremdsprachenlehrerin .................................................................207
Maria Ruohotie-Lyhty, Tarja Nyman & Pauli Kaikkonen
Newly Qualified Language Teachers:
In Search of Expertise ....................................................................227
Tarja Nyman
Promoting Intercultural Understanding
in Foreign Language Education: Some Examples ......................243
Kaarina Mäkinen
**
List of Peer Reviewers
WHAT EVERY LANGUAGE TEACHER SHOULD KNOW
ABOUT THE BRAIN
DANIEL S. JANIK
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS COLLEGE
HONOLULU, USA
drjanik<at>gmail.com
Abstract
For over 2,000 years, teaching, irrespective of discipline, has been governed by a
myriad of teaching theories and methodologies. Currently there are over 40 major
teaching theories and methodologies just within linguistics and subsequent language
acquisition. Most are ideational in nature, that is, they are based on various fashionable analogies or metaphors (e.g., psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, task-based
learning, chaos theory), and when first examined have seemingly little in common
except for emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency of information acquisition.
This long ideational tradition—sometimes referred to as the Platonic tradition
or, more commonly, the British or American School—is currently being challenged
by what can be referred to loosely as the neurobiological tradition—what I call the
Socratic tradition or New German School. Today, because of rapidly evolving brain
imaging and functional imaging technologies and the veritable explosion of neurobiochemical information underlying this new functional knowledge, many educators are
finding a basic knowledge of the neurobiology of learning essential to understanding
and utilizing the rapidly escalating literature in order to appropriately apply this information in the classroom.
A brief overview of the Socratic tradition and key findings within the New German School are presented, including a summary of what, in the author’s opinion,
constitute the most significant discoveries leading to a single, unified, neurobiological
theory and method of learning.
Keywords: brain; teaching theories; ideational tradition; neurobiological theory; method of learning.
Introduction
In the United States of America (US), educational tradition is strongly
rooted in Platonic idealism which has evolved conceptually within the
Western world in loose progression through Lockean environmentalism, Deweyian democratic-socialism, Binetian intelligence (IQ) determinism, Gardnerian multiple intelligences, Chomskyian universalism,
Prabhuian ‘no best’ universalism, Pinkerian mechanistic-integrative
and, most recently, Gollub-Solomon-Lampertian chaos theory (Putnam,
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Daniel S. Janik
Lampert, & Peterson, 1989; Gollub & Baker, 1996; Gollub & Solomon,
1996; Lorenz, 1996; Lampert, 2001, 2002; Janik, 2005). The US ‘No
Child Left Behind’ effort, considered by many American educators as
the epitome of this tradition, is currently in vogue. A common factor in
this progression appears to this educator to be the regular re-emergence of “fashionable” theories of “teaching” education based primarily
on broad similes, analogies and/or metaphors (Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik, Bills, Saito, Widjaja, & Gleason, 2005a; Janik, Bills, Saito, & Widjaja,
2005b).
Recently, however, increasingly disturbing challenges to this predominate tradition have begun to emerge, illustrated in the US by J.
D. Bransford’s edited report on behalf of the US National Academy of
Sciences on the current status of American education. Entitled How
People Learn, the report decries emphasis on increasingly effective
and efficient acquisition of data and information at the loss of contextual
transferability—what I call knowledge (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000). For Europe and the rest of the world, a similar observation is reflected in C. P. Snow’s classic work, The Two Cultures, noting a general
loss of creative zest with increasing conventional education (1998).
Are we then reaching the pinnacle of 2,000 years of Platonic teaching evolution, or the limits of teaching, as we know it? With over forty
major teaching theories, and hundreds of teaching techniques emerging every year, most having little in common and all at best selectively
applicable, some educators have begun to loosely characterize the
twenty-first century as an era of post-method conditions, looking expectantly to a future era of large-scale reconstructivism (Janik, 2005). Yet,
even accepting such a ’radical’ point-of-view (and most don’t), this is
usually taken to mean that teaching theories, methods and techniques
simply need to be reanimated, or at most, reconstructed into a new,
more comprehensive, effective and efficient teaching theory within the
Platonic tradition.
Interestingly, Platonic education is, at the same time, rapidly emerging into the sociopolitical spotlight such that, like other fashionable social or political efforts, it, too, must now prove itself “profitable.” I have
taken to calling this aspect of the Platonic teaching tradition the “business of education,” a worldwide attempt to marry business, the primary
goal of which is profit, with education, the primary goal of which is generally held to be the uncovering, analyzing, determination, teaching and
perpetuation of truth.
Beneath this complex veneer of logical though admittedly somewhat
paradoxical, evolutionary progression, I believe, lie several fundamen-
What Every Language Teacher Should Know About the Brain
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tal, irritating questions: Why are there so many theories of teaching,
each of limited applicability, and each only sometimes applicable? Why
must knowledge and creative zest be lost with increasing teaching effectiveness and efficiency? Why must education be profitable?
Counterintuitive Hints
Contemporary Platonic teaching theories are based on several usually
unspoken, often unrecognized, but fundamental limiting assumptions.
First, Platonic teaching tradition relies heavily on the assumption
that the principle role of the professional teacher is to impart his or her
enlightened ideas to less enlightened students. But is this true?
Most conventional teaching theories, being Platonic in nature, are,
by design, ideational—based on ideological similes, analogies and
metaphors—and are not necessarily rooted in how learning actually
occurs within a learner’s physical brain. For example, artificial intelligence theory is based on the assumption that ideas are acquired by
humans in a manner analogous to how computers acquire information.
Yet, this fashionable theory clearly lacks credibility from the start: Computers have a surprisingly difficult time extracting meaningful information directly from spoken conversation, an input form that appears central to even the most rudimentary human learning. Furthermore, while
computers do learn by copying (perhaps analogous to human imprinting), they are not particularly good at classical or operantly conditioned
learning, nor has any computer yet unequivocally demonstrated cognitive (deductive-inductive) learning. In addition, the human brain is not
physically constructed like any computer currently in existence except,
perhaps in science fiction, fantasy or imagination. The point I am trying
to make is not exactly how more or less analogous human learning is
to computer learning. The point I wish to make is that at this time in human and machine evolution, ideas can’t be learned directly (we aren’t,
to the best of my knowledge, telepathic yet)—ideas must gain access
to another’s physical brain in a degraded form through the physical
senses. I believe that any teaching or learning theory must address this
key issue.
Yet, this is not the whole problem. Teaching, in the Platonic sense, is
most effective when a learner’s attention is focused or, more accurately,
made to focus on a preselected learning object or prescripted learning event. In fact, this is not just an assumption, but is central to most
conventional teaching methods and techniques. It is, interestingly, also
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Daniel S. Janik
central to many of the problems of conventional teaching, for example,
teacher classroom management and student attention problems (the
latter, often fashionably called collectively attention deficit disorder). Focusing student attention is an essential, but also explicit, prescripted,
directly intrusive act and is therefore, by nature and definition, violational and thereby traumatic in nature. If there is one thing I have learned
as a physician about violational or nonvolitional learning is that results
in effective and efficient acquisition of data that are usually contextually
fixed and thereby, at best, difficult to transfer from the highly focused
learning event to other contexts or situations. Indeed when most efficient and effective, what is actually learned is often tightly associated
with and ultimately interpreted in terms of spurious, peripheral neurosensory associations experienced during the focused learning event
(Janik, 2004, 2005). This form of often eidetic, data-biased, contextually-limited learning (which I call violational, non-volitional or traumatic
learning) permeates—is even pathognomonic of—conventional Platonistic teaching. Even more interesting, however, is that its traumatic
structure is rarely recognized by those employing it (Janik, 2005). How
can this be?
Yet, this is still not the entire problem. Students typically associate
not only peripheral neurosensory data, but also internal feelings that
surface during a nonvolitional learning act. The very nature of the prescripted teaching act is prescripted to make the learner ignore all sensory input except that directly associated with the learning act itself. Effectively controlled, like in a multimillion-dollar advertisement, peripheral learning objects and internal feelings are programmed to be positive.
For teachers without such monetary resources or continuous access
to “Madison Avenue”-style business adverting firms, the central learning object is hastily selected and introduced intrusively—nonvolitionally,
traumatically—by placing it in the learner’s center of focus (Janik, 2004,
2005; Janik et al., 2005a; Janik et al., 2005b).
Such actions usually generate conscious or unconscious anger
and resentment, and in a competitive classroom utilizing traditional
assessment tools such as competitive testing, additional anxiety and
even fear. In such situations, peripheral data and feelings are automatically associated—bundled together with the learning object—such that
students may end up spending considerable energy after the learning
event repressing these uncomfortable, irrelevant and unwanted intrusive associations (Janik 2004, 2005). It is important to note that classroom learning events as I have just described are probably incredibly
more common than most people would estimate (Janik et al., 2005b).
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How many such traumatic learning events are students subjected to
during an hour of class time? A school day? A semester with three to six
classes? An academic year? A learning lifetime?
One of the hallmarks of much of contemporary classroom teaching
appears to be the acquisition of exponentially escalating numbers of
such peripheral triggers. If there exists any physical analogy here, it
would be perhaps to autohypnotic learning, wherein a “good” student
nonvolitionally creates within him or herself an altered state of consciousness that allows directed learning to progress—effectively, efficiently, with least conscious effort—and in the process obtains much
more in the form of unwanted baggage than he or she bargained for
(Janik, 2005; Janik et al., 2005b).
Unfortunately, we also know from psychology that in such situations,
the exponentially increasing number of triggers, and effort necessary to
repress them, often precedes to neurotic depression—at proportional
expense to the student’s curiosity. Even more interesting, these same
processes appear to affect both learner and teacher, and to be selfreinforcing (Janik, 2005; Janik et al., 2005a; Janik et al., 2005b).
There is hope, even in as dismal a situation as this, however. Humanistic psychology techniques used to help people recover from the
psychological effects of trauma have been shown capable of transforming fixed, eidetic, traumatic memories and their myriad peripheral triggers into more plastic information, symbols and knowledge (transferable experience) and wisdom (ability to appropriately apply transferable
experiences into a new context at the right time). In addition, humanistic
psychology techniques can also dampen and in many instances eliminate unwanted triggers, diminishing the need for repression, lifting depression, re-engaging and re-animating learners, and thereby re-inspiring curiosity and discovery. The crux of humanistic psychology therapy
is wonderfully expressed within founder Carl Roger’s nineteen propositions, the sum of which is to stop trying to repress or forget what was
acquired peripherally during traumatic learning, and to instead broaden
the meaning (contextual applicability) of what was learned, transforming traumatic central and peripheral data into cognitively useful information, knowledge and wisdom (Rogers, 1951). The very fact that there
exists a way to transform traumatic learning suggests that there must
exist a second, substantively different learning pathway.
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Daniel S. Janik
The Big Leap
All of the above suggest that there must exist a second effective learning pathway that uses and, when engaged appropriately, enhances
curiosity, creativity, knowledge and wisdom. This second learning pathway may, but does not have to be entirely separate from the traumatic
learning pathway. For example, I like to think that what we think of as
cognitive learning is a combination of conscious, self- or externally-directed, explicit deductions that, when resulting in a memory-observation paradox, lead to unconscious, internally-directed, implicit induction
of new ideas. Such an alternative learning pathway would represent
a marriage of the two pathways rather than a second of two mutuallyexclusive, dichotomous, oppositional learning pathways. The second
learning pathway, in this sense, may actually represent another facet,
stage, step or process in effective learning that is suspended or dampened during conventional classroom teaching and learning.
One of the first arguments educators often present against second
(or multiple) learning pathways is that there quite simply exists no physically-based tradition for volitional, curiosity-based, contextually-transferable learning. It is my opinion, however, that this is not so.
Socratic realism, sometimes referred to as the phenomenological or
neurobiological tradition or New German School, has quietly co-evolved
within the educational world. Beginning with Hippocrates’ understanding of the learned effects of physical trauma, it has progressed though
Rousseauian Naturalism; Broca, Wernicke, Kussmaul, Jackson and
other physician-linguists’ attempts at understanding how the brain actually works when learning language; Freud’s observations of the effects
of traumatic learning; Gopnik and Meltzoff’s explorations of perinatal
learning; Otto Rank’s identification of birth as the sentinel traumatic
learning event; Pavlov, Lorenz, Skinner and Tolman’s experiments on
the processes of first and subsequent data acquisition as well as learning modification; Montessori’s work on stage-appropriate, individualized
learning; Lenneberg’s hypothesis of distinctly different, physically-derived learning periods; Sylwester’s concepts of brain-based education;
Deacon’s interpretation of the evolution of learning; and Schumann’s
work on the neurophysiology of learning (Janik, 2004, 2005).
The common factor in this progression is reliance on how the human
brain actually acquires, interprets, stores, recalls and acts in a physical
sense in response to learning opportunities or events (Janik, 2005).
Progress in this tradition is closely linked to progress in understanding
the anatomy, physiology and electrobiochemistry of the brain, nerves
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and neurons in light of rapidly emerging medical imaging information,
the language of which is quite foreign to educators trained in the Platonic tradition.
What is particularly important is that this “new” phenomenologicallybased, neurobiologically-grounded tradition can explain both nonvolitional and volitional learning pathways while creating a rich, hypothetical framework from which to test and progress even newer emerging
physical explanations of causality and mechanism (Janik 2004). Most
importantly, this tradition is brings educators face-to-face with such traditionally inaccessible issues as, for example, the important roles of
personality, society, politics and spirituality in learning (Janik, 2005;
Janik et al., 2005a).
The Neurobiological Bases of Socratic Realism:
Seven Instead of Five Senses
The neurobiology of learning clearly requires that everything that gains
access to the brain, must do so through sense organs. By sense organs
I mean groups of cells capable of sensing energy and converting it
into neural impulses. Classically, there are five well-described senses,
each of varying sensitivity to specific frequencies (or wavelengths) of
energy.
In terms of sensing distance from the brain, these are vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch, the latter including coarse (shape, solidity) and fine (textural) touch, temperature, pain, vibration and external
tactile location. In each case, energy is transduced and directed in
the form of a neural impulse to a specific sensory area dedicated to
that sense within the brain, surrounded by specific sensory association areas where the sensation is associated with other sensations. It
quickly became apparent to our group, however, that the five classical
senses were insufficient to account for the specific object-data necessary for human learning. We have, in fact, had to postulate at least two
additional senses: bodily kinesthesia, sometimes referred to as body
(combined skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle) memory, and a sense
of internal time consciousness necessary for perception of change
(Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik et al., 2005a). The former, in fact, have welldescribed neurosensory transducers called Golgi and stretch receptors
located in muscles and tendons throughout the body; the latter neurosensory transducers are more complex and elusive, probably involving
some combination of a twenty-six hour “biological reference clock,” that
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Daniel S. Janik
is constantly being readjusted via two central neurosensory transducers of visual light and dark located in the front base of the cerebrum
just above the optic nerves, and another in the pineal gland at the back
base of the midbrain (Stoleru, Peng, Agosto, & Rosbash, 2004). In addition, there exist peripheral receptors for light, heat and/or chemicals
scattered widely throughout the body that can modulate these central
clocks. (Barrio, Zhang, & Mani, 1997; Peng, Stoleru, Levine, Hall, &
Rosbash, 2003; Tsuchiya, Minami, Kadotani, & Nishida, 2005; Rosato,
Tauber, & Kyriacou, 2006). Given the existence of these seven primary
neurosensory inputs, it is possible to explain the neurobiological process of learning as currently understood (Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik et
al., 2005a).
Eight Steps, Phases, Levels or Stages
Neurobiological studies further suggest that learning occurs within a
hierarchical and heuristic framework roughly akin to the following (from
“lowest” to “highest” semantic power or value): 1) neurosensory “pieces” of transduced object-data; 2) perceptual associations with other
object-data and feelings that reform object-data; 3) further association
of object-data to form informational icons; 4) further association of informational icons to form symbols; 5) interpretation of symbols in terms of
self; 6) interpretation of self in terms of one’s social framework; 7) further interpretation of socially-meaningful information complexes within
a holistic view of humanity; and 8) further interpretation within a ‘greater
than self,’ spiritual framework. In more concrete terms, this framework
corresponds roughly to our multiplexed system of learning arcs—spinal, autonomic, hypothalamic—and layers of and within various learning “centers”—ganglia (e.g., autonomic ganglia), nuclei (areas of neural
tissue with large numbers of nerve cell bodies and interconnections),
the midbrain complex, the cerebellum (the “second” brain) and the cerebrum (the first, largest or main brain).
The first three steps, phases, levels or stages of learning deal psychologically with sensation, association and perception. These levels of
have been shown to occur within unconscious spinal, autonomic and
midbrain reflex learning arcs as well as semiconscious midbrain and
cerebellar, and conscious cerebral learning areas. Pioneering neurobiological studies on vision indicate that there are functional neuroanatomical correlates to these steps, phases, levels or stages of learning
(Hubel & Wiesel, 1977; Hubel, 1982). Neurosensory information when
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associated with emotions and feelings at the third step, phase, level or
stage can be loosely considered to correlate with the concept of psychological “states.”
Symbolic learning is an as yet poorly understood step, phase, level
or state of learning, the result of which is the formation of a consciously
recognizable, manipulative representation of the neurosensory information, emotion and feelings surrounding an object or concept. The
importance of symbolic learning cannot be overemphasized; the result
of learning at this step, phase, level or stage is moveability in (terms
of physical location and limited context) of the symbol from one area
of the brain to another (Deacon, 1998). Such memories are noticeable
as constellations of neural activity on medical imaging scans, and have
prompted some neurobiologists to posit a “mirror neuron” model of
learning, based on the brain’s innate propensity to compare new neurosensory symbols with existing memory symbols, releasing them back to
unconsciousness when they are the highly similar, and holding them in
consciousness if dissimilar in order to decide whether to address or, at
least for the moment, ignore the apparent symbol paradox (Rizzolatti,
Fadiga, Gallese & Fogassi, 1996, Schumann, 2004; Ramachandran,
n.d.).
It appears that it is at the step, phase, level or state of learning
where one re-interprets symbols in terms of their meaning to one’s personal life that learning becomes semi- or fully conscious. Personality
(the tendency or propensity of an individual to invoke certain specific,
recognizably-defined behaviors in a given situation), traits, and ego all
speak indirectly to this step, phase, level or state of learning. While
much of what is described here is associated with both intact hypothalamic (subconscious) and prefrontal (semiconscious) activity, it is apparent that at this level, there is a need for interaction of the various
areas of the brain in a “web” or “network” in order to preserve intact,
personally-interpreted memories and information (see Merker, 2007).
It is my opinion that personality, like Freud’s id, ego and superego, is
not grounded in a localized area of the brain, but is, in fact, a statistical
(ideational) behavioral concept.
I like to combine the social, humanistic (world, political, world-viewpoint or ‘Weltanschauung’) and spiritual steps, phases, levels or states
of learning together under the general rubric of metacognitive learning,
since they separately and together represent another level of richness
of meaning above the personal step, phase, level or stage (Kessler,
2000; Montessori, 1966; Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik et al., 2005a). From
medical imaging studies, the ability to recall them into the frontal (mir-
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Daniel S. Janik
ror neuron area) lobes of the cerebrum appears to be a necessary but
not sufficient requirement. Some philosophers and scientists postulate
an additional, supercognitive step, phase, level or state accessible with
difficulty by some, that represents a next evolutionary step in learning. It
seems likely to me that the ultimate design and function of “consciousness” is neither fully developed nor apparent yet, another important
consideration for contemporary and future educators (Gardner, 1962;
Steiner, 1994; Janik, 2005).
Association of Object-Data with Feelings: The Limbic
System
Deep within the sub-cortical area of human cerebri, there exist a number
of nuclei and neural connections collectively called the limbic system.
Anatomically, the limbic system consists of bilateral amygdalae, hippocampi (and their cortical gyri), cingulate gyri, fornixes, thalami, and
a single, common area called the hypothalamus. The limbic system is
generally recognized as the emotional “feeling” area of the brain (Sylwester, 1995, 2004, 2007). I find it helpful at this point to make a distinction between emotions (neural responses to chemicals released into
an area of the body or the bloodstream) and feelings (bodily responses
to these emotive chemicals and their neural responses). This distinction suggests that associations between emotions and object-data, and
feelings and object-data, as well as between emotions, feelings and
object-data may occur somewhat differently, which I believe to be the
case.
This limbic system has prefrontal, thalamic and putamic connections
that can affect and even alter memories, sensations and behaviors
respectively. The limbic system can be said to have two key sensory
subsystems: 1) the amygdalic-hippocampal subsystem, which appears
to associate emotions and feelings, especially traumatic (serotoninbiased/sympathetic nervous system mediated) ones, with other neurosensory data, and the 2) hypothalamic-hippocampal subsystem, which
appears to associate emotions and feelings, especially curiosity-based,
discovery-driven (DOPAmine-biased/parasympathetic mediated) ones,
with neurosensory data and information.
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Figure 1. Limbic and Hypothalamic Systems.
In the former case, when accompanied by widespread adrenaline (also
known as epinephrine, the “fight or flight” hormone) release, information rapidly passes from the hippocampus to the cingulate area and into
long-term, fixed, eidetic, “crystalline” memory usually with few if any
metacognitive elements. In the latter case, when high levels of systemic
adrenaline are not present, information appears to be directed to the
prefrontal and thereby frontal (mirror neuron) areas. In the frontal or
motor association areas, when a memory-experience paradox results
and one elects to continue to utilize the curiosity/discovery learning
pathway, the resolution of the paradox that “pops up” moves into longterm, malleable, richly meaningful, plastic memory with global cerebral
involvement (Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik et al., 2005a). The existence of
these two apparently dichotomous learning systems, whose general
pathways I have called traumatic and transformative, is, as can be easily guessed from the above, of crucial importance to educators.
Sensory Memory “Gateway” (Perceptual Learning
Threshold): The Thalamus
Deep within the human cerebrum, to either side of this limbic system,
and to some extent located within its encircling structures, lies the tha-
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Daniel S. Janik
lamus, the sensory memory ‘gateway’ or primary learning threshold.
This gateway or threshold receives short-term sensory-associated input from most sensory systems (except smell) and limbic system. Its
action has been likened to a gate that requires a certain amount of
electrical activity or energy in order to open and allow memories to be
consciously perceived. When open, this gate passes on linked neurosensory data, information and associations to various sensory areas
within the cerebral cortex. High levels of circulating adrenaline seems
to raise this perceptual threshold, causing perceptive “numbing” and
severely limiting metacognition (Janik, 2004, 2005).
The conscious motor (movement/activity) system has a similar gateway, in this case generally called the putamen, that decides whether a
thought of movement is actually translated into action (Janik, 2004).
Both of these are of major relevance to education and learning.
Long Term Cerebral Memory Storage and Retrieval
Take six sheets of heavy construction paper and feel their combined
thickness between your fingers: This is roughly the thickness of the cerebral (“large brain”) cortex (outer surface) where “conscious” memories
are stored. The cerebral cortex stores longer term sensory memories
in statistically-definable areas, though specific areas can vary widely
in location from person to person. These long-term cerebral cortical
sensory storage areas include areas for smell, taste and touch (parietal
sensory strip), hearing (superior temporal lobe) and vision (posterior
occipital lobe). Interestingly, these “memories” are often of primary perceived sensations more like a flash of blue light, or a tingle in the left
finger than a memory complete with rich semantic and metacognitive
meaning (Sylwester, 1995, 2004; Janik, 2004, 2005).
Surrounding the primary sensory areas is a narrow hemisphere of
tissue where sensory associations are stored. Such “declarative” information, as a web of conscious associations of object-data are often
called, can be recalled from the various association areas into the frontal areas allowing one to mentally recall an object and even rehearse
the process of a sensation or procedure, as if one were actually experiencing or doing the object or event respectively. The prefrontal lobes
can also compare stored “declarative” motor information with sensory
experiences as they are actually occurring—the putative “mirror neuron system” central to curiosity-based, discovery-driven, transforma-
13
tive learning (Rizzollati et al., 1996; Schumann, 2004; Janik, 2005; Ramachandran, n.d.).
Such memories are not complete, however, without associated emotions, kinesthesias (feelings) and changes-over-time (time consciousness). The first of these, emotion, is closely related to the amygdalae
and frontal areas of the brain; the second, to the thalami, parietal sensory and frontal motor association areas, and the third to the cerebellar
(smaller or second brain) cortex (Janik, 2004, 2005). The “timing” portion of time-dependent memories (e.g., order, rate of change, repetition), often called “procedural” memory, appears largely stored within
the cerebellar cortex and is less well studied and understood (Schumann, 2004). Declarative, emotive, kinesthetic and emotive components of any one particular memory appear to be stored throughout the
cerebral and cerebellar cortices as indicated above; recalled memories
replete with rich semantic meaning appear to excite many areas of the
cortices.
Figure 2. Major Learning Systems and Association Areas.
Some memories, like traumatically-linked memories, appear to be less
accessible to the conscious, frontal, mirror neuron system. There is
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Daniel S. Janik
considerable speculation as to why traumatically-learned memories
are often so inaccessible, fragmentary, untransferable and yet eidetic;
it is my opinion that traumatically-learned memories are stored in the
“lower,” less “conscious” brain areas such as the hypothalamus, cerebellum, brainstem, autonomic (sympathetic “flight or fight”) ganglia and
spinal cord.
Together, these various “brains” establish a wide network of different
memory elements that can be consciously recalled within the frontal
lobes when cognitive learning takes place. Each “brain” is constantly
learning and can be “taught,” but when addressed globally and as a
whole, learning appears to be the richest (Janik, 2005).
Neuromodulation
Learning can occur not only in a variety of formats (above), but also in
a variety of states. The concept of learning states, however, is fraught
with semantic traps. For this reason, I should like to impost a more
rigorous definition of learning states to reflect neural electrochemically
(shortest–quickest), synaptic chemicoelectrically (slightly longer–slower), neurosecretory (longer–slower) and hormonally (longest–slowest)
regulated neuromodulatory states. These might roughly correspond
to 1 to 10 millisecond, 100 to 300 millisecond, 1 to 60 second and 1
to 30 minute periods of respective neuromodulation. These learning
states exist within a broader context of learning networks including, in
order of complexity and from unconscious to conscious: spinal reflexive, autonomic reflexive, limbic/hypothalamic, cerebellar and cerebral
networks.
Traumatic or stress-based learning appears to invoke the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (combined synaptic/
neurosecretory excitatory neuromodulation), and the adrenal endocrine
system (hormonal excitatory neuromodulation) to alter learning during
periods of stress. Transformative (curiosity-based, discovery-driven)
learning, on the other hand, appears at least initially to involve stimulation of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system,
and the hypothalamic-pituitary-oxytocin-secreting endocrine system
of the limbic/hypothalamic network to alter learning during periods of
search and discovery. It is my observation that any particular learning
situation may invoke various combinations of networks and states, the
summation result being that of a learning bias rather than activation of
any one “pure” learning system (Janik, 2005).
15
Figure 3. Levels, Stages, Steps and Phases of Learning—Learning Systems
and Opportunities.
Learning is further controlled by several other important nervous subsystems through the influence of the limbic system, especially the reticular activating system (the general sleep-awakeness subsystem) and a
large group of intercessionary secretory neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) and glutamate
to name a few of the over 100 currently known neurotransmitters. Of
these myriad neuosecretory neuromodulators, we will concentrate on
the first two and their specific contributions to traumatic and transformative learning respectively.
The Traumatic (Serotonin-Sympathetic-Adrenalin
Biased) Learning Pathway
From trauma psychology, we can say traumatic learning is invoked
in the presence of fear, intimidation, or unwanted physical touch. Any
combination of these stimuli activate (1) the amygdala, (2) the reticular activating system, (3) serotonin-based ascending intercessionary
neurons, (4) descending sympathetic fibers of the autonomic nervous
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Daniel S. Janik
system, and (5) adrenal gland production of “fight or flight” hormones.
These result in a cascade of effects that are specific to non-volitional
(violational or traumatic) learning. I like to think of the epitome of violational learning as something akin to hypnotic or autohypnotic learning.
The latter, if fact, probably represents what many teachers would consider the “ideal” student in a conventional learning situation.
Among other things, amygdalic activation causes learning to occur
more easily and more eidetically at the “lower” steps, phases, levels
or stages at the expense of the “higher,” metacognitive steps, phases,
levels or stages of learning (Janik, 2004, 2005; Janik et al., 2005b).
Amygdalic stimulation also activates the reticular activating system,
which further stimulates the traumatic learning pathway. The reticular
activating system cause responsive neurons to fire easier, faster and
more times, and to excrete serotonin locally, further enhancing the traumatic learning process. Interestingly, serotonin excess in the extreme
(Serotonin Syndrome) is associated with, among other things, agitation, impulsivity, compulsivity, obsession, mental confusion, increased
reflexes, abnormal sleep, carbohydrate-seeking behavior and difficulties with approach, bonding, and parenting—all clinical characteristics
of traumatic learning and functional “opposites” of transformative learning. Traumatic learning diminishes some time after discontinuance of
the traumatic learning event, or when supporting neurotransmitters like
serotonin become depleted. Serotonin depletion is, in fact, associated
with memory repression and general depression, both clinical characteristics of post-traumatic stress syndrome (Janik, 2004).
The fact that traumatic learning can now be delineated in physicallymeaningful, causally-related neuroanatomical, physiological and biochemical terms is strongly suggestive of the existence of a defined traumatic learning pathway, with its attendant assets and liabilities. While
serotonin probably plays a crucial role in very early embryo development, the traumatic learning pathway is probably not fully mature until
at about 28 weeks gestation when the sympathetic nervous system becomes fully competent (Kiran, 2002; Fukumoto, Kema, & Levin, 2005).
Birth appears to be the sentinel traumatic learning event that during
uneventful gestations impresses its effectiveness and efficiency on us
for the rest of our lives (Janik, 2005).
17
The Transformational (Dopamine-ParasympatheticOxytocin Biased) Learning
Observations by countless students, parents, and astute educators indicate that there can be more to learning than traumatic teaching and
learning (see, for example, Mezirow, 2000; Sylwester, 2004; Cameron,
2006). From anatomic, natural, social, clinical and classroom observations, I have postulated and now believe I can describe in some detail
a second, self-directed, volitional, transformative learning pathway invoked by individual curiosity and crowned by individual discovery that
occurs optimally in a “safe” and resource-rich learning environment
(Janik, 2005).
This learning pathway specifically involves (1) pre-frontal areas of
the frontal lobes of the cerebrum; (2) the frontal lobe “mirror neuron
system,” (3) the temporal lobes; (4) the substantia nigra (black colored,
melatonin containing) nuclei within the brainstem, (5) dopamine-based
ascending intercessionary neurons, and (6) descending parasympathetic fibers of the autonomic nervous system (Heilman, Nadeau, &
Beversdorf, 2003; Achim & Lepage, 2005; Messier, Adamovich, Jack,
Hening, Sage, & Poizner, 2007). These result in a cascade of effects
that appear specific to self-directed, volitional, non-violational, creative, curiosity-based, discovery-driven, mentor-assisted, transformative
learning (Janik, 2005).
When the frontal lobe mirror neuron system is activated by conscious novel or unexpected (paradoxical) information resulting from a
new experience that is sufficiently dissimilar from a stored memory of
such, the midbrain and substantia nigra nuclei of the brainstem are
activated (Flaherty, 2005).
The substantia nigra nuclei, when activated, appear to lower both the
thalamic learning threshold and, in the absence of traumatic amygdalic
stimulation, allow learning to occur more easily across the full range of
steps, phases, levels or stages of learning. This happens coincident
with the activation of a wide range of striatal (basal ganglial) subsystems; activation of the hypothalamic subsystem resulting in production
of the hormone oxytocin; and stimulation of the descending parasympathetic tracts of the autonomic nervous system (Janik, 2004, 2005).
While the physiological details are less clear for this second learning
pathway, there is reasonable evidence, I believe, to support the following assertions.
The dopamine-based central nervous system intercessionary neurons cause targeted sub-conscious pre-frontal and conscious frontal
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Daniel S. Janik
lobe neurons to both fire more and excrete dopamine and/or norepinepherine. This, in combination with the activation of a wide range of
largely subconscious striatal (basal ganglial) subsystems appears to
be responsible for initiation of paradox resolution (i.e., transformative
learning) through both conscious (frontal), and/or unconsciousness
(pre-frontal, striatal, brainstem, spinal cord and/or parasympathetic
ganglia) learning including re-assignment of associations, as well as
personal, social, political-humanistic and spiritual meanings assigned
or being assigned to what is being learned (Janik, 2005). In fact, learning changes in untreated and treated Parkinson’s disease have helped
and continue to help elucidate the role of dopamine in transformative
learning (Frank, Seeberger, & O’Reilly, 2004; Flaherty, 2005; Shohamy,
Myers, Geghman, Sage, & Gluck, 2006).
I have personally observed clinically and in the classroom that unlike
in the case of traumatic learning, the transformative learner has several
choices at this juncture: First, one can consciously resolve the paradox.
Alternatively, one can choose to put off resolution or consciously ignore
the paradox altogether. In the first instance, the paradox is often said to
be resolved deductively, in the latter situations, inductively. I like to point
out that one of the more important aspects of transformative learning is
creation and maintenance of learner choice.
As an aside, many educators, including myself, have observed that
the human brain does one thing particularly well, and that is resolving
memory-experience paradoxes using this second learning pathway. I
believe it is not unreasonable to assert that this is the “job” of children and is a key element of what makes us human. I also believe that
the main reason why contemporary ideational theories about cognitive
learning are limited in applicability, is that cognitive learning, as currently
envisioned by many cognitive psychologists and educators, is in reality
only partially-cognitive. That is, the first half of cognitive paradox resolution or thinking usually involves mostly conscious comparison between
the memory and experience (what many call “deductive reasoning” and
is heavily stressed in conventional educational institutions). The second
half of cognitive paradox resolution more commonly involves sub- or
unconscious resolution of differences between memory and experience
(what is often called “inductive reasoning” and is often lost in conventional education simply because it is sub- or unconscious).
Oxytocin, sometimes called the “love,” “bonding” or “parenting” hormone, appears important to sustain and finally resolve at least some
dopamine-biased learning challenges. A distinctly mammalian hormone
(non-mammals may still secret dopamine directly into the brain but
19
mammals specifically circulate it in the blood as a hormone), oxytocin appears involved in approach, bonding, fear-reduction, social relationships and, perhaps most important for educators, trust. As can be
inferred from the above, circulating oxytocin, like adrenaline, broadly
effects the body including the nervous system and subsystem, decreasing anxiety, modulating activity levels and wakefulness. Oxytocin
is released into the blood from pituitary gland via signals from the limbic-hypothalamic system, activating receptors located throughout the
brain, brainstem and spinal cord and thereby prolonging transformative
learning receptivity. Interestingly, oxytocin appears to inhibit development of tolerance to opiates including naturally-produced endorphins,
the brain’s natural “reward” for resolving memory-experience discrepancies in transformative learning (Moberg, 2003).
The parasympathetic (“replenish, explore, relieve and relax”) nervous system, sometimes referred to as “seek and sustain” branch of
the autonomic nervous system, works in the short to mid-term through
selective peripheral organ activation (e.g., relaxing heart and respiratory rates). Oxytocin appears to sustain these parasympathetic system responses and transformative learning as well (van Wimersma
Greidanus, Jolles, & De Wied, 1985; Moberg, 2003; McEwen, 2004;
Janik, 2005).
The capacity for curiosity-based, discovery-driven transformative
learning appears to diminish with loss of dopamine receptors, or when
dopamine is diminished or depleted. For instance, there are indications that in Parkinson’s disease, low to absent dopamine levels are
associated with difficulties in transformative but not traumatic learning.
Conversely, transformative learning can often be enhanced in such
situations by appropriate dopamine medication (Frank, Seeberger, &
O’Reilly, 2004; Shohamy et al., 2006).
In fact, dopamine depletion is broadly associated with, among other
things, mental confusion, attitudinal fluctuations, hallucination, rigidity
and stiffness of limbs, slowness of movement, diminished internal time
consciousness and deficiencies in memory including recognition (vs.
pure retrieval), as well as curiosity. The mere fact that transformative
learning can be at least partially delineated in physically-meaningful,
causally-related neuroanatomical, physiological and biochemical terms
is, I believe, strongly suggestive of the existence of this “second learning pathway,” with its attendant assets and liabilities.
Interestingly, the transformative learning pathway appears to be
functional much earlier than the traumatic learning pathway. Being
functional as early as 12 to 15 weeks gestation suggests that significant
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Daniel S. Janik
transformative learning may be occurring within the fetus during gestation, an area of learning that should prove of key interest to future educators (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980; Kolata, 1984; Liley, 1991; Ohtani, Gogo,
Waeber, & Bhide, 2003; Vedova, Tomasoni, & Imbasciati, 2006).
Debunking the “Brain Like A Computer” Idea
What has been discussed thus far may lead one to imagine the brain
as a biological computer gathering, collecting and interlacing experiential memories from fetus to death. This is, however, another erroneous
ideational concept. If anything is true about the brain and computers, it
is that computers are electromechanical manifestations of our brains,
reflecting overtly our current educational ideas and concepts—largely,
Platonic-style, traumatic learning. The “fact” that the brain is a biological
computer is a tautology: We have, I believe, created computers in our
“traumatic-learning” image, and assert erroneously from this that our
brains must work similarly.
In fact, the “brain as a computer” analogy fails dramatically the moment we admit a second learning pathway; it is often said that modern computers compute effectively and efficiently, but they can’t apply
what they do in different contexts very well. What can be gleaned by
this limited ideational analogy, I believe, is that while we should give it
due deference in terms of its shortcomings, as a “model” of spinal-level
(or lower) eidetic, traumatic learning. In broader terms, that translates
roughly to data acquisition without rich, transferable meaning, the very
situation noted at the beginning of this article!
It is important, before proceeding to tackle this issue, to take a moment to invoke our second learning pathway and look at how the brain
is different from a computer, seeking ultimately to resolve any memory–
experience paradoxes. For example, at the lowest levels of learning,
human neurons (nerve cells) are not really very much like wires beyond
the fact that they generate a signal that can be recorded. Let’s look for a
moment more closely at the basic functional living unit of learning—the
neuron—and its rough computer analogy, the transistor and wire, and
some of their important differences.
First, neurons are biochemical rather than electronic; that is, their
electromagnetic signal results from physical changes involving rapid
movement of a variety of ions or chemicals (neurotransmitters) in a living cell rather than the movement of electrons within a metallic wire.
21
Second, the receiving (dendritic) and sending (axonic) ends of
nerves have multiple points in contact with other nerves—that is, they
rarely connect just two things.
Third, they transmit or “fire” only when the sum of the inputs exceeds
a particular threshold, and when they “fire”, they transmit a single, stereotypical signal (the action potential) rather than a graded electronic
signal like wires do. Fourth, they have a refractory period during which
they cannot “fire.”
Fifth, they usually begin their lives “naked” and, if frequently utilized,
develop an insulating coating called myelin that decreases opportunities for new interconnections and transmission interference, and significantly increases transmission speed. Sixth, while a single wire often
carries diverse serial (streamed) data, neuronal axons must be packaged together into bundles, called nerves, their sum total combined
parallel transmission pattern resulting in meaningful data.
Seventh, if infrequently utilized, nerves, unlike wires, will lose their
myelin sheathing and drop unused interneural connections. Eighth, neural axons actively seek connections with other neurons. Ninth, nerves
are functionally defined at any point during their lives by the sum functional result of their neuronal interconnections and what function(s) they
are currently dedicated to performing.
There are many additional ways the “basic wiring” is different within
the brain than within a computer, but it will, I believe, be more useful at
this point to look at some of the consequences of these differences.
Neural Plasticity
Neurons (and thereby nerves) have the unique ability to take on any
functional definition based on location and relative usage—this is the
exact opposite of a combination of transistors and wires (e.g., a logic
board) in a computer. That neurons are capable of this has been classically demonstrated by implanting both nondedicated, embryonic neurons and dedicated adult neurons into adult brains and observing them
integrate functionally with surrounding neurons dedicated to a different
function (Deacon, 1998). This is equally demonstrable through careful
clinical observation of the progress of multiple sclerosis, a “patchy” demyelinating disease (see Charcot’s excellent 1868 first publication).
Neural plasticity fits the educational axiom, “Use it, or lose it,” a concept totally alien to computers.
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Daniel S. Janik
Once myelinated, a neuron can still revert back; once interconnected, a neuron can still lose its interconnections (synapses) through disuse. In fact, the human immune system appears to be constantly scavenging myelin from myelinated neurons that are not in relatively heavy
use, and may also be involved in disconnecting infrequently or unused
synapses, a process alluded to by neurobiologists as “pruning.” The
particular pattern of overproduction of dedicated neurons with subsequent pruning is unique to the nervous system. I know of no computer
currently capable of this process. It is this neural plasticity that allows
the human brain to “recover” from a stroke—again, no computer I know
of can do this as of yet. It is neural plasticity that allows us to learn a
subsequent language, “heal” unwanted effects of abuse, and resculpt
memories as we gain experience and age. Another way of saying this
is that memories are resculpted differently than when first acquired.
Neuroplasticity is one of the chief arguments for a physically-based,
neurobiological theory of learning (Janik, 2004, 2005).
Developmental Periods
The question is no longer whether the human brain reorganizes globally during distinct developmental periods (consider, for example, differences between primary and subsequent language acquisition), but
how it accomplishes this.
There is growing evidence that the neurons and the attendant cells
that myelinate neurons are sensitive to hormones, particularly sex hormones and their precursors, and that these hormones can initiate myelination in general throughout the body. Peak periods of sex hormone
levels occur prenatally, at birth and again during puberty, corresponding roughly to distinct periods of increased myelinization and neural
reorganization. It is, however, not currently known if lowered circulating
sex hormone levels will affect a process of generalized demyelination
(Janik, 2004, 2005).
Given what we know of circulating sex hormone levels throughout a
lifetime, if the association between sex hormone (and their immediate
precursors) and learning periods is true, one would expect pubertal hormone-related myelination to begin earlier in females, which it appears
to do. This may account for differences observed in memory and learning re-organization between the sexes. It is important to remember that
myelination is associated with dedication and increased speed of transmission which, occurring globally, would result in periodic acquisition of
23
more complex learning processes as well as reintegration of both what
has been previously learned (Janik, 2004, 2005). The overall impact of
these periods of reorganization should not be underestimated.
Figure 4. Circulating Male Hormone Levels Over a Lifetime.
As mentioned above, myelination also appears related to neural use
throughout one’s lifetime, creating gestational, birth and preputertal myelination period peaks on top of constant myelination due to relative use
and disuse. The existence and impact of developmental periods are a
second major argument in favor of a physically-based, neurobiological
theory of learning (Janik, 2004, 2005).
A Unified, Neurobiological Theory of Learning
About ten years ago, there was insufficient information in the world literature about how the brain actually works and learns to posit a reasonable neurobiological theory of education. With the advent and rapid development of medical imaging technology, however, this has changed.
It is time for educators, especially teachers, to let go of the myriad ideational theories of education and begin acquiring the necessary and sufficient vocabulary, information and knowledge bases to understand and
follow the rapid emergence of physically-based, neurobiological theories of learning, including, for example, the likely existence of both trau-
24
Daniel S. Janik
matic and transformative learning pathways discussed above, along
with their particular attributes, that must be addressed in order to make
education effective, efficient and appropriate. Yet, more important, the
very fact that physically- rather than ideationally-based theories can
now be proposed, tested and applied, suggests that in the immediate
future it will indeed be possible to construct a single, unified, neurobiologically-based theory of human learning and thereby education. This is
the goal to which I am dedicated, and you, the reader, are wholeheartedly invited to join. To do this, we educators need to seriously address
first our own need for literacy in this “new” area. In order to follow and
critically evaluate the rapidly escalating literature in this new topic area,
educators—including subsequent language teachers—whether transformative learning pathway mentors, teachers of students, or educators
of future educators, administrators or researchers—absolutely need to
acquire a fundamental, working knowledge of the neurobiology of physically-based learning.
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TEACHERS AS CHANGE AGENTS:
CRITICAL THINKING TASKS IN A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM AND REFLECTIONS ON PRINTED MATERIALS
ELENA V. BORZOVA
KARELIAN PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
PETROZAVODSK, RUSSIA
anat.bor<at>onego.ru
Abstract
The goals of this article are to analyze some changes that Russian foreign language
teachers introduce into the course books they use, and to discuss a few guidelines
that are expected to help them decide why, when and what kind of changes are
required.
Our research (January 2007) reveals that 62% of the Russian teachers questioned often and 35% occasionally do not follow the course books from cover to
cover either leaving out or adding texts and tasks being guided by different reasons.
Changes in the printed materials are inevitable in the foreign-language teaching context. But not all those changes that we observed make sense. What follows is that
teacher training (college and in-service) must include special sessions on how to
learn “to make informed choices” (Larsen-Freeman, 2001) of the materials and tasks
to be used.
In the analysis of a course book it is worthwhile to consider the teaching and
learning potentials of the materials, in other words, to determine whether the materials, if used by the teacher in a certain classroom, will create an appropriate and sufficient environment to facilitate effective learning and development of every student.
We believe that the more adequate and diverse tasks can be developed on the basis
of a material, the higher results the students will be able to achieve having done these
tasks. Therefore, it can also help if teachers try to determine the task-generating capacity of the materials (dead-end, limited, or wide).
In choosing or designing materials two other important factors also come into
play:
9 language is a multifunctional tool used by people not only as a means of communication, but for a variety of purposes. Students need to master these varied
functions on their way to the advanced level;
9 a foreign language is acquired in a multipersonal environment. Teachers have to
reasonably adjust the materials and tasks to the needs, interests, and abilities of
the students seated in the same classroom.
These assumptions are not new, but they have not been given full scope to in the
Russian foreign language teaching contexts, though we regard them as crucial for
high school foreign language teaching and learning.
One of the possible solutions to promote multifunctional language acquisition
is an ample and consistent application of critical thinking tasks which allow to en-
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Elena V. Borzova
gage students into varied activities, to activate both their experiences and all types of
thinking as well as their inner speech. Critical thinking tasks in the foreign language
classroom foster the development of personal traits (a flair for discovery, creativity
and life-long learning, open-mindedness and tolerance, etc.). If properly designed
and incorporated, such tasks also can help students get an insight into other cultures.
Doing a chain of critical thinking tasks on a regular basis, in relation to every topic,
students master their critical thinking skills and foreign language skills together.
The application of the guideline “diversity of students—diversity of materials
and tasks” allows to involve students into an exchange of meaningful information, to
present the topic from different angles and aspects and, at the same time, to take into
account different learners‘ interests, proficiency levels and abilities. Students have
a real chance to develop their interaction competence and acquire flexible foreign
language skills.
We suggest the following stages of studying a topic within one teaching cycle: an
introduction to the topic; a model stage; a flexibility stage and a survey stage.
To meet the requirements mentioned above, textbook writers should offer abundant, diverse materials and numerous tasks which will involve the students into varied
activities providing multifunctional foreign language acquisition.
Keywords: foreign language teaching; critical thinking tasks; printed materials;
change; theory; practice.
Teachers Make Changes in the Teaching Materials
Despite all the positive changes that have taken place in foreign language teaching theory and practices, there is still considerable dissatisfaction and criticism among high school teachers and students,
university faculty and parents in Russia related to the actual results.
This article deals with some considerations concerning the approach to
foreign language high school teaching and possibilities of their implementation in everyday school practices.
The results of the previous research we conducted in Petrozavodsk
high schools (Russia) in 1999–2004 revealed three major expectations
that foreign language teachers and learners have in respect of foreign
language lessons and textbooks: progress, interest and challenge.
“Progress” implies moving forward to a higher stage that is continuous
growth and advancement. “Interest” means attentiveness and curiosity.
“Challenge” denotes “a difficulty in a job or activity that proves stimulating or enjoyable”. Through years, we found out that whatever changes
take place in this field, the major expectations remain the same. But the
tools or the ways of how to meet these expectations change.
The next stage that we started in January 2007 began with questioning 66 foreign language teachers on what changes and why they introduce to their textbooks. Our first findings show that 62% of the teach-
Teachers As Change Agents: Critical Thinking Tasks in a Foreign…
31
ers questioned often and 35% occasionally do this. Only 3% say that
they do not change anything. The reasons why 80% of the questioned
teachers leave out some texts are that they find these materials uninteresting to their students (“not related to the students‘ personal interests
and needs, outdated or too abstract”). 42% point out that they leave
out materials because they do not comply with the students’ proficiency
level (39% say they are too difficult, 3% – too easy). 82% add new texts
and 97% add extra activities because the teachers believe that “their
students need more adequate practices, more interesting and acute
content to discuss and to read about”. The teachers also try to provide
the students with diverse activities that presumably the textbooks lack.
The word “change” is a general term that implies all kinds of alterations that teachers introduce into the printed coursebooks they use.
The word “materials” is a collective term which includes texts and their
varied types, situations, pictures and other visual aids, prompts and
tasks and modes of interaction that accompany them. Changes can
deal with the form, content, usage or sequence of materials (tasks).
The teachers’ actions that constitute possible changes can be listed in
the following way:
9 the teacher tailors materials (either their form, content or usage),
that is, adapts or adjusts those given in the coursebook to particular learners;
9 the teacher leaves something out;
9 the teacher replaces the given materials with new ones. New
materials can be borrowed from other sources, adjusted or not,
or they can be designed by the teacher or even by the students.
The data mentioned above demonstrate that the overwhelming majority of the teachers, even if not fully aware of the reasons, still feel
the necessity of change. In the foreign language classroom, it is not
knowledge (facts, theories or rules) that the students need to acquire.
Students want to learn to use the foreign language in its natural functions (at least, to express themselves and to understand others). Therefore, there will always be slight differences and deviations from what
the textbook offers. Many methodologists and textbook writers believe
that in communicative foreign language classroom the textbook should
be used “only as a guide to the learning process” (Pitman, 1963, p.
176). “No material … can possibly accommodate all the variables at
play within a classroom setting” (Richards, 1993, p. 13). Each topic,
text, and situation that the textbook contains in every classroom each
time will receive a new interpretation.
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Elena V. Borzova
The textbook materials, especially at high school and university levels of language teaching, serve not as a model or as content for memorizing, but as a starting point for personal reflection and self-expression.
Good foreign language textbooks encourage students to bring their own
experiences into the classroom, which inevitably brings about a change
to what is given by the book: new situations and situation development
emerge, and it is hard to predict their further development. This group of
changes are inherent in the nature of the subject itself. They result from
the nature of interpersonal communication. Therefore, foreign language
teachers need to learn how to introduce reasonable changes.
Why Teachers Make Changes in the Teaching
Materials
The next point concerns the factors that drive teachers to introduce
changes and how these factors affect the character of these changes.
As was mentioned above, the majority of the changes are accounted
for by the teachers’ dissatisfaction with what they find in the textbooks.
The main factors, in our view, are motivation, experience and professional competence (the teachers‘ knowledge, skills, strategies, values
and traits, and communication skills). It is impossible to definitely find
out which of these factors, and to what extent, determines the effectiveness of change.
If we look into the role of the teachers‘ work experience, we will
see that experienced teachers (those who have more than 10 years of
working at school) feel at ease in the classroom; they are sensitive to
their students, have at their disposal a wide range of techniques and
materials and can quickly introduce changes during the lesson.
On the other hand, those teachers who have been working at school
for more than 25 years are more prone to rely on stereotypes of teaching. When our students come back from their student teaching, they
often write in their diaries that the teachers who are over 45, usually
objected to the students‘ proposals to introduce changes and insisted
on following the textbooks.
Inexperienced teachers come to school with fresh knowledge and
experiences of being language learners. They are better aware of the
students’ interests, more risky and open to new techniques. But they
are not sensitive to the situations that emerge in the classroom and
are often helpless when something unexpected happens. They are not
able to introduce spontaneous changes into their lesson plans. Such
33
teachers are more focused on finishing what they have prepared for the
lesson. But they are more responsive to new ideas and ready to implement them during the planning stage of the lesson preparation, though
it is hard for them to elaborate all the details of their lesson draft and
predict the consequences.
Groups of Changes
Based on the teachers’ beliefs, skills, attitudes, values, and personal
traits, it is possible to identify the following groups:
The first group of changes stem from the teachers’ resistance to
accept new ideas of language teaching or from their misunderstanding
of modern approaches. These changes are often rooted in the teachers’ adherence to the grammar–translation method, which was widely
spread when the teachers were students themselves and which is easy
to use. That is why they tend to transfer these techniques into their own
teaching practices.
While observing foreign language lessons, we could see that some
of the changes that the teachers introduced were not always well
grounded or consistent. There was too much emphasis on rote memory, language activities and reproductive thinking; fondness of supervisory control at the expense of teaching and developmental activities;
lack of interconnectedness of activities and logic; too little meaningful
and authentic content; focus either on primitive and trivial content or on
language forms (on accuracy, not meaning).
The next group of changes are usually made by the teachers who
want something new in the classroom. However, for some reason they
have no clear explanation why they do this or that. They often act on
the spur of the moment: copy and imitate the techniques they have observed or heard or read about without giving much thought to what they
do. Therefore, the changes such teachers introduce are often inconsistent and even incompatible with the rest of their practices.
On the other hand, some of the observed changes really made
sense. The teachers offered up-dated texts, problems and situations;
they added activities and prompts which helped learners avoid errors
and activated the students’ personal experiences. These changes
made the lessons both livelier and closer to real communication, they
appealed to the students. The teachers who belong to this group add
whatever seems interesting to them. They are usually eager to teach
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Elena V. Borzova
and help their students achieve good results, but they do not always
have enough knowledge, skills, or strategies.
The best changes are those introduced by creative, well-informed,
and highly motivated teachers who make really reasoned choices and
are aware of what and why they are doing. The teachers who belong
to this group always read a lot, they attend different workshops and
eagerly participate in projects. The changes they make are well thought
out. They not only adapt or adjust textbook materials, but they also
efficiently design materials of their own, and are able to come up with
well-justified explanations.
There is also a small group of teachers who do not change anything.
They are unmotivated and uninterested for a variety of reasons: they
can feel a burnout (stress or boredom or fatigue). They do their jobs
according to the approved standards, and do not bother much about
the students’ progress and interest. They are reluctant to explain their
standpoints, but sometimes they speak out and say that they work in
this way because of the administrative pressure, or low salaries, or lack
of time and resources, or overload.
Nowadays in Russia there is another important factor that drives
many teachers to introduce changes: in 2009, all school graduates will
have to take the National unified standardized examination. From our
interviews we learned that practically all the teachers use numerous
tests and tasks in addition to the materials provided by the coursebooks to prepare their students for this exam, in order not to lose face
later. We could see that these kinds of changes often take place at the
expense of really sensible activities that are necessary for a better acquisition of the foreign language.
What follows from the previous comments is that the character, the
appropriateness and the impact of change depend, to a great extent, on
the level of the teachers’ competence (knowledge and skills) as well as
their motivation, personal values and traits. Again it is clear that not all
the changes will make sense and will be beneficial to all the students.
The quality of the change depends mostly on how efficiently the teacher
can create the appropriate conditions for learning and for the students’
motivation.
Learning to Make Informed Choices
Consequently, teachers should learn to make informed choices based
on the theory of language teaching and practical skills: “a teacher has
35
to be informed and once informed has to choose wisely from among the
available practices to create her own unique blend that would be appropriate for her own personality and teaching style, for her own students
and the circumstances in which the teaching is taking place” (LarsenFreeman, 2001, p. 4). Foreign language teachers need to have a good
command of the strategy of analyzing the materials at hand, evaluating
them, and weighing their pros and cons in regard to a certain group of
students and to the environment where the teaching is to take place. If
the teacher decides why, when, what, and how to change in the printed
materials, s/he takes on the responsibility for the possible outcome.
The outcomes can vary, they can lead to the compensation of the shortcomings of the textbook, to a considerable improvement of the students’ progress, to no noticeable changes, or, on the other hand, even
to some deterioration. In any case, the teacher should try to foresee the
results addressing all the changes to particular learners.
Therefore, we believe that an essential part of in-service and college
teacher instructions must include regular analysis of the printed materials as well as discussing the necessity of possible changes and their
character in compliance with certain criteria. It would be wise of textbook writers to provide abundant materials for the teachers to choose
from keeping in mind the differences in the students’ interests and proficiency level.
The decision to make a change is the result of the critical overview
of the textbook materials and of the student needs. The content should
be interesting and stimulating for the learner so that to involve him or
her in the fulfilment of the task. They are both supposed to generate
emotional, intellectual and operational involvement of every student
into appropriate and sufficient activities which will result in the definite
outcome. We may say that if appropriately chosen, the content and the
task both create the learning environment accepted by the learners,
the environment that offers abundant opportunities for effective learning
and development.
The decision to make a change and choice of some particular material is based on considering:
9 the actual proficiency level of the students when there is a gap
between the requirements of the textbook and the skills of the
students (too easy or too difficult);
9 the students’ real needs, values, interests, preferences, relationships with the teacher and their classmates (the textbook seems
boring, outdated, its topics will not evoke the students’ response,
will not be discussed in the classroom, etc.);
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Elena V. Borzova
9 the concrete environment and teaching conditions (number of
hours, number of students in the class, shortage of materials,
lack of discipline, relationships and peer pressure, etc.);
9 the quality of the material (task): shortage of updated and interesting information for this particular group of students, no variety
of tasks, no focus on problem-solving or students’ self-expression, absence of recycling, too many or too few new words and
grammar models, no connection between tasks and units, etc.
Keeping all these factors in mind, the teacher can change language
forms, content, techniques (presentation, guided or free practice, its
length, sequence, mode of the students’ interaction, and aids, etc.)
Every change and choice is supposed to promote best teaching and
the students’ best learning. To this end, the teacher needs to assess the
teaching and learning potential of the materials, which is an important
component of the teacher’s competence.
The Teaching and Learning Potential of the Material
The teaching potential is the possibility of the material to create a teaching environment that will facilitate the students’ high level of motivation and involvement into effective learning. It is a combination of the
characteristics of the material related to its content, language form and
the mode of presentation which can promote the students’ progress.
The content of the material should be thought-provoking for a concrete
group of learners, evoke their emotions and have a developmental impact on them (enrich their knowledge, expand their experiences, as
well as improve their language habits and interaction skills).
An important component of the teaching potential of the material is
a variety of tasks that the teacher can develop on its basis. The more
diverse tasks can be offered, the higher the teaching potential of the
material is. We believe that it is not worthwhile to use those materials
that can provide a limited range of tasks. Our suggestion is that teachers should determine the task-generating capacity of the materials before they bring them into the classroom. This term implies the properties
of the material capable of being used for task development. We identify
materials with a dead-end capacity (when we can offer one or two tasks
on their basis); with a limited capacity (only with linguistic or content or
separate skills focus) and with a wide capacity (when we can offer a
great variety of tasks because the material is thought-, attitudes- and
37
emotions-provoking, and we can also develop all four skills and engage
students in different modes of interaction on its basis).
The learning potential is the possibility of the material to be positively accepted by the students. It is a combination of the characteristics
which will have an intellectual, emotional and activating impact on the
learners and which will promote a high level of student involvement and
learning. The more the students get involved, the higher level of development they will achieve.
Diversity of Students—Diversity of Materials and
Tasks
When we get down to analyzing printed or other materials, we should
remember that they are expected to become effective tools in our professional activities. We need first to decide whether they can potentially
meet the needs of both sides involved. In our research, many teachers mentioned among many problems they face in their practices, the
necessity to teach students with different levels of proficiency seated in
the same classroom. It is obvious that one of the ways to deal with this
problem is to vary materials offered to different students.
Another consideration is that it is naïve to expect that all the students will be equally interested in reading and listening to the reproduction of the same story from the textbook. The process of foreign language teaching and learning is multipersonal. Each student is a unique
personality. In spite of this evident factor, in many cases teaching and
learning develop around one single text or situation or problem. Very
few printed textbooks contain more materials used by different students
at the same lesson. For many years it has been a current belief that
foreign language teaching content could be presented to students in
some fixed and final set of facts, ideas, vocabulary units and models
which must be known by every student. But multipersonal language
teaching and learning suggest a variety of ways to the same goal. Thus,
we can claim that in the learner-centred foreign language teaching the
main functions of the textbook change. It serves mostly as a frame for
personal learning when every given situation, problem or text receives
each time a new interpretation or a new development depending on
specific students, their real experiences and values.
Every teacher knows that not every given text or task will find response in every learner or will be within their capacity, which is an open
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Elena V. Borzova
secret. Textbook writers are not able to foresee what their individual users will be like and what situations will emerge.
One of the ways to meet our students’ needs and to tailor the teaching process to their abilities is to vary materials and tasks having considered their personalities. The guideline “diversity of students—diversity of materials and tasks” is a modified combination of the well-known
techniques “information gap” and “jigsaw”. By modifying materials (subject matter within the same topic, texts, problems, situations, questions,
pictures, aids), tasks and modes of the students’ interaction (stable or
rotating pairs and groups, circle work, individual work or their various
combinations and sequences), we provide an abundant and varied
input required for successful language acquisition (Krashen, 1981, p.
105). If textbook writers do not offer such diversity, then teachers need
to collect additional materials in order to better adjust the learning environment to different learners and through this create close-to-real life
situations.
It does not make sense to confine both teachers and students only
to one material from the textbook that was subjectively chosen by the
textbook writers. We know that the facts and opinions that some books
contain are not always representative or stimulating enough. While diversifying the materials, we appeal to the students’ interests. We expand their knowledge of the world, that is, we go beyond what the students are interested in and know. Through this we amplify the learning
environment.
Teachers also have an opportunity to choose from numerous materials available now and to introduce well-grounded changes.
Changes are not made just for their own sake. Changes and choices
of why, what, when and how require a lot of critical thinking on the part
of the teacher. Provided that the teacher is fully convinced that the alterations s/he is going to make are in compliance with sound theory and
are of benefit to the students, s/he should not hesitate. We do not mean
to say that teachers are expected to bring new sets of materials to every new group of students. Our assumption is that the teacher needs to
have at his or her disposal a set of diverse materials and offer them to
different students varying tasks and modes of the students’ interaction.
Taken all together, these factors can help create a comfortable learning
environment for the students.
The guideline “diversity of students—diversity of materials and
tasks”
9 addresses different learners’ interests, needs, and abilities;
39
9 involves everybody in the classroom into meaningful communication encouraging every student to express themselves and try
to understand his/her fellow students;
9 enriches the students’ personal experiences and expands the
picture of the world;
9 decreases time losses, monotony and boredom, which often accompany whole class activities;
9 provides a regular occurrence of language units in varied contexts which leads to their flexible usage.
We have been applying this guideline in our teaching practices both in
high school and at the KSPU (Karelian State Pedagogical University)
for about 20 years. We have also published a few textbooks intended for high school students of English. From our experiences, we can
mention a couple of pros and cons concerning the practical usage of
this guideline.
For me, as a teacher, of course, it takes more time to prepare for
every lesson. I have to find extra materials, analyze them, sometimes
adapt or change somehow. Besides, it is necessary to develop a couple
of assignments and prompts and decide whom these materials will suit
best. The package of diverse materials has been collected for years,
and its components are constantly renewed and replaced. It is a neverending process. But on the other hand, in the classroom I can distribute
my time and attention according to what is being done. As far as the
students are concerned, at first, those who have no prior experience of
working independently need support and guidance. But later even the
weakest and less motivated students get completely involved. Actually,
there are no time losses, no distractions. The students manage to do
many tasks during the lesson. Interaction is also beneficial for establishing friendly contacts among the students. They learn to listen, to understand, to be understood and to be tolerant to opposite points of view.
Sharing information, trying to convince and negotiate is very important
for self-learning because in this case memory, mind and emotions work
together.
Language as a Tool of Thinking
The second essential factor meaning a lot for language teaching is that
language is a multifunctional means used by people for a variety of
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Elena V. Borzova
purposes. Students need to master these varied functions on their way
to advanced foreign language competence.
In recent decades, there has been too much emphasis on the communicative function of the language. Nobody will deny that it is the
primary language function. But in addition, language is also used as
one of the tools of thinking. Both communication and thinking are interwoven into cognition and research, understanding other people and
cultures, into information processing and sharing, into value and experience building, into problem solving and discussing alternative solutions,
into self-expression and self-awareness, into creative, professional and
other activities. We cannot but take into account all these language
functions, especially at higher levels of foreign language acquisition.
Complex situations and relative tasks require a high-order thinking
which in its turn brings about more varied and sophisticated vocabulary
and grammar. Language allows us “to pin down our thoughts and ideas
for analysis”, “to get them out in public where they can be studied”
(Judy, 1981, p. 39). Thoughts and ideas themselves are partly formed
and completely expressed by means of the language. In many everyday situations, communication is mostly based on reproductive thinking when we express and understand some simple ideas and facts.
However, numerous real life situations will require of students not only
reproducing ready-made thoughts, but also generating new ones as
well as in-depth understanding of oral and written texts: Standard situations—reproductive thinking—simple language / Complex situations—
complex thoughts (creative thinking)—more complex language.
If we set out to prepare every student for real life, then we need to
clarify what real life will require of our students. Even a quick look can
reveal the following:
9
9
9
9
trying to understand the world and oneself;
solving problems every day in all spheres of life;
making choices and decisions;
handling conflicts and establishing relationships with lots of people.
We need to think clearly and effectively to be able to understand, to
learn, to cooperate, to find a way out, and to produce something. Skehan (2001, pp. 179–180) offers “powerful evidence that the complexity
of the task outcome is a major influence upon the complexity of the
language which is produced in a task”.
In dictionaries we can find the following list of verbs in regard to thinking: to reflect, to consider, to judge, to intend, to believe, to remember,
41
to imagine, to recognize, to expect, to reason, to meditate. It is obvious
that thinking involves actually all psychological functions (memory, perception, imagination, attention, emotions). Thinking is interwoven into
our activities. Some activities require more complex thinking than others. In such situations we need to generate new ideas, search for new
decisions, solutions and find arguments to justify them or to convince
the others to accept them. If the problem is trivial, the particular method
used in thinking is unimportant, however, mature adults require a reasoned means of decision making based on accurate evidence (Freeley,
1996, p. 2).
Critical Thinking in Modern Life
There are certain factors that make critical thinking especially urgent:
when there are many controversial facts or several options or there is
no ready-made answer. Or when we want to get a better understanding
of a situation, because we feel there is some problem or discrepancy
or inconsistency. It can also help when we have done something wrong
and need to change the situation for the better. Then we feel uncertain, insecure, or confused. When much depends on us and we are
responsible for the outcome, it is necessary to find the best possible
solution. When we strongly dislike or avert something or somebody, or
when there is a conflict among people over some issue, it is important
to figure out why and how to deal with it. In our everyday lives, we often
need to persuade somebody or somebody tries to convince us or even
to force us to do something. Such situations call for critical thinking (J.
C. Bean, J.C. Kurfiss, R. W. Paul, M. Scriven, P. A. Facione, etc.).
Nowadays the importance to think critically is even more crucial
than ever because of the great amount of information, of propaganda
and manipulations that each of us confronts in everyday life. The circumstances mentioned above usually engage us into thinking when
it is necessary not only to make some decision or solve a problem,
but to try to find the best possible solution free of stereotypes or bias.
For this we need to activate our experiences and collect enough information and opinions, to weigh their pros and cons, to evaluate them
and analyze our own thinking, and then come up with some idea what
to do. The process often unfolds as an inner dialogue, but its results
may be expressed to others. Critical thinking is a careful approach to
problem-solving and decision-making. Problem-solving is related to the
aim of thinking (why and what we want to achieve). Critical thinking is
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Elena V. Borzova
focused on how we solve this problem. While trying to think critically,
we appeal to logic, facts, opinions, and values. We rely on our own and
other people’s experiences and we often need additional information.
However, we do not always resort to critical thinking. We can solve a
problem either on the spur of the moment or exercise a careful approach to doing it. The way we choose depends on many factors. Critical thinking affects the person involved (what and how s/he feels, thinks
and does), the situation (how it changes), and the people around (how
they react).
We can state that critical thinking performs a number of functions:
9
9
9
9
9
orientational;
directive;
evaluational;
developmental and cognitive;
communicative.
Critical Thinking and Foreign Language Teaching and
Learning
It is necessary to decide what critical thinking has to do with foreign language teaching. Thoughts are partly shaped and completely expressed
by means of language. While thinking, we use different symbols ad
language is the primary one. When we communicate, we exchange and
discuss our thoughts by means of the language.
When a thought is to be expressed with words in discussions, debates or negotiations, people try to be precise in the choice of structures
and vocabulary, because they want their listeners or readers to get it
right. In this case, people are more focused on the relationship between
the meaning and the form; they want to select the best language units
that fit in with the content. It activates the students’ inner speech, that
is, the inner dialogue with themselves and with a perspective partner.
Vygotsky (1982, p. 253) regarded the inner speech as a specific interior
format of thinking, as a thought connected with words.
In teaching foreign languages, teachers are more concerned about
the form that the students produce. It is often the case that there is actually no meaning in their utterances. Therefore, the students get used
to saying something without trying to think what they do. This causes
problems when they have to use the language later in authentic situations.
43
Many Russian psychologists (B. Belyayev, A. Leontyev, I. Zimnyaya)
insisted that students need to learn to use the foreign language as an
essential tool of thinking (Zimnyaya, 1989, p. 161) which promotes a
higher level of language acquisition (advanced competence). There are
findings that prove (Zimnyaya, 1989) that the tasks which require intensive thinking improve the level of the foreign language performance
because they focus the students on the meaning and activate their inner speech.
Of course, as it was mentioned earlier, in many everyday situations
communication is mostly based on reproductive thinking when we express some simple thoughts and facts. This is usually the case at the
elementary levels of foreign language learning. It does not mean that
in these situations our students do not think, but their thinking is mostly
focused on the choice of appropriate forms and reactions and is based
to a great extent on rote memory. That is why as soon as the situation
requires more complex ideas or new ideas, the students switch to their
native language or keep silent.
In high school, we cannot confine foreign language communication
only to standard situations (purchasing, making reservations or planning freetime activities) for a number of reasons. Their routine, or often
even primitive, content does not correspond to the students’ needs,
aspirations and the level of their mental development. High school students want challenge and real progress. Communication and real-life
situations are not based solely on reproductive thinking and rote memory. Our students need practice in generating new ideas and solutions
which never rely only on linguistic forms or the reproduction of ready
thoughts borrowed from texts. This practice must not be confined only
to multiple-choice tasks or answering factual questions. To be able to
express and understand complex ideas, our students need to learn how
to use the foreign language in their inner speech in the process of thinking as a form of the inner dialogue.
We need to expand the variety of activities in which the students
could use the foreign language efficiently. The more diverse and complex functions are fulfilled by the students across varied content areas
with the help of the foreign language, the more advanced level the students will be able to reach. One of the ways to achieve this goal is to
incorporate critical thinking tasks into the foreign language textbooks
and lessons. Critical thinking tasks promote a multifunctional foreign
language acquisition because:
9 they are based on the combination of varied types of thinking
(reproductive, logical, divergent, lateral, creative);
44
Elena V. Borzova
9 they activate students’ personal experiences and enrich them;
9 they encourage interaction when thoughts are shared, discussed,
negotiated, and evaluated;
9 they engage the students’ inner speech and reflection;
9 they develop a flair for creativity, life-long learning, and development;
9 they give an insight into other cultures and provide their better
understanding;
9 they foster the development of personal traits which are crucial
for modern life (open-mindedness, tolerance, independence, respect for different opinions, etc.).
Doing a chain of critical thinking tasks on a regular basis, in relation to
every new topic students master their critical thinking and foreign language skills together, they develop an approach to understanding other
people and themselves, to making reasoned choices and judgments.
They are learning to learn and explore the environment by seeking additional information through reading, listening and negotiating. All these
skills can be transferred into other spheres of the students’ lives beyond
foreign language classrooms.
Moreover, in the foreign language classroom students inevitably get
to know another culture which is, to a varied degree, different from their
own. Critical thinking tasks related to cultural issues foster their deeper
understanding and tolerance towards those differences. At the same
time, they help reveal similarities and draw people closer.
On their way to a higher proficiency level, foreign language learners
move on from:
9 the focus on linguistic form to the focus on meaning;
9 the reliance on memory and reproductive thinking to the reliance
on creative and critical thinking;
9 the exchange of simple facts and trivial opinions to the discussion of complex problems;
9 the use of the foreign language only as the goal of learning to
using it as an effective medium of self-development and building relationships with the people, that is a medium of varied and
authentic activities;
9 the use of cognitive strategies (such as transfer, translation,
repetition, etc.) to the use of metacognitive strategies (planning,
monitoring, comprehension of implicit meaning, problem identification and solving them) (Nyikos, 1996, p. 111).
45
A Brief Review of School Textbooks
Foreign language coursebooks offer problem-solving and some other
tasks that can involve students into thinking. Practically every unit contains questions such as “What do you think about …? Why…? What is
your opinion about …?” There are also examples of occasional texts
which have several diverse opinions on the same problem as well as a
couple of situations for discussion or problems for project work. There is
evidence of considerable improvement of foreign language high school
coursebooks .
Nevertheless, many of them, at least in Russia, have similar drawbacks from our point of view. There is often too much emphasis on facts
and knowledge, especially in the texts concerning the USA and Great
Britain. Sometimes the problems offered for analysis or discussion hardly stimulate critical thinking. In many textbooks teacher–learner interaction prevails. When the students are offered pair-work or group-work, in
the tasks they have to do there is little room for real-life or at least close
to real-life interaction or exchange of really new information. Usually,
the students are expected to speak about what everybody knows.
The books that I analyzed do not use a chain of critical thinking
tasks; such tasks are occasional and unsystematic. The list of the offered tasks is limited mostly to “what do you think?” “Why?” questions;
agree/disagree; compare; discuss; rank; summarize; prove; give arguments for and against; imagine/predict. In the majority of the assignments, the students are supposed to select or reproduce something
that is given in the text (multiple-choice tasks; book-generated questions). There are very few tasks that encourage the students to ask their
own questions or to come up with their own subject-matter (problems
and examples, for instance). Rarely do textbook writers appeal to the
students’ personal experiences or ask them to share or collect new
information. As a rule, there is one text/situation/task for everybody.
We have the feeling that the textbook writers do not trust their future
students to develop the situations in the classroom. There are few tasks
that initiate exploration. Many tasks are dead-end, in other words, they
have no perspective for further development. There are few links to
what was discussed or learned some time ago (retrospective tasks)
and little reasonable connection within units.
Some English language school textbooks which are widely used in
Russia now contain statistical texts. For example, in the unit “Is It Easy
to Be Young?” (Kuzovlev, Lapa, et al., 2005) we find three of them.
Though the data provided in the charts (Kuzovlev, Lapa, et al., 2005, p.
46
Elena V. Borzova
116) are outdated (1989–1997), potentially their content could encourage critical thinking and discussion, because they seem to be biased
and doubtful (“135,000 American children bring a gun to school every
day”; “1,512 teenagers drop out of school every day”, “2,795 American
teenagers get pregnant every day”, and so on). But in the textbook,
there is no variety in the tasks that the authors offer: they are questions
which mostly require reproduction (“How many teenagers have drinking
problems? How many children die in America every day?”) (Kuzovlev,
Lapa, et al., 2005, p. 115). One task that accompanies statistics (Activity Book, p. 48) “Which of these issues are important to you? (very
important/not so important/not necessary)” can engage students into
thinking and evaluation, but there are no follow-up instructions, that
is why the depth of the discussion of the given data fully depends on
whether the teacher will offer more activities that will encourage critical
thinking or not. If teachers strictly follow the authors’ instructions, the
given tasks may lead only to superficial comments by the students and
promote their stereotypes about American teens. Having analyzed the
statistical texts and tasks, we conclude that they are actually used either for language learning or skill practising purposes. In fact, the tasks
do not stimulate inquiry or teach students to think using the language.
Summing it up, we would like to list some factors that may prevent
learners from critical thinking in the foreign language classroom:
9 when students read boring texts that contain trivial facts, direct
moralization and therefore cannot arouse any thoughts or emotions: there is nothing to argue about;
9 when the focus is placed on reproductive thinking and repetition of ready ideas and facts. Then students rely on reproductive
memory, do not raise questions but repeat facts from the texts
when giving answers;
9 when the proposed problem is easy to solve and there is no challenge;
9 when there is too much focus on the language forms with little
attention to the content;
9 when the tasks are artificial, too complicated, or even meaningless;
9 when students are passive, lazy to think and show no initiative;
9 when students are willing just to do the task as quickly as possible without thinking twice;
9 when students learn for grades, but not for the thrill of learning;
9 when the teacher has a vague idea of critical thinking tasks and
is content with the activities offered in the textbook.
47
The Subject-Matter for Critical Thinking Tasks
It is obvious that the subject-matter is the starting point for critical thinking. The subject-matter can involve the students into critical thinking
provided that it has an intellectual and emotional impact on every student (i.e., where the principle “diversity of students—diversity of materials and tasks“ can come in handy). As a result, it encourages students
to engage in thinking, speaking and writing, as well as in interacting
with other people (discussing, listening and trying to understand them).
The content will not leave our students indifferent when it activates their
personal experiences and urges them to expand these experiences
(look for new facts and opinions, generate new ideas, determine personal points of view and argue in their favour).
We can use varied sources of the subject-matter: authentic texts
(opinions, recommendations and tips, situations, conflicts, debates,
mass-media articles, memories, stories, questionnaires, statistics,
data, letters, ads, etc.); visual aids (video, photos—personal or borrowed from magazines, posters, brochures, clusters, graphs); personal
experiences or the information acquired through the communication
with classmates, friends, parents, and teachers.
While choosing the content, we should consider the following issues:
A) The amount of information. We will not think much when everything is known and clear. Students should feel that there is a
lack of important information in order to be driven to search for
it. When there are a lot of facts in the basic material, they are
inclined just to reproduce them. Facts can be restrictive. Knowing less, a person can be freer to come up with unusual ideas.
On the other hand, thoughts do not spring from an empty mind
(Krech, Crutchfield, & Livson, 1969, p. 418) or from a man devoid of specific skills, that is, when there is no subject-matter for
reflection or no prior minimal knowledge.
B) The characteristics of information. There can be many that contribute here: either essential or, on the contrary, unimportant
facts, superficial or out-dated information which runs contrary
to the present state of things; when the information is unclear,
inaccurate, or has double meaning, or it may be based on stereotypes.
48
Elena V. Borzova
We should give preference to the information that arouses doubt, disbelief, or disagreement. A good stimulating effect is produced by contradictory or unexpected information. One generally shared requirement is
that the content should be related to the topics that the students discuss
in their mother-tongue outside the classroom. Of great benefit are the
materials related to cultural issues, especially when they contain the
differences in some spheres of the native country and the foreign country. It will make sense to leave out those materials that contain trivial or
moralising assumptions.
C) The mode of presentation of the content also has a role to play. If
it is presented illogically, when the cause and effect are confused
and the conclusion is irrelevant and inconsistent with prior reasoning, then there is much to think about.
The key-concepts of the subject-matter should be presented dynamically, that is with the view of how it has been changing in the course
of time. It should reveal diverse links among different groups of people
involved and through their diverse activities and in varied contexts with
regard to the students’ personal experiences and values.
A Chain of Critical Thinking Tasks
The more opinions and assessments can arise on the basis of the content, the more premises for critical thinking and discussion there will be
as well as the higher task-generating capacity of the material is. While
choosing a material, we need to consider how many related and realistic tasks can be developed on its basis. The more tasks can be offered,
the better results concerning the development of the students’ experiences can be achieved. It does not make sense to bring the materials
that have a very limited perspective for task-development, because it
is clear that a short-term usage of the material cannot guarantee its
complete, adequate and long-term acquisition.
What the students do, and how, actually determines what experiences they gain. The content and the task together trigger motivation
and emotions (or do not) and through this they influence the degree of
the students’ involvement and the outcome. The subject-matter gives
food for thought and serves as a stimulus and base for thinking. We
can observe the results of thinking through observing the students’ utterances in the foreign language. Each task should be focused on a
particular critical thinking skill. It enables the students to practice every
49
skill inside (in their inner speech) and express its outcome (orally or in
writing). In communication with other people our thoughts are checked,
discussed, and evaluated. When we hear other people’s reactions, we
are driven to the further analysis of what we think.
What we conclude is that every task supposes a combination of a
critical thinking operation and its expression by means of the foreign
language. As critical thinking consists of varied operations and skills,
we cannot do with a single type of tasks. We need a chain of tasks. This
chain must be applied across varied content and gradually the students
develop a critical thinking approach to problem-solving and decisionmaking. At first we intentionally stretch the process of critical thinking
into a sequence of graded stages. While thinking critically, the students
establish a fact (prove that it is true or not); decide whether it is good or
bad (evaluate) and determine what should be done.
Each stage is directed by a number of tasks that require thinking
and expressing oneself. In this process, awareness shifts away from
remembering language forms towards meaningful self-expression and
understanding other students’ thoughts through appropriate application
of foreign language units. The point here is that many of the specifics are forgotten within a few weeks, but these specifics at the time of
learning are extremely important—they are used for the development of
ideas which do stay with us. We use these specific facts in our analysis,
interpretation, and associations (Bloom, Hastings, & Madaus, 1971, p.
142), in our reasoning. They serve as evidence and as logical proof in
grounding our conclusions.
Learning to regularly apply this critical thinking chain across varied
content areas, the students become more flexible and efficient. In some
time they become able to use it more quickly omitting some steps and
in more varied ways.
One of the key-problems related to tasks is how to organize them
into a logically successive chain which stretches the process of critical thinking and communicating and through this provides conditions
for practising both. We lead the students through this chain once and
again. This spiral chain is applied to every new topic that the students
learn to discuss in the foreign language. Each topic relies on what was
achieved before and creates premises for further advancement. We
facilitate recycling when the students recycle what has been learned
(activate their prior experiences), but in new situations, under new circumstances, and in relation to some new subject-matter. Thus, the students work with the same content or use the same language units in
different but related ways. Passing on to a new topic, they apply similar
50
Elena V. Borzova
methods of approaching the content. They inquire into the topic starting
with facts, then passing on to connections among facts and reasonable evaluations, and finally arrive at well-grounded solutions. All these
stages engage them into active inner dialogue and discussions.
As a school and university teacher, I always try to incorporate critical
thinking tasks into every lesson. I have observed the following:
9 some students are lazy or not used to thinking thoroughly. They
try to do the task quickly and then relax. They are usually content
with some superficial treatment of the issue under discussion.
Therefore, I often ask them additional questions or give extra
tasks to focus them on implicit meaning or various options or
invite other students to develop situations together with such students;
9 when students have time for individual reflections or first discuss
the issue in small groups, their answers are better-grounded and
linguistically more correct;
9 at first, it is easier for the students to reflect on two or three opinions or facts where the controversy is on the surface. It is harder
when there is only one fact or opinion;
9 another difficulty is when they need to analyze the content based
on a generally shared stereotype;
9 when the students start doing critical thinking tasks, first they
need an outline which directs their gradual steps; graphic organizers also help see the relationships among facts.
After doing critical thinking tasks on a regular basis, they can do without such prompts; the words that the students do not know and ask
the teacher to translate for them in the course of their work, are easily
remembered and used later;
9 references to the facts and opinions discussed before can serve
as very good cues later;
9 the students get involved in really heated discussions and try
to apply the critical thinking approach when the problem being
discussed is of great interest to them outside the classroom;
9 while using critical thinking tasks, we should not try to impose
either ideas or steps that need to be taken. It is necessary for the
teacher to convince the students by real-life examples that they
can benefit if they approach crucial issues through critical thinking;
9 in the course of time, having practiced the critical thinking approach to problem-solving and discussions, many students ea-
51
gerly and easily try to transfer it into other situations outside the
classroom when they communicate in their mother tongue.
Stages of Studying a Topic
The next question that arises is how to incorporate and sequence diverse materials and critical thinking tasks into the textbooks at hand.
We suggest the following stages of studying one topic within one teaching cycle:
1. Introduction into the topic. It includes activating the students’ experiences (prior knowledge, opinions and attitudes to what will
be discussed, related vocabulary and grammar) and through this
motivates them to the further exploration of the topic. Then we
pass on to the introduction of new vocabulary and grammar.
This stage is usually well presented in the textbooks. As a rule, teachers need to add a few tasks aimed at predicting and planning (perspective tasks), as well as retrospective tasks (aimed at recalling what the
students already know). At this stage, we address the students’ reproductive thinking and memory and try to stir their curiosity.
2. Model stage. At this stage, the students work with the model text
from the textbook, which presents some main ideas and demonstrates how the related language units from the previous stage
are used to express content. First the students work within the
given content and language (the model text), then they learn to
transform the text (paraphrase, expand, summarize, evaluate,
etc.). Through these tasks, skills and habits are formed in relation
to particular subject matter. We address both reproductive and
logical thinking.
Textbooks always contain such texts for reading and listening comprehension and a variety of pre-reading and after-reading activities. Sometimes we need to update the given texts or add some extra prompts for
weak students.
3. Flexibility stage. At this stage we go far beyond the model text
and offer a diversity of materials and tasks aimed at developing
the students’ critical thinking and language skills. This stage can
be subdivided into a few steps:
52
Elena V. Borzova
a) Individual preparation: students read the offered material, organize the information provided by the text and get ready to
share the content with those students who have not read it.
b) Sharing: when the students exchange/share the information
from the texts. Those who have not read them, collect the
information from their fellow students. The work is arranged in
rotating pairs (or groups), sometimes the students exchange
materials (circle work).
c) Individual work: the students analyze the information they
have collected (classify, compare, evaluate, identify its
strengths and weaknesses, draw preliminary conclusions and
arguments).
d) Optional: in groups, the students pool information or discuss
their ideas and consider different solutions, etc.
e) Presentations and class discussion.
f) Writing (individual or circle work).
At this stage, the students confront a lot of facts, opinions and arguments which they receive from their partners. They learn to apply critical thinking skills to get a better understanding of a problem and to
come up with a well-grounded solution. The students are expected not
to remember ready-made thoughts, but to think for themselves using
the gathered information as evidence.
Textbooks occasionally offer a few texts (problems) and scarce critical thinking assignments. Therefore, teachers need to find and incorporate additional materials as well as to offer a chain of critical thinking
tasks which will involve the students into sharing, polling, analyzing,
evaluating, etc. Our observations prove that if this stage is omitted,
then, later, the students face a lot of difficulties participating in free discussions of complex problems.
4. Survey stage. This stage is aimed at further development of communicative competence and simultaneously of other key competences (informational, socio-cultural, intellectual, interactional)
required for real-life situations and activities. The students fulfil
project assignments and participate in discussions, debates, and
role-plays, they do case-studies which are based on integrated
skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing), flexible language
habits, collected facts and opinions, as well as values and attitudes. They shape their final position and reflect on their own
thinking. At this stage, we address the students’ creative thinking.
53
Textbooks usually offer a few project topics. Teachers can diversify assignments and problems for the students’ surveys.
The guideline “diversity of students—diversity of materials and tasks”
is related to the content and the mode of the students’ interaction in the
classroom. The guideline “multifunctional foreign language acquisition
through critical thinking tasks” deals with the nature of the students’ activities by means of the foreign language. They both, when consistently
and appropriately applied in the classroom, lead to a higher order foreign language acquisition. This approach allows teachers to organize
foreign language learning which lives up to the students’ expectations
mentioned at the beginning of this article: to overcome boredom in the
classroom, to guarantee a higher level of achievement, and to engage
learners in diverse, challenging activities.
Of course, they can also cause a few problems related to educational traditions (Stotesbury, 2002, p. 205). Besides, at first sight they seem
to have little to do with foreign language teaching. Time is also a crucial
issue. It is impossible to experimentally prove their effectiveness, we
mostly rely on qualitative research. Some critical thinking tasks can be
difficult for some students because of the shortage of vocabulary or because they are shy. A conflict may arise while discussing certain issues.
Teachers often have a vague idea of critical thinking or are reluctant
to look for extra materials and tasks. But we believe that the gains are
worth the efforts.
The coursebook that could reflect many of the ideas mentioned
above should
9 offer abundant, diverse materials, not only in print, and a number
of references to different sources which all together allow to create the amplified learning environment. Within every single unit
(topic), these materials provide diverse opinions and facts which
are split into a set of short texts distributed among the students
which are meant for sharing, critical thinking and discussing;
9 contain numerous tasks based on these materials which can involve the students into varied activities where the foreign language is used as one of the means. All these tasks and materials
are supposed to facilitate the multifunctionl usage of the foreign
language. Many of the offered tasks rely on varied types of thinking and metacognitive strategies, interweave with each other
within the unit and across different units, and in the end provide
the students’ well-grounded development and flexible acquisition
of the foreign language.
54
Elena V. Borzova
References
Bloom, B., Hastings, J., & Madaus, G. (1971). Handbook on formative evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Freeley, A. (1996). Argumentation and debate: Critical thinking for reasoned
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Judy, S. (1981). Explorations of the teaching of English. 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row.
Krashen, S. (1981). Effective second language acquisition: Insights from research. In J. Alatis, H. Altmanad, & P. Alatis (Eds.), The second language classroom: Directions for the 1980s. Oxford: Oxford University
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Krech, D., Crutchfield, R., & Livson, N. (1969). Elements of psychology. 2nd ed.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Kuzovlev, V. P., Lapa, N. M., et al. (2005). English 10–11: Student’s book. 7th ed.
Moscow: ”Prosvescheniye”.
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Pitman, G. (1963). Teaching structural English. Brisbane: Jacaranda.
Richards, J. (1993). Beyond the textbook: The role of commercial materials in
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Skehan, P. (2001). Tasks and language performance assessment. In M. Bygate, P. Skehan, & M. Swain (Eds.), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 167–184). Harlow:
Longman.
Stotesbury, H. (2002). Critical text processing: Issues and practices, University
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Papers from the 7th Cercles Conference: Paris, 19–21 September: Cercles (2004), 199–205.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1982). Мышление и речь (Thinking and Speech)//Собр.соч.:
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55
STRONG SIGNALS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION,
WITH A VIEW TO FUTURE VISIONS
PIRJO HARJANNE & SEPPO TELLA
RESEARCH CENTRE FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION (REFLECT)
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI
PIRJO.HARJANNE<AT>HELSINKI.FI, SEPPO.TELLA<AT>HELSINKI.FI
Abstract
Foreign language education (FLE) is generally expected to reflect current conceptions
of human beings, knowledge, teaching, studying, learning, and knowing. Today’s FLE
can be characterised, for instance, as socio-culturally oriented, communicative and
transcultural. In this article, we will study some strong FL-specific signals that characterise this kind of FLE. The notion of weak signals refers to those barely noticeable
signals that surround us and are likely to become important trends or phenomena at
a later stage. However, we prefer to talk about strong signals that are clearly perceivable in current FLE and are likely to have a strong impact on future FLE, provided
that they are allowed to grow steadily and taken into account properly by increasing
numbers of FL teachers and teacher educators.
As strong signals, we discuss (i) the holistic view on language exemplified through
language as an empowering mediator; (ii) the holistic view on language proficiency;
(iii) the holistic view on language learning focusing on interaction and participation,
exemplified through scaffolding, collaborative dialogue and affordance; (iv) the holistic view on language teaching exemplified through task-based language teaching
(TBLT) and LanguageQuest, and (v) information and communication technologies
(ICTs), with a view to Web 2.0.
We argue that dealing with strong signals is of primary importance. in order to
understand the current nature of FLE and to be able to envision future FLE. We also
acknowledge that these strong signals might, at their best, lead to or, at their worst,
partially shadow some weaker signals that only perspicacious persons can sense at
the moment.
We also argue that by analysing strong FL-specific signals, we can approach
more easily certain future visions of FLE, which may then become a spectrum of different options and opportunities to us. Visions almost always imply an idea of a more
desired future. Three visions, based on the strong signals analysed in this article, are
presented: Brusselisation, Fraglargement, and Rejuvenation of the old continent. The
future is seen as an opportunity, not as a threat.
Keywords: communicative, transcultural foreign language education (FLE); weak and
strong signals; holistic view; empowering mediator; participation; interaction; scaffolding; collaborative dialogue; affordance; TBLT; LanguageQuest; ICTs; Web 2.0;
future visions.
56
Introduction
It is a current belief that foreign language education (FLE) should reflect deeply enough current conceptions of human beings, knowledge,
teaching, studying, learning and knowing. Current FLE may well be
characterised, for example, as socio-culturally oriented, communicative
and transcultural. In this article, we will study some strong FL-specific
signals that characterise this kind of current FLE. Usually, the notion
of weak signals is used to refer to those barely noticeable signals that
surround us and are likely to become important trends or phenomena
at a later stage. Weak signals are signs of the future, foreshadowing
emerging developments.
In this article, we prefer to talk about strong signals that are more
than likely to have a strong impact on future FLE, provided they are
allowed to grow steadily and taken into proper account by increasing
numbers of FL teachers and teacher educators. To some, these are
still weak signals; to us, they already represent important FLE trends.
Although conceptually somewhat diverging, these signals clearly characterise present-day FLE. To us, they are already adequately visible
and concrete enough to allow the development of current-to-future FLE
built on them.
To our way of thinking, through an analysis of strong FL-specific
signals we can approach more flexibly certain future visions of FLE,
which may then become a spectrum of different options and opportunities open to all of us. Visions to us are opportunities to visualise and
envision the future. And visions almost always imply an idea of a more
desired or desirable future.
Strong Signals
Strong signals—in other words, highly prominent trends in current
FLE—are likely to have an impact on future FLE if they are allowed to
grow steadily and taken into proper account by increasing numbers of
FL teachers and teacher educators.
As strong signals, we will discuss (i) the holistic view on language
exemplified through language as an empowering mediator; (ii) the holistic view on language proficiency; (iii) the holistic view on language
learning focusing on interaction and participation, exemplified through
scaffolding, collaborative dialogue and affordance; (iv) the holistic view
on language teaching exemplified through task-based language teach-
Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education, With a View To Future Visions
57
ing (TBLT) and LanguageQuest, and (v) information and communication technologies (ICTs), with a view to Web 2.0.
We have come to these strong signals through a pragmaticallyinformed selection between various options. These signals appear
frequently in the research literature and they are being discussed at
length at international conferences and workshops. More important, in
our opinion, they all represent overarching constructs that have a certain impact, even when considered on their own. Together, we argue,
their compound impact is highly substantial indeed. One extra asset is
that each of these can play an important role in any of the three major
components of the teaching–studying–learning (TSL) process we have
been analysing before (cf. Tella & Harjanne, 2004; Harjanne & Tella,
2007).
Admittedly, there are other strong signals as well, such as teaching
and studying practices with an emphasis on learner autonomy, to mention just one example. We also acknowledge that any strong signals
might, at their best, lead to or, at their worst, partially overshadow some
weaker signals that could also point to future megatrends or other important developments. Nevertheless, we feel that dealing with strong
signals is of primary importance in order to understand the current nature of FLE and to be able to envision future FLE.
The Holistic View on Language
One of the prominent strong signals in FLE is the holistic view on language. According to the socio-cultural view, language has both intellectual and social significance and is a primary mediator of learning
(Vygotsky, 1978). Language is thus seen as a socio-cultural medium,
which helps people to act in social situations (Säljö, 2000, pp. 87–89).
The socio-cultural view can be seen in the current conception of foreign
language. The view on foreign language has widened considerably
over the last few decades, from language as a tool or an instrument to
language as empowering mediator.
Foreign Language As an Empowering Mediator
One strong signal over the past couple of decades has been the increasingly growing importance of foreign language(s) in human beings’
growth process. In another context (Harjanne & Tella, 2007), we have
analysed this trend that shows how foreign languages, seen as instrumental subjects still as late as the 1980s, are now regarded as skills
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subjects, knowledge subjects and cultural subjects in our upper secondary schools’ national core curriculum (LOPS, 2003), and as skills
subjects and cultural subjects in the basic education curriculum (POPS,
2004). As a comparison, we would also like to point out that mother
tongue and literature are regarded in basic education as life-mastery
subjects as well as central knowledge, skills, cultural and art subjects
(POPS, 2004).
Foreign language, seen as an empowering mediator, is one example
of this chain of conceptual changes. We argue that, in the beginning,
the question was mostly of a weak signal, but which has gradually occupied the centre stage and can now be considered as something that
has a major impact on people’s conceptions of languages, language
proficiency and language teaching. As early as 1999, Tella (1999) argued that speaking of foreign languages exclusively as instrumental
subjects was too biased a standpoint that badly jeopardised the potential of foreign languages in people’s minds. He further contended that,
in addition to the instrumental use of function, languages should also be
regarded as intellectual partners, as creators and maintainers of new
studying, learning, working and communication contexts, and at their
best, as empowering mediators that would have a multiple impact on
human beings’ whole personalities (Tella, 1999).
What does it mean if a foreign language is seen as an empowering
mediator? Then language is seen to enhance, amplify and strengthen
in many ways a human being’s mental, social and interactive capacity to work, to communicate and to act. We felt the temptation to start
to talk of “agency” in the spirit of, say, van Lier (2007, p. 16) when he
defines agency, according to Ahearn (2001, p. 112), as “the socio-culturally mediated capacity to act”, but as our definition of an empowering
mediator is much wider, we content ourselves with this note. Language
as an empowering mediator enables various functional interfaces between different actors, such as teachers and students, among students,
but also, importantly, between human beings and content as well as
target cultures. Equally important is the fact that the metaphor of an empowering mediator encourages language users to pay more conscious
attention to the role, significance and potential of foreign languages.
This new attitude towards language may also have an effect on how
language teaching, language studying and language learning should
be thought of.
When seen from an empowering mediator’s point of view, certain old
statements do not hold true any more: foreign languages are not just
tools; they are much more. English (Swedish, German, French…) is not
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just the medium or the object of instruction; rather, it is an interfacing
facilitator between one language and the culture embedded in it, and
another language and culture.
The Holistic View on Language Proficiency
In the same way as the view on language has widened, the views on
language proficiency have expanded, too, which we regard as a strong
signal in FLE. Today we speak of communicative language proficiency,
or even more widely of “[…] intercultural or transcultural language proficiency that is, crossing different cultural boundaries when exchanging
ideas and experiences with people from near and afar” (Tella, 1999;
Harjanne & Tella, 2007).
One of the latest descriptions of communicative language proficiency representing a holistic viewpoint is to be found in the Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001). It takes into consideration three very comprehensive dimensions that partly overlap
and interact with each other: the language learner’s and user’s general
competences, communicative language competences and the strategic
dimension. It is believed that all the knowledge and skills of a language
learner and user influence his ability to communicate in a foreign language. Thus, for instance, communicative proficiency also significantly
comprises a language learner’s and user’s attitudes, motivations, values, beliefs, personality factors, intercultural skills, and study skills
including, among other things, co-operative skills and heuristic skills.
Heuristic skills, which refer to the ability of the language learner and
user to cope, for instance, with new languages, people, and ways of behaving, are crucial to him/her in intercultural communication situations.
The present view on communicative language proficiency is thus not
only limited to linguistic knowledge and skills, but takes into account the
language learner and user with his/her knowledge, skills, awareness,
qualities and personality factors holistically.
Communicative transcultural language proficiency must be seen as
a whole. Even if oral proficiency occupies centre field in FLE, we must
bear in mind that the ultimate goal is multi-faceted language proficiency,
consisting of both oral and written receptive and productive skills (see
Harjanne & Tella, 2007). The holistic view on language proficiency takes
thus into account the real life language using situations where listening,
speaking, reading and writing interact and intertwine.
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The Holistic View on Language Learning
One strong and remarkable signal in FLE is the present holistic views
on language learning. Today it is fairly generally agreed that reflecting
on learning merely through one single approach is not sufficient to describe the whole complex phenomenon (e.g., Swain, 2000, p. 103; Säljö,
2001, p. 109; Puolimatka, 2002, p. 83). From the language-didactic perspective, humanistic-experiential, cognitive-constructivistic, socio-constructivistic and socio-cultural approaches do not compete or rule out
each other but are complementary. Learning communicative language
proficiency is understood as a complex process where cognitive, social
and affective functions intertwine with each other. The holistic view on
learning a foreign language requires thus that enough attention is paid
to the cognitive, social and affective dimensions of language learning
when planning and realising teaching, studying and communicative
practice. A foreign language cannot be studied or practised as units
detached from the context, but it requires that the students elaborate
and autonomously generate language in context-based and meaningful
communication in social interaction (see Harjanne, 2006).
Interaction
Interaction can be seen as a crucial strong signal in current views on
foreign language teaching, studying and learning. The role of interaction takes different manifestations and can be seen from different perspectives, which we deal with next.
The role of interaction is very dominant in foreign language learning from many perspectives. The socio-cultural view, which represents
a holistic perspective, emphasises social factors (Sfard, 1998, p. 12;
Ohta, 2000, p. 53). Even according to the latest cognitive research,
the origin of cognition, which emotion is closely linked with, lies in the
social interaction (see e.g., Watson-Gegeo, 2004). There are, however,
different conceptions of the ways interaction is linked to the uses of a
foreign language and its learning. The acquisition metaphor is related
to the cognitive-constructivistic conception of learning, where learning
a language is understood as an individual’s internal processes, in which
processing the input, noticing and paying attention are central. According to the acquisition metaphor, interaction offers a means to make the
linguistic input understandable (Krashen, 1985; input hypothesis) and
produce language (Swain, 1985; output hypothesis), which are considered to have an effect on the learning of a foreign language. Long’s
(e.g., 1996) interaction hypothesis suggests that one way of making the
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input comprehensible is to modify the input in the negotiation of meaning which arises from a communication break between the speakers.
According to the acquisition metaphor, interaction thus relates to learning only in an indirect way.
According to the participation metaphor, interaction is seen as a central factor in learning a foreign language. According to this metaphor, related to the humanistic-experiential and socio-constructivist conception
of learning and to the socio-cultural view on learning, learning takes
place as participation in communal activity (see e.g., Eteläpelto, 2002,
p. 17). The participation metaphor emphasises social factors and language learning is taken as participation in social interaction (e.g., Sfard,
1998; Donato, 2000). The basis of the socio-cultural view on learning is
Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD) whereby interaction stands in the centre. In socio-cultural theories interaction is seen
widely (e.g., Platt & Brookes, 2002), involving both the social dimension
and the verbal dimension, which intertwine with each other. Interaction
is considered to be much more than just a negotiation of meaning: the
role of interaction is regarded as crucial in the learning of a foreign language. According to the socio-cultural view, it is foreseen that we learn
a foreign language in interaction rather than through interaction (Ellis,
2003, pp. 176–177). Learning is seen as occurring in interaction and
appearing as interaction. In an ecological approach, “[….] the verbal
and nonverbal interaction in which the learner engages, are central to
an understanding of learning. In other words, they do not just facilitate
learning, they are learning in a fundamental way”, as van Lier (2000, p.
246) aptly puts it. According to the participation metaphor, interaction
thus relates to learning in quite a direct way. In Table 1 we present the
different views on learning, interaction, knowing and reasons for failure,
according to the acquisition and the participation metaphor primarily
relying on Donato (2000; widened by Harjanne, 2006, p. 183).
The meaning of social and verbal and nonverbal interaction, as well
as the meaning of co-operation, has increased in the attempt to understand and promote the studying, practice and learning of a foreign language. Nevertheless, it is also generally admitted that mere interaction
or discussion is not a sufficient context for the development of a foreign
language, but such communicative tasks are needed which make the
students negotiate meaning and pay attention to the language as a
formal system, too (e.g., Long, 1996; Skehan, 2003). In the cognitive
perspective, reasons for the significance of selective attention are given
by noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990) and is considered to take place
in the negotiation of meaning (e.g., Long, 1983, 1996). According to the
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socio-cultural view, paying attention takes place in social and verbal
interaction mediated, for instance, by scaffolding.
Table 1. Learning, interaction and knowing a foreign language and reasons for
failure in it, according to the acquisition metaphor and the participation metaphor (widened by Harjanne, 2006, p. 183; visual design by Harjanne & Tella).
Interaction as Scaffolding
The socio-cultural view on the mediating role of social and verbal interaction in language learning manifests itself clearly in the concept of
scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Scaffolding refers to “handing a ladder” at the right moment by an expert, in a dialogic interaction,
in those parts of the task that are beyond the novice’s reach regarding
his level of proficiency. Interaction requires reflective orientation and
enables scaffolding, which is considered useful from the point of view
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of learning a foreign language. The concept of scaffolding is closely
related to Vygotsky’s interpsychological and intrapsychological developmental levels, and scaffolding is often used with the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) or instead of it (see Glassman, 2001, p. 9). Wood
et al.’s (1976) concept of scaffolding refers originally to the interaction
between an expert and a novice, which thus involves a clear difference
in their expertise. Further, the core of the concept of scaffolding is the
function of teaching and withdrawal of the scaffolding when the novice can have control of the task and manage autonomously (see e.g.,
Wells, 1999, p. 249). It may be good to remember that, according to
Wood et al. (1976, p. 90, p. 98), scaffolding strengthens and maintains
the learner’s interest and goal towards the task, makes the task easier,
as well as demonstrates an ideal result and thus shows the contradiction between the produced result and the ideal result. The concept of
scaffolding is therefore fairly comprehensive. It refers not only to the
cognitive aspects of language learning but also to the social dimension of the development of a new skill and involves both the cognitive
demands of the task and the affective state of the person who performs
the task (see Ellis 2003, p. 181).
It is to be noted that successful scaffolding does not necessarily require an actual expert; rather, it can equally arise from the dialogic interaction between the students (e.g., Ohta 1995, p. 109). In other words,
an expert and a novice are flexible concepts. Scaffolding can be seen
as a crucial way for the students to construct dialogic and coherent discourse in social interaction (van Lier, 1992; see also Harjanne, 2006,
pp. 293–294). According to Lantolf (2000), peer scaffolding supports
the development of everyday functional language. On the other hand,
it is worth remembering that there are research results (e.g., Swain &
Lapkin, 1998; Harjanne, 2006) which show that peer scaffolding is not
always successful. One of the problems is that peer scaffolding may
be contingent instead of being systematic (see also Prabhu, 1987, p.
63). As a conclusion, we would like to argue that scaffolding provided
by a real expert, a mentor or a language teacher, is indispensable in a
foreign language classroom.
Scaffolding as an interactional process can, according to van Lier
(2007, p. 59), be seen as a practical pedagogical tool that is supportive
as well as autonomy-supporting. van Lier (2007, p. 60) describes pedagogical scaffolding as consisting of continuity (task repetition, connections, variation), contextual support (a safe, supportive environment),
intersubjectivity (mutual engagement, encouragement), contingency
(task procedures, the teacher’s actions depending on the learners’ ac-
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tions), handover/takeover (a growing role for the learner, attending to
emergent skills and knowledge) and flow (skills and challenges are in
balance, participants are in “tune” with each other). Thus, interaction
as pedagogical scaffolding covers a wide field of the foreign language
teaching–studying–learning process.
Interaction as Collaborative Dialogue
Collaborative dialogue refers to the students’ supportive interaction and
reciprocal scaffolding while performing communicative tasks. It implies
dialogic mediation co-constructed by the actors. Ellis (2003, p. 24, p.
182) prefers the term collaborative dialogue to scaffolding. He states
that dialogic mediation should be seen as an activity constructed by the
participators together in a dialogue, not only as a contribution brought
by one participant (cf. scaffolding). The term collaborative dialogue mediates better the reciprocity involved in the concept of scaffolding. We
like to agree with Ellis.
To become collaborative dialogue, reciprocal scaffolding in foreign
language communicative tasks should focus on problem-solving and
therefore contain knowledge-building, which enables the participants
to go beyond their current level of performance in line with Vygotsky’s
zone of proximal development (ZPD), as Swain (2000) argues. It is to
be noted that not all dialogue is knowledge-building. In collaborative
dialogue it is essential that the students also reflect on linguistic form
while communicating meanings. In other words, collaborative dialogue
facilitates solving a linguistic problem while supporting language learning. Collaborative dialogue is at once a cognitive and social activity—
language-focused problem-solving through social interaction. (Swain,
2000; see also Swain & Lapkin, 1998; Antón & DiCamilla, 1999.)
Interaction as scaffolding or collaborative dialogue can be seen as
a powerful factor in the foreign language teaching–studying–learning
process.
Interaction as Affordance
In our analysis, affordance is one of the strongest signals accessible to
FL teachers and users at the moment. To start with, affordance provides
language learners and users with one new perspective to interaction.
Affordance is a reciprocal relationship between an organism and a particular feature of its environment (Gibson, 1979). van Lier considers it
as “a particular property of the environment that is relevant—for good or
for ill—to an active, perceiving organism in that environment” (van Lier,
2000, p. 252) and as “relationships of possibility” (van Lier, 2007, p. 53).
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We have argued elsewhere (Tella & Harjanne, 2007) that affordances
can be seen as an alternative approach to a holistic view on language,
FL teaching, studying and learning, and the interaction related to them.
In our opinion, the notion of affordance is powerful enough to crystallise the key principles of communicative, transcultural language education. The relation to learning is also quite clear if we follow Segalowitz’s
(2001, p. 15) train of thought: “[a]ffordances … are important for learning because it is only by being able to perceive affordances that an
organism is able to navigate its way around the environment successfully”. Language, as we argue in the next paragraph, is like any other
environment through and in which we will have to be able to navigate
with success.
What is relevant in the notion of affordance is that it serves as a
bridge to individually-perceived action environments, such as teaching,
studying, learning and communication environments. A good example
of these kinds of action environments is a foreign language classroom,
brimming with opportunities for action at any one time, in other words,
full of affordances. The teacher must realise, however, that different
pupils perceive different affordances and act differently, despite the fact
that the language classroom remains the same or even when the linguistic tasks given to pupils look the same.
It is also worth noticing, as Harjanne (2006, p. 170) has pointed
out, that language classroom affordances are at once linguistic and social. Harjanne (2006) showed how her active and engaged pupils first
perceived and then utilised as possibilities to participate, interact and
communicate all those social and linguistic affordances that the practice context provided them within the teaching–studying–learning (TSL)
process. We may then conclude that the more active pupils the more
they are prepared to meet and to benefit from affordances around them.
In addition to this, Singleton and Aronin (2007, p. 83) have noted that
language users knowing more than two languages (multilinguals) have
a more extensive range of affordances available to them than other
language users.
We believe that it is easy to see the link between affordances and
what we earlier argued about languages also being empowering mediators: by utilising linguistic and social affordances to an increasing
extent, language learners are bound to realise that languages are not
just tools but also intellectual partners that amplify their intellectual capacity, new context creators that allow them to work, communicate and
study in new emerging environments—both physical and virtual—and,
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finally, that languages can also become empowering mediators in both
communication and social interaction.
As one of our strong signals points to the educational use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), we would like to combine
that signal with affordance and finish with a concrete example of a technological jungle of affordances, capable of combining all four language
skill components (listening, reading, speaking, writing) in one single
environment: a modern cell phone. A cell phone is undoubtedly “a(n
affordable) jungle” (Tella, 2005) of functionalities that we could use at
our leisure. A cell phone is an affordance jungle that smartly combines
various language components, such as speaking (using the cell phone
as a phone, which still happens to many from time to time), listening
(to another person, music or the radio) as well as reading and writing
(SMS, MMS, e-mail, voice messages and different kinds of textual and
graphical services). Reading in this context should be understood more
broadly to include viewing as well, such as watching TV or different
video clips on the cell phone. These “new languages” embedded in current smart telephones allow us to play and to work with joint linguistic
activities. Think of using a GPS navigation system on your phone. Then
you would need all language components when reacting to the instructions given, shown or announced by the navigation system.
All the different affordances provided to us by a modern cell phone
can be divided into dormant and dominant affordances (Tella, 2005).
Dormant affordances represent a new “language”, those properties
and functionalities of a cell phone that the users are not fully aware of.
Dominant affordances are those properties and functionalities that we
know are accessible to us and between which we have created a conscious and functional relationship. Using the language metaphor, that
relationship represents a language we can be at ease with, something
we master, something we like to use. In this sense, the linguistic and
social affordances allowed through the jungle of a cell phone are likely
to lead to a new kind of learning, as seen through ecological theories
of language: learning is no longer only processing the linguistic input
exclusively or exploiting the linguistic intake at a personal, contextual or
environmental level, but preferably developing, furthering and endorsing increasingly effective ways of dealing with the surrounding world
and its meanings (Tella, 2005). In other words, a cell phone offers affordances, that is, learning opportunities through participating in interactive communication at both receptive and productive levels.
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The Holistic View on Language Teaching
At the same time as the views on language, language proficiency and
language learning have widened, the view on language teaching has
also changed and been updated. To our way of thinking, contemporary
foreign language teaching needs always to imply communicative language teaching, which is seen as holistic pedagogy. In another context
(Tella & Harjanne, 2004), we have combined communicative language
teaching with our attempt to develop a deeper understanding of other
people and cultures together with critical and methodological eclecticity.
This wide conception of language teaching is shared, among others,
by Kohonen (2004), who, in lieu of communicative language teaching, speaks of language education, which represents holistic language
teaching and growth concerning the student’s whole personality.
The basis of communicative language teaching is the view on language as context-based communication and the view on language
learning as an interactive, cooperative, experiential and context-based
process (e.g., Ellis, 2003). Communicative language teaching as a
methodological approach covers many schools of thought, which share
the same basic principles but contain different kinds of philosophical
details or teaching practices. However, it is common to the different interpretations and applications of communicative language teaching that
they represent the idea of learning by doing and the direct practice of
communication (e.g., Richards & Rodgers, 2001, pp. 155–158; Rodgers, 2001).
In order to be communicative, foreign language teaching has to follow certain principles. The main principle is the objective to develop the
students’ ability to express meanings and use a foreign language for
communication in social interaction. Communicative language teaching
represents learner-centred teaching, which requires that the students
interact with each other. Tasks that represent interactive communicative
language teaching include, for instance, pair and group work, assignments that are connected with language using situations outside the
classroom and those that are meaningful from the point of view of the
student’s life circle. Further, the tasks should lead to authentic communication and spontaneity in conversations (Brown, 2001, p. 48, p.
166).
Communicative language teaching is divided into two versions:
weak and strong (Howatt, 1984). The strong version is represented for
instance by task-based language teaching (TBLT), whereby the use of
a foreign language means learning it (Howatt, 1984, p. 279). TBLT is
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based on second language acquisition theories and builds itself, as the
name indicates, exclusively on “tasks” (see e.g., Ellis, 2003). It is based
on the use of tasks as a core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching. It includes several slightly diverging approaches, but
its basis is on the theory of language learning. Edmondson (2005, pp.
53–54) aptly divides these approaches into three schools as follows:
(i) the procedural syllabus approach, initiated by Prabhu (e.g., 1987),
the British school of “task-based instruction” (e.g., Skehan, 1998), and
the “focus on form” paradigm, centred around the work of Long (1985;
Long & Norris, 2000).
Within TBLT, a current belief is that students learn a foreign language by using it creatively for communication and that trial and error
are an essential part of this learning process (Rodgers, 2001). One of
the key principles of TBLT states that language learning is promoted
by authentic communication and through using meaningful language in
meaningful tasks by the learners (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 223).
A communicative task, which can be either authentic or pedagogical, is the core unit in planning and implementing teaching (e.g., Richards & Rodgers, 2001, pp. 223–228). What makes a task communicative, then? A communicative task has been defined and described in
many different ways (e.g., Skehan, 1998, 2003; Brown, 2001). According to the definition of the Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR, 2001, p. 158), both authentic and pedagogic tasks are communicative when they require understanding, negotiation of meaning
and expressing thoughts to reach the communicative goal. What the
various definitions of a communicative task have in common is that they
underscore the pragmatic language use focusing on meaning, the communicative goal and the connection of communication with life outside
the classroom. The input of the communicative task can be derived
from a large number of sources belonging to the student’s environment,
in other words by using various linguistic and social affordances around
the students. These affordances make it possible for the students to
bring their own experiences and contents into practice. It should also be
noted that, as is the case in communication outside the classroom, in
practice the communicative task is always made up of several subskills
of the language, in other words listening, reading and writing in addition
to speaking.
In task-based language teaching (TBLT), direct communication is
primary, but a remarkable consensus holds that mere interaction is not
sufficient: the tasks are supposed to draw and focus the attention on
the critical features of the language, too (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
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pp. 223–228). There is a need for communicative tasks that make the
students negotiate the meaning and pay sufficient attention to the language as a formal system also while communicating (with the focus on
meaning) (e.g., Long, 1996; Skehan, 2003). The building of co-operational knowledge, scaffolding, private speech and creating intersubjectivity (i.e., shared understanding of a task and its goals and performance as defined by Antón & DiCamilla, 1999, pp. 240–243) are further
coupled with task-based language teaching (Ellis, 2003, p. 253, pp.
276–278).
Task-based language teaching can be seen as a holistic approach
to language education. It includes foreign language teaching, studying
and learning in a language classroom and outside. The tasks are often
integrated tasks, i.e., they include both a subject, such as history, and
a foreign language. An example of task-based language teaching is
LanguageQuest, which is based on network-based education (NBE;
aka blended learning).
LanguageQuest is an approach to using the Internet as an integral
part of language teaching. LanguageQuest is a Dutch (TalenQuest)
Web- and learner-centred classroom project (http://www.kennisnet.nl/
thema/talenquest/english/) based on an American project WebQuest
by Dodge (http://webquest.org/) and March (http://tommarch.com/ozblog/). A LanguageQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most
or all of the information used by the students is drawn from the Web. It
is a scaffolded learning structure that uses links to essential resources
on the Internet and an authentic task to motivate students’ investigation
of a central, open-ended question, development of individual expertise
and participation in a group process. The students process the information found on the Internet, or in the real world, by transforming it
into a more sophisticated understanding and context-related form. They
make sense of the information and demonstrate their understanding by
creating Web pages.
Task-based language teaching, as a form of content-based instruction, is a challenge for present-day language teaching and studying,
and can be seen as a possibility and even one of the strongest signals
in future foreign language education.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
One of the backdrop themes in this article has been the duality of weak
signals versus strong signals. As we mentioned in the beginning, weak
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signals originally referred in radio astronomy to barely noticeable signals over a fairly large frequency range. Figuratively speaking, weak
signals have then been used to indicate some new emerging phenomena that only the most perspicacious persons have been able to see or
to “sense” as important future developments. Weak signals have often
been on centre stage when information and communication technologies (ICTs) are referred to, and even more frequently, when they have
been incorporated into education in general and into foreign language
education in particular. One example of a modern cell phone was given
earlier in this article in connection with affordance. A few more will be
given below, although the main focus will then be shifted towards one
recent development, namely Web 2.0.
One of the weak signals in the domain of ICTs has been the notion of
a virtual school, first launched by Paulsen (1987) and then introduced
to Finnish educational parlance by Tella (e.g., 1992, 1995). It was only
since the mid-to-late 1990s that the virtual school became a strong signal in Finland, especially after the Finnish Ministry of Education and
the Finnish National Board of Education started using it more and more
extensively. Another weak signal was recognised in 1996 by a Finnish
team of educators (cf. Nummi et al., 1998; later reported in Sariola et al.,
2002) when the first models of Nokia communicators were put into the
hands of primary and lower secondary school pupils for various kinds
of tasks. These weak signals were gradually strengthened and finally
became better known as e-learning or m-learning (mobile learning) in
the early 2000s. In both cases, educational applications were already
thought of and implemented before the signals could be recognised as
strong by larger audiences.
At this very moment, Web 2.0 represents a weak signal in foreign
language education, though it is certainly much more widely known in
circles of media educationalists, for instance. On writing this article (November, 2007), we are of the opinion that not too many foreign language
teachers or teacher educators are aware or cognisant of the emerging
impact of Web 2.0. Nevertheless, we believe that it represents a quantum leap ahead and is bound to become a strong signal, even in FLE,
in a number of years. Therefore, Web 2.0 is something we very much
like to present as a strong signal.
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Web 2.0
What could be a better way to define Web 2.0 than consulting and quoting Wikipedia, one of the best-known examples of Web 2.0 applications:
“Web 2.0, a phrase coined by O’Reilly Media in 2003 … refers to a perceived
second generation of web-based communities and hosted services—such
as social-networking sites, wikis and folksonomies—which facilitate collaboration and sharing between users.” (Wikipedia on Web 2.0)
Indeed, technically, we are still using the Internet as everybody knows
it. Yet, Web 2.0 (pronounced, by the way, [web tu: ∂u]), represents a
social revolution, as it is geared towards facilitating collaboration and
social sharing. This is why many regard Web 2.0 as social media or
social networking, which aptly describes its intrinsic character.
Why and how does Web 2.0 then look revolutionary and not only
evolutionary? It might help to refer to a table contrasting our present
modes (Web 1.0) of using the Internet as opposed to modes put forward through Web 2.0 (Table 2).
Table 2. Some Salient Features of and Differences Between Web 1.0 and Web
2.0 (as conceptualised by O’Reilly, 2005).
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Most Finnish language teachers, we argue, are using Web 1.0 or—
as most of them would describe their practice: the Internet. Some if
not most of them would have recourse to their own personal home
pages. Some of them might have downloaded the Encyclopedia Britannica onto their laptops—though, we might add, without any irony,
not too many. Some of them might be enjoying MP3 music on their
iPods or some other multimedia players. Again, some of them (might)
use content management systems (CMSs) or IDLEs (integrated distributed learning environments), such as BSCW, BlackBoard/WebCT
or Moodle. They would also use different kinds of taxonomies, such as
diverse library databases—and, for that matter—be quite happy about
their present status quo while, we might add, being blissfully ignorant of
any other state of the art in this field. We could continue to analyse the
differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 (3.0, 4.0 and so on ad infinitum), but we prefer leaving it to the readers’ own amusement (or irritation), as this also exemplifies the new world of Web 2.0; not everything
is explained thoroughly or even sufficiently: it is up to our reader(s) to
decide whether s/he//they want(s) anything more.
When seen from the perspective of emerging Web 2.0 applications,
many FL colleagues of ours would probably be interested in and keen
on learning about the potential impact that Web 2.0 applications might
have on their professional habits and lives. Let us just point to some,
partly based on our own experience when coming across Web 2.0. For
instance, Wikipedia Encyclopaedia is something that most of us use, in
lieu of previously popular albeit high-priced online encyclopaedia. Admittedly, Wikipedia contains mistakes and errors together with biased
articles, but think about it, very often so do even highly-respected printed encyclopaedias, especially when the current theory is challenged by
others.
Some of the major conceptual changes are about to take place once
you realise that static home pages you have been creating cannot give
the flexibility that any blog affords. Blogging, in other words writing one’s
own interactive web pages or diary on the web, has become very important in many areas, not only in education. Think of how media reports
what some politicians write about their opinions on their personal blogs
(Teachers of Swedish: have a look at Carl Bildt’s blog at http://bildt.
blogspot.com/ or any of us, view Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen’s blog
at http://www.keskusta.fi/Suomeksi/Matti.iw3). Publishing something on
one’s own home page is no longer enough. Publishing has changed to
participation, as Web 2.0 applications allow others to comment on what
you have written yourself. This is clearly seen on wikis, which have
73
started to replace more rigid and inflexible course management systems (CMSs). Wikis, on the other hand, allow others to comment and
participate. From our point of view—and from the point of view of foreign language education in general—this is something quite revolutionary, and even fascinating. An increasingly growing number of people
can and will communicate with one another via Web 2.0 applications.
Let this also be a good reminder of the fact that it is no longer crucial to
only promote oral skills; preferably, as language teachers and teacher
educators, we should know—as we always should have known—how
to promote multifaceted, many-sided language proficiency, both written
and oral skills. The latest developments of ICTs in the form of Web 2.0
are most likely to activate all language skills in us.
One more clarification of Table 2: Web 2.0 also invites and encourages us to use taxonomies of our own, now called folksonomies. Users
on Web 2.0 no longer rely on top-down established taxonomies; they
prefer to classify and categorise things as they like themselves. These
new categories are called tags—think of them as Web 2.0 descriptors
or keywords—and tagging is one of the major and most empowering
features on Web 2.0. Let us give an example of language teaching. Imagine a language teacher (educator) writing an article about, say, Web
2.0. What very often happens right now is that the writer goes to Google
and thus tries to find relevant sources. Very often, what follows is that
Google (or any other search engine) gives (hundreds of) thousands of
sources, out of which the majority are secondary or completely useless.
In the world of Web 2.0, however, many of these articles are tagged.
This means that if you locate an article that has been tagged by some of
the experts in the field, then you might consider using that article yourself. Tagging gives some added value in indicating that these articles
have been regarded as important and deemed as useful by some other
experts as well.
Wikipedia, blogs, folksonomies, wikis, tagging, RSS, on-demand
video, file-sharing, blogs and podcasting, CmapTools … yes, these are
some of the terms and concepts embedded in Web 2.0. When getting
familiar with Web 2.0, we also need to familiarise ourselves with new
lexis. This is of course partly a reason for “magnetism of the past”, in
other terms, reluctance to adopt new ideas: even new terms always call
for extra work in order to understand what it is all about. However, we
believe that effort is needed and not unnecessary at all. The seven key
characteristics of Web 2.0 are as follows: participation, standards, decentralisation, openness, modularity, user control and identity. The heart
of Web 2.0 is how it converts inputs (user-generated content, opinions,
74
applications), through a series of mechanisms (technologies, recombination, collaborative filtering, structures, syndication) into emergent
outcomes that are of value to the entire community.
Let us summarise what some of the benefits of Web 2.0 might be
from the perspective of FLE. First, Web 2.0 implies a more intensive
use of language, both receptive and productive, both oral and written.
Second, it brings with it many new affordances, new opportunities, to
participate socially over the web. Instead of just publishing static information pages, such as home pages, it gives ample opportunity to
share experiences with others, to send and receive comments from
other communicators. In other words, Web 2.0 emphasises collaborative and community-building aspects of communication, which, at the
same time, also underscores the importance of socio-constructivist and
socio-cultural learning approaches. Third, it means giving up dinosaurtypes of ICT applications, often called CMSs, and replacing them with
more flexible, open-ended and truly interactive wikis. Fourth, Web 2.0
encourages us to rely on and contribute to open source software such
as Wikipedia, at the cost of commercially-produced products. Finally,
Web 2.0 means open source, open content and open courseware. The
net is full of various services, applications and programs that can substantially contribute to foreign language teaching, studying and learning
in novel ways that have not been realised or even conceptualised so far.
These materials are often referred to as Open Educational Resources
(OER1) or Free and Open Source Software (FOSS2).
What, then, are the prerequisites of having a fair command of Web
2.0? First, getting familiar with new terminology (blogs, tagging, wikis,
RSS, etc). Second, not being afraid of something novel that has not traditionally been part of FLE. This is something completely different from
easygoing learner autonomy, European Language Portfolios or CEFR
proficiency scales now familiar to most informed language teachers
and language educators. Web 2.0 calls for an extra effort, but so have
educational uses of ICTs since the early 1980s, when it all officially
started in Finland.
At the same time, Web 2.0 gives all language teachers breathtaking
new affordances that should be part of any teacher education course
now and in the future. Think of shared files on the web (cf. http://docs.
google.com), for instance, that gives a language teacher a free-of1
2
Cf. e.g., http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_educational_resources or http://insight.
eun.org/ww/en/pub/insight/misc/specialreports/open_content_source.htm
Cf. e.g., http://www.unesco.org/iiep/virtualuniversity/forumshome.php?queryforums_
id =1
75
charge opportunity to co-author an article on the web. In the same way,
a joint presentation can be coauthored on the web without having to buy
any extra software, and the authors can be located all over the world,
for that matter. This is something completely novel when compared to
process-writing on pen-and-paper. Another key concept is open source
courseware, in other words, learning materials available on the net free
of charge, opening new avenues for language learning as well (cf. e.g.,
Vuorikari, 2004). What Web 2.0 fundamentally does is to afford a myriad of ICT applications that make language teachers’ work much more
versatile and dynamic than ever before.
Still, as Einstein put it, “everything should be as simple as it can be,
but not any simpler”. Web 2.0 makes things easy (or at least easier) for
language teachers as well.
Visions and the Way Ahead
In this article, we have argued that dealing with strong signals is of
primary importance in order to understand the current nature of foreign
language education, to implement it and to be able to envision its future. We have also argued that by analysing strong FL-specific signals
we can more easily approach certain future visions of FLE, which may
then become a spectrum of different options and opportunities open to
all of us. We have said that visions to us are opportunities to visualise
and envision the future and that those visions imply, at their best, an
idea of a more desired or desirable future.
We are, at the same time, painfully conscious of the fact that not
much may change. This is a real concern in FLE as in teaching in general. Think of the history of teaching. In spite of influential personalities, such as Dewey, Montessori, Steiner, Vygotsky and a large number
of others, and in spite of the long history of communicative language
teaching, we still face the fact that old methods are still going strong. A
focus on the grammatical form is too heavily emphasised, teachers still
talk 70% of the academic time allotted to language teaching, students
still sit in rows behind their desks and answer teachers’ questions one
by one, after having been given permission to talk and an atomistic
product assessment is still dominant. Despite this static and unfortunate status quo and the traditional isolation of the school from the surrounding environment, we believe something may change. And it may
change in three different directions, which we will depict in the following
as examples of scenarios that we might face in the future.
76
What is the future like then, if some or all of the ideas we have presented earlier in this article start to be implemented by growing numbers of foreign language teachers and teacher educators? The following interim classification gives three different visions in which we characterise the future trends of FLE along those lines the strong signals
have been described in this article. Our classification has been inspired
by Steinmüller’s (2007) terminology and his ideas of weak signals and
wild cards for European regions: thank you Karlheiz! Nevertheless, the
content of our visions is completely our own.
Vision 1: Brusselisation
In this vision, teaching and studying foreign languages is (too) largely
centralised by one decision-making body called Brussels. Not enough
freedom is given to individual actors or groups of actors. Instead, things
are being kept as they used to be, or at least harmonised too much for
the common good. This vision is based on the principle of old “traditional” teaching practices being kept as they have always been. The
role of native speakers is dominant, even in foreign language education. Some sort of a standard(ised norm of FL) is aimed at. A certain
kind of pan-European language identity may come out, but probably at
the expense of more nationally-oriented identities. The pan-European
language identity would probably be construed on the dominance of the
English language, and, to some extent, on that of German and French.
This outcome would be in drastic conflict with the increasing tendency
of multilingualism, or “the new linguistic world order” (Singleton & Aronin, 2007, p. 83) in which multiple language acquisition or, put a bit differently, studying and learning several languages is more or less a norm.
The Brusselisation effect would also implicitly mean that power—
decision-making power at least—would be gathered to and around
Brussels. Certain rules and forms of interaction would be legitimised;
others strictly forbidden or firmly discouraged. The ultimate threat might
consist of Brussels making too many of those decisions that should
belong to all of us, nationally and even regionally.
In this vision, it is our fear that Brusselisation may jeopardise some
of the beneficial developments described in this article, such as foreign
language becoming an empowering mediator for the language user. In
this vision, scaffolding and affordances might be restricted to linguistic
issues only, excluding social aspects that we have found to be crucial
in developing FLE and in integrating foreign language education with
the surrounding society in the true spirit of socio-constructivism and
socio-culturalism.
77
One might think that the future envisioned in Vision 1 is not possible,
not even probable. Still, when we take into account all the harmonisation work done by the Council of Europe, especially the work related to
the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001) and its
language proficiency scales, and the extensive work done in the field
of the European Language Portfolio, we might also anticipate certain
threats and concerns in this process. Without denying any of the good
points achieved in this work—which are only to be commended—we
still feel that a critical enough attitude should be maintained towards
certain emphases that this ambitious work of the Council of Europe has
brought with it.
One of the features mirrored in our vision of Brusselisation is seen
in too dominating a position that evaluation and testing occupy at the
expense of more developmental work in teaching and studying. We
doubt seriously that foreign language teaching and studying can be developed by focusing too one-sidedly on evaluation. A well-argumented
critique towards too direct and narrow evaluation and a testing-focused
implementation of the Council of Europe’s work is presented in Kohonen, Lehtovaara, and Jaatinen (2005). One of their points of criticism
is focused on the CEFR being used for purposes that are not authentic
from the beginning (Kohonen et al., 2005, p. 335):
“Tuttua vertailua käyttäen sanoisimmekin, että Viitekehys on ‘hyvä renki
mutta huono isäntä’. Tarkoitamme tällä sitä, että Viitekehys ei tarjoa – eikä
voikaan tarjota sellaisenaan sovellettavia toimintamalleja kielenopetukseen.
Tästä syystä sen pitää olla alisteinen oppilaitoskohtaisille opetussuunnitelmille. Näin se on pedagoginen apuväline, jota tulee käyttää ammatillisesti
harkiten ja viisaasti. Viitekehystä ei siis voi eikä pidä väkisin pakottaa sellaisiin tehtäviin tai tilanteisiin, joihin sitä ei alun pitäenkään ole tarkoitettu.”
(Kohonen et al., 2005, p. 335)
What worries us even more is the fact that underscoring evaluation, assessment and testing does not reflect an ecological conception of language teaching, studying and learning. Narrow interpretations of evaluation do not correspond to our holistic view on language proficiency,
as they underline product evaluation at the cost of more extensive and
many-sided process evaluation.
This kind of future is not desired nor desirable if it underlines too
strongly certain restrictive factors in the name of harmonisation.
78
Vision 2: Fraglargement
Fraglargement means both fragmentation and enlargement. It implies
that studying foreign languages becomes more fragmented from what
it is now, but at the same time language teaching, studying and learning
become more widened. Fragmentation, though usually slightly negatively loaded as a connotation, is used here to contrast with harmonisation, which is used as a near synonym for standardisation. Fraglargement here means that there are more options to choose from, more
opportunities to study languages, for instance. Transdisciplinary approaches are tolerated and encouraged, various boundaries are permeable. Decision-making is decentralised and more power is delegated to
various actors at different levels. And, what is more, further variations
of language norms are tolerated. The way native speakers use their
language is no longer the norm in foreign or second language classrooms; rather, the main focus is on communication and participation.
Some might feel tempted to disagree on the importance of grammaring
suggested by Larsen-Freeman (2003): “the mastery of grammar [is] the
organic and dynamic process of using language accurately, meaningfully and appropriately”. Yes, but … In this vision, FL/SL methodology is
based on different standpoints and justifications. Naturally, the ultimate
goal is always to achieve as good language proficiency as possible,
within the resources available for the language learner; but a native-like
proficiency is not the real aim.
In this vision, empowerment through language comes true more
easily; holistic modes of thinking gain ground. The potential embedded
in affordances grows and it can be exploited more substantially. Both
teachers and pupils/students take full advantage of both linguistic and
social affordances around them, in classrooms but also increasingly in
informal TSL contexts. On the whole, the importance of informal learning becomes significantly more important than before; people can study
and learn outside of institutionalised settings as well. Web 2.0 applications support this kind of studying and learning more flexibly than the
Internet as we now know it (Web 1.0). All this contributes beneficially to
fruitful participation and interaction at different levels of schooling. This
vision may also contribute beneficially to the growth of language-based
and content-based education, with a special emphasis on modified curricula and, hopefully, upgraded changes in the number of lessons allocated to languages. A natural step onwards would also be a transdisciplinary emphasis on various school subjects to work together, over
educationally-valid tasks as LanguageQuests, for instance.
79
This vision is desired and desirable. It allows for a lot of personal
freedom (autonomy, if you please) for language users, but it also gives
them new kinds of empowering tools and applications to work with.
Paradoxical though it may sound, fragmentation and enlargement work
well together: the monolithic way of teaching, studying and learning is
fragmented into more personalised learning spaces, while many new
opportunities are opened up for language education.
Vision 3: Rejuvenation of the old continent
In this vision, the strong signals analysed in this article help invigorate
and rejuvenate language teaching, studying and learning. Methodological narrowness is left behind; we have moved to a post-method era.
No single method can dominate language teaching; instead, different
empowering approaches are accepted, adopted and developed further.
The role of informal learning is recognised and more contacts with the
outside world are encouraged. Web 2.0 works strongly for the rejuvenation of language teachers’ and users’ thinking, as it calls for different kinds of skills and attitudes than earlier. The ways we have been
using the Internet so far will also have to change. To compensate for
this effort, language users are provided with novel technologies and
applications whose functionalities can be fully exploited in language
learning as well. For instance, a modern cell phone, described above
as an affordable jungle, is a living example of the fact that technology
and language, language and culture, culture and communication, communication and interaction, interaction and education, education and
training, training and language are at their best empowering additions
to an individual language user’s intellectual capacity, which can then
lead to a multifaceted, many-sided empowerment, which also takes into
account the considerations set by the surrounding society.
When this happens, then we can truly argue that languages are empowering subjects, and as great as life on an average, especially when
we speak of lifelong, lifewide or worldwide learning (LLL, LWL, WWL).
Then the language teacher is really an integral part of societal activity,
social influence, and, in the final analysis, incorporating these different
elements into one entity will bring about this vision’s “vision”: rejuvenation of the old continent, in other words, rejuvenating the “traditional”
language teaching with new ideas, novel approaches and current-tofuture perspectives, complemented with modern Web 2.0 technologies
and applications.
Three visions for the future? We hope some of the ideas presented
in these visions, and in the text justifying them, will help develop current
80
foreign language education. As we know, the future comes one day at
a time—luckily—but, on the other hand, the future is said to be here already. We make the future all the time. We build the future (or a future)
of foreign language education and of our students as language users
with our own efforts and thinking. And with conjectures, because, as de
Jouvenel (as cited in Steinmüller, 2007) once said: “Reasoned speculation based on insights and on a systematic approach has its place in
foresight.” The future is an opportunity, never a threat.
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TRANSDIFFERENZ UND TRANSKULTURALITÄT:
NEUE KONZEPTE FÜR DIE FREMDSPRACHENDIDAKTIK?
ANNIKKI KOSKENSALO
INSTITUT FÜR LEHRERAUSBILDUNG, UNIVERSITÄT TURKU
ankoske<at>utu.fi
Abstrakt
Waren alte Kulturbegriffe der Inter- und Multikulturalität dem Insel- bzw. KontainerPrinzip verhaftet und der Kontinuität verpflichtet, so basiert der moderne Kulturbegriff der Transkulturalität auf Vielfalt, Verschiedenartigkeit, Hybridität, Mischformen
und Verschmelzungen von Gegensätzen. Für die Pädagogik ergeben sich aufgrund
dieses Befundes Fragen: Kann das Transkulturalitätstheorem für sie eine passende
Perspektive bieten? Inwieweit besitzen transkulturelle Phänomene Relevanz für die
Pädagogik?
Der Transdifferenz-Begriff als Oberkategorie für Phänomene kultureller Mehrfachzusammengehörigkeit bzw. Sammelbegriff für Konzepte der Hybridität, Kreolisierung und Transkulturalität bezeichnet Phänomene, die mit Modellen binärer Logik
nicht mehr erfasst werden können und vermag so neue Impulse für die obige Fragebzw. Problemstellung zu geben. Zentral bleibt dabei aber, dass die orientierungsstiftende Kraft von Differenzen akzeptiert und mitberücksichtigt wird. Im Zuge dessen
wird im Kulturvergleich der Kategorie der binären Differenz diejenige der Transdifferenz als Komplement beiseitegestellt. Denn wenn heutzutage Kulturen als komplexe
Mischungen des Eigenen, (angeeigneten) Anderen, veränderten bzw. entfremdeten
Eigenen und angeeigneten Fremden zu verstehen sind, dann ist das neue Leitkonzept der Transdifferenz relevant.
Dieses wirft zudem für die LSP-Didaktik Fragen auf: Was kann dieses Konzept
für die Analyse der Spracharbeit leisten? Kann es mithelfen, Sprachprobleme zu erkennen, Lösungsansätze zu entwerfen und Methoden der Spracharbeit zu begründen? Wie verträgt sich dieses neue Leitkonzept mit altbewährten und -bekannten
didaktischen und methodologischen Konzeptionen der LSP? Eine noch ausständige
intensive empirische Erforschung dieser Fragen zieht eine bessere theoretische Fundierung dieses Desiderats nach sich.
Schlüsselwörter: LSP-Didaktik, Kultur, Transdifferenz, Transkulturalität, Hybridität.
1 Einleitung und Problemstellung
Der Begriff Transdifferenz weckt neuerdings Aufmerksamkeit. Es ist
daher interessant, theoretisch abzutesten, inwieweit dieser Begriff für
die LSP-Didaktik von Nutzen sein könnte. Der LSP-Unterricht ist ein
Fremdsprachenunterricht, der die sprachliche Handlungsfähigkeit im
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Annikki Koskensalo
Fach auf- und ausbaut, indem er die entsprechenden fachsprachlichen
Mittel bereitstellt und durch seinen Fachbezug ein fachlich bestimmtes
Lernumfeld und einen fachlichen Kommunikationsrahmen als notwendigen Bezugsrahmen für das Lehren und Lernen schafft, spezifische
Lernprozesse initiiert und auch eine interkulturelle Auseinandersetzung
ermöglicht (vgl. Fearns, 2003, S. 169).
Die Begriffsgeschichte, Definition, Merkmale, Funktionen, Potentiale, Referenz- und Anwendungsbereiche und Grenzen der Transdifferenz vermitteln auf den ersten Blick eine soweit positive Antwort auf die
obig gestellte Überschriftsfrage. Allerdings ist Kritik und ein pragmatischer Blickwinkel stets angebracht, wenn neue Begriffe in der Wissenschaft auftauchen.
2 Hauptteil
2.1 Begriffsgeschichte
Der Erlanger Amerikanist Helmbrecht Breinig prägte 1998 erstmals den
Begriff der Transdifferenz. Mit diesem Begriff versuchte er, die theoretische Zentralperspektive des Gesamtprojekts, welches vom im April
2001 eingerichteten Graduiertenkolleg verfolgt wurde, herauszustreichen (vgl. Allolio-Näcke & Kalscheuer, 2005, S. 16). Transdifferenz figurierte zunächst als Oberkategorie für Phänomene kultureller Mehrfachzusammengehörigkeit und somit zudem als Sammelbegriff für Konzepte der Hybridität, Kreolisierung, Transkulturalität usw. (Kalscheuer &
Allolio-Näcke, 2002, S. 1). Sein Kollege Klaus Lösch (2001) nahm eine
erste Konkretisierung des Leitbegriffes vor (vgl. Srubar, Renn, & Wenzel, 2005, S. 13). Die Transdifferenz wurde vorerst als eine übergeordnete Kategorie für all diejenigen Konzepte verstanden, welche sich mit
Modellen des ‚Dritten’, der Unreinheit und Vermischung beschäftigen.
Dieser Anspruch wurde aber bald zu Gunsten einer Gleichrangigkeit
der diversen kulturtheoretischen Konzepte aufgegeben. Mittlerweile ist
der vom Erlanger Graduiertenkolleg „Kulturhermeneutik im Zeichen der
Differenz und Transdifferenz“ (Kalscheuer & Allolio-Näcke, 2002, S. 1)
propagierte und vielfach publizierte Begriff bekannt geworden und wird
in der Wissenschaft immer mehr antizipiert und kontrovers diskutiert.
Der Transdifferenzbegriff ist nunmehr zu einem Begriff mit einer breiten Referenzskala geworden. Das bedeutet, dass dieser Begriff nicht
mehr auf soziokulturelle und -politische Prozesse beschränkt ist, sondern vielmehr ein Spektrum beginnend mit Phänomenen sozialer und
Transdifferenz und Transkulturalität: Neue Konzepte für die Fremd…
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existenzieller Erfahrungswelt, über Prozesse kultureller Produktion und
Reproduktion, des weiteren die Interferenz von kulturellen Semantiken,
die interkulturelle Aushandlung von Identität bis hin zur symbolischen
Repräsentation abdeckt. Der Transdifferenzbegriff ist heutzutage nicht
mehr wie früher ein Oberbegriff, sondern bezieht sich bloß auf spezielle Aspekte, die mit den Referenzbereichen von Termini wie Hybridität,
Kreolisierung, Melange, Synkretismus und Transkulturalität Gemeinsamkeiten aufweisen und mit binären Inklusions- und Exklusionsschemata nicht erfasst werden können (vgl. Breinig & Lösch, 2005, S. 454).
Der Transdifferenzbegriff eröffnet neue Perspektiven für eine Analyse
und Beschreibung komplexer Konstruktions- und Dekonstruktionsprozesse von kultureller Alterität und Identität vor dem Hintergrund gegenwärtiger kultureller Gemengelagen und Mehrfachzugehörigkeiten von
Gruppen und Individuen (vgl. Lösch, 2005a, S. 27).
2.2 Zur Definition von Transdifferenz
Der Terminus Transdifferenz bezeichnet nach Lösch (2005b, S. 252)
„Phänomene spannungsreicher und unaufgelöster Ko-Präsenz von gegensätzlichen Semantiken, Sinn-Komponenten oder Zugehörigkeiten.“
Transdifferenzphänome werden also lebensweltlich von Individuen und
Kollektiven erfahren und symbolisch bearbeitet. Es ist zu verstehen,
dass der Transdifferenzbegriff auf die Untersuchung von Momenten der
Ungewissheit, der Unentscheidbarkeit und des Widerspruchs zielt, die
in Differenzkonstruktionen auf der Basis binärer Ordnungslogik ausgeblendet werden. Unter Differenzen sind hier hauptsächlich binäre Oppositionen als Ordnungskategorien zu verstehen. (vgl. Lösch, 2005a,
S. 26) Die Setzung von Differenz formal im Sinne binärer Oppositionen
ist als fundamentale Operation aller Sinngebungsverfahren zu verstehen (vgl. Lösch, 2005b, S. 253).
2.3 Merkmale, Funktionen und Potentiale von Transdifferenz
Die Möglichkeit kognitiver und imaginativer Erfassung durch Transdifferenz jenseits des binären Differenz-Denkens:
Das Präfix „trans“ bezeichnet bei Transdifferenz jenes Widerspenstige, das sich einer Einordnung in die Polarität binärer Differenzen versperrt. Die Transdifferenz hinterfragt die Gültigkeit binärer Differenzkonstrukte, aber hebt nicht Differenzen auf. Die Differenz wird gleichsam
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Annikki Koskensalo
eingeklammert und als Referenzpunkt beibehalten. Es gibt daher keine
Transdifferenz ohne Differenz. Sie bezeichnet also eben gerade nicht
die Überwindung und Aufhebung von Differenz, was dem Einheitsdenken entspräche, sondern das Aufscheinen des in dichotomen Differenzmarkierungen Exkludierten vor dem Hintergrund des polar Differenten.
Transdifferenz: komplementär aber nicht substitutiv zur Differenz:
Wie bereits angesprochen, soll hiermit ermöglicht werden, all das in
den Blick zu nehmen, was sowohl einer kognitiven als auch imaginativen Erfahrung durch Differenz-Denken entgeht.
Produktion und Reproduktion symbolischer Ordnung als
palimpsestischer Prozess durch Transdifferenz:
Mit der Referenz auf die fundamentale Ebene intrasystemischer Realitätskonstruktion benennt Transdifferenz den ontologischen Status von
Sinnsystemen. Wie schon durch die Überschrift angedeutet, ist dieser
palimpsestische Prozess von umfassenden Versuchen gekennzeichnet, alternative Möglichkeiten zugunsten einer Stabilisierung des Geltungsanspruchs zu exorzieren, wodurch die Kontingenz der Differenzsetzungen und der gewalttätige Charakter binärer Logik aufgedeckt
wird, auf welcher traditionelle symbolische Identitäten, Kategorien und
Sprache basieren. (vgl. Lösch, 2005b, S. 253)
Bildung von Intertexten durch Berücksichtigung
transdifferenter Momente:
Auf intersystemischer Ebene, wo kulturelle Differenzen und Grenzen
ausverhandelt werden, bezeichnet die Transdifferenz Momente, in welchen die auf binärer Ordnungslogik beruhenden hierarchisierenden
Alteritäts- und Identitätskonstrukte sowie Grenzziehungen in Frage
gestellt werden. Eine Berücksichtigung von transdifferenten Momenten
in solchen interkulturellen Ausverhandlungsprozessen zieht eine Konzeptualisierung von kollektiven Identitätsnarrationen als Intertexte nach
sich. (vgl. Lösch, 2005b, S. 253)
Verunsicherung durch Transdifferenz führt
zur Bildung von kulturellem Kapital:
Wie schon angesprochen erfordert das Transdifferenzdenken konsequenterweise die Fähigkeit, Momente der Ungewissheit, Unentscheidbarkeit und des Zweifels auszuhalten. Eine positive Umwertung einer
89
sicherlich verunsichernden Erfahrung von Transdifferenz lässt sich aber
zur Bildung von kulturellem Kapital nutzen. (vgl. Lösch, 2005b, S. 253)
Non-lineare Transdifferenz:
Transdifferenz hat einen non-linearen Bezug auf non-lineare Formen,
weil es l. kategoriale Differenzierungen und entweder-/oder-Attributionen hinterfragt und 2. darauf einen Fokus bildet, was eigentlich jenseits
von Alterität und Identität liegt (vgl. Lösch 2005b, S. 254).
Referenz-Bereiche der Transdifferenz:
Der mögliche Anwendungsbereich des Transdifferenzbegriffs reicht von
der Interkulturalitätsproblematik bis hin zur fundamentalen Ebene intrakultureller Wirklichkeitskonstruktion. Somit verweist dieser Begriff auf
die Pluridimensionalität des vermeintlich eigenen Horizonts, welcher
in den traditionellen kulturhermeneutischen Ansätzen ungenügend berücksichtigt wird (vgl. Lösch, 2005a, S. 26).
2.4 Potentielle Anwendungsbereiche der Transdifferenz am
Beispiel der Pädagogik, Fremdsprachen- und LSP-Didaktik
Die Pädagogik hat mittlerweile – genauer seit etwa 2005 (vgl. Göhlich,
Liebau, Leonhard, & Zirfas, 2006) – einen dringenden Handlungsbedarf
im gestalterischen und reflektierenden Umgang mit kulturellen Differenzen und Identitäten erkannt. In Zeiten wie diesen geht es primär nicht
mehr um Begegnung(en) und das Zusammenleben diverser, in sich abgeschlossener Kulturen (= Inter&Multikulturalität), sondern immer mehr
um Hybridität, Mischformen und Verschmelzungen (=Transkulturalität)
(vgl. Göhlich et al., 2006, Klappentext). Ein Kulturverständnis, welches Kulturen als Inseln (vgl. Bolscho, 2005, S. 29) nach Herder (vgl.
Welsch, 2000, S. 329ff) begreift, zwischen denen es bei einer sicherlich
bis jetzt sehr erfolgreichen interkulturellen Pädagogik zu vermitteln gilt,
wird aktuellen Realitäten nicht mehr hinreichend gerecht und ist somit
überholt, weil deskriptiv falsch, unhaltbar und sogar normativ gefährlich
(vgl. Welsch, 2000, S. 332). Deskriptiv falsch bedeutet, dass moderne
Gesellschaften nicht nur vertikal und horizontal, sondern auch transversal hochgradig differenziert sind. Normativ gefährlich heißt, dass damit
einer gewaltsamen internen sowie ethnischen Homogenisierung und
externen Abgrenzung Vorschub geleistet wird (vgl. Göhlich et al., 2006,
S. 11). Vielmehr ist heutzutage Transkulturalität bzw. Transdifferenz an-
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Annikki Koskensalo
gesagt. Für die Pädagogik werden damit folgende neue theoretische
und methodologische Forschungsfragen aufgeworfen:
1. Können das Transkulturalitätstheorem und die Transdifferenz –
unter Berücksichtigung der obig erwähnten Differenzierung – als
neue Leitbilder für Bildungsprozesse (vgl. Griese, 2005, S. 20)
bzw. als Leitkonzepte für die Pädagogik und in weiterer Folge
auch für die LSP-Didaktik dienen?
2. Können sie für die Pädagogik passende Perspektiven bieten?
3. Inwieweit sind transkulturelle und transdifferente Phänomene für
die Pädagogik von Relevanz?
4. Wo liegen ihre Möglichkeiten und Grenzen?
5. Kommt nach der inter- eine transkulturelle Pädagogik bzw.
LSP-Didaktik (vgl. Griese, 2005, S. 11ff)?
Eine Beantwortung dieser Fragen mit speziellem Fokus auf die Transdifferenz fällt bei Lektüre der obigen Teilkapitel durchwegs positiv aus:
Frage 1: Können das Transkulturalitätstheorem und die
Transdifferenz – unter Berücksichtigung der obig erwähnten
Differenzierung – als neue Leitbilder für Bildungsprozesse bzw.
als Leitkonzepte für die Pädagogik und in weiterer Folge auch
für die LSP-Didaktik dienen?
Die Transdifferenz kann als neues Leitbild für Bildungsprozesse und
Leitkonzept für die Pädagogik, Fremdsprachen- und LSP-Didaktik dienen, wenn sie als Ergänzung zum traditionellen Differenz-Denken fungiert. Dabei bleibt aber zentral, dass die ordnungsstiftende Kraft von
Differenzen weiterhin akzeptiert und berücksichtigt wird. Das transkulturelle Lernen wird auf jeden Fall zu einer großen pädagogischen
Aufgabe werden. Gefragt ist eine Entwicklung von Kompetenzen, die
Menschen mit diversem kulturellem Hintergrund befähigen, nicht nur
auf lokaler, sondern auch auf globaler Ebene Aufgaben im Team zu
bearbeiten und Lösungen zu finden, die nicht nur auf die Erhaltung und
Weiterentwicklung eigener kultureller Identität als auch auf die Ermöglichung gemeinsamer Lebens- und Überlebensleistungen ausgerichtet
sind (vgl. Flechsig, o.J, S. 9).
91
Frage 2: Können sie für die Pädagogik passende Perspektiven
bieten?
Die passenden Perspektiven sind in den früheren Kapiteln schon beschrieben worden.
Frage 3: Inwieweit sind transkulturelle und transdifferente
Phänomene für die Pädagogik von Relevanz?
Selbiges gilt wie bei Frage 2. Wenn Kulturen heutzutage als komplexe
Mischungen des Eigenen, (angeeigneten) Anderen, veränderten bzw.
entfremdeten Eigenen und angeeigneten Fremden zu verstehen sind,
dann erhält die Transdifferenz eine beträchtliche Relevanz. Dann geraten nämlich alle kulturhermeneutischen Projekte in erhebliche Schwierigkeiten (vgl. Lösch, 2005b, S. 268), weil jeder Versuch, den Ursprung
der Elemente zu rekonstruieren, ziemlich aussichtlos wird. Eines ist aber
dabei nie ausser Acht zu lassen: seit dem Ausgang des 20. Jahrhunderts ist ein besagtes Grundproblem wieder in voller Schärfe ausgebrochen, welches nicht nur die neuzeitliche Beschäftigung mit dem Mythos
nicht erst seit Vico prägt, nämlich: das Problem der Begegnung von Eigenem und Fremdem. Es muss daher in der Konfrontation mit fremden
Kulturen und Menschen vor allem darum gehen, eigene Grenzen zu
übersteigen und das Fremde in seiner Andersheit zu akzeptieren bzw.
tolerieren (unter Voraussetzung der Gegenseitigkeit), ohne dabei das
Eigene zu verleugnen bzw. die eigene Identität aufgeben zu müssen,
damit einem/einer schließlich und endlich nach einem Diktum von Hölderlin der freie Gebrauch des Eigenen gelinge (vgl. Brisson & Jamme,
1996, S. 149f.). Transkulturelle Begegnungen zwischen Menschen und
Kulturen werden durch Empathie und kooperatives Handeln gefördert.
Das Ziel dabei ist, die Welt mit den Augen des Anderen zu sehen, um
so eine humane Begegnung von Kulturen zu ermöglichen (vgl. Thissen,
2005, S. 309ff). Nicht umsonst benennt das lateinische Präfix „trans“
u.a. Bewegungscharakteristika und Dynamiken eines Aufeinanderzugehens und Zusammengehens (vgl. Zirfas, Göhlich, & Liebau, 2006, S.
185). Das Frontmodell von Sundermeier (1996, S. 129f., S. 24, S. 132),
welches auf den buddhistischen Ansatz der Kyoto-Schule zurückgeht,
ist hier interessant und hier besonders deren Definition des Begriffs
,Sunjata`, also die dialektische Beziehung zweier Dinge. Analogisiert
ist die Beziehung von Kulturen als eine bewegliche Wand anzusehen,
wobei die eigene Identität und Konstitution von der Existenz des Anderen abhängt. Die Wand trennt und verbindet zugleich. Es findet ein
Austausch, aber keine Synthese statt. Somit wird der Andere&Fremde
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Annikki Koskensalo
zum Mitkonstituenten der eigenen Wirklichkeit. Dieses dialektische
Verhältnis wird durch Respekt, Erstaunen und Dialog unterstützt. M.
Hartkemeyer, J. F. Hartkemeyer, & Dhority (1998, S. 78) formulieren
zur praktischen Umsetzung dieses Verhältnisses zehn Kernfähigkeiten: 1. die Haltung eines Lerners verkörpern, 2. radikaler Respekt, 3.
Offenheit, 4. von Herzen sprechen, 5. Zuhören, 6. Verlangsamung, 7.
Annahmen und Bewertungen suspendieren, 8. produktives Plädieren,
9. eine erkundende Haltung üben und 10. den Beobachter beobachten.
Die zentrale Herausforderung besteht nun darin, dieses dialektische
Verhältnis und die 10 Kernfähigkeiten zu operationalisieren bzw. didaktisieren. Obwohl Roche (2001) die Transkulturalität anspricht, hat er sie
aber noch nicht in seine interkulturelle Sprachdidaktik integriert, d.h.
nicht didaktisiert.
Frage 4: Wo liegen ihre Möglichkeiten und Grenzen?
Die Möglichkeiten sind auch schon früher erörtert worden. Die Potentiale und Grenzen bleiben im Spannungsbereich von Differenz und
Transdifferenz verhaftet. Es ist übereinstimmend mit Lösch (2005b,
S. 269) festzuhalten, dass in den meisten kulturvergleichenden Untersuchungen nach wie vor das dominante Denken der Differenz komplementiert werden muß, damit die geschilderten Phänomene der Unreinheit, Überlagerung, Vermischung, Unentscheidbarkeit und Widersprüchlichkeit, das quer zu binären Differenzkonstruktionen Liegende
adäquat in den Blick genommen werden können, ohne die Differenz zu
verabschieden. Das innovative Potential des Transdifferenzkonzeptes
liegt dabei in der Fokussierung auf die unhintergehbare Relationalität
von Differenz und Transdifferenz begründet. Was die Transkulturalität
anbelangt, so liegt der Fall ähnlich: Möglichkeiten einer Nutzung von
Transkulturalität liegen in ihrer ureigensten Natur bzw. Sphäre, also
dort wo diese gefragt ist. Womit zugleich schon deren Grenze angesprochen ist: zwar kann das Transkulturalitätskonzept dazu dienen,
im Verhandlungswege diverse Differenzen und Probleme zwischen
Kulturen verständlicher zu machen bzw. abzugleichen, jedoch sind
alle transkulturellen Phänomene immer vor dem Hintergrund sozialer
Kämpfe um Ressourcen wie Macht, Geld und Kultur zu interpretieren.
Das bedeutet, dass Struktur und Umfang der je verfügbaren Kapitalsorten bzw. mobilisierbaren Ressourcen sich gerade unter transkulturellen
Bedingungen speziell in diversen (Sub-)Kulturen radikal unterscheiden.
Also wo es nichts mehr zum Verhandeln gibt, dann stösst Transkulturalität als ideologisches Modell machtpolitisch an ihre Grenzen. (Zirfas et
al., 2006, S. 188f). Allerdings ist aber hier die Antwort auf Frage 5 (s.u.)
93
mitzubedenken. Wenn Zirfas et al. (2006, S. 186) Transkulturalität als
ein Symptom (ihres) pädagogischen Unbehagens bzw. (ihrer) pädagogischen Verunsicherung, die sich aus zunehmenden Prozessen der Differenzierung, Individualisierung, Kontingenz und Transversalität ergibt,
bewerten, dann wird aber auch die ihr innewohnende Chance verkannt.
Denn sich ändernde Zeiten ziehen öfters auch Paradigmenwechsel
und pädagogische Reformen nach sich. Sich unbehaglich fühlen und
nichts dagegen zu tun, ist zuwenig. Denn diese Prozesse sind nun mal
Realität. Beim Thema Transkulturalität aus phänomenologischer Sicht
wird ein Kern pädagogischer Theorie und Praxis also die vorbehaltlose
Akzeptanz der Subjektivität aktuell. Ob deshalb gleich klassische idealistische Subjektivitätskonzepte europäischer Aufklärung wie Identität
und Autonomie von kulturalistischen Konzeptionen der Subjektivität
ersetzt bzw. abgelöst werden, ist nicht so schnell der Fall. (vgl. Zirfas
et al., 2006, S. 188). Denn es ist zu bezweifeln, dass sich jemals transkulturelle Kultur als Dominanzkultur etablieren wird. Vielmehr wird es
wie jetzt ein Nebeneinander von Inter-, Multi- und Transkultur geben.
Zweitens wird es nach wie vor eine wissenschaftliche Aufgabe sein und
bleiben, subjektive Befindlichkeiten nach wissenschaftlichen Kriterien
zu objektivieren. Transkulturalität als normatives Modell ist dialektisch
oszillierend zwischen Abstraktion und Konkretion. Denn je stärker sich
Lebensformen ausdifferenzieren und individualisieren, desto abstrakter
müssen verbindende bzw. soziale Normen werden. Verbindlich bleibt
die Akzeptanz der Menschenwürde. Desgleichen wirken transkulturelle
Situationen normativ, da sie die kulturelle Praxis prinzipiell als kontingent und entscheidbar erscheinen lassen. Realistischerweise sind aber
transkulturelle Situationen nicht immer entscheidbar. Denn sobald eine
Seite – sei es der Eigene oder der Andere&Fremde – nicht mitspielt bzw.
nach dem sunjata-Prinzip (s.o.) nicht kooperiert, dann bleibt die Situation unentschieden. Primär wird also bei Transkulturalität als situative
Pragmatik weniger eine transkulturelle Ethik als vielmehr ein praktisches
Wissen, wie konstruktiv mit Transkulturalität umzugehen ist, erworben.
Anders formuliert: eine transkulturelle Pragmatik. Transkulturalität als
pädagogisches Konzept zielt primär auf eine Entwicklung einer Alteritätskompetenz ab, die sich als Wille und Fähigkeit zu einem friedlichen
und toleranten Zusammenleben äussert, d.h. insbesondere, als Wille
und Fähigkeit, die Andersartigkeit des Anderen (innerhalb der Grenzen
der Menschenrechte) selbst dann auszuhalten, wenn sich Ekel einstellt. Aber nicht nur das Ziel, sondern auch die Voraussetzungen sind
im pädagogischen Feld mitzubedenken: so erscheint eine spezifischer
denn je agierende Diagnose der die jeweilige pädagogische Situation
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Annikki Koskensalo
beeinflussenden kulturellen Prämissen nötig. Die Grenzen werden wieder offenbar: die kulturellen Voraussetzungen werden zukünftig ohne
explizite Ko-Konstruktion der pädagogischen Realität durch die an ihre
beteiligten diversen Akteure diffuser denn je bleiben. Im pädagogischen
Diskurs ist Transkulturalität immer auch als inhaltliche Herausforderung
anzusehen. Denn die Crux liegt hier bei der Auswahl und Bestimmung
von Inhalten. (Zirfas et al, 2006, SS. 190–194)
Methodisch wird durch das Konzept der Transkulturalität der Druck
auf die Pädagogik erhöht, ihre Praxis vielfältiger anzulegen. Vielmehr
geht es zukünftig um die Methode, die soziale Praxis, individuelle Lernund Bildungsprozesse kulturell möglichst offen zu gestalten. Reflexiv
bleibt offen, ob sich jemals ein genereller transkultureller Habitus als
neue Einheit selbstverständlicher, hauptsächlich unbewusst gelernter
Wahrnehmungs-, Denk-, Urteils- und Handlungsmuster entwickeln wird.
(vgl. Zirfas et al., 2006, S. 194). Der pädagogische Wert und die Grenze
wird evident: Transkulturalität ist eines neben den anderen. Keinesfalls
ist es prädestiniert, die anderen komplett zu ersetzen. Es hat seinen
Wert und zugleich seine Grenzen im kognitiven Bereich des Auszuverhandelns, Entscheidens, Denkens, Wahrnehmens und Handelns.
Transkulturalität kann vorschlagsweise bei Sozialformen (Edmondson
& House, 2003, SS. 242–247; Schwerdtfeger, 2003b, SS. 247–251;
Walter, 2003, SS. 251–253) wie im Gruppenunterricht (Schwerdtfeger,
2003a, SS. 254–257), Kleingruppenunterricht (Abendroth-Timmer, 2003,
SS. 257–259), Projektunterricht und Partnerarbeit (Legutke, 2003, SS.
259–263), bei Sprach(lern)spielen (Kleppin, 2003, SS. 263–266), beim
Lernen in Tandemkursen (Bechtel, 2003, SS. 266–269) bzw. mit E-Mail
und Internet (Müller-Hartmann, 2003, SS. 269–272), bei Schüler- und
Klassenkorrespondenz (Wicke, 2003, SS. 272–274), Schülerbegegnungen und -austausch (Ertelt-Vieth, 2003, SS. 274–276) angewandt
werden. Eine Didaktisierung ist aber natürlich noch ausständig.
Frage 5: Kommt nach der inter- eine transkulturelle Pädagogik
bzw. LSP-Didaktik?
Obwohl Gogolin (2006, S. 39) dem Begriff der Transkulturalität skeptisch gegenübersteht, wird sich angesichts multikultureller bzw. -lingualer Gesellschaften das Pendel von einer inter- zu einer transkulturellen Pädagogik hindrehen, weil alleine in der Europäischen Union (EU)
transkulturelle Ausverhandlungsprozesse unter dem Motto „Einheit in
der Vielfalt“ immer mehr an Gewicht gewinnen werden und das Friedensprojekt der EU auf jeden Fall weiterzuverfolgen ist. Zirfas et al.
(2006, S. 185) konstatieren aber, dass heute Bildung in Europa mehr
95
denn je eine transkulturelle Aufgabe ist. Angesichts des noch sehr jungen Konzeptes von transkulturellem Lernen (und ebenso des Leitkonzeptes der Transdifferenz) ist aber klar, dass spezifische didaktische
Konzeptionen und Trainingsmethoden für die Fremdsprachen- und
LSP-Didaktik derzeit nur in Ansätzen verfügbar sind bzw. sein können
(vgl. Flechsig, o.J, S. 9).
3 Schluss, Zusammenfassung, Ausblick
Es konnte hier nur aufgrund der gebotenen Kürze ein kleiner Einblick
in die gegenständliche Thematik und Problematik – ohne Anspruch in
die Tiefe gehen zu können – gemacht werden. Auf jeden Fall ist vorerst
einmal ein Spagat zwischen bewährten pädagogischen Konzepten und
Methoden und diesem neuen Leitkonzept der Transdifferenz anzustreben. Für die LSP-Didaktik im Bereich des allgemeinen und speziellen
Fachsprachenunterrichts werden zuerst einmal eine Fülle von Fragen
aufgeworfen:
1. Was kann Transdifferenz bei der didaktischen Analyse von
Spracharbeit (vgl. Leisen, 1994, S. 27ff) leisten?
2. Kann sie mithelfen, Sprachprobleme zu erkennen, Lösungsansätze zu entwerfen und Methoden der Spracharbeit zu begründen?
3. Wie verträgt sie sich mit allbekannten&-währten didaktischen
und methodologischen Konzeptionen der LSP?
Auf jeden Fall ist Transdifferenz beim Ausverhandeln von Terminologie-Problemen in der LSP-Didaktik ein Gewinn. Beim Ausverhandeln
von Transdifferenzen bzw. schon im allgemeinen und später noch mehr
im speziellen Fremdsprachenunterricht sollte der Lehrer/die Lehrerin
mehr und mehr als Moderator wirken und die Lernenden sich intensiver agieren lassen. Er/Sie sollte nur dann in den Interaktionsprozess
eingreifen, wenn dies unbedingt erforderlich ist. So wird der/die Lehrer/Lehrerin selbst zum/zur Lerner/Lernerin, womit die verschwimmenden Grenzen zwischen dem Lehren und Lernen von LSP tatsächlich
höchstaktuell werden. Allerdings ist aber noch eine intensive empirische wenn nötig transdisziplinäre Forschung (vgl. Mittelstrass, 2005,
S. 18ff) im Fach zu leisten, um bessere theoretische Fundierungen zu
erhalten.
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Annikki Koskensalo
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99
ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CEFR AND ELP IN FL
EDUCATION: FINDINGS FROM RECENT RESEARCH
VILJO KOHONEN
DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF TAMPERE
viljo.kohonen<at>uta.fi
Abstract
I will first discuss briefly the approach outlined in the Common European Framework
(CEFR 2001) for foreign language education, and the role of the European Language
Portfolio (ELP) in promoting the goals of the CEFR. Then I will discuss the salient
findings in recent European research related to the theoretical backgrounds of the
CEFR and the ELP implementations in four national contexts (in Sweden, Ireland,
Czech Republic and Finland). I will conclude with a discussion of the implications
of the findings for developing foreign language education as an exploratory practice
using the ELP as a pedagogical tool and resource. The findings emphasise the importance of supporting the participants’ understanding of the issues involved in the
ELP-oriented FL education, and fostering the language teacher’s professional growth
through collegial collaboration.
Keywords: European Language Portfolio (ELP); Common European Framework
(CEFR); foreign language education; exploratory practice; ELP-oriented FL education; collegial collaboration.
1 The ELP as part of the Common European
Framework (CEFR, 2001)
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR, 2001) has laid a consistent emphasis on a broad learner-centred orientation in foreign language teaching aimed at plurilingualism,
pluriculturalism and learner autonomy. It presents an action-oriented
notion of communication based on the language user’s underlying existential competence whereby the language user is seen as a person and
a social agent. It suggests a view of the language learner as a whole
human being who uses cognitive, emotional and volitional resources
and the wide range of abilities to achieve desired aims in communication. The individual identity of the pupil is constructed through complex
social interaction, promoting his/her development as a whole person-
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Viljo Kohonen
ality in response to the enriching experiences of otherness in intercultural encounters.
Similarly, learner autonomy is seen as developing in the interactive,
dialogical process of learning to learn and learning to use language
for authentic communication. The CEFR further emphasises the importance of initiative and social responsibility, seeing the language users
as social agents who form personal relationships in social groups. As
members of society, they have tasks to accomplish in a given set of
circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of
action (CEFR, 2001, pp. 1–10).
The notion of plurilingual and pluricultural competence involves a
complex, multiple language competence on which the language user
may draw in intercultural communication. It goes well beyond the traditional view of communicative competence that refers primarily to the
language user’s communicative skills in different situations. The approach emphasises initiative-taking, interaction and social responsibility leading to democratic citizenship education for multilingual and
multicultural Europe. This is a matter of relating constructively to otherness in human contacts, encouraging the acceptance of ambiguity
as well as the respect for diversity in intercultural encounters. Intercultural communicative competence introduces thus a clear socio-political
dimension in foreign language education. In addition to the curriculum
contents, this is clearly a question of developing such educational processes that will strengthen “independence of thought, judgement and
action, combined with social skills and responsibility”, as pointed out in
the Second Summit of Heads of State. (CEFR, 2001, pp. 2–4; Beacco
& Byram, 2002; Byram, 2003; Kaikkonen, 2001, 2002, 2004; Kohonen,
2001, 2005.)
Such goals involve a paradigm shift in FL teaching, moving from a
mastery of languages in isolation to developing a person’s plurilingual
and pluricultural competence in which all languages interrelate and interact. As noted in the CEFR (2001, p. 5), the goal of FL language
education can no longer be confined simply to the attainment of a given
level of proficiency in a particular language at a certain point of time.
The shift means a new significant challenge for language teachers to
facilitate the pupils/language users to enhance their personal identities
and their capacity for intercultural communication and cooperation as a
lifelong pursuit. As the CEFR points out, the goal of language education
is profoundly modified by the prospect, and the “full implications of such
a paradigm shift have yet to be worked out and translated into action” in
FL education (CEFR, 2001, p. 5; Byram, 2003; Kaikkonen, 2004). The
On the Significance of the CEFR and ELP in FL Education: Findings…
101
European Language Portfolio provides important concepts and tools for
translating the new paradigm into pedagogical action.
In accordance with the goals of the CEFR, the ELP is aimed at
deepening mutual understanding among citizens in Europe, respecting
the diversity of cultures and ways of life. It has two educational functions: (1) as a pedagogical tool, to help the pupils/ students to organise,
monitor and reflect on their FL learning processes and assess their proficiency using the criterion-referenced descriptors, in order to become
more skilled and autonomous language learners; and (2) as a reporting
tool, to provide an instrument for reporting language proficiency and
intercultural experience to the relevant stakeholders. This distinction
between the pedagogical and reporting functions of the ELP is vital for
understanding the potential of the ELP for enhancing foreign language
education.
The goals of the CEFR discussed above briefly are manifest in the
principles of the ELP that constitute the common European core of the
ELP (Principles, 2006). The ELP is an important tool for developing,
and a format for documenting, the language user’s progress towards
plurilingualism by recording and reflecting on the FL learning experiences. Self-assessment (supplemented by official, external assessment) leads to the recognition of proficiency in all languages known to
language users, regardless of whether they were learned in school or
in informal contexts.
The ELP makes the goals of the CEFR more concrete and accessible
to the participants: what they are able to do in the target language (TL)
in meaningful, authentic communication. For this purpose, the CEFR
introduces a great number of descriptors, defined as clear, transparent,
positively formulated communicative acts needed for performing tasks.
In self-assessment, pupils consider and specify the level, value and
quality of their learning products or TL performance in relation to the
descriptors at the different (A/B/C) levels of proficiency (CEFR, 2001,
pp. 24–30).
In Chapter 2, I will discuss recent research on developing FL education in Europe with reference to the CEFR and the ELP, and related
literature: the PhD dissertations by Rebenius (2007), Sisamakis (2006),
Perclová (2006) and Lammi (2002), adding main findings also from
more recent Finnish research on the ELP (Kohonen & Pajukanta 2003;
Kohonen, 2006a).1
1
Apart from Rebenius, the studies are concerned with the ELP implementations, with
a focus on the pedagogical function of the ELP. The reporting function was, of course,
developed similarly as part of the ELP projects discussed. However, the researchers
have chosen to concentrate on the pedagogical function in these reports of the pilot
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Viljo Kohonen
2 Notes on recent research related to the ELP and
learner autonomy
2.1 Rebenius (2007): Discourse on learner autonomy
Rebenius undertakes a comprehensive analysis the discourses connected with learner autonomy (LA). She makes a distinction between
four kinds of discourses in her primary source material.2
In her analysis of the seminal Council of Europe (CoE) documents,
Rebenius points out that language education is presented in them as a
genuine right of citizenship for the Europeans. FL education constitutes
an important part of the democratic citizenship education advocated
by the CoE. Since the 1970s, the CoE has consistently emphasised
the functional role of communication, rather than formal aspects of language, as part of the communicative language teaching. (Rebenius,
2007, pp. 63–69.)
Rebenius points out that learner autonomy is a somewhat vague
concept, consisting of elements from different origins. In an important
sense it involves a pedagogical paradox in an institutional context
sending the pupils a contradictory message: “Be independent on my
premises”. Rebenius interprets this message as “imposed” autonomy,
regulated by the framework curricula and institutional goals and constraints in schools (Rebenius, 2007, pp. 72–80; pp. 137–147).
To clarify the vagueness contained in “learner autonomy”, Rebenius
makes a useful distinction between two strands in the LA discussion
within the CoE: (1) “Mainstream” LA, with an emphasis on “learner”. It
has a psychological basis that refers to autonomy in language learning
and language use, emphasising lifelong learning. (2) “Critical”LA, with
an emphasis on “autonomy”, introducing the socio-political and philosophical dimensions to the discussion. She notes that this discussion,
coming mainly from outside the CoE, is concerned with freedom, values and emancipation. It suggests that FL teaching and learning need
2
work, in order to disseminate the findings for further international research and development work.
The qualitative data consisted of the following discourses: (a) a documentary analysis
of the concept of autonomy in the research and development work carried out mainly
under the auspices of the Council of Europe (since the 1970s); (b) the philosophical
underpinnings of the notion of autonomy (with reference mainly to Immanuel Kant
(1803/1992) and Charles Taylor (1991), and some recent language educators; (c) a
documentary analysis of the Swedish national framework curricula and syllabuses for
foreign languages (1982–2000), and (d) a qualitative case study of an upper secondary Swedish FL student (representing the “rebellious” autonomous student). In this
paper, for reasons of space, I will limit my discussion only to the first two aspects.
103
to be viewed as something more than the development of the learning
and language skills (e.g., Benson & Voller, 1997; Benson, 2001; Lamb,
2000; van Lier, 2004).
The “mainstream” discourse of LA is based on Holec’s well-known
book on learner autonomy (Holec, 1979/1981), in which he defined autonomy as taking charge of one’s FL learning. This is essentially a psychological concept: learning to plan > carry out/ monitor > self-assess
one’s learning. It conveys a technical view in the sense of becoming
an independent, skilled language learner. It provides an individual perspective to learning whereby learning is seen as an ability to learn to
manage one’s learning without the teacher. This independence involves
two aspects: autonomy as a learner (learning to learn) and autonomy
as a language user (becoming an independent communicator). In this
discourse, autonomy is seen as a question of efficiency in FL learning. It results in what Rebenius calls a “well-adjusted” autonomous pupil/student in the social context of school. (Huttunen, 1986; Rebenius,
2007, pp. 147–170.)
The critical perspective to autonomy is connected with the third aspect of LA: autonomy as a person. This view is inherent in the goals
of democracy and European citizenship education through FL teaching (Holec, 1993; Huttunen, 1993). It introduces the notions of critical
awareness, experienced autonomy and authenticity to FL teaching.
The two strands have developed together and intertwined with each
other, with the critical discourse gaining more visibility since the 1990s.
Rebenius points out that the critical perspective to LA has revitalised
the socio-political notion as a socialisation of pupils towards democratic
citizenship. This aspect of autonomy has gained wider acceptance in
the discussions within the CoE since the publication of the Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001). It clearly includes
important elements from moral philosophy and values education. (Taylor, 1991; Rebenius, 2007, pp. 175–210.)
Rebenius concludes that autonomy in the sense of individual freedom and independence is always constrained through participation in
society. So it makes better sense to talk about relational freedom, understood as interdependence between a person and society. In such a
relationship the individual needs to be seen as a moral subject and an
authentic person who is able to develop personal identity in social interaction, through commitment to common values. Language teaching
should thus create opportunities for the pupil to find his/her own voice in
language classes. The threefold perspective to the notion of LA underscores the teacher’s use of educational power in FL classrooms, and
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the need for the teacher to understand the complexity of the discourse
that frames the notion of learner autonomy (Lamb, 2000; Rebenius,
2007, pp. 85–130; pp. 170–182; pp. 314–316.)
2.2 Sisamakis (2006): The ELP in Irish post-primary
education
This Ph.D. dissertation comprises a very detailed documentation of a
longitudinal study of the Irish ELP implementation project (2003–2004).
It provides a wealth of extensive quantitative and qualitative data, allowing the researcher to carry out data triangulation to validate his findings.3 As the project coordinator involving a sustained participation in
the project, he had an insider’s (“emic”) position to support his interpretation of the data.
2.2.1 Theoretical background, design and implementation
The theoretical framework of the project was based on the theory of
learner autonomy (Little, 1991, 2004; Dam, 1995), self-determination
theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002), and research on social motivation (Ushioda, 1996, 2003). The theoretical framework viewed pupils as whole
human beings and active participants in the learning process and was
aimed at encouraging their involvement in their language learning.
In the course of the preceding Irish Learner Autonomy Project (LAP
ELP, 1997–2001), the participants developed a modular structure within the Language Biography section of the ELP. This entailed a cyclic
use of the CEFR descriptors and the proficiency checklists based on
the Irish post-primary FL syllabuses (Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2002).
The modular structure consisted of the following stages in the ongoing learning process: (i) setting personal goals for a learning cycle using the checklists, (ii) monitoring the learning process and reflecting on
the progress, and (iii) self-assessment of the language skills using the
checklists again, and setting new goals for the next cycle of learning.
(Sisamakis, 2006, p. 59.)
3
The study comprised a total of 364 learners and 14 FL teachers in 19 language classes. It consisted of (a) attitudinal-motivational quantitative questionnaire data from the
learners, (b) semi-structured teacher and learner interviews, teacher reports and essays, open-ended questionnaire data from the learners and extensive samples of their
ELP entries, and (c) the researcher’s field notes from classroom observations and
monthly workshops with the participating teachers (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 80–91).
105
The pedagogical process of using the ELP involved a series of negotiated cycles of FL learning. The teacher facilitated the pupils’ progress
by integrating the learning goals, tasks and assessment into consecutive goal-oriented learning cycles. Self-assessment and active learner
participation were thus an integral part of the ELP-informed pedagogy
developed in the projects. As pointed out by Sisamakis, the Irish ELP
projects were able to develop a kind of “virtuous circle” of learning to
promote increased learner autonomy, critical thinking and motivation
leading to learner “empowerment”. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 33–38; pp.
208–210; pp. 240–245.)
The ELP was used to facilitate site-based FL curriculum development in accordance with the following principles of learner autonomy
(Little, 1991, 2004, pp. 22–23; Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2002): (1) The
principle of learner empowerment and engagement entails that pupils
are brought to assume an explicit acceptance that they are responsible
for their own learning. This means that they need to be taught how to
plan, monitor and evaluate their learning. (2) The principle of learner
reflection suggests that behind such processing abilities is the pupil’s
capacity for detachment and reflection on one’s own learning processes. This capacity needs to be practised through reflective work. (3) The
principle of appropriate target language use entails a maximal use of
the TL in learning. Through meaningful TL use pupils will develop the
genuine language user’s proficiency in spontaneous communication.
The principles posed critical questions for the pedagogical guidance
of the pupils: how to bring them to accept autonomy as a goal-orientation for FL learning? How to develop their reflective skills? How to
promote a consistent use of the TL in the learning-teaching process?
To support their engagement, the pupils participated in the decisionmaking through negotiated learning, making choices on the tasks and
assessing their progress, thus assuming responsibility for their learning. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 50–65.)
The self-determination theory of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2002) assumes that the learners have an innate active tendency for growth and
integration, tending towards an inner organisation of knowledge and a
holistic self-regulation of the process leading to increased autonomy.
The following elements are seen as fundamental psychological human
needs: competence (developed through challenges), relatedness (being connected with others), and autonomy (referring to an inner locus
and origin of actions based on personal values). Autonomy is seen as
developing through the interdependence of the participants, enhancing
their motivation as an internally driven and socially mediated, interac-
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Viljo Kohonen
tive process (Ushioda, 2003; Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 62–67). To gauge
the extent to which such principles were discernible in the project participants’ learning processes, the researcher collected a rich amount of
data, both quantitative and qualitative.4
2.2.2 Major findings and conclusions
According to the pupils’ questionnaire data, the ELP had a positive effect on intrinsic motivation, enhancing their experienced autonomy, and
creating a positive learning climate in the ELP classes. The pupils were
able to take increasing charge of their learning and were also proud of
their ELPs. The open-ended questionnaire results supported this finding, indicating that the pupils were developing an ownership for their
ELPs. They found goal-setting useful for organising their learning and
making their own choices. This process of monitoring one’s learning
supported their emotional engagement in the learning process, and
their confidence as FL learners. The ELP thus proved to be a significant
tool for fostering learner autonomy. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 195–212.)
The teacher interviews and reports indicated that the participating
teachers were able to assume a broader perspective to their teaching,
feeling more confident and at ease about it, and less dependent on the
exams and textbooks. They also said that a frequent and systematic
use of the ELP did support learner autonomy in their language classes.
As noted above, the data also brought up the importance of the cycles
of negotiated learning for the continuity of the pupils’ learning efforts. A
learning cycle made it possible for the participants to “chop” the intimidating FL learning task into more manageable “chunks” of goal-oriented
classroom (and home) work. The project also developed a useful way
of helping the pupils to grade their progress in the language skills in
terms of the degree of independence as experienced by the pupil when
4
The quantitative data was collected through questionnaires administered to the pupils as pre- and post-project tests by the researcher (in September 2003 and May
2004) on learning motivation and attitudes (4-point Likert scale). The responses were
juxtaposed for comparisons (using the SPSS program). Sisamakis also designed an
open-ended questionnaire at the end of the project focusing on the ELP. To validate
the findings, he collected a variety of qualitative data using semi-structured interviews
of the teachers and the pupils, at the beginning and at the end of the school year. In
addition, the teachers also submitted semi-structured monthly reports and personal
end-of-year essays. The researcher observed a number of lessons and made field
notes, submitting the summaries for the teachers to comment on and confirm. He also
analysed samples of the ELP entries which were published for internal use on the
project website on the Internet. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 90–91.)
107
conducting self-assessment with the help of the descriptors and the
checklist statements. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 235–46.)5
The teachers generally found the ELP useful for mediating the syllabus goals and contents to the learners, and the checklists helpful for
making the learning objectives more concrete and transparent to them.
The descriptors and the checklists helped them to develop their skills of
planning, monitoring and self-assessment and made them more confident in using the TL in the small groups as a means of real communication. The checklists also provided a convenient means for the teachers
to scaffold learning by giving task-specific help to the learners, facilitating their understanding of the tasks at hand. As a participating teacher
aptly noted, his learners reached a point where they better understood
the “geography” of their FL learning. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 248–249.)
Sisamakis summarised the main findings of the project in terms of
the following themes (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 335–361):
1. The ELP had a markedly positive effect on TL learning. However,
while the main “hassle” of learning to use it was overcome in
a year’s time with systematic support (regular, monthly inservice teacher seminars and the use of the project website), one
year was too short a time for the long-term benefits to surface.
The positive effects were connected with a large number of factors such as motivational orientation, perceived learner competence in learning, flexibility, variety and satisfaction; perceived
autonomy support by teachers; beliefs about the difficulty of L2
learning; the efforts made by the pupils; ability to self-assess and
set personally relevant goals, and ownership and responsibility
for learning. The ELP was optimally effective when it was used
more often and more systematically, in a modular way, involving
goal-setting, self-assessment and reflection in the TL (Sisamakis,
2006, pp. 336–338).
2. The public examinations (JC, Junior Certificate; LC, Leaving Certificate) have a strong negative backwash effect, entailing language teaching to the exam and a focus on test-taking strategies.
More emphasis should be shifted to the teaching and evaluation
of the productive skills. The ELP, with its internationally transparent standards in the form of the CEFR levels, constitutes an
5
In the checklist, the pupils were guided to assess each descriptor (e.g., “I can ask
and answer simple direct questions on very familiar topics (e.g., family, school) with
help from the person I am talking to”, Level A1) in terms of the following gradation of
understanding/skill: “with a lot of help” -> “with little help” -> “on my own” (Sisamakis,
2006, p. 60).
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3.
4.
5.
6.
Viljo Kohonen
appropriate basis for a principled reform of public examinations.
It has the potential to become the vehicle of a paradigm shift in
Irish language education if implemented on a large scale. Such a
shift could be brought about by a review of the FL curricula using
the concepts of the CEFR and the ELP. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp.
340–346.)
The ELP had a statistically significant and proportionately substantial positive effect on learners on both personal and group
levels. As a learner-centred pedagogical tool, the ELP increased
collaborative learning and autonomously oriented group-work informed by task-based and discovery-oriented learning theories.
It also encouraged peer revision and scaffolding, and maximal
appropriate use of the TL in class.
The teachers generally recognised the ELP to be an invaluable
pedagogical tool which had a positive influence on their teaching
practices and their pupils. It made them feel more in charge of
their teaching and boosted their autonomy and a critical reflection on their practices. It also helped them to develop a new type
of professionalism based on the principled and transparent theoretical framework that integrated learning, teaching and assessment. (Sisamakis, 2006, pp. 346–349.)
The ELP had a positive influence on the pedagogical practices
in a number of different school contexts. Developing FL education involves an integrated language curriculum with a closer cooperation of FL teachers and (at least some) teachers of other
subjects, fostering cross-fertilisation among subjects as a wholeschool approach.
ELP-informed pedagogy could also be used as a tool in educational policy-making to promote a more integrated curriculum.
This can minimise the curricular fragmentation that prevails at
the post-primary level whereby most subjects are taught independently of one another. The basic concepts of the ELP should
be integrated in pre-service and in-service language teacher education and the training organised by the subject teacher unions
for different languages. As the researcher notes,“having a pedagogical tool which seems empowering enough to revolutionise
language teaching means nothing if its dissemination remains
minimal” (Sisamakis, 2006, p. 355).
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Sisamakis ends his final discussion with the following remark:
“On the basis of the findings of this thesis, it seems that the time is more
than ripe to commence further actions structured and informed by the LAP
ELP. In my opinion, Irish bodies shaping language policy are presented with
a rare chance to proactively initiate a principled paradigm shift ... in Irish
language education, exploring the potential of a pedagogical tool which has
been found, statistically as well as qualitatively, to have an effect which
could be characterised as transformative ... The choice is in our hands.”
(Sisamakis, 2006, p. 361.)
2.3 Perclová (2006): The ELP in the Czech context
Perclová’s study was focused on the ELP-related beliefs and attitudes
of language teachers and pupils, and the situation-specific meanings
of the ELP for the participants. It used an action research design in
which the researcher herself was also the coordinator of the long-term
ELP pilot project. She was intensively involved in the project design
and implementation, having an “emic” position in the project.6 The data
comprised both quantitative and qualitative data.7 The design of the
study enabled the researcher to carry out data triangulation to validate
her findings (Perclová, 2006, pp. 102–108). The central question of the
study was: “How was the ELP pedagogy put into practice in the Czech
context?”8
The researcher defined educational beliefs as opinions and ideas
held by teachers and learners about the task of learning a foreign language. She saw beliefs as the teacher’s personal theory shaping classroom action more than a particular methodology (Perclová, 2006, pp.
6
7
8
The study consisted of two project groups: (1) the pilot project teachers (N=53) and
their pupils (N=902, from March 1999 to July 2000); (2) the pre-dissemination group of
prospective ELP teacher trainers (N=53, from September 2001 to July 2002; Perclová,
2006, pp. 2–3; pp. 80–87).
The quantitative data consisted of closed and semi-structured questionnaires (administered by the researcher at different stages of the project). The open-ended qualitative data included teacher and pupil interviews, site visits, classroom observation
and field notes, examination of portfolios, and notes from the in-service seminars.
(Perclová, 2006, pp. 87–98.)
More specifically, Perclová undertook the following research tasks: 1. The participating teachers’ and pupils’ overall ELP-related attitudes and beliefs. 2. The use of the
criterion-referenced descriptors of communicative activities. 3. The use of pupils’ selfassessment, based on the descriptors. (Perclová, 2006, pp. 3–10; pp. 78–79.) In this
paper I can only discuss the findings related to the first and third questions.
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Viljo Kohonen
60–62; Williams & Burden, 1997). She facilitated the participants to
develop their contextual understanding through an interactive process
of the ELP implementation, which she saw as the basis for the whole
study. In terms of the the socio-cultural theory, she considered beliefs
to be culturally constructed, through interaction, being both social and
individual; unique and shared; rational and emotional, and diverse, but
also uniform (Perclová, 2006, pp. 62–70; Lantolf, 2000; Kalaja & Barcelos, 2003; Woods, 2003).
The major findings indicated that the ELP created a rich, positive
learning environment, supporting the pupils’ motivation and active
participation. Their reflective abilities were gradually emerging in the
classes, leading to a deeper understanding of their learning. The process of goal-setting, monitoring and self-assessment was, however, a
new culture for both the teachers and the pupils, and a number of the
teachers also commented on the lack of time and problems of learner
motivation.
The teachers also found the integration of the ELP with the textbooks problematic. Simililarly, they found the descriptors difficult to
teach because the communicative context was missing in the generic descriptors. For these reasons, the teachers considered in-service
teacher education essential for understanding what the ELP was all
about and how they might develop it in their language classes. The
seminars frequently involved debates about the pedagogical issues,
deepening the professional understanding of the participating teachers.
(Perclová, 2006, pp. 125–154; pp. 230–233.)
The data indicated that the pupils’ overall attitudes towards learning
foreign languages were very positive at the end of the project. While
a majority of them saw FL learning as a matter of learning words and
grammar, and translating sentences from Czech, a broader picture of
the scope of language and communication was also emerging at the
end. The ELP supported the pupils’ feelings of self-efficacy and boosted
their self-confidence. It gave them the possibility to present their work
and show their achievements, engendering feelings of pride in their
work. The girls were generally more positive than the boys. The primary pupils were more positive than secondary, probably due to the
culture of working alone in Czech language classes. (Perclová, 2006,
pp. 115–123.)
Conducting self-assessment proved problematic in the Czech context due to the new learning culture. The teacher’s support was thus
indispensable for the pupils’ motivation. The pupils found the ELP a
predominantly positive experience. An important finding was that their
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interest in using the ELP was independent of their schoool grades and
of their perceived ability to learn languages: low achievers also felt positive about working on their ELPs, believing that their ELP tasks were
attainable to them (Perclová, 2006, pp. 227–229.)
The researcher concluded that the integration of the ELP into the
common teaching practices was an arduous process entailing a new,
broad and coherent framework for the classroom activities. A number
of teachers had difficulties in understanding the complex concept of
the ELP pedagogy as the ELP did not seem to respect the system to
which they had been accustomed and which they believed promoted
FL learning. They seemed to underestimate two important factors: the
teacher’s guidance of the process and the need for interaction between
the teacher, pupils and their peers. Those who fully grasped it and identified with it were able to establish a genuine dialogue with the pupils.
The hands-on experiences and sharing of relevant practices during the
seminars were considered invaluable for teacher development. The researcher noted that a quick implementation of the ELP pedagogy was
hardly feasible in the Czech context; a gradual approach to the implementation was needed. (Perclová, 2006, pp. 224–241.)
2.4 Lammi (2002): Motivation for studying Swedish in
Finland
Lammi’s research was focused on the Finnish upper secondary school
students’ views and experiences of learning Swedish, and the influence
of the ELP on their motivation for Swedish. She collected the empirical
data from five Finnish upper secondary schools with the purpose of
comparing the motivation for learning Swedish in two groups of students: a group using the ELP in their Swedish classes, and another
group with more traditional ways of learning Swedish. The aim of the
study was to obtain data on the current situation of teaching Swedish in
the upper secondary schools with a perspective of improving the practices of teaching Swedish and using the ELP as a pedagogical tool in
the upper secondary school.9
9
The researcher collected quantitative and qualitative data on the students’ attitudes
towards the Swedish language and Swedish learning motivation. She used a closed
questionnaire (the Likert scale), and short open-ended qualitative questions for eliciting self-reported adjectives to describe the perceptions of the Swedish language and
learning Swedish (e.g., “Describe your attitude to the Swedish language using three
adjectives”). She administered the instruments (in 1999–2000) to two groups: upper
secondary students using the ELP in their Swedish classes (as part of the national
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Viljo Kohonen
The major findings of the study indicated that the ELP group displayed
a more positive attitude to the Swedish language than the comparison
group, with several statistically significant differences on the attitude
statements. This finding was confirmed by the qualitative data whereby
the ELP group described their attitudes to Swedish using more positively loaded adjectives and expressions (such as useful, interesting,
positive, easy, pleasant). The girls had a more positive attitude to the
Swedish language than the boys. (Lammi, 2002, pp. 68–80.)
The ELP group was also more motivated to learn Swedish. The girls
had again a more positive attitude than the boys. The positive attitudes
were generally connected with good learning experiences and the usefulness of Swedish in later studies and work life, while the negative
attitudes were related to the compulsory status of Swedish (being the
second official domestic language), unsuccessful learning experiences
and the limited usefulness of it (in comparison with English as a global
language; Lammi, 2002, 80–90.)
The findings on the learning motivation for Swedish showed a similar pattern both in the qualitative and the quantitative data, with the girls
being clearly more motivated to learn Swedish than the boys. The researcher suggests that the low motivation of the boys could be connected with the compulsory status of Swedish (Lammi, 2002, p. 94). The
students of the ELP group described their motivation to learn Swedish
in clearly more positive terms than the comparison group. The positive
motivation was connected with personal interest in Swedish as well as
instrumental, integrative and cognitive motivational factors (interest in
languages in general). As the ELP-oriented work emphasises the importance of using languages in authentic contexts it may also encourage students to seek opportunities for using the language outside the
school. (Lammi, 2002, pp. 90–112.)
The students’ motivation for the ELP-oriented learning was connected with an active use of Swedish in communicatively demanding tasks.
This resulted in more meaningful language use when they made sentences and texts on their own, and learned grammar and vocabulary as
part of the productive use of language. While the elements of variety
and own choice in the tasks were found motivating (and demanding), a
number of students resisted the new practices, preferring more teacher-structured learning.
ELP pilot project; N=87 students), and a group of students coming from four other upper secondary schools who did not use it (N=254). (Lammi, 2002, pp. 57–68.) I limit
my discussion of her findings to comparing the Swedish learning motivation in the two
groups, and the influence of the ELP on the motivation and attitudes to learning Swedish.
113
The researcher concluded that the ELP-oriented learning increased
the students’ motivation to learn Swedish. There were no big differences
between the attitudes of the girls and the boys in the ELP group. Lammi noted that the ELP tasks forced the students to use their language
on their own, also allowing them to work on topics of their personal
interest. The sense of progress of the language skills over time was
also motivating for them. However, while the ELP was found generally
pleasant and useful, it also proved quite laborious and time-consuming
to use in practice. The researcher pointed out that the amount of work
should be kept within reasonable limits because having too much to
do will soon decrease motivation. She also emphasised that learning a
foreign language goes beyond achieving the cognitive results; it is also
a matter of arousing and supporting motivation for continuing language
learning. (Lammi, 2002, pp. 114–153.)
2.5 Kohonen (2006a): More conclusions of Finnish ELP
research
The Finnish national ELP pilot project ran for three school years
(1998–2001) to give the participants an opportunity to complete the
whole cycle of schooling (lower/ upper secondary/ vocational) and review their ELPs at the end. The project goals evolved through the joint
discussions at the seminars during the first project year.10 In the course
of the project, a variety of qualitative data was collected for evaluating
the impact of the project on the participants (Kohonen & Pajukanta,
2003; Kohonen, 2006a).11
In accordance with the emphasis on reflective FL learning adopted
in the project, the participants developed the concept of ELP-oriented
language study, referring to the negotiated teaching-learning process in
which the pupils/students gradually took increasing charge of their learn10
11
The ELP project was carried out in the municipalities of Tampere, Nokia and Seinäjoki
(N=360 pupils and 22 FL teachers in eight schools). It aimed at encouraging selfdirected, reflective FL learning and self-assessment; exploring the pedagogical and
reporting functions of the ELP; fostering the teachers’ professional growth, and examining the usability of the ELP.
The research data came from several sources: (1) the teachers’ developmental essays at the end of the project, (2) pupil questionnaires and interviews of a small number of pupils from five schools, (3) discussions at the intensive project evaluation
seminars (in spring 2000 and 2001; group reports); (4) teachers’ research papers in
the two project publications (in Finnish); (5) pupils’ portfolios, and (6) the researcher’s
extensive field notes from the seminars during the project. In this paper, I can only
summarise the main findings briefly.
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Viljo Kohonen
ing, guided by teacher. To encourage more independent work, teachers
gave pupils curriculum-related learning tasks that were open enough to
leave space for real choices, as appropriate to their age, learning skills
and level of proficiency in the TL12. Having concrete options required
them to make personal choices about how to set the objectives, draw
up action plans, carry out the work and report and discuss it in small
groups (Kohonen, & Pajukanta, 2003; Kohonen, 2006a).
Kohonen (2006a) summarised the main project findings in terms of
the following perspectives to the ELP-oriented foreign language study:
1. The pedagogical weight and significance of the ELP. The ELP
had significant pedagogical weight for a number of reasons, such
as flexibility and open-endedness in classroom use; tailoring the
tasks to individual pupils’ language resources and interests; giving task-specific, concrete feedback and guidance; enhancing
motivation and engagement. It was clearly a challenging possibility and a good tool for advancing pupil autonomy—as long as
the work was not tied with ready-made prescriptions, materials
and self-repeating routines.
2. The language teacher’s professional growth. The teacher is at
the heart of an educational change and has a significant role in
the process of fostering reflection for life-long FL learning. When
the teachers knew what they were doing with the ELP, they could
proceed successfully in their ELP-oriented work and come to
terms with the difficulties inherent in the change processes. Experiences of success increased the teachers’ commitment to use
and develop the philosophy of the CEFR/ ELP in their teaching.
3. Motivation and guidance of the ELP-oriented work. In order to be
motivated to invest their time and effort on learning the new skills,
the pupils/students need to understand the aims and basic principles of their ELP-oriented work, and the benefits of the ELP for
their language learning. Such an understanding increased their
engagement in the ELP tasks and their emotional ownership of
their ELPs.13 The specific feedback by the teacher on the task
12
13
The teachers guided their pupils/students to prepare several reports/presentations on
topics related to the textbooks (e.g., “My family/home town/hobbies”; a movie/ book
review; personal views related to themes such as traveling, environment, future expectations in life, etc.). In the vocational institutions, the tasks were related to the
students’ needs in work-life (e.g., preparing a CV and a presentation of a company/
topic relevant to their study area).
An emotional engagement and ownership were evident in the closing diary quote by
an upper secondary school student leaving goodbye to her portfolio at the end of the
three-year project (in German): “Dear Portfolio, I don’t know how to begin. There is
115
was an important source of motivation for the pupils and a good
way of scaffolding their progress.
4. Integration of the ELP with the FL curricula—making it feasible.
The integration of the ELP with the national/local language curricula is crucial for any wide-scale and sustained use of the ELP
in language classes. If the assignments and self-assessment are
only done as extra work, outside the curriculum-based contents
and textbooks, the workload soon becomes impossible for the
pupils to cope with. The ELP-related work also needs to be done
regularly, otherwise the pupils get out of touch and lose their interest in it. Similarly, the teachers cannot maintain their ELP efforts if the work is done outside their curriculum-based teaching
contents, time and resources.
5. Amount of labour in the classroom—making it possible. The ELP
needs to be developed into an integral part of the site-based language curricula, in terms of the goals, contents, learning processes and the evaluation procedures (including the marks in the
school reports). This seems to be one way of keeping the amount
of labour within reasonable limits, both for the teachers and the
pupils. In the introduction of the ELP into foreign language instruction it is advisable to aim at a gradual, goal-oriented evolution of the new culture over a sufficient period of time (some 2–3
years), rather than rushing into a quick technical implementation.
6. Problems and constraints. While the pupils were very positive
about the teacher’s comments on their ELP tasks, the teachers
had the persistent problem of the lack of time for thoughtful reading and commenting on their pupils’ texts and providing individual guidance, particularly in the large upper secondary language
classes (while preparing them also for the written, high-stakes
matriculation tests). Teachers also commented on the lack of
time in teaching the use of the descriptors and checklists for
self-assessment, under the constraints of meeting the curriculum
much to say and so little time…. It is time to say goodbye soon. Time to leave behind
my German portfolio and diary … I feel longing … the fond feeling is increased when
I read the old beautiful samples of works (with so many errors) and notice how I made
mistakes and what I had in mind at that time when I was ‘little’. At times I feel like
laughing, then again like crying … these samples of works are so nice no matter how
many times I was crying when I was doing them, but still. I would not want give up a
single day.” (Pajukanta, 1998, p. 101). The voices of Finnish pupils/ students in relation to the ELP-oriented work are discussed in more detail in Kohonen & Korhonen
(2007).
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Viljo Kohonen
requirements. In the lower secondary school, in particular, teachers were facing problems of how to communicate the abstract
meta-linguistic concepts in a simple enough “pupil language”.
A number of pupils/students resisted the ELP-oriented work, considering the familiar teacher-directed work more effective learning for them.
The findings underscore the necessity for the pupils to understand the
potential of the ELP-oriented work for language learning, and to develop an engagement for it in a lifelong learning perspective. They need
to understand that they are personally in charge of maintaining and
developing their communicative and intercultural FL competences and
skills after formal schooling.
3 Discussion
3.1 The CEFR and the ELP as a new paradigm in FL
education
As discussed in the previous chapters, the CEFR and the ELP entail
a new paradigm in FL education aimed at intercultural communicative
competence, autonomy and socially responsible citizenship education.
Such educational goals are also visible in the recently revised Finnish
Framework Curricula for language teaching in basic and upper secondary education (LOPS, 2003; POPS, 2004).14
14
The levels of proficiency targeted in the new FL framework curricula have been linked
to the Common Reference Levels at the transition points (primary/lower secondary,
end of compulsory education, end of the upper secondary and vocational education).
In higher education, the proficiency levels of the language courses offered by the language centres have similarly been linked to the CEFR. To promote mobility in Europe,
the European Union launched the Europass in 2005. This document also includes the
Europass Language Passport, which contains a summary of the self-assessments of
language proficiency in the Language ssport of the ELP. In the light of these decisions
and the ELP-related research evidence discussed above, I find it somewhat surprising
that the Finnish Ministry of Education and the National Board of Education have not
considered it necessary to validate the Finnish ELP, piloted and developed by a large
number of Finnish language educators in two long-term ELP projects (1998–2001 and
2001–2004). The national Project on Finnish Language Education Policies (KIEPO)
has also recommended that the Finnish Ministry of Education should make the Finnish
ELP officially available by launching the process of having the Finnish version of the
ELP validated by the Council of Europe’s Validation Committee (Luukka & Pöyhönen,
2007, p. 34).
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The findings of the ELP research discussed above indicate clearly
that the ELP is a significant pedagogical tool for enhancing foreign language education in different national and institutional contexts. The focus on the pedagogical function in the projects discussed is justified in
my mind: to test anything, we need to teach something in the first place.
And to teach anything in meaningful ways, we need to understand what
it is that we teach, and why we wish to teach it. Self-assessment has
the dual function of integrating the pedagogical goals (learning to learn)
with the reporting goals (documenting one’s proficiency) in FL education.
As teachers and researchers we need to realise that our conception
of man is inherent and embedded in our educational practices whether
we are aware of it or not. Our lesson plans and methods inevitably presuppose some perspective from which we view learning, our teaching
and pupils/students, the human beings to whom we teach foreign languages. Our teaching methods are an inseparable part of our conception of man. As Lehtovaara points out, our methods are our philosophy
of praxis. He argues further that we need genuine contemplative thinking based on open dialogue in the spirit of a humanistic-scientific approach. To clarify our educational stance as teachers we need to make
our implicit conceptions of man more explicit by asking questions such
as: “What is it—being human? What is the meaning of that for me?
How can I approach a person’s way of being-in-the-world so that I let
it be what he or she experiences it to be? To what extent can and dare
another person manifest himself or herself as he or she inherently is in
my presence?” (Lehtovaara, 2001, pp. 157–158).
The quality of the FL learning outcomes depends in an important
sense on what are the goals for language education and how they are
perceived and understood by the participants. Further, it is important to
consider what kind of learning cultures the teachers (and other authorities) develop in schools, and how they conduct the teaching/learning
processes at the grass-root level in the language classrooms, within the
local educational goals, institutional cultures and available resources.
ELP-oriented pedagogy entails a paradigmatic shift towards transactional and transformative teaching/learning based on sociocultural
and experiential theories of language learning (Askew & Carnell, 1998;
CEFR, 2001; Kohonen, 2001, pp. 11–22, 2006b; Sisamakis, 2006). In
these models FL learning is seen as a negotiated process aimed at
supporting socially responsible FL study and intercultural communicative competence in a lifelong learning perspective. The change is not
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a simple one, and it is a question of developing an engagement to the
new roles of the participants.
Being invited to carry out quite demanding TL learning tasks about
personally important topics, getting involved in them, working together
and seeing meaningful progress over time seemed to lead to an emotional attachment to the ELP. In negotiated learning pupils feel that they
have a voice in language education: an element of choice and initiative
in the decisions concerning their work and growth as persons. They
develop their identities as language users in interaction with the others as active participants in the process. In this interaction, the quality of the dialogue has a crucial role in the development of language
competences and personal identity. Such an interaction entails an
openness to and respect for the Other, encountering him or her as a
unique person and as a partner in the reciprocal educational relationship. (Lehtovaara, 2001, pp. 160–63; Jaatinen, 2007; Kaikkonen, 2004;
Kohonen, 2006b.)
The ELP pilot projects brought up the importance of social learning
when the pupils gave and received comments on each others’ work.
There is an intricate interplay between socially mediated motivation and
the development of personal autonomy. The interactive group processes play a crucial role in encouraging the growth of intrinsic motivation.
Belonging to a group creates a sense of relatedness that promotes
autonomy. The findings of the ELP projects provide evidence of the importance of involving the pupils as responsible partners, as subjects, in
the social learning process. (Kohonen, 2006b; Little, 2004; Sisamakis,
2006; Ushioda, 2003; Kohonen & Korhonen, 2007).
As the above studies indicate, the change requires a complex set
of new knowledge, skills and attitudes. Rebenius (2007) brings up the
fruitful tension contained in the very notion of learner autonomy in terms
of the origins of the two elements, learner and autonomy. Reducing the
autonomy concept to mere language proficiency levels and learning
skills misses the call for the development of socially responsible autonomy, social agency and personal identity conveyed by the latter half
of the notion (cf. CEFR, 2001; Lamb, 2000; van Lier, 2004).
I have discussed these perspectives of autonomy in my pedagogical
model of experiential FL education in terms of developing an awareness of oneself as a person (personal identity and autonomy), as a
language learner (process awareness) and as a language user (task
awareness; Kohonen, 2001, pp. 48–51, 2005, pp. 37–39).
The model (Figure 1) suggests an integral connection between language learning and teaching, and the teacher’s professional growth. It
119
poses new challenges for the teacher’s professional competence as a
language educator and a member of the institutional community.
Working towards coherence in experiential language learning entails
supporting the teacher’s professional growth and collegial collaboration
as a whole-school approach. In an important sense, the quality of the
educational processes is a significant outcome in language education,
based on the teacher’s professional engagement.
Figure 1. Experiential language education in an institutional context.
3.2 Understanding the complexity of FL education
The project findings repeatedly brought up the necessity for the teachers to understand the goals of the CEFR and the ELP and how they can
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be integrated with national/local curricula and the daily work practices.
When the teachers understood the goals of the ELP and were able to
translate these into relevant pedagogical practices in their language
classes they found new motivation from their pupils’ positive progress
and interest. Similarly, when the pupils understood the benefits of the
ELP for their language learning they also became more motivated to
engage in it. There is thus a cyclic interplay, a kind of a “virtuous circle”
between the teacher and pupil engagement, which also came up in the
Irish ELP projects. The teacher’s professional conviction and positive
regard increased the pupils’ interest and motivation, and their positive
response, in turn, fostered teacher confidence and enthusiasm (Ushioda & Ridley, 2002, p. 51; Kohonen & Korhonen, 2007, p. 262; Sisamakis, 2006).
The complexity of language classrooms has been discussed recently by Allwright (2006) in terms of the practitioner-based understanding
of classroom life by the participants, as a prerequisite for developing
educational practices. He uses the notion Exploratory Practice (EP) as
the key concept of what he considers a new research paradigm for
language teaching. He emphasises the importance of designing the
learning tasks so as to guarantee the provision of a wide range of learning opportunities for the participants to find something of use for their
personal purposes. Consequently, the “best” teaching generates the
most, and most productive, learning opportunities. The productivity of
learning opportunities is thus a question of the quality of classroom life,
moving the emphasis from teaching/learning as work to teaching/learning as life. (Allwright, 2006, p. 14.)
The importance of classroom life for the quality of learning leads
Allwright to see the practitioners as the most suitable people to conduct
productive classroom-based research. This view entails an important
shift of attention from academics to the practitioners as knowledgemakers in the FL classrooms. In doing action research in their classes,
teachers need to follow the standard academic practices in terms of the
rigour of data collection, analysis and reporting, to be able to extract
professionally competent conclusions about what goes on inside their
FL classrooms.
Such a research orientation emphasises the importance of the local
understanding of the classroom context. Understanding is prerequisite
for intelligent problem-solving or change for improvement, and it is also
in the heart of intellectual teacher professionalism. Allwright suggests
that the pupils/students need to be included as seekers after understanding in exploratory practice. He conceives the EP primarily as get-
121
ting the teaching and learning done, rather than as a way of getting the
research done. Trying to solve a problem or change a situation hastily,
before it is properly understood, may lead to misguided action. An understanding of the factors that affect the quality of life in the language
classroom is thus likely to be more productive than focusing directly
on trying to achieve a high quality of work. (Allwright, 2006, pp. 15–16;
Miller, 2007.)
Allwright (2007) summarises the main principles of the EP as follows:
(1) putting the quality of life first in the language classroom, (2) working
primarily to understand life in the teaching contexts, (3) involving everybody in practitioner research, (4) bringing people together, (5) working for mutual collegial development and seeing pupils as developing
practitioners in their own right, and (6) integrating the work for understanding into classroom pedagogy or other professional practices, and
making such work a continuous perspective to professional life. He also
points out that the teachers can use classroom time, via the EP, to develop mutual understandings without losing language learning time.
Gieve and Miller (2006) take up the notion of quality of classroom life
emphasising learning as a social phenomenon in which the participants’
schoolwork lives and personal lives are woven together. With reference
to Wenger (1998), they see FL classrooms as “communities of practice”
with complex social relationships. Classroom discourse is thus situated:
the participants talk to each other in the context of a shared history of
interaction involving multiple and complex identities. As members of the
communities of practice, teachers are not only teachers and pupils not
just pupils, in terms of their work lives. They are also authentic people
who speak to each other while living their personal lives. There is thus
an interesting interplay between the participants’ personal and institutional lives in the classrooms. (Gieve & Miller, 2006, pp. 18–26.)
Such interplay opens fruitful ways for considering a suitable balance
for integrating “life” and “work” in classrooms. Putting the quality of life
first suggests a value-based view of language education, whereby the
notions of agency, inclusiveness, mutuality and respect are integrated
in the language learning processes. The nature of classroom life is
about what it is like to be in a given classroom, what are the acceptable
ways of being and doing things in that classroom. (Gieve & Miller, 2006,
pp. 32–33.)
Similarly, Jaatinen (2001, 2007) emphasises the need to develop
the teaching and learning of a foreign language into a more humanly
and true-to-life activity, with authentic, genuine communication, existence and activity, together with the students. A language teacher is not
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Viljo Kohonen
only teaching the language but also dealing with the entire human being and the groups of people involved. Jaatinen sees language teaching and learning essentially as an autobiographical inquiry arising from
the experiences and the subjective life-worlds of the participants, aimed
at making sense of the various events in the context of foreign language teaching. (Jaatinen, 2001, 2007, pp. 1–17.) Lehtovaara (2001)
makes an important connection between the quality of life in institutional communities and the kind of dialogue practised in them. For people
to learn to live and thrive as truly human persons, the school needs to
become “... a living community of continuously learning educational coresearchers seeking to practise good living through collaborating in and
through open dialogue” (Lehtovaara, 2001, p. 162).
van Lier emphasises the importance of the notions of agency, autonomy and identity in the principles of what he calls action-based FL
teaching, in which the pedagogical structures and processes are intricately intertwined. He conceptualises language education as a holistic approach involving the pupil’s action, body, emotions and all the
senses. He sees FL learning essentially as a question of perceiving
language phenomena and developing the learner’s voice and identity
in the FL classroom, in an orientation that combines the perspectives of
the past, present and future. The elements of action, agency, perception and understanding form an inseparable unity in the process that
involves scaffolding at the macro, meso and micro levels. (van Lier,
2004, 2007.)
It is interesting to note that the perspective to classroom life offered
by Allwright (2006), Gieve and Miller (2006), Jaatinen (2001, 2007),
Lehtovaara (2001) and van Lier (2004, 2007) seem to capture a number
of the salient elements of the ELP-oriented FL education explored in
the studies discussed in this paper. Meaningful language learning requires that pupils understand their learning enterprise (at least in some
personally coherent way) and can interpret the concepts associated
with it. When they understand the potential of the ELP to enhance their
language learning they can be more motivated to engage in it. This is
seen in the recurring finding that that the teacher needs to explain why
he/she asks the pupils to assess and reflect on their learning and communicative skills and why he/she encourages them to assume social
responsibility for the work in the classroom community. With teacher
support and mediation, a majority of the pupils/students were able to
grasp the goals of autonomy and the purpose of reflection and selfassessment (cf. also Kohonen & Korhonen, 2007).
123
The principles of the EP and the ELP/CEFR aim at helping the educational experts to build a coherent educational approach in the national/regional and local contexts, while still allowing a large amount of
freedom for the participants to develop their ways of being and working together in the FL classrooms. As language teachers and teacher
educators, we have an important role in what kind of a journey our
pupils/students have in their language learning efforts, and how they
experience their foreign language learning in the classes. Through our
educational discourse and our stance as language educators, we build
the road of language teaching/learning as we travel along it together
with our pupils/students. To engage them in their journey for a lifelong
learning perspective, we might encourage them to see themselves as
language users and intercultural actors right from the beginning (Kohonen, 2006b).
Assuming the role of an autonomous language user and a responsible social actor is a complex task and consequently very much a question of time, effort, engagement and support. It is also a question of
developing an atmosphere of mutual trust between the teacher and the
pupils/students in the classroom, that is, an environment in which it is
safe to explore uncertain meanings and make mistakes. As practitioners, they can work together for local understandings of language learning. In so doing they create opportunities for enhancing the quality of
classroom life and language education for all the participants.
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FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN CONTENT AND LANGUAGE
INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL) CLASSES AND IN TRADITIONAL
LANGUAGE CLASSES
MARJA-KAISA PIHKO
TEACHER EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
marja-kaisa.pihko<at>edu.jyu.fi
Abstract
This study investigates the phenomenon of foreign language anxiety in two different
language learning environments in the Finnish comprehensive school: (1) in traditional English as a foreign language (EFL) classes and (2) in English-medium content
and language integrated learning (CLIL) classes. The results indicate that language
anxiety continues to be a problem for a large number of students in EFL classes. For
the Finnish CLIL environment, the study reveals, for the first time, that language anxiety is also a persistent problem for a considerable number of students in content and
language integrated learning. The article describes language anxiety in both learning environments, and discusses the pedagogical challenges that it poses for CLIL
education in particular.
Keywords: foreign language anxiety; affective factors; language learning; content and
language integrated learning (CLIL).
Introduction
Pupil A:
“If I have to speak English in classes, I feel uncomfortable… very tense. The
worst thing is to have to speak in your own words… reading aloud is more
OK. Sometimes if I am told to answer in English I freeze up and can’t get a
word out of my mouth.”
Pupil B:
“If I know I have to answer in English or read aloud a text in English I start
to panic even beforehand, thinking what if I get it wrong… so I tend to miss
part of the teaching while I panic.”
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
Pupil C:
“I don’t know where [anxiety] comes from… probably it’s because I’m not
confident about my English proficiency and I’m afraid of other pupils’ reactions. Even if I try not to be nervous I still am… and it makes almost all English classes difficult! I’m not shy to answer in class if I can use Finnish.”
These three pupils are Finnish 8th graders, aged about 15. In their
school reports, their overall English proficiency is judged to be good
(grades 9 and 8 for Pupils A and B, respectively) or even very good
(grade 10 for Pupil C). However, their relation to English in the classroom is problematic.
The explanation seems obvious: these pupils suffer from foreign language anxiety. This article focuses on foreign language anxiety, first as
a theoretical concept, then as a subjectively experienced phenomenon
in two different foreign language learning environments.
What is foreign language anxiety?
The term foreign language anxiety is commonly used to refer to feelings of tenseness and apprehension that many language learners experience in foreign language learning situations, typically in language
classes. Learners may suffer from an apprehension that is connected
with language classes in general, or they may have a fear of particular classroom tasks, typically those requiring oral use of the language.
During the past twenty years or so, foreign language anxiety has been
studied extensively; among the most prominent researchers internationally have been Horwitz and MacIntyre with their associates (see
Horwitz, 2001; Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre, 2002; MacIntyre, 1995; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989).
In the research literature, foreign language anxiety is usually considered as a situation-specific state anxiety, rather than a trait anxiety,
which is a relatively stable personality characteristic. Although foreign
language anxiety may be identified as a distinct type of state anxieties,
it often bears a resemblance to three other types of performance anxieties: (1) communication apprehension, (2) test anxiety, and (3) fear of
negative evaluation (Horwitz et al., 1986). A learner who has a tendency
towards a general shyness of speaking, either face-to-face or publicly,
will obviously find communication through a language not fluently mastered, and in front of a class audience, even more worrying. Horwitz et
al. (1986) further explain that learners who suffer from test anxiety are
Foreign Language Anxiety in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)… 131
basically afraid of failure, not only in tests but also in various language
classroom activities, such as games and tasks, which they interpret as
performance tests. Fear of negative evaluation resembles test anxiety,
but is a wider concept. Learners who fear negative evaluation may start
to avoid situations, such as speaking the foreign language, in which
they feel that they might be evaluated by others, in other words, the
teacher and other pupils.
All these components of language anxiety can be noticed in the
three learner comments above. In classes, however, language anxiety
is often difficult to observe. It may be manifested as typical nervousness
symptoms, such as restless movements or fidgeting with hair, but it may
just as well reveal itself as passive withdrawal (easily interpreted as
laziness) or as laughter and joking behaviour. Language teachers may
often be surprised to discover that some pupils in their classes suffer
from intense language anxiety (Hentinen & Piskonen, 1998). Unnoticed
language anxiety is most problematic, because it cannot be taken into
consideration in pedagogical practices.
Language anxiety and language achievement
Several language anxiety studies have shown, usually through correlational analyses, a moderate negative relationship between language
anxiety and language achievement (see Horwitz, 2001; MacIntyre,
1995). Path and Lisrel analyses of language anxiety (Laine, 1978,
1988, 1995) have shown that language anxiety also affects motivation, and through it, achievement, indirectly via various affective factors. The influence through motivation is presumably powerful (see also
MacIntyre, 2002; Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999; Kitano, 2001).
Anxious students easily develop an aversion to language study, which,
again, weakens their language achievement and finally their linguistic self-confidence. On the whole, the relation between language anxiety and language achievement is highly recursive in nature. Still, how
language anxiety affects language learning, i.e., what happens in the
learner’s mind, needs further research. It has been suggested that language anxiety may interfere with learners’ cognitive processing, both
in encoding, storage, and retrieval, by dividing their attention and thus
consuming their processing capacity. As MacIntyre (1995, p. 96) puts it,
“anxious students are focused on both the task at hand and their reactions to it” (see also MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989).
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
Language anxiety literature easily creates the impression of language anxiety as a problem primarily of low achievers. It is important to
remember that also good and successful language learners may suffer
from language anxiety. The three interviews above, for instance, introduce good learners whose anxiety seems to be linked to perfectionism (see Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002) and weak foreign language selfconcept (Laine & Pihko, 1991). Such good learners may continue to
perform well but they experience language classes as very stressful.
Finally, for practical pedagogical purposes, a review of the language
anxiety research gives rise to the following conclusion. For each individual learner, language anxiety means uncomfortable feelings in language classes. Even slight feelings of anxiety may dishearten the pupil,
but strong anxiety may negatively interfere with classroom activity and
even language achievement. Obviously, learners who suffer from language anxiety will find it difficult to reach their own optimal level both in
concentration ability and processing flexibility, and they may have difficulties in demonstrating their language proficiency. As a consequence,
anxious students often have a lowered foreign language self-concept.
Research in Finland
Foreign language anxiety, or language inhibition, in the Finnish school
context has been investigated either in combination with other affective language learning factors (Laine, 1988; Laine & Pihko, 1991) or
as a construct of its own (e.g., Aitola, 1986; Manninen, 1984; Hentinen
& Piskonen, 1998). This early research showed that a considerable
number of adolescent and young adult Finnish foreign language learners suffered from language anxiety. These results found an interesting
parallel in a study by Sallinen-Kuparinen (1986), which revealed moderately high rates of general communication reticence among Finns.
Although general communication apprehension and foreign language
anxiety are distinct phenomena, they presumably share common roots,
as also suggested by Horwitz et al. (1986).
Present study
The above picture of foreign language anxiety in Finnish foreign language classes, dating mainly from the late 1980s, invites research to
be conducted in the present Finnish language learning environment,
where the educational goals emphasize active communication in the
foreign language, rather than correct linguistic usage. Is this educational shift reflected in the amount of foreign language anxiety that students experience in classes? Further, since the 1990s a new foreign
language learning environment has been available as an option in numerous Finnish schools: Content and Language Integrated Learning,
or CLIL for short. In CLIL classes, pupils receive a substantial part of
their teaching, in various school subjects, through the foreign language,
which supports implicit learning of the language. It is particularly interesting to study foreign language anxiety in CLIL classes, an area
with very little previous research, even internationally. So far, Baker and
MacIntyre (2003) and MacIntyre, Baker, Clẻment, and Donovan (2003)
are among the few studies which include an analysis of language anxiety in enriched language education, in this case in Canadian immersion
education. These two Canadian studies found traces of foreign language anxiety among immersion students, particularly late immersion
students. In the main, however, it is to be expected that frequent and
rich communicative contact with the foreign language in CLIL education
is reflected as reduced foreign language anxiety and increased selfconfidence in foreign language communication.
Thus, the purpose of the present study was to compare the amount
of foreign language anxiety experienced by students in two different
language learning environments: in (1) traditional foreign language
classes and in (2) content and language integrated (CLIL) classes.
This study is part of a larger research project (see Pihko, 2007),
which compares the affective outcomes of foreign language teaching in
the two different learning environments from the perspectives of (a) language learners’ motivational orientation, (b) their foreign language selfconcept, and (c) their feelings of foreign language anxiety.
Data and methods
Altogether 390 Finnish learners of English, 7th and 8th graders aged
13–15, took part in the study: (1) 181 EFL learners, who had been
studying English in traditional language teaching since the age of nine,
and (2) 209 CLIL learners, who, in addition to having studied English
in traditional language teaching since the age of nine, were receiving
30–50% of their school teaching, in various subjects, through English.
At the moment of testing, CLIL students in the 7th grade had participated
in English-medium content teaching for at least one year, and the 8th
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
graders for at least two years; many of the students had attended CLIL
classes for as many as four or even five years. The data were collected
by the present writer in eight comprehensive schools in Central, South
Eastern, and South Western Finland in spring 2004.
The study was carried out by means of a Likert-scaled questionnaire, which also contained a few open questions. The entire questionnaire comprised sections measuring students’ motivational orientation, their foreign language self-concept, and their feelings of foreign
language anxiety. Foreign language anxiety was measured through 16
items covering the sub-areas of general foreign language anxiety (i.e.,
general tenseness in language classes), fear of negative evaluation
(i.e., fear of evaluation from teachers and/or other students), and foreign language speaking anxiety (i.e., tenseness felt when speaking the
foreign language in classes). Some of the items were adapted from
previous research (Horwitz et al., 1986; Laine & Pihko, 1991), but the
majority were developed for the purposes of the present study. The
reliability of the parallel EFL and CLIL language anxiety instruments, as
measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was good: .88 for the CLIL instrument,
and .89 for the EFL instrument.
Results
The first general observation concerns the overall amount of foreign
language anxiety reported by the two learner groups: on an average,
CLIL learners reported less language anxiety in classroom situations
than their peers in traditional English classes. The differences in EFL
students’ and CLIL students’ responses were statistically highly significant (*** p ≤ .001) in the sub-area of general foreign language anxiety
and statistically significant (** p ≤ .01) in the sub-area of foreign language speaking anxiety.
Second, however, attention is drawn to the fact that in the sub-area
measuring fear of negative evaluation no statistically significant differences were found between EFL and CLIL group responses. This implies that, on an average, EFL and CLIL students had responded much
in the same way to the following items:
“When I speak English in classes, I am afraid that teachers are looking for
errors in my speech.”
“I fear that other students will laugh at my English speaking skills.”
“If I have problems of understanding in class, I prefer not to reveal my problems.”
It is worth noting that even in the other two sub-areas of foreign language anxiety measured there were several individual items to which
EFL and CLIL students responded in a highly similar manner, i.e., the
difference in group responses was not statistically significant, or it was
only approaching significance. For example, in one of the core items
measuring foreign language speaking anxiety, “I often feel nervous
when I speak English in class”, the difference between EFL and CLIL
group responses failed to reach statistical significance (see Table 1).
Third, the number of students experiencing foreign language anxiety
was relatively large in both groups, as suggested by the EFL and CLIL
answer distributions in the Likert-scaled questionnaire. The questionnaire used a 1–5 scale, with the lower end indicating minimal language
anxiety, and the higher end maximal anxiety. For the three sub-areas of
language anxiety investigated, the group means were as follows:
3 general foreign language anxiety: EFL 3.2 and CLIL 2.8
3 fear of negative evaluation: EFL 2.2 and CLIL 2.1
3 foreign language speaking anxiety: EFL 2.7 and CLIL 2.5
On a 1–5 answer scale, group means of around 2.5, or higher, indicate
that a considerable number of students in both groups experience language anxiety. The number of students reporting some degree of anxiety may be demonstrated by answer distributions for one of the items
measuring foreign language speaking anxiety:
Table 1. Student responses to one of the items measuring foreign language
speaking anxiety.
“I often feel nervous when I speak English in classes”
1 Strongly disagree
2 Disagree
3 Hard to say
4 Agree
5 Strongly agree
Group mean
CLIL
%
33
32
6
25
5
2.4
EFL
%
27
29
11
28
6
2.6
Several interesting observations can be made on the basis of the answer distributions in Table 1. To begin with, in both groups the majority
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
of students report that they do not feel tense, at least not very tense,
when they speak English in the classroom. These ‘anxiety free’ students have chosen one or other of the two disagreeing answer options.
Second, the total number of students reporting some degree of anxiety
in oral English communication is relatively large in both EFL and CLIL
groups: 34% and 30%, respectively. The most extreme answer option,
suggesting a high degree of language anxiety, was chosen by a minority of 5–6 % in both groups. The present study does not aim to give exact overall amounts of students experiencing language anxiety in EFL
and CLIL education. However, it may be noted that the figures above
well describe the general language anxiety climate in the two learning
environments. In EFL education, in the different sub-areas of language
anxiety, the number of students reporting anxiety typically varied from
20% to 40%. The most extreme answer option indicating strong anxiety was usually chosen by 5–15% of EFL students. The corresponding
figures for CLIL students were usually lower, but even so revealed a
substantial amount of language anxiety.
Third, the relatively small number of students choosing the neutral
hard to say option (Table 1) is interesting information as such. It is well
known that in Likert-scaled questionnaires, particularly those measuring affective factors, large numbers of respondents tend to choose
the neutral or middle option. The answer distributions above, however,
suggest that the respondents, particularly CLIL students, are very conscious of their language anxiety feelings, and they also want to express
them in the study. In numerous other language anxiety statements, a
similar tendency for the students to reject the neutral hard to say option
was observed in the study.
Finally, attention is focussed on the CLIL data. The CLIL students
filled in two parallel language anxiety questionnaires: the first enquiring
about their feelings during English-medium content classes, i.e., when
they study various school subjects in English, and the second enquiring about their feelings during formal English classes, i.e., when they
study the English language as a subject in itself. When the answers in
the two parallel CLIL questionnaires were compared, it appeared that
the students reported clearly more language anxiety during Englishmedium content classes than during formal English classes. The language anxiety questionnaire consisted of 16 items, and in eight items
the difference between the two class contexts was either statistically
significant (** p ≤ .01), or, in most cases, highly significant (*** p ≤ .001).
The eight items which showed that CLIL learners experience content
classes as more stressful represented all three sub-areas of language
anxiety investigated, i.e., general foreign language anxiety (e.g., “I feel
tense when classroom communication is in English only”), fear of negative evaluation (e.g., “I fear that other students will laugh at my English
speaking skills”), and foreign language speaking anxiety (e.g., “I often
feel nervous when I speak English in classes”).
Factor analyses were carried out to investigate item-level connections in the CLIL data. It appeared, among other things, that, particularly
for CLIL girls, language anxiety was strongly connected to ‘more talented’ peer students, whose proficiency in English seemed to discourage
part of the respondents. In the EFL data, a corresponding connection
between language anxiety and the distressing influence of more talented peers was clearly weaker. Further, a connection was found between
CLIL language anxiety and dissatisfaction with one’s own pronunciation
skills. In the scope of the present article it is not possible to deal with the
rich CLIL data in depth. A more comprehensive, and detailed, analysis
of both the CLIL and EFL language anxiety results is provided in the
project report (Pihko, 2007).
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to compare foreign language anxiety experienced by teenage students in two different language learning
environments in the Finnish comprehensive school: in traditional foreign language teaching (English as a foreign language (EFL) classes)
and in content and language integrated classes (English-medium CLIL
classes).
Not surprisingly, on an average, CLIL students suffered less from
foreign language anxiety in classroom learning situations than their
peers in EFL education. CLIL students were more willing to use English
in classroom communication, and they felt less tense when they spoke
English in class. The results suggest, in the first place, that frequent
meaningful classroom communication in English had made CLIL students feel more comfortable with the English language. When interpreting these general results, it should be noted that CLIL students are
likely to have been more positively oriented towards English and the
use of it from the outset, i.e., when they chose the CLIL option. On the
other hand, the research clearly indicates that CLIL classes manage
to support, and perhaps even strengthen, students’ willingness to use
English ‘publicly’ even during the teenage years, when language learners’ linguistic self-confidence often is fragile.
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
In addition to these general, and quite predictable, findings, the study
revealed several interesting aspects of foreign language anxiety in the
EFL and, in particular, in the CLIL learning environment. Above all, the
study showed that a considerable number of students both in CLIL and
EFL education experience foreign language anxiety at school. This
means that they feel a general tenseness particularly during Englishmedium classroom communication, they are afraid of critical evaluation
from the teacher and/or peer students, and they feel shy about speaking English in class. A noteworthy observation was that CLIL students
and EFL students reported similar anxiety rates in the sub-area of fear
of negative evaluation. Even in the sub-areas of general language anxiety and speaking anxiety, CLIL and EFL students’ Likert-scaled ratings
were almost identical for several individual anxiety items.
It is also interesting to compare the general language anxiety results with the results of the other two affective components measured in
the entire research project, i.e., motivational orientation and language
learning self-concept. It appears that the differences between CLIL and
EFL groups were smallest, or even non-existent, in the area of language anxiety. In motivational orientation and in language learning selfconcept, CLIL students’ results were clearly, and systematically, more
positive than the results of EFL students. Thus, it may be concluded
that in the three affective language learning components measured,
CLIL and EFL students resemble each other most in the area of language anxiety.
The result concerning the large amount of language anxiety in EFL
education is consistent with previous Finnish research. Thus the present
study suggests that the shift in language teaching—emphasis on active
communication rather than correct use—has not had a clear, positive
impact on the amount of language anxiety experienced by students. A
direct comparison between previous research and the present study
is impossible because of the different measurement instruments used.
However, the present results clearly indicate that language anxiety continues to be a problem for several students in most classrooms.
The findings concerning the considerable degree of language anxiety even in CLIL education is new information, and, hence, have particular pedagogical relevance. These findings indicate that language
anxiety may be a persistent problem for students in spite of the frequent use of the foreign language in classroom communication. CLIL
students seem to suffer from language anxiety especially in content
classes, presumably, because the wide range of topics dealt with imposes greater linguistic and lexical demands than the more predict-
able topics in formal language classes. Further, the results underline
that language anxiety may be a problem even for good and successful
language students—which most CLIL students typically are. It may be
noted that the three students quoted at the opening of this article were
CLIL students, and good learners of English. An interesting observation
was that for CLIL students, especially for girls, language anxiety was
clearly connected with the presence of ‘more talented’ peer students,
whose excellent English skills seemed to upset and worry some of the
respondents. This observation suggests that linguistically heterogeneous CLIL classes, where some students may have a near-native proficiency in the foreign language because of their personal background,
may require particularly sensitive pedagogical approaches. Further, the
observed connection between CLIL language anxiety and uncertainty
in one’s own pronunciation suggests that all CLIL teachers, both language and content teachers, should have the appropriate linguistic and
pedagogical ability to support pupils’ pronunciation development.
In the main, the present CLIL findings are much in line with the two
Canadian studies mentioned above (Baker & MacIntyre, 2003; MacIntyre et al., 2003), which found that immersion students, especially in
late immersion, may suffer from language anxiety as much as students
in traditional language teaching. The present CLIL results, together with
the immersion findings, indicate that subject teaching through a foreign
language may be affectively very demanding for pupils. Further, it may
be presumed that CLIL students suffering from severe language anxiety carry a heavy burden. This is not only because they face anxietyarousing situations frequently, but because language anxiety in CLIL
classes tends to have a double focus, inherent in the very nature of
CLIL education: it may interfere with both language learning and content learning. In the next stage of the research project, language anxiety, together with other types of study problems, in CLIL education will be
analysed through students’ concrete personal experiences, as revealed
in student interviews and essays.
Taken together, the present study emphasises the important role of
language anxiety in all foreign language learning environments, along
with other affective learning factors such as the learner’s attitudes, motivation and foreign language self-concept. As pointed out above, even
slight feelings of language anxiety may dishearten the pupil, but strong
anxiety may negatively interfere with classroom activity and, obviously,
with learning achievement. The present results invite language educators to consider ways to reduce pupils’ language anxiety both in tradi-
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Marja-Kaisa Pihko
tional language teaching and in CLIL education in order to promote a
relaxed and supportive classroom atmosphere.
References
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Gregersen, T., & Horwitz, E. K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: Anxious and non-anxious language learners’ reactions
to their own oral performance. Modern Language Journal, 86(4),
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Hentinen, P., & Piskonen, T. (1998). Vieraan kielen arkuus ala-asteella.
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143
A SURVEY OF THE ETHICAL VALUE WORLD OF STUDENTS OF
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
ESA PENTTINEN
esa.penttinen<at>helsinki.fi
Abstract
The goal of this study is to present a survey of the ethical value world of the foreign
language teacher students. The study was conducted at the University of Helsinki
during a course included in the coursework of language students of teaching in spring
2007. In order to explore the ethical value world of students, 16 students were requested to complete a questionnaire. First, the students were asked to recall one or
more cases from their secondary school days when their teacher acted inappropriately or inconsistently toward a pupil or pupils. Second, the students presented justified solutions to a moral dilemma.
The results showed that a portion of the students had an unclear and narrowlyfocused concept of the ethical nature of the teaching profession. They saw the responsibility of a teacher as separate from the responsibility of an adult. A portion of
the students would release themselves from the ethical responsibilities of a teacher
by transferring responsibility in a conflict situation completely to the parents of the
pupil. Some students viewed their own responsibility as the ethical caretaker of an
adult, which then prompted them to act.
Keywords: ethical value world of a student; ethical responsibility of a teacher.
1 Introduction
In this study, I’ll present a survey of the ethical value world of the students studying to become foreign language teachers. It is a part of a
wider ethical value world study of student teachers. The word “ethical”
is based on the Greek word ethos, which connotes a good habit or a
decent character (Hela, 1955, p. 11). According to the view of Harva
(1958, p. 23) “decent” and “indecent” are synonyms for “good” and
“evil”. To explore the basic nature of ethics, Harva (1958, p. 5) seeks an
answer to the question: “What must we do to do right?”
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Esa Penttinen
The concepts “ethics” and “morals” are complicated and not always
differentiated from one another. In philosophical research literature
(Harva, 1958, pp. 5–7), ethics is defined as a field of science with morals as the focus of research. The word moral is based on Latin words
mos, mores—habit, habits; moralis—concerning habits. Moral means
making a difference between doing good and doing evil. A moral phenomenon takes place where this difference is made. Here Harva (1958,
p. 7) refers to an opponent of normative ethics Edward Westermarck.
Westermarck attempted to prove that moral opinions are merely expressions of subjective feelings, which leads to moral relativism. What
is considered good or evil varies depending on time and place.
Values are a part of ethics which guide the quotidian life (Airaksinen,
1993, p. 14). The concept “value” is often used vaguely. According to
Engeström (2005, p. 325), values in behavioural sciences are usually
perceived as personal preferences or as a subjective orientation of a
person to the world. A person has an idea of what one should do, what is
right and what is wrong, what is valuable and what is worthless, or what
is good and what is evil. People, nevertheless, have different views of
how they ought to act in various situations for their internalised values
to be realised. (Kansanen, 1996, p. 13.)
Virtues are idealised descriptions of natural characteristics. General
ethics concerns all people in the same way, but virtues concern different people in different ways. (Airaksinen, 1987, p. 241.)
2 Professional ethics of a teacher
The multifaceted nature of the ethical problem causes misunderstandings, when problems are related to various codes pertaining to professional ethics. Professional ethics is the established term, although professional morals would be equally valid. (Räsänen, 1993, pp. 26–27.)
According to Räsänen (1993), the term ethics has established its position in the professional ethics concept. She states that she avoids the
term morals, because it is too closely associated with moralism and
moralising. Different interpretations of professional ethics declare what
a professional does when s/he acts right and what s/he may never do. If
a teacher follows his/her professional ethics, no moral problems occur.
(Airaksinen, 1987, p. 17.)
According to Uusikylä (2002, p. 9), teachers have been regarded as
morally exemplary, even as moralists, whose task it has been to govern the activities of others with authority granted by their professional
A Survey of the Ethical Value World of Students of 0Foreign Language…
145
position. In a philosophical sense, the professional ethics associated
with the profession of a teacher is problematic as a concept. Prevailing
common notion dictates that a teacher may not be drunk or exhibit indecent behaviour. Indecent behaviour was actually a punishable offence
in seminars that used to train elementary school teachers.
The importance of ethical contemplation of a teacher’s work is evidenced by the ethical principles of a teacher published by the professional association of teachers (OAJ, 2006). But they are broad in content and do not provide ready solutions to problems that arise in the
course of a teacher’s work. In conflict situations they can, however,
provide guidance when common understanding is being sought. The
guidelines remind of the students’ needs, but also of a teacher’s rights
and duties in meeting the whole of society in his/her students. According to Niemi (2002), students function as indicators of the well-being
and ill-being of society. Negative changes appear as students’ fears
and anxieties. A teacher ends up contemplating what his/her educational task is amidst change.
A teacher’s activities are guided by the dynamics of balance between the ethics of rights and duties. In research literature (Staerklé &
Doise, 2005, pp. 280–281), they are considered part of the normative
principles directing and guiding the cognitive activity and behaviour of
an individual. Justice and duty are locked in a logical mutual relationship: justice compels a person to do his duty. Rights refer to legality
rather than to morality. Duties are associated with social interaction
among people. They are based on commonly accepted normative values, on which the social organisation of the whole society is based. According to Puolimatka (2004, p. 251), a person decides compliance with
commonly accepted norms and values in one’s conscience. According
to a relativistic view, there is nothing stable and unconditional in one’s
conscience, but it varies by the circumstances.
Borders between rights and duties in the context of the work of a
teacher are occasionally problematic. Teachers may have more power
in the course of their work than responsibility for the consequences of
their work. Rules linked to schoolwork are guiding by nature, but they
do not reach all teachers, whereby solutions to ethical problems are left
dependent on the values and actions of individual teachers. (IkonenVarila, 2005, p. 110.) True integrity is required of the solver, which is
a virtue that is hard to implement. Coming up with a solution includes
taking responsibility. To whom is a teacher responsible for acts or omissions?
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Esa Penttinen
A suitable framework for studying the ethical value world of foreign
language student teachers can be found in the four-component model
by Rest (1994), which demonstrates the multidimensionality of morals.
Rest’s Moral judgment components are based on Kohlberg’s moral
development theory (1981, 1984). Kohlberg studied the development
of ethical thought of an individual and its relationship to education in
various cultures. Rest’s moral components are moral sensitivity, moral
judgment, moral motivation and moral character. Moral sensitivity is
awareness of how our activities affect other people. Rest gives an example of how a teacher acts in class. A teacher is not always aware of
not treating her students equally. If a teacher is told of it, she may be
surprised.
Rest’s moral judgment component is based on Kohlberg’s cognitivedevelopmental moral theory, and on the DIT-test (The Defining Issue
Test) devised by Rest in the 1970s. The component manifests itself with
a habit of contemplating and solving moral problems.
Moral motivation is associated with prioritising of values. From the
point of view of professional ethics, motivation can be examined as a
continuum, where the practitioner of a profession, at one end of the
continuum, is responsible for his/her activities only to him/herself, and,
at the other end, to the whole society. (Juujärvi & Myyry, 2005, p. 77.)
Moral character involves ego strength, perseverance, backbone,
toughness, strength of conviction and courage. It is the most multifaceted of Rest’s components. According to Juujärvi and Myyry (2005, pp.
77–78), the fourth component “the moral backbone” expresses, among
other things, strength and ability for self-control. Everyday life involves
situations associated with powerful conflicts of interest, feelings and
threats to others or to oneself. If one’s own interests and someone
else’s interests are in conflict, particularly when one’s own interests are
in danger, it is human to give in and to be flexible with one’s own principles.
A young student teacher often has difficulties envisioning the value
reality related to the teaching profession. S/he can, nevertheless, learn
to acknowledge those factors that guide the activities of a teacher by
making observations and assigning meanings to them. Theoretical
knowledge helps a student understand the ethical nature of a teacher’s
work, when s/he has an opportunity to observe the daily activities of an
experienced teacher in the classroom who has a good command of his/
her subject. (Brandt, 1992.)
147
3 Implementation of the study
The ethical problems associated with a teacher’s work do not disappear
by exchanging teachers or pupils, but by the individual’s awareness
of the consequences of actions. Practical philosophy includes ethics,
above all. By analysing students’ views of the ethics associated with a
teacher’s work, I receive information about their ethical value world. I
approached the research task from two points of view:
1. how students evaluate other students’ activities and
2. how they would act in a specific situation.
Regarding the first point of view, I compiled students’ views of the ethical activities of their own elementary and secondary school teachers
in classroom situations, where the role and responsibility of a teacher
come to light most clearly. To explore this issue, I set four questions
or tasks: 1. Give an example from your own school years when the
actions of a teacher toward a pupil or group of pupils or a teacher colleague were inappropriate or inconsistent. 2. How did the pupils act in
the situation your recollection describes? 3. What is your view of why
the teacher acted in the manner described? and 4. Describe the background related to the incident or a chain of incidents to the extent necessary in your opinion to understand the situation. After answering the
questions the students defended the best and the worst choice given
and explained how they would have acted in the situation described.
The second point involved investigating the students’ own ethical
thinking. The students presented their solutions to seven fictional moral
dilemmas. For this study I analysed solutions to only one moral dilemma.
The moral dilemma was as follows: “You are spending a Friday
evening out downtown with your friends and you notice an under-aged
pupil of yours completely drunk in the street.” Five options were given in
the dilemma with only two choices in each, yes or no. The options were:
1. You call the police. 2. You call the pupil’s parents and tell about the
situation. 3. You bring the pupil home. 4. You give the pupil a good talking-to and send him/her home. 5. You ignore the pupil and go on your
way. The students then responded to the following questions: 1. Which
solution was the best one? Why? 2. Which solution was the worst one?
Why? 3. How would you conduct yourself in a situation like that?
This study was conducted at the University of Helsinki during a
course included in the coursework of language student teachers in
spring 2007. The study was implemented at the Department of Applied
148
Esa Penttinen
Sciences of Education. The research material consisted of the responses to a questionnaire by 13 female and 3 male foreign language student
teachers aged 22–30.
4 The students’ views on a teacher’s ethics
Out of 16 students, 8 responded to the question about what kind of
teacher behaviour the students observed, interpreted, and evaluated
as unethical. Others responded that they do not recall any case from
their own school years, when a teacher acted inappropriately toward
one or more pupils. One student recalled the following case:
In our class there was a girl who was bullied systematically and daily. Various attempts were made to solve the problem, for instance by using an
outside “consultant”. In this situation all teachers should have indicated that
bullying was a bad thing, but such was not the case, instead, some teachers had a negative attitude toward the girl as if she herself had caused the
bullying. (w = woman, No. 1.)
In a study by Tirri (1999, p. 105) related to moral dilemmas in schools
and their solution strategies, bullying was the most common of the unethical events recognised by pupils. The reasons for bullying are fear,
desire for power or drive for a position in a group, envy, guilt and shame
(Hamarus, 2006, p. 132). In my own study, only one student paid attention to bullying and to the teacher’s attitude toward it.
The student continued her account on how the other pupils acted in
this case:
Very soon the pupils themselves sensed the attitude of these “mean” teachers, whereby bullying continued, because it was in some way considered
justified behaviour. (w, No. 1.)
Indifference of teachers or a mutual agreement among teachers may
contribute to continuous bullying. Hamarus (2006, p. 119) refers to a
study by Hyytiäinen, in which pupils in an elementary school told about
having been subject to bullying, but according to the teachers, these
cases were handled well. In secondary school and in the upper secondary school in particular, cases of bullying are so difficult to observe
and to handle that teachers avoided intervention. A workplace consensus may also prevail in the teachers’ lounge, which prevents a single
teacher from acting according to his/her own ethical principles.
149
Behind the actions of a teacher, there may “also be insecurity, desire
to be a pal to the class”, as the previously quoted student (w, No. 1) expressed it. A teacher’s insecurity may also be caused by fear of pupils
or their parents. According to the student’s (w, No. 1) own evaluation,
the bullying in this case was caused by:
This particular girl was somewhat different (today she would have probably
received some kind of medical diagnosis), but her parents did not approve
of this and they did not agree to any kind of cooperation. I would think that if
the parents and the teachers had come to an agreement and acted accordingly, the problem would have been solved in a meaningful manner and the
girl—and the rest of us—would today have a much better memory of our
school days. (w, No. 1.)
Similarly, in a study by Hamarus (2006, p. 62), the bullied pupils had
external differences from the other pupils in the class or their behaviour deviated from the norm. Tirri (1999, pp. 186–189) introduces the
method of a “round table discussion” for solving cases of bullying.
The responses of other students relate to the inappropriate or unjustified behaviour of a teacher. Out of the four components in Rest’s
model (1994), moral sensitivity is suitable for the description of foreign
language student teachers’ ethical value world study. A teacher does
not always realise what the effect of his/her actions has on the pupils
until s/he is told about it. Even a remark made in jest may hurt a pupil
(Tirri, 1999, p. 81).
The students described their views, for instance, as follows:
The teacher made indirectly mean comments about some pupils’ intellectual
abilities. The teacher meant to embarrass them. The other pupils laughed at
the teacher’s comments. Perhaps the teacher wanted to “amuse” the other
pupils. The teacher also made repeated remarks about some pupils’ poor
abilities or laziness (w, No. 6.)
One day the whole class behaved truly badly. At some point during that day
the teacher completely lost his/her temper. S/he left the classroom slamming the door, while showing his/her middle finger to boot. We were all
embarrassed in the classroom. (m = male, No. 4.)
Also in a study by Tirri (1999, p. 91), the pupils complained about their
teacher’s inappropriate behaviour. The teacher had shouted, accused
or threatened the pupils. One pupil presented the issue as follows: “One
teacher really does not think about what s/he says. Sometimes in class
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Esa Penttinen
s/he has implied that some are ‘rejects’ or ‘common kids’, when those
others over there are better...”
The students talked about the partiality of the teacher as follows:
In English class, the teacher completely ignored the poor students. When
we went through exercises by rows, the teacher automatically skipped the
weak ones! We did not dare intervene. We were astounded! (w, No. 7.)
A teacher in the upper secondary school in my opinion clearly favoured his/
her “pet pupils” ... In this teacher’s case differences in treatment of pupils,
however, came up more often than usual (w, No. 8.)
Tirri (1999, p. 95) showed that teachers had a positive and supportive
attitude toward pupils who do well in school. They give additional instruction and freedoms to gifted pupils even though they are already in
a privileged position, due to their innate abilities and success in school.
Tirri speaks of the influence of the Mattaeus effect in school life. The
gifted pupils receive additional tools for life from school. In the case of
the weaker pupils, it is the other way round, at least in an ordinary heterogeneous classroom.
5 The students’ views on ethically acceptable actions
In order to evaluate the students’ views on ethically acceptable actions,
I constructed an instrument, in which I used one fictional moral dilemma. The instrument corresponded to the one used in a study by Tirri
(1999, p. 142), which was based on a theory by Oser on teachers’ professional ethics. I classified the results first quantitatively, and thereafter
the responses qualitatively.
Table 1 indicates that excluding two students, all other students
paid attention to the pupil, a minor, in the street. Most of the students,
however, would transfer responsibility for the pupil to the parents. They
were not prepared to bring the pupil home, either, but would talk to him/
her and tell the pupil to go home. Most of the students did not consider
it necessary to have the police intervene.
The students did not know to whom a teacher is responsible for her/
his actions—to oneself, to the pupils or their parents or society? The
rules associated with the teaching profession are merely guidelines,
so solving moral issues is left dependent on the values and modes of
action of a single teacher (Ikonen-Varila, 2005, p. 110). The various op-
151
tions for a solution require moral sensitivity from a student (Rest, 1994),
a virtue which is difficult to implement.
Table 1. The students’ views on ethically acceptable actions.
Moral dilemma: You are spending a Friday evening out downtown and you
notice a minor who is a pupil of yours completely drunk in the street. What
do you do (yes/no)?
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Option
You call the police.
You call the pupil’s parents and
tell about the situation.
You bring the pupil home.
You give the pupil a good talking-to and send him/her home.
You ignore the pupil and go on
your way.
12
best
choice
(f)
1
worst
choice
(f)
5
12
4
8
0
5
11
3
2
10
6
4
2
2
14
0
7
yes
(f)
no
(f)
4
Behind the solutions, a qualitative analysis indicated the ethical principles which the students followed while justifying solutions they gave
and the manner they would have acted in the situation in question. The
students who considered the best option to be “I shall call the parents
of the pupils and tell them of the situation”, defended their view as follows, for example:
The parents of the pupil absolutely must learn about the situation, because
the pupil is a minor (w, No. 4).
It is good to bring the matter to the attention of the parents who have responsibility for their child. Therefore they have the responsibility and duty to
act as they see best. (w, No. 5.)
In that case, the main responsibility belongs to the guardians, as is appropriate, and yet I myself do not become liable for abandonment or some
such. If the parents, for instance, cannot be reached and the situation is
serious (the pupil’s health is at risk), it may be appropriate to call the police.
(w, No. 8.)
It is best for the parents to know about the state their child is in and for instance come to bring their child home (w, No. 3).
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Esa Penttinen
The students considered it their right not to take responsibility for the
pupil during their time off work. The responsibility was seen as belonging to the parents of the pupil or, in the opinion of some of the students,
to the authorities—the police. According to Ahokas, Passini, and PietiläBackman (2005, p. 116, p. 138), Aristotle set two factors as premises for
individual responsibility—presuming that a person’s actions stem from
“free will”: “A person is responsible for one’s own action, if and only if
(i) the reason for the action is internal, not external or forced, and (ii) the
action is not a consequence of a factor outside of the person’s control,
such as lack of information.” According to Aristotle, when evaluating a
person’s responsibility for an action, it is necessary to examine if the
person had a choice. In moral philosophy, responsibility is determined
on the basis of free will. One manifestation of free will is love. Love is
conditional on taking responsibility. Responsibility is often perceived as
an externally given duty. In society, the role of a teacher includes externally given duties—the extent to which these duties reach into time
off work depends on the professional identity and ethics adopted by the
person.
The students who considered “I give the pupil a good talking-to and
tell him/her to go home” the best option, justified their solution as follows:
I would try to convince the pupil to go home by talking sense to them. Not
preaching, but talking common sense. (w, No. 13.)
I show that I care about my pupil, but I do not go to extremes (w, No. 6).
The best out of the ones available (w, No 1).
Because I should react in some way, the other options are too extreme (w,
No. 2).
The options presented by the students can be interpreted as moralising. Moralism can be recognised by the means that it resorts to. The
most common ones are threatening, assigning guilt, or abandonment
(Lindqvist, 2002, p. 83).
The students who considered “I ignore the pupil and go on my way”
the worst option, justified their choice for instance as follows:
I cannot abandon a child. It is the responsibility of a teacher, as a familiar
adult, to intervene in this situation. (w, No. 9.)
One should feel responsible for a fellow human being. The situation becomes problematic, if the pupil is in a large group consisting, for instance, of
153
pupils from other classrooms in the same school, and s/he is known in his/
her own group. (w, No. 13.)
It would be abandonment and if something happened, I would be partly
responsible (w, No. 14).
It looks as if the students felt that caring for your neighbour is more of
a duty than acting out of their own free will. Airaksinen (1987, p. 167)
refers to the ethics of duty by Kant, when he examines the principles
of an individual’s actions. According to Kant, moral is autonomous, and
it cannot be justified externally. The students would act as they announced, because they knew their actions would be generally accepted. In the theory by Rest (1994), taking care of others can be found in
all parts of moral components: Moral sensitivity appears as sensitivity
to understand the needs of others. Moral judgment appears as a way to
contemplate and solve moral problems. Moral motivation is associated
with personal values, the values that the individual feels obligated to.
Moral character is the ability of a person to take care of another person.
Prioritising is essentially linked to the work of a teacher. S/he may be
left contemplating the effect of his/her decisions from the ethical point
of view. When a teacher feels responsible for his/her pupils, s/he is simultaneously feeling responsible for him/herself. Ahokas, Passini, and
Pietilä-Backman (2005, p. 138) refer to the fairy tale Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry; a wise fox warns him: “You are responsible for
what you have tamed”, when the little prince wants to approach him.
The question “How would you handle this situation?” received responses from 13 students. They justified their action in the situation in
question as follows:
I would probably avoid having eye contact with the pupil, because I would
think that I wish to keep my work life and off work life separate. In my opinion
it is the function of the parents to mind where their children wander in their
free time. (w, No. 15.)
Unfortunately, it is perhaps easy to ignore the pupil and go on my way (w,
No. 3).
My actions would depend a lot on the case: if the pupil in question is a
13-year-old pupil in bad shape, and the situation appears to involve possible danger, I would call the parents or the police. Instead, if the pupil is 17,
with his/her pals, and there appears to be no danger, I would certainly just
walk by. (w, No 8.)
I would greet the pupil and try to tell him that it would be worth going home
already (w, No. 1).
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Esa Penttinen
I might not even talk to the pupil, I would just greet him/her and express in
some way that it is stupid to be drunk (w, No. 2).
The student teachers’ justifications are the expressions of their subjective values. Values are a part of ethics internalised by a person, which
direct his/her life (Airaksinen, 1993, p. 14). The students’ justifications
of good or bad options, or how they would have acted in a corresponding situation, give a picture of their ethical value world (Harva, 1958,
p. 7). The students, for instance, considered it a desired outcome that
they could keep their work life and off work life separate, or that they
could transfer responsibility to a person to whom it rightfully belongs in
their opinion.
6 Discussion
The aim of this study was to give a survey of the ethical value world
of the foreign language student teachers. I approached my focus of
research from two points of view. The first was associated with the students’ perception of the ethics of a teacher based on their observations
of their own teachers. The questions were limited to the classroom situation, because the students did not necessarily have the experience of
the duties of a teacher outside of the classroom. Half of the students
taking part in the study contemplated the issue. They recalled cases
where, in their opinion, the teacher had acted inappropriately or inconsistently toward his/her students. The task was leading in the sense
that it examined the ethical actions of a teacher only from a negative
point of view. According to Airaksinen (1987, p. 17), the concept of an
ethical problem is commonly used to refer only to a situation where
incorrect action is taken. When an action is incorrect or unjust, then it is
seen as an ethical problem. The other half of the students did not recall
any cases of their teacher acting unjustly toward students, nor did they
acknowledge the existence of a moral problem. The simplest form of
unacknowledged information is ignorance (Ikonen-Varila, 2005, p. 107).
Had I framed the question positively, I may have received answers also
from those students who had a virtuous image of their teachers’ actions. According to Tirri (1999, p. 32), in professional ethics of a teacher
ethical virtue is a reminder of the fact that morality is not a separate issue from the rest of life, but an inseparable part of his/her persona.
The students considered it ill advised for a teacher, for instance, to
have an inappropriate attitude toward bullying in schools, the favourite
pupil system, injustice, and condescending behaviour toward pupils.
155
They expected moral sensitivity from teachers and that teachers understand the effect of their actions on their pupils. Similar issues were
expressed by the students in a study by Tirri (1999). Airaksinen (1987,
p. 155) speaks of weakness of the will, which appears in the area of
morals. It was apparent from the students’ responses that they believed
that their teachers knew or that they ought to have known what is correct and what is incorrect behaviour. Despite that, the teachers acted
in contrast to ethical norms that are commonly agreed to. According to
Tirri (1999, p. 43), a teacher, nevertheless, cannot function in his/her
profession according to a certain ethical doctrine. Each teacher and pupil makes their value choices based on their own value system. At any
rate, in school they have to conform to official value norms as defined
in the national curricula.
The view of the foreign language student teachers on good ethical
actions is complex. This became evident in the responses given to a
dilemma that described a situation outside of school. If the dilemma had
involved a classroom situation, the solution to the first dilemma might
have been reflected in the students’ responses. The students wanted
to separate the responsibility of a teacher from that of an adult, which
they as students represented. Some students considered the responsibility of an adult and caring for their neighbour as their duty, which in
a real life situation would propel them to act. They did not want to take
on the responsibility of a teacher during their time off work, even if their
own pupil happened to be in question. Instead, they wanted to transfer
responsibility to the closest responsible person, in this case to the parents of the pupil. Some students did not always separate morals and
moralising from one another. According to Heiskanen (1991, p. 254),
hidden morals may manifest itself indirectly as moralising. It is easier
to say how things ought to be, than to realise how things really are.
People generally allow more freedom for themselves, and accept fewer
duties for themselves. Selfishness, demands on others, and hanging
onto one’s own rights are typical of this mode of thinking.
It is important that the teacher of foreign language education become
cognisant of the order of his/her students’ ethical value world and of the
contributing factors. The cognisance helps him/her raise awareness
among the future students of the ethical nature of a teacher’s work. Professional ethics develops through awareness. The subject departments
provide the students with good language skills, and the teacher practice
schools provide good didactic tools to meet pupils in classrooms. According to certain studies (e.g., Tirri, 1996, p. 119), teachers, however,
during their pedagogical studies, had not been provided with enough
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Esa Penttinen
tools to meet people, for instance pupils and their parents, outside of
school. Teachers found that the most difficult conflicts were ethical, and
that they lacked the skills to solve them.
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159
TEXTSORTEN IN FINNISCHEN LEHRBÜCHERN FÜR DEN
DEUTSCHUNTERRICHT
MIRJAMAIJA MIKKILÄ-ERDMANN
INSTITUT FÜR LEHRERAUSBILDUNG, UNIVERSITÄT TURKU
mirmik<at>utu.fi
Abstrakt
Das Ziel dieser Studie ist, ausgesuchte Texte in den Lehrbüchern für den „Deutsch
als Fremdsprache“ -Unterricht in der finnischen allgemein bildenden Schule zu untersuchen. In dieser Pilotstudie wird davon ausgegangen, dass das Lehrbuch eine wichtige Rahmenbedingung für die pädagogische Interaktion bildet. Die Stichprobe dieser
Studie besteht aus drei Lehrbüchern des Deutschunterrichtes. Als Methode dieser
Studie wird Textanalyse verwendet. Die Ergebnisse dieser Pilotstudie weisen darauf
hin, dass der Dialog eine dominante Textsorte ist und auf das Lernen der mündlichen
Alltagskommunikation ausgerichtet ist. Als Problem wird die Einseitigkeit der Textsorte der geschriebenen Dialoge festgestellt. Die Rolle des authentischen Textes ist sehr
gering in den analysierten Deutschbüchern. Auf Basis dieser Studie werden einige
Richtlinien für die Entwicklung der „Deutsch als Fremdsprache“ – Texte skizziert.
Schlüsselwörter: Textsorte; Lehrbücher; Deutschunterricht.
1 Einleitung
Das Ziel dieses Artikels ist, die Texte in Lehrbüchern im Deutschunterricht zu untersuchen. Das Lernmaterial, das in diesem Artikel Texte aus
den Textbüchern bedeutet, bildet eine sehr wichtige Rahmenbedingung
in der pädagogischen Interaktion, die in den meisten Fremdsprachenstunden zu beobachten ist. Einen sinnvollen Fremdsprachenunterricht
ohne Texte gibt es nicht wie Feld-Knapp (2005, S. 11) provokativ feststellt. Aus den anderen Studien innerhalb und außerhalb Finnlands
wissen wir, dass die Lehrer fast in jeder Stunde ein Lehrbuch benutzen (Chambliss & Calfee, 1998; Mikkilä & Olkinuora,1995). Die Lehrer
planen ihren Unterricht auf Basis eines Buches, und benutzen dessen
Zusatzmaterial auch häufig. Das Buch ist also ein wichtiges didaktisches Mittel für die Lehrer, und es wird oft als konkreter Lehrplan für die
Planung und Realisierung des Unterrichts genutzt.
Das Lehrbuch wird oft auch als eine Garantie für „Gleichberechtigung“ in der finnischen Schule gehalten, d.h. alle Lernenden haben das
160
Recht sich dieselben Inhalte anzueignen unabhängig wo und von wem
sie gelehrt werden. Dabei wird auch angenommen, dass das Lehrbuch
im Fremdsprachenunterricht auch für die Schüler ein wichtiges Mittel
ist. Die Schüler beschäftigen sich mit den Lehrbuchtexten, wenn sie
aus den Texten als Vorbereitung auf den Unterricht oder auf die Klausuren lernen müssen. So kann man das Buch als einen persönlichen
Lehrplan des Alltags für den Lernenden bezeichnen. In dem Lehrbuch
ist eine grammatikalische und inhaltliche Progression zu sehen, und
so wird angenommen, dass das Buch chronologisch abgehandelt wird.
Dabei stellt sich die Frage, was sind die Texte, mit denen unser Schüler sich beschäftigen, die Deutsch als zweite oder dritte Fremdsprache
lernen? Sind die Texte im Einklang mit den Zielen unseres Lehrplans?
Ist das Lehrbuch ein Lernbuch, mit dem man deutsche Sprache und
deutsche Kultur lernen kann?
2 Ziel des finnischen Fremdsprachenlehrplanes –
Lernen von strategischem und kulturkompetentem
Handeln in der Fremdsprache
Während der letzten Jahre hat die finnische Schule wieder Erneuerungen durchgeführt. Es wurde im Jahr 2004 ein neuer nationaler Lehrplan
eingeführt. Es stellt sich dabei die interessante Frage, was sind die
Konzepte des Wissens und Lernens hinter unserem Lehrplan, also was
für ein Modell oder Modelle des Fremdsprachenlernens wirken hinter
diesem Lehrplan. Auf diese Fragen versucht dieser Artikel auf Basis unseres nationalen Lehrplans zu antworten. Danach folgt eine Exkursion
in die Textlinguistik und Suche nach einer Definition von Textsorte, die
durch eine Pilotstudie konkretisiert wird.
In dem neuen nationalen Lehrplan (POPS, 2004) werden die Fremdsprachen als „Kunst- und Kulturfach“ betrachtet (taito- ja kulttuuriaine).
Es wird explizit gesagt, dass neben dem spezifischem Sprach- und
Kulturwissen das Ziel des Unterrichts ist, allgemeine Lernstrategien zu
erwerben, die das lebenslange Lernen einer Fremdsprache ermöglichen. Es wird im Lehrplan weiterhin hervorgehoben, dass der Fremdsprachenunterricht den Lernenden Fertigkeiten vermitteln soll, die das
fremdsprachliche Handeln in variierenden Kommunikationssituationen
ermöglicht und das Verstehen der Lebensform der Zielkultur unterstützt. Weiterhin wird hervorgehoben, dass der Lernende lernen soll,
dass Sprache eine Fertigkeit ist, die systematisches, lebenslanges und
vielseitiges Üben voraussetzt. (POPS, 2004, S. 142 ).
Textsorten in finnischen Lehrbüchern für den Deutschunterricht
161
Der Fremdsprachenlehrplan stellt ein Kontinuum dar, nach dem in
den ersten Jahren der Schwerpunkt auf die mündliche Kommunikation
gelegt wird, in den darauf folgenden Jahren mehr und mehr die schriftliche Kommunikation in der Fremdsprache geübt werden soll. Weiterhin
ist als allgemeines Ziel für Fremdsprachenlernen im Lehrplan zu sehen,
dass der Lernende selbständig Lehrbuch, Lexikon und andere Medien
für das Fremdsprachenlernen benutzen kann (POPS, 2004, S. 139).
Wenn man die Tendenzen des Fremdsprachenunterrichts im Allgemeinen betrachtet, kann man daraus schließen, dass unser neuester
Lehrplan eindeutig postkommunikativ und konstruktivistisch ist (vgl.
Feld-Knapp, 2005). Der Lernende soll kommunizieren lernen. Alltagskommunikation sowie kulturrelevantes Handeln sollen erlernt werden.
Daraus folgt, dass der Lernende auch mit verschiedenen Textsorten
umzugehen lernt. Dazu kann man annehmen, dass die deutschsprachige Kultur in ihrer Vielfalt aber auch in einer für einen jungen Lernenden passenden Form angeboten wird – sowohl in Textinhalten als auch
in Textsorten. Aber der Lehrplan sagt kein Wort über die Textsorte oder
die Rolle des authentischen Textes im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In den
Letzten Jahren gab es Studien, die Evidenz lieferten, dass es die linguistische Vereinfachung (linguistic simplification) nicht immer das Lernen
fordert (Young, 1999). Weiterhin scheint es möglich zu sein schon sehr
früh beim Fremdsprachenlernen mit authentischen Texten anzufangen
(Maxim, 2002).
3 Lehrbücher – ein wichtiger Faktor in der
pädagogischen Interaktion
Im Folgenden wird ein Grundmodell der pädagogischen Interaktion dargestellt (Bild 1), mit dessen Hilfe die Problematik der Analyse der Qualität der Lehrbuchtexte veranschaulicht wird. Hier wird betont, dass es
sehr schwer ist, Kriterien für gute Lehrtexte aufzulisten, weil man immer
die komplizierte Interaktion berücksichtigen muss, in der der Text nur
ein wichtiger Faktor ist (Mikkilä & Olkinuora, 1995, SS. 10–11). Erstens,
bringt der Lernende in jeder Lernsituation sein Wissen, Metakognition
und Lernstrategien mit. Die Lernforschung des letzten Jahrzehnts- z.B.
die Conceptual Change- Forschung (Limon & Mason, 2002; Sinatra
& Mason, 2007) hat uns Evidenz geliefert, dass das Vorwissen und
vor allem die so genanten naiven, nicht mit dem wissenschaftlichem
Wissen kombinierbaren Vorstellungen, den Lernprozess stark beeinflussen, sogar manchmal hindern. Es gibt auch Studien, die darauf
162
hindeuten, dass es mit Hilfe von Texten gelingt einen Konzeptwechsel
zu unterstützen und hoch qualifiziertes Lernen sogar bei jungen Kindern zu erreichen (Mikkilä-Erdmann, 2002). Aus dieser Sicht stellt sich
die Frage, wie unsere Deutschbücher das Vorwissen der Lernenden
berücksichtigen und wie die Qualität aus der Perspektive der Lernforschung aussieht.
Lernende
Vorwissen
Metakognition
Strategien
Lernsituation
Sozial-kommunikativer
Kontext
Lehrmaterial
wie Text
Qualität
Text-BildIntegration
Lernaufgabe
Was ist das Ziel?
Behalten
Verstehen
Problemlösen
Bild 1. Konstituente der pädagogischen Interaktion (Bransford 1979; Fischer,
1989).
Zweitens spielt die Lernaufgabe eine wichtige Rolle in der pädagogischen Interaktion. Der Lernende braucht anderes Material, wenn er das
Ziel hat, sprechen zu lernen als Textverstehen zu üben. Weiterhin ist
die Lernsituation nie neutral für den Lernenden, sondern der Lernende
hat eine bestimmte motivationale Orientierung in der Lernsituation (Olkinuora & Salonen, 1992), die das Lernen erleichtert oder schwieriger
macht.
Das jetzige Lehrbuch im Fremdsprachenunterricht hat schon eine
lange Geschichte. Die Form des Schulbuches in Finnland veränderte
sich radikal nach der Gesamtschulreform Anfang 70er Jahre. Die Bücher sind in Texteinheiten geteilt, die Stunde für Stunde chronologisch
durchgelernt werden können. Die Texteinheiten bestehen aus Texten
und Bildern. Dieser Artikel behandelt nur Texte und vor allem die Textsorten, die in den Deutschbüchern vorkommen.
163
Textsorten sind konventionell geltende Muster für komplexe sprachliche Handlungen und lassen sich jeweils typische Verbindungen von
kontextuellen und situativen, kommunikativ-, funktionalen und strukturellen Merkmalen beschreiben. Sie haben sich in der Sprachgemeinschaft historisch entwickelt und gehören zum Alltagswissen der Sprachteilhaber (Brinker, 1992, S. 126). Das Kennen der Textsorte kann als
Orientierungshilfe für den Lernenden bei der Produktion und Verstehen
von Texten funktionieren. (Brinker, 1992, S. 132; Feld-Knapp 2005, SS.
71–72.) Wie bekannt beschäftigt die Textlinguistik sich mit Texten und
hat das Ziel die Struktur d.h. den grammatischen und thematischen
Aufbau, sowie die kommunikative Funktion konkreter Texte transparent
zu machen. Das Ziel ist auch Einsichten in die Regelhaftigkeit und Textbildungen und Textverstehen zu vermitteln. (Brinker, 1992.)
Hier ist das Ziel einer Lehrbuchtextanalyse eindeutig pädagogischpragmatisch begründet. Es wird eine pädagogische Transparenz der
Deutschtexte bezüglich Textsorte geschaffen. Und dabei wird die Frage
aufgeworfen, wie passen die existierenden Textsorten in den Lehrbüchern zu den Zielen des Lehrplans, d.h. wie kann man annehmen, dass
das Lernen der deutschen Sprache mit Hilfe des Buches unterstützt
wird.
4 Methode
In diesem Artikel wird davon ausgegangen, dass das Lehrbuch im
Fremdsprachenunterricht als eine Materialisierung der existierenden
Pädagogik betrachtet werden kann. Das Buch ist eine Realisierung des
jetzigen Lehrplans. Das bedeutet, dass hinter jedem Text ein Konzept
sichtbar ist, was für ein Wissen wie angeeignet werden soll. Um die
Breite der Qualität der Bücher analysieren zu können, wurden Bücher
aus den unterschiedlichen Stufen (A1–B2) ausgewählt. Die Stichprobe hat einen explorativen Charakter. Deshalb wurden Texte aus einem
A1-Buch und aus den kurzen Kursen ausgewählt. Bei der Auswahl der
zu analysierenden Bücher hat das Verlagshaus oder die Autoren keine
Rolle gespielt.
Forschungsfragen:
1. Welche Textsorten gibt es in Dt. Büchern?
2. Wie passt das Textsortenrepertoire zu den Zielen des Dt. Unterrichtes?
164
Stichprobe und Vorgehensweise
Die Stichprobe bestand aus den folgenden Lehrbüchern:
9
9
9
Kompass Deutsch 7 (A1–A2) 15 Basistexte
Kurz und Gut (B1) 14 Basistexte
Studio Deutsch 1 (B2) 16 Basistexte
In dieser Pilotstudie wird davon ausgegangen, dass folgende Kriterien
in der pädagogischen Textsortenanalyse sinnvoll sein können: Erstens
die Kommunikationsfunktion, zweitens der Inhalt und drittens die Form
(vgl. Feld-Knapp, 2005).
So stellen sich folgende Fragen an die Deutschtexte:
a) hat der Text das Ziel die Förderung der mündlichen Kommunikation, sprechen, diskutieren? (Kategorie: Dialog)
b) hat der Text das Ziel die Vermittlung von Informationen? (Kategorie: Bericht)
c) ist das Ziel, den Lernenden mit authentischen Texten vertraut
zu machen? (z.B. Märchen, Gedichte, Lieder etc.)(Kategorie authentischer Text d.h. nicht vereinfachte, pädagogisierte Text)
d) ist das Ziel, das Schreiben und Verstehen einer bestimmten
Textsorte wie Brief zu lernen? (Kategorie: Brief).
Bei den Kategorien sieht man hier schon, dass manchmal in der Textsorte, die Funktion betont wird, manchmal wiederum der Inhalt wie bei
den Informationstexten.
5 Ergebnisse
Die Ergebnisse dieser Pilotstudie weisen darauf hin, dass der Dialog
eine dominante Textsorte in den analysierten Deutschbüchern ist (Tabelle 1). Es wird in den so genanten Basistexten eine mündliche Kommunikationssituation oder ein Gespräch dargestellt. Berichte gibt es
verhältnismäßig wenig. Die authentischen Texte sind Liedtexte. In den
drei analysierten Büchern gab es keinen einzigen Basistext, der nicht
vereinfacht, pädagogisiert wurde. Diese kleine Stichprobe deutet darauf hin, dass es an der Vielfalt der Textsorten in den Büchern mangelt.
Weiterhin zeigt sich, dass die Texte in den Deutschbüchern oft mündliche Dialoge sind, die aus pädagogischen Gründen geschrieben sind
und auf Basis des Unterrichtes funktionieren sollen.
165
Tabelle 1. Textsorten in den analysierten Textbüchern.
Dialog
Bericht
Authent. Text
Lied/Gedicht
Brief
Texteinh.
Insg.
Kurz u.Gut
13
0
6
1
14
Kompass Dt.
7
5
8
1
15
Studio Dt.
14
2
4
0
16
Summe
34
7
18
2
45
Eine Interessante Tendenz zeigt sich, wenn das Buch für den langen
Kurs (A1/A2) mit den kurzen Kursen verglichen wird. Es scheint eine
implizite Hypothese hinter der Textgestaltung zu sein, dass Berichte
nur die Schüler verstehen können, die Deutsch schon seit vier Jahren
lernen. Aber die Autoren scheinen trotzdem zu denken, dass nicht mal
diese Kinder, die Deutsch als erste lange Fremdsprache lernen, aus
den authentischen Texten – außer kurzen Liedtexten – lernen können.
Wie schon vorher festgestellt wurde, gibt es Studien, die zeigen, dass
die Lernenden mit relativ wenig Sprachkompetenz authentische Texte
schon sehr früh verstehen können (Maxim, 2002).
6 Diskussion mit pädagogischen Schlussfolgerungen
Das Ziel dieses Artikels ist die Texte in Deutschbüchern zu untersuchen. Diese Pilotstudie präsentiert eine deskriptive Phase eines Forschungsprojektes, die mit Recht kritisiert werden kann: Erstens, muss
die Stichprobe vergrößert werden; Zweitens muss neben einer Textsortenanalyse unbedingt eine detaillierte Inhaltsanalyse durchgeführt werden. Weiterhin sollen empirische Textverstehensstudien mit Lernenden
durchgeführt werden.
Zusammenfassend kann man auf Basis der Pilotstudie feststellen,
dass die Texte sehr stark die mündliche Kommunikation in Form von
Dialogen unterstützen wollen. Dieses Ziel, sich in der Alltagskommunikation in der fremdsprachlichen Umgebung zurechtzufinden, ist ein
wichtiges Ziel in unserem Lehrplan (POPS, 2004). Aber die Texte
deuten leider auf eine Armut von Textsorten hin. Texte in jeder Vielfalt
sind eine wichtige Basis der deutschsprachigen Lebensform. Es wäre
sehr wichtig die Lernenden so früh wie möglich mit unterschiedlichen
Textsorten, auch mit authentischen, vertraut zu machen. Der Lernende
166
wird also in den jetzigen Deutschbüchern nicht unterstützt, vielseitiges
Textsortenwissen aufzubauen.
In dem neuen Lehrplan wird das strategische „lernen Lernen“ hervorgehoben. Die dominante Textsorte Dialog dient diesem Ziel nicht.
Die Dialoge funktionieren bestimmt als Übung in der Klasse – aber wie
motivierend die Dialoge beim selbstständigen Lernen wirken, soll in der
nächsten Studie untersucht werden. Ein weiterer negativer Aspekt ist
die Künstlichkeit der Dialoge – sie entsprechen nicht dem natürlichen
Gesprächsmuster und können sogar in kulturelle Missverständnisse
führen.
„Alina: Hallo!
Yalman: Hallo! Wer Bist Du?
Alina: Ich bin Alina.
Yalman: Ich heiße Yalman.
Alina: Einfach nur Yalman?
Yalman: Ja, einfach nur Yalman.
Alina: Und woher kommst Du? Bist Du Türke?
Yalman: Quatsch! Ich komme aus Hamburg…“
(Aro, Ikonen, Jaakamo, Schatz, & Viholainen, 2003. Studio Deutsch, Texte
1, S. 9)
Weiterhin weist diese Pilotstudie darauf hin, dass die authentischen
Texte auf Liedtexte reduziert worden sind. Fiktive Texte, wie Märchen
oder Kurzgeschichte kommen in den Texten nicht vor. Informative Texten z.B. Zeitungsartikel, Reisebroschüren usw. sind auch sehr gering
vorhanden. Es scheint eine allgemeine Tendenz in den finnischen
Deutschbüchern zu sein, dass die Texte, die sich mit deutschsprachiger Kultur beschäftigen, in Extra- oder Sonderkapiteln oder im Anhang
positioniert wurden. Was zur Folge hat, dass diese Texte nicht als Basistexte benutzt werden, sondern nur dann wenn „Zeit übrig bleibt“.
Zusammenfassend kann man feststellen, dass Deutschtexte in finnischen Lehrbüchern nicht das Potential wahrgenommen haben echte
Lerntexte zu sein.
Literatur
Bransford, J. B. (1979). Human cognition, learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Brinker, K. (1992). Linguistische Textanalyse. Berlin: Erich Schmidt.
Chambliss, M. J., & Calfee, R. C. (1998). Textbooks for learning: Nurturing
children’s minds. Malden: Blackwell.
167
Feld-Knapp, I. (2005). Textsorten und Spracherwerb: Eine Untersuchung zur
Relevanz textsortenspezifischer Merkmale für den „Deutsch als Fremdsprache“- Unterricht. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac.
Fischer, M. P. (1989). Grundsätzliche Überlegungen zum Begriff der „Interaktivität“. In M. Fischer, M. Mandl, & K. Meynersen (Hrsg.), Interaktives
Lernen mit neuen Medien: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen. Ein Forum von
Benutzern und Entwicklern (SS. 42–59). Deutsches Institut für Fernstudien and der Universität Tübingen.
Limon, M., & Mason, L. (Eds.). (2002). Reframing the processes of conceptual
change: Integrating theory and practice. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
Maxim, H. H. (2002). A study into feasibility and effects of reading extended
authentic discourse in the German language classroom. The Modern
Language Journal, 86(i), 20–35.
Mikkilä M., & Olkinuora, E. (toim.). (1995). Oppikirjat ja oppiminen. Turun yliopisto. Oppimistutkimuksen keskus. Julkaisuja 4.
Mikkilä-Erdmann, M. (2002). Textbook text as a tool for promoting conceptual change in science. Turun yliopiston julkaisuja. Annales Universitas
Turkuensis, B, 249.
Olkinuora, E., & Salonen, P. (1992). Adaptation, motivational orientation, and
cognition in a subnormally performing child: A systemic perspective for
training. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Contemporary intervention research in
learning disabilities. An international perspective (pp. 190–213). New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Opetushallitus. Noudettu 20.10.2007 http://www.oph.fi/ops/perusopetus/pops_web.pdf
Sinatra, G., & Mason, L. (2007). Beyond knowledge: Learner characteristics
influencing conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook on
conceptual change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Young, D. (1999). Linguistic simplification of SL reading material: Effective instructional practice? The Modern Language Journal, 83(iii), 350–366.
Lehrbücher
Aro, A., Ikonen, N., Jaakamo, P., Schatz, R., & Viholainen, T. (2003). Studio
Deutsch Texte 1. Helsinki: Otava.
Kelkka, P., Pihkala-Posti, L., Schatz, R., & Tiisala-Heiskala, E. (2003). Kurz und
gut. Helsinki: Otava.
Kuronen, K., Halonen, I., Mononen, M., & Wenke, A. (2004). Kompass Deutsch
Neu. Helsinki: WSOY
169
LANDESKUNDE IM FREMDSPRACHENUNTERRICHT –
LANDESKUNDLICHE KENNTNISSE BEI STUDIENANFÄNGERN DER
UNIVERSITÄREN ÜBERSETZER- UND DOLMETSCHERAUSBILDUNG
BIRGIT KRETSCHMANN
INSTITUT FÜR DEUTSCHE, RUSSISCHE UND SCHWEDISCHE SPRACHE, ÜBERSETZEN UND DOLMETSCHEN DEUTSCH
UNIVERSITÄT TURKU
birkre<at>utu.fi
Abstrakt
Eine für die Arbeit des Übersetzers/Dolmetschers wesentliche Kompetenz ist die
Kulturkompetenz. In der Literatur verbindet man mit dem Begriff „Kulturkompetenz“
(z.B. Witte, 1989, 1999) verschiedene Stichwörter. Darunter fällt u.a. auch das Stichwort Landeskunde. Die Beschreibung landeskundlicher Inhalte reichen von „Allgemeinwissen im kulturellen Umfeld“ (BDÜ, 1986) über „blosses Faktenwissen“ (Witte,
1999) hin zu „kulturspezifischem Hintergrundwissen“ (Austermühl, 2001).
Ausgehend von den Forderungen der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft, landeskundliche Inhalte zu vermitteln, stellt sich die Frage, wie gleich zu Beginn des Studiums landeskundliche Inhalte in die Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung integriert werden können (seit der Studienreform 2005 wurde das Angebot
im Bereich Dolmetschen wie Landeskunde/Kultur zugunsten des Übersetzens eingeschränkt). Im Herbst 2006 wurde dazu im Rahmen des Kurses „Texarbeit“ unter allen
teilnehmenden Haupt- und Nebenfachstudierenden eine Umfrage durchgeführt.
Zur Beantwortung der oben gestellten Frage ist zunächst u.a. zu ermitteln, wieviel landeskundliche Kenntnisse mono- bzw. bilinguale Studienanfänger mitbringen.
Zweitens interessierte die Frage nach einer möglichen Sensibilisierung der Studierenden für die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse. Und drittens sollte die Umfrage Aufschluß darüber geben, ob die Studierenden die Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse für das Übersetzen und Dolmetschen erkannten.
Methodisch standen im Fokus der Untersuchung zwei, von mir entwickelte Materialien, ein Aufgabenblatt sowie ein Fragebogen. Die Materialien wurden bei den
Studienanfängern alternierend, mit und ohne Vorbereitungszeit vorgelegt. Darüber
hinaus wurden die ohne Vorbereitungszeit zu bearbeitenden Aufgaben von einer
Kontrollgruppe (fortgeschrittene Studierende) bearbeitet. Erste quantitative wie qualitative Ergebnisse werden präsentiert.
Schlüsselwörter: Landeskundliche Kenntnisse bei Studienanfängern; universitäre
Übersetzer-/Dolmetscherausbildung.
170
Birgit Kretschmann
0 Vorbemerkungen
Ausgangspunkt der Überlegungen, die zu der im Herbst 2006 an der
Universität Turku durchgeführten Umfrage unter Studienanfängern der
universitären Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung führten, waren
u.a. die durch die mit dem Namen Bologna verbundenen Änderungen
in der europäischen Hochschullandschaft. Die mit dem Ziel einer möglichst problemlosen gegenseitigen Anerkennung von Studienleistungen
und Abschlüssen bis spätestens zum Jahre 2010 einzuführenden bzw.
an vielen Hochschulen bereits umgesetzten Änderungen ermöglicht
die Entstehung eines europaweiten einheitlichen Hochschulraumes.
An der Universität Turku wurde mit Beginn des akademischen Jahres
2005/06, im August 2005, auf das neue System mit BA- und MA-Abschlüssen umgestellt.
Für die weiteren Ausführungen ist es sinnvoll, kurz auf zwei mit dem
sog. Bologna-Prozeß verbundene Änderungen einzugehen. Eine Folge
besteht in der Reduzierung der Gesamtstudienleistungen in unserem
Studienprogramm „Übersetzen und Dolmetschen Deutsch“ um ca. 30
%. Die Reduktion der Gesamtstudienleistung um ca. ein Drittel bedeutet zugleich eine Kürzung der Studieninhalte. Dagegen ist wohl selbst
beste Curriculumsplanung machtlos: Module einführen, Inhalte straffen
oder „verstaubte Inhalte aussortieren“ (Koch, 2007, S. 45) – ein Verlust
in dieser Größenordnung ist kaum aufzufangen.
Eine zweite Folge hochschulinterner Natur kommt hinzu. Bei Ausscheiden eines Lehrenden aus dem Hochschuldienst, etwa aus Altersgründen, wird eine freiwerdende Stelle z. Zt. nicht wieder besetzt.
Davon ist auch das Fach Übersetzen und Dolmetschen Deutsch an
der Universität Turku betroffen, das im Jahre 2005 eine Stelle verlor1.
1
Zu Kürzungen von Ressourcen im Bereich Übersetzen und Dolmetschen in ganz
Finnland als z. Zt. einzigen Land, trotz festgestelltem weltweit steigendem Bedarf an
Übersetzern und Dolmetschern, s. Tommola (2006) sowie Sunnari (2006). Zur Situation an der Universität Turku führt Tommola (2006), am Beispiel des Studiengangs
Übersetzen und Dolmetschen Englisch, unter Hinweis auf die schwache Finanzierung
der für die Studiengänge Übersetzen und Dolmetschen zuständigen Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät, aus
”Laitoksen ja tiedekunnan toimet ovat saanet aikaan tilanteen, jossa opiskelijoilla on
aikaisempaa vähäisemmät mahdollisuudet paneutua tulkkausopintoihin ja alan tutkimukseen, joka muualla maailmassa on samaan aikaan noussut merkittäväksi tutkimusalueeksi.” (Tommola, 2006, S. 173)
Sunnari (2006) sieht für das Dolmetschen und die universitäre Ausbildung von Dolmetschern international eine eher rosige Zukunft, nicht aber für das Dolmetschen in
Finnland
”Suomessa tilanne on kuitenkin kehnompi (…) Tulkkauksen sivuaineopetus on ainakin
toistaiseksi jouduttu lopettamaan, mutta opetus jatkuu erikoistumiskursseina. Myös
Landeskunde im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Landeskundliche Kenntnisse bei…
171
M.a.W. durch die Umstellung auf die BA-/MA-Abschlüsse fand in unserem Fach eine Konzentration auf das „Kerngeschäft“ Übersetzen auf
Kosten des Nebenfaches Dolmetschen sowie anderer Studieninhalte, etwa im Bereich Landeskunde/Kultur, statt. Die beiden im früheren
Curriculum obligatorischen Landeskundekurse (BR Deutschland sowie
Österreich/Schweiz) entfallen künftig. Der neu im Curriculum enthaltene Kurs „Gesellschaftliche Strukturen und internationale Beziehungen“
wird fakultativ angeboten. Als fakultativ angebotener Kurs gehört er zu
den Kursen, die zuerst abgebrochen werden, wenn aus Sicht der Studierenden die Arbeitslast in diesem praxisorientierten Studiengang im
Verlaufe der aus zwei Perioden bestehenden Semester zu sehr ansteigt.
Aus der „Not“ galt und gilt es, eine „Tugend“ zu machen. Anders
gesagt stellt sich hier die Frage, wie als für die Ausbildung zum Übersetzer und Dolmetscher relevant zu bezeichnende Inhalte, für die keine
gesonderten Lehrveranstaltungen mehr angeboten werden (können),
möglicherweise in die Ausbildung zu integrieren sind. Die von mir im
Beitrag als landeskundlich bezeichneten Kenntnisse/Inhalte sind, mit
Roche (2005) gesprochen, von den drei neueren, in den 70er und 80er
Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts entwickelten, kulturüberschreitenden Ansätzen zur Behandlung der Landeskunde2 weder den Kulturstudien
noch der integrativen Landeskunde, sondern am ehesten der interkulturellen bzw. transkulturellen Landeskunde zuzurechnen. Für letztere
sieht Roche (2005) den Schwerpunkt im Fach Deutsch als Fremdsprache auf den Vermittlungsprozessen zwischen den Kulturen. Für die
Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung geht es ebenfalls um die Vermittlungsprozesse zwischen den Kulturen.
Zwecks Beantwortung der oben gestellten Frage, wie als relevant
erachtete landeskundliche Inhalte in die Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung zu integrieren sind, ist zunächst u.a. zu ermitteln, wie es um
die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse der Studienanfänger bestellt ist. Die
Ermittlung erfolgte anhand einer im Herbst(-semester) 2006 im Rahmen des von mir angebotenen Kurses „Textarbeit“ durchgeführten Umfrage (s. Pkt.2). Die Umfrage sollte eine Antwort ermöglichen auf die
Frage, wieviel landeskundliche Kenntnisse Studierende bei Aufnahme
2
konferenssitulkkien erikoistumiskoulutuksen tulevaisuus on tällä hetkellä epäselvä.”
(Sunnari, 2006, S. 157)
Roche (2005) führt eine Reihe von Argumenten für die bis heute zu beobachtende
Vernachlässigung der Landeskunde im Vergleich zu anderen im Fremdsprachenunterricht zu behandelnden Themen wie Grammatik, Wortschatz, usw an. Auf das
„Schattendasein“ der Landeskunde (Roche, 2005, 234) kann hier nicht näher eingegangen werden.
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Birgit Kretschmann
ihres Studiums mitbringen. Die Erwartungen bezüglich der landeskundlichen Kenntnisse bei Studienanfängern sahen wie folgt aus: aufgrund
der Heterogenität der Kursteilnehmer war eine breite Streuung der
Kenntnisse sowohl in Bezug auf die inhaltliche Bandbreite als auch auf
die Quantität zu vermuten.
Die angesprochene Heterogenität war in erster Linie auf den Hintergrund der Kursteilnehmer zurückzuführen. Einerseits setzte sich der
Teilnehmerkreis aus monolingualen Studierenden, die Deutsch in der
Schule gelernt hatten, i. d. R. drei, manchmal fünf Jahre lang, selten
länger, und die sich kaum oder gar nicht im deutschsprachigen Raum
aufgehalten hatten sowie aus bilingualen Studierenden mit eventuell
größerem sprachlichem und kulturellem Vorwissen zusammen. In der
Gruppe der Letztgenannten sind drei Arten von Bilingualismus zu unterscheiden. Zur ersten zählen in Deutschland in zweisprachigen Familien aufgewachsene Studierende. Die zweite Art umfaßt in Finnland
in zweisprachigen Familien aufgewachsene Studierende. Die dritte Art
wird von Studierenden vertreten, die an der Deutschen Schule Helsinki
ein deutsches oder finnisches Abitur abgelegt haben. Aus der zuvor
genannten Heterogenität könnte sich ergeben, daß die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse bei den einsprachig aufgewachsenen Studierenden
geringer sind als bei den zweisprachig aufgewachsenen.
Eine weitere Erwartung betrifft die Durchführung der Umfrage. Nach
den landeskundlichen Kenntnissen wurde anhand von abwechselnd
mit und ohne Vorbereitungszeit auszufüllenden Aufgabenblättern (s.
Pkt. 2.2.1) gefragt. Es wurde vermutet, daß sich eine Differenz ergeben
könnte. Die Aufgabenblätter mit und ohne Vorbereitungszeit könnten
von bilingualen Studierenden maximal gelöst werden, bei den monolingualen könnte die Quote der Lösungen geringer sein, wenn keine
Vorbereitungszeit gegeben ist. Für den Fall der Bearbeitung mit Vorbereitungszeit könnte die Quote bei dieser Gruppe höher liegen, weil
über die Möglichkeit (bzw. Notwendigkeit) zur Recherche eine Anhebung des vermuteten geringen Kenntnisstandes aus schulischer Zeit
erfolgen könnte. Aufschluß darüber, ob für die Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse sensibilisert werden konnte, sollten die Kommentare
zu den Aspekten 1 und 5 im an das siebte Aufgabenblatt angehängten
Fragebogen (s. Pkt.2.2.2) liefern.
Ohne näher darauf eingehen zu können, wird darauf hingewiesen,
daß man über jegliche Studieninhalte, die auf Deutsch bzw. über den
deutschsprachigen Raum im Unterricht zur Sprache kommen, etwas
über „Land und Leute“ (s. Transforum, 2006) oder „Sprache und Kultur“
erfahren kann, dringt die Zielkultur bereits allein durch die bloße An-
173
wesenheit des deutschen Muttersprachlers in jede Phase des (Fremdsprachen-)Unterrichts ein. Das trifft auch im Rahmen der Ausbildung
der künftigen Übersetzer und Dolmetscher zu, die auf Grund des geringen Sprachstandes meist zu Beginn des Studiums zwecks weiteren
Spracherwerbs zugleich auch Fremdsprachenunterricht ist. Darüber
hinaus müsste auch auf die (Sprach-)Kenntnisse der Studienanfänger
eingegangen werden, was aber im Rahmen dieses Beitrages nicht geleistet werden kann.
Bevor auf die Umfrage und die ersten aus der Umfrage resultierenden quantitativen wie qualitativen Ergebnisse eingegangen werden
kann, wird die Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse für die Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung anhand zentraler Positionen der
Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft, abgeleitet aus dem Fach
Deutsch als Fremdsprache als einer ihrer Bezugswissenschaften, sowie der beruflichen Praxis herausgearbeitet.
1 Übersetzungs-/Dolmetschwissenschaft und
Landeskunde
Werfen wir nun einen Blick auf die Bedeutung von Landeskunde für
die Übersetzungs- bzw. Dolmetschwissenschaft bzw. die Bedeutung
von landeskundlichen Inhalten für das Übersetzen und Dolmetschen.
Vorauszuschicken ist, daß wir uns im Bereich der Übersetzungs- und
Dolmetschwissenschaft im Anschluß an den von Reiss and Vermeer
(1984) und Holz-Mänttäri (1984) entwickelten handlungsorientierten
Ansatz bewegen.
Bereits Mitte der 80er Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts, als die Bedeutung
von Kultur in die Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft stärker in
den Blick rückte, äusserte sich der Koordinierungsausschuß „Praxis
und Lehre“ des Bundesverbandes der Dolmetscher und Übersetzer
e.V. (BDÜ) in seinem Memorandum (1986) zu den landeskundlichen
Kenntnissen, die ein künftiger Übersetzer und Dolmetscher mitzubringen habe, wie folgt
9
9
9
Allgemeinwissen im kulturellen Umfeld:
politische und allgemeine Institutionen (z. B. politisches System,
Behörden,
Bildungswesen, Religionen, Medien)
• Ökonomie (…),
• Recht (…),
174
Birgit Kretschmann
•
•
Technik (…),
Kunst (…). (BDÜ, 1986)
Auch die Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft unterstreicht die
Bedeutung von „Kulturkompetenz“3 für die Ausbildung der künftigen
Übersetzer und Dolmetscher. Witte (1989) sieht die Bedeutung von
Landeskunde/Kultur und schlägt für eine Verankerung im Curriculum
vor
[…] vor der Vermittlung einer kulturpaarspezifischen Kompetenz, eine allgemeine Kulturkompetenz, d.h. grundlegendes Wissen über das Funktionieren von Kulturen überhaupt und über im interkulturellen Kontakt relevant
werdende Faktoren, zu vermitteln. (Kursivdr. im Orig., B. K.) (Witte, 1989,
S. 224)
Bei Witte (1999) heißt es weiter
[…] dass blosses ‚Fakten’-wissen für erfolgreiches Handeln nicht ausreicht.
Von entscheidender Bedeutung ist vielmehr ein Wissen um (eigen- und)
fremdkulturelle Verhaltens- und Orientierungsmuster […]. (Witte, 1999, S.
346)
Vermutlich können wir die Bezeichnungen bzw. Umschreibungen
„grundlegendes Wissen über das Funktionieren von Kulturen“ sowie
„blosses ´Fakten`-wissen“ als Fundament der in der Übersetzungs- und
Dolmetschwissenschaft geforderten Kulturkompetenz (Witte, 1999) sehen. Wenn dem so ist, lassen sich die oben genannten Bezeichnungen/
Umschreibungen wohl am besten mit dem Begriff Landeskunde „übersetzen“.
Sozusagen in die „gleiche Kerbe“ schlägt Austermühl (2001), wenn
er – zu Recht – formuliert
Die Bedeutung, die kulturspezifisches Hintergrundwissen und die daraus
entstehende grenz- und kulturübergreifende soziale Handlungskompetenz
im Rahmen der internationalen Kommunikation einnimmt, kann gar nicht
hoch genug eingeschätzt werden. (Austermühl, 2001, S. 243.)
Und auch Kupsch-Losereit (2002) lässt in nachstehender Aussage anklingen, daß es sich bei dem „Hintergrund“, der Landeskunde explizit
in der Formulierung „landeskundlich-zivilisatorisch“ enthält, wohl um
Landeskunde als Fundament, d.h. Landeskunde als Teil der Kulturkompetenz, handelt
3
Eine Diskussion des Begriff „Kulturkompetenz“ kann im Rahmen dieses Beitrages
nicht geleistet werden.
175
Die kulturelle Kompetenz des Translators basiert auf einem Kulturverständnis, das im Idealfall die Gesamtheit des landeskundlich-zivilisatorischen wie
soziokulturellen Hintergrundes von AS- und ZS-Gemeinschaft (…) umfasst.
(Kupsch-Losereit, 2002, S. 97.)
Abschliessend zu den Positionen in der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft ist die aktuelle vom Arbeitskreis Transforum herausgegebene Broschüre „Berufsbild“ (Transforum, 2006) zu erwähnen, die auf
der Homepage des BDÜ eingesehen werden kann. In der Broschüre
„Berufsbild“ – dem Arbeitskreis Transforum gehört übrigens auch der
BDÜ an – heisst es von Seiten des Arbeitskreises Transforum (2006)
zu den Voraussetzungen für den Beruf des Übersetzers und Dolmetschers.
Dazu braucht man umfassendes Wissen über Land und Kultur der Ziel- und
Ausgangssprache. (Transforum, 2006, S. 4.)
Bei der Beschreibung der Praxis des Übersetzens und Dolmetschens
geht man laut Text der Broschüre davon aus, daß ein Text in eine „andere Sprache und Kultur umzusetzen“ (Transforum, 2006) sei. Unter
„Kultur“ versteht man, wie unter der Überschrift „Kulturwissenschaft“ in
der Broschüre nachzulesen ist, offenbar
Eine brauchbare Übersetzung erfordert Hintergrundwissen über die Kulturräume von Ausgangs- und Zielkultur. Die kulturwissenschaftliche Studienkomponente führt ein in Geistesleben und Literatur, Kulturgeschichte, politische Strukturen und Rechtssysteme, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft – kurz:
Sie erschließt und sensibilisiert für `Land und Leute` und legt den Grundstein für die `Kulturkompetenz` von Übersetzern und Dolmetschern. (Transforum, 2006, S. 12.)
Auch die im letzten Zitat verwendeten Bezeichnungen „Hintergrundwissen“ und „Land und Leute“ deuten daraufhin, daß die Übersetzungsund Dolmetschwissenschaft mit diesen Formulierungen den in der
Bezugswissenschaft benutzten Begriff Landeskunde meint, ohne ihn
direkt beim Namen zu nennen. Darüber hinaus wird die zu vermittelnde
„kulturwissenschaftliche Studienkomponente“ als „Grundstein“, d.h. offenbar als Fundament für die „Kulturkompetenz“ gesehen.
Zusammenfassend lassen sich aus den gerade genannten Zitaten
der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft nun für unseren Sachverhalt drei Ergebnisse formulieren. Zum einen kann festgestellt werden, daß, neben anderen, die Landeskunde sehr wohl für die Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft eine wichtige Bezugswissenschaft
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Birgit Kretschmann
darstellt. Zum zweiten wird in der Übersetzungswissenschaft keine eigenständige Definition von Landeskunde4 verwendet. Es ist zwar kaum
Aufgabe der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft, eine Definition des Begriffes „Landeskunde“ zu entwickeln, wenngleich die Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft, mit ihrer qua beruflicher Praxis
notwendigen Beschäftigung mit landeskundlichen Inhalten als Teil der
Kulturkompetenz, m.E. durchaus in der Lage wäre und ist, aus Sicht
des Übersetzens und Dolmetschens einen Beitrag zur Diskussion um
die Landeskunde zu leisten. Die oben erwähnten Bezeichnungen bzw.
Umschreibungen des Begriffes Landeskunde in der Übersetzungsund Dolmetschwissenschaft stellen allerdings eher „Annäherungen“
an den, wie erwähnt v.a. im Fach Deutsch als Fremdsprache, umstrittenen Begriff Landeskunde dar. Aus dem Gesagten ergibt sich, daß
die Vermittlung landeskundlicher Inhalte im Rahmen eines theoriebasierten Studiums für angehende Übersetzer und Dolmetscher als relevant zu betrachten ist. Zum dritten konnte gezeigt werden, daß die
Landeskunde für die Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft Teil
der Kulturkompetenz ist. Aufgrund der oben erwähnten Aussagen der
Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft ist davon auszugehen, daß
landeskundliche Kenntnisse als Basis für die Entwicklung der Kulturkompetenz des künftigen Übersetzers und Dolmetschers angesehen
wird.
2 Umfrage
Im folgenden wird auf die Umfrage5 näher eingegangen. Zunächst werden einige Angaben zum Kurs und den Befragten vorangestellt. Dann
wird die Kontrollgruppe kurz vorgestellt. In einem längeren Abschnitt
kommt das für die Umfrage von mir entwickelte Material zur Sprache.
Abschließend wird die Chronologie der Durchführung behandelt.
2.1 Angaben zum Kurs und den Befragten
Um die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse von Studienanfängern ermitteln
zu können, wurde die Umfrage in einem Kurs durchgeführt, der im Cur4
5
Auf die Diskussion, die im Fach Deutsch als Fremdsprache um den weiterhin umstrittenen Begriff „Landeskunde“ geführt wird, z. B. Wormer (2004), Kretzenbacher
(2004), Altmayer (2004), kann hier nicht näher eingegangen werden.
Mein Dank gilt allen Befragten.
177
riculum für das erste Studienjahr angesetzt ist. Zusätzlich zu den befragten Studienanfängern wurde eine Kontrollgruppe hinzugezogen.
- Studienanfänger
Die Umfrage zur Ermittlung landeskundlichen Kenntnisse von Studienanfängern wurde im Kurs „Textarbeit“, der für alle Haupt- wie Nebenfachstudierenden eine obligatorische Lehrveranstaltung ist, durchgeführt. Der Kurs ist im Rahmen der Ausbildung für die Studierenden des
1. Studienjahres vorgesehen und wird idealister von allen Haupt- und
Nebenfachstudierenden gleich zu Beginn ihres Studiums gewählt.
Ziel des Kurses „Textarbeit“ ist es, grundlegende Fähigkeiten und
Fertigkeiten des mündlichen wie schriftlichen Ausdrucks der deutschen
Sprache zu erwerben (Teil A) bzw. deren Erwerb nachzuweisen (Teil B).
Anhand unterschiedlicher Themen und Textsorten, die für die Tätigkeit
als Übersetzer und/oder Dolmetscher relevant sind, werden im Herbst
Kenntnisse über Produktion wie Rezeption von Texten und ihre Einbettung in einen spezifischen kulturellen Kontext vermittelt. Im Frühjahr
wird anhand einer selbständig abzufassenden schriftlichen Hausarbeit,
die einen landeskundlichen Schwerpunkt zum Inhalt hat6, nachgewiesen, daß die Studierenden in der Lage sind, deutschsprachige Texte zu
rezipieren und zu produzieren.
Im Herbst 2006 hatten sich 29 Haupt- und Nebenfachstudierende7
(26 weiblich, 3 männlich) für die Teilnahme an dem Kurs „Textarbeit“
entschieden. Mit Blick auf die Nebenfachstudierenden ist zu erwähnen,
daß die Neigung besteht, das Nebenfachstudium häufig erst zu einem
späteren Zeitpunkt aufzunehmen. So handelten im Herbst 2006 drei
Studierende: eine befand sich bereits im zweiten Studienjahr, zwei im
sechsten Studienjahr. Dazu kamen zwei Studierende, die an Teil A des
Kurses bereits im Vorjahr teilgenommen hatten, nun aber zwecks Ergebnisverbesserung ein zweites Mal teilnahmen.
Darüber hinaus hatten drei Studierende einen längeren Aufenthalt in
einem der deutschsprachigen Land verbracht. Alle drei hatten sich mehr
als sechs Monate im deutschsprachigen Ausland aufgehalten, und zwar
alle drei in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Des weiteren gaben zwei
Studierende sowohl Deutsch als auch Finnisch als ihre Muttersprachen
an, eine dieser beiden Studierenden war bereits im sechsten Studienjahr. Eine weitere Studierende gab als Muttersprache Deutsch an. Alle
anderen Teilnehmer nannten als Muttersprache Finnisch.
6
7
Zur schriftlichen Hausarbeit mit landeskundlichem Inhalt s. Kretschmann (2001).
Im Studienjahr 2006/07 nahmen im Studiengang Übersetzen und Dolmetschen
Deutsch insgesamt 35 Studierende ihr Haupt- oder Nebenfachstudium auf.
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Birgit Kretschmann
- Kontrollgruppe
Zusätzlich zu den befragten Studienanfängern wurde ein Teil der Umfrage (s. Pkt. 2.3) auch einer Kontrollgruppe vorgelegt. Die Kontrollgruppe bestand aus neun Studierenden (6 weiblich, 3 männlich), die
alle im Hauptfach Übersetzen und Dolmetschen Deutsch studieren. Als
Nebenfach hatten sie zunächst Dolmetschen Deutsch (sog. Grundstudien im Umfang von (40 op8), in der Regel während des zweiten und
dritten Studienjahres, studiert. Fünf Studierende hatten sich entschieden, an den Kursen in den sog. vertiefenden Studien (MA-Phase; zweijährig) teilzunehmen, vier Studierende kamen hinzu, die kein Nebenfachstudium Dolmetschen Deutsch (seit der Umstellung auf BA-/MAStudiengänge wird Dolmetschen Deutsch nicht mehr als Nebenfach an
der Universität Turku angeboten, sondern als sog. „Spezialisierung“ im
Umfang von 15 op) absolviert hatten.
Alle Studierenden der Kontrollgruppe befanden sich zwischen dem
dritten und sechsten Studienjahr. Zwei Studierende haben einen bilingualen Hintergrund. Eine Studierende davon hält sich jedes Jahr ca.
zwei Monate in Deutschland auf, der andere Studierende verbrachte in
seiner Kindheit sieben Jahre in Deutschland. Eine Studierende mit rein
finnischem Hintergrund kam nach fünfjährigem (Studien-)Aufenthalt
in Österreich (sowie sechs Monate Aufenthalt in der Schweiz) zurück,
um ihr an der Universität Turku begonnenes Studium abzuschliessen.
Von den Studierenden mit rein finnischem Hintergrund hatten mehrere
kürzere (ein bis drei Monate pro Jahr) oder einen längeren Aufenthalt
(sechs Monate bis ein Jahr) im deutschsprachigen Raum verbracht,
meist in Deutschland.
Von den Studierenden mit rein finnischem Hintergrund verbrachte
eine Studierende im Studienjahr 2004/05 ca. fünf Monate in Deutschland. Eine zweite Studierende hatte sich fast anderthalb Jahre in
Deutschland aufgehalten, nämlich im Studienjahr 2004/05 sowie im
Sommer 2006. Ein Studierender hatte in der vorlesungsfreien Sommerzeit zwischen 2002 und 2005 insgesamt etwa acht Monate in Deutschland verbracht. Ein vierter Studierender, aufgewachsen in den Vereinigten Staaten, hatte ein Jahr in Deutschland gelebt und besuchte darüber
hinaus Deutschland jedes Jahr für einige Tage. Eine Studierende hatte
sich neun Monate in Deutschland aufgehalten. Und eine Studierende
hatte insgesamt anderthalb Jahre in Österreich und zweieinhalb Jahre
in der Schweiz verbracht.
8
Eine „op“, auch Leistungspunkt genannt, entspricht einem ECTS-credit.
179
2.2 Selbstentwickeltes Material
Um eine Antwort auf die eingangs gestellte Frage nach den landeskundlichen Kenntnissen der Studienanfänger in der universitären Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung zu erhalten, wurden die Materialien
für die Umfrage von mir entwickelt. Zum Einsatz (s. Pkt. 2.3) kamen
zwei Materialien, ein Aufgabenblatt sowie ein Fragebogen.
- Aufgabenblatt
Den Studierenden wurde ein, von mir entwickeltes, zweiteiliges Aufgabenblatt ausgehändigt, das sowohl auf die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse (Teil A) als auch die Sprachkompetenz (Teil B), hier v.a. auf die
Kenntnisse im lexikalischen Bereich, zielte. Letzterer ist für die vorliegende Fragestellung irrelevant und bleibt daher unberücksichtigt.
Der zur Ermittlung der landeskundlichen Kenntnisse entwickelte Teil
A des Aufgabenblattes enthielt zehn Fragen. Die gestellten Fragen leiteten sich zum einen aus der oben erwähnten Forderung der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft (s. Pkt. 1) nach Landeskunde als
Teil der Kulturkompetenz ab. Zum anderen geben die oben genannten
Bezeichnungen der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft wieder,
was in diesem (Ausbildungs-) Bereich unter dem Begriff Landeskunde
verstanden werden kann bzw. könnte („Hintergrundwissen“, etc). Des
weiteren spielte die berufliche Praxis bei der Erstellung des Aufgabenblattes eine Rolle.
Die berufliche Praxis wurde bei den Fragen insofern berücksichtigt
als hier zur Beantwortung der Fragen a) Recherche und b) Zeitmanagement gefragt waren. Aufgrund der heutigen Informationsflut kann kaum
davon ausgegangen werden, daß unsere Wissensbestände in unveränderter Form über Jahre oder gar Jahrzehnte weiterexistieren. Da es
zudem im Zeitalter der Informations- und Wissensgesellschaft nach Arnold und Schüßler (1998) weniger auf materielles Wissen (Speicherwissen) als vielmehr auf reflexives Wissen ankommt, gilt es, Studierenden
die Möglichkeit zum Aufbau von reflexivem Wissen zu geben. Zumal
ein künftiger Übersetzer und Dolmetscher sich immer wieder schnell
und umfassend in neue Wissensgebiete einarbeiten können muß. Im
Zusammenhang mit dem verwendeten Aufgabenblatt geht es v.a. weniger um die ebenfalls zum Begriff reflexives Wissen gehörenden Aspekte des Reflexions- und Persönlichkeitswissen als vielmehr um das
Methodenwissen. Mit Blick auf das Methodenwissen, das das Wissen
um Verfahrensweisen zur Informationsbeschaffung, -präsentation und
Kommunikation von Information (Arnold & Schüßler, 1998) umfasst,
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Birgit Kretschmann
steht etwa zu Beginn des Studiums die Frage im Vordergrund, daß die
Studierenden Suchstrategien entwickeln und mindestens wissen, wo
sie Informationen suchen (müssen).
Vermutlich wird von den Studierenden in den meisten Fällen auf das
Internet, unter Verwendung von Suchmaschinen wie Google, als Quelle
zurückgegriffen. Da das Internet mit seinen Suchmaschinen heute bei
den vom Übersetzer und Dolmetscher durchzuführenden Recherchen
zu seinen Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschaufträgen aus der beruflichen
Praxis nicht mehr wegzudenken ist, ist der Rückgriff auf das bzw. die
Suche im Internet bei der Bearbeitung des Aufgabenblattes durchaus
intendiert.
Wenngleich die eine oder andere Inspiration von einem ähnlichen,
unveröffentlichten, Projekt stammt, das von P. Kujamäki9 betreut wurde,
so handelt es sich bei den Fragen des Aufgabenblattes im Wesentlichen um meine eigenen Ideen. Die Fragen gehören Bereichen an wie
Geographie, Geschichte, Gesellschaft, Politik, Aktuelles, Europäische
Union (EU), Literatur, Film, Bildende Kunst, Sport, Sehenswürdigkeiten, um nur die wichtigsten zu nennen. Darüber hinaus sind einige Fragen zu Abkürzungen und nach Zitaten enthalten. Fragen zu Religion
sowie zur „Jugendkultur“ fehlen. Fällt erstgenannter Bereich eher unter
die Rubrik „Privat“, wird letztgenannter Bereich aufgrund fehlender Relevanz nicht erfragt. Zwar scheint hier das Vorwissen der Studienanfänger recht umfangreich zu sein, wenn man dem Ergebnissen neuerer
Untersuchungen zu finnischen Deutschlehrbüchern folgt. So kommt
etwa Maijala (2004) in ihrer Untersuchung zu den geschichtlichen Inhalten in finnischen Deutschlehrbüchern zu dem Schluß, daß
Ernsthafte Auseinandersetzungen fehlen, die gesellschaftlichen Themen
gehen über Flirt und Beziehungsprobleme nicht hinaus. Der Zeitgeist und
die neuen Trends können den Inhalt von Sprachlehrbüchern in der Weise
beherrschen, dass diese wie eine Jugendzeitschrift mit Wörterverzeichnis
wirken. (Maijala, 2004, S. 146)
Für die berufliche Praxis besitzt der Bereich „Jugendkultur“ jedoch
kaum Relevanz. Für den künftigen Übersetzer und Dolmetscher sind
andere Inhalte maßgeblich – und zwar für Ausbildung wie berufliche
Praxis gleichermaßen. Relevante Inhalte, die im Rahmen der Ausbildung anzusprechen sind, sind beispielsweise Themen, die mit Wirt9
Die Information, daß zu dem Projekt nicht veröffentlicht wurde, beruht auf einem EMail von P. Kujamäki (Universität Joensuu) vom 19.4.2007. Im gleichen E-Mail erklärte sich P. Kujamäki bereit, mir seine Ergebnisse, die 2004 im Tampere vorgestellt
wurden, zur Verfügung zu stellen, wofür ich ihm herzlich danke.
181
schaft, Technik, Medizin, Recht und Verwaltung (frühere Sachfächer)
sowie mit der EU, Umwelt, Medien usw. zu tun haben.
Die Kriterien für die Auswahl der im Aufgabenblatt enthaltenen
Fragen aus einer Vielzahl von Bereichen orientierten sich u.a. an der
Forderung der Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft sowie der
Berufsverbände, z. B. des BDÜ, nach Allgemeinbildung. Es wird immer
wieder darauf hingewiesen, daß eine gute Allgemeinbildung als eine,
neben anderen als gleichrangig zu betrachtenden, Voraussetzung für
das Berufsprofil des Übersetzers und Dolmetschers gilt10. Für das Aufgabenblatt ergab sich daraus, mit den Fragen den Bereich Allgemeinbildung abzudecken und zugleich nach möglichst breit gestreuten Kenntnissen in diesem Bereich zu suchen bzw. durch die breite Streuung
von Fragen im Bereich der Allgemeinbildung dafür zu sensibilisieren,
wie umfangreich die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse/ Inhalte anzusetzen
sind. Für den Übersetzer und Dolmetscher kommen im Prinzip alle
Felder menschlichen Handelns als potentielle Arbeitsgebiete in Frage. Des weiteren wurden noch Fragen zu aktuellen sowie historischen
Ereignissen aufgenommen, um die Aufmerksamkeit der Studierenden
gleich zu Studienbeginn darauf zu richten, daß über den starken Gegenwartsbezug ihrer Ausbildung hinaus vergangenes wie zukünftiges
Geschehen sehr wohl in das Studium wie auch die spätere berufliche
Praxis Eingang finden können. Von daher tut der (künftige) Übersetzer
und Dolmetscher im Sinne des lebenslangen Lernens gut daran, seine
Kenntnisse auch im Bereich Landeskunde/Kultur stets auf den neuesten Stand zu bringen.
Die Antworten zu dem Aufgabenblatt, in einigen wenigen Fällen waren Begriffserklärungen (z.B. „Trümmerfrau“) zu bearbeiten und Abkürzungen (z.B. „TÜV“) aufzulösen, wurden auf deutsch erwartet. Bei Einoder Zwei-Wort-Antworten, etwa Namen von Personen, Institutionen,
Orten usw., wurde nur die korrekte deutsche Schreibweise akzeptiert.
Antworten auf finnisch wie „katsastus“ für die Abkürzung, eigentlich ein
Akronym, „TÜV“ wurden als Fehler gewertet, kamen allerdings selten
vor. Bei der Bewertung wurden für korrekte Antworten ganze (1), halbe
(0,5) sowie viertel (0,25) Punkte vergeben11, pro Aufgabenblatt waren
10
11
Neben sprachlicher Begabung gelten für den Beruf des Übersetzers und Dolmetschers nach den Angaben des Transforums (2006) als weitere Voraussetzungen
…umfassendes Wissen über Land und Kultur der Ziel- und Ausgangssprache (…)
Eigenschaften wie Flexibilität, Mobilität, Kommunikationsfreudigkeit, aber auch Belastbarkeit, Teamfähigkeit und permanente Lernbereitschaft (...) Außerdem müssen
sich Übersetzer gut selbst an einem Bildschirmarbeitsplatz organisieren können, und
Dolmetscher müssen eine hohe psychische und physische Belastbarkeit mitbringen.
(Transforum, 2006, S. 4.)
Bei der Erstellung des Aufgabenblattes war die Bewertung zunächst außer Acht ge-
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Birgit Kretschmann
maximal 10 Punkte zu erreichen. Auf eine detailliertere Auswertung der
Aufgabenblätter bzw. des Fragebogens wird hier zugunsten der Darstellung erster – quantitativer wie qualitativer – Ergebnisse verzichtet.
- Fragebogen
Wie eingangs erwähnt ging es zusätzlich zur Ermittlung der landeskundlichen Kenntnisse bei Studienanfängern der universitären Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung um die Frage nach Sensibilisierung der Studierenden für die Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse.
Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein von mir entwickelter Fragebogen, als Teil
B an das siebte und letzte Aufgabenblatt, das alle in den sechs vorausgegangenen Aufgabenblättern enthaltenen Fragen zusammenfaßte,
angehängt. Im ersten Teil des Fragebogens wurden neben Angaben
zur Person, wie Alter, Studienbeginn und Muttersprache, auch Angaben zur Dauer des Deutschlernens während der Schulzeit sowie zu
Aufenthalten im deutschsprachigen Raum erfragt. Bei der Frage nach
dem Aufenthalt sollten in Häufigkeit, Dauer sowie Art der Tätigkeit im
Ausland differenziert werden. Im zweiten Teil des Fragebogens, der
wahlweise auf deutsch oder finnisch zu beantworten war, sollten folgende fünf Aspekte kommentiert werden
1. Warum wurden Ihrer Meinung nach im Kurs „P2 Textarbeit“ diese
Art von Aufgaben (Teil A) verwendet?
2. Haben Ihnen die Aufgaben gefallen? Wenn ja, warum? Wenn
nein, warum nicht?
3. Was sollte Ihrer Meinung nach anhand der Aufgaben gelernt
werden?
4. Haben Sie etwas gelernt? Wenn ja, was? Wenn nein, warum
nicht?
5. Sehen Sie einen Zusammenhang zwischen den im Teil A der
Aufgaben gestellten Fragen und Ihrem Studium? Wenn ja/nein,
bitte erläutern.
2.3 Chronologie der Durchführung
Im Herbst 2006 wurde im Rahmen des Kurses „Textarbeit“ (s. Pkt. 2.1)
alternierend zu der eigentlichen Textproduktion sechsmal ein Aufgabenblatt zur Landeskunde (s. Pkt. 2.2.1) – mit bzw. ohne Vorbereitungszeit
lassen worden. Die Nichtberücksichtigung „rächte“ sich, als bei der Bewertung festgestellt wurde, daß die „Neugier“ der Forscherin in einigen Ausnahmefällen zur Formulierung zu detaillierter Fragen (Frage 29, 38, 42, 50 und 60) geführt hatte.
183
– eingesetzt. Dreimal wurde das Aufgabenblatt zur Landeskunde ohne
Vorbereitungszeit zu Beginn des Unterrichts ausgeteilt. Es wurde für
die Bearbeitung in der Stunde kein Zeitlimit gesetzt. Hilfsmittel standen
keine zur Verfügung. Nach jeweils ca. 15 Minuten Bearbeitung reichten die letzten der Studierenden das Aufgabenblatt „ausgefüllt“ (s. Pkt.
3) zurück. Bei Unterrichtsende erhielten die Studierenden eine weitere
Kopie des ohne Vorbereitungszeit auszufüllenden Aufgabenblattes zur
Bearbeitung mit Vorbereitungszeit. Die sechs Aufgabenblätter, für die
eine Vorbereitungszeit von einer Woche gewährt wurde, wurden nach
der Bewertung durch den Lehrenden inkl. Lösungsblätter an die Studierenden zurückgegeben.
Der Kontrollgruppe wurde nur ein einziges Aufgabenblatt, das die
dreißig Fragen aus den Aufgabenblättern 2, 4 und 6 enthielt, ohne Vorbereitungszeit und Hilfsmittel vorgelegt. Zur Unterbindung eines eventuellen Informationsflusses fand die Bearbeitung durch die Kontrollgruppe am gleichen Tag wie die Bearbeitung des sechsten und letzten
Aufgabenblattes durch die Studienanfänger statt.
Am Ende des Kurses wurden den Teilnehmern des Kurses „Textarbeit“ alle sechzig Fragen der Aufgabenblätter zur Landeskunde in einem
siebten und um einen kurzen Fragebogen (s. Pkt. 2.2.2) erweiterten
Aufgabenblatt ohne Vorbereitungszeit und ohne Zeitlimit zu Beginn des
Unterrichts erneut präsentiert, um zu ermitteln, ob für die Bedeutung
landeskundlicher Inhalte sensibilisiert werden konnte. Und ob darüber
hinaus gehend sich die Teilnehmer möglicherweise etwas von den bearbeiteten landeskundlichen Inhalten aneigneten. Die Kommentare zu
den fünf, im Fragebogen des siebten Aufgabenblattes enthaltenen, Aspekten konnten wahlweise auf finnisch oder deutsch gegeben werden.
An dem letzten Durchgang waren nur noch 19 Studierende beteiligt,
acht Kursteilnehmer hatten das Semester, zwecks Finanzierung ihres
Studiums, bereits vorzeitig beendet. Eine Studierende war aufgrund
ihrer fortgeschrittenen Schwangerschaft Mitte November ausgeschieden.
3 Erste Ergebnisse
Für die Auswertung von drei der sechs eingesetzten Aufgabenblätter
(Nr. 2, 4 u. 6) ergeben sich mit Blick auf die Frage, wieviel landeskundliche Kenntnisse die Studienanfänger der universitären Übersetzer- und
Dolmetscherausbildung mitbrachten, folgende Ergebnisse:
184
9
9
9
Birgit Kretschmann
Mit Vorbereitungszeit erzielten die Studienanfänger insgesamt 78mal mindestens 4,5 und maximal 10 von möglichen 10
Punkten, davon 73mal in den drei höchsten Punktekategorien
von 7–7,75 Punkte (11mal), 8–8,75 Punkte (25mal) sowie 9–10
Punkte (37mal).
Ohne Vorbereitungszeit ergab die Auswertung, daß insgesamt
83mal mindestens 0 und maximal 4,5 Punkte von möglichen 10
Punkten angerechnet wurden, davon 76mal in den beiden untersten Punktekategorien, in der von 0–0,75 Punkte (50mal) sowie
in der von 1–1,75 Punkte (26mal).
In der Kontrollgruppe, wurden von den fortgeschrittenen Studierenden, ebenfalls ohne Vorbereitungszeit, 27mal mindestens 0
und maximal 5 von möglichen 10 Punkten erzielt, davon 12mal
in den Punktekategorien 0–0,75 Punkte (4mal), 1–1,75 Punkte
(8mal). 15mal kam es zu Wertungen in den höheren Punktekategorien von 2–2,75 Punkte (3mal), 3–3,75 Punkte (6mal), 4–4,75
Punkte (5mal) sowie 5–5,75 Punkte (1mal).
Die ersten quantitativen Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die Studienanfänger, sofern sie die Aufgabenblätter mit Vorbereitungszeit bearbeiteten,
73mal (von 78) gut bis sehr gut bei der Bewertung abschnitten, d.h.
fast alle waren in der Lage mittels Hilfsmittel, die Aufgaben zu lösen.
Wurden die Aufgabenblätter dagegen ohne Vorbereitungszeit bearbeitet, zeigte sich, daß die Studienanfänger in 76 von 83 Fällen entweder
keine oder nur geringe landeskundliche Kenntnisse mitbrachten, d.h.
ohne Recherche gelangten sie fast alle zu keiner Lösung.
Die Kontrollgruppe erbrachte ohne Vorbereitungszeit etwas bessere
Leistungen als die Studienanfänger, da etwas weniger als die Hälfte
von ihnen keine oder nur geringe landeskundliche Kenntnisse nach
drei- bis sechsjährigem Studium erbrachten. In Anbetracht der Tatsache aber, daß sie außer der fortgeschritteneren Studiendauer bereits
längere Auslandsaufenthalte bzw. teilweise einen bilingualen Hintergrund aufwiesen, ist hier – angesichts der oben diskutierten Relevanz
von landeskundlichen Kenntnissen – ein zu geringer Kenntnisstand in
der Kontrollgruppe festzustellen. Es ist nach den Ursachen für dieses
insgesamt eher enttäuschende Ergebnis der fortgeschrittenen Studierenden, die ihre Betroffenheit über ihr schwaches Abschneiden z. T.
kaum verhehlten, zu fragen, aber im Rahmen dieses Beitrags kann weder eine Antwort noch eine Lösung angeboten werden.
Weder Monolingualismus noch Bilingualismus manifestierten sich
bei der Auswertung der erwähnten, ohne Vorbereitungszeit zu bearbei-
185
tenden, Aufgabenblätter 2, 4 und 6 signifikant: sowohl bei den beiden
bilingualen Studienanfängern (B13: 1/ 0,25/1,5; B26: 1/0/1 ) als auch bei
den zwei fortgeschrittenen bilingualen Studierenden (K1: 2/0/0,75; K9:
3,5/0,25/1,75) hielten sich die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse in geringen
Grenzen, lagen in etwa auf dem schwachen Niveau der monolingualen
Studienanfänger wie monolingualen fortgeschrittenen Studierenden,
mit eventuell leichten Vorteilen zugunsten der Bilingualen.
Die Auswertung der erfragten Aspekte, – 19 Studierende kommentierten –, erbrachte, daß qualitativ gesehen, erstens sehr wohl für die
landeskundlichen Kenntnisse (Aspekt 1) sensibilisiert wurde, und zwar
in 16 Fällen. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich, daß die Studienanfänger in
einigen Fällen auch für die Recherche, i.d.R. mit Hilfe des Internet, sensibilisiert wurden. „Information (auf deutsch) suchen“ (7mal) lautete der
Kommentar, davon zweimal mit Nennung des Internet als Quelle, einmal mit Nennung von Internet und Bibliothek als Quellen. Zweimal hieß
es im Kommentar „Information auf deutsch zu suchen und verwenden
lernen/finden“, je einmal „Damit wir einsehen würden, quellenkritisch
zu sein“ bzw. „…die Antworten auch fürs [sic!] zukunft [sic!] bemerken
[sic!]“. Drei Kommentare nannten sowohl die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse als auch die Recherche, ein Kommentar führte mit der Verbesserung der Deutschkenntnisse, der Suche im Internet und dem Lernen
für die Zukunft drei Gründe an. Es wurde auf deutsch (11mal) und auf
finnisch (8mal) kommentiert.
Das zweite qualitative Ergebnis betrifft die Frage nach der Erkennung der Relevanz von landeskundlichen Kenntnissen seitens der Studienanfänger. Zur Beantwortung werden die Kommentare zu Aspekt 5
herangezogen. Auf die Frage, ob ein Zusammenhang zwischen den im
Teil A der Aufgaben gestellten Fragen und dem Studium besteht, verteilten sich die 19 Kommentare auf insgesamt 24 unterschiedliche Bezeichnungen. Innerhalb der Kommentare bilden Nennungen mit dem
Stichwort „Kultur“ die größte Gruppe. Sechsmal wurden auf deutsch
oder finnisch die Kenntnis der Kultur, einmal zusätzlich die Kenntnis
des Landes („maantuntemusta“) angesprochen, neunmal, wenn man
noch die zwei Nennungen zur Kulturgebundenheit, „kulttuurisidonnaisiin aineksiin“ und „kulttuurisidonnaisten asioiden tuntemus“ sowie „weil
Sprache und Kultur Hand im [sic!] Hand gehen“ hinzurechnet.
Mit etwas Abstand folgen Geschichte (3mal), Erdkunde (2mal) sowie mit jeweils nur einer Nennung folgende deutsche Begriffe aktuelle Nachrichten, Gegenwart, Literatur, Politik, Landeskunde, Land und
Leute und folgende finnische Begriffe „tapoja“, „yleistieto“, „Saksasta
ja sen asioista“. Darüber hinaus fanden sich vier Kommentare (mit je
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Birgit Kretschmann
einer Nennung), in denen a) ein Zusammenhang hergestellt, aber auf
eine Erläuterung verzichtet, b) ein Zusammenhang für das Übersetzen
„vermutlich weniger, aber … sicherlich“ für das Dolmetschen hergestellt,
c) kein Zusammenhang hergestellt, oder d) ein ganz anderer Kommentar abgegeben wurde. Insgesamt können 15 der 19 Kommentare als
Zustimmung gewertet werden, da ein Zusammenhang zwischen den
gestellten Aufgaben in Teil A und dem Studium hergestellt wurde. Elf
Kommentare wurden auf deutsch formuliert, acht auf finnisch.
Für die von mir durchgeführte Umfrage zu landeskundlichen Kenntnissen bei Studienanfängern kann kaum ein Anspruch auf Repräsentativität erhoben werden. Es würde aber z. Zt. kaum verwundern, wenn es
bei einer weiteren umfangreicheren Umfrage zu diesem Thema unter
finnischen Studienanfängern der Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung kaum Abweichungen hinsichtlich der hier festgestellten Ergebnisse gäbe. Eine detailliertere Evaluation der Umfrage steht noch aus.
4 Fazit
Abschliessend gilt es die ersten quantitativen wie qualitativen Ergebnissen der im Herbst 2006 im Kurs „Textarbeit“ durchgeführten Umfrage bei Studienanfängern der universitären Übersetzer- und Dolmetscherausbildung zusammenzufassen. Aufgrund der nach Einführung
der BA-/MA-Abschlüsse veränderten Situation des Faches Übersetzen
und Dolmetschen Deutsch an der Universität Turku sowie der aus der
Übersetzungs- und Dolmetschwissenschaft abgeleiteten Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse als Grundlage der während des Studiums
aufzubauenden Kulturkompetenz, hatte die Umfrage v.a. die Sensibilisierung der Studienanfänger für landeskundliche Kenntnisse zum
Ziel. Darüber hinaus sollte die Relevanz eben dieser landeskundlicher
Kenntnisse für die berufliche Praxis des künftigen Übersetzers und Dolmetschers erkannt werden.
Vor dem Hintergrund der genannten Ziele ist anhand der Auswertung von drei ohne Vorbereitungszeit zu bearbeitenden Aufgabenblättern (Nr. 2, 4 und 6), die Studienanfängern sowie einer Kontrollgruppe
vorgelegt wurden, festzustellen, daß die landeskundlichen Kenntnisse
sowohl bei den Studienanfängern als auch bei den fortgeschrittenen
Studierenden der Kontrollgruppe (2.–6. Studienjahr) als gering einzustufen sind. Die Frage nach dem möglicherweise unterschiedlichem
Abschneiden der Studierenden aufgrund ihres mono- bzw. bilingualen
Hintergrundes ist zu vernachlässigen, da die vorliegenden Resultate
187
keine aussagekräftige Differenzierung erlauben. Die mit Hilfe des Fragebogens erfassten Kommentare zu den Aspekten „Verwendung der
Aufgaben“ (Aspekt 1) sowie „Zusammenhang zwischen Aufgaben und
Studium“ (Aspekt 5) zeigen, daß eine Sensibilisierung der Studienanfänger erfolgte. Ebenso wurde von den künftigen Übersetzern und Dolmetschern die Relevanz landeskundlicher Kenntnisse erkannt.
Für das Curriculum des Studiengangs ergeben sich aus den ersten
Ergebnissen der Umfrage zwei wesentliche Konsequenzen. Erstens
sollten künftig Spracherwerb und Erwerb landeskundlicher Kenntnisse
parallel vom ersten Studienjahr an in der universitären Übersetzer- und
Dolmetscherausbildung verankert sein. Zweitens sollte künftig in der
Ausbildung von Übersetzern und Dolmetschern der Forderung nach
Vermittlung von mehr Kenntnissen – „Hintergrundwissen“ wie theoretischem Wissen – im Bereich Landeskunde und Kultur studienbegleitend
stärker Rechnung getragen werden.
Stellvertretend für die erfolgte Sensibilisierung wird ein Kommentar
aus dem Kreis der Befragten (Name des Verf. ist mir bekannt, B.K.)
angeführt
Ich sehe, wieviel ich hätte lernen sollen und wie wenig ich eigentlich weiß.
So ist es mit meinen Studien [sic!] auch. Ich muss noch vieles in meinem
[sic!] Lerntechnik [sic!] verbessern und mich viel besser für Deutsch eignen.
Zum Glück habe ich noch viel Zeit!
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189
MULTIPLE ASPECTS OF VALIDITY THEORY IN THE SERVICE OF
AN ORAL PROFICIENCY ASSESSMENT PROJECT
RAILI HILDÉN
raili.hilden<at>helsinki.fi
Abstract
This article describes the theoretical orientation to a 3-year research project, HYTalk, which focuses on the assessment of oral proficiency in foreign languages. The
financial support from the Research Grants Committee of University of Helsinki was
allocated specifically for the validation of five illustrative subscales of oral proficiency
included in the new national core curricula for general language education in Finland
(National Core Curriculum 2003, 2004). These address overall task management in
terms of themes, texts and purposes, fluency, pronunciation, linguistic range and accuracy. Each of these is related to different competences utilised in speaking performance. Thus, the test combines competence and task based orientations to speaking
assessment. In addition, the research activities will pay attention to language specific
cultural determinants of the evolving oral proficiency. The dynamics of test-taking and
student interpretation of the test task will also be explored.
The research consortium consists of experts in English, French, German and
Swedish languages at the Faculty of Arts, along with experts in language education
and assessment from the Faculty of Behavioural Sciences. The data will be collected
from school and university levels and investigated in cooperation with professional
researchers and students.
The article introduces three important orientations to validity: validity as scientific
and interpretive inquiry, and as pragmatic argumentation. A number of links between
past but still influential validity research and the HY-Talk study have been established,
but closer attention is dedicated to formulating a set of research arguments in line
with the pragmatic approach to validation. The major claim to be probed is that the
oral proficiency scales currently included are reliable and valid tools for assessing the
communicative oral proficiency of students in general language education. The claim
needs to be supported by a set of grounding evidence and warrant statements derived from the data. On the other hand, the claim will be confronted with counterclaims
and rebuttal data to challenge the conclusions. Specific research tasks assigned to
individual researchers are generated from the overall argumentation frame.
Keywords: language assessment, validity, oral proficiency, performance assessments.
190
Raili Hildén
1 Introduction
This article lays a theoretical foundation to a 3-year research project,
HY-Talk, initiated at the University of Helsinki with a focus on the assessment of oral proficiency in foreign languages. The financial support
from the Research Grants Committee of the university was allocated
specifically for the validation of five illustrative subscales of oral proficiency included in the national core curricula (2003, 2004). These address overall task management in terms of themes, texts and purposes,
fluency, pronunciation, linguistic range and accuracy. In addition, the
research activities will pay attention to language specific cultural determinants of the construct of oral proficiency and the dynamics of the
test-taking process.
The research consortium consists of experts in the English, French,
German and Swedish languages at the Faculty of Arts, along with experts in language education and assessment from the Faculty of Behavioural Sciences. The data will be collected from schools and university institutions and jointly investigated by professional researchers
and students.
Since the general purpose of the project launched deals with validation, the first chapters of the article will offer a brief overview on the
major strands of validity theory during the last decades. These will be
summed up in a scheme that depicts the types of or approaches to
validity that are addressed by our project.
2 Multiple layers of validity inquiry and their links to
HY-Talk project agenda
2.1 Validity as scientific inquiry: The criterion Model
According to the earliest definitions, test validity simply meant that the
test measures what it is intended to measure (Kelley, 1927, p. 14; as
cited in Weir, 2005, p. 12). Traditional testing was not theory-driven in
the current sense of the word, and both its reliability and validity were
taken for granted (Davies, 2003, p. 356). Assessment practices were
compatible with teaching practices dating back to the medieval tradition
of teaching classic languages. Consequently, testing methods of language ability were targeted to detect linguistic knowledge rather than
the ability to put it into use. (Spolsky, 1995.)
Multiple Aspects of Validity Theory in the Service of an Oral Proficiency…
191
There has been a long tendency in educational measurement to
conform to the ideal of scientific inquiry in the field of natural sciences.
The main goal of testing was therefore to determine the quantity and
composition of latent traits, frequently cognitive in nature (McNamara &
Roever, 2006, p. 10). Validity was conceived as precise measurement
of scores reflecting individual variables like personality traits, properties
and skills (Kane, 2001, p. 320). The rapid development of statistical
methods and programmes and the technology to promote their implementation accelerated particularly the scrutiny of reliability issues. In
fact, the first attempts to map out the multifaceted terrain of validity
were canalized through reliability studies, because reliability was assumed to be the necessary condition of validity. The assertion that it
might not be a sufficient condition, however, was voiced later on.
The first influential definition of validity that was to persist a long
while into the future was given by Cureton (1951), who characterised
validity as indicating “how well the test serves the purpose for which it
is used” (Cureton, 1951, p. 621; as cited in Moss, Girard, & Haniford,
2006, p. 113). The operationalisation of validity as the relationship between test scores and criterion scores on the target task that the test
was intended to measure launched the criterion-based orientation towards validity investigation that is widely used still today. The criterion
can be drawn from the actual test situation and operationalised as correlations between parts of the test with the overall score or other measures of the same trait, if available (concurrent validity). Alternatively,
the criterion can be obtained from future performances as parallels to
the test score (predictive validity). The criterion approach was further
elaborated by Cronbach and Meehl (1955).
Criterion-based conceptualization of validity is subject to problems
due to possible defects in the choice of variables. The quality of criterion variables was rarely questioned, although they were not inherently
more truthful than the test score. (Kane, 2001, p. 320.) Despite the
acknowledged restrictions, criterion-based studies conducted by statistical means still belong to the core of validation procedures, albeit
improved with more refined equipment for calculation. The basic idea
is relatively unchanged in settings where test performance is compared
with real-life performance (Cronbach, 1971) or in studies resorting to
expert judgment in modelling a construct or qualities of a performance
(Angoff, 1988).
In the HY-Talk context criterion-based validity is considered by comparing scores of the multiple dimensions of oral proficiency with each
other and in relation to quantitative and qualitative student variables.
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The entire design is influenced by the expert judgment model and related statistical tools proposed by Angoff (1988).
A second aspect of validity is content-based validity, developed as
an alternative and complementation to criterion-related validity. Content
validity focused on obtaining a representative sample of the traits or
performances that the test was targeted to measure (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, p. 4). Carroll (1980, p. 67) suggested that content validity
should be determined first by analyzing the communicative needs of the
testees, and then by specifying the test content accordingly. The result
of the test is thus interpreted in the light of its content, and sufficiently
similar tests could be used as each other’s criterion (Ebel, 1961).
There is a close link between the HY-Talk project content dimension
and the description of the content dimension of the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001). This document includes among
other things a self-assessment grid (pp. 26–27) that, in turn, has been
a point of departure for a selection of operationalised can do statements developed for another tool of integration policy across Europe,
the European Language Portfolio. The HY-Talk test tasks are derived
from three sources: the CEFR illustrative scale descriptors and from a
range of national ELP versions accessible at http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/
Portfolio/?L=E&M=/main_pages/portfolios.html, and from the Finnish
ELP material, not yet accredited by the Council of Europe.
2.2 Validity as scientific inquiry: The Construct Model
The construct model of validity was introduced by Cronbach and Meehl
(1955) to offer a more explanatory and theoretic approach than criterion and content validities. Theoretical models were considered to be
composed of constructs and their connections in nomological networks,
and researchers sought to confirm the existence of these networks by
empirical observations (Kane, 2001, p. 321; Davies & Elder, 2005, p.
801). Constructs were defined in measurable terms, and the aim of the
measurement was to clarify the structure of a construct by investigating
its inner nomological links, and to define its position in theory by establishing its relationships to other constructs. (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000,
p. 40; as cited in Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, p. 7.) In essence, validity studies aimed at identifying the fit between empirical observations
and theoretical models. If the observations gathered were compatible
with the model, the validity of the construct was confirmed. In negative cases, however, the reasons of incompatibility remained unclear. In
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language assessment this deductive view on validity was promoted by
Lado (1961) and Davies (1977), for instance.
From the 1950s to the late 1970s, the different models of validity
were employed as needed for the various validation purposes. The
criterion-based approach was used for justifying admission and placement, while content-based validation pertained to especially achievement testing. During the period from the 1950s to the 1980s, which
Moss et al. (2006) label as an era of validity as scientific inquiry, the
study of validity conformed to the ideal of scientific orientation in theory
building and methodology. Three salient principles of approaching validity dating back to that time period are appreciated still today: For
the first thing, validity study was conceived as a multi-phased ongoing process (that of validation) grounded in theory as a point of departure. Certain dimensions were selected for closer investigation, and
subsequent methodology was chosen to serve the measurement. The
research process was guided by preset hypotheses that were tested
against the observations obtained.
Secondly, the proposed interpretation of the test score and its consequences were specified and set as a hypothesis until it could be
probed and evaluated. This was a substantial extension to the previous understanding of validation as related to the test itself or the test
score. As Cronbach (1971) put it: “It is not the test or the test score that
is validated, but a proposed interpretation of the score”. Thirdly, there
was rising awareness directed towards considering alternative interpretations and challenging evidence in validity inquiry. (Kane, 2001, pp.
232–324.)
2.3 Current Conceptions of Validity
2.3.1 Validity as interpretive inquiry: Messick
The representation of validity as an integrative constellation of all dimensions described above was acknowledged as the major vein of investigation due to the work of Messick. His seminal definition of validity,
still prevalent in most of the validity studies, is the following: “Validity
is an integrated evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical
evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes
of assessment” (Messick, 1989, p. 13).
Messick’s model of validity links the content and criteria with the
consequences of the particular assessment. The consequences (also
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termed consequential validity) refer to the values, usefulness, relevance
and social consequences of test use. (Messick, 1989, p. 20.) This integrated view of validity was taken up in the highly influential guiding
documents of testing scholarship (Standards, 1985, p. 9; Standards,
1999, p. 11). Neither the space nor the scope of this article allow for
an in-depth report of the Messick legacy in language testing research.
There are, however, two strands that deserve to be mentioned: the
practical applications derived from the Bachman (1990) model, and the
evolving focus on the consequential aspects of assessment.
In the field of language testing the unitary model was promoted most
effectively by Bachman (1990) and Bachman and Palmer (1996) who introduced test usefulness as the overall concept unifying five dimensions
of test validity, namely, reliability, authenticity, interactiveness, practicality and test impact. Authenticity deals with the degree of similarity that
test tasks share with target language use tasks. Interactiveness, on the
other hand, refers to the internal processes that are evoked by the test
task and its counterparts in real life. Practicality is about the practical
constraints of test implementation. Test impact in out-of test contexts is
studied from the perspective of washback on teaching, but in broader
terms, impact also covers the social consequences as well as the ethical considerations of test use. (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, pp. 18 –19.)
The idea of validity study viewed as interpretive conclusions firmly
grounded in performance data will be the leading principle of dealing
with the HY-Talk data. The concepts introduced by Bachman have been
discussed in project meetings and the dimensions of test usefulness
will be addressed by some of our researchers. We have also found
useful the approach suggested by Weir (2005), whose validity model
essentially poses a re-arrangement of traditional validity types. Weir
speaks about a priori and a posteriori validation. The former refers to
construct validity put in action through task planning and test design,
while the latter covers all the remaining types: reliability (termed scoring
validity), criterion and consequential validity.
The second vein inspired by Messick’s model of validity is less practical and still at an emerging state. Nevertheless, the social, cultural and
political aspects of validity evolved from consequential validity seem to
become a new macroparadigm of language assessment research. The
ethical quality of assessment instruments and the responsibility of their
users have gained increasing attention at various levels of test development and implementation of assessment practices in a broad social
context. (Lynch, 2001; McNamara & Roever, 2006; Shohamy, 2001).
Ethical considerations of assessment as power issues are often imbued
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with postmodern critical theory, in language assessment literature most
frequently cited from Habermas, Pennycook, Foucault, and Fairclough.
These contributions to validity theory are by no means unimportant to
the assessment of spoken interaction, but in our case the broad social
aspect is somewhat peripheral as the test deployed basically brings
no consequences for the tested students. The major aim voiced by the
project consortium is, however, to contribute to developing a prototype
speaking test that could be implemented nationwide some time in the
future and genuinely incorporated into high stakes school leaving reports. At that point of time the consequences can be studied properly
from a large-scale social perspective. So far, we must accept a micro
perspective to local interactions displayed in the samples.
2.3.2 Validity as pragmatic argument
Since the 1880s, there has been increased acknowledgement of validity theory as an evolving concept. What started as a firm belief in an
ideal trait of an individual, moved forward to recognize the interplay of
underlying competences and the context of display. Conceptions of validity were further accompanied by issues of utility and generalisability,
and ultimately pushed from the comfort zone of traditional psychometric
qualities of reliability and construct validity (formulation by Bachman,
2005, p. 7). Influential in this shift were proponents of the consequences of tests, who advocated the inclusion of social and political reasons
in test design and test use to be taken into account at each level of test
development. It was increasingly admitted that validity is not solely absolute facts, but a process of interpretation (validation) is also needed
to make the facts meaningful. Since there is no absolute answer to the
validity question, understanding of the validity of test use for a particular purpose depend on the supporting evidence and the meaning we
assign to that evidence. (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, pp. 18–21.) Likewise, the relationship between theory and observation is not bipolar,
but rather dialectic: “we see through our beliefs, and our beliefs change
because of observation” (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, p. 12).
Recent developments in validation and validity theory are pragmatic
in nature. This is understandable considering their capacity to integrate
theoretical and practical elements into a cohesive whole, and above all
current validity arguments also imply alternate hypotheses and disagreement as an essential part of an open discussion. (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, pp. 18–21.) One of the most promising openings to conduct
validation study in this line of research is proposed by Kane et al. (1999)
and additionally elaborated by Kane (2006) and Bachman (2005).
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The validity argument rests on the assumption that the interpretations assigned to assessment scores are said to be valid to the extent
that these interpretations are supported by appropriate evidence. A second premise is that the evidence supporting the interpretation needs to
substantially outweigh any evidence against the proposed interpretation. The core of validation is, therefore, collecting supporting evidence
for the inferences, and to convince the stakeholders of the power of the
supporting evidence to outweigh competing interpretations. It is of vital
importance that the interpretation be stated explicitly and as clearly as
possible by laying out the inferences in the interpretive argument and
the assumptions on which they depend (Kane et al., 1999, p. 6).
The validity argument as defined by Kane et al. (1999) is particularly
suitable for performance assessment, because the intent of performance assessment, as opposed to “objective” paper-and-pencil tests, is
to focus attention on a broadly defined and valued type of performance,
of which the performances elicited by the assessment tasks are instances. This type of assessment is labelled as “direct”, although every
performance assessment task unavoidably is artificial and constrained
in many ways. Nevertheless, if the test tasks are chosen carefully to
reflect a principled set of features shared by the target task in real life,
inferences can be drawn from the observed performance to the target
variable. Given that the test performance belongs to a set of tasks in the
target domain, there are three phases critical to the chain of inference
linking the observed performance to the expected performance in the
target domain. (Kane et al., 1999, p. 6.)
Once students have accomplished the test task, their performance
is judged, yielding an observed score. This stage is called scoring, and
for this particular step to be acceptable as a starting point for further
validation effort, the test context needs to be in consonance with the
intended score interpretation (i.e., free from technical or other impediments). Apart from the test situation itself, we need appropriate scoring
rubrics that are consistently applied across raters and performances.
In practical argumentation effort, alternative interpretations are considered. In particular, a critical review of the scoring rubrics, the scoring
procedures, and the procedures for administering the assessment are
likely to be involved. (Kane et al., 1999, pp. 9–10.)
The second phase of establishing a validation argument, is generalization implying an inference from the observed score to the universe
score, defined over performance in a set of similar or exchangeable
tasks in real life outside the test. A statistically justified generalization
would require a random or at a minimum, a representative sample from
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the universe of generalization. In complex performances, however, this
is not always feasible. The level of consistency is investigated by reliability studies that have indicated certain problems pertaining to performance assessments. (Kane et al., 1999, p. 10.) In oral proficiency
assessment, for instance, substantial problems in terms of variation
have been reported concerning numerous dimensions of task type, interlocutor effect and rater bias (Fulcher & Márquez Reiter, 2003; Bachman et al., 1995; Chalhoub-Deville, 1995).
Alternative interpretations with the aim of challenging the grounds
of generalising beyond the task performance typically address sample
size or representativeness of the sample, as well as a range of sources
of invariance (tasks, raters, administration, context etc.) Serious doubts
on any of these might undermine the overall argument. Consistency of
rating, and subsequent power of generalisation, are typically decreased
by complex tasks involving several alternatives to choose among. The
condition of generalization can be improved by restricting the number
of critical task features, but this brings along the drawback of limited authenticity. Reliability can customarily also be strengthened by increasing
the number of independent observations, but since performance tasks
often require substantial amounts of time and resources, this might not
be the first choice of the test designers. What Kane et al. (1999, p. 10)
propose, is increased standardisation of sets of task features (instead
of single features) and raising the level of rigor in administration procedures.
The third span to continue the chain of inference is called extrapolation from the universe score (assigned for expected performance in
the universe of tasks similar to or exchangeable with the test task) to
the target score, defined over the target domain. The target domain is
broader and generally less well-defined than the universe of generalization. In educational contexts, especially in general education, the target domain may be very large both in terms of current setting (everyday
life) and temporal determinants (adult life in the future). The degree of
certainty will depend on how similar the universe of generalization is to
the target domain. In the case of simulations, carried out in isolation of
the target domain the link the from universal score to the target score is
potentially weaker than in tasks completed in an authentic setting, such
as a work place. (Kane et al., 1999, p. 10.) Since it is rarely possible
to check the comparability against real life samples, test designers are
customarily advised to ascertain that test performance will require approximately the same kinds of knowledge and skill as the critical real
life performance.
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Akin to most educational occasions the project at hand resorts to
simulations as test tasks. These are designed as type tasks (Van Avermaet & Gysen, 2006) that attempt to combine a broader range of features shared by both pedagogical tasks in learning contexts and real life
language use tasks in the teenagers’ out-of-school life. The purpose of
this procedure is to draw a principled stratified sample from the target
domain including many different kinds of tasks (Kane et al., 1999, p.
10). The speaking tasks deployed in the project are intended to include
one or more tasks from specific, standard categories of tasks so as not
to restrict the universe of generalization too much, but instead to allow
for reasonable level of extrapolation to the target domain. Generalization is the necessary condition of extrapolation to occur, even if it is not
sufficient by itself.
“No matter how authentic the tasks and how carefully they are evaluated,
the intended interpretation in terms of the target domain fails if the generalization step fails.” (Kane et al., 1999, p. 5)
Alternative interpretations will most readily threaten the legitimacy of
inference to target scores because of the dissimilarity between the universe of generalization and the target domain. Too narrow a task may
not allow for extrapolation over a reasonable set of tasks in the target
domain, but complex high-fidelity tasks may be too complicated to administer and score, and therefore the number of tasks included in the
test will necessarily be low. To balance between the various stages of
inference, Kane et al. (1999) suggest the following option:
We can strengthen the third inference (extrapolation) at the expense
of the second inference (generalization) by making the assessment
tasks as similar to those in the target domain as possible, or we can
strengthen the second inference at the expense of the third by employing larger numbers of tasks, possibly with somewhat lower fidelity.
(Kane et al., 1999, p. 11.)
Recently the interpretive argument described above has been extended with an additional link leading from the target score interpretation to decisions based on the use of the test. The final stage of interpretation is labeled utilization, and it clearly echoes the socio-cultural
views on assessment as social and political enterprise dealt with in previous chapters. The complete process of interpretation presents links
in an assessment use argument (Kane, 2004) that consists of an interpretive argument, on one hand, and a validity argument, on the other.
The validity argument approximately covers the traditional selection of
validity aspects addressed as early as in the psychometric era of sci-
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entific inquiry. The interpretive argument is more of a novelty, and there
is certain discrepancy among language testing experts on how far the
utilization component of a validity argument is to range over decisions
of social and political nature (Bachman, 2005, p. 28).
3 Validity in the HY-Talk study
3.1 Overview of validity considerations of the project
Table 1. Approaches to validity inquiry addressed in the HY-Talk project (shaded areas)
Period/ proponent
Pre-theoretic era
Cronbach, & Meehl,
1955
Messick
(as cited in McNamara &
Roever, 2006, p. 14)
Bachman, 1990
Bachman & Palmer,
1996
Shohamy, 2001
Weir, 2005
Kane, 2004
Bachman, 2005
Internal consideraExternal considerations
tions (microlevel)
(macrolevel)
No articulated theory base
Reliability
Content validity
Criterion-related validity
Score content
and meaning
Score use and consequences
Test usefulness
Construct validity
Impact
Reliability
Authenticity
Interactiveness
Practicality
Critical language testing
A priori validation
A posteriori validationÆ
Assessment use argument
Validity argument
Interpretive argument
Assessment argument
Assessment validAssessment utilisation
ity argument
argument
A brief history of validity approaches is presented in Table 1, where
the shaded areas depict the adequacy of the particular item to HY-Talk
project agenda. Among the most traditional kinds of validity reliability
and criterion-related validity will unavoidably be considered. Messick is
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not directly addressed, whereas Bachman is prominent, and obviously
also Weir. We miss the chance of observing e.g. ethical considerations
due to the pilot nature of the test, but as far as possible, external matters will draw our attention in the principled validation work based on
pragmatic argumentation. Even there, the validity argument will be the
preferred focus over the use argument.
3.2 Validity as argumentation as a special focus of the HYTalk research design
Validity as argumentation, substantially inspired by the work of Toulmin
(2003) and further elaborated by Kane (2006), builds on a relatively
simple architecture of basic logical reasoning. The main components of
an argument are claims, data, backing, warrants and rebuttals that can
be completed by a few additional modifying categories. The claim is the
conclusion of the argument that we seek to establish.
Example: “John’s oral proficiency in English is at CEFR level B1.”
John is not entitled to enter a university program where CEFR level B2
required.
Data consist of information on which the claim is based, such as the
responses of test takers, live or recorded. (Toulmin, 2003, p. 90; Bachman, 2005, p. 9.)
Backing is an assurance of the warrant to be justified, for instance
theory, prior research or evidence collected specifically for the validation process (protocols of validation sessions, records of retrospection,
etc.) (Bachman, 2005, p. 10; Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, p. 165.)
The categories of data and backing are treated slightly differently by
Fulcher and Davidson (2007, p. 164–165), who combine both categories under grounds, which they define as “the facts, evidence, data or
information we have available to support the claim”.
A warrant is a general statement, a proposition that links the data to
the claim thus justifying the inference based on the data.
Bachman suggests subdividing warrants for a utilisation argument
into four types. Type 1 warrant is about the relevance of the argument
to the decision to be made. In essence, this type of warrant addresses
the extent to which the ability assessed is a relevant part of the task in
the target language use (TLU) domain. Type 1 warrants also concern
the degree of correspondence between the characteristics of the assessment task and those of the TLU task. (Bachman, 2005, p. 18.)
Relevance oriented warrants are grounded in traditional categories of
201
content and construct validity in the first place, but also in authenticity
in more recent terms.
Type 2 warrant is about the utility of the score-based interpretation
for making the intended decision. The usefulness of a test type, for instance, is weighted against a test of a different kind used as a criterion
to establish the practical value of the backing. (Bachman, 2005, p. 19.)
This reasoning touches upon the issues of practicality and even consequential validity.
Type 3 warrant is about intended consequences in the sense that
the intended decisions will be beneficial to the individuals, organizations
or to the society at large. It provides a basis for using a particular assessment as a basis for making decisions (Bachman, 2005, p. 19), and
brings us to the core of consequential validity and increasingly stronger
emerging issues of fairness.
Type 4 warrant is about how sufficient the information is that the
assessment or the test provides for decision-making. The concept of
sufficiency links to content coverage and construct validity and the relationships between language related and other competences in the
performance on which the decision is based. (Bachman, 2005, p. 21.)
Language proficiency is seldom a sufficient condition of hiring employees, while in school settings, displayed language ability alone, may well
suffice for a high grade, despite obvious problems with getting along
with school mates.
Rebuttals are statements implying alternative explanations or counterclaims that challenge the intended conclusion, the warrant. The rebuttals correspond to potential sources of invalidity, basically due to
either construct irrelevant variance or construct under representation
(Messick, 1989; as cited in Bachman, 2005, p. 10). As a matter of fact,
each type of warrant can have a counterpart among the suite of rebuttals. Rebuttals are supported by rebuttal data, which is evidence introduced to support, weaken, or reject the alternative explanation (Bachman, 2005, p. 10).
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Table 2. Validity argumentation scheme for interpretation of the HY-Talk project
data (adapted from Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, pp. 164–174; Bachman, 2005).
Claim = decision to be made
The illustrative scales of descriptors
of oral proficiency included in the
national core curricula for language
education and the tasks designed to
measure students´ oral proficiency
in general school education in Finland enable sufficiently valid conclusions on their speaking ability.
Grounds: Warrants (W) +
Backing data
Assessment-based interpretation:
Qualifiers based on Rebuttals (R) +
Rebuttal data
The data gathered by the project
support the rationale of the
scale for oral proficiency included in the national core curricula for language education.
Warrants (W) ↑
(since…)
1. Examples of warrants regarding relevance:
* Test tasks correspond to curricular aims and the real-life
language use of students at
the age of general education.
* The critical dimensions included
in the speaking scale of the national core curricula are relevant
indicators of oral performance.
2. Examples of warrants regarding utility:
* The speaking test is conceived as
feasible to administer at schools.
* The scales are perceived as
useful and smooth assessment tools of oral proficiency.
* Reliability of assessment
based on the scale and the
tasks to elicit performance is
found to be high enough.
Rebuttals (R) ↑
(unless…)
Construct-irrelevant variance/
construct under-representation
1. Examples of rebuttals challenging relevance:
* Test tasks include irrelevant features
considering curricular aims or the
real life language use of students
at the age of general education.
* The subscales of the speaking scale include dimensions irrelevant to oral performance.
2. Examples of rebuttals challenging utility:
* The test or any parts of it
are perceived as impractical to administer at schools.
* The interpretation and use of the
scales is considered too laborious.
* Reliability of assessments is
low, showing inconsistence
of interpretation due to inter- or intrapersonal factors.
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3. Examples of warrants regarding intended consequences
(not addressed at the initial stage of the study):
* High performance in the speaking test bears favorable consequences for the student in terms
of further study or working life.
4. Examples of warrants regarding sufficiency:
* Test tasks and scale dimensions
cover all relevant features of oral
proficiency displayed in the data.
* No essential phenomena of oral proficiency are
excluded from the ratings.
3. Examples of rebuttals challenging intended consequences:
* Performance in the speaking test
has no impact in terms of further
study or working life of test takers
or the consequences of the test
result are highly controversial.
4. Examples of rebuttals challenging sufficiency:
* Data analysis reveals features
not covered by test specifications or rating scales.
* It is reasonable to assume that these
features should be taken into account in assessing oral proficiency.
Backing data ↑
Based on
* assessment performance and
associated data (video records,
written protocols, questionnaires)
* previous research findings
Rebuttal data ↑
Based on
* assessment performance and associated data (video records, written protocols, questionnaires)
* previous research findings
The scheme presented above can only be a tentative one, because
treating validity from the angle of pragmatic argumentation is a dynamic
enterprise. Appropriate evidence and counter-evidence may bring forth
a need to modify any of the warrant and rebuttal statements, at any
point of the course of study. As it looks now, however, most research
questions that the HY-Talk consortium intends to address can be derived from the generic framework of argumentation.
There is forthcoming work on e.g. interlocutor effect on performance
(W1), cultural issues across languages (W4) and theoretically oriented
accounts on the construct of oral proficiency in test settings (W1). We
will also collect test taker and rater feedback to shed light on their perceptions (W2). Our most laborious empirical effort addresses the quality
and cut-off scores of the subscales. It is expected that several research
papers will be published in the next few years.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Dr Sauli Takala, the President of European Association
for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA), and Dr Heini-Marja
Järvinen from the University of Turku, for their valuable comments on
my draft and suggestions for improvement.
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VON DER LEHRAMTSSTUDENTIN ZUR JUNGEN
FREMDSPRACHENLEHRERIN
MARIA RUOHOTIE-LYHTY, TARJA NYMAN & PAULI KAIKKONEN
INSTITUT FÜR LEHRERAUSBILDUNG
UNIVERSITÄT JYVÄSKYLÄ
maria.ruohotie-lyhty<at>edu.jyu.fi, tarja.nyman<at>edu.
jyu.fi, pauli.kaikkonen<at>edu.jyu.fi
Abstrakt
Der Beitrag bezieht sich auf unser Forschungsprojekt namens „Entwicklungspfade
junger Fremdsprachenlehrkräfte“. Dabei handelt es sich um eine Langschnittsuntersuchung, begonnen im akademischen Jahr 2002–2003 und dauernd bis zum Jahr
2010. Die Probanden sind 13 junge Fremdsprachenlehrerinnen, die ihr pädagogisches Studium und Schulpraktikum 2002–2003 bis zum Ende führten. Alle arbeiten
zur Zeit in der 9-jährigen finnischen Gemeinschaftsschule oder in der gymnasialen
Oberstufe als Fremdsprachenlehrkräfte. Die ersten nahmen ihre Arbeit 2004, die letzten 2006 auf.
Im Ausbildungsjahr 2002–2003 wurden insgesamt 63 Lehramtsstudentinnen untersucht, um ihre Zielvorstellungen als zukünftige Lehrerinnen und ihre Auffassungen
über Qualität und Adäquanz der Lehrerbildung zu erfahren. Aus dieser Gruppe wurden dann die oben genannten 13 jungen Lehrerinnen ausgewählt, deren Einstieg in
die Schule und ersten Arbeitsjahre im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung stehen.
Leitgedanken der Untersuchung sind:
9 Die persönlichen Erfahrungen über das Lehrerverhalten aus der eigenen
Schulzeit spielen im Unterrichtsdesign der Junglehrerinnen mit.
9 Die Lehrerausbildung hat Einfluss auf die Unterrichtstätigkeit.
9 Die Schule mit ihrer Tradition und Atmosphäre verformt junge Lehrkräfte.
Alle drei mitwirkenden Faktoren werden durch Junglehrerinnen entweder positiv oder
negativ beurteilt, bewusst oder unbewusst.
Im Beitrag berichten wir erstens kurz über Ergebnisse der ersten Untersuchungsphase aus der Lehrerbildung und dann ausführlicher über Befunde, die binnen der
ersten Arbeitsjahre in der Schule erzielt wurden. Zum Schluss breiten wir etwas über
die Problematik aus, mit der wir während der Untersuchung in den nächsten Jahren
konfrontiert sind.
Schlüsselwörter: junge FS-Lehrerin, Arbeitsleben, Lehrerbildung, Erfahrung, bewusste und unbewusste Bedeutung, Sachverständnis.
208
1 Forschungsaufgabe und ihre Vorbedingungen
Eine junge Erwachsene hat reichliche Erfahrungen davon, wie eine
Lehrerin handelt und welche Rolle sie im Klassenzimmer hat. Sie ist ja
eine so lange Zeit in die Schule gegangen, und dies in der Zeit, die für
ihr Heranwachsen und ihre Entwicklung sehr bedeutsam ist. Die junge
Fremdsprachenlehrerin macht dabei keine Ausnahme, sondern es ist
eher zu vermuten, dass die Schuljahre ihre Auffassungen darüber, was
Fremdsprachenunterricht ist, stark beeinflusst haben. Die Lehrerinnen
handeln bekanntlich auf eine recht ähnliche Weise, gelenkt von Lehrplan, Schulbuch, Unterrichtsmethodologie und Tradition. Außerdem haben die finnischen Lehramtsstudentinnen in ihrer Schulzeit mindestens
zwei bzw. drei Fremdsprachen gelernt, so dass sie alle Schulstufen mitgerechnet höchstwahrscheinlich 5 bis 10 Fremdsprachenlehrerinnen
gehabt haben. Die Effektivität der Einwirkung durch frühere Lehrkräfte
ist also keineswegs zu unterschätzen. Dieses Erfahrungswissen wird
spätestens dann aktuell und reflektiert, wenn die Studierenden selbst
mit dem pädagogischen Studium und der Schulpraxis in der Lehrerausbildung anfangen.
Unsere Untersuchung „Entwicklungspfade junger Fremdsprachenlehrkräfte“ betrachtet die junge Lehrerin im Dreh- und Angelpunkt von
drei Faktoren: 1. Erfahrungen aus der eigenen Schulzeit im persönlichen
Fremdsprachenerwerb und erlebten Fremdsprachenlehrerverhalten, 2.
Erfahrungen aus dem pädagogischen Studium (in Jyväskylä handelt
es sich meistens um zwei akademische Jahre) und 3. Erfahrungen aus
den ersten eigenen Arbeitsjahren in der Schule. Wir verstehen, dass es
nicht möglich ist, eindeutig die Tätigkeit junger Lehrkräfte durch einige
Variablen zu erklären, sondern dass das Lehrersein mehr oder weniger
eine Ganzheit ist, auf die viele und meistens persönliche Faktoren einwirken. Trotzdem lässt sich mit Recht vermuten, dass ein langfristiges
Auseinandersetzen mit dem Lehrerverhalten in der eigenen Schul- und
Studienzeit für das Denken und Verhalten beginnender Lehrkräfte von
Bedeutung ist (Schempp, Sparkes, & Templin, 1998; Britzman, 2003;
Kaikkonen, 2004a).
Insgesamt wird festgestellt, dass die Lehrerbildung keine geringe
Rolle bei der beruflichen Identitätsentwicklung zukünftiger Lehrkräfte
spielt. Die Lehrerbildung in Finnland bemüht sich im Aufbau des Lehrerseins oder der „Erziehungs- und Unterrichtsphilosophie“ einer jeden
zukünftigen Lehrerin um ihre persönliche, reflexive Tätigkeit. Ebenso
mag das Schulpraktikum einen besonderen Einfluss auf das Lehrer-
Von der Lehramtsstudentin zur jungen Fremdsprachenlehrerin
209
verhalten der Lehramtsstudentinnen haben (Kaikkonen, 2007; Nyman,
2007).
Nach dem Eintritt in die Schule begegnen die jungen Lehrerinnen
dem Schulalltag. Die Begegnung in der Lehrerrolle vollzieht sich bei
vielen zum ersten Mal, denn die Ausbildung heutiger Art schenkt persönliche Erfahrungen mit Schülerinnen und Lehrerkolleginnen nur
begrenzt (Farrell, 2003). Das finnische 5-jährige Magisterexamen mit
seinem eingebauten pädagogischen Studium, das ein Fünftel des Examens ausmacht, kann der Studierenden lediglich eine theoretische
Ausgangsbasis und Einblicke in das Klassenzimmer und die vielseitige
Lehrertätigkeit garantieren. Immerhin, man geht davon aus, dass dieses eine ausreichende pädagogische Basis ist, infolge derer die junge
Fremdsprachenlehrerin fähig ist, ihre Arbeit anzufangen, die sowohl
in der ganzen finnischen Gemeinschaftsschule (Primar- und Sekundarstufe I), auf der gymnasialen Oberstufe, in einer berufsbildenden
Schule, im sog. freien Bildungswesen, in einer Fachhochschule oder
an der Universität stattfinden kann. Wir wissen aber auch, dass die
junge Lehrerin nach einer geschützten und stark geleiteten Ausbildung
den Schulalltag recht hart empfindet (Boshuizen, Bromme, & Gruber,
2004; Sabar, 2004; Laursen, 2006; Nyman, 2007). Sie wird Mitglied
einer neuen Gemeinschaft, deren Arbeitskultur sie nicht kennt und die
sich erst allmählich für sie eröffnet. Oft fängt die junge Lehrerin in Finnland mit einer Kurzarbeit als Vertretung oder sonst für eine kürzere Zeit
an, meistens auf einer Stundenlohnbasis. Dies schenkt der Lehrerin
erforderliche Erfahrung, aber schiebt sie leicht in eine Randposition im
Lehrerkollegium.
2 Ziele eines modernen Fremdsprachenunterrichts
Der finnische schulische Fremdsprachenunterricht ist bis heute recht
traditionell gewesen. Trotz systematischer kommunikativer Erneuerungsbemühungen (Lehrplanrichtlinien, 1994, 2004) wird der Fremdsprachenunterricht mehrheitlich mit dem Prinzip der Sprachsystemanalyse durchgeführt. Der Unterricht ist u. a. durch die Grammatikprogression und das Vokabellernen im Schulbuchkontext geprägt. Des Weiteren
teilen sich der Unterricht und die Sprachübung in vier Grundfertigkeiten
nach dem Modell der 1960er und 1970er Jahre auf. Der Sprachgebrauch realisiert sich als rezeptive und produktive Fertigkeiten, jedoch
so, dass mündliches Üben zugunsten schriftlicher Aktivitäten vernachlässigt wird. Sprachliches Können der Lernenden wird nach demselben
210
Prinzip beurteilt. Unterricht und Lernen zielen auf die sog. Präparationspädagogik (Larzén, 2005) und lassen die Lernenden auf „Vorrat“ für
einen möglichen zukünftigen Gebrauch lernen.
Die Sprache ist für einen Menschen aber ein Medium in der Welt zu
sein, Teil seiner Lebenswelt (Jaatinen, 2007). Die menschliche Existenzkompetenz heißt Vermögen zu haben, in der Lebenswelt zurechtzukommen. In einer globalen und multikulturellen Welt bedeutet dieses
für das Individuum, auch mit anderen Sprachen leben zu lernen als nur
mit seiner native language. Die moderne Sprachlehrforschung hat u. a.
folgende fremdsprachliche Gesichtspunkte zum Ausdruck gebracht:
9
9
9
9
9
9
Die Sprache fungiert vor allem als Medium der mündlichen Tätigkeit, und die menschliche Interaktion ist ganzheitlich, wobei
nonverbale Kommunikation eine wesentliche Rolle spielt.
Die Sprache steht im natürlichen und obligatorischen Kontakt mit
ihrem kulturellen Hintergrund. Spricht man eine fremde Sprache,
so wirkt auch die muttersprachige Sprachkultur mit ihrer Interferenz mit. Deswegen spricht der Fremdsprachenunterricht von
keiner Sprachbeherrschung eines native speaker mehr, sondern
setzt eine interkulturelle Kommunikationsfähigkeit zu seiner Zielvorstellung (Byram, 1999; Kaikkonen, 2007).
Der Mensch ist seiner Natur gemäß ein ganzheitlich Handelnder
(d. h. ein denkendes, fühlendes, wissendes, agierendes Wesen
im Zusammenspiel mit anderen Menschen). (Watson-Gegeo,
2004.)
Das Fremdsprachenlernen ist sinnvoll in authentischen Zusammenhängen: die Lernende selbst ist Urheberin und Mitverantwortliche ihres Lernens und sprachlichen Handelns (Kaikkonen,
2002; Kohonen, 2007).
Erfahrung und Begegnung sowie durch sie ausgelöste Konflikte
sind für das Fremdsprachenlernen nützlich und erzieherisch. In
der Fremdsprachenpädagogik redet man in diesem Zusammenhang von Begegnungspädagogik (Kaikkonen, 2004a; Larzén,
2005) und vom interkulturellen Fremdsprachenlernen als einem
dialogischen Prozess (Kaikkonen, 2007).
Die Sprache ist wesentlicher Teil der menschlichen Identität,
einige bezeichnen sie sogar als den wichtigsten (Lüdi, 2003).
Diese Auffassung führt zu dem Gesichtspunkt, dass auch andere Sprachen als die Muttersprache identitätsstiftende Sprachen
des Individuums sein können, denn die Menschen sind auf viele
Weise mehrsprachig. Adelheid Hu stellt fest, dass im Fremdspra-
211
chenunterricht gleichzeitig von Sprache, Kultur und Identität die
Rede sein muss (Hu, 2003).
Die Lehrerin hat immer im schulischen Fremdsprachenerwerb eine
Schlüsselposition. Die finnischen nationalen Lehrplanrichtlinien (2004)
betonen die Wichtigkeit internationaler und multikultureller Begegnungen, die zentrale Bedeutung der mündlichen Kommunikation, kulturelle Fähigkeiten als Teil des fremdsprachigen Könnens sowie die Entwicklung der sprachkulturellen Identität des Lernenden. Eine junge
Fremdsprachenlehrerin steht im paradigmatischen Spannungsfeld: Die
Lehrerausbildung fordert sie heraus, nach dem oben beschriebenen
Paradigma der Spracherziehung zu fungieren, aber ihre Lernerfahrungen und Unterrichtserlebnisse aus der eigenen Schulzeit erzählen von
einem anderen Fremdsprachenunterricht. Was für einem Schulalltag
die junge Lehrerin in ihrer ersten Schule begegnet, bewirkt maßgebend
ihre Lehrertätigkeit, sprich ihre Lernumgebungen, Zielvorstellungen,
Unterrichtsverfahren und Bewertungsaktivitäten.
3 Forschungsprojekt, Probanden und Methodologie
Das Forschungsprojekt erfasst die Jahre 2002–2010. In der ersten
Phase wurden insgesamt 63 Lehramtsstudentinnen untersucht, um
ihre Erfahrungen aus dem schulischen Fremdsprachenunterricht einzusammeln sowie die Qualität und Adäquanz der Lehrerbildung und
ihre Zielvorstellungen als zukünftige Lehrerinnen zu erfahren. Aus dieser Gruppe wurden dann 13 junge Fremdsprachenlehrerinnen (unterschiedliche Fremdsprachen als Hauptfach) ausgewählt, deren Einstieg
in die Schule und ersten Arbeitsjahre im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung
stehen.
Die erste Forschungsphase ergab u. a. folgende Ergebnisse. Die
Erfahrungen aus der eigenen Schulzeit erzählten, dass der Fremdsprachenunterricht hauptsächlich sehr traditionell gewesen war: lehrerzentriert, mechanisch, so dass der Stundenablauf regelmäßig nach einem
gleichen Schema geschah, und das Hauptgewicht des Sprachunterrichts systemorientiert (in erster Linie Grammatik und Vokabellernen)
gewesen war. Die Studentinnen hätten mehr kommunikatives Fremdsprachenlernen gewünscht, das Sprache und Kultur zusammenbringt,
aber diese Erfahrungen seien äußerst selten gewesen (Kaikkonen,
2004b). Trotz dieser schulischen Erfahrungen, oder vielleicht eben
deswegen, meinten sie selbst moderneren Fremdsprachenunterricht in
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ihrem eigenen Klassenzimmer zu machen. Dieses Ziel habe die Lehrerausbildung nach den Probandenmeinungen auch unterstützt. Die
Untersuchung zwischen 2002–2003 bemühte sich, die Lehramtsstudentinnen nach ihren Zielvorstellungen zu charakterisieren, was letztendlich zu einer Klassifikation der Lehrerpersonen führte. Es wurde davon ausgegangen, dass diese Typisierung in erster Linie der späteren
Untersuchung im Arbeitsleben dienen würde.
Alle 13 Probanden arbeiten zurzeit in der Schule, die meisten entweder in der allgemein bildenden finnischen 9-jährigen Gemeinschaftsschule oder auf der gymnasialen Oberstufe. Nur wenige von ihnen
haben eine feste Stelle bekommen, die meisten haben Vertretungen
gemacht oder arbeiten auf Stundenlohnbasis.
Um die Entwicklung der Lehrtätigkeit der Probanden zu untersuchen, sind die folgenden Fragen von Wichtigkeit:
1. Spielen die Erfahrungen über den erhaltenen Fremdsprachenunterricht aus der eigenen Schulzeit beim Lehrerverhalten junger Lehrkräfte eine Rolle? Wenn ja, auf welche Weise?
2. Welchen Einfluss hinterließ die Lehrerbildung mit dem pädagogischen Studium und Schulpraktikum auf das Unterrichtsverhalten?
3. Passt sich der „Alltagsrealismus“ junger Lehrkräfte den Arbeitsroutinen und der Handlungstradition auf eine negative Weise
an?
4. Wenn ja, welche Faktoren sind im diesem Anpassungsprozess
zu erkennen?
5. Welches sind die Maßnahmen, die junge Lehrkräfte vor einer negativen Anpassung schützen? Und zuletzt die zusammenfassende Frage:
6. Was für einen Fremdsprachenunterricht geben junge Lehrerinnen nach den ersten fünf Arbeitsjahren?
Die Forschungsdaten werden vorwiegend über zwei Wege erzielt. Die
Probanden schreiben regelmäßig Journal oder Logbuch über ihren Unterricht und ihre persönlichen Erfahrungen mit Schule, Schülerinnen
und Lehrerkolleginnen. Diese narrativen Texte werden den Forscherinnen immer in einer bestimmen Zeit gesendet, so dass es ihnen möglich
wird, nach dem Durchlesen durch die E-Mail präzisierende Fragen zu
stellen. Die Probanden werden jedes Jahr persönlich interviewt. Das
Gespräch findet in der jeweiligen Schule des Probanden statt. Die Interviews werden aufgenommen und später transskribiert. Es handelt
sich um Themeninterviews, deren Hauptfragen vorgefasst sind, aber
213
die Handlung Freiraum lässt, den Gedankenverlauf des Probanden
weiter zu verfolgen und zu vertiefen. In dem Sinne lässt sich von einem
Tiefeninterview, sogar einem therapeutischen Interview reden. Darüber hinaus benutzt die Untersuchung noch Daten, die in der ersten
Forschungsphase der Studienzeit entstanden sind (Kaikkonen, 2004a,
2007).
Der augenblickliche Stand der Untersuchung ist der, dass Datenerhebungen aus den ersten 2 Arbeitsjahren zum größten Teil analysiert worden sind. Durch sie wird erstens die Rolle der eigenen fremdsprachlichen Lernerfahrungen für das Lehrerverhalten analysiert und
zweitens ihre professionelle Entwicklung im Spannungsfeld zwischen
den Zielvorstellungen der Lehrerbildung und dem Unterrichtsalltag
nachvollzogen.
4 Problematik des Wandels
Eine eigene fremdsprachendidaktische Auffassung zu verinnerlichen
und die angeeigneten Prinzipien einzusetzen ist die größte Herausforderung der ersten Schuljahre. Die Lehrerprofession baut sich in einem
dialektischen Prozess auf, in dem die junge Lehrerin angespornt wird,
ihre Zielstrebungen mit den Forderungen des Arbeitskollegiums ständig zu vergleichen (Day, 1999). In unserer Induktionsphasenuntersuchung wird der Entwicklungsprozess junger Lehrerinnen sowohl durch
die theoretische als auch empirische Analyse über eigene Schulerfahrungen und die gewonnene Lehrerprofession problematisiert. Im Hintergrund besteht die Frage, ob und in welchem Maße es möglich ist,
beim Wandel des schulischen Fremdsprachenunterrichts durch junge
Lehrkräfte mitzuwirken.
4.1 Bedeutungen eigener schulischer Erfahrungen
zu Beginn der Lehrtätigkeit
Frühe Erfahrungen haben eine wesentliche Bedeutung dafür, wie die
Lehrerin neues Wissen im Bezug auf den Unterricht interpretiert (Sahlberg, 1997). Neben theoretischem Wissen spielen sog. subjektive
Theorien (Caspari, 1998; Hu, 2001) der Lehrerinnen eine Rolle, vor
deren Hintergrund sich Vorstellungen (van Driel, Verloop, & de Vos,
1998), Werte und Einstellungen (Johnston, 1994) befinden. Junge Lehrerinnen verfügen vielerlei Wissen auf Grund ihrer Lebenserfahrungen,
214
sind aber keineswegs Gefangene dieses Wissens. Der Wandel früherer Auffassungen und Vorstellungen ist durchaus möglich durch ihre
Bewusstmachung, beispielsweise durch die Reflexion (Järvinen, 1999;
Ojanen, 2000).
Die Datenanalyse bestätigte die wesentliche Bedeutung subjektiver
Erfahrungen im Hinblick auf die Formgebung von Unterrichtsverfahren
und Lehrerverhalten. Die jungen Lehrerinnen verfügten bewusst über
ihre Erfahrungen bei der Reflexion ihrer Tätigkeit, aber die Erfahrungen
wurden auch unbewusst sichtbar.
4.1.1 Bewusste Bedeutungen – Erfahrungen aus der Schulzeit in
den Junglehrerberichten
Alle untersuchten Probanden erwähnten bedeutende Erfahrungen,
die sich an den Unterricht und die Lehrerpersonen aus der Schulzeit anschlossen. Die Erfahrungen bildeten drei Themen: das Modell
einer guten Lehrerin, das Lehrer-Schüler-Verhältnis und die Qualität
des Fremdsprachenunterrichts. Eigene Erfahrungen fungierten bei den
Junglehrerinnen als Beispiele für die Eigenschaften und Handlungsmodelle, denen gegenüber eigenes Gelingen oder Misslingen relativiert
werden konnte. Dadurch steuerten die Erfahrungen die bewussten Zielvorstellungen der Junglehrerinnen im Hinblick auf Schülerbegegnung
und Fremdsprachenunterricht, schenkten Form dafür, was die Lehrerin
in ihrer Arbeit durchsetzen wollte und was nicht.
Das Modell einer guten Lehrerin kam erstens dadurch zum Vorschein, was für eine Atmosphäre die Probanden in der Klasse empfunden hatten, und zweitens durch die Erfahrungen, die mit Unfähigkeit der Lehrerin zusammenhingen. Meistens beschrieb der Proband
eine bedeutende Lehrerbeziehung. Diese Lehrerin sei kompetent, nett,
aber trotzdem auffordernd, und die Atmosphäre in ihrer Stunde gut gewesen. Ein unfähiger Lehrer hingegen sei nicht in der Lage gewesen,
Klassenarbeit und Schülerinnen anzuleiten.
Auch das selbst empfundene Lehrer-Schüler-Verhältnis aus der
Schulzeit wurde von den Probanden als bedeutend für die eigene Lehrtätigkeit eingestuft. In diesen Beschreibungen sei die Lehrerin aufrichtig und unparteilich, kontaktbereit und bodenständig gewesen. Einige
Erfahrungen hingen mit dem negativen Lehrerverhalten den Schülerinnen gegenüber zusammen. Auch diese Erfahrungen wurden als bedeutend für die eigene Arbeit eingeschätzt, denn sie böten ein Beispiel
für das Verhalten dar, das zu vermeiden sei.
Das dritte Thema, die Qualität des Fremdsprachenunterrichts, kam
auch zwiespältig zum Vorschein. Die Probanden schilderten meistens
215
den Fremdsprachenunterricht in ihrer Schulzeit als nicht ausreichend,
sogar negativ. Dem Unterricht hätten die kommunikativen, mündlichen
Übungen und landeskundlichen Elemente gefehlt. Die verwendeten
schriftlichen Übungen seien mechanisch gewesen (vgl. auch Kaikkonen, 2004a). Deswegen diente der Fremdsprachenunterricht aus der
eigenen Schulzeit als kein nachahmenswertes Beispiel, sondern die
Junglehrerinnen meinten, einen vielseitigeren Unterricht anzustreben
als es in ihrer Schulzeit der Fall gewesen sei. Insbesondere war die
Betonung des mündlichen Sprachgebrauchs den Zielsetzungen der
Probanden zu entnehmen.
4.1.2 Unbewusste Bedeutungen
Die Kluft zwischen Theorie und Praxis wurde in manchem Zusammenhang festgestellt (Handal & Lauvås, 1987). Die Lehrerin ist sich
nur zum Teil dem Wissen bewusst, das auf ihre Entschlüsse und ihr
Verhalten einwirkt. Eben deswegen seien die Handlungsmodelle der
Lehrerinnen teilweise denen ihrer eigenen Lehrerinnen gleich (Senge,
1994). Dieser Zwiespalt zwischen dem Bewussten und Unbewussten
fiel auch in unserer Untersuchung auf. In ihren Erzählungen verglichen
die Probanden ihre schulischen Erfahrungen mit den Modellen der Lehrerbildung und hielten die Methoden aus der Schulzeit für unzureichend
für ihre eigene Klassenarbeit. Im Hinblick darauf, wie erfolgreich die
jungen Lehrerinnen in Durchsetzung ihrer Zielvorstellungen waren, kamen zwei Handlungsmodelle zum Ausdruck:
Handlungsmodell 1: Schwerpunkt des Fremdsprachenunterrichts
ist der Unterricht von Grammatik und anderen Teilfertigkeiten. Zu
erkennen waren auch Fehlen am kulturbedingten Kontext, lehrerzentrierter Unterricht und mechanische Übungen.
Handlungsmodell 2: Der Sprachunterricht ist schülerorientiert, kommunikativ und die Bewertung vielseitig. Es war auch eine aktive Rolle der metakognitiven Fähigkeiten im Unterricht wahrzunehmen.
Das erste Handlungsmodell ähnelte in Vielem dem ihrer eigenen Schulzeit. Der Zwiespalt zwischen den Zielvorstellungen und dem durchgesetzten Unterricht war aber wenig oder gar nicht bewusst, denn keine
der Lehrerinnen mit dieser Handlungsweise erkannte in ihrem Lehrerverhalten Modelle, die aus ihrer eigenen Schulzeit gestammt hätten.
Ihre Relation zur Arbeit war auch durch Unfolgerichtigkeit und Erstaunen geprägt. Diese Lehrerinnen meinten, dass sie wegen der äußeren
Gründe auf eine bestimmte Weise zu handeln hätten. Schülerinnen,
Disziplinprobleme, Lehrwerk und Abiturprüfung hätten ihre Unterrichts-
216
entscheidungen definiert. Obschon es unbegründet wäre zu behaupten, dass in erster Linie die Erfahrungen aus der eigenen Schulzeit zum
Kopieren der Handlungsmodelle ihrer ehemaligen Lehrerinnen geführt
hätten, ist ein Zusammenspiel dieser Erfahrungen auffällig und kann
nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Sie bestimmen höchstwahrscheinlich
weiterhin unbewusste Auffassungen über den Fremdsprachenunterricht und dessen Methodologie in schwierigen, hektischen und stressigen Situationen.
Bei den Junglehrerinnen mit dem zweiten Handlungsmodell war die
Arbeitsrelation anders. Reflexion, obwohl sie kein geplantes Interviewthema war, kam als eine bedeutende, die Arbeit definierende Aktion
spontan zum Ausdruck. Sie drückte sich insbesondere dann aus, als
die Probanden von Auswertung und Entwicklung ihrer eigenen Tätigkeit redeten. Auch diese Lehrerinnen empfanden zwar die Durchsetzung ihrer Zielvorstellungen im Schulalltag infolge der großen Klassen,
fehlenden Kenntnisse, Eile und Aufforderungen der Schülerinnen als
herausfordernd, bemühten sich aber, ihre Praxis allmählich in die vorausgeplante Richtung zu entwickeln.
Es sieht so aus, dass Reflexion beim Einsetzen der Erkenntnisse
aus der Lehrerbildung in die eigene Schulpraxis ein recht optimales
Werkzeug ist und Bausteine für die eigene Lehrerentwicklung bietet.
Die Zielvorstellungen und der Schulalltag entsprachen einander recht
gut. Die Problematik von Idealbild und Realität war bewusst gemacht,
und auf diese Weise konnte die Lehrerin auf ihre Entwicklung Einfluss
haben. Die Probanden wiesen darauf hin, dass Reflexion ein für sie
typisches Verfahren sei, die Welt und das eigene Handeln zu gestalten. Gemeinsam war ihnen auch der Glaube an einen langsamen Fortschritt, ihre Zielvorstellungen durchzusetzen.
5 Suche nach der Lehrerprofession
5.1 Vielfältigkeit der Professionalität
Sachverständige als Fremdsprachenlehrerin zu werden ist ein lebenslanger Prozess. Die Aufgabe der Lehrerbildung ist es, für die Schule
solche Fremdsprachenlehrerinnen auszubilden, die bereit sind, sowohl
ihre beruflichen Fähigkeiten als auch die Schulgemeinschaft zu entwickeln. Die Vielförmigkeit der Lehrertätigkeit bedingt die Lehrerausbildung. Außer dem Klassenunterricht arbeitet die Lehrerin mit den Eltern,
kommunalen Schulträgern, Schulbeamten und ihren Kolleginnen zu-
217
sammen. Die Grundausbildung alleine kann keineswegs die Professionalität schenken, sondern die in der Ausbildung gewonnenen Kenntnisse und Fertigkeiten müssen in die eigene Schularbeit umgesetzt
werden. Mal gelingt dieses der Junglehrerin, ein anderes Mal nicht (Helakorpi, 2005). Das Arbeitsleben hält die Fähigkeiten für wichtig, Neues
zu lernen, die wachsende Fülle von Information zu beherrschen und
diese schnell zu verarbeiten. Dieses setzt bei dem Arbeitnehmer voraus, dass er fähig ist, kritisch zu denken, sein Lernenlernen zu steuern
und den Herausforderungen zu entsprechen. Die Professionalität hat in
dem Sinne unscharfe Konturen.
Die Professionalität kann nach Tynjälä (2006) nach drei besonderen
Gesichtspunkten analysiert werden. Erstens wird das Sachverständnis
als Wissenserwerb, zweitens als Beteiligung an Sachverständigerkultur und drittens als Findung neuen Wissens angesehen. Die Professionalität wird in kommunikativer Zusammenarbeit mit verschiedenen
Sachverständigen aufgebaut und ist ein dynamischer Prozess (Tynjälä,
2006).
Die Lehrerausbildung geht davon aus, dass sich die Lehramtsstudierenden während des pädagogischen Studiums theoretisches, praktisches und Selbstregelungswissen aneignen. Die Entwicklung der
Professionalität sei durch die Integration dieser Wissensarten bedingt
(Tynjälä, 2006). Theoretisches Wissen (know that) ist Schulbuchwissen
und ist den Studierenden leicht darzubieten. Im Rahmen dieser Untersuchung drückt es sich einerseits als Wissen über Sprache und Kultur,
andererseits als unterrichtsmethodisches bzw. didaktisches Wissen
aus. Jedoch, eine professionelle Lehrerin unterrichtet und erzieht ihre
Schülerinnen. Deswegen braucht sie auch erziehungswissenschaftliches Wissen. Das letztgenannte Wissen enthält neben pädagogischen
Kenntnissen u. a. Wissen, das sich auf Interaktion und Kommunikation, Heranwachsenssteuerung und Lernanleitung, Berufsethik sowie
Bildungs- und Gesellschaftspolitik bezieht (Bereiter, 2002). Unmittelbarer Teil der Professionalität ist informelles bzw. praktisches Wissen
(knowhow), mit Hilfe dessen die Lehrerin ihr Sachverständnis aufbaut,
so dass Substanz- und pädagogische Kenntnisse in pädagogisches Inhaltswissen integriert werden (van Driel et al., 1998). Dazu kommt noch
mit der Lebens- und Arbeitserfahrung zunehmendes, intuitives Wissen,
das oft recht schwer zu verbalisieren ist.
Den dritten Bereich der Professionalität, Selbstregelungswissen
(know what and how to know), braucht eine Sachverständige, um ihre
Handlung und ganze Berufstätigkeit auszuwerten und zu entwickeln
(Tynjälä, 2006). Theoretisches Wissen kann durch Tätigkeit und Prob-
218
lemlösung in stilles Wissen (tacit knowledge) umgewandelt werden
und somit Denken und Handlung der Person fördern (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Eteläpelto, 1997). Pädagogisches Inhaltswissen und
Selbstregulierungswissen setzen formales Wissen voraus, um in Gang
gesetzt zu werden. Diese In-Gang-Setzung hängt mit Reflexion des
Lernenden eng zusammen, weswegen ihre garantierte Entwicklung in
der Lehrerausbildung schwer fällt.
Im Folgenden legen wir einige Gesichtspunkte vor, die am deutlichsten im Diskurs der jungen Fremdsprachenlehrerinnen zum Ausdruck
kamen, als sie über ihre Erfahrungen im ersten Arbeitsjahr und die Bedeutung der Lehrerausbildung berichteten.
5.2 Sachverstand der jungen Lehrerin
Während des Gesprächs über die Lehrerausbildung rückte das Schulpraktikum sehr in den Vordergrund. Die Unterrichtsstunden und ihre zu
geringe Menge kamen als allgemeines Diskursthema zum Vorschein.
Viele meinten, dass der Mangel an Praxis Ursache für ihr fehlendes
Gesamtbild über die Lehrertätigkeit sei. Wenige Praxisstunden in der
Ausbildung und Unsicherheit in dem ersten Schuljahr können aber
nicht unbedingt unter einen Nenner gebracht werden. Viele Stunden im
Schulpraktikum garantieren an sich keine professionelle Entwicklung
(Eteläpelto, 1997). Jede Lehrerin schafft selbst und auf eine persönliche Weise ihr pädagogisches Inhaltswissen, ihre Interpretation und
„Unterrichtsphilosophie“, nach denen sie handelt. Im Schulalltag stellt
die Lehrerin dann fest, dass die Arbeit in vieler Hinsicht auch anderes
bedeutet, als das Fach zu unterrichten. Eine in Sprache und Kultur lange studierte Lehrerin ist gezwungen, ihr Fach neu aus dem Blickpunkt
von Lehren, Lernen und Lehrbarkeit zu betrachten, d. h., sie schafft
pädagogisches Inhaltswissen.
Nach Aussage der Probanden hätte das Schulpraktikum den Fachunterricht betont und nach einer gegebenen Unterrichtsstunde ihre
sprachlichen und sprachkulturellen Kenntnisse zum Diskussionsthema
gemacht. Die Studierenden hätten das Gefühl gehabt, eine gastierende
Lehrerin zu sein, die ein paar Stunden zu bestimmten Themen gab. Sie
(10/13 = zehn von 13 Probanden) hätten unter dem Druck gestanden,
hauptsächlich eine „gute“ Unterrichtsstunde zu halten.
Aus dem Schulpraktikum haben die Junglehrerinnen (7/13) die
Erfahrung gewonnen, dass sie vorwiegend eine Klasse als Ganzes –
ohne Sicht auf die Individualität der Schülerinnen – unterrichten. In ih-
219
rer späteren regulären Schultätigkeit jedoch haben sie begriffen, dass
die Schülerinnen vom Gebrauch verschiedener Unterrichtsmethoden
und Lernstrategien profitieren. Die Junglehrerinnen seien aber noch
unfähig, auf diese Anforderungen zu antworten. Genau dieses sei der
Grund, warum junge Lehrerinnen ihren Unterricht vornehmlich für die
ganze Klasse planen (Burn, Hagger, Mutton, & Everton, 2000; Warford
& Reeves, 2003).
Das kurze und eindimensionale Schulpraktikum (rund 30 selbst gehaltene Unterrichtsstunden während eines Jahres) hat offensichtlich
dazu geführt, dass die Kenntnisse der Studierenden über unterschiedliche Schülerinnen mangelhaft blieben. Dieser Mangel erschwert seinerseits die Interaktion mit den Schülerinnen und die Verinnerlichung
der schulischen Erziehungsarbeit (Kagan, 1992; Jones, & Stammers,
1997). In der Anfangsphase der Karriere habe sich die Erziehung nach
Aussage der Junglehrerinnen (7/13) auf Disziplin- und Ordnungshalten
im Klassenzimmer reduziert. Je unsicherer die Lehrerin ist, desto wichtiger werden Disziplin und Ordnung (Kagan, 1992; Jones, & Stammers,
1997).
Die Probanden sagten weiter aus, dass es im Schulpraktikum darauf ankommt, mit der Unterrichtssituation klarzukommen, im Schulalltag aber sei es wichtig, darüber hinausreichende Dienstverpflichtungen
zu erfüllen. Der Schulalltag sei durch die Eile geprägt, die aus dem
regelmäßigen Kurswechsel (11/13), verschiedenen Aufsichtsaufgaben,
Elternabenden, Klassenleiteraufgaben und dem gemeinsamen Planen
mit den Kolleginnen (10/13) entstehen. Diese vielfältigen Aufgaben
seien für die Junglehrerinnen eine aufregende Erfahrung, auf die die
Lehrerausbildung nun wenig vorbereite. Teil der Professionalität ist also
organisations- und aufgabenbedingt und entwickelt sich an der Teilnahme an der Organisation (Kirjonen, Mutka, Frilander, & Valkeavaara,
2000). Mit der Beteiligung am Schulalltag schafft die Lehrerin kontextuelles Wissen, das seinerseits Arbeit und Druck einer jungen Lehrerin
vermehrt. Unsere Junglehrerinnen bekämen zwar Hilfe von den älteren
Kolleginnen, die sie aber nicht freiwillig anboten (4/13). Allerdings seien
die jungen Lehrerinnen nicht unbedingt bereit oder geneigt, um Hilfe zu
bitten (vgl. Boshuizen et al., 2004)
Die Junglehrerinnen (6/13) reden von theoretischem Wissen als
einer getrennten Wissensart, für dessen Vermittlung das Institut für
Lehrerausbildung verantwortlich gewesen sei. Theoretische Studien
seien ausreichend gewesen. Insbesondere hätten sie gelernt, wie das
eigene Fach unterrichtet wird, und hätten Bescheid über Lernstrategien, Lehrmethoden, Unterrichtsmaterialien und Bewertung bekommen.
220
Im Diskurs wird also die kenntnisbezogene Dimension des Wissens
betont. Dieses sagt aber noch nichts darüber aus, in welchem Maß
angeeignetes Wissen in die Praxis umgesetzt ist. In der Sachverständigerhandlung ist es wesentlich, fachbezogenes theoretisches Wissen
in praktischen Situationen anzuwenden und zu benutzen sowie sein
Können von einem Kontext zu einem anderen zu verlagern.
Weiterhin berichten die Probanden (6/13), die Ausbildung habe kein
„richtiges“ Bild von der Lehrertätigkeit gegeben (Kiviniemi, 2003; Boshuizen et al., 2004). Dabei entsteht die Frage, ob dieses überhaupt
möglich oder erstrebenswert ist. Während des ersten Arbeitsjahres
scheint sich die Arbeitsroutine jedenfalls bei den meisten Junglehrerinnen gefestigt zu haben und Prozedurwissen entsteht. Die Entstehung
dieser Art des „stillen Wissens“ ist schwieriger wahrzunehmen als beispielsweise formales Wissen. Im Spannungsfeld des Wissens aus der
Lehrerausbildung und dessen der ersten Arbeitsjahre sind junge Lehrerinnen offensichtlich nicht imstande nachzuvollziehen, aus welcher
Quelle ihr Wissen stammt. In dieser Situation sind sie geneigt zu glauben, dass sie es durch die Praxis gelernt haben (Väisänen, & Silkelä,
2000). Darüber hinaus ist es durchaus möglich, dass junge Lehrerinnen ihre eigene Unsicherheit bei der Unterrichts- und Methodenbeherrschung in die Ausbildung projizieren und meinen, dass diese zu wenig
den Praxisbedürfnissen entsprach (Kelchtermans, 1996).
6 Zusammenfassende Ergebnisse
Der Eintritt in die Schule ist bei der Junglehrerin eine Art Krise (Sabar,
2004), in der sie mit einer neuen, verantwortungsvollen und herausfordernden Situation konfrontiert ist. Die Erfahrungen aus der eigenen
Schulzeit spielen bei der Umformung aller untersuchten Junglehrerinnen
eine wesentliche Rolle. Sie konnten anscheinend bei der Bestimmung
ihres Verhaltens den Schülerinnen und dem Fremdsprachenunterricht
gegenüber von ihren Erfahrungen profitieren. Allerdings kamen die Erfahrungen aus der eigenen Schulzeit auch unbewusst zum Ausdruck.
Dabei wurde offenbar, dass die untersuchten Lehrerinnen sich ihren
Unterrichtsherausforderungen auf zwei alternative Weisen annäherten.
Einige wendeten theoretisches Wissen aus der Lehrerausbildung über
Fremdsprachenlehren und -lernen an. Diese Veranlagung verlangte
ständige Reflexion und Neueinschätzung ihrer Arbeit, eine Art Bewegung in den Gegenstrom im Schulalltag. Andere hingegen betätigten
sich als Lehrerinnen, denen Reflexion fremd war und die über parallele
221
Unterrichtsverfahren mit denen ihrer eigenen Schulzeit verfügten. Dieser Befund scheint damit zusammen zu hängen, was Järvinen für das
Anfangsrisiko einer jungen Lehrerin hält: Eigene Zielvorstellungen nehmen ab und die Reflexion muss vor vielen Anforderungen des Schulalltags zurückweichen (Järvinen, 1999). Aber gerade Reflexion wäre ein
Werkzeug, das den Wandel in der Schule möglich machen würde, in
der (junge) Lehrkräfte zu oft ohne kollegiale Unterstützung arbeiten.
Berichten die Junglehrerinnen von der Lehrerausbildung und deren
auslösende Professionalität, so meinen sie, dass die Lehrerbildung ein
Sachverständnis betont, das auf das Substanzwissen des zu unterrichtenden Faches und dessen Vermittlung auf Schülergruppen zielt. Sie
sind auch der Ansicht, dass sie im Schulalltag eher intuitives, kontextuelles und erzieherisches Wissen insbesondere auf einem personenbezogenen Niveau brauchen.
Die Hauptfragen junger Lehrerinnen im ersten Arbeitsjahr sind folgende: Wie komme ich mit mir selbst ins Klare? und Lernen meine
Schülerinnen genug? Eine neue Umgebung mit ihren Herausforderungen verursacht Hektik, sogar Stressgefühl. Indem die Junglehrerinnen
ihre Anfänge im Arbeitsleben beschreiben, erzählen sie gleichzeitig einiges vom Arbeitsalltag: was sie alles im Tagesablauf leisten, was sich
in der Schule abspielt. Das erste Arbeitsjahr beschäftigt die Junglehrerin sehr, und sie redet noch recht wenig von ihrem Fremdsprachenunterricht. Die ersten Untersuchungsergebnisse des zweiten Jahres
lassen aber vermuten, dass die Jungelehrerinnen allmählich bereiter
werden, mehr von ihrer Fremdsprachenlehrtätigkeit zu erzählen. In der
nächsten Untersuchungsphase wird neben der Weiterverfolgung des
Sachverständnis- und Lehrertätigkeitsentwicklung der Junglehrerinnen
besonders die Qualität ihres Fremdsprachenunterrichts erforscht.
Das erste Arbeitsjahr ist also für junge Lehrerinnen äußerst wichtig.
Trotzdem scheint dieses Jahr vielleicht der größte Schwachpunkt der
Lehrerbildung zu sein. Die Induktion – eine professionelle Betreuung
im Schulalltag – fehlt an der finnischen Schule nahezu gänzlich. Dabei
lässt sich fragen, warum das Schulwesen nicht imstande ist, von dieser
bedeutenden Lernphase der Junglehrerinnen zu profitieren. Durch eine
Einrichtung einer pädagogischen Betreuung über die Ausbildungszeit
von Junglehrerinnen hinaus ließen sich zwei wechselseitig sich beeinflussende Dinge erreichen: Die jungen Lehrkräfte hätten einen sicheren
Start im Schulalltag und die Schulen könnten durch die neuesten fachlichen und pädagogischen Kenntnisse der Junglehrerinnen ihre Unterrichts- und Erziehungstätigkeit bereichern.
222
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NEWLY QUALIFIED LANGUAGE TEACHERS:
IN SEARCH OF EXPERTISE
TARJA NYMAN
DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
tarja.nyman<at>edu.jyu.fi
Abstract
This study focuses on the developing expertise of newly qualified teachers (NQTs).
It is assumed that becoming an expert is a long process, which starts during teacher
education and continues in working life. The two key questions addressed here are:
What knowledge and competencies do NQTs think they need in their work and—on
the basis of their first year’s experience at work—to what extent has teacher education met these needs? The NQTs began working at school between 2003–2006 and
the material was gradually collected depending on when they entered school. The
participants of this study are 13 language teachers and, at this stage in the study, the
standpoint of foreign language and culture is only incorporated when introduced by
the participants themselves. According to the experiences of the NQTs, they had acquired sufficient substance knowledge during their education, but questions of education and “additional work” were not discussed enough. It is hoped that the outcomes
of this study exploring the construction of teacher expertise can be used to further
develop teacher education.
Keywords: newly qualified teacher; initial stage of a teacher’s career; expertise;
teacher education.
1 Introduction: The Pathway to Pedagogical Expertise
Teacher education in Finland aims at new professionalism. This concept refers to teachers’ commitment to fostering growth and learning.
Professional teachers are willing to challenge dominant practices and
to search for novel approaches in order to ameliorate students’ learning opportunities and in addition teachers recognise their own need for
continuous learning. Although professional teachers are autonomous,
it does not mean that they work alone; they are expected to participate
actively in the school community and in society. (Luukkainen, 2005;
Niemi & Kohonen, 1995.)
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Tarja Nyman
It has been suggested that the growth of teachers’ professional
expertise is a long process requiring continuous development (Day,
1999; Laursen, 2006; Niemi & Kohonen, 1995). Teachers’ development
is seen to proceed from initial novice and advanced beginners to the
level of an expert (Berliner, 1992). This development should start during teacher education and continue in working life, especially if supervised teaching practice is felt to be too remote from the reality teachers
face at work as often discovered (e.g., Laursen, 2006, p. 202). The
on-going development of teachers’ expertise it not only necessary due
to the demands of teaching itself, but also relates to teachers’ sense of
professional satisfaction. Teachers who aim to develop their work are
more satisfied with the profession than technically-oriented teachers
(Luukkainen, 2005). Furthermore, as Bromme (1992) underlines, it is a
special feature of a teacher’s competency that expertise can originate
and develop only with experience and practice.
Teachers’ personal beliefs, assumptions, values and knowledge
systems play a considerable role in the professional development of
a teacher (Schön, 1983; Kagan, 1990, 1992). During schooling future
teachers gain experience by passive observation, which is recognised
as anticipatory socialization to teacher work (Merton, 1975). Future
teachers begin pedagogical studies with different expectations and motives. Those that attended school in the 1990s often had very languageoriented teachers who aimed at the mastery of grammar and vocabulary
(Kaikkonen, 2004). These teachers have then also studied languages
at the university for several years and their experiences obviously influence them as future teachers, including their conceptions of knowledge
and perceptions of teaching and learning of foreign languages.
The initial stage of an NQT’s work creates many different feelings.
Farrell (2003, p. 95) states that learning to teach is a complex process,
and that the first year of work has a significant impact on a teacher’s
career. An NQT’s first year of work has, for instance, been aptly referred
to as a “reality shock”, a “transition shock”, a “sink-or-swim experience”,
or feeling like a stranger or outsider (Farrell, 2003; Sabar, 2004; Veenman, 1984). The gap between the ideals and the professional skills is
large. Challenging situations at the beginning of an NQT’s career may
lead them to stifle their professional values, hopes and possibly even
goals, and the effects of the education are thus erased (e.g., Järvinen,
1999; Loughran, Brown, & Doecke, 2001). Consequently, it is important
to monitor the teacher’s induction into the world of work1.
1
This research topic is relevant also in the light of an international affiliation’s criticism
of the Finnish system and how little it supports newly qualified teachers (Educational,
1994).
Newly Qualified Language Teachers: In Search of Expertise
229
For an NQT, new work and other aspects of life may turn out to be
more challenging learning environments than organised training. Student life is over and working life has begun. As teachers, they get their
own pupils for which they have to take responsibility. In addition to pupils, NQTs have new collegial relationships in a place, the school, that
they are most familiar with from the perspective of a pupil. In addition,
NQTs are at a phase in life when often their own families grow and this,
of course, raises further demands on the NQTs as individuals.
It is not only NQTs that face challenges as teachers. Changes in
society have created vast pedagogical challenges for all teachers who
encounter the wide range of societal problems in their classroom. This
increases the responsibility in questions concerning children and youth
(Niemi, 2003) and focuses the teaching profession on encountering
students and their parents, colleagues, and school stakeholders (Day,
1999; Laursen, 2006). Language education is no longer restricted to
teaching grammatical structures and rules, but in addition to linguistic and communicative competencies, it is also considered to broaden the student’s world and outlook on life. Education should support
each individual’s development into a capable person as far as possible
(Niemi & Kohonen, 1995). Such developments mean and necessitate
a change in the orientation to teaching and therefore in the training of
future teachers.
2 Constituents of Expertise for Foreign Language
Teachers
NQTs should be prepared for participatory learning in the school community and society, and seasoned teachers should be prepared to
welcome them. Understanding expertise as a social phenomenon, in
which the individual and the environment interact, help teachers develop their expertise (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Tynjälä, 2004).
The new knowledge introduced into the workplace by NQTs combined
with the practical expertise of seasoned teachers should be effectively
exploited.
Contents and informational components of developing expertise are
emphasised in the cognitive viewpoint. Learning happens inside the
head of human beings and they learn, among other things, from books.
If we perceive expertise as the sum of an individual’s skills and knowledge, it sets unreasonable demands on the individual, not least for an
NQT.
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Tarja Nyman
The formation of expertise is a process involving many knowledge
sources, such as knowledge of affect, teaching, human relations, and
subject matter (Antonek, McCormick, & Donato, 1997). Growing and
developing to become a teacher, involves changes in the future teacher’s behaviour, conceptions, perceptions, beliefs, knowledge, skills,
personality and cognitive processes. A decisive factor in the development of expertise is how teachers apply the knowledge and skills from
education to situations that resemble each other but are, nonetheless,
different (Bromme, 1992).
According to Tynjälä (2004, pp. 176–177), there are three kinds of
expertise: formal, practical and self-regulative knowledge. Figure 1 illustrates the composition of a teacher’s expertise.
Formal knowledge
Work
Practical
knowledge
Teacher education
Self-regulative
knowledge
Figure 1. Composition of a teacher’s expertise (based on Tynjälä, 2004).
Formal knowledge is divided into substance knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. Formal knowledge is so-called book knowledge, which
is publicly accessible, visible and easily communicated. The acquired
book knowledge of the teacher may transform during the process of
becoming an expert to personal, intuitive knowledge that the teacher
uses in problematic situations, but it may also result in permanent routines (Bereiter, 2002; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Tynjälä, 2004). In
a changing world expertise cannot be based on routines, but the resources liberated through them should be used for learning new things
(Luukkainen, 2005).
For the purposes of the current study, substance knowledge refers
to the knowledge of a foreign language and culture. Expertise in one’s
own discipline—command of the subject taught—is a prerequisite for
working as a teacher (Tynjälä, 2004). According to Bereiter (2002, p.
435), pedagogical knowledge includes knowledge of learning, teaching
231
and development, as well as of the education system, education policy
and society. In addition to actual pedagogical knowledge, it contains
knowledge of interaction and of professional ethics (Bereiter, 2002).
Practical knowledge or know-how, acquired through experience, refers to practical working methods (customs and routines). It is personal,
contextual and situational, informal and impressionist. The contents of
the discipline are integrated into the teacher’s critical view on the teaching profession through the teacher’s own training and teaching experience. Situational knowledge is needed in cases where teachers have to
deal with different kinds of events in the classroom. It is based on and
developed in similar classroom situations (Day 1999, p. 53). If teachers
have no situational knowledge, they resolve situations by trial and error
(Bullough, Young, & Draper, 2004, p. 372).
Expertise generates intuitive knowledge when the person internalises explicit knowledge into his or her own activity (Boshuizen, Bromme,
& Gruber, 2004; Eteläpelto, 1997). Therefore, mere rational knowledge
is not sufficient in specialist tasks; the ability to make rapid decisions is
needed in situations involving uncertainty and conflicts in values. One
needs self-regulative skills. The purpose of meta-cognitive knowledge is
to integrate and filter the use of formal and practical knowledge into the
specialist’s activity. This includes an awareness of one’s own personality, feelings, motivation, attitudes and cognitive style, in other words, an
awareness of oneself as an information processor (Eteläpelto, 1997;
Tynjälä, 2004). This longitudinal study will focus on self-regulative
knowledge later, when the teachers have worked for a longer time.
The broken lines in Figure 1 depict the uncertainty in the development of practical knowledge and self-regulative knowledge. Both require
formal knowledge in order to materialise, and are tied to the learner’s
own reflection. Consequently, their development is difficult to guarantee. Formal knowledge can be explicated and it is easier to teach than
pedagogical content knowledge and self-regulative knowledge.
The research questions of this study arise from the theoretical framework described above and are as follows: 1) To what extent do NQTs
education and professional reality meet? 2) What kind of expertise do
NQTs need to work in school according to their experiences?
3 Implementation of the Research
The objective of this research is to describe, analyse and interpret NQTs’
experiences of teaching during their first year of work from the stand-
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Tarja Nyman
point of teaching as the work of an expert. This stems from the aim of
teacher education to guide students on the path towards expertise.
The research approach chosen for this study is both phenomenological and hermeneutical. According to the phenomenological approach
(Laine, 2001, p. 27), this study explores the meaning that NQTs give to
their teaching experiences during the first year of work. These meanings are interpreted from the teacher’s expertise viewpoint. The hermeneutical approach can be seen in the dialogue between NQT essays
and interviews that have complemented each other during the research
process. In addition, the interaction between the researcher and the
participants is important in this approach (Laine, 2001, p. 29).
The study includes 13 foreign language teachers (English, French,
Swedish, German, Russian), who teach at comprehensive schools, upper secondary schools and adult education and training institutes. They
completed their pedagogical subject teacher education in the academic
year 2002–2003 at the Department of Teacher Education at the University of Jyväskylä, and began their teaching career during the years
2003–2006. The NQTs refer to teachers who have started their teaching career after graduation. They were on an average 24 years old at
the time.
The main research material consisted of essays and journal entries written by the NQTs on events that had a significant impact on
their teaching during their first year of work. These were supported by
theme interviews conducted at each teacher’s school. The interviews
lasted 45–90 minutes and aimed at openness: the researcher did not
attempt to predefine the limits and topics of the interviews. The themes
included expectations and goals for the first year of work, pedagogical
training, the teacher’s own know-how and conception of the profession,
language education and the future outlook.
The starting point for the analysis were the narrative essays as writing gave the participants more time to reflect on their experiences. Interviews supported the analysis. The key to interpretive research is drawing interpretations and assumptions on the meanings and contents of
a text. To do so, the researcher must consider the social context of the
research situation and how it directs people in interpreting different experiences. The researcher’s extensive background as a teacher trainer
raises the question of the researcher’s preconceived notions.
233
The analysis of the essays consisted of four separate stages:
1. Acquaintance with the material,
2. Reading the texts several times, preparing so-called summaries
whilst keeping in mind the research questions, removing redundant parts from the essays,
3. Highlighting each teacher’s expressions or discourses describing their experiences,
4. Comparison of teachers’ experiences and identification of similarities, regularities and connections, as well as for differences,
distinctive comments and deviations.
After having transcribed the supporting interviews, mind maps depicting the contents of the interviews and their interrelations were drawn.
These mind maps were compared to the themes from the essays, and
thus formulated an overall picture of the material. On this basis, it was
possible to identify and describe what the NQTs learnt during their education and what they feel they need to know at work. In addition, a picture of the NQTs’ expertise begins to take shape. The NQTs compared
the classes they taught during supervised teaching practice to actual
lessons they gave at school. They spoke at length about teaching their
language and compared it to teaching in general. Based on the teachers’ discourses, the following antithetical statement pairs were formulated2: actual everyday lessons vs. supervised student teaching, and
general education vs. language education. These statement pairs help
to frame the results and to identify answers to the research questions.
4 Results
4.1 Actual Everyday Lessons vs. Supervised Student
Teaching
NQTs characterise their work in the school in terms of planning teaching, and more particularly, individual lessons. Planning takes a great
deal of time, and it is steered by the textbook used in class (9/13)3. During the first months of work, the teachers made detailed plans, which
became more cursory, as the teachers honed their working methods
2
3
The contrasting statements were emphasised by the participants in different ways.
The two extremes are not mutually exclusive; in some cases the teachers discussed
both.
Nine out of thirteen teachers.
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Tarja Nyman
and became better acquainted with the students. The aim of the NQTs
was to teach the students as much of the target language as possible.
This emphasises the importance of substance knowledge.
Supervised teaching practice during teacher education was clearly
the most mentioned element in the NQTs’ discourse. Other areas of
their pedagogical training were scarcely mentioned. Three of the participants had a very positive attitude towards supervised student teaching.
Their essays indicate how much they valued concrete knowledge and
skills that help in practical teaching situations. They consider having received both substance knowledge and pedagogical knowledge related
to practical teaching.
“In my opinion, supervised student teaching played a vital role in shaping
my professional skills and identity. It taught me nearly all I need to know
about practical work: how to plan classes, how to organise a double lesson,
how to outline the contents of a course, how to prepare and grade a test,
how to react to student feedback, etc.” (Linnea’s essay, 27 March 2006)
The importance of substance knowledge was frequently mentioned in
the discourses. Some teachers (4/13) only remembered the instructions they received for teaching a class. The fact that the occasions
for supervised teaching practice were few (5/13) underlined the importance of each class and was the reason they did not get an accurate
picture of a teacher’s work. However, during supervised teaching practice teachers felt they were a “guest star”, who came to teach a class
or two in their own subject. The pressure to perform well was a central
issue (10/13).
“In a way, it gave the wrong picture of teaching. First of all, you can’t plan
individual classes for hours on end... You just focus on a couple of classes
and don’t see the bigger picture.” (Kati’s interview, 9 November 2004)
According to the NQTs, the classes during practical training were targeted at the average student (8/13). In their own work as teachers,
however, the participants became aware that students require different
kinds of teaching and learning methods, as they taught students with
dyslexia, dysphasia and ADHD. However, they felt incapable of meeting this challenge (7/13), and usually targeted their classes to suit the
majority of the students. According to the participants of this study, special education was discussed very little during teacher education, which
was apparent through the fact that all of the NQTs felt they needed more
knowledge and skills in working with students with special needs.
235
“It took the entire one-hour class for the students to take out their books and
pencils and go through one homework assignment. I didn’t have problems
like this in teacher education.” (Anneli’s journal, 4 October 2005)
4.2 Teachers as Educators vs. Teachers as Language
Teachers
NQTs rely on their teacher education to equip them with the tools for
working as a teacher. The NQTs talk about “theoretical knowledge”
(6/13) as a separate part of the education and feel that its share in the
training is sufficient. This, however, does not relate to the practical application of theoretical knowledge.
The NQTs felt they had learned in particular how to teach their own
subject and had acquired knowledge on learning and teaching techniques, materials and assessment. In other words, they had acquired
formal knowledge.
“There was, like, no doubt in my mind that I could teach this thing. I knew
I could, I’d been learning about it for five years.” (Suvi’s interview, 17 November 2004)
Having recently entered the world of work, the teachers mentioned their
surprise over the vast amount of so-called “additional work”, which led to
the feeling of a lack of time. The heavy workload took most of the teachers by surprise. “Additional work” referred to parent–teacher meetings,
staff meetings, detention, recess and lunch supervision, tutoring and
team planning (e.g., on the curriculum). These were baffling experiences for most of the NQTs (10/13) as this had not been discussed in
teacher education. The NQTs felt that their expertise was not sufficient
in such unexpected situations that required both practical and intuitive
knowledge. Practical knowledge increases through teaching in practice, but when it is combined with the challenges posed by one’s first
employment relationship, the feeling of haste and a heavy workload is
understandable. “Additional work” largely consisted of tasks that emphasise cooperation between teachers and rules agreed in the working
community, and whilst this could offer a valuable opportunity for the
NQTs to co-operate with their colleagues, they found it a burden.
NQTs need answers to many questions in order to be able to work
at all. Colleagues may help them when asked, but do not volunteer
any advice (4/13). On the other hand, NQTs are not necessarily willing
or even able to ask for advice, since the need for help may arise in an
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Tarja Nyman
actual work situation and not before. They are reluctant to ask questions, because their colleagues are pressed for time. Moreover, NQTs
have no set working methods or routines that would help in encountering unexpected situations. In order to receive collegial support, NQTs
must take the initiative. Support or its absence is an important matter,
because the NQTs considered that their work involves a great deal of
responsibility (7/13).
“Even if the working community is a good one, you sometimes feel that you
don’t get answers to all of your questions. Or no one thinks to explain something because you don’t think to ask, and if you do, no one has the time to
answer.” (Raija’s interview, 16 March 2006)
General education of students was limited to disciplinary measures to
maintain order in the classroom (7/13). By authority, the NQTs meant
discipline and order in the classroom.
By the end of their training, most of the students were content with
the outcomes, as Kaikkonen (2004) found in his study. However, experiences from the first year of work trigger a change in the discourse.
Half of the NQTs agreed that teacher education did not meet the practical demands (6/13) faced at work. However, one should ask whether
it is, in fact, necessary that it fully does so. Also supervised teaching
practice was considered out-of-touch with reality, which was not a novel
observation (Kiviniemi, 2003). On the other hand, at least for some of
the NQTs working methods and choices started to become somewhat
automatic during the first year of work, and the information procedural.
5 Discussion
5.1 Evaluation of the study
This initial study forms part of a longitudinal research project, which will
continue until 2010 and aims to research the paths of foreign language
teachers in the initial stages of their career. The purpose of the current
study is to explore how teacher education paves the way to expertise
for NQTs on the grounds of their working life experience.
The position of the researcher in a phenomenological study should
be as socially neutral as possible (Perttula, 2005, p. 155). In this study,
the participants were already familiar with the researcher to some extent through their teacher education. This could have induced them to
adhere to socially acceptable expressions in describing their experienc-
237
es, but measures were taken to prevent this. To counter this threat, the
researcher returned to the same themes several times and the familiarity between the researcher and the participants actually made it easier
for the NQTs to speak freely and openly allowing the research project to
be carried out in an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect.
The study follows ethical principles (Kuula, 2006). Student teachers
were asked whether they were willing to participate in the research and
those that expressed interest were invited to participate. The purpose
of the research was explained to the participants and written permission was asked for the use of the gathered materials. The timetable of
gathering materials is planned according to the interest of the NQTs. To
maintain the privacy of the participants, their names have been changed
and their schools are not mentioned. Ethics play an important role during the whole study. To allow the participants to write and speak of matters they found important during their beginning career, questions were
not predefined, but the participants were free to express themselves.
This is consistent with the principles of qualitative research (Eskola &
Suoranta, 1998).
5.2 Conclusions
This study assumes that the process of developing expertise should
start during teacher education and continue in working life. The results
are based on the experiences of NQTs at the beginning of their working life with the standpoint of foreign language and culture incorporated
when introduced by the teachers themselves. According to Brouwer
and Korthagen (2005, p. 213), the impact of teacher education can be
seen in a teacher’s work only after some years of teaching experience,
when NQTs have surpassed the induction phase. During this longitudinal study, this question will be returned to and aspects of foreign language and culture will also come into focus.
Subject teacher education is mainly understood by the informants
as supervised teaching practice, which in actual fact only covers one
fourth of the total number of credits for teacher education. However,
teaching practice is a significant factor in constructing a teacher’s professional skills and identity. For most NQTs, their training did not provide
a comprehensive picture of learning, classroom situations and school
life, which are nonetheless important elements in a teacher’s expertise,
or trademarks. The participants, having recently entered the world of
work, were surprised by the fact that a foreign language teacher’s work
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Tarja Nyman
included more than merely teaching the subject in question. According
to the experiences of the NQTs, the everyday life of the school and the
educational questions should be discussed more during teacher education.
The participants in this study viewed theoretical knowledge as its
own special form of knowledge conveyed by the Department of Teacher
Education. It was “sufficiently” provided for during the training. They
also felt they had “enough” substance knowledge. On the other hand,
they found it very challenging to teach students with dyslexia, dysphasia and ADHD at their schools. According to their experience, special
education was poorly discussed during the training. On the grounds of
the study, it can be observed that NQTs feel they have enough formal
knowledge regarding “average” students. In most cases, the NQTs orientate their own teaching towards this group—this is very understandable at the initial stage of an NQT’s career—rather than targeting the
individual needs of students. Similar results have been found in other
studies (e.g., Burn, Hagger, Mutton, & Everton, 2000). It seems that
language teacher education should focus more on special education.
According to the NQTs, teacher education leads to a theoretical
command of the profession, but the actual work can only be learned
by doing. Other studies also often emphasise the gap for beginners
between “reality” and academic knowledge and skills acquired through
formal training (e.g., Bullough et al., 2004; Boshuizen et al., 2004;
Sabar, 2004; Väisänen & Silkelä, 2000). Student teachers expect to
pick up certain specific techniques from teacher education. As teachers, they may project their own insecurities and the difficulty of mastering different situations and teaching methods onto teacher education,
which they may perceive as incapable of meeting practical challenges
(Kelchtermans, 1996). Experience is expected to reveal how to deal
with practical situations. Nevertheless, students are expected to realise
during teacher education that increasing the number of teaching experiences does not, in itself, make good teachers. Those studying to become a teacher should acknowledge the importance of understanding
teaching and learning in relation to their own individual way of working
as a teacher. Expertise grows through understanding the requirements
of each given situation and through the person’s ability to apply his or
her decisions, activities and interaction to the context at hand (Bromme,
1992). This kind of intuitive knowledge, a “pedagogical eye”, develops
gradually from experience and reflection. In this process, the NQTs necessitate support of their working community. Further study of the collegial aspect would be of great interest and value.
239
The results of this research suggest that NQTs and their questions
are easily disregarded in the teaching community. In order to receive
collegial support, young teachers must take the initiative. Support or its
absence is an important matter because the NQTs felt that their work
involved a great deal of responsibility. Compared to a collective or a
“moving mosaic” type working culture, the individualist teaching culture
offers little support to teachers in the development of their expertise.
This was the experience of most of the NQTs in this study. In a dialogistic relationship, both more and less experienced teachers could find a
way to articulate their practices and experiences and thus increase their
awareness of the values, feelings and attitudes that govern their activity
sharing and extending their own individual and community expertise.
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243
PROMOTING INTERCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING IN
FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION: SOME EXAMPLES
KAARINA MÄKINEN
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND TEACHER EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF OULU
kamakine<at>sun3.oulu.fi
Abstract
The aim of this article is to convey to the reader how three students of English applied the ideas and concepts of intercultural teaching in a small-scale study (Hannus, Hussa, & Mahosenaho, 2007). The study was conducted during these students’
studies of subject didactics at the faculty of social sciences and teacher education at
the University of Oulu in spring 2007. The writers of the seminar paper were doing
their pedagogical studies during 2006–2007. During their studies, the writers had
acquainted themselves with the new curricula, the concepts of intercultural teaching
and authenticity as well as with the different kinds of methods that the informants in
Larzén’s (2005) study used to achieve their cultural objectives. The students carried out their study in three different classes. The writers themselves also acted as
student teachers in the classes in question. The aim of the study was to promote
the learners’ awareness of intercultural understanding. The learners’ answers to the
reflective questions in the questionnaires provided the writers with information about
how successful the encounters had been in promoting and awakening the learners’
respect and empathy for otherness. Besides, the responses naturally offered the writers feedback about what to take into consideration when teaching intercultural affairs
in the future.
Keywords: foreign language education, EFL-teaching, speaking skills, interaction,
authenticity, intercultural encounters.
Introduction
Three students of English had chosen a very welcome and current topic
for their seminar paper (Hannus, Hussa, & Mahosenaho, 2007) during
their final subject didactics studies, AD4, in spring 2007. In the courses,
we had discussed the main objectives and the core contents of instruction as well as the guidelines for assessment of the new national curricula (LOPS, 2003; POPS, 2004) in general. Besides, we had paid
special attention to such current dimensions of foreign language education, as autonomous learning, authenticity, awareness, reflection, and
244
Kaarina Mäkinen
cultural as well as intercultural issues, at least to some degree. We had
also had a look at the main results of Larzén’s (2005) doctoral thesis,
and this, in addition to the other matters that had been dealt with during
the courses, had directed the writers in their choice of the theme for
their seminar paper.
As these three students (Hannus et al., 2007), future teachers of
English, had discovered that there seemed to be a clear gap in benefiting from encounters between foreign language learners and native
speakers of the target language (see e.g., Kaikkonen, 2004, p. 161, p.
177), they had decided to select a topic that would provide the learners
with an opportunity to use their command of English in an authentic
encounter with an English-speaking visitor. Consequently, to carry out
their experiments, they had arranged three groups: one group of thirdgraders and one group of eighth-graders of the comprehensive school
as well as one group of students in the fifth course of English at the
upper secondary school to participate in their study. They themselves
acted as student teachers in the respective groups during the study
that they conducted simultaneously. While one of them was in charge
of teaching the group, the others observed in class. The experiments
lasted for one lesson (75 minutes). The eighth-graders had a virtual
encounter via the Internet, whereas the other two groups had a faceto-face encounter with the visitor. After the lessons, the pupils/students
were asked to fill in a questionnaire, in which they had to reflect on the
encounter with the foreigner.
Theoretical background
First, Hannus et al. (2007) go through what the national core curricula
(LOPS, 2003; POPS, 2004) require teachers of English to take into
account when instructing and promoting the learners’ cultural and intercultural understanding. Furthermore, the writers define the concept of
authenticity and clarify it by mainly referring to Kaikkonen (2000, p. 57,
2004, pp. 173–174) and van Lier (1996). On the basis of their sources,
the students emphasise the meaning of authentic encounters and authentic interaction, in which the participants meet each other as whole
persons, with their positive and negative feelings, learning and studying
things together rather than studying the foreign language for a possible
future need or use. Excursions, student exchanges, e-mail projects and
visitors are useful examples of authentic encounters.
Promoting Intercultural Understanding in Foreign Language Education: …
245
In addition to the definition of the concept of authenticity, the students
discuss three different kinds of methods that the informants in Larzén’s
(2005) doctoral thesis used to achieve their cultural objectives in EFLteaching (teaching English as a foreign language). She had organised
her respondents’ forms of practice into three categories, according to
the cognitive, the action-related and the affective orientation. Inspired
by Kaikkonen (2004, pp. 150–154; Larzén, 2005, p. 117), Larzén had
used the concept Pedagogy of Information for those classroom activities that are aimed at providing the students with factual knowledge
related to the English-speaking countries. Pedagogy of Information has
traditionally been the principal task of school education. The teachers
have transmitted the knowledge to their students relying more or less
heavily on the textbook as the primary source of cultural information.
The category Pedagogy of Information falls into two sections: teachercentred transmission of facts, consisting of authentic materials, such as
newspaper articles, TV-documentaries and Internet texts, and studentcentred search for facts.
The concept Pedagogy of Preparation (Larzén, 2005, pp. 119–121)
is used to denote activities aimed at preparing the students to act appropriately in future intercultural meetings. They are prepared for acting
appropriately in future intercultural situations. The teachers referring to
this approach can be divided into two groups: those telling anecdotes
about incidents where intercultural encounters have gone wrong due to
lack of skills, and those using ready-made or student-made dialogues.
The writers of the seminar paper had prepared their pupils and students
to meet the visitors beforehand by telling them about the persons and,
besides, by asking them to do some preparatory tasks at home.
According to Larzén (2005, pp. 121–127), the concept Pedagogy of
Encounter is used to refer to such forms of practice where the students
meet the foreign culture in a dialogic situation. It aims at using such
working methods that reduce ethnocentric attitudes and which foster
tolerance and empathy towards members of foreign cultures in general
and the target culture in particular. In the dialogic process, the students’
own culture and the foreign culture interact in simulated or authentic
encounters. Changes of perspectives are made possible in such meetings. Larzén (2005, p. 122) further divides classrooms practices into
three sub-categories: simulated and authentic encounters as well as
reflection and discussion. Virtual contacts also belong to authentic encounters as a possible means of promoting intercultural understanding.
246
Kaarina Mäkinen
The three encounters in EFL-teaching
The students carried out three different experiments of authentic encounter on three school levels: in Grades 3 and 8 of the comprehensive school and with the students in Course 5 in the upper secondary
school. The pupils in Grade 3 of the comprehensive school as well as
the students in Course 5 of the upper secondary school were able to
talk to an Englishman during one lesson. The 8th-graders of the comprehensive school participated in a virtual conversation with an Englishwoman during one lesson. All the pupils and students knew about
the visitors beforehand. The students in Course 5 were also given an
extra task to be done at home. The purpose of the assignment was to
activate the conversation with the visitor as well as to make it easy. According to Larzén (2005, p. 123), this had turned out to be effective in
her study. Towards the end of the lesson, the learners were asked to fill
in a questionnaire where they had a chance to reflect on what they had
experienced and learned.
Case 1:
A native speaker of English as a visitor in the English lesson with the
third-graders of the comprehensive school
The class of 19 pupils had been divided into two small groups. In the
first group, there were ten pupils and in the second group nine pupils.
One of the student teachers, that is, one of the writers of the present
seminar paper, taught the first small group, and the other, the second
small group. The visitor was present in both small groups. This is how
the student teachers wanted to guarantee a similar experience of encountering a native speaker in the classroom. According to the writers,
the visitor had been actively interacting with the pupils for most of the
lesson. The student teacher had only given some instructions when
needed.
At the beginning of the lesson, the visitor had told a little about himself and shown the location of his home town on the map. After this, the
student teacher had revised “can you” and “do you like” questions. At
the same time, the pupils had been able to interact with the visitor. The
“can you” questions had been revised with the help of a game in which
the pupils walked in the classroom interviewing each other and the visitor. The student teacher had played some background music during
the activity. Once she had stopped the music, the pupils had had an
opportunity to interview the classmate who had happened to be nearby
or the visitor. At the end of the lesson the pupils had asked the visitor
247
“do you like” questions with the help of picture cards. The model questions and some alternative answers were written on the blackboard to
support the pupils to remember the grammatical structures. At the end
of the lessons, the pupils were asked to fill in a questionnaire containing
the following five reflective questions.
Question 1. Was it easy or difficult to understand the speaker?
Half of the pupils wrote that it was easy for them to understand the visitor’s speech. Only a few pupils thought that it was difficult to understand
his speech. The third-graders had been studying English only for one
term, and for most of the pupils this lesson was the first time that they
had met an English-speaking person. During the spring term (2007),
though, an American student teacher had been teaching them, so, for
some of them this was the second encounter with a native speaker in
class.
Question 2. Were you able to ask what you wanted to?
Most of the pupils felt that they had been able to ask the visitor the
things that they had wanted to. Some of them had, however, had difficulties in forming questions in English, which, according to the writers,
had restricted their interaction with the visitor. One of the pupils had
stressed the importance of listening, that is, by carefully listening to the
speaker you can learn words from the speaker, and thus, it is perhaps
easier for you to ask questions.
Question 3. What was it like to get an Englishman into the classroom?
(For example, nice, boring, exciting …)
Most of the pupils felt that encountering a visitor had been nice and
exciting. Only two out of 19 pupils had used other adjectives than the
ones that had been given to them in the question. The writer admitted
that the examples that they had given had been too easy for the pupils
to choose.
Question 4. What did you learn? (For example, new words, new things,
listening skills)
Half of the pupils had written that they had learned new words and
things. Only a few pupils had given examples of the new words and
things they had learned. One of the pupils, according to her reflective
answer, had learned nothing during the lesson.
248
Kaarina Mäkinen
Question 5. Was the visitor different or just the way that you thought
him to be?
With this question, the writers had wanted to find out whether encountering the visitor had influenced the pupils’ thoughts and preconceptions of foreigners, and, furthermore, they had been interested in seeing what kind of cultural differences the pupils had discovered. One half
of the respondents felt that the visitor had been, as they had thought,
the other half thought that he had been different from what the pupils
had imagined before. The writers admitted that they should have asked
the pupils to give grounds for their opinions.
Generally speaking, the pupils had been happy about having a visitor in class. They had also actively participated in talking with him. The
pupils had been brave enough to ask the visitor questions, and it had
seemed to the student teachers that they had also mastered the use of
the grammatical structures in question. The student teacher had encouraged the shy pupils to pose questions to the visitor. The writers had also
been delighted about the fact that the more advanced pupils advised
their classmates what to ask the visitor and how to answer. One of the
pupils had clearly been active in interacting with the visitor by extending
the conversation and by forming complete sentences. Consequently,
the pupil had been able to test his command of the foreign language
in an authentic activity. On the whole, the pupils had behaved naturally
during the activity. The student teachers had the impression that they
had been involved in the activity. The writers concluded that the pupils
must have regarded the encounter meaningful for themselves (see Kaikkonen, 2004, p. 175).
According to the writers, the influence of the visitor on the 9-yearolds must have contributed to the successful interaction during the lesson. The pupils had not understood everything that they had heard, but
the visitor had, however, been able to challenge the pupils to participate
in the conversation. In addition to the structures mentioned earlier, the
pupils had had an opportunity to learn a lot of new vocabulary, such as
“me too”, “it is healthy”, and “it is good for you”. The pupils had started
to imitate the visitor’s pronunciation. The visitor had pointed out the difference between the verbs “like” and “love” (“Do you like Coca Cola?”
– “Yes, I love it”). Besides, he had shown some differences between
American and British English with the help of picture cards.
249
Case 2:
The eighth-graders and a native speaker of English (a virtual encounter)
The group consisted of 16 pupils. Technical problems made the virtual
encounter with the native speaker difficult. The student teachers and the
visitor had tested the chat-room of www.suomi24.fi the previous night,
but, unfortunately, the connection had not worked at the moment of the
encounter. The student teachers admitted that they had not been prepared for the possible problems, because the connections had worked
so well the day before. On the basis of the pupils’ suggestions, the student teachers had turned to the IRC chat-room of www.paussi.net.
It had taken so much time to get everything organised that finally the
eighth-graders only had had about 15 minutes to talk with the Englishwoman. The technical problems and a long wait had caused restlessness and lack of interest in the 14-year-old pupils, which could be seen
in the final conversation. Some of the pupils had not taken the situation
seriously enough. The writers continue that probably it had also been
easier for them to make fun, when they had not been talking to the native speaker face to face but chatting anonymously via the computer,
and with an unknown person living thousands of kilometres away.
Only nine out of the sixteen pupils had returned the questionnaire
that consisted of the following questions:
1. What did you learn with the help of the visitor?
2. Were you able to use English enough?
3. Were you able to use your command of English and express
yourself in the way that you wanted to?
4. Was it easy or difficult to understand the visitor’s accent?
5. Did any misunderstandings occur in the conversation? If so, how
did you solve them?
6. Did your preconceptions of English people change? If so, in what
way?
7. What was good about the encounter? Why? What was not so
good? Why?
8. How well or not so well do you think the conversation worked in
the whole group?
Their answers revealed that maybe the technical problems had not
been the only reason for the lack of their interest, but their negative attitudes might have been due to their inability to see the benefit that this
kind of conversation could provide for foreign language learning and
general knowledge. In fact, only one pupil connected the problem at
250
Kaarina Mäkinen
the beginning of the lesson to their lack of enthusiasm. The rest of the
pupils felt that the conversation had flown well and without difficulties.
The pupils thought that talking with a foreigner had offered a welcome change to their daily language learning routines. Thus, the pupils
seemed to have appreciated the opportunity of having something different to do during the English lesson, which they had been accustomed
to doing also in their free time. Some of the pupils had liked the idea of
being able to communicate with an English-speaking person and of the
idea of getting information about the weather in England. The task had
therefore been meaningful to some of the pupils.
Most of the pupils had not experienced that their preconceptions of
the English would have changed during the encounter. Two of the pupils had not formed any kind of preconceptions about the English earlier
or even thought what the English were like. About half of the pupils had
answered that they had not learned anything new during the conversation. One of the pupils had realised that the visitor had not been a man,
as he had thought but a woman. He had learned to distinguish a man’s
name from a woman’s name. The misunderstanding had been solved
after the visitor and the other speakers had told the others that the
visitor had been a woman. Three other pupils had mentioned that there
had been some misunderstandings in the encounter, but they had not
told what they had been. Neither had they given any examples of how
they had been solved.
About half of the pupils had regarded chatting via the Internet as
easier than talking face to face. This kind of channel had provided them
with more time to think and plan what to say. It had also given more
courage to take part in the conversation anonymously without being
afraid of losing face, if mistakes occurred. According to the writers, this
finding is congruent with that of Larzen (2005, p. 122). She had found
out that it had been easier to communicate with a foreigner, when you
had time to think about what you were going to say and prepare it beforehand. The rest of the pupils had thought that there had hardly been
any difference between talking face to face and via the Internet.
Case 3:
Course 5 of English in the upper secondary school
The third part of their experiment occurred in Course 5 of English at the
upper secondary school. The exercise was carried out as part of the
students’ ordinary English lesson. The group of 20 students had been
divided into two sub-groups. While one sub-group had been talking with
the visitor, the other half had been carrying out a video-taping task in
251
another classroom. The conversation had lasted for about half an hour
for each sub-group. After both of the sub-groups had had their conversation practice with the visitor, the participants had been asked to fill in
a questionnaire with the following questions:
1. What did you learn with the help of the visitor?
2. Were you able use English enough?
3. Were you able to use your command of English and express
yourself in the way that you wanted to?
4. Was it easy or difficult to understand the visitor’s accent?
5. Did any misunderstandings occur in the conversation? If so, how
did you solve them?
6. Did your preconceptions of English people change? If so, in what
way?
7. What was good about the encounter? Why? What was not so
good? Why?
8. How well or not so well do you think the conversation worked in
the whole group?
The conversation exercise, “A–Z”, in which the students and their English visitor had participated, was based on Blue Planet 6, the textbook
used during the course, and it had been given to the participants beforehand. According to the instructions, the students had to invent a phenomenon or a thing starting with a certain letter, and the phenomenon
or the thing had to be connected to Finnish culture. The visitor had also
thought about the task in the light of his own culture. The participants
did not have to follow the instructions strictly, that is, the assignment
had been there to help the speakers, not to restrict them while talking.
During the conversation the students explored cultural differences
and stereotypes between Finland and Great Britain. According to the
writers, the English visitor had maintained and guided the conversation
well. On the basis of their observations, male students seemed to have
been more active in the conversation, maybe because the visitor was a
man. The conversation topics had mainly been connected with sports
and computer games.
The students’ reflective answers had shown that the speaking activity had been successful. All the students thought that it had been
interesting, pleasant and useful to meet a native speaker of English in
class, and that this kind of arrangement had brought some change in
their daily learning routines at school. They all thought that it had been
easy to understand his accent. The only negative comments concerned
the fairly passive role of some of the students, who had been keen ob-
252
Kaarina Mäkinen
servers rather than active speakers. Despite this, nearly all the students
had written that they had been able to speak English and express themselves as much as they had wanted to.
During the conversation, the students had not discovered any misunderstandings. The student teachers, however, had discerned some
situations in which the student’s pronunciation had caused problems to
the visitor. Misunderstandings had been solved through repetition. As
intercultural understanding is not always clear, according to Kaikkonen
(2004, pp. 116–117), it is important to tolerate misunderstandings and
to be aware of them when encountering a foreigner. Although the visit
had not lasted long, according to the writers, it had, however, offered
an excellent opportunity to compare Finnish and English cultures and
to expand the students’ cultural understanding. Consequently, the visit
had provided the students with a good possibility to develop their intercultural skills that are stated as the objectives of foreign language
learning in the national curriculum (LOPS, 2003, p. 100).
The visit had also been a successful example of authentic language
learning (Kaikkonen, 2000, p. 54). On the basis of their reflective answers, meeting an English-speaking visitor had been meaningful to
the students. They felt that they had learned new things about English
culture. It had been interesting for the students to discover how the
visitor had seen Finland and its culture. The students had also asked
authentic, meaningful questions, for example, after the visitor had explained why he was in Finland, one student had asked what he was
doing in their class. Another student had asked whether there would
be a chance of getting a summer job in a game firm in England. The
reflective answers of those students who had not been very active in
the conversation had indicated that they had also regarded the visit as
useful and interesting.
Conclusion
With the help of their study, the writers had wanted to raise the intercultural awareness of the learners. As for the outcomes of the study, they
claimed that probably after the brief study, the learners would be more
tolerant and skilful agents in intercultural encounters in the future. The
writers also paid critical attention to the quality of the reflective questions that they had used after the encounters and the technical problems that they had faced during the virtual encounter. In the future, they
could, for instance, concentrate on studying how intercultural encoun-
253
ters between exchange students and learners would develop within a
large-scale study.
References
Kaikkonen, P. (2000). Autenttisuus ja sen merkitys kulttuurienvälisen vieraan
kielen opetuksessa. [Authenticity and its meaning in intercultural foreign
language teaching]. In P. Kaikkonen, & V. Kohonen (Eds.), Minne menet,
kielikasvatus? Näkökulmia kielipedagogiikkaan (pp. 49–61). Jyväskylä:
Jyväskylän yliopistopaino.
Kaikkonen, P. (2004). Vierauden keskellä: Vierauden, monikulttuurisuuden ja
kulttuurienvälisen kasvatuksen aineksia. [In the middle of otherness:
Aspects of otherness, multiculturalism and intercultural education]. Jyväskylä: Jyväskylän yliopistopaino.
Larzén, E. (2005). In pursuit of an intercultural dimension of EFL-teaching:
Exploring cognitions among Finland-Swedish comprehensive school
teachers. Åbo: Åbo Akademi University Press.
LOPS (2003). Lukion opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2003. [A Core Curriculum
for Upper Secondary Schools 2003]. Helsinki: Opetushallitus.
POPS (2004). Perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2004. [A Core
Curriculum for Basic Education 2004]. Helsinki: Opetushallitus.
van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy & authenticity. New York: Longman.
The seminar paper discussed in this article:
Hannus, P., Hussa, M., & Mahosenaho, S. (2007). Autenttisuus ja kulttuurien
kohtaaminen englannin kielen opetuksessa. [Authenticity and cultural
encounters in teaching English]. University of Oulu. Faculty of Social
Sciences and Teacher Education. Language Teaching Methodology
Course IV. (Unpublished.)
NB. As their supervisor, I thank my three students for their valuable contribution. The research paper of their small-scale study
could serve as an example of good practices in promoting cultural and intercultural aspects in foreign language education. I
have also asked them permission to write about their study.
List of Peer Reviewers
The Editor would like to express his most sincere gratitude to the following experts who helped to peer-review the articles published in this
Research Report. Their help and expertise was not only highly appreciated but also indispensable.
Alho, Kimmo, University of Helsinki
Harjanne, Pirjo, University of Helsinki
Hildén, Raili, University of Helsinki
Jaakkola, Hanna
Kantelinen, Ritva, University of Joensuu
Penttinen, Esa, University of Helsinki
Salo, Olli-Pekka, University of Jyväskylä
Tammelin, Maija, Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration
Tella, Anneli, National Board of Education
Tella, Seppo, University of Helsinki
One peer-reviewer wished to remain anonymous.
S e p p o Te l l a (Ed.) : From Brawn to Brain: Strong Signals in Foreign Language Education
Strong Signals in
Foreign Language Education
Proceedings of the ViKiPeda-2007
Conference in Helsinki,
May 21–22, 2007
Seppo Tella (Ed.)
University of Helsinki
Research Report 290
ISBN 978-952-10-3863-1 (nid.)
ISBN 978-952-10-3864-8 (pdf)
ISSN 1236-2867
Yliopistopaino
2008
Research Report 290

What Every Language Teacher Should Know About the Brain and

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