Drinking-Water Quality Assessment and Treatment in East Timor

Transcription

Drinking-Water Quality
Assessment and Treatment in
East Timor
Case Study: Tangkae
Engineering Dissertation
Heidi Michael
This thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Environmental Engineering
The University of Western Australia, 2006.
5
Abstract
ABSTRACT
This study entails an examination of the quality of drinking-water sources and a detailed assessment of
treatment options for the village of Tangkae, East Timor, with the objective to achieve three main aims.
The first aim of the study is to analyse cultural and local data in relation to the quality of water sources
and to investigate potential options to improve the community drinking-water. The second aim is to
conduct stakeholder analysis and assess the community’s current capacity to support stakeholder capacity
development. The third aim is to produce recommendations regarding appropriate behavioural and
technical options to improve the quality of water available in Tangkae. These recommendations will
provide the community with a guide to make informed decisions regarding improving their water supply
and their quality of life.
Headed by Engineers Without Borders (EWB), an Australian development non-governmental
organisation (NGO) this study contributes to the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Project.
A principal component of this project is building relations and exchanging information between
Australian and East Timorese institutions, including government, non-government and educational
organisations. In partnership with Hamoris Timor Oan, an East Timorese NGO, and six civil engineering
students at the National University of East Timor, this project aims to also build the strength and skills of
the wider East Timorese community through partnerships with these local institutions and individuals.
The village of Tangkae is representative of many rural communities in East Timor, the poorest nation in
Asia. With a population of two hundred and sixty four people the water sources in Tangkae used to
supply the village with water for drinking, cooking, washing and cleaning are of difficult and distant
access and preliminary surveys indicate poor quality. Preliminary assessment found that microbial
contamination in conjunction with lack of protection of water sources, unsafe water storage habits and
poor hygiene and sanitation practices are likely contributors to the prevailing illnesses in the village.
Local conditions and cultural factors are addressed to ensure the most appropriate technology is presented
to the community during the subsequent consultation stage. Results from this study recommend multiple
barriers are implemented to ensure safe drinking-water, including improved behaviours in hygiene and
sanitation practices, use of safe water storage vessels and treatment of turbid and contaminated waters.
Technology assessment found Biosand or ceramic filtration and solar disinfection to be the most
appropriate treatment processes, on condition that further investigations are conducted regarding social
acceptability, material availability and costs.
This document details options to improve drinking-water that are available not only to the village of
Tangkae but also the wider East Timorese community.
Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A huge thank you to my fellow project team members Phoebe Mack and Vaughn Grey. Your support and
friendship has made this a fantastic adventure. Obrigada barak.
I would like to thank the staff and my fellow students at the School of Environmental Systems
Engineering and UWA for all their guidance, support and friendship throughout my undergraduate
degree. A special thank you to Associate Professor Carolyn Oldham, my supervisor, for the support and
direction you provided throughout this project and for always putting things in perspective.
A special thank you to Domingos de Oliveira for all your time and patience teaching us tetum, and for the
wisdom and friendship you have shared with us. Obrigada barak.
I would like to acknowledge everyone at Engineers Without Borders for their tireless efforts in getting
this project together and for this amazing opportunity. Special mention to Kym Greenwood, Kim
Axworthy, Stewart Davies, Jerome Bowen, Halinka Lamparski and Natalie Young for your support,
mentoring and efforts towards this project.
Thank you to Frank Howitz whose enthusiasm and geological expertise was a great motivator at a time of
uncertainty; and to Maia Williams, GIS extraordinaire, thank you for your help and patience.
A special mention to our East Timorese friends: Martinho, Adilio, Diamantinho, Delfim, Jacinto and
Atibo. I hope you and your families are always safe.
Finally, thank you to all my family and friends for your unconditional love and support over the years.
The advice, encouragement and good times have provided me with enormous strength.
And to my late parents, Christine and Frank. Thank you for your wisdom and love which travels with me
in my heart everyday. This thesis is dedicated to you both.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables................................................................................................................................ vii
Abbreviations.............................................................................................................................. viii
Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................................ ix
Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
The Setting and Motivation........................................................................................................... 1
Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Project Overview in Context......................................................................................................... 3
Dissertation Synopsis.................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2. Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 6
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
East Timor Background ................................................................................................................ 6
2.1.1
Geography, Geology and Climate .............................................................................. 6
2.1.2
History and Politics .................................................................................................... 8
2.1.3
Languages, Population, Religion and Education...................................................... 10
2.1.4
Social Structure and Economic Situation ................................................................. 11
The Millennium Development Goals And Sustainable Development ........................................ 12
Capacity Development and Stakeholder Analysis in the development context.......................... 13
Water Management Strategies at the Household Level .............................................................. 15
Water Sources and the Hydrologic Cycle ................................................................................... 17
Water Quality in Developing Countries...................................................................................... 19
2.6.1
Definition.................................................................................................................. 19
2.6.2
Guidelines................................................................................................................. 20
2.6.3
Microbial Parameters................................................................................................ 21
2.6.4
Chemical Parameters ................................................................................................ 25
2.6.5
Physical and Aesthetic Parameters ........................................................................... 27
2.6.6
Water Quality Sampling and Analytical Techniques ............................................... 28
The Integrated Project: Water Supply, Water Quality, Sanitation and Hygiene......................... 29
Chapter 3. Methodology and Methods...................................................................................... 30
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
The General EWB Project Process ............................................................................................. 30
Site Description – Tangkae ......................................................................................................... 33
Stakeholder Identification and Analysis ..................................................................................... 33
Social and Physical Surveys and Informal Interviews ................................................................ 35
Water Quality Testing................................................................................................................. 36
Options to Improve Water Quality.............................................................................................. 38
Chapter 4. Results ....................................................................................................................... 39
4.1
4.2
4.3
Stakeholder Identification and Analysis ..................................................................................... 39
Social and Physical Surveys and Informal Interviews ................................................................ 41
4.2.1
Tangkae’s Water, Sanitation and Health Situation................................................... 41
Table of Contents
4.4
4.5
Local Factors Affecting Water Quality and Treatment Options ................................................. 49
4.5.1
Barriers to prevent contamination ............................................................................ 52
4.5.2
Treatment of Turbidity - Sedimentation and Filtration ............................................ 55
4.5.3
Reduction of Pathogens - Disinfection Methods ...................................................... 64
4.5.4
Monitoring and Maintenance.................................................................................... 69
Chapter 5. Discussion.................................................................................................................. 71
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 71
Qualitative Measurements........................................................................................................... 73
5.2.1
Stakeholder Identification and Analysis................................................................... 73
5.2.2
Social Surveys and Informal Interviews................................................................... 75
Local Factors Affecting Water Quality....................................................................................... 79
5.5.1
Preventative and Protective Barriers ........................................................................ 80
5.5.2
Treatment Options .................................................................................................... 81
Long Term effects....................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 6. Conclusion and Recommendations......................................................................... 88
6.1
6.2
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 88
Future Work ................................................................................................................................ 90
6.2.1
Further Investigations............................................................................................... 90
6.2.2
Next stage of EWB East Timor Student Program .................................................... 91
Chapter 7. References ................................................................................................................. 92
Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 95
Appendix A.
Appendix B.
Appendix C.
Appendix D.
Appendix E.
Appendix F.
Appendix G.
Appendix H.
Millennium Development Goals ...................................................................... 96
Sanitary Survey ................................................................................................ 97
April & June Trip Plans ................................................................................... 98
Press Release – May 2005.............................................................................. 103
Project Participant contact List....................................................................... 104
Social & Physical Surveys ............................................................................. 105
Laboratory Notes & Raw Results................................................................... 113
Local Factors Affecting Water Quality and Treatment Technology.............. 121
List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of East Timor (Timor- Lorasae Timor of the Rising Sun). The location of the
village of Tangkae is indicated by the red arrow. ................................................................... 6
Figure 2. The hydrologic cycle (Ward and Robinson, 1990). ..................................................................... 17
Figure 3. UNTL students with UWA students. L-R: Heidi Michael (author), Atibo Tilman,
Adilio Ximenes, Phoebe Mack, Jacinto da Costa Almeida, Vaughn Grey,
Diamantino Soares, Martinho dos Santos and Delfim Gaspar.............................................. 31
Figure 4. House and surrounding tropical vegetation in Tangkae............................................................... 33
Figure 5. Stakeholder-Issue Interrelationship Diagram. The arrows indicate the interest the
stakeholder has in an issue, and therefore the relationship with other stakeholders
also interested in the issue. The arrows can be labelled to specify exactly what the
interest is in each case (Bryson, c2004)................................................................................ 34
Figure 6. Sample of method for brainstorming session with UNTL students, starting with the
issue (water quality) circled in the centre with causes at the top and effects at the
bottom. Lines link the causes and effects of different issues surrounding water
quality. .................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 8. Sampling bottles used for first site visit on 7th February 2006, labelled and ready for
testing in the DNAS Water Laboratory. ............................................................................... 37
Figure 10. Contour map of Tangkae, Balibar Sub-District, Dili District, East Timor. Contour
lines are 10 metres and highest elevation point in Tangkae is 755 metres.
Laratema spring and Airabat well marked on map. Fatnamudu stream is located
below the eastern side of southern border............................................................................. 42
Figure 11. Water collection points at the three water sources L-R: Laratema spring, Fatnamudu
stream and Airabat well........................................................................................................ 43
Figure 12. Containers similar to these are used for water collection in Tangkae........................................ 43
Figure 13. Rainwater catchment system in Tangkae................................................................................... 44
Figure 14. Malnourished children of Tangkae, excited to see the malae (white foreigners). ..................... 45
Figure 15. Turbidity levels from the 3 village water sources, Laratema spring, Airabat well &
Fatnamudu stream, measured on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06 and compared with the
WHO & East Timor Guidelines limit. .................................................................................. 47
Figure 16. E.coli counts for samples taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06. The WHO Guideline limit is
0 CFU.................................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 17. Total Coliform counts for samples taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06. WHO Guideline
limit is 0 CFU. ...................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 18. Diagrammatic examples of commonly used safe water storage containers: jerry cans,
plastic bottles and the CDC safe water vessel (CDC, 2005)................................................. 54
Figure 19. Simple diagram used to explain the Three-Pot Treatment System for settling out
suspended particles (Skinner and Shaw, 1998)..................................................................... 57
Figure 20. Diagrammatic illustration of steps to filter water with a cloth, such as sari or sarong
(CDC, 2005).......................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 21. Bili Bala Olaria ceramic filters, Manatutu district, supported by World Vision and
USAID, 2003 (Photo by Osaorio Correia, USAID-ET Small Grants Program)................... 61
Figure 22. Illustration of a BSF unit (Yung, 2003). ................................................................................... 62
Figure 23. Simplistic diagram of the solar disinfection (SODIS) process: UV-A radiation and
thermal effects inactivate the microorganisms (EAWAG & SANDEC, 2006). ................... 68
List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. An overview of the steps within the EWB Project required to achieve sustainable
outcomes. Blue shaded boxes indicate the focus for this study within the context
of the whole project. The green shaded area is highlighted throughout all stages of
the project. Unshaded boxes are subsequent stages on completion of this
dissertation. ............................................................................................................................. 4
Table 2. Country statistics (adult literacy and combined school enrolment) for East Timor, in
comparison to averages of neighbouring East Asia Pacifica region, Least
Developed Countriesb and Developing Countriesc (UNDP, 2006)...................................... 11
Table 3. UN Millennium Development Goals that are directly applicable to the provision of safe
water (United Nations, 2002)................................................................................................ 12
Table 4. A general overview of water resources and sources, of potential relevance to Tangkae,
summarised in terms of quality, supply, accessibility, reliability and cost
(CAWST, 2006, Degrémont, 1991, AusAID, 2005b). ......................................................... 18
Table 5. Waterborne pathogens and their significance in water supplies (WHO, 2004). .......................... 22
Table 6. Example of risk classification for thermotolerant coliforms or E.coli for rural water
supplies (IRC, 2002) ............................................................................................................. 25
Table 7. Categorization of chemical constituents sources (WHO, 2004) ................................................... 25
Table 8. Identification of stakeholders and their interests in the project..................................................... 39
Table 9. Summary of Social & Physical Survey results for Tangkae village 20.02.06............................... 41
Table 10. Summarised Raw Water Quality Test Results taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.07. Final
column compares East Timor Guidelines with other guidelines. ......................................... 46
Table 11. Summary of water quality issues from the 4 water resources available in Tangkae, the
impacts on health and infrastructure, and options for treatment........................................... 49
Table 12. Summary of barriers recommended for protection, prevention and treatment of
contaminated water. .............................................................................................................. 51
Table 13. Specific functions and materials required to implement protection strategies for each
of Tangkae's potential water sources: Laratema spring, Airabat well, Fatnamudu
stream and Rainwater............................................................................................................ 52
Table 14. Advantages and disadvantages of storage and settling for household water treatment............... 57
Table 15. Chemical coagulants for water treatment and their advantages, disadvantages and
costs for household use (Sobsey 2002)................................................................................. 58
Table 16. Summary of advantages and disadvantages for coagulation and flocculation treatment
of water at the household level, using a natural coagulant. .................................................. 58
Table 17. Advantages and disadvantages of using a cloth filter media....................................................... 60
Table 18. Advantages and disadvantages of the ceramic water filter mixed with coffee husks and
fired by cow dung. ................................................................................................................ 61
Table 19. Effects of filtration rate on performance at constant effective size (ES) (NEERI, 1982) ........... 64
Table 20. Advantages and disadvantages of the Biosand Filter .................................................................. 64
Table 21. Advantages and disadvantages of boiling water for disinfection of drinking-water. .................. 67
Table 22. Advantages & Disadvantages of SODIS system......................................................................... 68
Table 23. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Chlorination process....................................................... 69
Table 24. Criteria rating assessment for disinfection treatment options of Boiling water, SODIS
& Chlroination. ..................................................................................................................... 83
Table 25. Criteria rating assessment of filtration treatment options of Storing & Settling,
Coagulation & Flocculation, Straining, Ceramic and Biosand Filtration. ............................ 84
Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
AVI
Australian Volunteers International
CAP
Community Action Plan
CESCR
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The body of independent experts
that monitors implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights, established in 1985 to carry out monitoring functions assigned to the
United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
CIDA
Canadian International Development Agency
CWSSP
Community Water Supply & Sanitation Program
DNAS
Direcção Nasional De Água E Saneamento (National Director of Water & Sanitation)
AusAID
Australian Agency for International Development
EWB
Engineers Without Borders is an organisation that works with disadvantaged
communities to improve their quality of life through education and implementation of
sustainable engineering projects.
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
MDG
Millennium Development Goal
NGO
Non Government Organisation
OECD
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PET
Polyethylene terephthlate (plastic bottle material)
UNDP
United Nations Development Program
UNTL
Universidade Nacional de Timor Lorosae (National University of East Timor)
UWA
University of Western Australia
Wat/san
Water and Sanitation
WHO
World Health Organisation
Glossary of Terms
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aldiea
Village
E. coli
Escherichia coli (of the Total Coliform group is considered the most
specific indicator of faecal pollution)
Fuelwood
Firewood (as opposed to woodfuel which includes charcoal as well)
Germicidal
A preparation having power to destroy (esp. disease-) germs
Improved Water Source
A source or system that is likely to provide “safe” water eg. Protected
spring, household connection or borehole. Examples of “not
improved” include unprotected well or spring.
Pasteurize
To treat a liquid by heating it in order to destroy harmful bacteria
Pathogen
An agent causing disease
Thermotolerant Coliforms
Also known as faecal coliforms. A subset of coliforms found in the
intestinal tract of humans and other warm blooded animals which can
ferment lactose at 44° to 44.5°C to produce acid and gas. Consist
chiefly of E. col..i They are used as indicators of faecal pollution.
(National Water Quality Management Strategy, 2000, pers. comm.)
Total Coliforms
Coliform organisms are used as indicators of faecal contamination of
water. They are Gram-negative non-sporing rod-shaped bacteria
capable of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic growth in the presence
of bile salts and ferment lactose producing acid and gas within 48
hours at 35 - 37°C.
Turbidity
A condition in water or wastewater caused by the presence of
suspended matter, resulting in the scattering and absorption of light;
any suspended solids imparting a visible haze or cloudiness to water,
which can be removed by filtration; an analytical quantity usually
reported in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) determined by
measurements of light scattering.
Vector
An organism such as a mosquito that transmits disease-causing
microorganisms from infected individuals to other persons, or from
infected animals to human beings.
Introduction
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1
THE SETTING AND MOTIVATION
Safe water is fundamental to better health, alleviating poverty and community development. The
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) explicitly recognised water as a
fundamental human right in November 2002 and the countries which ratified the International CESCR
are compelled to ensure everyone has access to adequate and safe supply of drinking water. According
to the United Nations, over 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, of which nearly two
thirds live in Asia (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2006). As a result of inadequate access to safe
drinking water over 10,000 people die each day from avoidable water-related diseases (AusAID,
2003).
The lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation is at the core of the main symptoms and
causes of world poverty, reinforcing the cycle of poverty and incapacity that keeps people trapped and
slows the development of societies. Inadequate access to safe water can cause people’s health to
suffer, especially children, ranging from reduced growth and life expectancy to critical bouts of
diseases, often leading to death (Mathew, 2005). The WHO (2006) estimates that 88% of diarrhoeal
disease is attributed to unsafe water supply, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene, resulting in the
deaths of more than two million people every year.
The time taken to collect water, being sick, or looking after those who are sick, puts a huge drain on
family resources (Mathew, 2005). Children could spend the time attending school and parents could be
spending more time with their families or being more economically productive. Dignity robbed and
pain caused by lack of adequate and private sanitation can lead to poor self-esteem, especially for
women (Mathew, 2005). These effects can trap people in a cycle of poverty from which it can be
difficult to escape.
East Timor, officially the Democratic Republic of East Timor (Timor-Leste or Timor Lora’sae),
became the 191st United Nations member state on 27 September 2002 (Department of Foreign Affairs
(DFAT), 2005). With the lowest per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Asia, the National
Development Plan of East Timor identifies poverty reduction and governance as priorities. Long-term
development plans, with the aid of international assistance, aim to increase the annual GDP growth
rate and reduce the number of people living below the poverty line (DFAT, 2005). The availability of
plentiful and safe water for domestic use and adequate sanitation have long been known to be
fundamental to the development process (Gadgil, 1998) and promote the reduction of poverty.
Currently, half the population do not have access to safe water (United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), 2006). This is a driving force behind achieving the globally recognised Millennium
Development Goals to dramatically reduce extreme poverty by 2015.
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Introduction
1.2
OBJECTIVES
This dissertation aims to contribute to the Engineers Without Borders (EWB) 1 Water and Sanitation
East Timor Student Program. In January 2006 the first phase of the three-year program commenced
with three student volunteers from the University of Western Australia. Concurrent to this dissertation
are the two projects Sanitation in East Timor by Phoebe Mack and Community Water Supply by
Vaughn Grey, of the Schools of Environmental Systems Engineering and Mechanical Engineering
respectively. The integration of the three projects provides a holistic view of traditional water and
sanitation development projects which tend to incorporate one or two of water quality, water supply or
sanitation facets but not management of the total water cycle.
Water and sanitation projects in East Timor are still in the early stages of providing results of success;
or failure. With detailed focus on the three different areas of water quality; water supply; and
sanitation, the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program intends to provide specific
analysis of local conditions and technology suitable for these conditions.
Water quality is not traditionally considered a priority in development situations and community water
supply projects. The sufficient supply of water and sanitation facilities or practices has usually taken
precedence over the quality of water, with only minimal measures taken to reduce contamination. This
investigation takes into account the equal importance of the need for water quality as is the need for
improved water supply and sanitation of a community. This study illustrates the impact various water
quality parameters can have on human health, the maintenance of supply and storage systems, and the
links with the adequate supply of water and sanitation and hygiene practices.
The project team extended to include six engineering student volunteers from the National University
of East Timor, or Universidade Nacional de Timor-Leste (UNTL). The investigations of the projects
focused on the water and sanitation situation of a small village, Tangkae, situated in rural East Timor.
Inclusion of the UNTL students in the project team provides the project with greater understanding of
local culture and social practices as well as encouraging intercultural exchange and a greater expanse
to build capacity.
EWB’s vision is of a world where every individual and community has adequate access to resources,
knowledge, and technology to meet their basic human needs. EWB requested the project to further
advance and develop their mission to ensure that the technology of treating water to make it potable is
accessible to communities that need it, such as the aldiea (or village) of Tangkae. This project intends
to not only improve the community’s access to an improved quality of life, but also seeks to empower
1
Engineers Without Borders Australia (EWB) is an Australian development non-governmental organisation
(NGO) engaged in helping disadvantaged communities improve the opportunities available to them. Further
information can be found on their website <www.ewb.org.au>
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Introduction
the community to seek assistance and opportunities for development, to encourage the exchange of
knowledge and to develop partnerships between stakeholders and communities.
The main objective of the study is to investigate appropriate techniques and technologies to improve
the drinking-water quality, help develop the capacity of the community and improve their quality of
life. Specifically, the project aims, and the general steps taken to achieve these aims, are as follows:
1. Analyse data from the village of Tangkae:

Assess the quality of the current water sources for Tangkae.

Examine the local factors, such as usages and cultural perceptions of these
water sources.

Investigate potential options and strategies to improve the water sources in
Tangkae.
2.
Utilise methods and methodology to build stakeholder capacity:

Conduct a stakeholder analysis and assessment of the community’s current
capacity by means of surveys and discussions.

Examine ways to build relations and partnerships, exchange information and
evaluate stakeholder capacity throughout the lifetime of the project.
3. Produce recommendations regarding:

Improving the quality of water available and identifiable sources of water
contamination in Tangkae.

The management of these recommendations in the subsequent consultation
and implementation stages of the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor
Student Program.
The investigations from this study will provide recommendations for the community in question to use
as a guide to make decisions regarding the implementation of improved water supply and treatment
systems. The information and knowledge from this dissertation, in conjunction with the Community
Water Supply and Sanitation studies, will also provide the community, as well as other stakeholders,
access to technology applicable to use in the broader community of East Timor.
1.3
PROJECT OVERVIEW IN CONTEXT
This study is one aspect of a much larger project, as already outlined above. Having highlighted the
main objectives of this dissertation, it is important to understand how this study fits in the bigger
picture. The overview represented in Table 1 summarises the general outline of a model plan for the
EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program and this study to achieve sustainable
outcomes. The initial step of setting objectives has already been outlined above. These objectives were
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Introduction
formulated from an initial proposal from EWB, which were then given greater definition during site
visits and preliminary investigations.
Table 1. An overview of the steps within the EWB Project required to achieve sustainable outcomes. Blue
shaded boxes indicate the focus for this study within the context of the whole project. The green shaded
area is highlighted throughout all stages of the project. Unshaded boxes are subsequent stages on
completion of this dissertation.
Capacity Development
(Stakeholder Identification & analysis, promote partnerships)
Set Objectives
Gather
Preliminary
Data
Analyse Data
Investigate
Technological
Options
Community
Consultation
Assist Community
with Technology
Selection
Project
Implementation
Operation &
Maintenance
Evaluation &
Feedback
The essence of this study is then specified in the second line of shaded boxes: gather and analyse
preliminary data and investigate technological options. The data gathered includes specific
information relating to the local conditions of the community, such as raw water quality and health
status. These were used to investigate appropriate technological solutions to improve the quality of the
village’s water supply.
The following stages of the project are outlined in the unshaded boxes. A second site visit would entail
consulting the community with the preliminary project proposal, obtain more detailed scientific and
social data, and conduct an analysis of the preliminary data and design options. This would be
followed with assisting the community with selection of technological options, which may also
include some education regarding these options. Once funding has been sought, the next stage is
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Introduction
project implementation. The operation of the system would then be monitored through the use of a
maintenance and evaluation process.
A major element of the project is depicted by the green shaded column on the left hand side. The
capacity development, examined later in more detail, is considered instrumental in all stages of the
project, and it is with this in mind that the researcher of any development project must function in
order to achieve sustainable outcomes.
1.4
DISSERTATION SYNOPSIS
This section of the dissertation presents the reader with an introduction of the project and the main
objectives.
Chapter 2 begins with painting a picture of the development situation that is currently prevalent in East
Timor through descriptions of the social, environmental and economic facets of the country. The
Millennium Development Goals and the concept of capacity development is introduced followed by
an examination of water quality parameters that are of importance in developing situations and
strategies applicable to management of water at the household level.
The methodology and methods are outlined in Chapter 3. Methodology explains the general approach
taken to achieve the goals of the dissertation, such as field site visits and scoping out the project
details. The methods are the specific steps performed in various components of the project,
particularly water quality testing.
Chapter 4 presents the results from the methods and methodology. These results consist of raw water
quality data, results from social and physical surveys of the village, stakeholder analysis and an
assessment of potential options for improving the quality of water sources.
The discussion in Chapter 5 further explores issues of scientific analysis, data availability in a fragile
state and capacity development. Conclusions and final recommendations are presented in Chapter 6.
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Literature Review
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
EAST TIMOR BACKGROUND
This account of East Timor’s background sets the scene of the developmental foundations and
problems that have arisen from the country’s colonial history and struggle for independence. The
presence of both the Portuguese and Indonesians has shaped the development situation that it is today.
Outlining the patterns of the past will provide an insight into the present situation, and development
options for the future. Fragmented political representation, the presence of a spiritual authority and a
largely multilingual population suggests that the nation’s development will require comprehensive
cultural understanding, as well as consideration of the population’s diversity and the present situation.
Examination of the current capacity of the population will build a basis for this capacity to be
developed.
In some areas of research, there is extensive literature available, but other areas are severely lacking.
An extensive amount of the data presented in this section is based on a bibliography of East Timor by
Finngeir Hiorth, who has presented a well researched and supported documentation of events leading
up to 1984. Few other resources offered such detail. During the Indonesian departure from East Timor
and associated trail of destruction, many records were destroyed. Remaining government
infrastructure and administration found that many scientific and research documents were missing post
Indonesia’s period of annexation. Some of the gaps in this review of literature are due to information
being non-existent and will remain so until governance of the country is consolidated.
2.1.1
Geography, Geology and Climate
Tangkae
Figure 1. Map of East Timor (Timor- Lorasae Timor of the Rising Sun).
The location of the village of Tangkae is indicated by the red arrow.
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Literature Review
East Timor is found on the island of Timor, belonging to the driest and least developed parts of the
Indonesian archipelago (Hiorth, 1985) (see map in Figure 1). The nation comprises approximately half
of the island: 18,899 km2 (including the Oecussi enclave in West Timor) (Hiorth, 1985). The forward
thrust of the Australian tectonic plate toward the Asian plate has formed an extraordinary set of multiisland ridges of which Timor is the most prominent (Fox and Soares, 2003). With mountain ranges
dividing the island lengthwise with summits exceeding 2000 m (Hiorth, 1985) this rough and irregular
mountainous interior is the heartland of the Timorese. Almost half of the country experiences slopes of
approximately 40% which, combined with heavy rainfall, encourages soil erosion (UNDP, 2006).
The soft, scaly Bobonaro clay (named after a central region of the island) is the dominant soil type
(Fox and Soares, 2003). This Bobonaro clay substratum is overlaid with limestone and associated
marl, a mix of clay and lime (Fox and Soares, 2003). These Timor clays do not support heavy
vegetation, soaking up rain in the wet season and drying out in the dry season (Fox and Soares, 2003).
Differences in temperature are relatively small, so the rainfall regime describes the climate and
determines the vegetation, the soil and consequently population settlements. The tropical climate
exhibits cyclones unique to this part of the Indonesian archipelago and erratic rainfall seasons (Hiorth,
1985). A brief but intense monsoonal rain ranging from December through to April is followed by a
prolonged dry season (Fox and Soares, 2003) which varies for different regions of the island.
East Timor can be divided into three climatic zones classified by precipitation, temperature and
altitude:
the north, stretching from the north coast to the 600m mark, featuring annual average
temperature over 24 degrees Celcius, weak precipitation (below 1500mm annually) and a
pronounced dry period of five months;
the southern zone, stretching from the south coast to the 600m mark, greater rainfall than the
northern zone, average temperatures higher than 24 degrees and a dry period of three
months; and
the mountainous zone, sandwiched between the northern and southern zones above the 600m
level, comprising of temperatures under 24 degrees, high precipitation (greater than
1500mm) and a dry period of four months (Government of the Democratic Republic of
Timor-Leste, 2006). The village of Tangkae in this case study is grouped in this mountainous
zone.
The natural environment is important to many East Timorese as they are reliant on the use of fuelwood
as a major source of energy. Electricity is supplied to only 10% of the rural population (UNDP, 2006).
‘Slash and burn’ agriculture, logging and rapid water flows have deteriorated the soils and vegetation.
Erosion is a clearly evident issue.
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2.1.2
History and Politics
Political instabilities have been common throughout East Timor’s history, causing unrest and suffering
amongst its people. The fragrant native white sandalwood (Santalum album L.) attracted many traders
to Timor, including the Portuguese, early in the sixteenth century (Hiorth, 1985). The Portuguese took
some time to make settlement, and a rebellion against the Portuguese in 1910 took 18 months to
suppress (Hiorth, 1985), resulting in a reduced power of the once powerful local chiefs. Portuguese
rule remained minimal and doubtful for the years to follow.
Although Portugal remained neutral during the Second World War, they reluctantly allowed Allied
troops to land in East Timor. In February 1942, Japanese troops also landed in the country resulting in
a guerrilla war with the 2/2 Australian independent company. The last of the Australians evacuated
twelve months later with a far lesser loss than the Japanese. However, the Timorese were the ones who
suffered the most. Many were killed by the Japanese, and many more starved to death.
Portugal continued to rule the East Timor colony as West Timor and the rest of Indonesia declared
their independence from Dutch colonisation (Hiorth, 1985). Increased international pressure on
Portugal to give up their colonial hold on East Timor resulted in a greater stress on development
(Hiorth, 1985). Such slow development was to the detriment of the Timorese and only benefited the
already economically privileged minorities: the Portuguese and the Chinese (Hiorth, 1985).
Following the change of power in Portugal in the wake of the Carnation Revolution in 1974,
decolonisation began in Portuguese Timor. Three political groups were formed: Unaio Democratica
Timorense (UDT), Fretilin (Frente Revolucionaria de Timor Leste Independete) and Apodeti
(Associacao Popular Deomoratica Timorense). UDT, a pro-Portuguese party, aimed at progressive
autonomy and a peaceful transition to domestic self-government (Hiorth, 1985). Freitilin, with a
radical reputation, advocated the right to independence, rejected colonialism and aimed for extensive
internal reforms (Hiorth, 1985). The minority of the three parties, Apodeti, wanted East Timor to be
united with Indonesia, from whom it received financial support (Hiorth, 1985). A weak coalition
between Fretilin and UDT did not last, erupting in civil unrest in August 1975. Thousands of people
fled to West Timor refugee camps and more than 2,000 people lost their lives (Hiorth, 1985). Intertribal and inter-family hostilities increased in some areas, and there were signs of social disruption and
food shortages (Hiorth, 1985).
Effectively abandoned by Portugal, East Timor declared itself independent on 28 November 1975.
However, before the declaration was internationally recognised Indonesian forces invaded and
occupied East Timor. The Indonesian soldiers inflicted rape, torture and murder on the East Timorese,
targeting those that held administration and educated positions in the community (Hiorth, 1985).
Reports of atrocities continued into the next decade. Without UN intervention, the East Timorese
population continued to suffer and exercising their right to self-determination was undermined. The
increasing problem of internal refugees resulted in tens of thousands of displaced East Timorese,
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leaving the interior lands largely devastated (Hiorth, 1985). With less people to work the crops,
famine-like conditions resulted.
Admission of relief organisations was permitted in 1979 (Hiorth, 1985). In 1982 the UN General
Assembly recognised “the inalienable right of the people of East Timor to self-determination and
independence” but did not reaffirm “that the people of East Timor must be enabled freely to determine
their own future on the basis of the relevant General Assembly resolutions and internationally
accepted procedures” (Hiorth, 1985, p.55). Self-determination is recognised as a fundamental
international norm in the Charter of the United Nations and that the principle of self-determination
applies to all non-self-governing territories (Clark, 1980). This included East Timor and the
Indonesian annexation undermined the East Timorese rights.
After more than three decades of Indonesian military rule and repression, the referendum held in 1999
illustrated an overwhelming response for the vote of Independence (Fox and Soares, 2003). The trail
of death and destruction that followed the Indonesians’ departure left hundreds of thousands of East
Timorese displaced and sheltering in refugee camps across the island. On return to their homes, most
of the population found only remnants of burnt out buildings, killed livestock and ruined crops. Once
again, the people of East Timor were in a destitute situation. With little in terms of social and
economic infrastructure remaining, the United Nations moved in to East Timor to assist
reconstruction.
Since the country gained Independence in 1999, East Timor has been subject to a different kind of
invasion. International aid and peacekeeping forces bombarded the country, assisting with
restructuring of the nation. Governance, health and education systems, infrastructure and the people’s
living conditions were all targeted for assistance. Development was vital for all areas of civil society.
The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was formed to provide
security; to establish an effective administration; to assist in the development of civil and social
services; to coordinate humanitarian assistance; to support capacity-building for self-government; and
to assist in the establishment of conditions for sustainable development (United Nations, 2006). The
role of UNTAET outlines how great the need for development was at this time in East Timor.
Early in 2006, politically based issues surfaced amongst the East Timorese, causing further destruction
and death to the population. Divisions between “east” and “west” gave rise to riots and gang warfare
in the capital of Dili. Hundreds of thousands of people fled their homes to the safety of the mountains,
churches and the airport. Once again the people of Dili were displaced, their homes burnt down, their
safety at risk and their lives disrupted. Camps for the internally displaced people (IDP) were set up and
continue to home many thousands of the population. A waiver in united strength and governance in
conjunction with pressures and challenges of a young developing nation have resulted in massive
disruptions to rebuilding the country. Emergency water and sanitation services have taken precedence
to combat the immediate concerns such as diseases in IDP camps. Long term projects in the district of
Dili have taken a role of lesser urgency until the volatile situation is stabilised.
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2.1.3
Languages, Population, Religion and Education
The linguistic conditions in East Timor are diverse and expansive and include approximately 18
languages which are spoken throughout the country (Hiorth, 1985). Tetum and Portuguese were
declared as the national languages at the time of Independence in 1999, although neither is spoken by
all citizens. Some literature suggests that approximately 60% of the population understands Tetum
(Hiorth, 1985), however this needs to be distinguished between the maternal tongue of Tetum proper
and lingua franca Tetum, or Dili Tetum. The latter uses simplified grammar and loans many
Portuguese words and Tetum proper can be divided into several dialects (Hiorth, 1985).
At the end of the colonial period only influential East Timorese spoke Portuguese, and authorities did
not encourage Indonesian to be spoken (Hiorth, 1985). As a result of Indonesian occupancy and
influence in the education system, young East Timorese quickly learnt Bahasa Indonesia. Today, the
linguistic conditions are even more complicated. The school system teaches Portuguese, Tetum is
spoken only at homes mainly in the Dili district and Indonesian textbooks are used in the universities.
The mixture of languages that different institutions converse with enforces greater difficulties for the
nation to work together and find some uniformity.
The religion and population distribution of East Timor has been largely influenced by the country’s
rulers. The religion of East Timor’s population is predominantly Roman Catholic, due to Portuguese
settlement and rule, preceding the settlement of other religions common to the Indonesian archipelago.
The mountainous interior was initially the force against the settlement of large populations in the
centre. However, Indonesia’s reign of terror and security obsession forced a large shift of the
population to coastal settlements, deserting farming and agricultural settlements and having a
significant effect on the population distribution (Fox and Soares, 2003). A 2004 census recorded the
most recent population of the island at 924,642 with approximately 78% living in rural areas (Holland,
2006).
Educational structure has also been grossly influenced by the predecessors of East Timor’s rule.
During Indonesian rule, the emphasis on education served to force Indonesian values and traditions on
to the East Timorese population (Hiorth, 1985). Later, a shortage of school buildings, teachers and
schoolbooks (Hiorth, 1985) meant limited educational opportunities. Presently, just over half the
population is literate and enrolments in primary school stand at approximately 70% 2 (UNDP, 2006).
The gravity of these national statistics is illustrated in Table 2 which compares East Timor to
neighbouring nations and averages of Least Developed and Developing Countries. The rates of adult
literacy and enrolments are just two indices used to measure the Human Development Index (HDI)
2
Statistical data used here and in Table 2 is provided by the UNDP Path out of Poverty: Integrated Rural
Development Report. A number of sources also presented these figures but with slight differences, however the
author considered this source as the most reputable, as it is supported by the Government of East Timor and an
internationally prominent agency, the United Nations Development Programme.
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which focuses on dimensions of human development. The figures in this table show that East Timor is
classified as a Least Developed Country.
Table 2. Country statistics (adult literacy and combined school enrolment) for East Timor, in comparison
to averages of neighbouring East Asia Pacifica region, Least Developed Countriesb and Developing
Countriesc (UNDP, 2006).
Country
East Timor 2004
East Asia Pacific 2003
Least Developed Countries 2003
Developing Countries 2003
a
Adult Literacy rate (% of
population ages 15 and above)
Combined Primary,
Secondary & Tertiary Gross
Enrolment (%)
50.1
90.4
54.2
76.6
66
69
45
63
East Asia & Pacific region includes data from Cambodia, China, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea,
Philippines, Thailand, Viet Nam.
b
Least Developed Countries are those exhibit low income (< US$750 GNI per capita), human resource weakness and
economic vulnerability.
c
Developing Countries have a relatively low standard of living, undeveloped industrial base and low to medium HDI.
2.1.4
Social Structure and Economic Situation
Historical literature reports that empires and kingdoms once controlled the Timorese island. The
kingdoms were ruled by liurai who had power to decide the law (Hiorth, 1985). “Liu” meaning
“more” and “rai” is “land or earth”, hence “one who owns more land”. The liurai were assisted by
dato who were above the common people, ema-reino (Hiorth, 1985). At the bottom of the societal
ladder were the lutun, or cattle-driviers, the ata, or slaves, and the foreigners, or people without family
ties. These social distinctions deteriorated to a more simplified form of just three social classes: dassi
(royalty), data (aristocrats), and ema (commoners) (Hiorth, 1985). However, with lenient class
boundaries some social mobility was relatively open.
The main feature of social distinction today arises from differences between individuals. Increasing
age can result in elevated status as can geographic positioning on coastal regions (Hiorth, 1985). The
judicial system that existed in East Timor under Portuguese rule was administered by a council of
elders (Hiorth, 1985). The chefe de suku, or the village chief, elected by the villagers, was the main
link to the Portuguese authorities (Hiorth, 1985). The chefe still remains a prominent figure in the
village administration. These judicial systems support the local patriarchal mechanisms, which mean
women in East Timor generally have a lower status than men and suffer discrimination in the
household, workplace and community. Higher illiteracy rates and malnutrition are reflective of
cultural factors that continue to hinder women’s health, education and opportunities for equality
(UNDP, 2006). Although it is recognised that women play a significant role in looking after the family
unit, collecting water, tending to livestock and crops and general maintenance of the household.
The economic performance of East Timor in recent years has seen very little growth, even decline in
some areas (UNDP, 2006). The Census of Housing and Population conducted in 2004 found that three
quarters of the population lived in rural areas and 88% of the working population were engaged in
self-employment or subsistence agriculture. The per capita income has been estimated at about
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US$370 per year although in rural areas this figure is approximately US$150 per year. In 2001 studies
found that 40% of the population were living below the poverty line of US$0.55 per day, and although
this figure is declining the economy is still significantly poor (UNDP, 2006). A major gap in East
Timor’s future development lies in the lack of skilled workers. This highlights the importance of
raising the country’s levels of education, skills and capacity.
2.2
THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Many water and sanitation development studies published in recent years refer to the UN Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) as the driving factor to alleviate poverty and increase development. The
eight MDGs were adopted in September 2000 to form a proposal agreed to by all the world’s countries
and leading development agencies, aiming to reduce the proportion of people living in poverty by half
by 2015 (Mathew, 2005) and to meet the needs of the poorest. In order to meet the water supply MDG
target, an additional 260 000 people per day up to 2015 should gain access to improved water sources
(World Health Organisation, 2006). However, improving community water sources is a common
thread for achieving many of the MDGs, recognising the importance of providing safe water to
alleviate poverty. The targets that are directly aligned with the provision of safe water are illustrated in
Table 3 and a full list of the goals is listed in Appendix A.
Table 3. UN Millennium Development Goals that are directly applicable to the provision of safe water
(United Nations, 2002)
Targets
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of
people whose income is less than $1 a day.
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
people who suffer from hunger
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys
and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of
primary schooling
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower
Women
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and
secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of
education no later than 2015
Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality
Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015,
the under-five mortality rate
Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health
Target 6. Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and
2015, the maternal mortality ratio
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other
diseases
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the
incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic
sanitation
These indicators monitored separately for the least
developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing
countries, and small island developing states
Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries,
develop and implement strategies for decent and productive
work for youth
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make
available the benefits of new technologies, especially
information and communications technologies
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A key factor to achieving these goals is that issues of poverty must become the responsibility of
developed nations as well as of those nations struggling to rise above the poverty line, such as East
Timor. A global perspective is sought from all nations in order for the targets to be achieved, as
summed up in this quote by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan:
"We will have time to reach the Millennium Development Goals … only if we break with
business as usual. We cannot win overnight. Success will require sustained action across
the entire decade between now and the deadline. It takes time to train the teachers, nurses
and engineers; to build the roads, schools and hospitals; to grow the small and large
businesses able to create the jobs and income needed … We must more than double
global development assistance over the next few years. Nothing less will help to achieve
the Goals."
United Nations Secretary-General
Kofi A. Annan
The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development reaffirmed the MDGs and aimed to improve
lives while preserving earth’s resources as well as integrating economic, environmental and social
decision-making. Sustainable development, defined by the United Nations as “development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”, calls for improving the quality of life for all the world’s people without compromising the
earth’s natural resources.
An extensive number of agencies have been established to meet the needs of the poorest and poverty
stricken. To ensure the solutions are technically, socially, environmentally and economically
appropriate to the people requires long-term outcomes. Through integration of three key areas:
economic growth and equity; conserving natural resources and the environment; and social
development, the sustainability of water and sanitation interventions can be assured (Mathew, 2005).
The MDGs steer this project towards striving for sustainable outcomes that are not only specific to this
case study of Tangkae but with a conscious thought of applying the research and investigations to
other communities so that deliverables are not restricted to any geographic, social or economic
boundaries. The achievability of the sustainable outcomes is reliant on addressing long-term factors
such as capacity building rather than less beneficial short-range aspects such as technology transfer on
its own.
2.3
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND STAKEHOLDER
ANALYSIS IN THE DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT
There are a variety of definitions of development available, depending on the context with which one
is concerned. A variety of terms including human development, economic development, community
development, cultural development and sustainable development all emphasise various aspects of the
definition (Lusthaus et al., 1999). The term development in this dissertation refers to that within the
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international development sector and generally embraces the global effort to alleviate poverty and
promote social and economic growth. Major players in this field include intergovernmental
organisations, namely the United Nations, governmental organisations such as the Australian Agency
for International Development (AusAID) and non-government organisations (NGOs) such as the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and Oxfam. The background on East Timor
outlined in section 2.1 illustrates the vital development required in this country. An understanding of
the concept of development is required for effective achievement of poverty alleviation.
Past experiences have illustrated that technical solutions have not adequately changed the way some
people are living, which has led to the emergence of the concept of capacity development, or capacity
building (Lusthaus et al., 1999). Despite definitions of the term still emerging, capacity development
has become a central theme within the development sector. The term ‘capacity’ can be simply defined
as the ability of people, organisations and society as a whole to manage to carry out functions and
achieve their development objectives over time (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), 2006). The United Nations Development Programme defines the term
“capacity development” as the “process by which individuals, groups, organisations, institutions and
societies increase their abilities: to perform functions, solve problems and achieve objectives; to
understand and deal with their development need in a broader context and in a sustainable manner”
(UNDP, 1997). Strategies to enhance or create new capacity at the different levels generally imply a
shift of developing communities taking the lead in project processes whilst the role of donors
diminishes. Although there are slightly varied definitions available from an exhaustive list of
promoters of capacity development, this dissertation intends to only illustrate the general concept and
why it is critical in this development situation.
The definition above illustrates that there are different dimensions or levels of capacity, such as
individual, organisational and societal. Recognition and an appreciation of the interrelationships
between these levels augment the success of the development projects. Capacity development can
focus on local projects such as improving the water and sanitation situation to a village or it may take
a broader long-term approach by strengthening educational institutions to help build the nation’s
capacity in terms of skills, knowledge and experiences. This dissertation considers both the modest
and broader capacity building to ensure the capacity of all stakeholders in the project is enhanced and
that the needs of the village as well as the wider community can be met. Building this capacity can be
instrumental in achieving the goals of this project. The provision of opportunities and experiences are
additional benefits of the capacity building concept, such as educational opportunities for the children
of the village or for the UNTL students, so that they can continue to learn and empower themselves
and their families to ensure improved long-term living standards.
Various methods and tools contribute to the capacity development, including stakeholder analysis and
community and participant consultation. Stakeholder analysis is a method of identifying principle and
secondary participants, assess interests and motivations, and address potential areas of cooperation and
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conflict in stakeholder interrelations. WHO recognises that stakeholders must take on many different
roles and responsibilities to ensure drinking-water safety (2004b). Community consultation addresses
the individual and community level of capacity development, a strategy to transfer skills and
knowledge so that the responsibility of management and operation of processes can be devolved to the
community.
Stakeholder identification and analysis of relationships provides techniques to perform the basic
functions of planning processes (Bryson, c2004). Burke (2005) suggests organisations should be
guided by five questions:
• Who are the stakeholders?
• What do they value?
• What are their concerns?
• What is the nature of the relationship with these stakeholders?
• What is the stakeholder relations plan?
This final point illustrates the position of planning in stakeholder analysis, which leads into the
planning strategies required for project management. Strategies need to be well planned and
structured. Walker and Marr (2001) strategies apply the planning concept to business and
organisational situations, but can also be applied to projects in the development context. It is of
paramount importance that the relations between constituents are committed and engaged. As a project
evolves, it can create distance between the constituents. Therefore, investing resources to relationship
building, loyalty and integrity of these relationships will translate into long-term business benefits
(Walker and Marr, 2001).
Stakeholder analysis provides the planning team the opportunity to generate knowledge about relevant
parties to “understand their behaviour, intentions, interrelations, agendas, interests and influence” on
the management process and strategy development (Brugha and Varvasovszky, 2000). As the planning
and management of the project provides well defined overviews of goals and objectives, gathering this
information from the stakeholder analysis can provide more in depth strategies and greater
organisational success.
2.4
WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AT THE
HOUSEHOLD LEVEL
The majority of aid organisations working in developing communities stress the need for management
strategies to be developed at the household level to ensure sustainable solutions are implemented for
improving the quality of community water systems. The appropriate level of treatment required, in
terms of the scale of the treatment system that can be accommodated by the community, needs to be
determined. A larger-scale system could be found to be more efficient, although systems implemented
at household level tend to be simpler and easier to manage. Introducing improved water strategies at
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the household level is found to increase personal and community knowledge as well as awareness of
the importance of other factors, such as hygiene and sanitation (Sobsey, 2002). Household water
treatment addresses the immediate needs of the smallest of vulnerable populations and provides direct
defence against water-borne diseases (CAWST, 2006). Individual households are empowered to make
decisions about the most appropriate treatment barriers needed to be implemented.
Clasen et al. (2006) provide a well documented analysis of an extensive number of field trials that
have verified that interventions to improve water quality at the household level are more effective than
interventions at the source. Household scale treatment is approved by numerous international
organisations, including the World Health Organisation who established The International Network to
Promote Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in 2003, with the aim to improve drinking
water quality and reduce water-related diarrhoeal diseases as a key component of water, sanitation and
hygiene programmes.
Many diarrhoeal diseases are transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water; however there
are many other pathways for pathogen transmission. These include ingestion of contaminated food and
beverages, by person-to-person contact, and by direct or indirect contact with infected faeces (Clasen
et al., 2006). The multitude of waterborne disease transmission routes needs multiple barriers to
improve intervention effectiveness.
A highly recommended strategy is to employ multiple barriers for the protection and treatment of
community water sources. Having multiple barriers provides a back up for normal fluctuations in
process performance. These barriers can be divided into three categories:
1. Behavioural practices: The first of these barriers between contaminants and the water source
includes good sanitation, hygiene and waste disposal practices (Gadgil, 1998) and safe water
storage.
2. Preventative barriers: Protecting the water source from faecal contamination is also a priority
(WHO, 2004). This overlaps with some of the behavioural practices.
3. Treatment processes: Appropriate filtration and disinfection processes are required to treat
source water of high bacteriological and turbidity levels. The resulting reduced turbidity post
filtration generally enhances the effectiveness of disinfection methods.
Identifying hazards and understanding the reasons for variations in raw water quality is important, as it
will influence the requirements for treatment, treatment efficiency and the resulting health risk
associated with the finished water (WHO, 2004). Characteristics of the local catchment or aquifer
should be understood so that scenarios that could result in water pollution can be identified and
managed (WHO, 2004). This is discussed further in following section.
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2.5
WATER SOURCES AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The process by which water is moved in the environment as well as the states in which it exists and is
stored is described by the hydrologic cycle. Understanding the hydrologic cycle is particularly
important for exploring various water resources locally available and the factors that can potentially
affect the quality. The following description of this cycle is primarily taken from Fetter (2001) and an
illustration of the cycle can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The hydrologic cycle (Ward and Robinson, 1990).
The hydrologic cycle encompasses the oceans, ice caps, groundwater, surface water, soil moisture and
atmosphere. As most of the water is in the oceans (97.2%) it is convenient to describe the cycle
beginning here. Water, evaporated from the surface of the oceans, is pure, leaving the salts of the sea
behind as it moves through the atmosphere and condenses to form droplets during suitable
atmospheric conditions. These droplets, known as precipitation, fall to the sea, onto the land surface or
revaporise. Precipitation that falls on the land surface can be stored temporarily as puddles, will drain
across the land as overland or surface flow, or will seep into the ground by infiltration processes.
Below the land surface is the zone of aeration (or vadose zone), where pores in the soil contain both
air and water, allowing the plant roots to draw in water. Once used by the plant the water is transpired
as vapour into the atmosphere. Below this vadose zone the pores become saturated with water in what
is known as the saturation zone, and is called ground-water. This ground-water flows through rock and
soil layers and can discharge as a spring or as seepage into a stream, river or ocean.
Knowing the source of the community water supply, whether drawn from surface or underground
sources, is important for understanding catchment or aquifer characteristics and the likelihood of
events that could lead to risks to health and the environment. Requirements for treatment and
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treatment efficiency can also be influenced by the water quality. The raw water quality can be
influenced by various natural and anthropogenic factors, including climate, topography, geology and
vegetation, and human impacts such as wastewater discharges and agricultural runoff (WHO, 2004).
Groundwater from deep and confined aquifers is generally considered safe from microbial presence
and is usually chemically stable in the absence of contamination (WHO, 2004). Therefore, springs are
a typically clean source of water due to the soils that the groundwater passes through acting as a sand
filter by removing bacteria and particulate matter from the flow. Shallow and unconfined aquifers are
more likely subject to contamination from discharges associated with agricultural practices and
sanitation wastes. Hazardous situations that could have an impact on water sources that should be
taken into consideration as part of source assessment include: sewage and septic discharges, variations
in raw water quality, human access and land use (eg. agriculture, animal husbandry), wildlife and
livestock, inadequate buffer zones and vegetation, soil erosion, geology (naturally occurring
chemicals), unconfined and shallow aquifer, climatic and seasonal variations (such as heavy rainfall
and droughts) and natural disasters (WHO, 2004). An assessment of this extent will also help develop
control measures of effective resource and source protection.
Rainwater can also be considered an important water resource as the quality is generally fair
depending on harvesting and storage methods and materials. Catchment processes can be relatively
simple. This option is highly dependent on the reliability and quantity of supply. Table 4 compares
different water resources and sources in terms of raw water quality, quantity, accessibility, reliability
and cost.
Table 4. A general overview of water resources and sources, of potential relevance to Tangkae,
summarised in terms of quality, supply, accessibility, reliability and cost (CAWST, 2006, Degrémont,
1991, AusAID, 2005b).
Water
Resource
Quality
Groundwater Good quality for
deep aquifers; poor
to fair for shallow
aquifers
Quantity
Accessibility
Reliability
Good with little
variation
Pumping required
unless artesian well
Good; maintenance
on pump required
regularly; must not
over pump the
aquifer
Cost
Moderate to high if
you need to pump
Springs &
Seeps
Good quality;
disinfection
recommended after
installation of spring
protection
Good with little
variation for artesian
flow springs; variable
with seasonal
fluctuations for
gravity flow springs
Storage necessary for
community water
supply; gravity flow
delivery for easy
community access
Good for artesian
Fairly low cost;
flow and gravity
(costs increase with
overflow; little
piped system)
maintenance needed
after installation
Streams &
Rivers
Good for mountain Moderate; seasonal
streams; poor for
variation likely; some
lowland streams;
dry up in dry season
treatment necessary
Generally good; need
for intake for both
gravity flow and
piped delivery
Maintenance
required; much
higher for piped
system;
Rainwater
Fair (depending on
catchment &
storage) disinfection
necessary
Good; cisterns
Must be rain; some
located in yards of
maintenance
users; fair for ground required
catchments
Moderate and
variable; supplies
unavailable during
dry season
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Moderate to high
depending on
method; treatment
and pumping
expensive
Low for roof
catchments
Literature Review
Groundwater is generally of fair quality whilst surface waters are more likely to be subject to
contamination. However, streams and rivers are more easily accessible. Springs and seeps are
considered the most reliable source, generally of good quality, reliable supply and low costs to provide
community access. AusAID’s Safe water guide for the Australian aid program 2005 provides a more
in-depth analysis of identifying specific water quality problems from different sources and the risk
associated with these problems.
2.6
2.6.1
WATER QUALITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Definition
Drinking water, or potable water, is defined as having acceptable quality in terms of its physical,
chemical, bacteriological and acceptability parameters so that it can be safely used for drinking and
cooking (WHO, 2004). WHO defines drinking water to be safe as long as it does not cause any
significant health risks over a lifetime of consumption, and an effort should be made to maintain
drinking-water quality at the highest possible level. This dissertation focuses on water quality for
drinking and domestic uses, such as cooking, cleaning and washing.
Water quality for other uses, such as irrigation for food crops or washing away of wastes, has been
considered by the author to be beyond the urgency of Tangkae’s needs, and hence the scope of this
study. The current lack of water collection and distribution facilities asserts that water for irrigation is
not a regulated priority at this point in time. However, future demands from economic and population
growth need to be taken into consideration. The quality of waste water from domestic usages such as
cooking and washing food is likely to be satisfactory quality for use on gardens or crops, as long as
application methods are controlled. This means that a type of system similar to drip irrigation be used.
Education plus a simple design could be presented to the community for consideration after safe
drinking-water supplies have been discussed.
This section begins with an outline of the guidelines adopted by the Government of East Timor for
drinking water quality. These guidelines are supported by various international authorities (WHO and
AusAID’s Safe Water Guide for the Australian aid program 2005) who are used as reference here to
assess water quality and discuss microbial, chemical and physical parameters. Impacts of the presence
of these parameters on public health, social, environmental and infrastructural factors focus on
parameters that have potential importance in the developing community of Tangkae. A review of
water sampling techniques and testing methods is also included.
Radiological and disinfection by-products are not examined due to these factors being of minimal
importance to Tangkae compared to microbial contamination and infrastructural impacts.
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Literature Review
2.6.2
Guidelines
Different developing countries maintain different guidelines for what constitutes safe drinking water
(Gadgil, 1998). Although the World Health Organisation is the principle international health
organisation, it does not promote the adoption of international standards for drinking water quality but
recommends guidelines for use by a risk-benefit approach in establishing standards and regulations for
the national situation. This approach is the comparison of the risk of a situation to its related benefits.
To be effective, consideration of relevant local conditions (including economic, environmental, social
and cultural conditions) and financial, technical and institutional resources is required.
Commissioned by the Asian Development Bank (ADP), East Timor’s national water and sanitation
guidelines have been developed and revised in conjunction with AusAID and stakeholders including
international and local Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) (DNAS, 2005). The focus of these
guidelines is to retain and if possible improve the water source quality; however, only very basic
treatment (sedimentation) is included (DNAS, 2005). Other guidelines referred to include AusAID’s
Safe water guide for the Australian aid program 2005 (AusAID, 2005b). This guide incorporates best
practice principles from the Australian drinking water guidelines 2004 (NHMRC and NRMMC, 2004)
and WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality (3rd edn) (WHO, 2004). Here, AusAID’s Safe Water
Guide is considered an authority on water quality in developing communities.
East Timor’s Community Water and Sanitation Guidelines (2005) consider the basic quality
requirements of drinking water as outlined below. These requirements cover the basic hazards of
contaminated water to human health and the distribution infrastructure:

It should be acceptable to the consumer. Bad taste or colour, staining, or unpleasant odour
can cause a user to choose an alternative source;

It should be free from disease-causing organisms;

It should be free from toxic chemicals; and

It should not cause corrosion or encrustation in piped water systems or leave deposits.
The guidelines suggest effective water testing for disease-causing organisms needs to be conducted
routinely (monthly) and any points of contamination encountered require a sanitary survey to be
undertaken in order to identify the contamination source. The guidelines also recommend appropriate
prevention steps be taken to isolate the contamination. The approach adopted by these guidelines
involves reducing potential contamination of a water source through effective protection structures and
storage systems. The guidelines are limited by several constraints, primarily the lack of funding and
human resource capacity for water quality testing and monitoring programmes, as well as operation
and maintenance of treatment process to improve drinking water quality. The guidelines suggest
prevention and boiling before consumption as the minimal steps to be taken to ensure drinking quality
water. As mentioned, these are very minimal barriers to water contamination, and boiling water is not
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Literature Review
an environmentally sustainable practice. The EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program
focuses on minimising the resource limitations and providing more sustainable options of water
improvement.
To ensure water is free from toxic chemicals and pipe corrosion the guidelines suggest that local
knowledge is the best indicator of either of these parameters being present in the water source. If no
history of either of these problems is evident then it can be assumed that the water is free of toxic
chemicals or corrosive qualities. Although this could be viable in resource-limited cases and without
discounting the value of local knowledge, the best approach would be to conduct scientific testing to
verify the quality.
The guidelines advise a Sanitary Survey be conducted on finding a presence of disease-causing
organisms which entails an investigation to identify potential risks that may pollute the water sources
leading to poor quality water. A sanitary survey is an on-site inspection of the water supply system
with particular attention paid to possible sources of contamination (Morgan, 1990). Appendix B
provides an example sanitary survey. An inspection of this kind can generate substantial information
regarding contamination sources, but without scientific testing results can be limiting.
Considering the limitations placed on the water quality guidelines adopted by the Government of East
Timor, this dissertation uses the AusAID Safe water guide for the Australian aid program 2005 and an
extensive list of literature as reference for a framework and guide for managing water quality in a
developing context. These literatures are published from a variety of internationally recognised
sources and authorities 3.
2.6.3
Microbial Parameters
Microbial hazards are the primary concern for both developing and developed countries (WHO, 2004).
The greatest microbial risks are associated with water contaminated with human or animal faeces, a
source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites (protozoa and helminths, or worms) (WHO, 2004).
WHO states that infectious diseases caused by these pathogens are the most common health risk
associated with drinking water (2004b). Over 3 million people die every year from diarrheal and
malarial diseases of whom 90% are children under 5 and are mostly in developing countries (WHO,
2004a). This equates to approximately 400 children below age 5 die per hour in the developing world
from waterborne diseases (WHO, 2006).
Pathogens, or disease causing bacteria and viruses, can vary in characteristics such as infectivity,
resistance to chlorine and source of origin, which are highlighted in Table 5. The table illustrates the
extensive number of species of waterborne pathogens potentially present in water sources and
3
Some of the key contributors to literature examined include the World Health Organisation (WHO), IRC
International Water and Sanitation Centre, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Water
Engineering Development Centre (WEDC) at Loughborough University in UK, and the Centre for Affordable
Water and Sanitation (CAWST).
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Literature Review
summarises their respective characteristics. These characteristics can be important in determining the
potential source of the pathogen or the type of treatment required to reduce contamination. However,
testing to determine these different species is beyond the current capacity of the East Timor
Government Water Laboratory. The diseases they cause vary in severity from mild gastroenteritis to
severe and sometimes fatal diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, cholera or typhoid fever (NHMRC &
NRMMC, 2004). Diarrhoeal diseases inhibit normal ingestion of foods and adsorption of nutrients
leading to malnutrition, impaired physical growth and reduced resistance to infection (Clasen et al.,
2006). The severity of these effects highlight the importance of reducing the presence of microbes in
the drinking-water.
Table 5. Waterborne pathogens and their significance in water supplies (WHO, 2004). 4
4
Waterborne transmission of the pathogens listed has been confirmed by epidemiological studies and case
histories. These studies demonstrate pathogenicity by reproducing the disease in healthy adult volunteers;
therefore the data is applicable to only part of the exposed population.
a
Detection period for infective stage at 20°C: short, up to 1 week; moderate, 1 week to 1 month; long, over 1
month.
b
When the infective stage is freely suspended in water treated at conventional doses and contact times.
c
From experiments with human volunteers or from epidemiological evidence.
d
Includes enteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic and enteroinvasive.
e
Main route of infection is by skin contact, but can infect immunosuppressed or cancer patients orally
f
In warm water.
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Literature Review
Indirect effects stemming from waterborne diarrhoeal diseases include large economic costs. Costs
consist of millions of hours of lost adult productivity, economic and health costs of time and effort by
women and children fetching water from distant, polluted sources, and sickness of the adult
breadwinner severely impacting the income and nutritional status of other family members in poor
households (Gadgil, 1998).
Assuming characterisation of the waterborne microorganisms is beyond the capacity of the laboratory,
it is beneficial to be aware of some more general characteristics. Bacteria can be broadly classified
into two groups: autochthonous (“from the land”) and allocthonous (“other” or in this case, to mean
contamination from other sources) (James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1985). The
latter grouping is the source of the bacteria that are of concern in terms of human health. These enteric
bacteria can be inhibited or enhanced by various factors, such as sunlight, thermal effects,
sedimentation and predation. This is of significance in both the treatment to reduce bacterial presence
and the use of total coliform as the indicator organism. The autochthonous bacteria, including groups
such as iron and sulphur bacteria, can be of interest in situations such as pipe and well corrosion or
sulphur odours (James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1985).
The burden on human health is determined by the severity of disease and illness associated with
pathogens, their infectivity and the population exposed (WHO, 2004). The diseases caused by waterrelated microorganisms can be divided into four main categories (United Nations, 2006):

Water-borne diseases: These are caused by water that has been contaminated by human, animal or
chemical wastes. Examples include cholera, typhoid, meningitis, dysentery, hepatitis and
diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is most commonly caused by gastrointestinal infections. It is a symptom of
infection “caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which can be spread
by contaminated water” (WHO, 2006). Water contaminated with human or animal faeces is of
main concern. Poor nutrition resulting from frequent bouts of diarrhoea is the primary cause for
stunted growth for millions of children in the developing world (Gadgil, 1998). Cholera, caused
by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, is vector-borne disease in which pathogenic microorganisms
are transmitted from infected individuals to another individual (WHO, 2006).

Water-related vector diseases: These are diseases transmitted by vectors, such as mosquitoes that
breed or live near water. Examples include malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever and filariasis.
Malaria causes over 1 million deaths a year alone (WHO, 2006). Stagnant and poorly managed
waters provide the breeding grounds for malarial carrying mosquitos.

Water-based diseases: These are caused by parasitic aquatic organisms referred to as helminths
and can be transmitted via skin penetration or contact. For example Guinea worm disease,
filariasis, paragonimiasis, clonorchiasis and schistosomiasis.

Water-scarce diseases: These diseases thrive in conditions where freshwater is scarce and
sanitation is poor. Examples include trachoma and tuberculosis.
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Literature Review
United Nations Human Development Reports indicate that the people of East Timor are particularly
vulnerable to diarrhoeal diseases, as well as malaria and dengue fever (UNDP, 2006). Therefore it can
be assumed that the water-borne diseases and water-related vector diseases are those of prominence in
this nation. This specifically relates to the quality and management of community water sources.
Identifying specific pathogenic microorganisms are beyond the ability of most laboratories; therefore
alternative detection methods are required. Testing the concentration of various bacterial contaminants
in water can be simplified from complex and time consuming methods by utilising the presence of an
indicator organism. An indicator organism may not necessarily pose a health risk but must have
several characteristics including: it must be easily isolated and enumerated, present in large numbers
and be more resistant to disinfection than the pathogens; must not multiply in water and distribution
systems and must be generally absent from other sources of bacteria coming in contact with water
(Gadgil, 1998). Coliform organisms closely fit these criteria.
The ‘Coliform’ group is a functionally-related group of bacteria comprising of several genera
(including Escherichia, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia and Hafnia) belonging to the
taxonomic family Enterobacteriaceae (Stevens et al., 2003). Traditionally total coliform bacteria have
been used to indicate the presence of faecal contamination however this parameter has been found to
exist and proliferate in soil and water environments and is therefore considered a poor parameter for
measuring the presence of pathogens (Stevens et al., 2003). Studies also show that due to their ability
to grow in drinking water distribution systems and their inconsistent presence in water supplies during
outbreaks of waterborne disease the sanitary significance or quality of water is difficult to interpret in
the presence of total coliforms (Stevens et al., 2003).
Escherichia coli (E.coli), a thermotolerant coliform, is found to be the most numerous in animal or
human faeces of the total coliform group, rarely grows in the environment and is considered the most
specific indicator of faecal contamination in drinking-water (WHO, 2004). The presence of E.coli
provides strong evidence of recent faecal contamination (WHO, 2004, Stevens et al., 2003).
The impacts of microbial contamination are of particular concern to sensitive groups of consumers
(the young, elderly, or those with impaired immune defence mechanisms) (WHO, 2004). This is of
importance as contamination of drinking-water can change in response to variables such as increases
and movement of population, changes in lifestyle, new and recombinations of pathogens, and
immunity of individuals. The risk of coliform presence can depend on the health or sensitivity of the
consumer. Table 6 classifies the risks of levels of E.coli presence, highlighting that those levels
slightly greater than WHO Guideline’s zero count per 100ml may be of only low or intermediate risk.
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Literature Review
Table 6. Example of risk classification for thermotolerant coliforms or E.coli for rural water supplies
(IRC, 2002)
Count per 100ml
Risk Category
0
1 - 10
11 – 100
101 – 1000
> 1000
In conformity with WHO guidelines
Low risk
Intermediate risk
High risk
Very high risk
2.6.4
Chemical Parameters
Chemical constituents of drinking-water are primarily of a health concern when associated with
prolonged periods of exposure (WHO, 2004). Single contact with most chemical constituents will not
result in any adverse health effects unless through a massive contamination of a drinking-water
supply, at which the water usually becomes undrinkable due to unacceptable taste, odour and
appearance (WHO, 2004). Sources of chemical parameters can vary from naturally occurring to
products of anthropogenic and agricultural practices. Table 7 describes the more common parameters
in more detail.
Table 7. Categorization of chemical constituents sources (WHO, 2004)
Source of chemical constituents
Examples of sources
Naturally occurring
Rocks, soils and the effects of the geological setting and climate
Industrial sources and human dwellings
Mining (extractive industries) and manufacturing and
processing industries, sewage, solid wastes, urban runoff, fuel
leakages
Agricultural activities
Manures, fertilizers, intensive animal practices and pesticides
Water treatment or materials in contact
with drinking-water
Coagulants, DBPs, piping materials
Pesticides used in water for public health
Larvicides used in the control of insect vectors of disease
Cyanobacteria
Eutrophic lakes
Some of the main chemical parameters that are of a health concern include the following:

Fluoride causes mottling of teeth and in severe cases can result in crippling skeletal fluorosis.

The presence of arsenic implicates the risk of cancer and skin lesions. The impact from arsenic
exposure was highlighted in Bangladesh where the presence of arsenic was unknown due to their
long-term health effects (WHO, 2004).

Nitrate and nitrite can cause methaemoglobinaemia (especially in bottle-red infants). This arises
from excess fertilisers or leaching of wastewater and other organic wastes into surface waters and
groundwater.

Lead can have adverse neurological effects, mainly in areas with acidic waters and the use of lead
pipes, fittings and solder.
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Literature Review
The literature available on naturally occurring minerals in East Timor has not indicated a presence of
arsenic or fluoride in any drinking water sources. Although this may mean that these minerals are not
present on the island nation, it could also suggest that water quality tests haven’t successfully
identified their presence. Despite the former likely being the case, as a general precaution the author
still suggests that these parameters be tested.
A secondary concern of the impact of chemical constituents is the effect on distribution and treatment
systems that may be implemented to improve the access to a safe water supply. Corrosive properties of
constituents can induce structural failure, which can also result in deterioration of the quality of the
water and cause additional concerns for health and safety. Due to these concerns, corrosion control is
an important aspect of the management of a drinking-water system. Concentrations of certain
parameters, including calcium, carbonate, bicarbonate and dissolved oxygen, can assist corrosion
control, depending on water quality and materials used in the system (WHO, 2004). Additionally, pH
can control the solubility and reaction rates of most metal species involved in corrosion reactions
(WHO, 2004).
Distribution and piping systems are likely to be constructed with galvanised steel, polypropylene or
polyethylene and storage tanks and filter systems with concrete. In using galvanized steel (steel coated
in a layer of zinc metal) the zinc layer corrodes preferentially and, in hard waters with alkalinity
greater than 50 mg/litre as calcium carbonate, forms a protective deposit of basic zinc carbonate
(WHO, 2004). Total Alkalinity measures the total amount of alkaline materials present which help
buffer or resist pH changes. Alkaline materials may be present in bicarbonate forms, carbonate forms
and hydroxide forms (Degrémont, 1991). Iron, lead, copper, brass and nickel can also be used in
construction of piping systems. More detailed information regarding the use of these materials is
available in the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 2004 (WHO, 2004).
Concrete is a composite material consisting of sand, gravel and cement, a binder consisting primarily
of calcium silicates, aluminates and some lime (WHO, 2004). Structural deterioration or failure of
cement may result from prolonged exposure to aggressive or highly corrosive waters, which can result
in leaching of metals from the cement into the water (WHO, 2004).
The hardness of the water indicates the presence of polyvalent cations, such as calcium and
magnesium, in the water (Degrémont, 1991). Water with less than 75 mg/litre CaCO3 is generally
considered to be soft and above 150 mg/litre CaCO3 as hard (American Water Works Association
(AWWA), 1999). High levels of hardness can cause scale deposition (depending on pH, alkalinity and
temperature) although waters with hardness of less than 100mg/litre have low buffering capacity and
could be more corrosive to piping systems (WHO, 2004).
The impact of ferrous iron present in groundwater is dependent on exposure to the atmosphere. When
ferrous iron oxidises to ferric iron, it can give a reddish-brown colour to the water, which could be
aesthetically displeasing. Iron also promotes the growth of “iron bacteria” which deposits a slimy
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Literature Review
coating in the distribution system if it reaches levels above 0.3 mg/litre (WHO, 2004). Manganese can
cause an undesirable taste as well as staining laundry when levels exceed 0.1 mg/litre. The presence of
manganese may also lead to the accumulation of deposits in the piping system (WHO, 2004). There is
no health-based guideline value set for iron but for manganese it is four times higher than the
acceptability threshold of 0.1 mg/litre (WHO, 2004).
2.6.5
Physical and Aesthetic Parameters
The acceptability of drinking-water to consumers is perceived by the users’ own senses, to assess the
water in terms of taste, odour and appearance. Water consumers who rely on their senses may avoid
highly turbid or coloured but otherwise safe waters in favour of more aesthetically acceptable but
potentially unsafe water sources (WHO, 2004). Consumer perceptions and aesthetic criteria need to be
considered when assessing drinking-water supplies and developing management guidelines (WHO,
2004) even though they may not adversely effect human health.
Taste and odour can originate from various natural chemical contaminants, biological sources,
microbial activity, from corrosion or as a result of water treatment (eg. chlorination) (WHO, 2004).
Colour, cloudiness, particulate matter and visible organisms can also contribute to unacceptability of
water sources. These factors can vary for each community and are dependent on local conditions and
characteristics. The following lists a number of primary aesthetic indicators that can cause water to be
perceived as unacceptable (AusAID, 2005b):

True colour (the colour that remains after any suspended particles are removed)

Turbidity (the cloudiness caused by particulate matter present in source water, resuspension of
sediment in the distribution system, the presence of inorganic particulate matter in some
groundwaters or sloughing of biofilm within the distribution system (WHO, 2004))

Peculiar taste, odour and ‘feel’ problems (usually due to total dissolved solids)
Turbidity is found to be a problematic issue in many developing communities. Although it doesn’t
adversely affect human health, turbidity is an important parameter in that it can protect
microorganisms from disinfection effects, can stimulate bacterial growth and indicate problems with
treatment processes (WHO, 2004). Suspended mineral or organic solids and smaller colloidal particles
are substances responsible for turbidity (Degrémont, 1991). For effective disinfection, median
turbidity should be below 0.1 NTU although turbidity of less than 5 NTU is usually acceptable to
consumers (WHO, 2004). Measurement of turbidity can be carried out with a simple turbidity tube
that allows a direct reading in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), determined by measuring the
scattering of light as it passes through the water (WHO, 2004).
An important operational water quality parameter is pH, although it usually has no direct impact on
consumers. Low pH levels can enhance corrosive characteristics resulting in contamination of
drinking-water and adverse effects on its taste and appearance (WHO, 2004). Higher pH levels can
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Literature Review
lead to calcium carbonate deposition and encrustation of pipe networks (IRC, 2002). Careful
consideration of pH is necessary to also ensure satisfactory water disinfection with chlorine, which
requires pH to be less than 8 (WHO, 2004).
Total dissolved solids (TDS) and the related parameter electrical conductivity (EC) are measures of
the total ions in solution and ionic activity of a solution respectively. As TDS and EC increase, the
corrosivity of the water increases and the solubility of slightly soluble compounds such as CaCO3 are
effected (James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1985).
2.6.6
Water Quality Sampling and Analytical Techniques
Scientific water quality sampling is usually a reliable way to ascertain presence of any contamination
in a water source. The greatest sources of microbial hazards are human and livestock wastes and water
systems should be inspected to determine the likelihood that this type of contamination will affect
water quality (NHMRC and NRMMC, 2004). If groundwater is the source of supply, then chemical
quality should be assessed as a priority. In the absence of testing facilities, a sanitary survey can be
conducted.
The objective of sampling is to collect, transport and test a portion of material that can accurately
represent the material being sampled, without any significant changes in its composition. In
circumstances when the source is known to be fairly constant in composition, grab or catch samples
can be considered to represent a longer time period, without requiring the need for composite samples
(grab samples collected over a longer time period). The type of sample container used is either plastic
or glass. Sample size and quantity can vary depending on the tests to be carried out, but generally 2
litres for most physical and chemical analyses is required. Preservation of samples can be a difficult
task particularly in a developing community situation. Without proper equipment to maintain
temperature and pH, to minimise the time interval between collection and analysis can prove difficult
to maintain high quality results. Preservation techniques such as keeping samples cool without
freezing, storing at 4ºC, is recommended. Preservation methods are generally intended to retard
biological action, retard hydrolysis of chemical compounds and complexes, and reduce volatility of
constituents (Greenberg et al., 1992).
Analytical testing must take into account that water quality can vary rapidly, for example after rainfall
microbial contamination levels can increase resulting in waterborne outbreaks following the rainfall
event (WHO, 2004). Also knowledge of local factors such as fertiliser use in agriculture and seasonal
activities or conditions can indicate a level of concern required for chemicals of interest (WHO, 2004).
These events and activities should be recorded in conjunction with sample data to ensure optimal
analysis.
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Literature Review
2.7
THE INTEGRATED PROJECT: WATER SUPPLY, WATER
QUALITY, SANITATION AND HYGIENE
A highly beneficial factor of this project is the integrated approach it has with the two complimentary
EWB projects focusing on water supply and sanitation. Integrated approaches of this kind have found
that the major factors that significantly reduce the impact of diarrheal diseases in public health are
plentiful access to good quality water, good sanitation, adequate disposal of human and animal
excrement, and community education in hygiene practices (Gadgil, 1998). Improved access to water
does not necessarily ensure its improved or better use. Lack of knowledge about causes of diseases
such as relating to water quality and sanitation practices is widely prevalent in developing countries
(Gadgil, 1998).
The WHO (2004) outlines the importance of water, sanitation and hygiene for health and development
which has been reflected in the outcomes of a series of international policy forums 5. Although
investments in improving water and sanitation can be effective in alleviating poverty and yielding
economic benefits (WHO, 2004), in the past there has been some debate about the magnitude of the
contribution safe water has to this outcome. However, studies have shown that safe water interventions
alone not only improve microbiological quality of household water but also resulted in reductions in
diarrhoeal disease (Sobsey, 2002).
The combined roles of safe water and adequate sanitation and hygiene are likely to achieve greater
reductions in infectious disease burden compared to any intervention alone (Sobsey, 2002). The
primary way to ensure safe drinking water for a community is to protect its source from faecal
contamination, the major path of faecally transmitted pathogens in drinking water supplies. As no
disinfection practice is failsafe isolating the source from contamination is the best practice for
protection. Thus good sanitation practices and adequate disposal of human and animal excrement are
the priority in establishing the first barrier between contaminants and the source (Gadgil, 1998). This
illustrates that intervention on various levels is more beneficial than just one. When technological
intervention for improved water supply and sanitation is supported by educational and motivational
schemes the desired objectives can be achieved.
The integrated approach undertaken by the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program
aims for each study to contribute equally to the total water and sanitation management cycle.
5
These forums have included the 1978 International Conference on Primary Health Care, held in Kazakhstan,
the 1977 World Water Conference in Argentina, which launched the water supply and sanitation decade of 19811990, the Millennium Declaration goals adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 2000, the
2002 Johannesburg World Summit for Sustainable Development and the recent UN General Assembly which
declared the period from 2005 to 2015 as the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life” World Health
Organisation (Ed.) (2004b) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, World Health Organisation, Geneva.
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Methodology and Methods
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
This section explains the methodology and methods utilised in this project. The methodology covers
the general approach and the methods outline the specific processes undertaken within parts of the
methodology. The methodology undertaken is an open process that aims to satisfy various technical
and social aspects of the project, including examining the usages of the water sources and developing
the capacity of the various stakeholders involved. The methods utilised primarily aim to assure
technical aspects, including assessing the quality of the current water sources and providing options of
appropriate technology to ensure safe water.
3.1
THE GENERAL EWB PROJECT PROCESS
The project team, consisting of the three UWA student projects, undertook an intensive cultural and
language training and briefing course five days prior to departure for the first in-country field visit.
This briefing was not only important towards achieving the social aims of the project but also to
prepare the project team for the development situation that was about to be encountered. As the
background on East Timor earlier in this dissertation has outlined, there has been a great deal of
problems in the past, presently the situation is still considerably unstable and there is an extensive
need for development.
The first field trip in February for three weeks was to scope out the project details and initiate essential
in-country contacts. These contacts included various government departments, university institutions,
local non-government organisations and previously established aid organisations.
Scoping out the project details required cooperation with the national water and sanitation authority,
Direcção Nasional De Água E Saneamento (DNAS), to ensure that the project collaborated with the
country’s policies and practices. At the time, AusAID was working closely with this department
through the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Program (CWSSP). The experience and
expertise from various members of this program was consulted, to ensure that the EWB Program
operated through the most appropriate and legitimate channels. Other government departments were
also sought for hydrologic and hydrogeologic information, including the Natural Resources, Minerals
and Energies Department, and the Departments of Environment and Agriculture and Landuse
Geographic Information Systems (ALGIS).
The lack of scientific records available from the Indonesian era meant it was difficult to obtain
detailed hydrogeological and climatic data. A digital elevation map (DEM) was constructed with a
GIS map to look at topographical characteristics of the area (Horowitz, CSIRO, 23/05/06 , Williams,
12/8/06, pers. comm.).
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The project team expanded to include six civil engineering students from the National University of
East Timor (UNTL). These students were all in their final year of their engineering degree and
voluntarily joined the EWB program on visitation to their water engineering lecture (Figure 3). Initial
meetings developed into further brainstorming sessions regarding the project and the important aspects
involved.
Figure 3. UNTL students with UWA students. L-R: Heidi Michael (author), Atibo Tilman, Adilio
Ximenes, Phoebe Mack, Jacinto da Costa Almeida, Vaughn Grey, Diamantino Soares, Martinho dos
Santos and Delfim Gaspar.
A third important contact established was with the local non-government organisation Hamoris Oan
Timor (HTO). The background of this organisation involves a large array of water and sanitation
projects. However, General Manager Antonio Amaral da Silva indicated that their experience had
been mainly confined to the aspects of design and mechanical engineering with little experience in the
environmental engineering field. The input from HTO was considered to be instrumental in the
implementation and operational stages of the project.
Several individual stakeholders were also prominent in the development of the project. The essential
positioning of EWB member Natalie Young, permanent resident of East Timor, as an in-country
project Liaison Officer, was to ease any exchange of correspondence between UWA and UNTL
students, to assist any local investigations required by the UWA researchers and to maintain contact
with the UNTL contingent and other stakeholder parties involved. The association established with
East Timorese-born Perth-resident Domingos de Oliviera provided fluid and smooth translations
between parties, on-going Tetun language lessons to the UWA team, invaluable historical and cultural
teachings, and a doorway to many other connections within the East Timorese community.
The selection of the village of Tangkae as a candidate for this project was the decision of DNAS
personnel. The department’s priority list of villages in terms of community water, sanitation,
infrastructural and health situation was consulted. The village of Nama Lai was first suggested,
however, on inspection, the location of the village was found to be of difficult and dangerous access,
although their situation was in dire need of outside assistance. In discussion with DNAS it was then
- 31 -
discovered that Nama Lai had already been placed under a government assistance program. This led
the project team to Tangkae.
A preliminary inspection of Tangkae’s situation was undertaken with personnel from DNAS on 7th and
20th February 2006. The presence of the government officials supported the project’s legitimacy.
Informal discussions with the village chefe highlighted key issues relating to their water and sanitation
situation. The second site visit, with representatives from HTO, conducted more detailed physical and
social surveys of the community, in order to obtain a comprehensive profile of the water and sanitation
situation. These village visits are outlined in more detail in the following section 3.4.
The Australian contingent of the project team returned to Perth to conduct research and investigations
on the preliminary data and information gathered. Planning for an April visit to the village by the
UNTL students and Natalie and the second field trip for the UWA team was suspended due to the
growing civil unrest in March. Political instabilities forced the evacuation of all non-local personnel
from East Timor and the project was reassessed and slightly restructured to compensate for the lack of
data. The activities planned for the April visit and a trip plan for June are both outlined in Appendix C.
The planning allowed for all project team members to be aware of the main purposes of the visit which
provided clear objectives to be achieved.
The second stage of the field work could not be completed at the time of writing this dissertation. Due
to this lack of data, the focus of the research shifted to a more generic form of investigations,
particularly in relation to treatment options and recommendations. Therefore, the research conducted
was based on the preliminary field data obtained with the requirement for further data taken into
account. Research of treatment options was carried out, with key criteria. This criteria included raw
and output water quality, materials required, climatic conditions, social acceptability, operation and
maintenance needs, capital and ongoing costs, time length of treatment process, environmental
impacts and other advantages and disadvantages outlined in section 4.4. These were then reviewed
and analysed using a weighted criteria rating assessment system as to which option(s) were deemed
most appropriate for this community in accordance with results from the preliminary investigations.
Some options are recommended only on the basis that additional investigations are conducted to verify
the suitability.
The voluntary status of EWB meant that fundraising for the second field visit, implementation and
other expenses was required. Some funding was obtained from the University of WA Vice
Chancellory and the Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Mathematics, although additional funds
were required for the second field trip. Increasing the public awareness of the EWB program was
conducted in aid of obtaining funds and support. Media releases (see Appendix D), radio and
newspaper interviews and public presentations (Women in Mining Seminar, 19th May 2006) were
released and presented to assist raising interest, and funding, for the project costs and support. Various
- 32 -
seminars on the subject of East Timor were attended to initiate contacts with access to other avenues
of local knowledge and experience.
3.2
SITE DESCRIPTION – TANGKAE
Tangkae (also spelt Tancae or Tankae) is located approximately 20km south of Dili, a 45 minute drive
on sealed, winding roads. The final kilometre of road leading to the main cluster of dwellings is a
steep eroded dirt track. At an elevation of approximately 750 m about sea level, the village houses 57
families and a total population of 264 people. Their water situation consists of two springs and a
natural well, distances ranging from 300 m to 3 km. There is no access to electricity or piped water
systems at the community.
The locality is not highly urbanised, but mostly used for scattered agricultural practices (crops include
maize, tapioca, sweet potato, beans and coffee plantations, and grazing animals include cows, pigs,
chooks, buffalo, horses and goats). Some animals are penned while others are not. The area is densely
vegetated, typical of tropical mountainous regions as seen in Figure 4.
Figure 4. House and surrounding tropical vegetation in Tangkae.
3.3
STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
Building strong relationships and developing partnerships is an essential part of the stakeholder
identification and planning process. Each relationship varies from the next one such that taking into
consideration the interests and perceptions of each constituent will build better foundations for the
relationship. A fundamental principle of the stakeholder concept is that decision makers or project
planners should keep the interests of different stakeholders in balance (Freeman, 1994). Stakeholder
- 33 -
commitment goals requires a balancing act between the different types of stakeholder groups, as well
as running the project successfully and meeting the needs of the constituents (Walker and Marr, 2001).
A stakeholder, in the development context, can refer to any individual or institution that has an interest
in or may be affected by an activity or project (AusAID, 2005a). Stakeholder theory focuses on two
main areas. Firstly, it questions the identity of the stakeholders, and secondly, the nature of the
relationship between these stakeholders and how they impact the organisation (Greenwood, 2001).
In order to identify stakeholder groups, all key participants involved in the activity were recognised
and the objectives for the project were established. This was achieved by simply listing all participants
involved in the project followed by a simple identification of their respective interests and benefits.
Informal discussions with various stakeholders provided an insight into these potential areas of interest
and possible interrelations between stakeholders. A contact list of all project participants was
constructed and copies provided to all participants (see Appendix E). Use of the Stakeholder-Issue
Interrelationship framework illustrated in Figure 5 was used to gain an understanding of the interests
stakeholders have in the project issues and how they may be related to other stakeholders (Bryson,
c2004). The relationship can be identified either by direct interaction with one another or indirectly
through interests in the same issues.
Group C
Group B
Group D
Issue 1
Group A
Group E
Group F
Issue 2
Issue 3
Group I
Group G
Group H
Figure 5. Stakeholder-Issue Interrelationship Diagram. The arrows indicate the interest the stakeholder
has in an issue, and therefore the relationship with other stakeholders also interested in the issue. The
arrows can be labelled to specify exactly what the interest is in each case (Bryson, c2004)
- 34 -
3.4
SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL SURVEYS AND INFORMAL
INTERVIEWS
The initial visit to the village of Tangkae on 7th February 2006 consisted of the EWB Project team,
staff from DNAS and translator Domingos de Oliveira. Introductions to the village chefe presented the
EWB Project team as a group of students from Australia interested in conducting investigations on
their water and sanitation situation. Informal consultation with the village chefe discussed subjects of
interest such as the location and number of water sources, any water supply and quality concerns, uses
of water in the village, any prominent health issues amongst the community, some basic demographics
(including population, number of dwellings, and number of residents per household) and whether the
community wished for improvements in any of these areas. An inspection of the three water sources,
Laratema spring, Airabat well and Fatnamudu stream allowed flow rates to be measured and samples
taken.
A secondary site visit followed a week later on 20th February, to gather further information to allow
preliminary design work to begin. Brainstorming sessions with the UNTL students collated survey
questions and investigations prior to the site visit. This also provided an opportunity to exchange
information with the UNTL students, discover the level of understanding of certain issues and
encourage ownership of the project for all students (UWA and UNTL). The brainstorming session was
run using cause-and-effect style charts for each issue of water quality, water supply and sanitation, as
illustrated in Figure 6. The results from the session were converted into survey questions. Due to
language differences, the survey questions were translated from English into Tetun with the help of
Domingos de Oliveira, the project team’s translator. Together with the UNTL students, the project
team conducted physical and social surveys in the community to determine a profile of the current
situation in terms of water supply and quality, uses of water, health issues, and sanitation and hygiene
practices.
The social survey consisted of various questions to determine particular information regarding
demographics of the village, the water and sanitation situation, agricultural practices, and health. The
survey form, questions and answers, is available in Appendix F. These survey questions were asked by
a small group of the project team, including the author, to the village chefe, the second-in-charge to the
chefe and both of their wives. Questions were translated between english and tetun so all present could
understand the discussion.
A physical survey was also conducted by other members of the project team, which included
observing physical characteristics of the community and surrounding areas, and carrying out tests on
water flow, sampling and surrounding investigations of other activities with possible influence on the
water source or village. Global Positioning System (GPS) locations of features of importance (such as
water sources, clusters of dwellings, and roads) were recorded.
- 35 -
Figure 6. Sample of method for brainstorming session with UNTL students,
starting with the issue (water quality) circled in the centre with causes at the top
and effects at the bottom. Lines link the causes and effects of different issues
surrounding water quality.
At the conclusion of this second site visit, it was again translated to the chefe that the EWB Project
team could not make any promises with regards to improving the village’s water and sanitation
situation however; the team would examine the data obtained and conduct investigations to assess
possibilities of helping Tangkae. It was reinforced that implementation of any water system could not
be guaranteed.
3.5
WATER QUALITY TESTING
During the surveys of the village, water samples were also collected to test the quality of the water
from each of the three water source sites in the community. These samples were taken to the DNAS
Water Laboratory to test for the presence of microbial, physical and chemical parameters. Pictures in
Figure 7 show the author taking the water samples from the village’s spring using plastic water bottles,
and testing the parameters in the Department of Water and Sanitation (DNAS) Water Laboratory.
- 36 -
Figure 7. (a) Taking water samples from Laratema spring. (b) Counting E.coli through the
micrscope in the DNAS Water Laboratory, Dili. (Source: by P. Mack)
During the initial visit to the village on 7th February, 500ml drinking water bottles were washed out
with the testing water once and then filled with the source water (as can be seen in Figure 7 (a)). A
sample was taken from each water source; Laratema spring, Fatnamudu stream and Airabat well. The
samples were then transported back to Dili and refrigerated for three days prior to testing at the DNAS
Water Laboratory which can be seen in Figure 8. No cooling bag was used for transportation.
A second set of samples were collected during the subsequent community visit on the 20th February.
Sterilised plastic sample bags and glass sample jars, supplied by DNAS Water Laboratory, were used
to collect the samples. The samples were then transported directly to the Laboratory for testing,
approximately 4 hours after the samples were collected from the community water sources. No
cooling equipment was used during transportation.
Figure 8. Sampling bottles used for first site visit on 7th February
2006, labelled and ready for testing in the DNAS Water
Laboratory.
- 37 -
The DNAS Water Laboratory sample testing guidelines have not been recorded but sampling notes
and the right hand column of the forms in Appendix G show the methods taken to test the various
parameters. The initial samples were tested for most parameters on the Request for Water Quality
Testing form except Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Hardness, Alkalinity and Sulphate due to time
constraints and insufficient sample quantities. The second set of samples were only tested for physical
parameters including pH, E. conductivity, TDS, Salinity and Turbidity; chemical parameters Hardness
and Total Alkalinity; and Bacteriological parameters Total Coliform and E.coli. The chemical
parameters disregarded in the second test were due to a majority of the first tests showing results
within the standards set by the WHO.
3.6
OPTIONS TO IMPROVE WATER QUALITY
Following an examination of the water quality and survey results a list of potential local factors was
assembled. These factors were then used to determine appropriate behavioural and technological
treatment barriers to improve the quality of water and health conditions of Tangkae.
The potential local factors were derived from the water quality and survey results as well as various
literature 6. Identification of possible sources of contamination was carried out, both at the source, in
transition and at point-of-use. Both anthropogenic and natural influences on the quality of the water
sources were considered, with the intention of reducing contamination. Limited time in the field meant
that a full investigation could not be completed and therefore some of the options to ensure safe
drinking-water are accompanied with the requirement of more field work prior to providing
recommendations to the community.
6
SHETEFIE Criteria from Parr, J. and Shaw, R. J. (1996) Waterlines: Journal of Appropriate Technologies for
Water Supply and Sanitation, 15, 15-18.; Water Safety Plans of WHO (Ed.) (2004) Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality, World Health Organisation, Geneva.; FLAIR approach by Visscher, J. T. (2006) IRC
International Water and Sanitation Centre, Delft, the Netherlands.; Sobsey, M. D. (2002) In Water, Sanitation
and Health Department of Protection of the Human EnvironmentWHO, Geneva.
- 38 -
Results
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
4.1
STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
The operation of this project integrated an extensive number of stakeholders. The stakeholders, along
with their interests in this project (established through informal discussions) are listed in Table 8. Two
common areas of interest that dominate here are one, to improve Tangkae’s quality of life and two,
increase project experiences, skills and education. A minor common interest includes building
international and institutional relations.
Table 8. Identification of stakeholders and their interests in the project
Stakeholder
Group
UWA Project Team
Individuals of Importance
within Stakeholder Group
Heidi Michael, Phoebe Mack,
Vaughn Grey
Carolyn Oldham (Supervisor)
SESE & UWA staff
CEED staff
EWB WA & National
Kym Greenwood (WA
Coordinator), Kim Axworthy (WA
President). Colin Cockroft
Stewart Davies (National)
EWB East Timor
Natalie Young (Liaison Officer)
Tangkae aldeia
Interests, Benefits and Interactions
Gain aid development project experience, develop
international skills, experiences & relations, increase
engineering knowledge & skills, help East Timorese people
to improve quality of life and opportunities available to them,
produce a good thesis.
Provide final year students with different project
experiences, promote assisting developing communities,
provide funding.
Increase project experience, develop & improve institutional
relations with UWA, UNTL, DNAS & East Timor, expand
interest & awareness of projects to wider community,
provide disadvantaged community with access to better
health, education and standard of living,
Increase project skills, help engineering students and local
community to improve opportunities available to them.
Improve access to safer water to reduce illnesses and
deaths in the village, improve health and living standards,
increase time available for children to attend school.
Students – Adilio Ximenes, Jacinto
da Costa Almeida, Atibo Tilman,
Martinho dos Santos, Delfim
Gaspar, Diamantino Soares
Increase education, water engineering knowledge & skills
and project experience, develop relations with international
students & institutions, help local community
Staff – Inacio Moreira (Dean of
Engineering), Justino Da Costa
Soares (Lecturer)
Offer opportunities to students to improve their education
and skills in engineering field, help local community,
develop inter-institutional relations
Hamoris Oan Timor
(HTO)
Antonio Armaral (General
Manager)
Increase involvement in local water projects to help improve
local community’s standard of living, expand project skills
(particularly in the area of environmental engineering and
impact assessments)
National Department
of Water & Sanitation
(DNAS)
Martinus Nahak (Non-urban
Coordinator), Isac Fontes,
Ernemagildo (Technician),
Armantay (Driver)
Help local community in need of better living conditions and
health, expand skills and resources of department through
interactions with international organisation
UNTL
Alan Smith (CWSSP Manager),
Michelle Whalen (CWSSP)
Domingos de
Oliveira
Provide local knowledge and support to Project team to help
improve living standards, health, education, skills &
knowledge of local and wider East Timorese community
- 39 -
Results
An example of stakeholder interactions for a particular set of interests is illustrated in Figure 9,
demonstrating that there are many complex relationships and interactions between stakeholders that
require careful consideration for the development of the community’s current capacity. This diagram
highlights several important factors. Firstly, there are two spheres within this illustration, the left
sphere encircles stakeholder groups originating from Australia and the right sphere envelops East
Timorese stakeholder groups. Consequently, in the middle of these spheres is the core project team,
which consists of the three UWA students (including the author). This core team is the link between
the two national spheres. Another important aspect is the arrows that connect all the in-country
stakeholder groups. This highlights the number of interactions between these groups, which lead to
many opportunities for potential conflict or preferably, integration.
HTO
UNTL
EWB
DNAS
Core
Project
Team
Tangkae
UWA
Figure 9. The complex array of stakeholder interactions within the East
Timorese and Australian spheres, left and right circles respectively.
Two main areas of interest identified are: improve Tangkae’s quality of
life and increase experiences, skills & knowledge.
- 40 -
Results
4.2
SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL SURVEYS AND INFORMAL
INTERVIEWS
Informal discussions with the village chefe during the initial visit indicated that the water source was
difficult to access, the children suffered from a range of sicknesses and the sanitation facilities were of
a very basic system. This visit also determined that the community wants the project to happen in their
village, and that they wish to improve the water they drink and wash with, reduce the number of
water-related illnesses and deaths within their community, and improve their quality of life.
The following outlines results ascertained from the social and physical surveys conducted during the
two site visits on the 7th and 20th February. A summary of the results of preliminary social and
physical surveys are tabulated in Table 9.
Table 9. Summary of Social & Physical Survey results for Tangkae village 20.02.06.
Location
20km south of Dili, (45 minute drive on sealed, windy roads)
Elevation
750m about sea level
Population
264 people (57 households)
Water sources:
Laratema (spring) ~ 300m downhill via a rugged steep and slippery path. Currently used by
majority of Tangkae.
Fatnamudu (stream) ~ 3km through dense vegetation, damaged pipe system.
Airabat (well) ~ 2km on outskirts of village boundaries.
Water collection
Carry 5L or 10L containers, approx. 20-50 per household/day (Dry season = long waiting times)
Water culture
Boil water before use (due to intuition about germs & bacteria), wash food with spring water
before eating.
Sanitation
3 western style non-flush latrines linked to cement pit each 2m deep x 1m width, no base.
Generally, hole in pig pen (not enough water to wash waste away therefore left for pigs to
consume)
Solid waste
Discarded anywhere on ground
Health/ Illnesses
Coughing, fever, headaches, running nose, diarrhoea and worms, particularly in the children,
who are sick a lot of the time.
Mortality rates
In the last 5 years approximately 5 babies in the village died.
4.2.1
Tangkae’s Water, Sanitation and Health Situation
There are three water sources close to Tangkae which the village identified as what they used. The
project team visited all three water sources and took water samples and flow rates from each of them.
Two of the three water sources (Laratema spring and Airabat well) and main clusters of dwellings are
located on the contour map in Figure 10. The variation of contour lines is 10 metres. The highest
elevation point in Tangkae is 755 metres.
- 41 -
Results
Figure 10. Contour map of Tangkae, Balibar Sub-District, Dili District, East Timor. Contour lines are 10
metres and highest elevation point in Tangkae is 755 metres. Laratema spring and Airabat well marked on
map. Fatnamudu stream is located below the eastern side of southern border.
The main water source currently used by the villages, Laratema, is the closest. A second water source,
Fatnamudu stream, is approximately 3 kilometres from the village and this spring was previously
connected via a pipe system to Tangkae. The pipes were built in 1997 but destroyed by the
Indonesians on their exodus in 1999. The villagers see the reconnection of this spring to their village
as the main solution to the water supply problems. The third water source is a well named Airabat.
- 42 -
Results
This was built when the villagers noticed water coming up from the ground next to a wet season
stream (which they do not use due to activities from the school located upstream). The well has been
dug and concreted to provide a permanent water source however it is approximately 2 kilometres
walking distance from the main dwellings in Tangkae and therefore is rarely used by the village. The
collection points for all three water sources are pictured in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Water collection points at the three water sources L-R: Laratema spring, Fatnamudu stream
and Airabat well.
Presently, water is collected three times a day, from the closest spring (Laratema) where access is via
a rugged steep and slippery path, about 300m downhill from the village. The spring has a bamboo pipe
protruding from the hill side, which trickles the water out into an open area (as seen in Figure 11).
Water is carried back to the village using 5L or 10L containers, which have handles and small
openings at the top, similar to those pictured in Figure 12. They collect between 20 and 50 of these
containers for each household per day (in both wet and dry season, but during the latter they wait
much longer for the containers to fill, up to 5 hours). This water is used for cooking, washing clothes,
drinking and bathing. Most villagers (apart from newborns and their mothers) wash themselves and
their clothes at the spring.
Figure 12. Containers similar to these are used for water collection in Tangkae.
- 43 -
Results
Observations noted that several rainwater catchment systems had been constructed in some of the
outer clusters of dwellings (see Figure 13). It was not determined whether they were in use, although
an informal discussion with village representatives indicated that rain water from the bamboo gutter
was sometimes used for bathing.
The villagers boil the water before use, which they state is due to their own intuition about killing
germs and bacteria, and wash their food with spring water before eating.
Figure 13. Rainwater catchment system in Tangkae.
Three of the households have a western style non-flush latrine system, due to a period during which
the village accommodated American Peace Corps visitors for several months for language and cultural
training. These latrines are linked to a cement pit each, approximately 2 m deep, 1 m in width and
length, with no cement base. The rest of the households use a hole in the pig pen as their latrine. As
there is not enough water to wash the waste away it is left for the pigs to consume. Solid waste is
discarded anywhere on the ground or in the stream. During the summer when they are preparing the
land for the next crops and plantations, the waste is raked together and burnt.
Common illnesses in the community include coughing, fever, headaches, running nose, diarrhoea and
worms, particularly in the children, who are sick a lot of the time. Malnutrition and stunted growth is
evident in the children from Tangkae. Three representatives from the village were sent to a community
course on how to treat worms which was limited to obtaining medicine when their stomach hurt. The
response to asking if they knew why the children got worms was because they eat anything and don’t
wash their hands. No prevention of worms seemed to be understood or taught. In the last five years,
approximately five babies in the village died.
- 44 -
Results
Figure 14. Malnourished children of Tangkae, excited to see
the malae (white foreigners).
4.3
The preliminary water quality tests concluded a presence of microbial contaminating bacteria and high
turbidity levels in Fatnamudu stream but of lesser concern in Laratema spring and Airabat well. A
summary of results from samples taken on 20th February are illustrated in Table 10. Raw data from the
two community visits are attached in Appendix G.
All three water sources tested were found to have good chemical quality with the exception of several
parameters of minor interest. Iron levels tested from the first site visit were slightly elevated at Airabat
well and Fatnamudu stream. Both of these water sources also had manganese levels equivalent to that
of the East Timor guidelines but slightly above the WHO guideline levels.
The physical parameter turbidity was above the recommended limits for Fatnamudu stream on both
site visits and for Airabat well on the first visit (7th February). The turbidity levels for Airabat on the
20th February were just below that of the recommended limit. These results are graphically represented
in Figure 15 to illustrate the values of turbidity at the various water sources in comparison to the WHO
guideline limits. Additionally, pH for Airabat on the second site visit resulted in pH of 6
(recommended values are between 6.5 and 8.5 for corrosive effects).
- 45 -
Results
Table 10. Summarised Raw Water Quality Test Results taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.07. Final column compares East Timor Guidelines with other guidelines.
Unit
Physical Test
pH
WHO/East
Timor
Guidelines
Laratema
spring
Airabat
well
Fatnamudu
stream
7.2.06
20.2.06
7.2.06
20.2.06
7.2.06
20.2.06
6.5-8.5
7.6
6.9
7.1
6.0
7.6
6.8
Compare
with
WHO
2004
Recommended/
Suggested Guidelines
(*no health-based guideline value proposed)
* 6.5-8 (< 8 for chlorination, lower pH likely to be
corrosive)
* <500 DNAS Guidelines
E. Conductivity
TSS
TDS
µs/cm
mg/L
mg/L
NS
NS
1000
0.9
0.1
108.1
54
1.25
0.1
50.9
25.4
1.06
ND
109.9
54.9
Salinity
Temperature
‰
°C
NS
NS
ND
-
ND
-
ND
-
ND
-
ND
-
ND
-
Turbidity
NTU
5
2.1
0.9
12.4
4.6
6.5
10.1
Chemical Test
NH3-N
NO3-N
mg/L
mg/L
ND
ND
-
ND
0.4
-
ND
ND
-
NO2-N
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
1.5
10 (as NO3N)
1 (as NO2-N)
0.3
0.5
0.006
0.06
0.2
-
0.014
0.49
0.5
-
0.005
0.75
0.5
-
Fluoride
Free Chlorine
mg/L
mg/L
1.5
0.5
0.23
-
-
0.2
-
-
0.17
-
-
Ca Hardness
Arsenic
Hardness
Total Alkalinity
Sulphate (SO42-)
Bacteriological Test
Total Coliform
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
NS
0.01
200
NS
250
190
0
-
50
70
-
40
0
-
65
70
-
45
0
-
90
75
-
0.01
100-200 to minimise scale deposition
40mg/L as CaCO3 to control corrosion of iron pipes
* <250 to minimise taste impairment and laxative effects
CFU/
100ml
CFU/
100ml
0
1032
826
1320
494
2652
1172
* Considered as a poor indicator
0
28
2
196
0
222
64
0 (IRC: 0-10 = low risk)
E.coli
Legend:
NS = (Guideline) Not Set
ND = Not Detectable
- = Not Tested
CFU = Colony Formed Unit
- 46 -
* < 600 for good palatability (>1000 becomes
unpalatable and lead to scaling)
Cool water more palatable, higher temperatures
enhance growth of microorganisms and may increase
odour, colour and corrosion problems.
* < 5 for acceptable appearance, < 0.1 for effective
disinfection
* 1.5 odour threshold, 35 for taste threshold
50 (from agricultural activities) – short term exposure
(changed since 1984 WHO)
3 (from agricultural activities) – short term exposure
* > 0.3 stains plumbing fixtures
> 0.1 causes undesirable taste, < 0.4 health-based
guideline value
1.5
< 5 (for effective disinfection, residual concentration of
free chlorine ≥ 0.5mg/l after at least 30 min contact time
at pH < 8.0)
Results
Microbial parameters that were tested included total coliform and E.coli. All total coliform results
markedly exceeded the guideline limits with the lowest count of 494 CFU at Airabat well on 20th
February. E.coli, a more reliable indicator of microbial contamination, exceeded the limit for all
samples except Airabat well on the second site visit. A visual representation of these values are
summarised in Figure 17. Laratema spring was below the IRC low risk limit of 10 CFU with a count
of 2 CFU on the 7th February and within the intermediate risk category with a count of 28 CFU on the
20th February.
Rainwater was not tested for water quality during the first and second site visits in February.
Turbidity Level Results
12
Turbidity (NTU)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Laratema
Airabat
Fatnamudu
Water Source
7.02.06
20.02.06
East Timor/WHO guideline recommended limit
Figure 15. Turbidity levels from the 3 village water sources, Laratema spring, Airabat well & Fatnamudu
stream, measured on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06 and compared with the WHO & East Timor Guidelines limit.
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E.coli Results
250
E.coli Count (CFU)
200
150
E.Coli 7.02.06
E.Coli 20.02.06
100
50
0
Laratema
Airabat
Fatnamudu
Water Source
Figure 16. E.coli counts for samples taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06. The WHO Guideline limit is 0 CFU.
Total Coliform Results
3000
Total Coliform Count (CFU)
2500
2000
Total Coliform 7.02.06
Total Coliform 20.02.06
1500
1000
500
0
Laratema
Airabat
Fatnamudu
Water Source
Figure 17. Total Coliform counts for samples taken on 7.02.06 and 20.02.06. WHO Guideline limit is 0
CFU.
The water quality results that were found to be of concern (that impact health and infrastructure) from
the three different water sources and rainwater are summarised in Table 11 below. High turbidity
levels and presence of E.coli are the two main concerning parameters in these water sources.
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Table 11. Summary of water quality issues from the 4 water resources available in Tangkae, the impacts
on health and infrastructure, and options for treatment.
Water
Source
Water Quality Issues
Impacts on health & infrastructure
Laratema
spring
High Total Coliform
Medium E.coli Count
E.coli indicates faecal contamination
& diarrhoeal diseases
Airabat well
Slightly elevated Fe, Mn
levels
Fe, Mn affect colour, taste &
deposition in piping
pH below 6.5
pH<8 Affects chlorination process
Options for
Treatment
Disinfection
Filtration &
Disinfection
High Total Coliform count
Fatnamudu
stream
Rainwater
Med-high Turbidity
Turbidity reduces disinfection efficacy
High Total Coliform & E.coli
levels
E.coli indicates faecal contamination
& diarrhoeal diseases
High Turbidity
Turbidity reduces disinfection efficacy
Slightly elevated Fe, Mn
levels
Fe, Mn affect colour, taste &
deposition in piping
To be measured (direct
rainfall & indirect (catchment
materials)) – Generally of
good quality
None
Filtration &
Disinfection
Not likely to
require treatment
For each of these water sources, the barriers of source protection, safe water storage and sanitation and
hygiene practices are recommended to be implemented regardless of the quality of the source. This
reduces potential contamination from various sources and increases the protection of the water as it is
transferred from the original source to the drinking vessel, as discussed earlier, in section 2.4.
4.4
LOCAL FACTORS AFFECTING WATER QUALITY AND
TREATMENT OPTIONS
Examination of local factors that potentially affect the water quality and suitability of treatment
options are tabulated in Appendix H. Each of the potential factors was specifically applied to Tangkae
with the effect of these factors and the outcome required in terms of choosing an appropriate
technology to improve the quality of drinking-water. However, several factors could not be applied to
Tangkae as insufficient information was gathered during the preliminary investigations. A summary of
the outcomes affected by local factors resulted in the following requirements for the technology to be
appropriate for Tangkae:
Education is required regarding the quality of rainwater, or an alternative source needs to be
considered.
Education about disinfection should be relatively easy to integrate.
Education about hygiene is required and should be conducted with assistance from a local
expert eg. a health nurse.
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Need to improve sanitation & hygiene practices.
Treatment of pathogens is required, such as ceramic or slow sand filtration, chlorination or
SODIS.
Chemical coagulation and chlorination is considered as an inappropriate option if chemicals
are not locally available.
Options should be inexpensive.
No power operated systems can be implemented.
Contributions from community other than monetary may be the form of payment.
Need to encourage stronger organisational relationships amongst stakeholders.
Rainwater is an option for periods of heavy rains.
Systems of low environmental impact is preferred.
May need to consider storage options, depending on the water supply.
These outcomes, along with other assumed outcomes, are utilised in the examination of potential
technological and behavioural options to ensure safe water for Tangkae.
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4.5
The following section outlines the potential technological and behavioural options available to the
community to ensure the water supply is safe and free of contamination. These options have been
researched as a result of the water quality and local survey results as well as in collaboration with the
water management strategy. As discussed earlier in section 2.4 a multiple barrier approach is required
due to the numerous points from source to storage subject to potential contamination. Treatment of the
water is as equally important in the management process as prevention and protection. An outline of
the options available with a brief process overview is presented in Table 12.
Table 12. Summary of barriers recommended for protection, prevention and treatment of contaminated
water.
Barrier to
Contamination
Preventative barriers:
Protection of water source
Safe Water Storage
Hygiene
Sanitation
Safe Food Consumption
Physical & Chemical
Treatment processes:
Sedimentation:
- Storage & Settling
-
Coagulation &
Flocculation
Filtration
- Straining
- Biosand filter
- Cermaic filter
Disinfection
- Boiling &
Pasteurisation
- SODIS
- Chlorination
Brief Process Overview
Construct perimeter fence around water source; discourage agricultural and
sanitation activities upstream from water source; place latrines at least 15m
downhill from water source; if harvesting rainwater clean roof/gutters and divert
first rains.
Use of appropriate vessel (with top or screw lid, spout, high durability)
Hand-washing before eating & after going to toilet.
Improved faeces disposal, either covered or use of latrine
Linked with hygiene; wash & cover food, cook at high temperatures etc
Storage in a safe vessel for extended period (eg. 1 day) kills 50% bacteria
Heavy suspended solids settle to bottom
3 pot system ideal.
Add chemical or natural coagulant so smaller particles group together (floc) and
settle
Pour raw water through folded cloth & filter out larger particles
Water is filtered through sand and gravel to remove sediments and microbes
Water is filtered through pores in ceramic pot, trapping sediments and destroying
pathogens
Bring water to rolling boil for 1 minute (in absence of thermometry equipment)
UV & heat inactivate microbes & destroy pathogens
Form of chlorine added to water to deactivate bacteria. Can use sodium
hypochlorite (in the form of household bleach or electrolyzed salt & water)
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4.5.1
Barriers to prevent contamination
Protection of water source
Regarding the water quality of a community’s water source, emphasis is placed on the prevention or
reduction of pathogens entering the water source, and thus reducing the reliance on treatment
processes needed for pathogen removal (World Health Organisation, 2004b).
The Government of East Timor (Direcção Nasional De Água E Saneamento (DNAS), 2005) outlines
the following requirements for maintaining safe drinking water for a community:

Ensure the source is properly protected from contamination by humans and animals, which
includes enclosing the source in a sealed tank and ensuring no contamination is occurring above
the source.

For piped systems ensure the whole system is closed; there should be no open tanks in the system
where contamination can occur.

When open wells are used a windlass should be installed with a dedicated bucket. The use of
personal buckets should be discouraged as this can contaminate the well.

No washing of clothes on the edge of wells where they can contaminate drinking water.

Spring sources and wells should be fenced in order to keep animals out. A perimeter fence should
be put in place surrounding the water source to a distance uphill for when the groundwater levels
are at least 2m below the ground level. A drainage area beyond the perimeter fence will divert any
surface flow and erosion from impacting the outlet of the water source.
Fencing of surface waters, such as Fatnamudu stream, is more difficult than streams. Upstream
activity from the collection point would need to be investigated. Assuming that there is either
agricultural or human activities uphill, recommendations would be for these activities to be moved or
altered to reduce water contamination. Table 13 summarises the source protection requirements for
each of Tangkae’s potential water sources. These requirements would be implemented in collaboration
of promoting awareness of the impact human activity has on water quality.
Table 13. Specific functions and materials required to implement protection strategies for each of
Tangkae's potential water sources: Laratema spring, Airabat well, Fatnamudu stream and Rainwater.
Requirements for Water Source Protection
Laratema spring

Perimeter fencing materials (wood, wire) or hedge, remove
small shrubs, dig drainage uphill.
Airabat well

Install cover, bucket & windlass or rope, fencing materials
(wood, wire) or hedge, dig drainage uphill.
Fatnamudu stream

Shift or alter upstream activities.
Rainwater

Install corrugated roofing material,
diverting first rains to wash roof.
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Additionally, toilets and sanitation facilities should be located downstream from any water source,
particularly for limestone soils. The minimum distance for toilet placement in sandy and clay soils is
at least 15 and 10 metres from the source respectively (DNAS, 2005). Assuming the soils present are
the dominant Bobonaro clay found in East Timor, then the 10 metre distance would apply to Tangkae.
Safe Household Water Storage
The conditions and practices of water collection and storage and the choice of water collection and
storage containers are key factors in the provision of safe household water. Inadequate storage
conditions and containers have been documented as factors contributing to increased microbial
contamination compared to waters stored in improved vessels, or safe storage vessels (Sobsey, 2002).
Safe water storage vessels are required to ensure water quality is preserved after treatment. Studies
reviewing the contamination of water occurring during home water storage have shown that mean
coliform levels and faecal concentrations are generally found to be considerably higher in household
water containers than in water sources (Mintz et al., 1995). Observations from these studies suggested
that contamination was occurring through the dipping of infected hands into containers or lack of use
of enclosed containers. Further studies assessing the effect of modifying the design of water storage
vessels on behaviour, contamination and disease concluded that containers with lids and faucets
introduced into a community with educational messages greatly improved the quality of stored water
(Mintz et al., 1995, Sobsey, 2002). Other factors contributing to microbial contamination of stored
water include higher temperatures, increased storage times, higher levels of airborne particulates (dust
storms) and inadequate hand washing (Sobsey, 2002). Some of the key storage factors and conditions
that influence household water quality are (Sobsey, 2002, CDC, 2005):
1. Portability and ease of use (based on capacity, size, shape, weight and handles)
2. Durability, weight and other properties related to resistance and longevity
3. Presence of a coverable opening – large enough for filling and cleaning access but small
enough to minimise the introduction of contaminants by hands, dippers or other sources
4. Ability to dispense water in a sanitary manner, such as via a tap, spout or spigot
5. Presence and accessibility of documentation describing the proper use of the container
Some common containers used in developing communities that can be considered reasonably safe
include plastic jerry cans and bottles (as illustrated in Figure 18). Ideally, the container would have
similar features to that of the CDC (Centers for Disease Control) Safe Water vessel, with an opening
small enough to prevent a small child’s hand entering but large enough to facilitate filling and
cleaning.
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CDC
safe
vessel
Figure 18. Diagrammatic examples of commonly used safe water storage containers: jerry cans, plastic
bottles and the CDC safe water vessel (CDC, 2005).
The affordability of water storage vessels is another important consideration, as is the compatibility
with household water treatment methods whilst protecting water quality. Cultural acceptability and
manageability for the users should also be considered when choosing appropriate storage vessels, as
for any process.
During the initial site visits, it was observed that the water containers used in Tangkae were similar to
those pictured in Figure 12. These containers satisfy the small opening feature requirements of a safe
vessel however there are uncertainties as to whether a screw cap or lid was used or any regular
cleaning of the containers took place.
Sanitation, Hygiene & Safe Food Consumption
Good sanitation and hygiene practices have been found to be instrumental in breaking the transmission
routes of pathogens. The use of sanitary practices, such as latrines or simply covering faeces, reduces
diarrhoeal disease transfer and water contamination. Phoebe Mack’s study Sanitation in East Timor
examines the use of sanitation in Tangkae in greater detail. Collaboration with this study will provide
the community of Tangkae with holistic options to improve their health.
Hygiene is the practice of cleanliness in order to preserve health. A major pathway for diarrhoeal
diseases is through hand-to-mouth contact. Educating the community to engage in regular handwashing practices before eating and after going to the toilet will reduce the transmission of
contamination. The consumption of safe food is linked to hygiene practices as preparation and
consumption of safe food rely on people washing their hands prior to these activities. This behaviour
is also linked to household cleanliness, roaming of animals within and around the house, and suitable
rubbish disposal. Foods in poor environments are more likely to become contaminated. Other factors
that ensure food consumption safety include: cooking food at high enough temperatures, covering of
food to keep flies away, washing of fresh fruit and vegetables and cleanliness of cooking and eating
utensils.
Preliminary surveys of Tangkae were unable to examine specific details of current hygiene practices in
the community, although it was discovered that most villagers are aware of the need for boiling water
prior to use. This indicates that there is some level of understanding of microbial contamination, which
will likely make education and awareness a relatively simple exercise. Additionally the survey results
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indicated a high level of worms amongst children. The discussion with village representatives
highlighted their understanding that the children contracted worms because they ate objects in the dirt
and do not wash their hands.
Hygiene education along with availability of safe drinking water and sanitation facilities has proven to
be successful in a children’s de-worming programme in West Bengal, India (Luong, 2003). The
educational tools helped create the demand for household sanitary latrines. On seeing the worms
coming out of their children’s bodies, parents’ awareness shifted to conviction of the need for a
cleaner environment, for the use of sanitary toilets, and for handwashing and hygiene practices
(Luong, 2003). Childhood diarrhoea reduced by 80% within twelve months of intervention.
Education of sanitation and hygiene behaviours in the village of Tangkae requires further discussions
with the community to obtain a more in-depth understanding of their knowledge and awareness of the
link between disease and hygiene and sanitation. Once the level of awareness is ascertained, an
education program can be designed. Acquiring the services of a local health expert or nurse will
legitimise this program.
4.5.2
Treatment of Turbidity - Sedimentation and Filtration
Filtration and sedimentation treatment processes remove particles, including micro-organisms
(bacteria, viruses and protozoa) (WHO 2004). For household water treatment systems of disinfection
and improved storage and hygiene practices, effective treatment of turbid water is a challenge. These
turbidity particles reduce access to target microbes or protect them from inactivation by disinfection
mechanisms. This suspended matter in the water reduces the microbiocidal efficacy of chlorine
disinfectants, and physically shields microbes from the UV radiation that is present in sunlight. For
appropriate physical and physical-chemical methods to be applied, particle and turbid characteristics
of the water need to be established. Treatment technologies for the removal of turbidity examined here
in detail include:

Sedimentation
o
Settling
o
Coagulation and Flocculation
Filtration
o
Fibre or cloth filters (straining)
o
Ceramic Filters
o
Slow sand (Biosand) filters
The choice of these pre-treatment methods primarily relies on the size of the suspended particles and
thus the process or media required for settling or filtering of the particles. Pretreatment can broadly be
defined as any process to modify microbial water quality before treatment to reduce the microbial,
natural organic matter and particulate load (WHO, 2004). Assuming only the simplest and most
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effective of methods are necessary then implementing more than one treatment system may be too
complex for the requirements of this community. The following assessment of various treatment
systems will aim to focus on a single system of simplest design and ease of operation, hence pretreatment such as roughing filters are not considered feasible as the water requires further treatment
after going through this system.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is a physical process used for removing microbes and other colloidal particles from the
water. It is used for settling suspended material and removing large particles (such as sand, grit and
dirt) and attached bacteria. The sizes of microbes vary and hence larger particles, such as helminths,
can gravity settle at considerable rates and are readily removable by this exclusion method (Sobsey,
2002). Aggregated smaller microbes, including viruses, bacteria and protozoan parasites, are also
removable by this physical process. The sedimentation process is usually done by slowing or stopping
the flow of water (CAWST, 2006). Techniques include:

storing and settling water

coagulation and flocculation
Chemical coagulation aids effective removal of pathogens. Together, coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation can result in 1–2 log removals or decreases in order of magnitude of bacteria, viruses
and protozoa (LeChevallier and Au, 2004).
Storing and Settling Water
Water storage is a simple method for settling suspended particles and eliminating a considerable
amount of the bacteria. The process can be as simple as leaving the water in a bucket overnight and
pouring off the settled water into another container (CAWST, 2006). At least two pots or containers
are required so that one acts as the settling vessel and another can be the recipient of the supernatant
water post-settling period. A three pot treatment system is recommended by WELL 7 and considered
simple and easy to use. Figure 19 describes the three-pot process.
7
WELL (Water and Environmental Health London and Loughborough is a resource centre funded by the United
Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID) to promote environmental health and wellbeing in
developing and transitional countries. It is managed by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine
(LSHTM) and the Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University.
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Figure 19. Simple diagram used to explain the Three-Pot Treatment System for settling out suspended
particles (Skinner and Shaw, 1998).
Storing water for one day can reduce the bacterial presence by more than 50% (Skinner and Shaw,
1998). After several hours suspended solids, and attached bacteria settle to the bottom. Storage and
settling can also exploit the death of pathogens as some pathogens can not survive for long periods
without a human or animal host. These advantages and disadvantages are summarised in Table 14.
Table 14. Advantages and disadvantages of storage and settling for household water treatment.
Advantages
Disadvantages

Simple, low cost technology

Reduces settable solids and possibly
some microbes from water
Only larger settable solids removed,
such as sands, silts & larger microbes

Moderate to low microbe reduction

Regular cleaning of vessels required

Large or small volumes of water can be
treated

Materials required can be those vessels
used for water collection
Coagulation and Flocculation
Coagulation and flocculation are pre-treatment chemical processes for the removal of small particulate
matter which will not settle out of suspension by gravity (Degrémont, 1991). Coagulation occurs with
the addition of an agent that causes small particles becoming attracted together to form larger and
heavier particles, which enhances the settling process (CAWST, 2006). This process is commonly
used for community level treatment, although some case studies are found it to be effective and
culturally acceptable to implement at the household level (Sobsey, 2002).
The special additives which encourage the settling process can include chemicals, soil products, plants
or seeds. Alum (aluminium sulphate), PAC (poly aluminium chloride or liquid alum) and other
aluminium or iron salts (ferric sulphate) are commonly used in industrial treatment systems. Some
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examples of native plants used as coagulants include: seeds from the Indian Nirmali tree (strychnos
potatorum) and trees of the Moringaceae family (Moringa Oleifera & Stenopetala), sap from the tuna
or raquette cactus (opuntia ficus indica), bark of the South American tree Schinopsis, potato starch,
dried beans (vicia fava) and peach seeds (percica vulagris) (CAWST, 2006). Advantages,
disadvantages and costs of the various coagulants have been assembled by Sobsey (2002) and are
outlined in Table 15. The main point to highlight here is that the chemical additives are mostly used at
community level treatment, rather than at the household level.
Table 15. Chemical coagulants for water treatment and their advantages, disadvantages and costs for
household use (Sobsey 2002).
Coagulant
Advantages
Disadvantages
Cost*
Alum (aluminium sulfate etc.),
alum potash
Simple technology
Rarely used at household level
Difficult to optimize without
training & equipment
Moderate
Iron salts (ferric chloride or
sulfate)
Same as alum
Same as alum
Moderate
Lime (Ca(OH)2), lime + soda
ash (Na2CO3), caustic soda
(NaOH)
Same as alum
Same as alum;
pH control and neutralisation a
problem
Hazardous chemicals
Moderate to
high
Natural polymers
(carbohydrates) from seeds,
nuts, beans, etc.
Commonly used at
household level;
Effective & culturally
accepted in some places
Source plant required:
Training & skill required;
Cultural acceptability;
May be toxic
Low
*Estimated Annual Cost: low is <US$0.001 per litre, moderate is US$0.001 – 0.01 per litre, high is >US$0.01 per litre.
Since chemical additives are found to be more appropriate for community level treatment, this
suggests two options for the coagulation process. One option is to use a natural coagulant and the other
is to consider community level treatment. It has already been highlighted in previous sections that
intervention at the household level is more effective in increasing defences against water-borne
diseases. Therefore, the use of a natural coagulant is considered here, and the advantages and
disadvantages are summarised in Table 16. However, availability of this additive in East Timor is yet
to be determined.
Table 16. Summary of advantages and disadvantages for coagulation and flocculation treatment of water
at the household level, using a natural coagulant.
Advantages
Disadvantages

Low cost if natural additive available
locally

In conjunction with sedimentation Æ 1-2
log removal of bacteria, viruses and
protozoa

No natural additive known in East Timor

Dependent on dosage, pH, temperature,
alkalinity, turbidity, type and level of
organic matter
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Filtration
Filtration is effective in separating suspended and colloidal impurities from the water, reducing
turbidity of water (which can interfere with effectiveness of disinfection) and total suspended solids
(TSS) (Gadgil, 1998). Filtration processes include granular, slow-sand, pre-coat and membrane
filtration (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis), and can act as an
effective barrier for microbial pathogens (WHO, 2004). Rapid and slow sand filters effectively reduce
turbidity of the source waters (Gadgil, 1998). Slow sand filters also reduce bacterial and viral
contamination and remove larger biological contaminants (such as cryptosporidium, Giardia,
amoebae, parasite eggs, etc) (Gadgil, 1998).
Granular media filtration is widely used in drinking-water treatment, removing microbes through a
combination of physical-hydrodynamic properties and surface and solution chemistry (LeChevallier
and Au, 2004). This type of rapid-rate filtration reduces larger micro-organisms and suspended solids
(by 50% and 90% respectively) but can not remove faecal pathogens (Gadgil, 1998). Granular highrate, or rapid, filters are highly effective systems for water quality with high turbidity levels
(approximately more than 30 NTU). The raw water quality results for Tangkae water sources indicate
turbidity levels no greater than 13 NTU, therefore the slow sand filter is considered favourable in
terms of suitability of technology. Additionally, granular filtration requires coagulation pre-treatment.
Simplicity of the treatment system is a major criteria for assessing the appropriateness of a system,
therefore a system that requires pre-treatment is not considered the most simple, and is also likely to
require additional operational and maintenance training and materials. Regular monitoring and
backwashing is required to improve the performance of the system. The combination of granular
media filtration with other treatments (coagulation, flocculation & sedimentation) can result in 4-log
or 4 orders of magnitude or better removal of protozoan pathogens (LeChevallier and Au, 2004).
However, without proper pre-treatment and management this method on its own works only as a
simple strainer. Further information on these pre-treatment and filtration processes can be sought in
Water Treatment and Pathogen Control - Process Efficiency in Achieving Safe Drinking Water
published by the World Health Organisation (LeChevallier and Au, 2004).
Simple household filters, such as fibre, ceramic and slow sand filters can remove a large portion of
solid matter and micro organisms, by use of locally available materials and easily operated and
maintained processes. These three filtration techniques are considered in this study, with focus on the
Biosand filter as the slow sand filtration system. Other filtration techniques such as rapid sand filters,
reverse osmosis and carbon activated filters are more complex and costly and found to be
inappropriate technology for this rural East Timorese community.
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Straining
Straining is the process of running water through a paper or fibrous filter media, such as cloth. Studies
by the United States National Science Foundation (2006) found that folding a sari cloth eight to ten
times to create a less-than-20-micron mesh filter, can eliminate up to 99% of cholera bacteria.
However, smaller pore sizes are required to efficiently remove parasites (one to several microns pore
size), bacteria (0.1-1 microns pore size) and viruses (0.01 to 0.001 microns pore size) (Sobsey, 2002).
Figure 20 is a simple diagram of how the straining process works using a cloth for filtration.
Figure 20. Diagrammatic illustration of steps to filter water with a cloth, such as
sari or sarong (CDC, 2005).
The merits to this straining process are highlighted in Table 17. As highlighted earlier, this process can
also be combined with storing and settling processes to enhance pathogen removal. However, this
combination is still disadvantageous as only larger particles are filtered.
Table 17. Advantages and disadvantages of using a cloth filter media.
Advantages

Eliminates up to 99% cholera bacteria

Simple, low cost technology
Disadvantages

Filter media not small enough for some
parasites, bacteria and viruses
Ceramic Filter
The ceramic filter works in a similar fashion to the sand filter but using ceramic instead of sand to
filter the contaminants from the water. Here the water passes through the pores in the pot, the
contaminants are trapped in the pore spaces and the water falls into a holding container, usually
plastic, that the filter rests on (CAWST, 2006).
Some types of ceramic filter have a colloidal silver coating, which acts as a germicide in its ionic
colloid state, disabling the enzyme that pathogenic bacteria use for oxygen metabolism and suffocating
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them, destroying pathogens with an electric charge, collapsing their internal protoplasts, rendering
pathogens non-reproducible and killing parasites whilst in their egg stage (CAWST, 2006).
Traditionally, ceramics was a part of some local cultures in East Timor, but ceramic making facilities
were destroyed during the violence in 1999. In 2003 World Vision, with USAID funding, supported
the Bili Bala Olaria pottery project in Manatutu district making ceramic filters on a relatively large
scale of more than 60 filters a month (USAID, 2006). Provision of a new kiln initially helped
rehabilitate the local pottery-making industry and boost the earning power of women. The filters used
locally made ceramic reservoirs, as illustrated in Figure 21, and imported filters. However the filters,
imported from Brazil at a cost of approximately US$5 each, were considered too costly for the average
family. Research by scientists at the Australian National University (ANU) (2005) have found mixing
the local Manatutu terracotta clay with organic materials such as used coffee husks and firing with
cow dung can produce affordable and easy to make water filters that can remove up to 99.8%
pathogens.
Figure 21. Bili Bala Olaria ceramic filters, Manatutu district, supported by World Vision and USAID,
2003 (Photo by Osaorio Correia, USAID-ET Small Grants Program)
Ceramics is a traditional custom only in the regions of Manatutu and Dili and is not common in the
village of Tangkae (de Oliveira, 2006, pers. comm.). This suggests that to consider the use of this
treatment option, it is likely that it would be purchased from a group such as Bili Bali Olaria group. If
the filter is proven to be manufactured according to research requirements to remove pathogens then
very few disadvantages are applicable to this option.
Table 18. Advantages and disadvantages of the ceramic water filter mixed with coffee husks and fired by
cow dung.
Advantages

Simple & easy to produce & use

Low or no ongoing costs

Removes up to 99.8% pathogens
Disadvantages

Unknown
local
ceramic
abilities,
terracotta clay availability locally and
pottery groups in operation

Ability to dry dung (humidity at high
altitudes)

Turbidity level requirements unknown
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Biosand Filter (BSF)
A slow sand filter containing biological activity is often referred to as a bio-sand filter
(BiosandFilter.org, 2004). The Biosand Filter (BSF) is a modified version from the traditional largescale community slow sand filter to a small-scale filter for intermittent or household use (CAWST,
2006) and can remove microbes and reduce turbidity. The BSF is simply a concrete container encasing
layers of sand and gravel to eliminate sediments, pathogens and other impurities from the water
(CAWST, 2006). Water is poured into the top of the filter, illustrated in Figure 22, and the diffuser
plate dissipates the initial force of the water, controlling the flow rate. The water then travels slowly
through the bed of sand and gravel media before being propelled through the plastic piping and out of
the filter for use. Due to the likelihood of this option being considered appropriate for Tangkae, an indepth examination of the process follows.
Figure 22. Illustration of a BSF unit (Yung, 2003).
Slow sand filtration works through a combination of biological and physical-chemical interactions
(LeChevallier and Au, 2004) and is more effective than rapid filters, reducing bacterial and viral
contamination and removing larger biological contaminants (such as cryptosporidium, Giardia,
amoebae, and parasite eggs) (Gadgil, 1998). The biological layer of the filter (termed filter cake or
schmutzdecke, derived from the German for ‘dirty layer’) develops in the sand below the top surface to
trap organic particulates and microbial contaminants in the water (Gadgil, 1998). When the filter clogs
up this top layer can be scraped off and, after a few days, the new smutzdecke is established
(depending on temperature and local conditions) and the filter can restart. Four processes remove
pathogens and contaminants in the BSF and include (CAWST, 2006):
1. Mechanical trapping. Sediments become trapped in the spaces between the sand grains, which
become smaller spaces over time, enabling smaller particles to be trapped.
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2. Adsorption or attachment. Viruses are adsorbed or become attached to the sand grains,
becoming metabolized or inactivated in the filter.
3. Predation. The microbial community, or the schmutzdecke, consumes bacteria and other
pathogens found in the water.
4. Natural death. Pathogens also die off due to food scarcity, less than optimal temperatures and
a relatively short life span. They can then become nutrients for other micro-organisms.
The BSF has some differences to the slow sand filter described above. One primary difference is the
layer of water (5-10cm deep) that is maintained above the sand at all times, including between uses
(CAWST, 2006). This layer is enough for oxygen to be diffused through to provide the biological
layer with enough oxygen to develop. The development of this layer can take one to two weeks to
develop fully, whilst removal efficiency and filter effectiveness continues to increase throughout this
period.
The BSF has been found to remove 98.5% of the indicator bacteria E.coli as studied by CAWST
during the BRAVO project in Haiti in 2005. The filter has also proven to remove more than 96%
faecal coliforms, 100% protozoa & helminths, 50-90% organic & inorganic toxicants, and greater than
75% Iron and Manganese (CAWST, 2006). All or part suspended solids are also removed. Although
the filter has a high removal level of contaminants and bacteria, disinfection is recommended as a final
stage for households with infants or the elderly (CAWST, 2006).
The inlet water seeps through the filter at a rate of 0.1 - 0.4 m/hr (Gadgil, 1998), although for the faster
rates effective pre-treatment and disinfection may be required prior to and post- filtration. Flow rates
are governed by Darcy’s Law which include fluid properties of viscosity and density as well as sand
properties, area and length of the sand column (Fetter, 1999):
⎛ dh ⎞
Q = KA⎜ ⎟
⎝ dl ⎠
Where Q = discharge, or flow [m3/s]
K = hydraulic conductivity [m/hr]
A = cross-sectional area [m2]
dh/dl = gradient of hydraulic head
Several studies have illustrated that higher filtration rates have little difference in effluent quality for
biological removal but do have considerable effect on turbidity and colour removal, as indicated in
Table 19 from trials conducted in India illustrating constant grain size and changing filtration rate
(BiosandFilter.org, 2004). The slower the rate and the smaller the grain size results in higher removal
of faecal coliforms, total coliforms, turbidity and colour.
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Results
Table 19. Effects of filtration rate on performance at constant effective size (ES) (NEERI, 1982)
(a) Filter 1: (ES=0.20 mm)
Filtration rate (m/hr)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Average % Removal
FC
TC
Turbidity
Colour
99.60
98.70
98.30
99.70
98.90
98.10
96.50
90.10
89.10
95.10
93.80
89.60
(b) Filter 1: (ES=0.35 mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Average % Removal
FC
TC
Turbidity
Colour
99.30
98.40
98.00
99.30
98.40
97.30
96.50
89.20
88.90
95.10
92.80
88.20
(c) Filter 3: (ES=0.45 mm)
0.1
0.2
0.3
ES: Effective (Grain) Size
Average % Removal
FC
TC
Turbidity
Colour
99.00
97.00
96.70
98.60
97.00
96.40
96.20
88.30
87.90
92.00
89.20
83.00
FC: Faecal Coliform
TC: Total Coliforms
The major advantage of the BSF is the high removal rate of both turbid causing matter and microbial
contamination, as outlined in Table 20. The implications of this would mean that for waters from
Airabat and Fatnamudu the treatment process would require only one step, rather than two separate
filtration and disinfection processes. A disadvantage of this system is that the efficiency decreases
when the turbidity of the raw water reaches high levels. However, turbidity levels up to 50 NTU are
considered by BiosandFilter.org to be treatable by the filter. The higher turbidity levels of Tangkae’s
water sources are 12.4 NTU (Airabat) and 10.1 NTU (Fatnamudu). These levels may climb during
monsoonal rains, when particulate matter and sediments are mobilised and more prominent,
particularly in surface waters such as Fatnamudu. During these periods of heavy rain, rainwater can be
harvested and used instead of the stream water.
Table 20. Advantages and disadvantages of the Biosand Filter
Advantages

Simple to use

No chemical costs

Removes more than 96% faecal
coliforms, 100% protozoa & Helminths,
50-90% organic & inorganic toxicants,
and at least 75% Fe & Mn
4.5.3
Disadvantages

High capital cost (possibly subsidize
through funding)

Works best when turbidity < 10 NTU,
loses efficacy during monsoon season
when high turbidity

Process not efficient for several days
after cleaning out schmutzdecke (needs
to be done regularly)
Reduction of Pathogens - Disinfection Methods
Disinfection is the process by which pathogenic microorganisms are destroyed. The ability to oxidise
biological molecules and diffuse through the cell walls are requirements of any effective disinfectant
(James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1985). In water treatment, two main types of
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Results
mechanisms control the effectiveness of disinfection: (1) oxidation or rupture of the cell wall with
consequent cellular disintegration and (2) diffusion into the cell and interference with cellular activity
(James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1985).
Disinfection is “an effective barrier to many pathogens (especially bacteria)” during the treatment of
drinking-water (WHO, 2004). It can be used for surface and ground waters subject to faecal
contamination. Residual and chemical disinfection can be used for varying degrees of contamination.
Residual disinfection can be used against low-level contamination and although chemical disinfection
will reduce risk of disease it may not necessarily mean the supply is safe (WHO, 2004). High levels of
turbidity can limit the effects of disinfection because of protected microorganisms which can stimulate
bacterial growth and increase chlorine demand (WHO, 2004). Chemical disinfection can also result in
the formation of chemical by-products, although health risks from these by-products are small in
comparison to microbial contamination.
The most commonly used disinfection process is chlorination with other processes including
ozonation, UV irradiation (solar disinfection), chloramination and application of chlorine dioxide
(WHO, 2004). As previously discussed, the Biosand Filter is also effective in reducing pathogenic
bacteria. The East Timor National Guidelines recommend that water should be disinfected either by
boiling or through the use of solar disinfection (SODIS), with the latter option preferable.
Chloramination, chlorine dioxide and ozonation are not considered appropriate technology for
Tangkae due to the complex processes that are involved and high costs. Therefore, the following
processes for disinfection are discussed here in more detail:
Boiling and Pasteurization
Solar Disinfection (SODIS)
Chlorination
Boiling and Pasteurization
Boiling water is one of the oldest methods to free water of biological contaminants and is a method
already utilised in Tangkae. High temperatures can efficiently inactivate microbes. Boiling water at
100°C can kill enteric pathogens in less than a minute (Gadgil, 1998). However, holding the water at a
high enough temperature (such as 6 minutes at 70°C) is sufficient to pasteurize the water so it is safe
for drinking. This can be difficult to measure in the absence of thermometry and is cautioned against
unless such monitoring is possible (Sobsey, 2002).
Low efficiency of biomass-fuelled stoves generally used in less developed communities enhances the
air-pollution caused by this disinfection method. Stoves in East Timor are traditionally made with
three stones and firewood (de Oliveira, 2006, pers. comm.). Gagdil (1998) calculates that fuelwood
can boil water about three times its own weight with the average cookstove having an efficiency of
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Results
12%. This means that for a family of 5 with a drinking water need of 35 litres (35kg) of water daily,
this will consume about 12 kg of wood per day 8. As biomass, such as wood, is generally either scarce
or costly in developing countries, the use of this method is exhaustive on the household’s finances,
time and energy.
Furthermore, inefficient cookstoves inside the house are a health threat, particularly to women,
causing respiratory problems through high levels of smoke inhalation. National health statistics report
high respiratory diseases are indicative of the impacts of these inefficient cookstoves (UNDP, 2006).
Environmentally, the accompanying ecological damage and loss of local woodlands and forests caused
by deforestation is also of concern in terms of sustainable practice. These environmental costs can
convert to impacts on the community economically, as wood can be costly to purchase, and long term
impacts such as erosion and soil grade depletion can affect soil and water quality and agricultural
yields. The greenhouse emissions potential can also be significant. 1kg of fuelwood, or firewood,
burnt in an average biomass cookstove releases about 440g of carbon as CO2 (which, based on
estimates of 12 kg of wood used per day, equates to approximately 5.3 kg CO2 emitted per day and
1927 kg annually) (Gadgil, 1998). A comparison of this to the emissions of an average Australian
vehicle of 3750 kg of CO2 per year (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2006) illustrates that the simple act
of burning fuel wood can contribute significantly to global greenhouse emissions.
The use of other fuels to boil water, such as dried dung, coffee husks or gas, could eliminate some of
the environmental impacts outlined above. Haburas Foundation suggests that the market price for
liquid petroleum gas in East Timor is not affordable for most rural East Timorese, as it is no longer
subsidised as it was during Indonesian rule. Several organisations in East Timor are focusing on
improving the efficiency of cookstoves, so that less firewood is used and smoke is diverted directly to
the outside of the house 9. However, atmospheric emissions remain problematic through these
improvements. Drying cow or buffalo dung is subject to two main factors. Firstly, the high humidity
of the mountainous regions may be problematic for sufficient drying of the dung. Secondly, sufficient
supplies of dung may not be available for this source of fuel to be used by all households in the
village. Alternatively, trade with low-land communities may provide a cheap source. Further
investigations into this option is required.
8
Other estimates indicate that 1 kg of wood is needed to boil just 1 litre of water. The following calculations
involve the moderate estimates for the purpose of not over-exaggerating financial and environmental costs.
Additionally, Gagdil’s estimates may take into account the use of some firewood for other essential domestic
needs, such as cooking.)
9
Since 2004 Haburas Foundation and USAid have been supporting a project in Lautem & Alieu districts to train
residents to make simple, energy-efficient clay stoves; In 2004 the Government of Japan and United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs extended the Human Security in Rural East Timor Program to
implement improved cookstoves in sub-districts Laulara, Atauro & Laclo; The Asia Regional Cookstove
Program partnered with Sahe Institute of Liberation, ETADEP & CIDA in January 2006 to facilitate the
development of improved cookstove program in Buccoli village.
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Results
Boiling or pasteurization should only be considered as an option for disinfecting water if no other
option is available, and only as a temporary solution, such as in emergency cases.
One advantage of the option of boiling water, outlined in Table 21, is that it is a process already
undertaken in the village and is likely to have high social acceptability to the community. However,
the community members may be inclined to learn of other effective methods. Additionally, as the
community is already aware of water quality issues and the need to disinfect prior to drinking,
education of alternative options may be reasonably straightforward. In conjunction with good
education programs the social acceptability of other options has potential to increase.
Table 21. Advantages and disadvantages of boiling water for disinfection of drinking-water.
Advantages
Disadvantages

Already undertaken in Tangkae Æ high
acceptability

Fuel wood
consuming
is
expensive
&
time

Removes almost 100% enteric bacteria

Environmental impacts (CO2 emissions,
deforestation)
Solar Disinfection
Solar disinfection is considered an appropriate technology for disinfection of household water as it has
the ability to improve its microbial quality, reduce diarrhoeal disease of consumers and is simple to
use, of low cost and has minimal material requirements (Sobsey, 2002). Ultraviolet (UV) light in the
wavelength range 240 to 280nm causes damage to the DNA of micro-organisms, disabling it from
replication resulting in a germicidal effect (Gadgil, 1998). One of the simplest solar treatment systems
is the practical SODIS system developed by scientists at the Swiss Federal Agency for Environmental
Science and Technology (EAWAG), as seen in Figure 23. The SODIS system consists of: placing low
turbidity (< 30NTU) water in clear plastic bottles of 1-2 litre volume (three quarters full); oxygenating
the water by vigorous shaking; and then exposing aerated bottles to sunlight for at least 6 hours
(Sobsey, 2002). The synergistic effect of the UV radiation and thermal fluence increases the
inactivation of bacteria and viruses (Wagelin et al., 1994). An alternative to solar disinfection is the
use of UV lamps, however due to the current lack of electricity in Tangkae, this option is not
considered.
Potential limitations on the SODIS system can influence the effectiveness and rate of disinfection.
These are outlined in Table 22. The availability of suitable water containers and other necessary
materials, such as polyethylene terephthlate (PET) plastic 2L bottles and corrugated rooftop, black
paint or solar cooker for enhancing sunlight absorption, are advisable for this system. A sufficient
intensity of local sunlight for the water to reach a temperature of 55°C or higher is preferable (Wagelin
et al., 1994). The system is suitable for treating only small volumes of water and has long waiting
periods which may cause potential user objections to the technology.
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Results
Figure 23. Simplistic diagram of the solar disinfection (SODIS)
process: UV-A radiation and thermal effects inactivate the
microorganisms (EAWAG & SANDEC, 2006).
Despite these limitations, solar disinfection in clear plastic bottles has been field-tested in many
countries, including Indonesia and Thailand, reporting measurable reductions in diarrhoeal diseases
(Sobsey, 2002). Acceptance rates are high, when introduction has been supported by community
involvement addressing educational, socio-cultural, behavioural and motivational issues.
Table 22. Advantages & Disadvantages of SODIS system.
Advantages
Disadvantages

Simple low cost technology

Synergistic UV & thermal effects
(amplified with black paint or solar
cooker) can inactivate bacteria & viruses
by 99.9% in 1.5 hours

Effective in water with low to moderate
turbidity (< 30 NTU)

Time consuming (several hours in
sunlight to 2 days in cloudy conditions)

Volumes treatable are small (~ 1-2 litres)

Water must be consumed within ~ a day
of storage (before microbial regrowth
occurs)
Chlorination
Chemical disinfection is considered a direct treatment to inactivate or destroy pathogenic microbes in
drinking water (Sobsey, 2002). Chlorination is the most common form of disinfectant (Gadgil, 1998)
although many other strong oxidants are available for use, namely ozone, chlorine dioxide and
chloramines. Chlorine reacts in water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrogen and chlorine ions.
Cl2 +H2O ↔ HOCl + H+ + ClVarious forms of chlorine can be used in developing countries, including bleaching powder (chloride
of lime; a mixture of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium
hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2,), liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), which is an electrolysed solution of
common household salt (NaCl) (Gadgil, 1998). Most of the recent studies on chlorination have been
conducted by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, with the use of a hypochlorite
generator to electrolyse the NaCl solution.
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Results
Chlorine dose is measured in units of concentration times contact time and disinfectant capabilities
depend on the chemical form of chlorine in water, which in turn is dependent on pH, turbidity and
temperature (Degrémont, 1991). Dosages are dependent on the raw water quality and are generally
measured through trial and error by testing the free chlorine levels (0.5mg/L to 2.0mg/L is optimal)
(CDC, 2005). A dosage of 2mg/l and 30 minute contact time provides 99.9% disinfection of Giardia
at 20°C, 1 NTU and pH of 7 (Gadgil, 1998).
Advantages and disadvantages for the chlorination disinfection process are given below in Table 23.
The primary limitations of chlorination is the necessity for an appropriate supply of the source
chemical to be maintained and the need for a skilled and trained operator (Gadgil, 1998). A major
advantage of using chlorine for disinfection is its ability to leave residual free chlorine after a specified
contact period, which continues further disinfection of any new biological contamination (Gadgil,
1998).
Table 23. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Chlorination process
Advantages
Disadvantages

Effective removal of pathogens (99.9%
disinfection of Giardia)

Process is affected by temperature, pH &
turbidity

Leaves residual free chlorine after
contact period to continue further
disinfection of any new biological
contamination

Dosage concentrations required to be
trialed prior to implementation

Contact time of chlorine dependent on
water quality

Potential for degradation of chlorine
concentrations (particularly in hot
climates) during storage

Objections to taste

Chemical process may require in-depth
education
4.5.4
Monitoring and Maintenance
Monitoring and maintenance for the quality of the treated output water ensures that systems are
operating at expected capacity and outputs. Maintenance required for the individual systems has been
elaborated above. For monitoring the treatment systems and processes, regular water testing will
provide quantitative measurements to ensure output water quality is improved and safe for drinking
purposes.
Options to measure water quality include field test strips and laboratory testing. Field test strips
require skilled and trained personnel to conduct the tests. This could be either a member of the
community or from an assistant organisation such as HTO. However, the likelihood of these test strips
being locally available is low. Alternatively, samples could be taken to the DNAS Water Laboratory.
Although relatively reliable, the problem lies in the cost of these tests, which are US$1 per parameter
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Results
tested. If only the necessary parameters are tested, this could still amount to a significant cost for the
community (5 tests (such as turbidity, E.coli, pH, Fe, Mn) per month equates to US$5 per month).
The other option is to conduct sanitary surveys and record changes in social and health conditions in
the community. This will provide an indication of outputs from the total technical and behavioural
barriers implemented.
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Discussion
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION
The results from this study seek to highlight the current capacity of the community and various
stakeholders; outline the potential water quality issues of Tangkae’s current water sources; and look at
options to improve these sources for drinking-water and domestic uses. This section discussion
provides an analysis of these results and the implications on achieving the objectives of this project.
Firstly, it is important to look at the various limitations that the study has been subject to under the
jurisdiction of working in a fragile state. This is then followed by an examination of how qualitative
measurements, such as stakeholder analysis and social surveys, are attributable to the success of the
project. Finally, the analysis of scientific data including raw water quality results and a criteria rating
assessment of the options to improve the water sources is presented.
5.1
LIMITATIONS
Data and resource limiting situations, such as in this case, result in assessments based on preliminary
and sometimes speculative data. However, every effort has been made to substantiate the data and
assumptions made. For example, household income for Tangkae has been assumed to be
representative of the average rural income as provided by the United Nations Development Program
Timor-Leste Human Development Report 2005. Although the surveys conducted did not provide
information regarding household economics, through literature the assumption can be reasonably
validated. In provision of producing recommendations for the next phase of the project – community
consultation – this data is expected to be supported with more in-depth surveys and investigations.
Limited access to resources and suppliers in East Timor has undoubtedly constrained the project’s
outcomes, however, this is also a driving force behind what is judged as appropriate technology. In
order for the donor organisation, such as EWB, to devolve responsibility, the solutions need to be
operable by the community itself so that the village can be as self sufficient as possible. Consequently
it is not suitable to consider an option that requires materials that are not locally available. Although
this may limit what technological options can be offered to the community, it can also drive research
to find simple options that are still effective in improving the water quality.
Time is also another limiting factor that constrains many projects in East Timor. ‘Timor time’, a term
to explain that things take a lot longer to get done in East Timor, restricts project deadlines and
achieving activities. Unfortunately, this could not always be avoided and is found to be prevalent
throughout many East Timorese government and non-government organisations. The slowness of
processes is likely due to unskilled personnel who are either not sure what they are doing or waiting
for approval from authority. This is reflective of the current lack of governance that is highly
prominent in East Timor.
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Discussion
‘Timor time’ also needs to be taken into account for the following stages of the program. Planning of
activities require a certain allocation of time, with which a large contingency amount will need to
added as processes are generally always prolonged. An example of this is the construction of a
Biosand Filter mould which took one year to obtain funding and three months to construct, and still six
months later the cast had not been made and trialled (Holland, 2006, pers. comm.).
Funding is limited from government organisations and therefore some organisations, although wishing
to provide complete integrated services, are only able to specialise in one area. An example of this is
CAWST whose work focuses on Biosand Filters as they only have sufficient funding to concentrate on
this one technology. They would, however, like to research and improve other services as well. This
leads to a competitive market between aid organisations competing against one another for funding,
rather than working together.
This competitive nature rather than collaborative attitude between aid organisations limits the
efficiency of projects. Groups tend to repeat failures of others because of lack of collaboration. There
was little evidence found of collaboration of development assistance projects in East Timor, although
this could be due to either a lack of governance and systems in place for collaboration, or simply, not
many projects in operation or completion. During times of civil upheaval, projects are put on hold as
funding channels and personnel input are halted. There was evidence of minor collaboration of NGOs
through an NGO forum (Forum Organizacao Nao Governamental De Timor-Leste (FONGTL))
however the information was dated and accessibility to these resources was of difficult access from
outside the country.
Accessing data and information from outside of East Timor was found to be restricting in terms of
achieving research and proceeding with investigations. Although the project had an in-country liaison
officer the communication channels between participants was limited. It was found during the field
visit in February that things were done only when approached in person. Productivity and efficiency
does not seem to be highly regarded in the work force. This is possibly reflective of the low levels of
training and skills acquired by many workers that have not gained an understanding of the importance
of productiveness in the economy, which are driving forces in Western economies. Unemployment is
rife in East Timor, and it is understood that in many situations relatives and friends are employed by
organisations through family connections and generally not on the merits of training or skills
(Letchford, 2006, pers. comm.).
The volatility of the current situation has affected the project on a number of different levels. The
options to improve the water quality are only based on preliminary data, therefore leading to several
assumptions needed to be made. However, the benefit of this has meant that a more generic study has
been conducted in terms of East Timorese culture in general. This can then provide a basis for other
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Discussion
water quality projects within East Timor, by altering the local conditions and applying the remaining
assessment.
The state of the country currently does not appear to be expected to gain stability in the near future.
Even though at the onset of this project the author had expectations that the project would be longer
term than that of the calendar year, over the time it has been realised that the lifetime of the project is
likely to be extensive. However, the author has found that throughout the term of conducting this
dissertation, projects within any development context must look from a long-term view. This is the
definition of sustainable outcomes. Outcomes can not be produced overnight and should last a
lifetime.
Other effects from the volatile situation have resulted in a disruption to the UNTL students’
livelihoods and education. Many of the students have either returned home to work on their family
farms or are now living in IDP camps in Dili, selling cigarettes. Difficulties in maintaining contact and
motivation will undoubtedly limit the following stages of the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor
Student Program. Also, the impacts on the village of Tangkae are unknown. Located in the hills
surrounding Dili, many people fled to villages such as Tangkae in search of safety. Problems of overpopulation and increased pressure on natural resources are likely to affect the assumptions made here
regarding the local conditions of Tangkae.
5.2
QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
Qualitative measurements are those that are based on the quality or character of something, as opposed
to the quantity. These include stakeholder analysis, capacity development, social surveys and informal
interviews and are instrumental in a development context to achieve sustainable outcomes.
Measurements have been restricted due to limits on the interactions between the author and project
stakeholders. Despite these restrictions, a preliminary analysis highlights several aspects important to
achieving the project objectives.
5.2.1
Stakeholder Identification and Analysis
Stakeholder identification, as outlined in Table 8, highlights that the two common links between many
of the stakeholders is the wish to help improve Tangkae’s living standards and social situation and to
also improve project experiences of the individuals and their respective organisations. Here the
different levels of capacity development can be seen: societal, individual and organisational.
The interactions between the different stakeholders illustrated that there are many different
relationships within the two separate spheres, as well as from the holistic view. The author, and other
stakeholders, were likely to be aware of this finding prior to this analysis, however, examining it with
a more definitive approach emphasises what these interactions can imply for the project’s outcomes.
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Discussion
A key point is that the core project team, the UWA student contingent, plays a central figure in the
relationships across the international boundaries. This is important for the author, and fellow team
members, to be aware of what their actions, or non-actions, can mean for the project. Should the ties
across these international borders slacken, this could mean losses in essential funding and damages to
governmental and institutional support. This would eventually lead to impacts on primary
beneficiaries, such as the UNTL students losing motivation in the project.
Actions of the core project team therefore need to be carefully considered. This is where planning is
also important to ensure that contacts with various stakeholders are maintained sufficiently to keep up
motivation and morale of the project participants, so that when the state regains stability the project
can continue with the subsequent stage – community consultation. However, it is important that
communications are controlled and do not incite over-enthusiasm, which can lead to raised hopes and
expectations. The shortfall of raising hopes can be more damaging than having no communication and
therefore a balance should maintain a steady interest from stakeholders.
A second key point is the number of institutions represented in the East Timorese sphere, and their
direct links to one another. One of the underlying objectives of the EWB Water and Sanitation East
Timor Student Project is to help build the capacity of the UNTL students. Building of partnerships
between UNTL and organisations such as HTO and DNAS are not only essential for the UNTL
students to have an opportunity to use their university skills and knowledge in a real situation, but also
provides the nation’s shortage of skilled workers with upcoming engineers and trained staff for this
sector. The far reaching effects of maintaining these relations will provide the nation with a stronger
base on which to decentralise services and build the nation’s governance.
The other argument regarding the maintenance of these relations is the potential that exists for conflict
to occur. Stakeholders with varying degrees of knowledge and skills can be akin to questioning who
holds the authority. In providing the project team as a whole with a means for facilitation of ideas and
knowledge, the stakeholders can cooperate more efficiently. It is important for the core project team to
be aware of this position as facilitator, and to consider all actions and non-actions with these potential
impacts in mind.
The facilitator role is generally required to work with the community to help guide the community
towards appropriate options and implementation. Here, the role extends beyond guiding the
community to channelling enthusiasm and harnessing energy of all stakeholders. In order to achieve
this, further informal interviews will provide a greater understanding of stakeholders’ interests and
expectations. This can then be steered toward a desire to achieve the interests already highlighted,
such as helping Tangkae improve living standards and increase project experiences and knowledge.
All this leads to the capacity development of the nation. The current capacity of the nation – the
language diversity, religious inclinations, low literacy, definitive social structure, and gender
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Discussion
inequalities –combined with stakeholder interactions and partnerships, all contribute to the building of
the nation. Highlighting and harnessing the positives from the current capacity will drive the
stakeholders and project forward towards successful and sustainable outcomes. Continued long term
engagement with the stakeholders will be beneficial in maintaining the capacity built to this point.
Through this contact with individuals, institutional strengthening can also benefit. Focusing on
institutions will decentralise roles and responsibilities but build resource base, such as trained and
skilled staff.
5.2.2
Social Surveys and Informal Interviews
Social surveys and informal interviews are a means of obtaining data that may not be obtained from
simple observation or even thorough investigation. Participant explanation of historical events can
provide the researcher with an insight into past trends of seasonal or annual climate change, shifts in
dominant vegetation types, or changes in raw water quality of springs and wells. These surveys can
then be substantiated through observational surveys to verify the results.
Conforming to capacity development processes have possibly hinged on some of the interactions with
the village and thus limiting the amount of information gathered. During both site visits it was
explained to the village chefe that the project team were there only to investigate and research the
village’s water situation. It is important to not raise the community’s expectations until promises can
be guaranteed. This means that until preliminary investigations and research are completed and
funding sought, there is no guarantee that implementation will take place. Therefore, preliminary
interactions and discussions with the villagers were restricted so as to minimise the impact the
researchers would have on the village’s expectations.
The results obtained from the preliminary surveys conducted demonstrate that a moderate
understanding of local factors is required in order to research appropriate technology for the
community. However, some factors were not considered, and this would have been worthwhile had
further time and research been done prior to conducting the surveys. One of the preliminary areas of
interest that was lacking in the surveys was the assessment of cultural perceptions and attitudes
towards various water sources and the quality of these sources. This would have provided a greater
knowledge of the acceptability of various supply and treatment options. Having knowledge of what
the community already knows or is aware of is part of the assessment of the current capacity. Without
being able to pinpoint what the current capacity is, makes it difficult to build and develop this
capacity. However, a combination of general understanding and some modest assumptions have
provided a general sense of the cultural acceptability and perceptiveness.
The informal discussions with various participants provided insight into some of these different
cultural perceptions and understandings in East Timor. An informal conversation with one of the
UNTL civil engineering students regarding the quality of rain water concluded that the soils and
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Discussion
“dirtiness” collected in the surface runoff from heavy precipitation was carried through the hydrologic
cycle back to the precipitation. This highlights several areas of interest.
Firstly, this points to a breakdown in the education system, whether it is the content of material, the
method of teaching or the learning styles. Whichever the case, a basic principle of a resource that
sustains life on earth has been misperceived, and possibly underestimated as a solution to many
problems related to access to safe water supply. This exemplifies the extent of problems caused by the
far-reaching effects of the disrupted system of governance within a fragile state. Through the capacity
building of the UNTL students, this project is able to offer more than development at the village level.
In working with East Timorese engineering students, the development reaches beyond the individual
and institution and towards society as a whole. These engineering students are the service workers of
the next generation, the upcoming national resource of skilled workers, and their strength will lead to
strengthening the nation.
Secondly, this point highlights the importance of informal discussions and social interactions between
project participants, particularly for the author. Social skills are important tools required to deal
productively and successfully with stakeholders in any context, particularly within a development
situation. Vast barriers can be overcome through simple discussions. Examples of these skills include
leadership which enable others to be inspired to agree on a shared vision; the capacity to facilitate
change; building instrumental relationships; collaboration and cooperation; working with others
toward shared goals; and being able to work in a team to pursue common goals (Burke, 2005). These
skills can help minimise some of the limitations encountered, such as ‘Timor time’. Depending on the
situation, and with whom one is dealing, punctuality can be stressed to the project team participants, in
hope that all will oblige and pay heed to meeting times and deadlines. On other occasions, when the
meeting times are beyond the control of certain participants, ensuring there is a back up plan to revert
to can make up for time wastage and ensure deadlines are met. Carrying a workbook and pen can
mean impromptu meetings amongst the core project team can sometimes produce rewarding results.
Another element of cultural perception that resulted from the surveys was that of the Peace Corps
visitors who stayed in Tangkae for several months prior to this project. In terms of the acceptability of
certain technological options, the awareness of having had westerners stay in the village will likely
impact positively on the receptiveness of the community to this project’s involvement in their water
situation. This should be taken into consideration if these outcomes are applied to another village as
their perceptiveness may be quite different, thus affecting the options in a different manner to that of
Tangkae. This highlights the need to conduct further investigations, particularly in a less formal
manner. Observational surveys as well as informal interactions can provide sources of information that
could not be otherwise accessed. Incorporating a range of mediums to gather data is the
comprehensive method to obtain accurate information.
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Discussion
An important part of gathering information is that a range of community members are included in the
discussions, particularly women. East Timor is a generally patriarchal society and although the village
chief was approached with most matters, during the social survey the author requested the presence of
some women. This is important to address social equality as well as to get as much correct information
as possible. Women and children are usually the ones that collect the water, and women are generally
more aware of sicknesses and health issues, so they are good avenues of information to obtain the
most accurate community profile.
5.3
Sampling and analysis of water quality is considered the most valuable tool for identification of
contamination and confirmation of the quality of water (AusAID, 2005b). The integrity of sampling
methods is important in assuring that raw data accurately represents the water profile for the village.
However, due to a lack in knowledge and resources at the time of testing, some of the sampling
techniques in this project would not be considered adequate enough for the sampling results to be
entirely representative of the material being sampled. Preliminary testing of the site’s current and
potential water sources was limited and only basic indicators of contamination resulted from these
tests.
The reliability of several aspects of the sampling techniques is questionable including the collection
and transportation conditions. These conditions can influence the nature of the samples and the results
from laboratory procedures.
The first sets of samples conducted on 7th February are likely to have lost a large proportion of
integrity, mostly due to prolonged storage times (of three days). Figures 16 and 17 illustrate irregularly
high counts of E.coli and total coliform in the 7th February samples compared to the 20th February
samples. Other factors such as the occurrence of heavy rainfall events prior to collection or inadequate
cleanliness of collection containers are just as likely to have affected the samples collected on the 20th
February. Therefore, the prolonged storage time of three days is main factor likely to inhibit an
accurate reading of microbial parameters. It is generally recommended to test water samples within 24
hours of collection (Greenberg et al., 1992). After this time, microorganisms can undergo growth and
tests are likely to produce inaccurate results.
The other factors could also induce inaccurate results. One scenario is if the samples were collected
after the area experienced heavy rains. This can result in increases of microorganisms as they are
mobilised in the soils and are provided more water media to rapidly increase in numbers. There was no
record of heavy rains prior to collection, although this was not queried with the community and the
author was not on site and unable to confirm any rainfall events.
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Discussion
Another aspect that has potential to magnify error of results is the cleanliness of the sample bottles.
The use of reused bottles and inadequate washing could add to contamination or degradation of the
sample.
In terms of the laboratory testing, the involvement of AusAID with DNAS in the CWSSP program
may suggest that the DNAS Water Laboratory would be set up to represent an accredited laboratory
using approved testing equipment in terms of international or Australian standards. A downfall here is
that the testing standards used in the laboratory were not recorded. However, notes recorded some
relatively low levels of sterilisation, where some tests were conducted reusing beakers without
washing. A recommendation for further investigations is to check these standards which will
determine some of the credibility of the test results.
Despite the large potential errors in the results, this study has made the assumption that the raw water
quality results are relatively indicative of the presence of microbial and chemical organisms. Based on
this assumption, research of options to reduce the levels of these organisms has progressed. However,
these baseline results need to be verified so that the outcomes of the implemented options can be
quantitatively measured. In order to monitor and assess the improvement in water quality as a result of
treatment barriers put in place, the most accurate method to measure the improvement is by comparing
raw water quality data with that of the treated water.
In order to establish the baseline water quality additional testing with greater sample preservation
needs to be undertaken. This will provide greater precision to the preliminary water quality data
already obtained. Additional testing is also required because a single water quality sample, or point
sample, does not provide sufficient information to guarantee the quality profile of a water source.
Upstream conditions, seasonal variations and water usage patterns may alter over temporal periods and
therefore ongoing sampling is usually required to verify the water conditions (AusAID, 2005b).
The preliminary raw water quality results found that the water source currently used by Tangkae,
Laratema spring, demonstrates relatively high drinking-water quality. The test results from the second
site visit also indicated relatively good quality at Airabat well. This is likely due to these water sources
originating from groundwater. Groundwater sources such as these are generally less vulnerable to
contamination due to the barrier effects that surrounding and overlying soils have as a natural filter
and disinfectant. The concern here is that the source is not covered or protected sufficiently. This
would be recommended if these sources continue to be used.
Fatnamudu spring had the poorest quality of the three water sources. This surface water source was
found to have high turbidity levels which are likely from natural processes and anthropogenic
activities upstream. Heavy rains that may have occurred prior to collection of samples could cause
mobilisation of bacteria in soil and water, resulting in particularly high levels of total coliform and
E.coli. Water acts as a vehicle to carry pathogenic bacteria, which does not usually survive in soil
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Discussion
media and increases the ability to contaminate water sources before they die off (Morgan, 1990).
Despite the problematic testing methods and possible reasons for these high levels of microbial
presence, thorough filtration and disinfection processes will be required prior to using this source for
any domestic uses.
The presence of iron and manganese in Fatnamudu stream explain the discoloured rocks and soils at
the collection point. This discolouration can be seen in Figure 11. Test results found that iron was
above the East Timor Guidelines limit for both Fatnamudu and Airabat, although these were from the
first tests collected on the 7th February. Due to the questionable results of these tests, it is difficult to
conclude whether these results are reasonable. The main impact of the presence of these constituents is
discolouration and undesirable taste. Aesthetic parameters can greatly influence the acceptability of
the water supply. These results should be verified in further investigations.
The use of E.coli and total coliform as indicators of microbiological presence has been questioned by
various literatures, as discussed in the section 2.6.3. Although the East Timor Guidelines use both of
these parameters as indicators, E.coli is found to more likely represent microbial presence than total
coliform. Total coliforms are present in water as a result of both natural and anthropogenic processes
and therefore do not accurately represent bacteria caused by faecal contamination. The use of this
parameter is questionable in these guidelines should it be tested on its own. However, testing in
conjunction with E.coli verifies the presence of faecal pollution.
5.4
LOCAL FACTORS AFFECTING WATER QUALITY
Several areas of data of the local conditions were unable to be obtained. The natural physical data is
important to determine where the water sources originate from and what sources of contamination they
are potentially subject to. Specifically, this data includes information regarding the local hydrological
conditions and characteristics. Groundwater flow, water table levels, soil infiltration characteristics
and contaminant transport routes are all important data to ensure water sources are protected.
Hydrological data such as that mentioned above is unavailable in East Timor, due to either being never
recorded or destroyed during the 1999 conflicts. Although this lack of data is restrictive, there are
possible means to avoid this limitation. Several studies have investigated methods of determining the
relationship between topography and surface and groundwater interactions. Models have been
constructed, such as TOPMODEL (a TOPography based hydrological MODEL) and GIUH
(Geomorphology Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph), which identify a strong link between catchment
topography and hydrology. Although beyond the scope of this study, the possibility of determining the
surface and groundwater interactions would provide a greater awareness of contamination sources.
Specifically, knowing these characteristics would enable measurement of the distance required to be
placed between sanitation facilities and water sources. Recommendations from DNAS Guidelines
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Discussion
(2005) suggest 10 to 15 metres is sufficient, however, soil type, hill slope and intensity of rainfall can
affect this distance, and each of these factors feature prominently in the local Tangkae area.
5.5
Adopting good management and monitoring procedures are important in assuring safe water. This is
seen in the multiple barriers approach taken to prevent, protect and treat water so that it is of drinkingwater quality and will reduce and eliminate pathogenic diseases in the community. This section
analyses these options to improve water quality in Tangkae and discusses the options and their
applicability to the community.
Taking the approach to treat water at the household level has been found to endorse the community
involvement in the understanding, managing and maintenance of processes and technology
implemented to improve the water situation. However, a driving target of the MDGs is to reduce
poverty by substantial figures and household treatment could minimise the impact intervention has on
the wider community. Through involving a greater number of stakeholders at various institutional
levels, this project has the ability to reach a larger population. If the effectiveness of household
treatment can be expanded through the intervention of local institutions the wider community will
benefit and MDGs are obtainable.
5.5.1
Preventative and Protective Barriers
Preventing contamination of the water source is the primary barrier recommended to ensure the water
is of safe drinking quality. This entails protecting the water source and implementing behavioural
practices to address all routes of potential contamination. One of protective options is to use safe water
storage vessels. The detail derived from studies regarding the use of these vessels illustrates the
extreme differences between lifestyles in developed societies and less developed communities. The
administration of such simple devices points out how important basic education is to prevent diseases.
The necessity of the behavioural barriers is highlighted in the information obtained regarding the
village’s current practice of boiling water. Through making a simple assumption that the water is
boiled sufficiently to inactivate microbes, the problematic issue is that illnesses are still prevalent in
the community. This points out that there are other routes of contamination from the boiled water to
the drinking vessel. Conclusions are made regarding poor hygiene and sanitation behaviours, as well
as poor water storage practices, which are a likely cause for the spread of diseases. Evidence of this
breakdown in education and behaviour are a driving force to educate the community about these
issues.
- 80 -
Discussion
5.5.2
Treatment Options
As well as the importance of protection barriers, treatment of the water is also recommended for low
quality waters. The best option is to use an alternate safe water source, but if there is no other source
available then treatment is required. Preliminary investigations found that three current water sources
are considered by the village of Tangkae, and a fourth source, rainwater, is also accessible although
not reliable. The treatment systems focused on reducing turbidity and pathogens at the household
level. These were reviewed in conjunction with an assessment of the local constraints the community
was subject to, including the lack of electricity, low income due to subsistence farming practices,
limits of education regarding treatment processes and cultural perceptions of water sources and points
of contamination.
On assessment of the factors that affect the suitability of the various treatment options, a criteria rating
analysis can be conducted. This method aims to provide an assessment with minimal subjectivity of
the most appropriate options available to improve the quality of water sources for Tangkae. Taking
those factors that specifically affected the suitability of the technology to Tangkae, a weighting of
importance can be allocated and then rate each option against the criteria, or factor, that affects the
option. The following outlines the exact method for the criteria rating assessment:
1. Select factors that specifically affect the suitability of the technology treatment options.
2. Determine the relative importance of each factor and assign a weight of relative importance to
each. The total of the weights add up to 100. The factors considered essential to the
acceptability and appropriateness of the technology are allocated slightly higher weightings
than other factors. However, there was little dissimilarity between each weighting as each
criteria is considered highly important to assess the suitability of technological options.
3. A rating scale was chosen: 1 = low favourability, 5 = high favourability. Each option was then
rated against each factor. Options that scored less than 5 are justified and described in the table
key. A critical cut-off grade is set at a rating of 2, meaning that any options that score 2 or less
are eliminated from being recommended, despite the final scoring. The cut-off grade is
introduced to promote options that are highly suitable in terms of all criteria, and to eliminate
options that score lowly for any single criteria.
4. The rating for each option was multiplied by the weight for each factor and written in brackets
( ), then summed at the bottom. Summary comments were written in the last row, reflecting
on certain scores. The highest scoring options are rated as the most appropriate technology for
the community of Tangkae in terms of the chosen criteria.
Having examined the raw water quality results and potential factors to improve the quality of water,
the criteria rating assessment results are in the following tables (Table 24 and Table 25). The criteria
- 81 -
Discussion
rating assessment for the disinfection treatment processes resulted with SODIS having the highest
favourability, with a total rating of 447, although boiling water is also likely to be very favourable
(rating of 444) due to it currently being practiced in the community and the potential for changes in the
fuel source. However, due to a score of 2 for the environmental impacts criteria, the option of boiling
water is disregarded in terms of sustainable options. The low scoring is representative of the impacts
the use of firewood has on local woodlands and atmospheric emissions. Should an alternative fuel
source be sought, a reassessment could result in high favourability.
The assessment conducted for processes to reduce turbidity resulted with the ceramic filter and
Biosand Filter rating the two most favourable (ratings of 476 and 447 respectively). Although the
other options of sedimentation and cloth filter were favourable the quality of the output water was
found to be not comparable to that of the ceramic and Biosand Filter. Although, further testing of the
raw water quality and the particulare matter size may provide evidence that a system such as settling
would be sufficient to reduce turbidity levels. Furthermore the ceramic filter is based on the
assumption that a local manufacturer is available and in operation. Further investigations during the
next stage of the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program will be able to confirm this
assumption.
The criteria rating assessment has meant some assumptions have been made regarding unknown
factors that affect various treatment options. These assumptions enable options to be considered in this
study and assessment, although it is unknown whether these options will satisfy the criteria. Further
investigations will clarify such assumptions. For example, the availability and cost of the chlorination
agent is unknown. If it is found in further investigations that this agent is unavailable or beyond the
affordability of the Tangkae household, then the chlorination option can be disregarded. This approach
aims to cover the groundwork for when the next stage progresses and specific investigations
undertaken in-country will result in immediate results of which are the most appropriate options to
recommend to Tangkae. Additionally, this allows a similar assessment to be conducted for villages
other than Tangkae, hence this study could produce outcomes for the wider East Timorese community.
Despite the various assumptions made regarding several of these options, these rating assessments
provide an overview of the suitability of the various technological systems presented in this study.
Some of the technical assumptions made are regarding the following systems:
The Biosand Filter: The author is aware that a mould for the BSF has been constructed but
it’s not certain that it is available for casting.
Ceramic Filtration: A ceramic filter manufacturing group in Manatuto was set up in 2003
and research to improve the system has been conducted at the Australian National University
however, current operation of the project is unknown.
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Discussion
Chlorination: The availability and costs of a chlorine agent for chlorination is yet to be
confirmed.
Turbidity Treatment options: The size of the turbid particles are unknown, therefore suitable
filtering and settling systems are difficult to apply.
Table 24. Criteria rating assessment for disinfection treatment options of Boiling water, SODIS &
Chlroination.
Disinfection Treatment Options
Criteria
Weighting of
Importance
Boiling
water
SODIS
Chlorination
Aesthetic Acceptability
11
5
(55)
5
(55)
3a (33)
Cultural Perceptions &
Attitudes of treatment
systems
12
5
(60)
4b (48)
4b (48)
Water quality of output
water
12
5
(60)
5
5
Complexity of system
10
5
(50)
4c (40)
3d (30)
Availability of labour &
materials
locally
(including chemicals)
10
3e (30)
4
3e (30)
Time length of system
process
10
5
(50)
4f (40)
5
Costs
of
(operational)
system
12
5
(60)
5
(60)
4g (48)
Environmental impacts
locally
12
2h (24)
5
(60)
5
Local
Environmental
Conditions
11
5
4j (44)
Total
100
Summary
(55)
(444)
This treatment
option is
currently
practiced in
Tangkae
(60)
(40)
(447)
Once introduced
to
community
this option is
likely
to
be
highly
acceptable
Key:
a – chlorine taste
b – system likely unknown to community
c – requires changing over of bottles
d – measured dosage added regularly, careful storage of chlorine form
e – laborious activity to find wood or time taken to buy fuel or chemicals
f – can take up to 2 days (but usually less if sunlight available)
g – assuming chlorine is available, likely to be require regular cost
h – using firewood: woodlands degradation, erosion, greenhouse emissions
j – requires sunlight but just takes longer if cloudy
k – requires temperature of ~ 20°C for optimal results
- 83 -
(60)
(50)
(60)
4k (44)
(403)
Regular
chemical dosing
is
taxing
on
time,
money
and
maintenance
Discussion
Table 25. Criteria rating assessment of filtration treatment options of Storing & Settling, Coagulation &
Flocculation, Straining, Ceramic and Biosand Filtration.
Turbidity Treatment Options
Criteria
Weighting
of
Importance
Storing &
Settling
Coagulation
&
Flocculation
Straining
Ceramic
Filtration
Biosand
Filtration
5
5
5
Aesthetic
Acceptability
11
5
(55)
5
Cultural
Perceptions &
Attitudes
of
treatment
systems
12
4a
(48)
4a (48)
4a (48)
4a (48)
4a (48)
Water
of
water
quality
output
12
2b
(24)
2c
(24)
2b
(24)
5
(60)
5
(60)
Complexity of
system
10
5
(50)
3d
(30)
5
(50)
5
(50)
3e
(30)
Availability
labour
materials
locally
(including
chemicals)
of
&
10
5
(50)
3f
(30)
4
(40)
5* (50)
4g
(40)
Time length of
system
process
10
3h
(30)
3h
(30)
5
(50)
5
(50)
5
(50)
Costs
of
system
(operational)
12
5
(60)
4
(48)
5
(60)
5
(60)
5
(60)
Environmental
impacts locally
12
5
(60)
5
(60)
5
(60)
4j
(48)
5
(60)
Local
Environmental
Conditions
11
5
(55)
4k
(44)
5
(55)
5
(55)
4m
(44)
Total
100
Summary
(432)
Limited by
particle size
removal
(55)
(369)
Small
particles
not removed
(55)
(442)
Small
particles not
removed
Key:
a – system likely unknown to community
b – effective only for larger particles
c – typically used for community level treatment
d – measured dosage added regularly
e – scraping off schmutzdecke regularly
f – time to buy coagulant (if available)
g – assuming materials for initial construction available, need replacement parts
h – longer settling period more effective treatment
j – emissions from biomass burning during filter production
k – temperature dependent process
m – heavy rains increases turbidity
* – assuming local ceramics group operating
- 84 -
(55)
(476)
Ideal as long
as
local
ceramics
production
available
(55)
(447)
Ideal
for
turbid waters
requiring
disinfection
(2-in-1
process)
Discussion
Concerning issues of the overall processes to improve water quality and community health include the
education regarding the reasons for illnesses, how water quality affects human health and the
environment, and the importance of hygiene and sanitation practices. Providing options is a relatively
straight forward part. Educating and motivating the community to change habits and behaviours will
be the challenge. However, the survey results indicate a high level of knowledge already present in
Tangkae. They boil the water to clean it, they are aware worms are transferred because the children eat
dirt and objects in the dirt, and there is evidence that rainwater tanks are or have been used at some
stage. Also, the presence of American Peace Corps visitors may mean that cultural perceptions of new
technology will be relatively accepting due to possible awareness of different practices and
behaviours. These factors will prove advantageous in the following stages of community consultation
and implementation.
All treatment and storage technologies should be accompanied and supported by an education,
motivation, and behavioural modification system. In conjunction with this, support systems should
provide economic incentives and other cost-recovery methods. To determine a feasible price for
materials for a treatment system, examination of what people currently pay for household products
will provide an idea of what people are likely to pay. Generally, if costs exceed 2% of the average
household income it is unlikely families will purchase the product (CDC, 2005). These support
systems aim to increase community and household participation and improve hygiene behaviours
related to household water use.
The emphasis on good management strategies relies on careful consideration of the capacity building
concept, including stages of community consultation, education and training to ensure the idea of
ownership by the community is endorsed, and management is maintained at highest possible levels.
Taking ownership of a system or infrastructure or any material thing improves the success rate of this
system being kept clean, operating properly, and maintained to better standards than if it was just
given without the earning process.
Alternatively, there are options other than implementing a new system. Improving traditional practice
is an economically beneficial option. It can also be easier to motivate communities to improve on their
traditional practices rather than build or implement new infrastructure. This is more applicable to
sanitation systems where burying faeces instead of going in the open pig pen would improve sanitary
conditions remarkably or improving the efficiency of cook stoves will minimise the use of fuelwood.
However, improving storage and hygiene practices can reduce potential contamination of water
sources.
Seeking alternative water sources is also a substitute option. This is actually the most appropriate
option, if there is a cleaner alternative water source available. Treating water can be a highly complex
system for an uneducated and untrained person to understand. Problems from poor operation and
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Discussion
maintenance can cause bigger issues than what are already present. However, in terms of Tangkae,
the preliminary investigations suggest that the only alternative water source that is not likely to require
treatment is rainwater. Although this is generally of good quality, the supply reliability of this source
is very poor. Four months of dry season would mean water would need to be stored for long periods,
which then are highly subject to other sources of contamination unless a safe storage system is
implemented.
These water treatment options are required to be collaborated with the water supply and sanitation
options. The water supply options include:
Piping water from Fatnamudu with gravity fed system
Pumping water from Laratema, or
Pumping water from Airabat.
A gravity fed piping system is attractive in terms of the cost, ease of operation and maintenance and
community acceptability. Particularly the latter, as this is the option the community feels is the best
solution for their water situation. However, the water from Fatnamudu will require a higher level of
treatment, which may result in lower levels of acceptability and an assurance of proper operation and
maintenance. Pumping water from Laratema or Airabat would require minimal treatment but it is
costly to pump.
Collaboration with the Community Water Supply study will enable a comparative assessment of the
different options to be conducted. This will highlight differences in terms of costs, abilities to operate,
maintain and monitor, and social acceptability. However, the final choice will be left for the
community to decide. This is one of the main objectives of this study:
To inform the community of recommendations to improve the water supply so that they are
empowered to make informed decisions regarding their water situation.
5.6
LONG TERM EFFECTS
Several long term effects need to be discussed mainly as an awareness of these issues for the
continuum of the project.
The main objective of improving the community’s water supply is to improve their health and
standard of living. As people’s health improves, this will increase the demand for more water as they
are stronger and more able to focus on other areas that need improvement, such as agricultural
practices to increase income or education to improve knowledge and skills. As growth in the
- 86 -
Discussion
agricultural sector continues, more water will be required, more advanced systems practiced, possibly
including the additions of fertilisers or greater numbers of livestock. Control of these factors is
required to assure the water sources remain protected and free from contamination.
Increased agricultural practices will also lead to greater degradation of the surrounding environment.
Groundwater and soil quality could degrade, and soil erosion is likely to increase. The increased use of
water sources could affect the source itself, whether from the water diverted from over-use or the
destruction of the surrounding vegetation and protective buffer zones.
The growth of a population could impact the design of a safe water supply system considerably, as
future populations will inevitably increase their water use as the improved system increases
accessibility and availability of safe water to the community. This can be determined by several
factors, including:
1. Future economic developments in the community.
2. The character and location of the community in relation to other population centres.
3. The possible introduction of small industries into and around the community (such as the
installation of the safe water system itself).
These far reaching affects are likely to be unavoidable unless the community is prepared to take
responsibility for their actions. However, in order for them to realise these impacts, educational
systems need to be designed to highlight the problems that can be caused. Although technical systems
can be selected to be sustainable, it will be the community that must ensure they are operated
sustainably with minimal impact to their surrounding natural resources. Part of the project’s long-term
success will be reliant on the promotion of an ethic that will lead to sustainable development.
On the global scale of long-term effects, climate change is also a primary concern. El nino effects are
predicted to impact the supply of water to communities in this region, possibly leading to water-scarce
diseases as supplies become restricted. The community needs information regarding the importance
the role the natural environment and anthropogenic activities play in reducing global warming. These
long-term issues are essential for the sustainability of the project’s outcomes.
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Conclusion and Recommendations
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
CONCLUSION
The main objectives of this study are to investigate appropriate techniques and technologies to
improve the drinking-water quality, help develop the capacity of the community and improve their
quality of life. In order for these objectives to be realised, an integration of social and technical aspects
is required.
The first aim of this dissertation is to analyse and assess the quality of current water sources for aldiea
Tangkae. Preliminary water testing resulted in a presence of pathogens (disease causing bacteria) and
high turbidity levels in the water sources of Tangkae. Pathogenic contamination is the primary health
concern in drinking-water supplies, requiring disinfection to inactivate the microbes. Turbidity, or
suspended particles, hinders the disinfection process and therefore, filtration is crucial prior to
disinfection.
Part of the first aim is to also examine local conditions and cultural factors which play an important
role in the application of appropriate technology to improve the quality of water. On the basis of
preliminary investigations, the most appropriate technology for disinfection was found to be solar
disinfection (SODIS) or boiling water with an alternative fuel source. To reduce turbidity and
pathogens, Biosand or ceramic filtration has been rated as the most suitable for Tangkae. However,
surveys indicate that disinfection through boiling water is already undertaken in the village. As
illnesses remain a problem in the village, other routes of contamination are the likely cause of waterrelated diseases. Therefore, introducing behavioural and preventative barriers will provide greater
protection against disease. These barriers include education of improved hygiene and sanitation
practices, and the use of safe storage vessels.
A secondary aim of the study is to build stakeholder capacity, which was limited due to the restricted
time spent in the field. Capacity development is examined through stakeholder analysis. This can aid
building of partnerships and strengthening of institutions. An analysis of the project stakeholders
highlights the important role of the core project team, including the author, to ensure participant
motivation is maintained and conflict between stakeholders is diverted. Facilitation will require further
informal discussions to gain greater understanding of stakeholder expectations, in order to channel
these energies toward strengthening the skills and resources of the individual and institutional project
stakeholders.
The third aim of this dissertation is to produce recommendations regarding improving and managing
the quality of water available in Tangkae. An assessment of the most suitable treatment options was
based on several assumptions which will require further investigation prior to presentation to the
- 88 -
community of Tangkae. Additionally, in collaboration with Community Water Supply and Sanitation
studies, the options recommended from this study may alter in appropriateness, depending on the
findings from these respective studies. For example, one of the more suitable supply options is to
gravity feed water from Fatnamudu spring, however this is found to require the greatest level of
treatment and may not be found to be accepted by the village. Despite all efforts to educate and inform
the community members, the appropriateness can be subject to a number of uncontrollable factors, one
of which is the social acceptability of the option. No amount of objectivity can accurately represent
this factor, which will only be determined in subsequent consultation with the community. Education
of the material presented in this study will enable the community of Tangkae to make informed
decisions regarding the most appropriate system for them to improve their water situation.
The following stages of the EWB Water and Sanitation East Timor Student Program will provide the
community with discussions regarding the various technologies available to improve their water
sources as well as opportunities for the research team to consolidate preliminary investigations
through observation, social and physical surveys, and scientific testing.
In answer to the Millennium Development Goals, this dissertation provides Tangkae village and the
wider East Timorese community, with technological recommendations to improve drinking-water
quality. The results from this study are presented in such a way so that they can be easily adapted to
many communities in East Timor and can therefore aid in achieving a greater number of targets to
alleviate poverty.
- 89 -
6.2
FUTURE WORK
6.2.1
Further Investigations
The highlight of this dissertation is that it is a work in progress, and the following investigations will
take place, at some stage in the near future. A number of additional data is required prior to some of
the technological options being presented to the community. The following points highlight some of
the major investigations required:
Collate preliminary results with Community Water Supply and Sanitation studies to produce
a project proposal for fundraising purposes.
Investigate:
o
Upstream activities to determine sources of contamination & then implement barriers
to protect from these sources (particularly looking for human or animal activities).
o
Downstream activities to determine the impact Tangkae’s activities are having or will
have on neighbouring villages.
o
Availability of cow dung, coffee husks and other alternative fuels to use for boiling
water.
Conduct further tests on raw water quality:
o
Take more water samples in order to clarify preliminary results, provide composite
samples rather than point samples, and to take into account any annual or seasonal
differences. This will provide a more accurate water profile for the community and
confirm the best options available to Tangkae to improve the quality of their water
supply.
o
Test turbidity, particularly size of suspended solids, using various filter media
methods, to determine type of filtration or sedimentation required to reduce turbidity.
o
Assess the credibility of DNAS Water Laboratory methods and techniques.
o
Test rainwater quality – direct from atmosphere, and diverted from roofing and piping
materials.
Participant Observations:
o
Involves participating in everyday village life, to observe daily activities, practices,
interactions and events that occur, and to also cross-check what was said during the
- 90 -
informal and structured interviews. For example, water storage vessels – do they have
lids and are they cleaned regularly.
o
Document and analyse cultural attitudes towards different water sources, historical
uses of water sources, biases towards water sources, and traditions and customs that
may play a role in the choice and use of water sources.
o
Examine potential future uses and demand for water in Tangkae and how this will fit
into total water cycle.
Design education program once current level of awareness and training has been determined
from the above investigations.
Determine appropriate monitoring & maintenance processes:
o
Water Quality – explore the availability of test kits; examine HTO’s resources and
possibility of assisting monitoring process.
o
Treatment systems – operation, cleaning & lifetime of system. Ensure steps are put in
place so that several members of the community know how to operate and clean the
system, and to recognise when there are problems. Also, to contact HTO or DNAS
when the lifetime of the system is approaching an end (eg. Biosand filter ~ 5 years).
o
Storage vessels – inspect current containers – practices of cleaning, where they came
from (past uses), do they have screw cap lids, find possible suppliers of CDC
containers (ie. with spigot) or look at converting current containers (if necessary).
Examine the possibility of mapping groundwater characteristics with restricted topographical
data and how sanitation discharges will be affected by soil types and infiltration conditions
and the impact on the quality of the water sources.
6.2.2
Next stage of EWB East Timor Student Program
When the fragile state of East Timor has regained some stability, the project will continue with the
next stage of community consultation. This will allow more comprehensive data to be gathered, as
detailed above, followed by an in-depth analysis of the data and design options. The community will
then select their desired option for implementation, with assistance from skilled and trained
stakeholders. The community will be trained in operation and maintenance until they prove to be selfsufficient and can take on responsibility of all aspects of the project. Evaluation and feedback received
from various stakeholders should be recorded to address areas of success and sections that could be
improved.
- 91 -
References
CHAPTER 7. REFERENCES
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Fetter, C. W. (2001) Applied Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
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References
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examination of Water and Wastewater, Amercian Public Health Association, Washington.
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Holland, D. (2006) In Department of Civil EngineeringColorado State University, Fort Collins, pp.
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IRC (2002) Small Community Water Supplies: Technology, people and partnership, Ministry of
Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, Netherlands.
James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc. (1985) Water Treatment Principles and Design,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
LeChevallier, M. W. and Au, K.-K. (2004) In WHO Drinking Water Quality Series(Ed, WHO)
London.
Letchford, R. (2006) Perth.
Luong, T. V. (2003) International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 13, S153-S159.
Lusthaus, C., Adrien, M.-H. and Perstinger, M. (1999) Universalia Occasional Paper, 35.
Mathew, B. (2005) IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre - Occasional Paper Series 40.
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948-953.
Morgan, P. (1990) Rural Water Supplies and Sanitation, Macmillan, London.
National Environmental Research Institute (NEERI) (1982) In Final project reportNational
Environmental Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India.
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Council of Australia and New Zealand, Australian and New Zealand Environment and
Conservation Council and National Health and Medical Research Council) Commonwealth of
Australia.
NHMRC and NRMMC (2004) (Eds, National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC)) Canberra.
NSF (2006) Arlington.
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Governance (GOVNET) Capacity Paper(Ed, Development Assistance Committee) Paris.
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and Sanitation, 17, 15-18.
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Nations Development Programme, Dili.
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Visscher, J. T. (2006) IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Delft, the Netherlands.
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of Water Supply: Research and Technology, 43, 154-169.
Walker, S. F. and Marr, J. W. (2001) Stakeholder Power : a winning plan for building stakeholder
commitment and driving corporate growth, Perseus Pub., Cambridge, Mass.
Ward, R. C. and Robinson, M. (1990) Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
London.
WHO (Ed.) (2004) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, World Health Organisation, Geneva.
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World Health Organisation (Ed.) (2004b) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, World Health
Organisation, Geneva.
World Health Organisation (2006) In Water, Sanitation and HealthWorld Health Organisation.
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- 94 -
Appendices
APPENDICES
- 95 -
Appendix A.
APPENDIX A.
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
The Millennium Development Goals are the world's time-bound and quantified targets for
addressing extreme poverty (including income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter,
and exclusion) while promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability. They
also address targets for basic human rights - the rights of every person to health, education,
shelter, and security (United Nations, 2002). The shaded targets are those directly and indirectly
applicable to the outcomes of the EWB Student East Timor Program.
Targets
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
people
whose
income
is
less
than
$1
a
day
people who suffer from hunger
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys
and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower
Women
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no
later than 2015
Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality
Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the
under-five mortality rate
Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health
Target 6. Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015,
the maternal mortality ratio
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other
diseases
spread
of
HIV/AIDS
incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development
into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of
environmental
resources
Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Target 11. Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement
in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
Goal 8: Develop
Development
a
Global
Partnership
for
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable,
nondiscriminatory trading and financial system (includes a
commitment to good governance, development, and poverty
reduction;
both
nationally
and
internationally)
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Least Developed
Countries (includes tariff- and quota-free access for Least
Developed Countries exports, enhanced program of debt relief
for heavily indebted poor countries [HIPCs] and cancellation of
official bilateral debt, and more generous official development
assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction)
Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked
developing countries and small island developing states
(through the Program of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States and 22nd
General
Assembly
provisions)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of
developing countries through national and international
measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term
These indicators monitored separately for the least
developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing
countries, and small island developing states
Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries, develop
and implement strategies for decent and productive work for
youth
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies,
provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing
countries
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make
available the benefits of new technologies, especially
information and communications technologies
- 96 -
Appendix B.
APPENDIX B.
SANITARY SURVEY
Example of a Sanitary Survey (extracted from Morgan 1990 Rural Water Supplies and
Sanitation)
A sanitary survey inspects possible sources of contamination within a water supply system. The
following aspects require investigations of importance:
1. The location of the water point, whether this is on raised ground and at a distance from lower
ground which may become swampy and more prone to contamination.
2. The depth of water. Generally groundwater which is very close to the surface is subject to
greater chances of contamination from surrounding areas than water at greater depths, where
the effects of natural filtration by the soil are greater.
3. Distances from potential sources of contamination such as:
a. Latrines
b. Animal pens
c. Refuse pits and hollows in the ground
This distance should be greater than 30 metres.
4. The sanitary protection of the lining or casing of the well or borehole. The lining should be
complete and undamaged.
5. The state of the slab and/or apron covering the water point (complete or cracked), and whether
the water is allowed to run off into an adequate water disposal system.
6. The pumping or water raising system (ie. handpump) is well sealed so that water doesn’t run
past the pump head back into the well.
7. The quality and length of the water runoff system. This relates to the presence of stagnant
pools in the area, which reflect poor runoff. It should be more than 6m long.
8. The type of wastewater disposal system, whether this is adequate and well away from the
water point.
- 97 -
Appendix C.
APPENDIX C.
APRIL & JUNE TRIP PLANS
Letter of Request of Activities and Surveys for UNTL students and Natalie to do in Tangkae, April
2006.
Ei kolega sira!
How are you? We hope your studies are going well. We are busy working on the project for Tangkae.
And are looking forward to hearing how your trip to Tangkae goes.
Imi nia isin diak ka lae? Ami hein imi nia estudu la’o diak. Ami serbisu maka’as ba projektu Tankai i
ami hakarak rona kona-ba imi nia preparativu atu bá Tankai.
We have some activities we would like you to do when you visit Tangkae soon. The list is attached. The
data you collect from these activities will help our research here back in Australia.
Ami iha atividade balu ba imi atu halao iha Tankai. Buat imi atu halo maka tuir mai ne'e. Dadu sira
ne’bé imi halibur husi atividade hirak ne’e sei tulun ami nia peskiza.
If you have any questions about the activities please ask Natalie or email us before you go to Tangkae.
Se imi iha buat ruma atu husu kona ba atividade sira ne'e favór ida ko’alia ba Natalie ka email mai
ami molok imi atu bá Tankai.
If you think there should be other activities conducted while you are in Tangkae also discuss this with
Natalie or email us.
Se imi hanoin katak iha atividade seluk atu halao bainhira imi iha Tankai, ko’alia mós ba Natalie ka
email mai ami.
Give our regards to your families.
Favór aprezenta ami nia kumprimentus ba imi nia familia sira .
Kumprimentus,
Atividade ho pezkiza sira n’ebé estudante UNTL sira ho Natalie tenke
halao bainhira sira bá Tankai iha fulan Abril
It is important that we adhere to CAP guidelines and we think it would be best to keep contact with the
village people to a minimum if possible.
Ita hotu tenke tuir orientasaun husi CAP i ami hanoin katak diak liu, lalika hasoru malu ka ko’alia
barak ho ema aldeia sira.
Perhaps if someone can be designated spokesperson for the group (maybe Martinho again) to make
introductions again and explain that we are continuing with our investigations but can not make any
promise of implementation.
Karik bele hili portavós ida ba grupu (kala Martinho fali) atu halo fali aprezentasaun i esplika katak ita
kontinua nafatin ita nia investigasaun sira, maibé labele promete implementasaun ruma.
Activities/ Atividades sira
1. Prove Well (Airabat) out – determine water level changes/ recovery rates.
Teste Bee-matan (Airabat) sukat mudansa bee nia nível/ recovery rates.
a. Step 1. Mark current water level (with chalk)
Etapa 1. Marka bee nia nível (hodi jís)
b. Step 2. Remove 25 litres of water (using buckets?) from well every minute for 1 hour.
- 98 -
Appendix C.
Etapa 2. Kuru bee litru 25 (tau iha balde?) husi bee-matan minutu-minutu iha oras ida
nia laran.
c. Step 3. Every 15 minutes mark water level.
Etapa 3. Minutu sanulu resin lima -sanulu resin lima marka bee nia nível.
d. Step 4. Measure water level change (with ruler).
Etapa 4. Sukat mudansa bee nia nível (ho régua).
e. Step 5. If well level has dropped after 1 hour, measure time taken for the well to refill
to previous mark.
Etapa 5. Se bee nia nível tun liu tiha oras ida, sukat tempu bee-matan lori atu hakonu
marka ida uluk liu ba.
2. Measure flow rates and take samples of water from each spring (Fatnamudu, Airabat and
Laratema)
Haree minutu hira bee matan ida-ida lori atu hakonu balde ida. Kuru amostra bee nian husi bee
matan ida-ida (Fatnamudu, Airabat ho Laratema)
a. Also take samples of rainwater – free falling and from gutter of one of the roofs (note
down which house this sample is taken from, and the type of material gutter is made
from).
Rai mós amostra udan ben – udan tau iha rai luan ho suli husi kanu ka kadoras uma
tatís (hakerek amostra udan ben ne’e simu husi uma ida ne’ebé ho uma-tatís uma ne’e
nian halo ho saida).
Check with DNAS lab that it’s okay to use their lab directly after field visit. Arrange
with Mario time to do testing. May need a few hours as all parameters are required to
be tested.
Husu ba laboratóriu DNAS se imi bele halo kedas teste iha sira nia laboratoriu
bainhira imi fila husi aldeia. Kombina ho Mário oras atu halao teste/análize.
b. Ask DNAS lab for sample bags and jars (enough for samples from 3 springs and 2 for
rainwater and spare for other sources found). Label samples.
Husu saku ho frasku amostra nian ba laboratóriu DNAS (natón ba amostra husi beematan tolu ho udan ben rua). Marka amostra sira.
Ask DNAS lab for Request for Water Quality Testing forms.
Husu ba laboratóriu DNAS formuláriu Rekizisaun atu halo Teste ba Bee nia
Kualidade.
i. Parameters to test for include: ALL Physical, ALL Bacteriological, ALL
Chemical.
Teste nia parámetru inklui: ALL Physical, ALL Bacteriological, ALL
Chemical.
ii. Ask to get a copy of results (see if CWSSP photocopier is available, otherwise
go to copy shop down the road?)
Husu kópia ida rezultadu sira ne'e (haree keta mákina fotokópia CWSSP bele
hasai kópia balu, lae karik ba hasai fotokópia iha loja ruma)
3. Investigate upstream activities at furtherest spring (Fatnamudu)
Investiga atividade sira iha bee-matan nia léten liu (Fatnamudu)
a. Observe agricultural activities such as crops and roaming animals.
Observa atividade to’os nian hanesan kolleita ho animál sira ne'ebé la'o iha rai luan.
b. Observe uses by neighbouring villages, other housing and roads in proximity of
spring.
Observa oinsá aldeia hela besik sira, uma seluk ho ema tur iha liuron besik uza beematan.
Environmental aspects such as erosion and vegetation density
Aspektu ambiental hanesan erozaun ho densidade vejetasaun.
c. Describe upstream elevation characteristics such as slope, height, and approximate
distances between landmarks.
- 99 -
Appendix C.
Deskreve karakterístika elevasaun bee-matan nia leten hanesan railolon, rai aas ho
distansia entre bee matan ho buat seluk.
Nat – if you have a digital camera could you possibly take some photos for us please,
of anything relevant?
Nat – ita iha karik mákina-retratu digital ida favór bele hasae hela mai ami retratu
ruma ne’ebé iha importante ba projetu?
4. Investigate upsteam activities of closest spring (Laratema)
Investiga atividade sira iha bee-matan besik liu( Laratema) nia leten.
a. Where does it come from (photos)?
Nia mai husi ne’ebé (retratu)?
b. What does the spring at the original source actually look like?
Nia ulun liu ne’e oinsá loos?
Height of spring (actual height, not where pipe protudes)
Diferensa altura fatin ne’ebe bee mosu ho fatin ne’ebe bee sai husi kanu
5. Community map of aldeia, including following features:
Mapa komunitáriu aldeia nian hodi inklui karakterístika hirak tuir mai ne'e:
Houses (include number of persons per household, status within village ie. Chief,
Humanitarian officer)
Uma sira (inklui ema sira nia númeru iha uma ida-ida, estatutu iha aldeia nia laran, ie,
Xefe, Funsionário Humnitário
a. Latrines
Sentina
b. Animal pens
Balada luhan
c. Roads
Liuroon
d. Waste disposal
Fatin soe foer
e. Water sources (Springs including Laratema, Fatnamudu & Airabat, other springs or
streams or water sources near aldeia boundaries, used and unused)
Rekursu bee nian (Inklui bee-matan Laratema, Fatnamudu & Airabat, bee-matan
seluk ka rekursu bee nian besik rai ketan aldeia, ne’ebe ema uza ka lae uza)
Areas for future village expansion.
Área ba dezenvolvimentu, hanesan uma foin, aldeia foin, to’os foin, ho buat seluk tan.
f. What areas are currently being used to grow crops on/ what areas would they use if
they had irrigation water?
Área ne’ebé maka oras ne’e daudaun ema kaer to’os ka área ne’ebe sira sei kaer se iha
irrigasaun?
g. As many photos of the village as possible (houses etc)
Se bele hasai retratu barak (uma etc)
6. Need to ask if they have water supplied for irrigation what crops would they grow? (could be
different to crops currently grown)
Presiza husu se karik ema fo bee ba irrigasaun sira kuda saida? (produsaun bele lahanesan sira
iha oras ne’e)
7. Calender of Social Events – what activities are done by whom (gender specific) and how much
daily time they take up. (year long calendar)
Kalendáriu Akontesimentu Sosiál – sá atividade, se mak halo (jéneru espesífiku) ho loroloron
sira lori tempu hira. (kalendáriu tinan ida nian)
- 100 -
Appendix C.
For example
Tabela rezultadu kualidade bee nian – atu email fila fali ba estudante UWA sira
Testing
Parameters
Physical tests
Chemical
testing
Bacteriological
Water source
Laratema
Spring
Airabat
Well
Flow rates
pH
E. conductivity
TSS
TDS
Salinity
Temperature
Turbidity
NH3-N
NO3-N
NO2-N
Iron (Fe)
Manganese
(Mn)
Fluoride
Free Chlorine
Ca Hardness
Arsenic
Hardness
Total
alkalinity
Sulphate
(SO42-)
Total coliform
E. Coli
- 101 -
Fatnamudu
Spring
Rainwater –
direct from
sky
Rainwater
from
gutter/roof
Other sources
Appendix C.
Draft of June 2006 Trip Plan
East Timor June Trip Plan – draft 23.05.06
Discussions with UNTL, Nat & HTO – updates on project proposal, discuss what we have been doing
(presentation, AWT funding, research), what we plan to do while in Timor for June July etc., implementation
stage, CAP process, HTO proposal, our return possibly at end of year or in January.
Stay in Tangkae for a few days – learn Tetun, observe daily village life and practices (water collection
methods, waste disposal, water usage practices). Conduct social surveys (regarding sanitation etc).
Ask UNTL students to come up last day we’re there and we can do survey, take water samples etc together
Visit other relevant water & sanitation projects, examine systems used, successes and failures, limitations.
Find local companies that provide supplies for treatment systems and hydrogeological testing, get contact
details, basic information (costings, availability of resources, labour/ personnel).
Discuss with UNTL students about making educational material to help explain to community importance of
water quality treatment & maintenance, protection of water sources, in alliance with hygiene & sanitation.
(Main objective possibly to help UNTL students understand).
Possibly trial some water treatment options with UNTL students. Would need to maybe construct water
treatment systems, therefore find out what materials are needed.
Visit Nama-lai village – see if anything is being done… and maybe have a look at their dry season water
supply
ALGIS – more climatic data if possible. Find out where the data was actually taken and determine in relation
to Tangkae.
Tangkae Surveys
Type
Topographical
Description
Determine if springs are artesian or gravity
Determine distances, slopes between springs and houses (Take measuring wheel)
Find out groundwater table level if possible
Examine activities upstream from springs – agricultural, other villages, natural, latrines,
sanitation, animal faeces
Water Quality
Take samples of the 3 springs, 2 from rainwater (1 direct, 1 off roof)
Check roof & gutter materials.
Hygiene practices
Survey washing of hands, food, clothes, people.
Sanitation
Latrine usage
Economic & Social
Community Map & Calendar
Determine income for village and individual houses. Think – affordability of solutions,
materials.
Skills and labour of village – which could help with solution (not relevant for this stage
of project?)
Materials & Supplies – investigate suppliers etc in Dili.
Type of Materials
What for…
Corrugated iron
Roof rainwater catchment
PET bottles – 2L
SODIS
Concrete & Sand
Biosand Filter
- 102 -
Appendix D.
APPENDIX D.
PRESS RELEASE – MAY 2005
Timor-Leste Water & Sanitation Project
Three students from the University of Western Australia (UWA) have come together to help
disadvantaged villages in East Timor improve their access to water and sanitation. Working with
Engineers without Borders (EWB) and the National University of East Timor (UNTL), the students
are focusing their efforts on the remote community of Tangkae, just south of East Timor’s capital Dili.
Tangkae’s previous water supply system was destroyed in the violence following the 1999
independence vote. As a result the small community of 254 people now carry heavy containers of
water up a dangerous hill 300m from the small spring that supplies their water for washing, drinking
and cooking. During the wet, the water is collected by the men as women have previously suffered
miscarriages from falling along the slippery track. Sanitation facilities and access to hygiene education
are limited, with only three latrines shared between over fifty families. As a result of these conditions
there is a high infant mortality rate and both children and adults are regularly subject to illnesses of
cholera and diarrhoea.
The volunteers Heidi Michael and Phoebe Mack (studying environmental engineering) and Vaughn
Grey (studying mechanical engineering) visited East Timor in February to carry out a preliminary
survey. This included testing the water quality of the village spring, returning alarming results of high
E.Coli and Total Coliform counts.
The project was initially jointly funded by EWB and UWA donations and the students have recently
been successful in securing additional funding for their return trip in June-July 2006 from Advanced
Well Technologies. Research and action plans are being developed so that on return to Tangkae the
team can be involved in workshops, education and advice on resources available, and options to
improve the community’s current situation. The challenges lie in the community’s ability to contribute
to their own management and knowledge of water resources and so an education program is vital.
The project team is seeking funding and support for further stages of the project as well as numerous
other projects supported by EWB. For additional information or if you would like to make a donation
to Engineers without Borders please contact the project coordinator Kym Greenwood or EWB-WA
President Kim Axworthy [wachapter@ewb.org.au]. Further information on the East Timor Projects is
available at www2.sese.uwa.edu.au/easttimor.
- 103 -
Appendix E.
APPENDIX E.
PROJECT PARTICIPANT CONTACT LIST
EWB Water Supply, Water Quality & Sanitation Project – Participant’s Contact Details
Name
Organisation
Residence
Phone Numbers
Email Address
Languages
Dates in East Timor
Phoebe Mack
UWA/ EWB
Australia
mackp01@student.uwa.edu.au
English
Heidi Michael
UWA/ EWB
Australia
michah01@student.uwa.edu.au
English
Vaughn Grey
UWA/ EWB
Australia
+61 (0) 439947668
+670 7290089
+61 (0) 439913565
+670 7290013
+61 (0) 427500706
+670 7290087
greyv01@student.uwa.edu.au
English
Adilio Ximenes
UNTL - Student
Timor - Leste
joyxnes@yahoo.co.id
UNTL – Student
Timor – Leste
+670 7280868
jacintodacostaalmeida@gmail.com
UNTL – Student
Timor – Leste
+670 7287033
atibotilman@gmail.com
Martinho dos Santos
UNTL – Student
Timor – Leste
+670 7275664
martinhodossantoscarmoneno@gmail.com
Delfim Gaspar
UNTL – Student
Timor – Leste
Diamantino Soares
UNTL – Student
Timor – Leste
+670 7266009
soares.diamantino@gmail.com
Inacio Moreira
Justino Da Costa Soares
Natalie Young
UNTL – Dean
UNTL – Lecturer
EWB – Engineer
Resident
Resident
Permanent resident 2006, 2007
Tetun, English Indonesian,
Resident
Antonio Armard
Alan Smith
SAS – Non-Urban
Co-ordinator
HTO Founder
CWSSP
+670 7237223
+670 7285452
+670 7293013
+670 3310423
+670 7257675
moreira_tecnica@yahoo.com
pwjtls@mail.timortelecom.tp
natandpete@gmail.com
Martinus Nahak
Timor – Leste
Timor – Leste
Timor
–
(Australia)
Timor – Leste
Tetun,
English,
Indon,
Portugese
Tetun, English, Indonesian,
Portugese
Portugese
Portugese
Portugese
Portugese
Tetun, English
Tetun, English
English
01/02/06 – 23/02/06, June &
July – 8 weeks
01/02/06 – 23/02/06, June &
July – 8 weeks
01/02/06 – 23/02/06, June &
July – 8 weeks
Resident
Tetun, English
English, Tetun
Resident
Until September 2006
Michelle Whalen
CWSSP
English, Tetun
Until April 2006
Isac Fontes
Amanty
Ernemagildo
Domingos de Oliveira
SAS
SAS – Driver
SAS – Technician
sasahi@bigpond.com
Tetun, English
Tetun
English, Tetun, Portugese
Resident
Resident
Resident
01/02/06 – 23/02/06,
Kim Axworthy
Kym Greenwood
Stewart Davies
EWB – WA
EWB – WA
EWB – National
Kim.Axworthy@worleyparsons.com
kym.greenwood@gmail.com
projects@ewb-aus.org.au
English
English
English
01/02/06 – 23/02/06
01/02/06 – 23/02/06
01/02/06 – 28/02/06
Jacinto
da
Almeida
Atibo Tilman
Costa
UNTL – University National of Timor-Leste
delfimgaspar@gmail.com
Leste
Timor – Leste
Timor
–
Leste
(Australia)
Timor
–
Leste
(Australia)
Timor – Leste
Timor – Leste
Timor – Leste
Australia (Timor –
Leste)
Australia
Australia
Australia
+670 7237858
+670 7230539
+670 7256653
+61 409 478380
martinusn@cwssp.org.tp
martinusnahak@yahoo.com
hto_timor@hotmail.com zinhoxlay@yahoo.com
alans@cwssp.org.tp
smith_alan@hotmail.com
michellew@cwssp.org.tp
monanegra_au@yahoo.com.au
+670 7232032
+670 7244812
+61 438910092
+61 402267905
+61 405359945
+670 729 3864
UWA – University of Western Australia
EWB – Engineers Without Borders
- 104 -
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Appendix F.
APPENDIX F.
SOCIAL & PHYSICAL SURVEYS
Social Survey Form – 17.02.06
Balibar Suku
Text Colour Key:
Red
What was taken to village and asked/observed on Friday 17/02/06 and Monday
20/02/06
Black Answers as given by Chefe of Aldeia, and some other women and men who were also
present
Blue Other questions or observations which need to be clarified on return to Tangkae
Introduction:
These are engineering students from UNTL and UWA who are doing studies on the water supply,
water quality and sanitation here in East Timor. They would like to ask some questions, please tell us
if any of the questions are too obtrusive or if you wish not to answer them. If you have any difficulty in
understanding the questions please ask our friend Domingos to explain.
Questions for the community
Demographic & Water Information:
1. What is the village population?
Ema hira hela iha aldeia ne’e?
206 total population
2. How many households?
Iha familia hira?
57 families
3. How many people in each household?
Uma ida iha ema hira?
8-12 people per house
How many houses in Aldeia?
4. How many children? Men? Women?
Uma ida iha labarik hira? Mane hira? Feto hira?
~ 4 male children and 4 female children
1 man and 1 woman
Exactly how many children in Aldeia?
5. How much water is collected per household per day in the dry season?
Iha bailoro loron ida imi kuru be’e plastiku hira?
20 – 50 containers
6. How much water is collected per household per day in the wet season?
Iha tempu udan loron ida imi kuru be’e plastiku hira?
- 105 -
Appendix F.
20 – 50 containers
7. Can you show us the containers?
Bele hatudu plastiku mai ami?
Small container 5L
Large container 10L
Observe family water collection practices to see exactly what is done
8. In the dry season, how many times is water collected each day?
Iha bailoro loron ida imi ba kuru bee dala hira?
Not directly answered
9. In the wet season, how many times is water collected each day?
Iha tempu udan loron ida imi ba kuru bee dala hira?
Not directly answered
10. Who collects the water? And when (morning, night)?
Se maka ba kuru bee? Bainhira? Dader ka loraik?
Children collect water in mornings before school
Mid-day and afternoon men and women collect
11. Who uses the water?
Se maka utiliza bee ne’e?
Everyone use the water
12. What is the water used for?
Bee ne’e utiliza ba sá?
Water used for cooking, showers, washing and drinking
13. Is there any waste water? And if yes, where does it go?
Iha bee restu ruma? (loos karik) so’e ba ne’ebé?
Waste water to water flowers and gardens
Used to wash dirt floors to minimize dust
14. Is anything done to the water before drinking?
Imi halo saida molok atu hemu bee?
Do you boil water before drinking?
Imi nono bee molok atu hemu?
Water is boiled before drinking for a ‘long time’
Why?
To kill germs and bacteria
How do you know to do this?
Intuition and ancestors
Do they store the boiled water for drinking?
- 106 -
Appendix F.
15. When the pipes were still good, was the water enough to the village?
Bain hira kanu sei diak bee naton ba aldeia?
Pipes were built in 1997 and destroyed in 1999
Was the water okay for drinking?
I bee ne’e diak atu hemu?
Water was still boiled at this time
16. What problems do you have with Laratema spring?
The soil is slippery in the wet season
The spring is difficult to go down to
Pregnant women cannot go and fetch water – some women have had miscarriages
Water is too heavy to carry that far
17. How can these problems be fixed?
The Red Cross in a neighbouring Aldeia had connected pipes from Remisura sub-district
which carried water to the other Aldeia.
This situation/Aldeia has a tank up the top of the village and the water is distributed down to
the other houses. This idea could be used in the Tangkae situation.
Agricultural
a. Seasonal activities (time of seeding/harvesting).
What type of agricultural practices exists in this village?
Iha aldeia ne’e imi halo doos oinsa?
Grow vegetables to eat and sell, including maize, tapioca, sweet potato and beans
What agricultural activities do you do in the wet season?
Iha tempu udan imi halo saida iha doos?
Sow: pineapple, sweet potato and maize
Transplant: young coffee trees
What agricultural activities do you do in the dry season?
Iha bailoro imi halo saida iha doos?
Prepare for next rain season – clean land, no water is used in the dry season
b. Irrigation methods/channels/volumes/frequency
How do you water your plants? How often? How much?
Oinsa imi rega imi-nia toos? Dala hira? Imi rega barak?
Plants are not watered
c. (Is any fertilisers used for any agricultural practices?)
Do you put any chemicals to your crops?
Imi tau adubu ba imi-nia toos?
No chemicals are used
- 107 -
Appendix F.
Do you use manure on your crops?
Imi tau karau-ten, bibi-ten, kuda-ten ka manu-ten?
Use manure from pigs, goats, buffalo and cows
No human waste
Because this is what the ancestors have always done
d. Live stock (feed, penned, no.)
What livestock do you have? How many?
Imi iha sa animál? Hira?
Livestock: pigs, cows, buffalo, horse, dogs, goats and chickens
Some families do own these and some don’t
Are they penned?
Iha animál luhan?
Yes animals are penned (or kept on ropes observation), except chickens
Some are allowed to roam free in the dry season, but it is understood that they can
ruin crops in the wet season
What do you give them to eat? And how often each day?
Imi fo saida ba sira han? Loron ida dala hira?
The graze on grass – sometimes banana plants/leaves are given to cows
Sanitation
e. Location of human waste disposal (latrines etc).
Do you have a latrine?
Imi iha santina?
No latrine (it was later discovered (on Monday 20/02/06) that three families have
latrines which on inspection (of one) appear to be very clean, with tiled floors and are
western style. These were built because foreigners have come for 3 month home-stays
to learn Tetun)
If yes, where are they located?
(Sin karik) Imi-nia santina iha ne’ebe?
If no, where do you go for ablutions?
(Lae karik) Imi ba liur iha ne’ebe?
No place to shower/bath
Hole in the ground near pigs – pigs allowed to eat waste as there is not enough water
to wash waste away
f.
Practice of solid waste disposal (non-organic).
What do you do with things such as plastic bottles and bags?
Imi halo saida ho sasan hanesan botir ho kaut plastiku?
Thrown away anywhere – into river
In the dry season the wastes are swept together and burnt
- 108 -
Appendix F.
g. Practice of organic waste disposal.
What do you do with organic waste, for example food scraps?
Imi halo saida ho sasan hanesan ai-nanás kulit ka hahan restu?
Organic waste is fed to the pigs
(We throw away. Ami so’e ba liur.)
Where do you throw it? Imi so’e ba ne’ebé?
h. Household practices
i. Human washing.
How do you wash your body? Where? How often?
Oinsá imi fase imi nia isin? Iha ne’ebé? Dala hira?
Mothers and babies shower at home and everyone else does at the spring
Yes, soap is used
In the rain season when it is too slippery to go to the spring and there are
many leaches and mosquitoes a bamboo gutter on the roof is used as a
shower, and rainwater is boiled and used for cooking
ii. Clothes washing.
How do you wash your clothes? Where? How often?
Oinsá imi fase imi nia hena? Iha ne’ebé? Dala hira?
Clothes are washed at the spring with soap, daily if the children are going to
school, clothes don’t clean as well if rainwater is used
iii. Food prep.
What do you do with your food before cooking?
Molok atu tein imi halo saida ba imi nia hahan?
Food is washed with spring water, if it is too dirty it is given to the pigs
Is the water used to wash the food boiled?
How do you cook your food?
Oinsá imi tein imi nia hahan?
Who else uses the water source?
Sé mós kuru (uza) bee ne’e?
a. Community uses. Komunidade.
b. Other villages. Aldeia seluk.
c. Fauna/livestock/cows/buffalos. Animál/karau baka/karau timor.
Health Survey:
What diseases are common in the community?
Moras sa maka kumunidade iha dala barak liu?
Coughing, fever, high temperatures, headache, runny nose and the children get diarrhea.
When the children are sick all the time they generally have worms
What diseases are less common but still occur in the community?
- 109 -
Appendix F.
Maros sa maka kumunidade la dun iha?
What do you do when someone is sick?
Imi halo saida bainhira ema ruma moras?
Tummy ache/upset – go to chemist for worm treatment
Diarrhea – if still symptoms on day two then they go to a chemist
2/3 people in the Aldeia were taught the treatment of worms
Why do you think people get worms?
Children eat anything and don’t wash their hands
Ratio of child sickness to adult sickness
Ema moras barak liu labarik?
Labarik sira maka moras barak liu?
Can you tell how many children die each year?
Ita bele dehan labarik hira maka mate iha tinan ida?
There is a high infant mortality rate – generally if a child survives the first year of life then they will
live to grow up
In the last 2 years there have been no infant deaths, but in the last 5 years there were approximately 5
infant deaths ~ 1/year
- 110 -
Appendix F.
Physical Survey Form – 17.02.06
Physical Survey (Observaions) :
To do/observe/note:
Topographical Map:
Location of all houses/ schools etc
Location of all springs/water sources
Distances between
Altitudes/Relative heights
Contours
Hills/ Obstructions. What hills/obstacles are there between suku and water source?
Current Infrastructure (including Latrines etc)
Access Roads and Paths
Location of other villages
Land ownership
Other Land Uses
Physical characteristics (observations):

What is the terrain like?
o Vegetation (density, species etc)
o Soils & Geology (soil type, erosion, rock formations)
o Fauna (wildlife & agricultural)
o Water flow channels (catchment areas)
o Slope (direction & angle)
What natural attributes are likely to be favourable to help with possible projects?

What natural attributes are likely to be of hindrance to our projects?

Human Activity:
Level of human activity/infrastructure
o Houses (number, location, size, material)
o
Roads (condition eg sealed, unsealed, eroded)
o
Artificial pollution sources (latrine, agricultural nutrients/waste, vehicles/machinery)
Water Sources (activities):
Investigate Activities impacting upon the Water Sources
○ Directly Upstream
○ Down Stream
○ Peripheral
Water Sampling:
○ Take water quality samples from each water source x 2 (using SAS equip)
○ Test for bacteriological, chemical and physical properties. (as per SAS)
Spring Survey:
Type of spring (gravity, stream, well, flowing spring)
Sketch the spring
o Rock and soil type
o Prominent features (trees, rocks etc)
o Terrain type
- 111 -
Appendix F.

Determine flow rate, or volume yield of well (seasonal)
RELIABLE MINIMUM FLOW RATE (community), at the spring.
Who else uses the water source?
Sé mós kuru (uza) bee ne’e?
Community uses. Komunidade.
Other villages. Aldeia seluk.
Fauna/livestock/cows/buffalos. Animál/karau baka/karau timor.
Climatic Data

Idea of rainfall
idea of flowrates
temperatures
measure rainfall
Investigate Upstream Activities from the Water Sources
Spring Survey:
1. Type of spring (gravity, stream, well, flowing spring)
2. Sketch the spring
a. Rock and soil type
b. Prominent features (trees, rocks etc)
c. Terrain type
3. Determine flow rate, or volume yield of well
4. RELIABLE MINIMUM FLOW RATE (historical)
5. Who else uses the water source?
Water Source
Volume
Time
- 112 -
Flow Rate
Appendix G.
APPENDIX G.
LABORATORY NOTES & RAW RESULTS
Water Sampling Notes
Location: Tangkae
Date: Tuesday 7 February 2006
Time taken
Samples:
1 – site 1 – spring closest to village (Laratema)
4.00pm
2 – site 2 – well (Airabat)
4.30pm
3 – site 2 – creek next to well, downstream from school 4.30pm
4 – site 3 – spring (Fatnamudu)
5.00pm
Laboratory Testing
Location: DNAS Water Laboratory
Date: Friday 10 February 2006
NOTES:
Physical Tests
Equipment:
Conductivity – HACH Sension 5
pH ISE meter – HACH Sension 2
Turbidity – 2100P Turbidimeter
Beaker wasn’t washed with distilled water for second sample to be tested.
Turbidity vial wiped with toilet roll paper.
Sample 4: Turbidity went from 9.1 to 6.5 on 2nd try. Why?
Sample 3: Turbidity 12.4 NTU (WHO limit = 5 NTU)
Bacterial Tests
Equipment:
Gelman Sciences (filtration)
Tweezers sterilised with flame. Only 1 alcohol swab used for all (to wipe out all 4 petri dishes?)
45mm (filter/media) pads – membrane.
Vials (break glass to open) of pour Rite Ampules of m-coliBlue24 medium, 1.9-2.1ml. Certified for
total coliform and E.coli analysis.
50ml rough pour per petri dish.
Incubate 24 hours @ 36°C – Total Coliform. Equipment: WTC Binder (Incubator)
Chemical Tests
1. Ammonia
a. 4 x test tubes (1 for each sample site) + 1 blank
b. High range Nitrogen Ammonia test tubes = 0.5mg/L N
c. Pipette washed with ionised water
d. Blank – add 0.1ml ionised water
e. 1,2,3,4 – add 0.1ml sample
f. To each – add Ammonia Salicylate Reagent Powder Pillows (cut open with scissors,
pour into tube) – for 5 ml sample
g. To each – add Ammonia Cyanurate Reagent Powder Pillows – for 5 ml sample
h. Shake – until ? yellow tinge (“lime cordial”)
i. Leave 20 minutes.
j. Spectrophometer – 655/343 ?? – (1) -0.6 (2) -0.4 (3) -0.7 (4) -0.4
- 113 -
Appendix G.
k. Results: Samples 1-4 all ND (Not Detected)
2. Nitrate NO3-N
a. 25ml of sample
b. Add Nitraver 5 Nitrate Reagent
c. Shake (with stopper)
d. Use Spectophotometer (DR2010 Handbook – Hach p. 453, 511)
3. Nitrite NO2-N
a. 10ml of sample
b. Add Nitriver 3 Nitrite Reagent
c. Note: check use by date!
4. Iron
a. 10 ml of sample
b. Add Ferrover Iron Reagent (powder pillow)
c. Shake
5. Manganese
a. 10ml Sample
b. Add Citrate Buffer Powder type. Nist traceable.
c. Add Sodium Periodate
6. Fluoride
a. 10 ml of sample
b. Add 2ml Spadins Reagent (HCl H2O)
7. Ca Hardness
a. 20ml Sample
b. Add 2ml Potassium Hydroxide Solution
c. Add Calcium Indicator Pouch (Calver 2)
d. Digital Titrate (Tetrasodium)
8. Arsenic
a. 30ml Sample
b. Add Sulfamic Acid Reagent
c. Add Zinc Reagent
d. Swirl litmus paper Æ dual range arsenic test stips – for 20mins
e. Bad fumes – open outside
f. No colour change on litmus paper
Water Sampling
Location: Tangkae
Date: Monday 20 February 2006
Time taken
Samples:
L – site 1 – spring closest to village (Laratema)
11.30am
A – site 2 – well (Airabat)
11.00am
F_D – site 3 – spring (Fatnamudu) downstream @ pipes
10.20am
F_U – site 3 – spring (Fatnamudu) upstream ~ 40m
10.20am
Laboratory Testing
Location: DNAS Water Laboratory
Date: Monday 20 February 2006
NOTES:
Hardness Tests:
20mL sample – Digital Titration Cartridge – Tetra Sodium Sat.
Alkalinity Tests:
20mL sampleo0
Add Æ1) Phenolphthalene indicator powder pillow + NaCl
2) Bromocresol Green-Methyl Red Indicator Powder
Add Æ Digital Titration Cartridge – Sulfuric Acid
- 114 -
Appendix G.
Airabat 7.02.06
- 115 -
Appendix G.
Airabat 20.02.06
- 116 -
Appendix G.
Laratema 7.02.06
- 117 -
Appendix G.
Laratema 20.02.06
- 118 -
Appendix G.
Fatnamudu 7.02.06
- 119 -
Appendix G.
Fatnamudu 20.02.06
- 120 -
Appendix H.
APPENDIX H.
LOCAL FACTORS AFFECTING WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Factor
Potential Factors
Social

Housing facilities, type, distribution
Public desires & preferences, pressure groups
Willingness to pay; ability to pay
Population distribution
Cultural & religious aspects & attitudes

Education levels; training

Influence ability to operate & maintain
Health

Health statistics, morbidity & mortality rates

Significant faecal-oral (& other) diseases

Health services available
Technological

Water demand & use

Availability of spare parts & materials

Availability of local knowledge & expertise
Present Water & sanitation facilities; proposed
future plans
Design life of treatment facilities
Raw water characteristics
Water-quality standards

Power requirements
Economic

Structure of economy: size, future prospects,
trade relations, isolation & vulnerability,
distribution of incomes
Financial

Ability & willingness to pay

Finance available, method of funding
Institutional

Existing roles & responsibilities for
organisation & management
Effect
Outcome
Tangkae factors
TBD
TBD
-
-
TBD
TBD
Perceptions of quality of rainwater
Community may not accept drinking
rainwater
Social awareness of need to disinfect
water
-
Education required regarding quality of
rainwater, or consider alternative source
Increases ease of educating about disinfection
needs
-
Children sick a lot of time (with fever,
diarrhoea, worms)
High incidence of diarrhoeal diseases in
village
Water quality, sanitation
practices need assessment
Pathogen removal required
Need options to improve practices
Health services
treatment
Social awareness of some hygiene-related
health problems
Water currently boiled to kill bacteria due
to own intuition
TBD
available
for
‘worm’
Water uses are mainly domestic
Chemicals & spare parts may be difficult
to obtain
TBD
&
hygiene
Drinking water quality water required
Process to be simple & not reliant on
chemicals
-
Process needs to include pathogen removal –
possibly slow sand filtration, chlorination or
SODIS
Increased
ease
of
hygiene
education:
assistance possibly available from local experts
Treatment required of any contaminated water
Possibly rules out chemical coagulation &
possibly chlorination
-
TBD
-
**Varied
**Varied
Set by local government body (DNAS)
No access to electricity
Parameters above standards to be treated
Process to not rely on power
Village economy based on subsistence
farming
(Other factors unknown)
Nil or low outside income generated
Need inexpensive options
Income levels low or nil in village
Funding of capital costs provided by donor
agency (EWB)
Ability to pay is low
Community need to take ownership of
system
Need inexpensive options
Explore options for villagers to contribute to
system other than financially
There is some involvement of water
agencies in the area, ie. DNAS, HTO
Operation and maintenance capabilities
are likely to be low to medium
Need for simple options,
involvement of DNAS & HTO
- 121 -
Need barriers to contamination
Rules out rapid sand filters & UV Disinfection
Lamps
depending
on
Appendix H.

Relationships between organisations

Legislation, policing & regulations
Environmental

Climate, rainfall, hydrology

Soil conditions, geology, groundwater
characteristics
Water-resource availability

Sustainability

Relationships assessed in stakeholder
analysis
Guidelines addressed in technological
investigations
Identify potential conflicts and agendas of
stakeholders
Adhere to local policy
Rainfall is seasonal and intense
Need to check quality of streams due to
mobilisation of microbes
Difficult to know extent of impact of
contaminations
Dry season can limit supplies
Soils, geology, groundwater unknown
Seasonally reliant resources
Boiling water uses fuel wood
**Water quality & treatment assessed in Section 4.
Degrades environment
TBD – Specific details, effect and outcome yet to be determined
- 122 -
Need
to
encourage
strengthening
organisational relationships
-
of
Use rainwater for short period after heavy rains
Need for low impact systems
Consider storage options, and maintenance of
good water quality
Need options that don’t use many natural or
manmade resources, or output harmful
emissions