cherokees - NC Wise Owl

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The process of
acculturation began
early for the Cherokees with the introduction of European
trade goods in 1673.
C
HEROKEES
by
Robert J. Conley
OVERVIEW
The Cherokee Nation today occupies all or part of
14 counties of what is now the northeastern portion of the state of Oklahoma. Not considered a
reservation, the land falls under what has been
called “a checkerboard jurisdiction,” with one farm
or acreage falling under tribal jurisdiction while its
neighbor is under that of the state. A second and
separate federally recognized tribal government for
Cherokees, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokees in Oklahoma, exists in the same area. There is
also a Cherokee reservation in North Carolina for
the Eastern Band of Cherokees. In addition to the
three federally recognized Cherokee governments,
there are numerous groups throughout the United
States who claim to be Cherokee bands or tribes.
Although the Cherokee people today are divided
geographically, culturally, and politically, about
165,000 are registered citizens of the Cherokee
Nation. There are also thousands of individuals
claiming Cherokee ancestry who are not associated
with any group. The 1990 U.S. Census reported
369,000 people who identified themselves as
Cherokee, up from 232,000 in 1980.
HISTORY
The word Cherokee is believed to have evolved
from a Choctaw word meaning “Cave People.” It
was picked up and used by Europeans and eventual362
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ly accepted and adopted by Cherokees in the form of
Tsalagi or Jalagi. Traditionally, the people now
known as Cherokee refer to themselves as aniyun-wiya, a name usually translated as “the Real
People,” sometimes “the Original People.” Earliest
historical data locates the Cherokees in a vast area
of what is now the southeastern United States, with
about 200 towns scattered throughout the present
states of Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Cherokee oral tradition tells of a time when the
Cherokees were ruled over by a powerful priesthood
called the ani-Kutani. When the priests took away a
young man’s wife, he organized a revolt and all the
priests were killed. Since then, according to the tale,
the Cherokees have had a democratic government.
The Cherokees’ first experience with the
invading white man was almost certainly a brief
encounter with the deadly expeditionary force of
Spanish explorer Hernando DeSoto in 1540. English colonial traders began to appear among the
Cherokees around 1673. Such interactions produced some mixed marriages, usually between a
white trader and a Cherokee woman.
Three events mark Cherokee history during
the eighteenth and nineteenth centures: war with
the colonists (beginning in 1711); epidemics of
European disease (primarily smallpox); and the
continual cession of land (beginning in 1775). The
Cherokees were forced to sign one treaty after
another with the new United States government,
each one giving away more land to the new nation.
As early as 1803, President Thomas Jefferson
planned to move all eastern Indians to a location
west of the Mississippi River, and signed an agreement with the state of Georgia promising to accomplish that deed as soon as possible. Andrew Jackson
actually set the so-called “Removal Process” in
motion. In the meantime the government had been
doing everything in its power to convince Cherokees to move west voluntarily, and the first to do so
were the faction known as Chickamaugans. Other
migrations followed in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries.
The vast majority of the Cherokees, however,
remained in their ancestral homelands. In 1835 the
United States Congress passed the Removal Act.
The Cherokee Nation, by this time under the
administration of Principal Chief John Ross, refused
to recognize the validity or the legality of the
Removal Act, and challenged it in court. The U.S.
Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee
Nation. President Jackson is reported to have said,
“Justice Marshall has made his decision. Now let
him enforce it.” Jackson then sent negotiators into
This young
Cherokee woman
demonstrates a
method of fishing
using a stick.
the Cherokee Nation to secure a treaty whereby
they would give up all of their land in the east for
land out west. Since the government of the Cherokee Nation refused to negotiate, other Cherokees
signed the treaty without authorization. The United
States called the treaty a legal document and proceeded to force the Cherokees to live up to its terms.
Jackson ordered the U.S. Army to forcibly
remove the Cherokees from their homelands in
1838. People were taken out of their homes and
herded like cattle into stockades to await removal.
Conditions were crowded and unsanitary, and many
died in these prisons. The forced march began later
that same year. Approximately 20,000 Cherokees
were marched west over what would soon be known
as the “Trail of Tears.” Along the way, approximately 4,000 people died. A few managed to escape by
hiding out in the mountains. In the west, the
Cherokee divided into two major factions. The
Cherokees who had signed the removal treaty and
all of their friends, allies, and associates had become
known as the Treaty Party. They had moved west
voluntarily in 1835 after having signed the treaty.
The followers of Chief John Ross, who had suffered
the forced removal, were known as the Ross Party.
These two factions started a civil war that lasted
until 1843. At the end of this domestic strife the
Cherokees started over and rebuilt their nation.
Tahlequah was established as the capital city. They
built new homes, schools, and churches, and even
though they had a treaty with the United States,
which promised that they would be left alone, that
was not to be.
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The Cherokee Nation was dragged into the
white man’s Civil War. Chief John Ross begged the
United States to send troops to protect its neutrality
as promised in the treaty, but the troops never came.
Under pressure from former Treaty Party members
turned Confederate Cherokees, Ross was forced to
sign a treaty with the Confederacy. Following the
Civil War, the United States used that treaty as an
excuse to punish the Cherokee Nation, forcing it to
sign yet another treaty and to give up more land.
Certain governmental powers were also taken away
from the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokee Nation,
along with the Choctaw Nation, the Chickasaw
Nation, the Creek Nation, and the Seminole
Nation were organized into “Indian Territory.”
The Cherokee Nation today operates under a
new constitution ratified by Cherokee voters in
1976. The three-branch government is composed of
a chief executive called the principal chief, a legislature called the Tribal Council, and a judicial
branch called a tribunal made up of three tribal justices. From its humble condition in the 1970s, the
Cherokee Nation has grown to massive proportions,
employing 1,300 people, 85 percent of whom are
Cherokees with a $1.6 million monthly payroll.
Over the next half century, the powers of the
so-called Five Civilized Tribes that made up the
Indian Territory were further eroded by the United
States. In 1907, against the wishes of nearly all of
the traditional full-blood people of all five tribes,
Indian Territory was combined with Oklahoma Territory to its west to form the new state of Oklahoma.
The process of acculturation began early for the
Cherokees with the introduction of European trade
goods in 1673. Steel pots and knives, tomahawks,
glass beads, manufactured cloth, guns, and gunpowder gradually replaced traditional products of native
manufacture. Trade with Europeans also changed
hunting practices, calling for large numbers of pelts
and quickly endangering the population of many
game animals. Clothing styles changed.
From the beginning, the United States had no
intention of dealing with Indians in the new state.
The tribal governments were all but abolished and
likely would have been but for the complications of
transferring land titles. The president of the United
States began appointing chiefs for the five tribes
when the government had need of a signature to
make the transfers legal. Several appointments were
made only long enough to obtain the desired signature and these appointees became known as “Chiefs
for a day.”
MODERN ERA
In 1973, President Richard Nixon indicated that the
Cherokees had the right to vote, revitalizing the
Cherokee Nation. However, this created the
uncomfortable situation of having two Cherokee
(the other, the United Keetoowan Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma, was founded in the 1950s)
governments in the same location, with the same
jurisdiction, and basically the same constituency. A
conflict over political issues developed, with both
sides claiming to be the only legal government for
Cherokees in Oklahoma. Since then, the Cherokee
Nation has grown and prospered, making its most
impressive strides under the leadership of Principal
Chief Wilma P. Mankiller (1945- ). Mankiller
served as principal chief from 1987 to 1995. Joe Byrd
succeeded Mankiller, but allegations of corruption
and abuse of power plagued his four year term. In
1999, Cherokee voters elected Chad Smith principal chief in 1999.
364
CHEROKEES
ACCULTURATION AND
ASSIMILATION
Intermarriage with whites and blacks caused a
drastic change in family structure for many Cherokees. The Cherokees have a matrilineal clan structure, a family in which descent is traced through the
female line. This type of family structure was undermined by the insistence of white males to be considered heads of households, and to pass along their
own surnames to their offspring. They were supported in this by the efforts of the missionaries.
When pressure for removal became intense in
the 1820s and 1830s, a significant portion of the
Cherokees, believing that their white neighbors
wanted them removed because they were “savage,”
began a conscious effort to make themselves over
and become “civilized.” Part of this “civilizing” effort
was an effort to eliminate illiteracy. To help accomplish this, the Cherokee Sequoyah developed a written language or syllabary, in 1821. The Cherokee
also hired teachers from universities in the northeast
and invited missionaries to come into the Cherokee
country and teach and preach. These people became
known as “Progressives,” and their efforts, combined
with the acculturation and assimilation process that
had begun in 1673, accelerated and was tremendously successful in changing lifestyles.
The changes that occurred because of this effort
were so pervasive that, following the Trail of Tears,
with removal pressures no longer a factor, the Cherokees continued their new ways. In the West, they
built homes more or less like the homes of white
men. They built churches, divided the new country
into voting districts, and wrote a new constitution.
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The Cherokee
tradition involves
participation in
rituals and
celebrations at a
young age.
Many Cherokees became farmers, ranchers,
merchants, bankers, and lawyers. In many ways, the
Cherokee Nation mirrored the larger United States.
Some have said that the Cherokee Nation imitated
the United States and then improved on it. The
largest single item on the national budget was education. Cherokee legislators could not vote themselves a raise. The Cherokee Nation established the
first free, compulsory public school system, established the first institution of higher learning west of
the Mississippi River, and installed the first telephone west of the Mississippi. So successful was the
Cherokee Nation and impressive were its accomplishments along these lines, that people have been
heard to say that “the Cherokees all became white,”
or “everybody in Oklahoma is part Indian, usually
Cherokee.” Yet, age-old Cherokee beliefs and customs survived in traditional full-blood communities
in remote locations in the Midwest and Southeast
almost completely unknown to the outside world.
TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, AND BELIEFS
Some Cherokees today are almost indistinguishable
from white people, and their customs, habits, and
beliefs reflect those of mainstream America. But
traditional Cherokees gather at various “stomp
grounds,” which are consecrated, ceremonial
grounds. Each ground has its own set of religious
leaders. The ceremony performed there is a series of
dances, done in a counter-clockwise direction
around the sacred fire all night long. Attendance at
the stomp grounds declined for many years, but
since the 1970s it seems to have been increasing.
Although stomp dancers were very secretive for
years, there are now some groups who perform publicly to educate the general population, Cherokee
and others, regarding traditional Cherokee ways
and beliefs.
INTERACTION WITH OTHERS
Because of the long history of intermarriage, and
because of the nature of the division of land in eastern Oklahoma, Cherokees have long been used to
interacting with non-Cherokees. In fact, Cherokees
always seem to have been willing to accept outsiders
into their ranks, some might say, too willingly.
Tahlequah, for example, appears to have a large
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white population, but much of that population consists of old mixed-blood families, and many of them
are officially tribal members. There are also Indians
from other tribes who have moved into Tahlequah:
Creeks, Kiowas, Osages, and even Navajos. Some of
that is the result of intermarriage, some is not. There
is a significant Hispanic population in Tahlequah
today, and a small black population. Both of these
groups have had trouble fitting in. They have not
been readily accepted by the Cherokees, full- or
mixed-blood, nor by the local whites, although there
is seldom any overt racism displayed.
Cherokee interaction with blacks dates back to
the late 1700s and early 1800s. In an attempt to
adapt to white lifestyles, many Cherokees became
affluent southern plantation slave owners, although
others were intensely anti-slavery. According to historical author Jim Stebinger, Cherokees held an
estimated 1,600 black slaves. In contrast to white
plantation owners, Cherokee plantation owners
worked alongside their slaves and interracial marriage was permitted. However, full-blooded Cherokees, blacks and whites, often shunned those who
intermarried.
EDUCATION
Before Oklahoma statehood took over or closed
down almost all of its institutions, the Cherokee
Nation had its own school system. The Cherokee
Nation had produced more college graduates than
its neighboring states of Arkansas and Texas combined. Oklahoma statehood and the state’s public
school system changed all that. According to the
1970 census, the average adult Cherokee had only
five and one-half years of school. Fewer than 70
years of Oklahoma public schools had been devastating for Cherokees. Up until very recent times,
Cherokee students, upon being enrolled in the first
grade, were automatically placed in slow-learner
classrooms. Cherokee high school students were not
encouraged to apply for college and were not taken
on trips with the white students to visit college
campuses. Some Cherokee students attended government boarding schools for Indians, but the
majority were in public schools.
Since the revitalization of the Cherokee
Nation, there has been gradual, steady improvement in the area of education. Programs have been
instituted in the public schools for Cherokee students because of pressures from the Cherokee
Nation and because of the availability of federal
funds for such programs. The Cherokee Nation has
taken over Sequoyah High School, a former federally run boarding school, and is operating it for Indi366
CHEROKEES
an students in Tahlequah. The Cherokee Nation
also has established a complete pre-school program
for Cherokee children from age three until they are
ready to enter the first grade. There is also a Cherokee Nation higher education program to assist
Cherokees in attending college. Many of the public
schools that formerly discouraged Cherokee students now have Cherokee teachers, counselors,
administrators, and other personnel on their staffs.
Most Cherokees still attend public schools (several
of which have up to 90 percent Cherokee enrollment), but over the last 20 years or so, the situation
there for Cherokees has greatly improved.
CUISINE
Cherokees were traditionally an agrarian people,
maintaining a town garden and individual garden
plots. The women did most of the tending of crops,
but then the women owned the gardens and the
homes. They planted a wide variety of beans, pumpkins, squash, and corn. In addition to the growing of
crops, women gathered many wild plants for food,
including wild onions and greens, mushrooms,
berries, grapes, and nuts.
Deer was the main animal hunted for meat, but
bear, buffalo, elk, squirrel, rabbit, opossum, and
other animals were also killed for food. Early on, the
Cherokees began raising cattle, hogs, chickens, and
other domesticated animals acquired from Europeans. The contemporary Cherokee diet is not that
much different from that of the general population
of the United States, although at special gatherings
one will find wild onions and eggs, bean bread, fry
bread, grape dumplings, and possibly fried crawdads
(crayfish). A special treat is kanuche, made by
pounding whole hickory nuts, boiling them in water
and straining the hulls out, resulting in a rich broth.
Kanuche may be mixed with hominy, corn, or rice.
TRADITIONAL COSTUMES
Cherokee men once wore only a breechcloth and
moccasins in warm weather. In colder weather they
added leggings and a fringed hunting jacket. Chiefs
and priests wore long, full cloaks made of feathers
and feather caps (not the traditional and popular
plains Indian headdress). The men shaved their
heads, leaving a topknot (sometimes called a
scalplock), which they allowed to grow long, and
often their bodies and faces were tattooed. In warm
weather women wore only a short skirt and added a
poncho-like top during the winter. Styles changed
in the early nineteenth century as a result of trade
with Europeans. Women began to make and wear
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long dresses and blouses of manufactured trade
cloth, and men began wearing shirts and jackets of
cloth. They also added colorful turbans. By the
1880s, most of that distinctive clothing had been
abandoned and Cherokees dressed mostly like frontier whites.
Today, for special occasions, some Cherokee
men will don ribbon shirts, a contemporary panIndian item. A few may even dress up in hunting
jackets and turbans. Women may wear traditional
“tear dresses,” so named because the pattern calls for
tearing the fabric along straight lines rather than
cutting with scissors.
DANCES AND SONGS
The stomp dance, which has already been discussed,
is a religious activity. No Cherokee social dances
have survived, but some Cherokees have joined in
the pan-Indian practice of powwow dancing. When
Cherokee singing is announced, it is almost always
gospel singing in the Cherokee language. It is possible today, though, to hear stomp dance songs sung
without actually attending a stomp dance. At least
one old Cherokee lullaby has survived. Barbara
McAlester, a Cherokee opera singer, sometimes performs it as part of her concerts.
HOLIDAYS
Traditionally, certain ceremonies were performed at
specific times of the year, and they included songs
and dances. The largest of these was the Green
Corn Dance, celebrating the beginning of spring.
Today, the Cherokee Nation observes one annual
holiday on September 6, which marks the anniversary of the adoption of the new constitution following the Trail of Tears. It reunited those Cherokees
who had moved west on their own before the Trail
of Tears with the main body of the Cherokees under
the administration of Chief John Ross. For convenience, this holiday is celebrated over the Labor
Day weekend in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, and is
attended each year by thousands of people from all
over the world. Activities include a parade through
downtown Tahlequah, a state of the nation address
by the principal chief, traditional games, concerts,
and arts and crafts shows.
HEALTH ISSUES
A traditional Cherokee says that there was a time
long ago when there was no disease in the world.
Then human beings developed weapons. When the
Cherokee got these new weapons, bows and arrows
especially, they were able to kill many more animals
than before. One day the animals called a council to
discuss this problem. They all agreed that the people had to kill animals in order to obtain food for
their survival but they also agreed that the Cherokees were killing too many animals too casually.
They decided that a hunter should have to take his
killing more seriously. He should pray, fast, and go
through a prescribed ritual. He should kill only
what he needed and then apologize to the spirit of
the slain animal. If a hunter failed to show the proper respect and neglected to do any of these prescribed things, the animal spirits would strike him
with some dreadful disease. Some of the diseases the
animals came up with were so horrible that the
plants, having overheard the council, each decided
to provide a cure for one of the specific diseases that
the animals had proposed.
Traditional Cherokee healers, like those of
other American Indian tribes, have always been
expert at the medicinal use of plants. But a traditional Cherokee cure almost always involves more
than just the use of the plant medicine. It involves
the ritualistic use of words and sometimes specific
actions. Many traditional Cherokees still go to
these Indian doctors to cure their ills.
With the arrival of Europeans came European
diseases that the Cherokee doctors did not know
how to cure. A belief developed that it takes a white
doctor to cure a white man’s disease. Missionaries,
school systems, government programs, and intermarriage also undermined Indian beliefs. Many
Cherokees began to depend for health care, either
exclusively or in part, on white doctors.
For many years, the health of American Indians was in the hands of the United States government through its Indian Health Service (IHS). In
recent years, however, tribes have begun contracting with the IHS to administer these services themselves. There are still two IHS hospitals in the
Cherokee Nation, one in Claremore, Oklahoma,
and one in Tahlequah. In addition, the Cherokee
Nation has its own health division, which operates
five rural health clinics and a number of other
health programs.
Cherokees, like other American Indians, generally face the same health problems as anyone else.
Cherokees have a high occurrence of diabetes, perhaps as a result of dietary habits fostered by outside
influences such as government boarding schools and
the government’s food distribution program for Indians. Other major health problems for the Cherokee
are high rates of alcoholism, suicide, obesity, and
childhood injuries. Many Cherokee leaders believe
alcoholism is the primary problem facing the tribe,
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and that it directly impacts other issues, including
health, unemployment, poverty, and crime.
LANGUAGE
The Cherokee language belongs to the Iroquoian
family of languages and is therefore related to
Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and
Tuscarora, among others. It is a complex and difficult language; in his Cherokee-English Dictionary, for
example, Durbin Feeling lists 126 forms of a single
verb. Cherokee has been a written language at least
since 1821, when Sequoyah (c. 1770-1843), a
Cherokee, produced a syllabary for that purpose. (A
syllabary is a writing system in which each symbol
stands for an entire syllable. In the Cherokee syllabary, for instance, the symbol “A” stands for the
sound “go.”) Although Sequoyah is credited with
inventing the syllabary, some Cherokees have taken
exception with that claim, maintaining that the syllabary is an ancient Cherokee writing system which
was kept secret until Sequoyah decided to make it
public. Soon afterward, almost the entire Cherokee
population became literate, and in 1828, the
Nation began publishing a bilingual newspaper, the
Cherokee Phoenix.
Today, the Cherokee language is still in wide
use. It is used in the Indian churches and at the
stomp grounds, and many children still grow up
with Cherokee as their first language, learning English when they go to school. Bilingual education
programs in the public schools also encourage continued use of the language.
GREETINGS AND OTHER POPULAR EXPRESSIONS
Osiyo or ‘siyo is usually translated as “hello” and it
may be followed by Tohiju?-How are you? (Are you
well?). One response is tohigwu-I am well. Wado is
“thank you.” Howa means all right, or okay. “Man”
is asgaya; “boy” is achuja. “Woman” is agehyuh and
“girl,” agehyuja. “Cherokee Nation” is translated as
Chalagihi Ayehli (or Jalagihi Ayehli), using the
“Cherokeeized” version of the word Cherokee (with
the place ending “hi”) and the versatile word ayehli,
which can mean “center,” “soul,” or “nation.”
RELIGION
The ancient Cherokee belief system described a
world that was flat and floating on water. This is the
world that we live on. Above it is a Sky Vault made
of stone, which might be pictured as a bowl turned
upside down over a saucer. The original life forms,
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CHEROKEES
all spirit beings, and the souls of the departed live
on top of the Sky Vault. Life up there is like that
down here.
There is a world underneath the one we inhabit. It is the opposite of this one. When it is winter
on earth, it is summer down there. When it is night
here, it is daytime there. There are also many powerful and potentially destructive spirit forces below.
It would be a mistake to see these two Cherokee spirit worlds as heaven and hell. They are not
defined as good and evil, although the one below is
seen as tremendously chaotic. They are thought of
simply as being opposed to one another. We live our
lives between them in a constant state of precarious
balance. Because of this dangerous situation, the
most important aspect of life in this traditional
Cherokee view is to maintain balance and harmony.
Almost all old habits, rituals, and ceremonies are
designed and practiced to that end. The world is
seen as existing in pairs of opposites: light and dark;
day and night; summer and winter; male and
female; earth and sky; fire and water. All things
must be kept in their proper place and in balance
with their opposites. A mixture of opposites results
in pollution and to avoid disaster, they must be followed by some sort of cleansing ceremony.
If the Cherokees are Christian, they might be
Methodist, Presbyterian, Unitarian, or any other
Christian denomination. Among the more traditional Cherokees is a large group of Cherokee Baptists. Cherokee Baptists attend what are called “Indian churches,” in which they make use of a
Cherokee-language New Testament and a Cherokee-language hymnal. Services are conducted in the
Cherokee language. In fact, the Cherokee Baptist
church has been credited with saving the Cherokee
language from extinction, and although the truth of
that claim is subject to debate, certainly the church
has played a significant role in that area. Very often,
when Cherokees talk about traditional people, they
are talking about Cherokee Baptists.
EMPLOYMENT AND
ECONOMIC TRADITIONS
This discussion will focus on the more traditional
Cherokees, those who live in Cherokee communities and are visibly Indian. Employment opportunities are limited for these people because they tend to
stay at home. They would rather be around their
families and friends and remain a part of their community than seek better opportunities elsewhere. For
these Cherokees, unemployment figures are high.
Major employers in the area are large nurseries in
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Cherokee County, Oklahoma, and large chicken
processing plants in Arkansas. The Cherokee
Nation also has become a major employer in the
area. But there still are not enough jobs to go
around. Low-income people living in rural areas
often lack dependable transportation, so even if they
can secure jobs, they may not be able to hold on to
them. U.S. Census figures show Cherokees had a
median family income of $24,907 in 1989, high
compared to other Native American tribes, but
$10,000 less than the national average. Also, 22 percent of Cherokees live at or below the poverty level.
The Cherokee Nation offers job training programs, but once an individual is trained for a job, if
there is no such opening in the area and he/she does
not want to move, he/she is no better off than
before. Some people have gone through several job
training programs, becoming qualified carpenters,
plumbers, and electricians, and yet remain unemployed. Many people mow lawns, cut firewood, and
accept various odd jobs in order to support their
families. They still hunt, and they still gather wild
food plants.
POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
The governmental structure of the Cherokee Nation
already has been described. This section will focus
on political issues. Because membership in the
Cherokee Nation has no blood percentage requirement but is based strictly on lineal descent from any
person listed as Cherokee on the so-called Dawes
Roll (the roll prepared by the United States government’s Dawes Commission for purposes of land allotment in preparation for Oklahoma statehood) many
Cherokees complain that too many white people
(usually Cherokees with less than one-fourth Cherokee blood) take advantage of Cherokee programs.
The Indian Self-determination Act, known as
PL 93-638, allows Indian tribes to contract with the
federal government either through the Bureau of
Indian Affairs or Indian Health Service to operate
programs for themselves, which have been previously operated by either of these two government
bureaus.
The Cherokee Nation has been taking advantage of this law since the 1970s and has contracted
nearly all of the available government programs.
There has been discussion for several years about the
possibility of the Cherokee Nation’s contracting to
run the Indian hospitals within its jurisdiction. Some
Cherokees, including some hospital employees, are
strongly opposed to such a move, saying that the
Cherokee Nation is not prepared to run the hospitals.
State governments seem to be almost constantly making attempts to encroach into the area of
tribal jurisdiction. They want to impose state hunting and fishing regulations on tribal members. They
want to collect various kinds of taxes from tribal
members or from the tribes themselves. Indians do
not pay income tax, federal or state, unless their
income is derived strictly from business activity that
takes place on land that is still held in trust by the
federal government for the Indian owner. Issues of
state infringement on tribal sovereignty, in which
the Cherokee Nation has been involved in recent
years, includes the state’s attempt to tax tobacco
sales at Indian smoke shops, and the state’s attempt
to regulate Indian gaming. The Cherokee Nation
operates high stakes Bingo parlors.
In terms of American politics, there are Cherokee Democrats and Cherokee Republicans. There
were Cherokee supporters of H. Ross Perot and,
very likely, there are Cherokee Populists and
Cherokee Anarchists. Cherokees are seldom if ever
of one mind on any given issue. When it comes to
national politics they will only come close to a consensus if the issue at hand is one of tribal sovereignty. For example, every so often a congressman will
introduce a bill to abrogate all Indian treaties and
terminate all tribal governments. Most likely, nearly all Cherokees would unite in opposing such a bill.
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP
CONTRIBUTIONS
Although the Cherokee Nation is but one of over
300 American Indian tribes in the United States,
the Cherokees have produced a significant number
of prominent people in various areas. In addition to
those individuals listed below, any number of other
prominent Americans, and at least one Englishman,
have claimed Cherokee descent at one time or
another: Tom Mix, Monte Blue, John Nance Garner, Iron Eyes Cody, Walter Brennan, Johnny Cash,
Burt Reynolds, James Garner, Willie Nelson, Oral
Roberts, Cher, Anita Bryant, Loretta Lynn, Kevin
Costner, Sir Winston Churchill, and President Bill
Clinton (who claims to be one-sixteenth Cherokee,
although no documentation has been found to support this).
ART
Cherokee artists and artists of Cherokee descent
include Cecil Dick (1915-1992); George Cochran
(1911-1992); Willard Stone (1916-1990); Anna
Mitchell; Bill Glass, Sr.; Bill Glass, Jr. (1950- ); Vir-
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ginia Stroud (1949- ), painter and illustrator;
Jeanne Walker Rorex (1951- ); Bill Rabbit (1946- );
Robert Annesley (1943- ); Jane Osti; Bert
Seabourne (1931- ); Joan Hill (1930- ); Murv Jacob
(1945- ); Janna Jacob (1976- ); and Jimmie Durham
(1940- ), sculptor, performance artist and poet.
FILM, TELEVISION, AND THEATER
Frank Boudinot (d. circa 1864) moved to New York
City in the first half of the nineteenth century to
become a professional actor; he used the stage
name of Frank Starr; during the Civil War, he was
an officer in the Union Army and died of wounds
received during that conflict. Victor Daniels
(1899-1955), using the professional name Chief
Thundercloud, was a successful film actor for over
20 years; among other roles, he played Tonto in the
early Lone Ranger films and Chiricahua Apache
tribal leader Geronimo in a 1939 version of that
story. Clu Gulager (1928- ), whose first name is a
version of tlu-tlu, the Cherokee word for a purple
martin, is a veteran film and television actor, perhaps best remembered for his role of Deputy, later
Sheriff, Ryker on the long-running television series
The Virginian, his first series was The Tall Man, in
which he played Billy the Kid, and his films include
The Killers and The Last Picture Show. Wes Studi
(1947- ), full-blood Cherokee, has received critical
acclaim for his portrayals of Magua in The Last of
the Mohicans, and (1992) Geronimo in the 1994
film Geronimo: An American Legend. He appeared
in the film Mystery Men in 1999. Arthur Junaluska
(1918- ), Eastern Cherokee, was an actor, playwright, and theatrical director. Dennis Weaver
(1924- ), film and television actor, known for his
Emmy-winning role as Chester on the long-running television series Gunsmoke, and McCloud in
the television series by that same name. Will
Rogers (1879-1935) could be categorized in any
number of ways; he was a performer in Wild West
shows and on stage, later becoming a film actor,
radio personality, and nationally syndicated newspaper columnist; during his lifetime, he was probably the best loved man in America, if not in the
entire world; and Gary Robinson (1950- ), writer,
producer and director.
LITERATURE
Sequoyah (c. 1770-1843), inventor of the Cherokee
syllabary, was born in the old Cherokee country of
what is now Tennessee and moved west before the
Trail of Tears. He apparently died somewhere in
Mexico. Cherokee writers include John Rollin Ridge
(1827-1867), editor of the Sacramento Bee and
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author of The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta,
the Celebrated California Bandit and John Milton
Oskison (1874-1947), editor of the New York
Evening Post and Colliers’ Weekly, and author of
Brothers Three and Black Jack Davy; Norman H. Russell (1921- ), poet and educator, author of Indian
Thoughts; Robert J. Conley (1940- ), the award-winning author of Mountain Windsong, Nickajack, The
Real People series of novels, The War Trail Northand
others; Marilou Awiakta (1936- ), poet, storyteller,
and author of Abiding Appalachia, Rising Fawn and the
Fire Mystery, and Selu: Seeking the Corn Mother’s Wisdom; Diane Glancy (1941- ), poet and novelist, and
author of Firesticks, Flutie, and The Only Piece of Furniture in the House; Jean Hager (1932- ), award-winning author of Grandfather Medicine, Night Walker,
and others; Carroll Arnette (Gogisgi) (1927-1997),
poet, and teacher, author of Rounds, Tsalagi, South
Line, Engine, and others; Robin Coffee (1955- ),
poet, and author of Voices of the Heart, Sacred Seasons, and others; Ralph Salisbury (1924- ), poet,
teacher, and author of A White Rainbow, Spirit Beast
Chant, One Indian and Two Chiefs, Pointing at the
Rainbow, and others; Gladys Cardiff (1942- ), Eastern Cherokee poet and author of To Frighten a Storm;
Ron Rogers (1948- ), poet and writer of short fiction; Thomas King (1943- ), screenwriter, novelist,
and author of Green Grass, Running Waterand Medicine Rites; Rayna Diane Green (1942- ), writer, folklorist, and editor of That’s What She Said: Contemporary Poetry and Fiction by Native American Women;
Geary Hobson (1941- ), educator, writer, critic,
author of Deer Hunting and Other Poems, and editor
of The Remembered Earth: An Anthology of Contemporary American Indian Literature; Lynn Riggs (18991954), playwright, and author of Green Grow the
Lilacs, which later became the Rogers and Hammerstein musical, Oklahoma; Betty Louise Bell (1949- ),
author of Faces in the Moon; and Robert Franklin
Gish (1940- ), author of Dreams of Quivira and When
Coyote Howls: A Lavaland Tale.
ACADEMIA
Carolyn Attneave (1920-1992) is a psychologist and
educator. She is also the author of several books,
including Family Networks and Beyond Clinic Walls.
MILITARY
Admiral Joseph James (Jocko) Clark (1893-1971), a
World War II naval hero, was commander of the
seventh fleet during the Korean conflict.
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MUSIC
Jack F. Kilpatrick (1915-1967) was a noted composer and long-time professor of musicology at Southern Methodist University; in addition, with his wife
Anna, Kilpatrick wrote several books dealing with
Cherokee tales and Cherokee language texts. Barbara McAlester is an opera singer who was born in
Oklahoma and currently lives in New York City;
she has performed around the world.
Contact: Duane H. King, Editor.
Address: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, P.O.
Box 770A, Cherokee, North Carolina 28719.
Telephone: (704) 497-3481.
Twin Territories.
Privately published, it deals largely with historical
material on the so-called Five Civilized Tribes.
Address: P.O. Box 1426, Muskogee,
Oklahoma 74402.
MEDIA
The Cherokee Advocate.
The official newspaper of the Cherokee Nation
since its founding in 1977. Monthly with a circulation of 95,000.
Contact: Lynn M. Howard, Editor.
Address: P.O. Box 948, Tahlequah,
Oklahoma 74465.
Telephone: (918) 456-0671.
Fax: (918) 456-6485.
E-mail: tfiedler@cherokee.
Cherokee Observer.
Independent monthly newspaper.
Contact: David Cornsilk, Managing Editor.
Address: P.O. Box 1301, Jay, Oklahoma
74346-1301.
Telephone: (918) 540-2924.
E-mail: dcwy@galaxy.galstar.com
The Cherokee One-Feather.
The official publication of the Eastern Band of
Cherokee Indians featuring news of interest to the
local Cherokee tribe and to American Indians in
general.
Contact: Richard L. Welch, Editor.
Address: P.O. Box 501, Cherokee,
North Carolina 28719.
Telephone: (704) 497-5513.
Fax: (704) 497-4810.
Cherokee Tribune.
Community weekly newspaper founded in 1934.
Contact: Otis Brumby Jr., Publisher.
Address: Neighbor Newspaper, Inc. P.O. Box 449,
Marietta, Georgia 30061.
Telephone: (404) 428-9411.
Journal of Cherokee Studies.
Covers historical and cultural research of Cherokees.
UKB News.
Monthy publication of the United Keetoowah Band
of Cherokee Indians of Oklahoma.
Contacts: Emma Holand and Anita Ross, Editors.
Address: P.O. Box 746, Tahlequah,
Oklahoma 74464.
ORGANIZATIONS AND
ASSOCIATIONS
Cherokee Cultural Society.
The purpose is to build community, preserve Cherokee heritage, and perpetrate the culture. Publishes a
monthly email newsletter Cherokee Messenger.
Address: P.O. Box 23187, Houston, Texas 77228.
Telephone: (713) 866-4085.
The Cherokee Nation.
Contact: Chad Smith, Principal Chief.
Address: P.O. Box 948, Tahlequah,
Oklahoma 74465.
Cherokee Nation of New Jersey.
Founded in 1997. Seeks to educate people about the
American Indian who is of African, Hispanic,
Asian, and European mix, and to foster goodwill.
Contact: Chief C.W. Longbow.
Address: c/o C. W. Longbow, 1164 Stuyvesant
Avenue, Irvington, New Jersey 071112392.
Telephone: (201) 374-1021.
The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
Address: P.O. Box 455, Cherokee,
North Carolina 28719.
Contact: Joyce Dugan, Principal Chief.
Telephone: (704) 497-2772.
Fax: (704) 497-2952.
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The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokees in
Oklahoma.
Contact: Jim Ross, Chief.
Address: 2450 South Muskogee Avenue,
Tahlequah, Oklahoma 74464.
Telephone: (918) 456-5491.
Fax: (918) 456-9601.
MUSEUMS AND
RESEARCH CENTERS
Cherokee National Museum.
Also houses the Cherokee Heritage Center.
Address: Willis Road, Tahlequah,
Oklahoma 74464.
Telephone: (918) 456-6007.
Cherokee National Historical Society (CNHS).
Seeks to interest the public in Cherokee history; operates Cherokee Heritage Center, which includes the
Cherokee National Museum, and Cherokee Arboretum and Herb Garden (including trees and plants
used traditionally by Cherokees for food, fiber, and
medicines). Publishes quarterly newsletter Columns
Contact: Mac R. Harris, Executive Director.
Address: P.O. Box 515, Tahlequah,
Oklahoma 74465.
Telephone: (918) 456-6007.
Fax: (918) 456-6165.
Email: tsalagi@netsites.net.
The Five Civilized Tribes Museum.
Preserves and encourages the continuation of the
cultures and traditions of “The Five Civilized
Tribes.” Holds artifacts and artworks. Includes a
research library.
Address: 1109 Honor Heights Drive, Muskogee,
Oklahoma 74401.
Telephone: (918) 683-1701.
Fax: (918) 683-3070.
E-mail: the5tribesmuseum@azalea.net.
Online: http://www.fivetribes.com/.
Museum of the Cherokee Indian.
Located on the Cherokee reservation at Highway
441 North and Drama Road in Cherokee, North
Carolina. Offers dramatic presentations of Cherokee history and language. Maintains artifact
exhibits. Received a $3 million renovation in 1998
to include a walk along the Trail of Tears.
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CHEROKEES
Address: P.O. Box 1599, Cherokee North
Carolina 28719.
Telephone: (704) 497-3481.
SOURCES FOR
ADDITIONAL STUDY
Bird, Traveller. Tell Them They Lie: The Sequoyah
Myth. Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1971.
Brown, John P. Old Frontiers: The Story of the Cherokee Indians from Earliest Times to the Date of Their
Removal to the West, 1838. Kingsport, Tennessee:
Southern Publishers, 1938.
Collier, Peter. When Shall They Rest? The Cherokees’
Long Struggle with America. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973.
Conley, Robert J. The Witch of Goingsnake and Other
Stories. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988.
Cunningham, Frank H. General Stand Watie’s Confederate Indians. San Antonio: Naylor Company, 1959.
Feeling, Durbin. Cherokee-English Dictionary. Tahlequah, Oklahoma: The Cherokee Nation, 1975.
Fogelson, Raymond D. The Cherokees: A Critical
Bibliography. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1978.
Foreman, Grant. Indians and Pioneers. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1930.
Kilpatrick, Jack Frederick, and Anna Gritts. Walk in
Your Soul: Love Incantations of the Oklahoma Cherokees. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press,
1964.
Mankiller, Wilma P., and Michael Wallis. Mankiller:
A Chief and Her People. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1993.
Mooney, James. Myths of the Cherokee. Washington,
D.C.: Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, 1891.