H T ?

HANGING BY A THREAD? :
THE POST-MFA COMPETITIVE DYNAMICS
OF THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY IN
MADAGASCAR
BY LEANNE R. SEDOWSKI
RESEARCH REPORT NO. 78
February 2008
ISBN No. 978-1-86840-660-9
The research for this Report was done for a masters dissertation in the School of
Development Studies at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.
The School of Development Studies is promoting the publication of student
dissertations that are awarded a distinction.
ii
Acknowledgements
The African Clothing and Footwear Research Network and the Industrial
Restructuring Project provided the principal funding for this project. The financial
support of this project is sincerely appreciated.
This thesis and the research done herein would not have been possible without
Professor Mike Morris. I am grateful for all the support and encouragement you
have given me over the past year. Thank you for having enough confidence in me
to let me work on such a big project.
I want to thank Dr. Myriam Velia for her constant guidance throughout this project.
Your red pen was the bane of my existence for almost a year. Despite this, I will
miss it. Merci beaucoup pour ton aide cette année.
I am extremely grateful to the firm managers and industry and government officials
who were interviewed in Madagascar for taking time out of their busy day. All that
was achieved could not possibly have been without the assistance of Fanja
Ravoavy. Your help was invaluable.
I would like to thank Rotary, The Rotary Foundation, the Rotarians of D9270 and
D5500, and especially the Rotarians of the Rotary Club of Durban North and the
Rotary Club of Casas Adobes Tucson for the unbelievable opportunities they have
given me.
And to my parents, who let me go so far away. Thank you for all your love and
support. Now that this is done, maybe I will come home now.
iii
Table of Contents
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….v
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..v
Abstract……...…………………………………………………………………………...vi
Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………...vii
Map………………………………………………………………………………………ix
Chapter 1 : Introduction..................................................................................................1
1.1
Globalisation and the MFA: an Introduction ........................................................ 2
1.2
Thesis Structure..................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 : Methodology .................................................................................................5
2.1
Quantitative Research............................................................................................ 5
2.2
Qualitative Research.............................................................................................. 5
Chapter 3 : Theoretical Background: Global Value Chain Analysis ......................9
3.1
International Context of Textiles and Clothing: Value Chains ........................... 10
3.2
Characteristics of the Apparel Value Chain ........................................................ 13
3.3
Governance and Upgrading in Value Chains ...................................................... 15
3.3.1
Governance.................................................................................................. 15
3.3.2
Upgrading.................................................................................................... 18
3.4
New trends in the apparel value chain................................................................. 20
3.5
Globalization within the apparel industry ........................................................... 21
3.6
Conclusion: Implications for Madagascar in the Value Chain............................ 22
Chapter 4 : Special and Differential Treatment ..........................................................24
4.1
Basics of SDT: the Political Economy of SDT ................................................... 24
4.1.1
Benefits and Shortcomings of SDT............................................................. 25
4.2
Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) .......................................................... 26
4.3
The US and AGOA Preferences.......................................................................... 27
4.4
European Union Regimes: EBA and ACP/COTONOU ..................................... 29
4.5
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 5 : The T&C industry in Madagascar within the context of sub-Saharan
Africa ................................................................................................................……… 32
5.1
Clothing and Textiles in Sub-Saharan Africa...................................................... 32
5.2
Madagascar, local conditions .............................................................................. 35
5.2.1
Economic History........................................................................................ 36
5.2.2
Physical Infrastructure................................................................................. 40
5.2.3
Vertical Integration within the Clothing and Textile Industry .................... 42
5.2.4
Wages and Productivity in Madagascar ...................................................... 44
5.3
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 6 : Findings from Madagascar .......................................................................47
6.1
General Overview of the Industry ....................................................................... 48
6.1.1
Buyers.......................................................................................................... 51
6.1.2
Quality Control............................................................................................ 54
6.2
Factors of Competitiveness ................................................................................. 55
6.2.1
Transport and Customs................................................................................ 56
iv
6.2.2
Electricity and Rent ..................................................................................... 58
6.2.3
Raw Materials.............................................................................................. 59
6.2.4
Wages and Productivity in Madagascar ...................................................... 60
6.2.5
Training ....................................................................................................... 61
6.2.6
Turnover and Absenteeism.......................................................................... 62
6.2.7
Social Actions.............................................................................................. 63
6.3
Typology of Performance.................................................................................... 63
6.4
Macroeconomic Conditions and Context ............................................................ 65
6.4.1
Government Industrial Policy ..................................................................... 65
6.4.2
Post-crisis Resilience................................................................................... 66
6.4.3
Prices and Upgrading .................................................................................. 67
6.4.4
David versus Goliath: Competition with China .......................................... 68
6.5
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 7 : Conclusion ..................................................................................................71
7.1
Strategies for Post-MFA Survival ....................................................................... 72
7.1.1
Firm Specific Strategies .............................................................................. 73
7.1.2
Industry-specific strategy ............................................................................ 75
7.2
Infrastructure ....................................................................................................... 77
7.3
A Regional Strategy – Synergising the Value Chain .......................................... 77
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….79
Appendix
Interview Schedule: Firms……………………………………………………………….84
Interview Schedule: Government………………………………………………………..87
Interview Schedule: Industry Organization………………………………………….…..89
v
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Map of Madagascar ........................................................................................... ix
Figure 3.1: A Simple Value Chain ...................................................................................... 11
Figure 3.2: Triangular Manufacturing................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.3: The Textile and Clothing Value Chain ............................................................. 14
Figure 5.1: Depreciation of the Malgasy Franc................................................................... 38
Figure 5.2: Traffic Jam on Road between Antsirabe and Antananarivo ............................. 41
Figure 5.3: Bridge on Major Road between Antananarivo and Tamatave (Toamasina), the
port............................................................................................................................... 41
List of Tables
Table 2.1: List of Interview Respondents ............................................................................. 6
Table 2.2: US & EU Clothing Value Chain Governance Structures..................................... 7
Table 2.3: Nationalities of Clothing and Textile Firms in Madagascar ................................ 7
Table 3.1: Producer-driven versus Buyer-Driven Value Chains......................................... 17
Table 4.1: AGOA qualifying as share of total clothing exports to US, 2001 – 2003 (US$m)
..................................................................................................................................... 29
Table 5.1: Clothing Exports from Selected SSA Countries to the US and EU (in US$m) . 35
Table 5.2: Unit Labour in Standardized Garment Production............................................. 45
Table 6.1: Key Characteristics of Firms Interviewed by Export Market (n=21) ................ 49
Table 6.2: Clients Served in Madagascar (n=18) ................................................................ 52
Table 6.3: Location of Clients Reported ............................................................................. 52
Table 6.4: Main Method of Obtaining Buyers by Firms in Madagascar ............................ 53
Table 6.5: Production Steps and Corresponding Time for Firms in Madagascar ............... 56
Table 6.6: Firm Current Status by Nationality and Market Destination ............................. 64
vi
Abstract
With the end of the Multifibre Arrangement (MFA), many have predicted that countries in
Africa will lose their comparatively inefficient clothing and textile industry as competition
from China increases. Madagascar has not escaped such threat. The clothing and textile
industry is important to Madagascar in terms of export revenue, employment creation and
income generation. Trade agreements have played an essential role in the growth of the
clothing industry as Madagascar is eligible for both AGOA (Africa Growth and
Opportunity Act) and European Union ACP (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific) trade benefits.
This paper aims to find out how the end of the MFA has affected the industry thus far,
investigate the competitiveness of the Madagascar garment industry to respond to this new
global change, assess strategies firms and government have for the future, and offer policy
suggestions on how firms can be supported to encourage them to remain in Madagascar.
Words: 149
vii
Abbreviations
ACP
AFD
AGOA
ATC
BIT
CAPE
CDE
CMT
EBA
EPA
EPZ
EU
FASP
FOB
GEFP
GSP
GUIDE
ILO
LDC
MICDSP
MFA
PSUC
PTA
SDT
T&C
UNCTAD
US
USAID
USITC
VC
African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries
70 former colonies of European powers with which the EU has
special trade relations through the Lomé Convention
Agènce Française du Développement (French Agency for
Development)
Africa Growth and Opportunities Act
Agreement on Clothing and Textiles (successor to the MFA)
Bureau international de travail (ILO)
Comité d’Appui au Pilotage pour la Relance de l’Entreprise
Centre for the Development of Enterprise
Cut Make and Trim
Everything but Arms
Economic Partnership Agreement
Export Processing Zone
European Union
Fond d’Appui au Secteur Privé
Free on Board (the value of goods on delivery to the port of export,
i.e. without insurance and freight charges.)
Groupement des Entreprises Franches et Partenaires
(Group of Export Processing Zone Firms and their Partners)
General System of Preferences
Guichet unique des investissements et du développement des
enterprises – Office of Investment and Enterprise Development
International Labour Organization
Lesser-Developed Country
Ministère d’industrie, commerce et le développement du secteur
privé
(Ministry of Industry, Trade and the Development of the Private
Sector)
Multifibre Arrangement
Plan de sauvtage d’urgence
(Emergency Action Plan)
Preferential Trade Agreement
Special and Differential Treatment
Textiles and clothing
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
United States
United States Agency for International Development
United States International Trade Commission
Value chain
viii
Figure 1.1: Map of Madagascar
Antsirabe •
ix
Chapter 1 : Introduction
No longer are the clothes we wear produced locally. The clothes we wear every
day are designed, cut, and assembled in a whole host of different countries. It is not
unusual to be wearing garments manufactured in China, the Philippines, Mexico and
Turkey at the same time. The labels we find on the collars and waistbands of our
garments offer us a geography lesson better than any taught in a classroom.
Most of the countries producing garments are generally considered to be
‘developing countries,’ i.e. China, Bangladesh, and India. Many developing countries
encourage clothing industry development because the industry is labour-intensive,
providing jobs in countries in need of employment.
Due to its labour-intensive
characteristics, the clothing industry is considered the classic engine of industrial growth
for developing countries (Gereffi and Memdovic 2003).
Asian countries, including
Taiwan, Korea, and China have used the clothing and textile industry over the past few
decades to jumpstart their economies. Countries in Africa, through various incentive
schemes are also trying to use the clothing and textile industry to assist them in developing
an industrial base and export-led industrial development (Morris et al, forthcoming).
Madagascar, known to most people as the home of lemurs and baobabs, is a
developing country also trying to build up a garment industry. With a per capita GDP of
$800 (CIA 2004), Madagascar is one of the poorest countries on Earth. The clothing and
textile industry provides much needed employment and export revenue.
Garment
manufacturers contribute to the Malagasy economy by providing jobs, purchasing items
made on the local market, and contributing tax revenue. The clothing and textile industry
has also indirectly created thousands of other jobs in associated sectors. It is also one of
two countries in sub-Saharan Africa that exports significantly to both major markets, the
United States and the European Union.
Globally, the clothing industry is in flux, and it is unknown what effects this will
have on the manufacturers in Madagascar. The most important trade agreement governing
the clothing trade, the Multifibre Arrangement (MFA) that limited the amounts of
garments countries like China and Bangladesh could produce has ended on 1 January
2005. The MFA quotas limited the production of the giants in the industry, giving
Madagascar a window of opportunity in the industry.
Now that the quotas have
disappeared, whether or not the industry is sufficiently established enough to survive and
remain in Madagascar is a major question for the future.
1
The industry in Madagascar is resilient: in 2002, the country experienced a
political crisis for six months. GDP shrank by 12% and the textile and clothing industry
virtually shut down. Exports experienced a significant drop. Yet by 2004, the country
had matched the level of clothing exports from 2001. Madagascar still seems to have the
ability to compete globally in clothing. But whether or not this will continue to be the
case in the future is uncertain given increased competition from other countries.
Madagascar, heavily reliant on the garment industry for exports, faces the possibility of
losing an important industry, in terms of export revenue, employment creation, and
income generation. The purpose of this dissertation is to research the industry and firms
and assess the likelihood of the firms remaining in Madagascar.
1.1
Globalisation and the MFA: an Introduction
It was the unrelenting tide of globalisation that brought the clothing industry to
Madagascar’s shores. Globalisation of the industry started in the 1960s with Japan. Japan
expanded into the exported-oriented clothing and textile industry, exporting garments to
the major markets including the United States and countries in Europe (Kaplinsky 2005).
In response, the US and European countries placed quota restrictions on all countries, to
try to limit imports and protect their own industries. Instead of halting the production
power of Asian countries, manufacturers in Japan, Korea and Taiwan over time spread out
their production networks to other countries in the region to take advantage of other
countries’ unfilled quotas (Kaplinsky 2005). Competition between countries arose as
labour and transportation costs played an increasingly important part. Manufacturers have
easily shut down a factory in one country to open again in another, forever seeking
cheaper wages and better access to markets. This resulted in manufacturers in developing
countries competing against each other and in particular against China, bidding down
wages and production costs. Madagascar has some of the lowest wages in the world. As a
result of the constant push for cheaper wages and production in other countries, by the
mid-1990s, Madagascar saw foreign investment arrive.
The quota system was essential to the spread of industry. The MFA had the
unforeseen consequence of fostering garment and textile industries in countries with
limited comparative advantage, including some countries in sub-Saharan Africa. While in
place, the MFA held back via quotas and tariffs those countries that had a comparative
advantage. The quotas effectively set up large hurdles for the Asian countries and allowed
less-efficient developing countries to create and maintain garment and textile industries
2
protected from their main competitors. The clothing and textile industry in developed
countries were also protected from the unrelenting competition from the more efficient
Asian countries.
Clothing industrialization occurred in a very short time in Madagascar. This thesis
aims to answer how global conditions made this possible. Is there something specific
about these global conditions that particularly affected Madagascar? Global conditions
have now changed: China has become the world’s largest garment producer and the MFA
has ended. How will the firms and the industry in Madagascar as a whole react to the
change in the global conditions? Having understood this, what are other conditions,
locally and regionally that have contributed to the rise of the industry in Madagascar?
What role has special and differential trade treatment played in the growth of the clothing
industry? How is the industry coping in general with the changing global conditions?
Finally how are firms and government responding and planning for the future. These are
the research questions that this thesis will answer.
1.2
Thesis Structure
The history of Madagascar’s clothing and textiles firms alone is worthy of further
research: little has been written on the sector in academic journals. What little research
has been done was completed before Madagascar’s political crisis in 2002. This project
aims to examine in detail the garment industry in Madagascar in light of the end of the
MFA. It will examine the factors which have caused new investment in this industry to
materialise in 1999-2001 but also after the 2002 political crisis, analyse the basis for the
Malagasy garment sector’s international competitiveness, and explore industry and
government strategies for survival post-MFA.
To understand why the clothing and textile industry arose in Madagascar, one must
first understand the global apparel value chain and how the buyers in the US and the EU
relate to the manufacturers in Africa. Chapter 3 deals with value chain analysis and how
the different actors within the garment value chain interact. The chapter also deals in
greater depth with how the MFA fostered textiles and clothing industries in different
countries. The value chain is changing: increasingly, the buyers have been passing down
certain functions to the manufacturers, including transport of the goods to market,
designing, and quality control.
changes.
Manufacturers in Madagascar must deal with these
The analysis of connections between designers, brands, manufacturers,
3
suppliers, and retail stores, called global value chain analysis, is the theoretical framework
of this paper.
To understand why Madagascar’s clothing and textile has grown significantly in
the past decade, one must understand special and differential treatment (SDT). Special
and differential treatment concerns special trade preferences granted to countries beyond
the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It
is special trade preferences, in particular the African Growth and Opportunity Act
(AGOA) and the Africa, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) or Cotonou Agreement, that made
Madagascar attractive to foreign investment. Chapter 4 discusses the developmental
implications and limitations of SDT.
Chapter 5 sets the context of the industry within Madagascar and sub-Saharan
Africa. This chapter discusses the textile and clothing industry in sub-Saharan Africa as a
whole, followed by an in-depth look at the past and present economic conditions in
Madagascar. The country has experienced a political crisis, a sharp devaluation of its
currency, as well as a change in currencies, all within the past three years. Chapter 5 also
reviews the state of infrastructure, i.e. electricity, transport, which affects manufacturers’
production. Cotton production and the possibility of an integrated garment chain (i.e.
cotton to yarn to fabric to garment) within Madagascar are also examined.
Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the main findings of the field research in Madagascar.
This chapter provides a detailed look at the industry, its key characteristics, its main
products, and its main markets of destination. Chapter 6 discusses the challenges that
manufacturers have faced, as well as the general and specific upgrading strategies they
have undertaken to overcome these challenges.
4
Chapter 2 : Methodology
There is currently a dearth of information available on apparel firms in
Madagascar. Besides general trade data, there is little information available on firms in
Madagascar, including date of establishment, main products produced, raw material
suppliers, and export market. Due to the political crisis Madagascar experienced in 2002,
normal data collection within the various ministries on industry in general was interrupted;
most of the information currently available was collected before 2002. In addition, any
information collected recently is rarely published rapidly. Thus, it was necessary to find
out the current situation of the firms in the industry through fieldwork in the form of
interviews with key informants in the industry.
2.1
Quantitative Research
Although the bulk of the research was qualitative, some quantitative research was
undertaken. The quantitative data for this project mainly consists of data on Madagascar’s
exports of clothing, textiles and cotton, obtained from the United States International
Trade Commission (USITC) and the European Union databases, in particular
COMTRADE. Although US data is up-to-date and published monthly, EU data lags
behind, with 2003 the last year that complete data is available at the time of writing.
2.2
Qualitative Research
The qualitative research fieldwork for this study was undertaken during a three-
week period in April 2005. The main qualitative research approach was via interviews
with key informants. Timing of the fieldwork was particularly important. Fieldwork had
to be done at least three months after the end of the MFA in order to pick up on any
possible effects. Firms are also usually closed during December and January, and are
quite busy during the months of June, July and August preparing for the Christmas buying
season. Thus, April was an ideal time to complete the fieldwork.
The bulk of the interviews were with firm managing directors or similarly
qualified or knowledgeable personnel. Government, industry, and association officials
were also interviewed. A total of 35 interviews were conducted. Table 2.1 breaks down
the list of key informants interviewed.
5
Table 2.1: List of Interview Respondents
Respondents
No. of Interviewees
Clothing firms in Tana & Antsirabe
21
Government officials
3
Key Informant Firms
3
QC/QA agencies
2
Industry Associations
2
Clustering Organization
1
Cotton growers’ association
1
Textile plant 1
1
Transport Association
1
Total
35
Those interviewed were asked their opinions on the current situation of the industry, the
end of the MFA, and the future. Two structured interview schedule were used: one for
firms, and a second for government, firms, and general industry informants (See
Appendix).
Firm Selection
The most important part of the fieldwork was the firm interviews. Firm selection
was based on a number of different criteria. Only Export Processing Zone (EPZ) firms
were chosen; the purpose of this study is to analyze how Madagascar competes globally.
Common law firms were not included as very few export.
When choosing firms to interview, it was important to consider to what market
destination the firms exported. The two major markets, the US and the EU, are quite
different, and firms will follow different strategies to access these different markets
(Gibbon 2002 and 2003). Gibbon (2002) found in Mauritius that apparel firms exported
either to the United States or to the European Union because buyers’ requirements were
different depending on the market. For example, orders for the US market are generally
larger (absorbing 30-100% of a firm’s capacity), contracts are stricter and quality
requirements are higher (Table 2.2). For the EU market however, orders are generally
smaller (10-15% of capacity), with more flexibility in contracts and negotiable quality
requirements. The strategies used by the firms directed to the US market might thus be
different from those directed at the EU market.
1
However, three firms interviewed are vertically integrated
6
Table 2.2: US & EU Clothing Value Chain Governance Structures
Level of externalization of functions
to suppliers
Basis of supplier certification
Nature of product specification and
QC system
Nature of critical path reporting
Procedure for resolving contractual
differences
Level of suppliers’ capacity typically
occupied
US-destined
EU-destined
Lower
Higher
Process + product
Detailed,
specified
unilaterally
Frequent, detailed
Bureaucratic
Functional + product
Less detailed, negotiated
Less frequent, less detailed
Informal
30-100%
10-15%
(from Gibbon 2003, 1813)
Consequently, it was important to ensure that firms that export to both markets were
represented in the sample. To ensure that both markets were represented, it was important
to know the nationality of the firm; nationality can act as a proxy for market destination
(Gibbon 2002 and 2003). Gibbon (2002 and 2003) found that in the South African and
Mauritian clothing industries, it is generally the Asian-owned firms that export to the US,
while those firms that export to the EU were locally-owned. Thus, it was important to
ensure that the different nationalities were represented in our sample.
A list of all the textile and clothing firms and their nationality (determined by the
nationality of the majority of the shareholders or the nationality of the parent company) in
Madagascar was obtained from the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and the Development of
the Private Sector (MICDSP) as well as from a directory of members of the GEFP 2 . The
total population was determined as being 118 firms. From this population, I drew a
sample of a minimum of 20 firms from different nationalities. Firms were chosen by
nationality and in the proportion to the total number of exporting firms. A total of 21
firms were interviewed (Table 2.3). An additional three firms were interviewed, but not
enough information was obtained from the interviews to consider them full interviews.
Table 2.3: Nationalities of Clothing and Textile Firms in Madagascar
Nationality
Groups
#
of
each
nationality
Proportion
nationality
Asian
EU
Malagasy
Mauritian
American
Tunisian
Unknown origin
Total
30
28
16
17
4
1
22
118
25%
24%
13.5%
14%
3%
1%
19%
100%
2
by
# of firms to
interview
# of firms actually
interviewed
5
4.6
2.7
2.8
0.6
0.16
3.7
19.56
8
4
5
2
2
0
0
21
Groupement des enterprises franches et partenaires – Association of Free Zone Enterprises and Partners.
7
The firms interviewed fall roughly along the breakdown that was initially laid out.
Although it looks like no firms of unknown origin were interviewed, as firms were
identified as one nationality or another, they were placed in the appropriate groups.
All
key informants interviewed, including firm managers, government officials and other
industry informants, were assigned a random number between 1 and 98. Each firm
interviewed was assigned a random letter of the alphabet.
There were a few problems with the list provided by MICDSP. As shown in Table
2.3, 19% of the firms were of unknown origin. Also, the contact information was often
incorrect and obtaining a telephone number was a difficult task.
The second major criterion by which firms were chosen was number of employees.
The firms within the different nationality groups that had the largest number of employees
were selected, due to the greater economic impact a closure of the largest firms would
have on the country’s economy. In total, the firms interviewed represent 35% of total
employment in Madagascar, even though only 17% of the firms in Madagascar were
interviewed.
The interview schedules and questionnaires, along with an introductory letter were
translated into French. Most of the people interviewed were French-speaking, with four
interviews conducted in English. Language became an important barrier to overcome.
Regularly, the secretaries who acted as gatekeepers to the managers with whom we wished
to speak did not speak French or English: it was often necessary to have a Malagasy
speaker for initial contact. A Malagasy speaker was also key when obtaining directions,
as there are no current maps or street signs in Antananarivo, and finding factories can
prove an arduous task. Levels of success for obtaining interviews varied; many managers
had recently been interviewed for other research projects and declined to be interviewed
for this project.
Despite the difficulties encountered during the field research, a relatively large
sample of firms and other key informants was obtained. Whether or not the sample here is
representative of the current realities facing firms in Madagascar is unknown, but the
biggest issues were discussed, and patterns started to emerge from the interviewees’
responses. The findings from the fieldwork can be found in Chapter 6.
8
Chapter 3 : Theoretical Background: Global Value Chain
Analysis
Globalization is a force that has changed the way that people buy, travel, and work.
During the course of a typical day, a person in the United States, for example, eats a
tomato from Mexico, wears a pair of pants made in China, a pair of shoes made in
Thailand, and discusses business with people in India, Malaysia or Brazil. The apparel
industry has also become globalised, with many countries specializing in cotton growing,
yarn and fabric production, assembly, and design. Thus, for example, a shirt is designed
in Hong Kong and made of cotton from India, which is turned into fabric in China, then
cut and assembled in Honduras. The shirt would then be sold in a retail store in the United
States or Europe.
The textile and clothing industry is seen as a classic engine of industrial growth for
many developing countries (Morris et al, forthcoming). According to Gereffi (1999),
Japan, Korea, and China have industrialized via a base in the apparel industry, which acted
as the first step up the industrialization ladder. Now these countries have moved on to
make more complex consumer goods like consumer electronics and automobiles.
Developing countries are likely to use the apparel industry to industrialise because of the
initial low barriers to entry: low set-up costs for factories, low wages, and low skills
requirements, in conjunction with high absorption of labour (Nadvi and Thoburn 2004).
Thus, textiles and clothing account for “a significant share of manufacturing employment
and value-added in many development countries” (Nadvi and Thoburn 2004, 111).
Although the initial barriers to production are quite easy to overcome, the entry barriers
become progressively higher when moving upstream to textiles and fibre production, or
downstream in the form of brand-names and stores (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003).
Lesser-developed countries are stranded at the low end as they do not have the resources
to move up the chain.
The theoretical framework used to analyze linkages within the textile and clothing
industry is called value chain research. Value chain research analyzes the relationships
between cotton producers, buyers, fabric makers, retailers, and assemblers in countries
around the world. Through value chain analysis, policymakers and researchers understand
who the different actors are in the value chain and the linkages that bind them together to
create a chain (Sturgeon 2001). The essence of value chain research is “the division of
9
labour between the different actors in a chain and the nature of the network linkage itself:
its connection mechanism, governance style, power dynamics and geographic reach”
(Sturgeon 2001, 10). Such analysis provides producers with an understanding of their
position within the chain, pressures on that position, and can inform manufacturers of
possibilities of upgrading their positions. The apparel value chain itself has been the focus
of much research (Gereffi 1999, Gibbon 2004, Nadvi and Thoburn 2004, Kaplinsky 2000,
McCormick and Schmitz 2002).
This chapter will discuss value chains in general,
including a discussion on governance and upgrading within the apparel value chain and
apply it to Madagascar’s situation. By using a value chain framework, one can better
understand the current state of and future possibilities for the industry in Madagascar. In
order to understand the nature of the apparel industry in Madagascar, one must understand
what place Madagascar fills in the apparel value chain and how buyers and producers see
developing countries in general. The value chain framework can show how best an
emerging economy like Madagascar can best fit into the apparel value chain.
3.1
International Context of Textiles and Clothing: Value Chains
Value chain research guides manufacturers and researchers in understanding how
different actors fit into the global apparel value chain. Distinguishing what role each actor
plays, how precarious or stable that role is, and what policies would stabilize or improve
that role is the essence of value chain research.
Using this value chain analysis
framework, producers can better understand the constraints on their part of the value
chain. Kaplinsky and Morris (2001) provide a more comprehensive definition of a value
chain:
A value chain describes the full range of activities which are required to bring
a product or service from conception through the intermediary phases of
production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the input
of various producer services), delivery to final consumers and final disposal
after use (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001, 4).
The term value chain was adopted over other possibilities as it best encompasses the full
range of possible chain activities and end products (Gereffi et al 2001, 3).
Two other
similar terms often used are supply chains or production networks. Although similar in
concept, as analytical tools these terms do not encompass the range of activities that the
term value chain does. Power relationships and governances issues are not as central of a
focus. Nor does the term commodity chain work because the use of the term ‘commodity’
“implies the production of undifferentiated products in processes with low barriers to
10
entry” (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001, 29). For producers to achieve sustainable income
growth, they must differentiate themselves in a non-commodity way.
Value chain
research highlights the value-added to each stage of the production process, and who
controls the rents derived from the production process (Sturgeon 2001).
Figure 3.1
illustrates the basic activities encompassed by a value chain and the general
communication and product flows.
Figure 3.1: A Simple Value Chain 3
Value chain analysis is vital when looking at industries in developing countries.
Kaplinsky and Morris (2001) lay out five reasons for value chain analysis. First, it allows
for a global vision of the industry by discussing the nature and determinants of
competitiveness, allowing the researcher to analyze from the level of the individual firm to
the level of groups of interconnected firms. Second, value chain analysis concentrates on
the nature of the rents derived from each activity by analyzing the nature of the links
within the chain and all the activities (i.e. physical transformation) within that link. Third,
by focusing on the nature of the returns, policymakers and researchers can create a policy
strategy to support the parts of the chain that can earn the most rent, help firms upgrade to
generate higher returns, or protect vital parts of the chain from competition. Fourth, value
chain analysis shows how a factory is connected to the global economy. Government and
researchers can then decide if different macroeconomic policies and institutional linkages
can benefit industry while also illustrating the different set of policy responses needed for
firm-level competitiveness. Finally, value chain analysis acknowledges that participating
in global markets, however competitive at a single point in time, may not provide for
sustained income growth over time. “By focusing on the trajectory which participation in
3
from Kaplinsky and Morris 2001, 4
11
global markets involves, value chain analysis allows for an understanding of the dynamic
determinants of income distribution” (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001, 26).
It is not just the characteristics of a firm that determine competitiveness on the
global scale. Buyers, or end-retailers, can choose from any number of producers that all
provide the same price and quality standards. Buyers choose their manufacturers not only
on production process but also location, distance to market, and trade preferences. The
trade policies of final markets play a dominant role in sourcing decision-making. Buyers
make the strategic decision to source from or construct factories in countries that have
duty and quota-free access to the major markets via trade preferences (Kaplinsky and
Morris 2001).
One of the major trade policies that have affected the clothing and textile value
chain is the Multifibre Arrangement (MFA) that dates from the 1960s. Although the
original intent was to protect developed countries’ textile and clothing industries and jobs
from cheaper imports, the end result was quite different. “Protectionism heightened the
competitive capabilities of developing country manufacturers, who learned to make
sophisticated products that were more profitable than simple ones” (Gereffi 1999, 51).
Protectionism by the industrialized nations also increased the number of countries
producing clothing, as the more manufacturers were needed to satisfy growing US and
European demand (Gereffi 1999). Industries are not only affected by internal influences,
but also by external ones. Two additional trade regimes that have affected industry in
Africa specifically and encourage manufacturers to set up there are the US African
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), and the EU Cotonou Agreement. Both of these
sets of trade preferences allow for duty-free access under certain conditions to the US and
EU markets. These are discussed in greater depth in the next chapter.
Value chain analysis examines the entire cycle of production, including access to
final markets and the participation of particular groups in the value chain and its effects
(Kaplinsky and Morris 2001). The MFA quota system, a factor from outside the chain,
restricted access to the final market. Although not the original intention of the quota
system, developing countries benefited from the quotas. Given the opportunity under the
protectionism of the MFA quota system, manufacturers in Japan, Hong Kong, and Korea
shifted some or all of their production offshore to factories in other countries, for example,
China, Bangladesh, and Cambodia (Figure 3.2). The factories in other countries were
either wholly owned subsidiaries of the parent companies in Japan, Korea or Hong Kong,
or just independent manufacturers. These associated manufacturers produced for the
12
buyer in the US or the EU, exporting under the US import quotas, but received their orders
from the parent company in Asia. At the same time, the parent companies maintained
their relationships with their buyers from the US or Europe (Gereffi 1999). The term for
this relationship between the buyer in the US or the EU, the parent company in Asia, and
the manufacturer, is called ‘triangular manufacturing.’ The result of this outsourcing of
production, and continuous search for more countries with un-mined quotas is that
manufacturers eventually came to Madagascar as set up shop. The MFA was fundamental
in the growth of the textile and clothing industry in Madagascar.
Figure 3.2: Triangular Manufacturing
1. End retailer sends
order to Asia
Intermediary in
Asia
End
Retailer
2. Intermediary
outsources to
manufacturer
3. Manufacturer
sends final
product to retailer
Manufacturer in Asia, Latin
America, Africa, etc.
3.2
Characteristics of the Apparel Value Chain
The apparel global value chain has characteristics that distinguish it from other
value chains. It is important to understand the different stages along the apparel value
chain in order to understand the different functions that each step entails, and the different
actors involved. Figure 3.3 illustrates in detail the different stages in the apparel value
chain. There are many different steps and actors involved in the process of making
garments, as well as the inputs added at each stage.
Figure 3.3 shows the overall
processes involved in garment production, but not necessarily the relationships between
the actors. For example, sometimes manufacturers seek out fabric and accessories to use
in their factories, other times it is the buyer who manages that part of the process.
13
Figure 3.3: The Textile and Clothing Value Chain 4
Inputs
Seeds
•
Fibres
Natural
cotton/wool/ramie
Man-made - synthetic
(polyester/ nylon,
acrylic); artificial
(rayon/acetate)
•
•
Yarns
Spun – cotton/wool
Filament – manmade
fibres/silk
•
•
•
•
Fabrics
Woven
Knit
Nonwoven
Industrial fabrics
•
Chemicals
Machinery,
energy and
services
Design
Components
Branding
and
advertising
Conversion and assembly
• Apparel
• Home textiles
• Carpets and rugs
• Other
made-ups
(luggage/ tents/bags,
etc.)
•
•
•
•
Buyers
Mass retailers
Brands retailers
Brand manufacturers
Industrial users
•
•
•
Multiples
Speciality/limited outlets
Direct/www-sales
L
o
g
i
s
t
i
c
s
a
n
d
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
Retailers
Final consumers
As mentioned above in regards to triangular manufacturing, sometimes there is no
direct link between the buyers and producers. Some buyers use intermediaries or buying
agents who fill the orders. Li & Fung and Mast Industries for example, are intermediaries
contracted by buyers to manage the sourcing of orders and quality control. Sometimes
4
From Kaplinsky 2005.
14
these intermediaries have design capabilities. For Madagascar, the intermediaries provide
a valuable connection for producers in Madagascar, as it is them who decide whether or
not to source from Madagascar.
The term ‘buyers’ is rather nebulous; researchers use the term to describe a wide
variety of entities. There is no typical ‘buyer’ per se, but rather a range of buyers both in
type and function. The different types of buyers depend on what position they have in the
market. Gereffi (1994) as quoted in McCormick and Schmitz (2002) identifies five
different types of buyers.
High fashion companies produce expensive, high quality
designer clothes and source their clothes from Europe and Asia. Department stores,
branded merchandisers and speciality stores also demand high quality clothes, but are
also interested in fast delivery. Mass merchandisers sell medium-priced, medium-quality
goods, sourcing from low-end producers in Asia. Discount chains place huge orders for
low-price, basic goods, sourcing from low-cost suppliers, often working through
intermediaries. Finally, boutiques and small importers directly source from different
countries, serving as ‘industry scouts’ according to Gereffi (1994) looking for new
countries from which to source.
3.3
Governance and Upgrading in Value Chains
Governance and upgrading are two key elements of value chain research.
Governance of the value chain describes the sets of relationships that connect producers
and buyers. Upgrading is the learning process by which manufacturers innovate. There
are three types of upgrading: processes, product and function. Upgrading, according to
Kaplinsky and Morris (2001), must be placed in context of competition: upgrading is
innovation relative to the competition. One must innovate or upgrade faster than the
competition to avoid a decreasing market share and declining value-added. Both of these
ideas are discussed in greater detail below.
3.3.1 Governance
The concept of governance of a global value chain is central to the value chain
approach. Governance is non-market coordination of economic activity; i.e. some firms
within a chain set or enforce the parameters under which others in the chain operate
(Humphrey and Schmitz 2001 and Gereffi et al 2001). Governance is essential to the
value chain approach as without it, relationships would be nothing “more than a string of
market relations” (Humphrey and Schmitz 2001, 20). Governance within value chains
explains how “some firms directly or indirectly influence the organisation of global
15
production, logistics and marketing systems” (Gereffi et al 2001, 4). For developing
countries, it is these firms that determine their survival or not. It is these ‘lead’ firms and
the decisions they make that determine how developing countries can access international
markets and what activities are available to producers in developing countries. Lead firms
are considered as such because they have access to major resources including “product
design, new technologies, brand names or consumer demand, that generate the most
profitable returns” (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003, 4).
Value chains are either “producer-driven” chains or “buyer-driven” chains in terms
of governance. Table 3.1 illustrates the key characteristics of both types of chains. With
producer-driven value chains, it is usually large trans-national manufacturers that
coordinate the production networks, including their backward and forward linkages.
Producer-driven industries are capital and technology-intensive and include automobiles,
aircraft, and heavy machinery (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003). With buyer-driven value
chains, the buyers coordinate the production. Retailers and branded manufacturers are the
drivers in a buyer-driven chain, generally directing a decentralized production network in
several different countries, usually developing ones. Typical buyer-driven industries are
apparel, toys, and footwear.
Rarely do the buyers in a buyer-driven chain involve
themselves in the production process. Dealing instead with the design and retailing
aspects of the product, buyers are what Gereffi and Memedovic (2003) characterize as
‘manufacturers without factories.’
16
Table 3.1: Producer-driven versus Buyer-Driven Value Chains 5
The main difference between the two types of governance is the point from which each
directs production. “Large manufacturers exercise control on the producer-driven value
chains from the point of production, while marketers and merchandisers exercise leverage
in buyer-driven value chains at the design and retail stages” (Gereffi and Memedovic
2003, 3). In buyer-driven chains on the other hand, the leading firms are not involved in
manufacturing, but control the highest value-added segments of the chain. Unlike other
value chains, the clothing chain is dominated by brand-name companies like The Gap or
Levi’s who do not own production facilities themselves. They dictate everything to
manufacturers from designs, styles, and colours, to fabric and prints (McCormick 2001).
Another difference between producer- and buyer-driven value chains is from
where rent in the chain derives (Gereffi 1999). Rent is not value creation alone. “Rent
arises in the case of differential production of factors (entrepreneurship, education,
infrastructure), and barriers to entry that create scarcity. Rents are dynamic and erode in
the fact of competition” (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001, 27). In producer-driven value
chains, rent is gained through scale, volume and technological advances, whilst buyerdriven chains obtain their profit from “unique combinations of high-value research, design
5
Source: Gereffi 1999.
17
sales, marketing and financial services,” that place the retailers and branded marketers as
brokers linking factories around the world with consumer markets (Gereffi 1999, 43).
Most of these retailers and branded marketers are based in the United States and the
European Union, and have considerable control over how, when and where manufacturing
will take place, and how much profit accrues at each stage (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003).
For developing countries such as Madagascar whose industry focuses mostly on
manufacturing, this means that most profit is derived from functions realized elsewhere.
An example of governance in the value chain is that of British supermarkets and
the control buyers exercise over their production networks for fresh vegetables, including
specifying the products they want to buy and the type of quality system that needs to be in
place (Humphrey and Schmitz, 2001). The clothing value chain functions in much the
same way, with the end-retailer specifying quality criteria.
However, buyers’
requirements are not uniform: in the clothing value chain, buyers have ways of doing
business. It depends, according to Gibbon (2004) on the end-market the buyer represents.
Gibbon (2004) argues that there are two different governance structures depending on
whether the end-buyer is from the EU or the US. US buyers were stricter with the type of
role a manufacturer could play: US buyers generally wanted assemblers who can produce
large volumes on time. US buyers were more demanding in terms of production capacity
and specifications. EU buyers, however, were seen as being more flexible, and as giving
more control over to the manufacturer (Gibbon 2004).
Governance also determines whether or not a learning exchange can take place
between the buyer and the manufacturer,
In the case of the apparel industry, the US or
EU buyers. Depending on the type of buyer/manufacturer relationship, manufacturers can
learn from the buyer how to improve production, quality control, or manufacturing
processes. This process of learning, be it from the buyer or not, is part of upgrading.
3.3.2 Upgrading
A key capability to ensure sustained income growth is the capacity to innovate or
upgrade. Upgrading can take place within a firm and also within a value chain, i.e.
changing the distribution of intra-chain activities.
Firms upgrade to adapt to new
conditions within the apparel value chain. There are three types of upgrading for apparel
firms: process, product, and functional (Kaplinsky and Morris 2001). Upgrading is a way
18
for firms to survive in the highly competitive apparel industry where factories are
footloose and buyers move their orders to another country.
Upgrading is a way for developing countries to avoid immiserising growth, or
growth when total output increases, but income does not increase (Kaplinsky and Morris
2001). For example, Brazil’s exports of shoes rose during the 1970s and the 1980s, but
wages were stagnant, and fell over the 1990s by approximately 40% in real terms
(Kaplinsky 2000). In order not to fall into the immiserising growth trap, manufacturers
must ensure that the returns to activities increase.
Kaplinsky and Morris (2001) detail several different ways of firms can upgrade
within the apparel value chain. These include process, product, or functional upgrading.
With process upgrading, firms improve their manufacturing processes to produce more
products at a cheaper price. For example, a firm can upgrade by rearranging the factory
floor to make it more efficient. Firms can product upgrade by offering a higher quality
product or by manufacturing a product that has a higher value. Functional upgrading
involves a firm acquire new functions within the chain; for instance moving from just
manufacturing forward to designing, branding or marketing or backward to acquiring
control over raw materials. Gereffi et al (2001), add a fourth type of upgrading: network
upgrading where by a firm diversifies their buyer-supplier linkages within a value chain.
“For instance, an apparel maker could add different kinds of lead firms such as an upscale
retailer or brand-name client to expand or raise the price points of its orders” (Gereffi et al
2001, 5).
Value chain organization has changed over the years: ‘lead’ firms have changed
what they have direct control over, focusing more on product development and market,
while outsourcing production and production-related functions to suppliers.
Some
suppliers are taking care of a variety of different functions for several different lead firms,
increasing the economies of scale. This shift is occurring due to the “rising costs of brand
development (product development, marketing and advertising)” (Gereffi et al 2001, 6).
Gereffi and Memedovic (2003) argue that when apparel firms upgrade, it is mostly
by shifting from performing basic assembly operations to providing ‘full-package’
production, a type of functional upgrading. While assembly operations rely on buyers to
provide all the raw materials which they assemble, suppliers that adopt ‘full package’
functions change the nature of their relationship with the buyer. Full package supply
means that the buyer’s role is minimized. The buyer provides the brand name and maybe
the design; full package suppliers handle the raw materials, assembly, quality control, and
19
transport. “Full-package supply . . . giv[es] far greater control, autonomy and learning
potential for industrial upgrading to the supplying firm” (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003,
31).
Buyers are essentially outsourcing functions they previously performed to
manufacturers.
3.4
New trends in the apparel value chain
The apparel industry is a very different industry from what it was two or three
decades ago. Just-in-time retailing, low inventories and the need for quick turnaround
times have changed how orders are placed and types of goods offered. Manufacturers
have been greatly affected by these changes; manufacturers must have different
competencies, with competitiveness no longer determined by price alone. McCormick
and Schmitz (2002) explain how garment retailing has changed and how these changes
have affected producers and workers. There have been two major changes in the past few
decades in apparel retailing McCormick and Schmitz (2002). First, no longer do retailers
keep huge stocks, practise what the authors have called ‘just-in-case’ retailing, but instead
keep low inventories and practise ‘just-in-time’ ordering.
Second, fashion has changed in two ways. Retailers now have more seasons and
shorter runs in those seasons (McCormick and Schmitz 2002). Initially, retailers would
buy products based on the previous year’s sales and make large orders with enough stock
to last for the entire season. Large amounts of retailers’ money were tied up in inventory
costs. Small, special orders were avoided because they incurred higher transportation and
management costs. The apparel industry of today, however, is quite different. Lean
retailing is now the norm, as retailers have been forced to deal with an increasingly
competitive global apparel market. No longer do buyers place large orders in advance
(McCormick and Schmitz 2002).
Just-in-time retailing is key, as retailers have the
software available to keep track of how well a certain product is selling and can order
more. A major retailer in Europe, Zara, is the model for lean retailing, being able to
design, produce and deliver new clothes in one month. Zara operates on three principles:
shorter lead times, meaning more fashionable clothes; smaller orders, meaning scarce
supply; and more styles, meaning more choice and an increase in purchases by the
consumer (Dutta 2002).
McCormick and Schmitz (2002) also discuss the changes in fashion itself. Instead
of the four typical seasons of clothing, retailers are more likely to have six or eight. There
20
are constant product changes, and production-line workers must be able to adapt. In
addition, retailers now offer two distinct types of products, core goods and fashion goods.
Core goods are goods that retailers offer each year like basic t-shirts, jeans, and socks that
have longer life spans. Fashion goods are most time-dependent, with many changes
throughout the year. Fashion clothing tends to be women’s dresses, sweaters and blouses
(McCormick and Schmitz 2002)
These changes have had important consequences for manufacturers. Clothes have
a shelf-life: they are now time-dependent products. As just-in-time production has grown
in significance, producers have felt increasing pressure to speed up their production times.
“Manufacturers who can deliver quickly are likely to get the order” (McCormick and
Schmitz 2002, 57). Madagascar’s manufacturers mainly make core goods, which are not
as affected by this need for speed to market. However, manufacturers in Madagascar face
particularly long lead-times, and the range of goods they can produce is limited as high
fashion, time-dependent goods are unlikely to be produced there.
3.5
Globalization within the apparel industry
The apparel industry has become increasingly globalised. For example, in 1992
49% of apparel sold in the US was made in the US. By 1999, only 12% was ‘made in the
USA’ (Gereffi and Memedovic 2003). Major suppliers to the US market are Central and
North America (30%), East Asia (25%), and South East Asia (12%) (Gereffi 1999). “The
textile and clothing value chain is particularly suited to global production networks as
most products can be exported at each stage of the chain” (Morris et al, forthcoming 2).
India, Egypt and Pakistan have become centres for cotton production, for example, with
China and India being the most important fabric producers. Assembly production is
spread throughout the world, with the main centre being Asia. Sourcing agents based in
Hong Kong and Singapore, for example, control where the fabric is bought and by which
manufacturer the garment is made. Retailers based in the EU or the US sell the finished
garments. Thus, the manufacturing and retailing of a piece of clothing could involve
several different countries.
Despite the increasingly globalisation and spread of the industry, due to the quick
turnaround times needed for the garment industry, having access to all the materials
necessary for garment production is becoming an important advantage. A vertically
integrated industry, or one where more steps of the value chain from spinning through to
garment production is located in one country, saves valuable time and allows producers to
21
send products to market faster. As the textile industry is more capital-intensive, most
lesser-developed countries do not have the resources to vertically integrate.
The nature of competition in the apparel industry has also changed. No longer
does a factory compete with one that is down the road, but with one that is across an
ocean. Developing countries producing textiles and clothing are competing against other
developing countries, like China and India. China’s exports of clothing have already
increased to approximately a quarter of the world total since it joined the WTO in 2001
(de Jonquieres 2004). Asian countries have a number of advantages in clothing and
textiles. China and other Asian countries have available at easy reach cheap, high-quality
fabric, produced in Asia (Robbins et al 2004). China has the ability to produce a growing
range of items, and has improved its capacity in order to overcome barriers of
international quality standards. Worse for producers in sub-Saharan African countries is
that prices of Asian-produced garments are declining, while exports are growing. China’s
share of the US textiles and apparel market, which was about 22% in 2003, is expected to
increase to between 65% and 75% after quotas are removed (ATMI 2003). Despite such
dire warnings, China does not yet control everything.
3.6
Conclusion: Implications for Madagascar in the Value Chain
The main position factories in Madagascar fill in the value chain is as an assembler.
Manufacturers’ design capabilities are limited. But moving upstream along the value
chain from assembly, Madagascar does have textile and clothing production in country.
There are two knitting factories as well as a woven textile mill, and accessory suppliers.
The policy implications of value chain research determine how emerging economies
can best fit into a value chain (Gereffi et al 2001, 5). Many developing countries rely on
just a few industries for their export earnings, which is not a diversified enough base to
deal with their precarious position. Knowing that different activities along the value chain
acquire different rents, we need to find out what functions the firms in Madagascar are
performing and whether or not they are involved in the race to the bottom, or have started
to involved themselves in different activities to garner more rent.
The picture of
Madagascar in the literature is not very nuanced. Madagascar is for the most part an
assembler. Its design capabilities are limited. But were Madagascar to try to move
upstream along the value chain from assembly, the country already has some textile
production in-country. There are two knitting factories as well as a woven textile mill,
and accessory suppliers. Upstream integration is an idea explored later in this thesis.
22
Value chain research can be applied to Madagascar by figuring out what role
Madagascar’s clothing and textile firms have taken in the value chain, what are their
strengths and weakness, and what policies can be implemented to cement Madagascar’s
place in the value chain. These questions were asked, and the results are discussed in
Chapter 6 on the findings from the field research.
23
Chapter 4 : Special and Differential Treatment
Special and differential treatment (SDT) has played a central role in the
development of the clothing industry in Madagascar. Through differential trade regimes,
Madagascar has duty-free access to the US and the EU markets. It is this duty-free access
advantage under the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) program and the EU
Cotonou Agreement or ACP (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific countries) program, combined
with its quota allotment under the Multifibre Arrangement that made Madagascar
attractive to foreign investment in the clothing industry. Unfortunately, duty-free access is
not a fixed advantage. The United States and the European Union are offering similar
duty-free benefits to more countries. This chapter briefly discusses the political economy
of SDT. Madagascar is dependent upon certain benefits offered by the two major markets,
thus this chapter also discusses the future development implications of AGOA and ACP
benefits.
4.1
Basics of SDT: the Political Economy of SDT
The development of SDT came at the end of a long debate on the role of trade
preferences in growth and development in lesser-developed countries (Whalley 1999).
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the laws governing trade, were
believed to discriminate to an extent against the needs of developing countries. The
GATT mainly covered industrial products, which most developing countries at the time
did not produce. Two results grew out of this debate. First, a United Nations body
dedicated to trade issues was formed, called the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD). Second, the enabling clause was added to the GATT, allowing
for special and differential treatment towards developing countries in regards to trade
preferences. SDT, according to Stevens (2003) can include exemptions for environmental
and labour laws, for example.
For this thesis, however, SDT is limited to trade
preferences, i.e. the granting of special, usually duty-free, access to developed country
markets.
SDT has two benefits. First, SDT enhances “the market access conditions facing
beneficiary countries, and [second] exempt[s] them from certain multilateral trade
disciplines, thus giving beneficiary countries some flexibility in the use of various trade
and trade-related measures”(Oyejide 2002, 504). Developing countries are expected to
24
use SDT to expand the market for their goods via the enhanced market conditions.
Flexible trade arrangements mean developing countries would not need to make “trade
concessions which are incompatible with their development needs” (Coote 1996, 107), i.e.
opening up their markets when it is not in their best interests to do so.
4.1.1 Benefits and Shortcomings of SDT
Special and differential trade programmes aim to integrate developing countries into
the world trading regime and lead to sustained growth. Special trade arrangements have
the possibility of providing a boost to the exports of low-income countries that would
otherwise have little opportunity to increase exports. For example, conservative estimates
of the benefits of the US AGOA program show that Africa’s non-oil exports could be
raised 8–11 percent (Mattoo et al 2002).
However, SDT has several shortcomings.
First, SDT agreements are generally
limited to specific periods of time without taking into account how long of a period is
required to create a stable and reliable basis for investment within a beneficiary country.
Factories and infrastructure are not created overnight; it is difficult to entice investors
when the time period of the benefits is limited, which shortens the amortisation period of
the investment (Oyejide 2002). AGOA aims to foster clothing industries with backwards
linkages by requiring the use of sub-Saharan African fabrics. However, benefits at the
initial signing of AGOA were available only until 2008. It usually takes a minimum of
two years to recoup investment on a clothing factory (Key Informant 71). The time period
in most trade agreements is chosen arbitrarily; there is no benchmarking on trade
preferences to ensure that countries have reached their full potential (Oyejide 2002).
Not only is time a factor for investors, but so is consistency. Special treatment may
be withdrawn at any time for a number of reasons as such agreements are not subject to
WTO discipline.
This can deter potential entrepreneurs from making the necessary
investments. Panagariya (2002) cites an example of US fruit producers lobbying the Bush
administration for protection from South African pear producers. To protect relatively
few American jobs, preferences were revoked for canned South African pears. It is
difficult to encourage investors to invest if preferences can be revoked easily.
In addition, trade preferences are ‘eroding assets’. The WTO requires its members
to reduce their tariffs over time, decreasing the margins by which developing countries
have preference (Stevens 2003). Preferential trade treatment between countries or regions
can also be eroded. For example, the United States has AGOA preferences for sub-
25
Saharan African countries, but has just awarded similar preferences to Central American
countries.
There is also the fear that one set of developing countries is profiting at the expense
of another (Panagariya 2002). Foreign investors in Madagascar came from somewhere
else, more than likely another developing country. By giving preferences to one country,
another might be disadvantaged.
Gibbon (2002) criticizes preferential treatment for its lack of nuance on a structural
and institutional level in understanding what the capabilities for developing countries are
and what they can supply and what developed countries will receive.
Developing
countries face different development challenges, so the preferences awarded to them
should be tailored to their needs to be truly effective, rather than be blanket agreements.
Stevens (2003) concurs, believing that a “one size fits all’ approach may not be
appropriate or effective for all countries.
Given these shortcomings, below is a discussion of the SDT that affects Madagascar,
mainly AGOA and EBA. Although Madagascar qualifies for GSP for both the US and the
EU, textiles and clothing are only address under AGOA and EBA/ACP. The implication
for Madagascar is that the country should not base their ability to compete solely on trade
preferences. The next sections deal in greater depth the two major preference schemes.
4.2
Generalized System of Preferences (GSP)
The main instrument for trade preferences is the principle of a generalized system of
preference (GSP).
The GSP, the system by which industrialized countries grant
preferential treatment of zero or reduced import duties for certain products imported from
developing countries, was first negotiated at an UNCTAD conference in 1968 (Coote
1996, viii).
Each industrialized country could draw up a list of goods to be given
preference, and countries to which each would give preference. GSP schemes in theory
cover all products exported by developing countries, but many products have been
excluded due to quotas and non-tariff measures, clothing being one of those products
(Coote 1996). The GSP is offered by a developed country to a developing country in a
general fashion. No negotiating is done between countries. The GSP was intended to
“increase the export earnings of developing countries, promote their industrialization, and
accelerate their rates of growth” by giving them preferences on their manufactured and
semi-manufactured goods (Coote 1996, 108).
26
Although promising, the GSP has typically narrow product coverage, and restrictive
rules of origin. For example, although Madagascar qualifies for the GSP schemes of the
EU and the US, clothing and textiles are not among the listed products available for dutyfree export. Rules of origin requirements represent another hurdle even if a product has
duty-free status. “Rules of origin define the minimum processing that must be undertaken
locally (in the preference-receiving country) in order for a product to be deemed to be of
the economic nationality of that country” (Naumann 2005). Rules of origin can either
help or hinder trade, depending on how restrictive the rules of origin. In clothing and
textiles, rules of origin are usually based on the number of ‘transformations’ an article of
clothing goes through (i.e. yarn to fabric to garment) before entering the destination
market, or the origin of the fabric or yarn is stipulated. The rules of origin for each trade
regime are discussed in greater detail under the respective agreements.
The vast number of products covered under the GSPs offered by the most
industrialized nations does not cover some of the most important exports for developing
countries. For example, UNCTAD (2003) found that in 2001, 66% of imports from LDCs
were covered by the US, EU, Japan and Canada’s trade regimes. Although high, this still
leaves a third of LDC exports subject to quotas and tariffs, the most important of which
are textiles and clothing (UNCTAD 2003, x). This means that for a country such as
Bangladesh for which textiles and clothing made up 71% of its exports in 1997, such
continued barriers have an important effect of limiting their development potential.
4.3
The US and AGOA Preferences
The major trade regime affecting sub-Saharan Africa is by far the Africa Growth and
Opportunity Act (AGOA) offered by the United States. It is the chief initiative the United
States has towards African countries. AGOA is a super-GSP, covering 1,800 tariff lines
beyond the traditional US GSP. AGOA was signed into law under the Trade and
Development Act of 2000, with the first African countries meeting the requirements and
thus becoming eligible for duty-free access in 2001. AGOA is currently set to expire in
2015.
To be eligible for AGOA preferences, countries must meet certain eligibility criteria;
countries must not engage in activities that undermine US national security or foreign
policy interests especially in the areas of human rights and terrorism (UNCTAD 2003).
AGOA designation is conditional upon a country making progress towards a “market-
27
based economy, the rule of law and the elimination of barriers to US trade and
investment” (UNCTAD 2003, 8). Countries must also adopt a visa system to guard
against unlawful trans-shipment of goods and allow US customs inspect to verify that
goods are not being transhipped from a non-AGOA eligible country (UNCTAD 2003).
The major difference between the US’s GSP and AGOA is that textile and apparel
products are included for duty-free treatment. Otherwise, all other imports to the US from
SSA LDCs were already eligible under the GSP (UNCTAD 2003). AGOA also relaxes
the GSP rules of origin requirement by allowing for garments consisting 85% US-made
yarn and fabric to enter the US duty-free. For countries with a per capita gross domestic
product (GDP) of less than $1,500 (i.e. LDC countries) this requirement is relaxed even
further: LDC can import fabric for production from anywhere in the world (Olarreaga and
Ozden 2005).
This provision is called the third country fabric provision, which is
discussed in more detail.
Rules of Origin and the Third Country Fabric Provision
The rules of origin (ROO) for garments to qualify for AGOA duty-free access to
the US market are quite strict. ROO for the US are based on triple transformation, i.e.
cotton to yarn, yarn to fabric, fabric to garment: “Apparel articles must be made from
fabrics wholly formed and cut in the US, from yarns wholly formed in the US” (UNCTAD
2003, 21).
Alternatively, fabrics and yarns can also be bought from other AGOA
beneficiary countries, but garments made from African-made fabrics are limited to a
maximum of 3.5% of all US apparel imports (UNCTAD 2003). A beneficiary country
thus must have the entire clothing supply chain within its national or regional borders. In
the case of the clothing industry, one of the reasons for having rules of origin requirements
is to force countries to develop a local or regional textile industry.
However, the
development of a new or the expansion of the current textile industry in a country is quite
expensive as textiles are more capital intensive. To expect countries in Africa with few
resources and little expertise to develop a textile industry in a short period of time is quite
demanding given their industrial constraints.
However, AGOA’s rules of origin requirement contain an exception: the third
country fabric provision. This provision allows countries with a GDP of less than $1500
per capita, i.e. lesser-developed countries, to import from any countries textiles for
garment production (UNCTAD 2003). Of the 36 AGOA beneficiaries, all but one have
access to this provision; only South Africa does not qualify. Mauritius initially did not
28
qualify, but in 2005 was granted special dispensation by the United States for a period of
one year. The third country fabric provision was originally set to expire in 2004, but in
July 2004, was renewed until 30 September 2007. Table 4.1 shows that more than 90% of
all clothing exports from Madagascar to the United States receive duty-free treatment.
Exports qualify mainly because of the exception granted under the third country fabric
provision.
South Africa and Mauritius (Table 4.1), have lower qualifying shares of
exports due to the fact that they do not or did not have access to third country fabric.
Table 4.1: AGOA qualifying as share of total clothing exports to US, 2001 – 2003 (US$m)
Country
2001
%
2002
%
2003
%
2004
%
129.2 60.1
317.7 98.9 372.6
94.9 447.6
98.2
Lesotho
92.1 51.8
75.4 84.4 186.3
94.9 314.5
97.3
Madagascar
51.7 80.0
121.3 96.6 176.2
93.9 271.5
97.9
Kenya
38.9 16.3
106.5 41.8 135.0
50.2 147.8
65.3
Mauritius
8.2 17.1
73.7 82.7 126.9
90.2 175.6
98.3
Swaziland
30.4 17.4
85 46.9 126.6
54.5 114.7
81.2
South Africa
Source: Morris et al (forthcoming). Data source: US Department of Commerce, Otexa
A large portion of the foreign investment in AGOA beneficiaries’ clothing industries
comes from East Asian firms, who are taking advantage of the lack of rules of origin
restrictions (Olarreaga and Ozden 2005). In 2003, of all the apparel products shipped
under AGOA to the US from eligible countries, 76% were exported using third country
fabrics; only 19% of AGOA exports used local and regional fabrics (TRALAC 2004).
The provision is crucial for countries exporting to the US. Should the third country fabric
provision not be renewed in 2007, there could be consequences for manufacturers in
AGOA countries.
Sub-Saharan African countries would need to increase fabric
production for exporters in the region. Although South Africa and Mauritius do have
extra textile capacity that could be expanded, production would need to increase to meet
demand (Coughlin et al 2001). However, large investments would be needed in the textile
industry to update it enough to meet the lead times and product variety garment
manufacturers need (Coughlin et al 2001).
4.4
European Union Regimes: EBA and ACP/COTONOU
The EU maintains one-way trade preferences for 71 countries spread over Africa,
Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) regions.
Madagascar is one of these countries.
ACP
preferences originally evolved from the Treaty of Rome, which maintained a commitment
between Europe and its former colonies (Panagariya 2002).
currently fall under the Cotonou Agreement.
29
The ACP preferences
Because these preferences are neither
available to all developing countries nor restricted to just least developed countries, they
violate WTO rules and are granted waivers by other WTO members (Panagariya 2002).
The ACP program is being phased out. Under current EU proposals, ACP countries must
choose between entering into an economic partnership agreement (EPA) with the EU or
revert to preferences available under the Everything but Arms (EBA) initiative, which is
part of the European Union’s GSP.
The EBA initiative is the second trade regime for which lesser-developed countries,
including Madagascar, qualify. The EBA, enacted in 2001, stipulates that all products
from lesser-developed countries (LDCs) can enter duty free. The EBA currently does not
affect ACP countries, as according to Brenton (2003), most products exported by LDCs
already qualified for duty-free treatment under the ACP. However, the EBA will become
important in the future as the ACP is phased out.
The ACP countries are now in the process of negotiating changes to their trade
relationships with the EU. Under current EU proposals, the Cotonou Agreement will end,
and developing countries must either establish economic partnership agreements (EPAs)
with the EU and regional partners or revert to the preferences that are currently available
under the EBA (Brenton 2003). Negotiations are currently under way for an EPA between
Madagascar and the EU.
It is the ROO that determine whether products from LDCs can access the duty-free
benefits under these agreements. Duty free access to the EU is dependent upon a garment
meeting the stringent rules of origin. Under the ACP agreement, Madagascar benefits
from preferential rules of origin over other developing countries.
Under general
preferential rules of origin, non-originating materials (i.e. imported yarn or fabric) must
“undergo sufficient working or processing to confer unto the article a new origin of the
product obtained” (Euratex 1998, 19).
The European Union publishes a list of the
different processes that qualify a garment of duty-free access (Euratex 1998). The yarn
can come from anywhere (Mattoo et al 2002). This differs from AGOA, which requires a
triple transformation rule.
Despite these restrictions, Madagascar has had a high
utilization rate of the ACP preferences – between 1998 and 2001, an average of 92% of
the clothing and textiles exported from Madagascar to the EU were duty-free (UNCTAD
2003).
30
4.5
Conclusion
Special and differential trade treatment gave Madagascar an advantage over other
countries and encouraged investors to set up garment manufacturing factories. Rules of
origin, although currently not much of a problem for manufacturers in Madagascar, could
in the future play a role. When the ACP agreement expires in the near future, Madagascar
will be able to maintain its clothing exports to the EU under the EBA, as the rules of
origin are the same as the ACP. However, for exports under AGOA, the future is less
certain.
The rules of origin for AGOA, which affects approximately 60% of
Madagascar’s total clothing exports, are due to change in 2007. There could be dire
consequences should manufacturers not be able to import fabric from Asia and be forced
to source locally. The clothing industry is footloose – factories can easily be closed and
restarted elsewhere.
Should the third country fabric provision not be renewed,
Madagascar would be placed in a precarious position.
31
Chapter 5 : The T&C industry in Madagascar within the
context of sub-Saharan Africa
Nations in sub-Saharan Africa have recently ventured into large-scale, export-oriented
textile and clothing production. The introduction of AGOA in 2001 and its associated
tariff preferences for clothing has played an essential role in fostering industries in
countries that previously did not produce clothing. Many countries in SSA previously had
small clothing and textile industries for local production. South Africa’s industry is
considered the most developed, but it mainly has been oriented towards domestic
production. Six countries in SSA: South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Kenya, Mauritius
and Madagascar, have seized the opportunity AGOA offers and significantly increased
their exports to the United States.
The purpose of this chapter is two-fold. First, one cannot discuss the evolution of
industry in Madagascar without touching on what is happening in the industry in subSaharan Africa as a whole. The region has surged ahead in recent years. Madagascar has
been no different: it has seen a substantial increase in exports and a growth in employment
within the industry. Madagascar, unlike Lesotho, South Africa, Kenya and Swaziland,
exports significant amounts to both markets. Madagascar also saw substantial investment
arrive years before other SSA countries due investors taking advantage of EU preferential
treatment.
Second, this chapter discusses the economic macroeconomic and political context
as well as the structure of the industry in Madagascar.
The clothing industry in
Madagascar includes several apparel manufacturers, a major textile mill, accessory makers
and other industry-associated firms. This chapter will discuss in greater depth the crisis of
2002 and its effects on the industry, cotton and textile production, physical infrastructure,
currency devaluation, and the industrial policy in Madagascar.
5.1
Clothing and Textiles in Sub-Saharan Africa
In 2002, total exports of apparel from sub-Saharan Africa countries accounted for just
less than 1% of global exports of clothing and textiles; having increased their share from
0.6% in 1990s (USITC 2005).
Production and export of clothing and textiles is
concentrated primarily in five SSA countries, Kenya, Lesotho, Mauritius, Madagascar and
South Africa. These five account for about 90% of sub-Saharan Africa clothing exports
32
(Gibbon 2002). Other minor producers include Swaziland, Malawi and Namibia. SubSaharan Africa is an insignificant player in the clothing world: all SSA countries
combined produced clothing exports worth US$1.65 billion – miniscule compared with
total world exports of clothing of $226 billion (WTO 2004).
SSA’s main trading partners are the United States (43% of total clothing exports) and
the European Union (39% of clothing exports) (USITC 2005). US imports from the five
major SSA clothing producing countries rose by 85.3% between 1999 and 2002, while at
the same time EU imports from SSA dropped by 5.5% (Gibbon 2002). The apparel
industry in SSA has grown in recent years. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the major reason
SSA saw apparel industry investment is due to the MFA quota system, which induced
buyers and producers to look for non-quota constrained countries to supply the EU and
US. Many smaller, less efficient, lesser developed countries such as those in SSA were
given valuable opportunities under the quota system as they were shielded from open
competition (Minor et al 2002). That the quota system is important to SSA is evident
when considering the products produced for export in SSA. Products currently produced
are those that were quota-restricted: cotton trousers (jeans), and cotton knit shirts and
blouses (Kaplan 2004). Products exported are generally low-price basic items and repeat
goods with long production runs, low value added, and few styling changes (Economist
Intelligence Unit 2004). This reliance on a few types of products has made SSA as a
region very vulnerable to the end of the MFA quotas as these countries now face head-on
competition from China. The only remaining advantage for these countries lies in the tariff
protection. However, cotton products are not protected by a high tariff barrier. For
example, the average pair of jeans a duty tariff of between 10 and 16%, while synthetic
products are protected by up to a 32% tariff (Morris et al, forthcoming). Thus, SSA
countries have only a 10-16% advantage over China in cotton products, but would have a
32% advantage in synthetics.
Since 2001, SSA has experienced a relative boom in clothing and textile
production as countries gained duty-free access to the world’s largest clothing market, the
United States, under the provisions of AGOA. Although 36 SSA countries are eligible for
AGOA status and can export apparel duty-free into the US, only six countries do so in
significant amounts. There are two ‘catches’: first, countries must have implemented a
visa system to ensure compliance with AGOA rules of origin; second, countries are
subject to triple transformation rules of origin (yarn to fabric to clothing). Only countries
with lesser-developed country (LDC) status (per capita GNP of less than $1,500) are
33
eligible for the third country fabric provision, which allows them to import fabric for
clothing production. Thus, LDCs are only subject to single stage transformation rules of
origin (fabric to clothing). South Africa and Mauritius do not qualify for this provision as
they are not considered LDCs, and thus have been disadvantaged in fully accessing
AGOA benefits. Mauritius, however, in 2005 was able to obtain special dispensation
from US authorities. Mauritius can now use third country fabrics for a period of one year,
until 2006.
South Africa, sub-Saharan Africa’s largest economy, has been facing problems in
the clothing industry since 2003. Since then, the rand has appreciated 100% since 2003,
diminishing South Africa’s competitiveness in the sector. South Africa’s clothing and
textile sector has since experienced declining sales and job losses (USITC 2005). Some
South African producers have left the export market and produce solely for the domestic
market, while others have relocated their factories within the region or to Asia. Swaziland
and Lesotho have also been facing difficulties as their currencies are pegged one-to-one
with the rand. Both Swaziland and Lesotho, with the increased competition brought about
by the changing international context in addition to currency fluctuations, have seen job
losses and factory closures since the end of the MFA.
Madagascar presents an interesting case for several reasons. Madagascar is an
example of inter-African investment: Mauritius has heavily invested in Madagascar,
essentially starting the industry. Mauritius is the giant in the region, exporting by far more
than any other country. Like Mauritius, Madagascar has duty-free preferences into the
European Union market, which, until AGOA was the main market for Malagasy-produced
garments (Table 5.1). Unlike Mauritius, however, Madagascar has qualified for the third
country fabric provision since 2001. Madagascar lagged behind the other SSA countries
up through 2003, and in 2004 surged ahead, with more total exports than other countries in
SSA apart from Mauritius. Madagascar is one of the few countries that sit on both the EU
and the US export markets. Although other African countries have tariff preferences to
the EU, few have taken advantage of them.
34
Table 5.1: Clothing Exports from Selected SSA Countries to the US and EU (in US$m)
South Africa
Swaziland
US
Kenya
EU
US
Lesotho
EU
US
Madagascar
EU
US
Mauritius
EU
US
EU
US
1990
2.5
2.5
24.5
5.6
0.4
10.8
121.2
522.7
0
32.3
3.4
1991
4.5
6.3
27
18.2
0.1
15.1
97.7
536.5
0.7
72.7
5.2
1992
7.8
17.4
50.8
18.3
0.2
18.5
113.1
533.9
2.4
73.2
7.1
1993
22.1
10.3
55.1
14.7
1.5
46.3
161.2
501
12.7
75.5
9.7
1994
35.2
7.1
62.4
13.5
2.8
92.6
186.2
518.8
34.7
73.4
15.5
1995
34
6.3
61.7
12.6
6.7
122
190.3
573.3
16.6
66.9
11.7
1996
27.1
3.3
64.9
12.7
11
147.7
164.7
616
60.4
67.1
11.4
0
1997
31.3
2.6
86.5
4.5
15.3
177.1
184.4
658
70.9
62.3
15.1
0.3
1998
33.5
2.3
100.2
0.8
22
218
233.3
693.2
78.7
69.4
16.3
0.5
1999
39.3
2.5
110.7
0.2
45.7
213.9
231.6
625.2
96.9
68.3
23.2
0.6
2000
43.8
1.7
140.1
1.6
109.5
234.6
244.7
638.5
140.9
78.6
31.9
1.1
2001
64.4
1.7
216.7
3.2
178.2
233.3
238.3
591.2
173.3
69
48.1
0.8
2002
125.5
1.1
321.1
2.1
89.3
145.6
254.5
642.3
181
68.7
89.1
0.2
2003
188.1
1.4
392.7
1.2
196.3
180
269
657.6
232.3
85.9
140.5
0.2
2004
277.4
3.2
456
1.0
323.8
196
226.8
635.7
141.4
70.3
178.6
1.1
EU
Note: Taken from Gibbon (2003). Data from: USITC, US Department of Commerce, Otexa, Eurostat.
5.2
Madagascar, local conditions
Madagascar, a small island nation of 17 million people, is located 450 kilometres
off the coast of Mozambique in the Indian Ocean. A former French colony that gained
independence in 1960, it has seen its annual per capita GDP decline steadily to $800 in
2004 (CIA 2004). After decades under a semi-socialist regime, Madagascar opened up in
the 1990s to outside opportunities. One of these opportunities has been the clothing and
textile industry.
The clothing and textile industry numbered a few factories during the 1980s,
expanding significantly during the 1990s and the first 2 years of the new century, mostly
due to the introduction of AGOA preferences.
In comparing the size of industry,
Madagascar has a larger industry than any of the other nearest LDC competitors. It has an
estimated 100,000 workers in 118 factories, including a woven textile mill, accessory
producers, and embroidery firms whereas, for example, Lesotho only has 40 firms,
employing 45,000 people. Elements are present in Madagascar for the creation of a large
cluster of textile and clothing factories.
In 2002, Madagascar experienced a political crisis, causing most factories to shut
down temporarily, and others to leave the country entirely. Although the industry was
35
robust enough to see a rebound of exports by 2004 to pre-crisis levels, many of the largest
employers left, along with many buying agents who brought in business. Madagascar is
dependent on the clothing and textile sector for employment and much needed foreign
exchange. Whatever happens to the industry will have significant implications for the rest
of the economy.
5.2.1 Economic History
Madagascar’s economic history is one of constant change.
Madagascar
experienced a relatively brief period of colonization starting in 1896, with the Malagasy
people regaining control over their country and economy in 1960. The government of
Madagascar followed a series of ‘national economic plans’ for development; those from
1974-1986 were socialist in nature.
The government took over various industries
identified as being essential to the economy, including banking, transport, mining, and
energy, while also setting prices for various staple goods (Andriamananjara 1990). The
liberalisation phase began in the late 1980s, with the government withdrawing from
several key sectors, encouraging outside investment, and freeing prices from government
control. The main feature of this period that particularly affects the clothing industry was
the introduction of a law on export processing zones (EPZ). In 1989, a law was passed
introducing export processing zones, allowing producers to export at least 95% of their
production without paying duties on imported inputs (Salinger 2003). The EPZ later
became ‘virtual’, meaning that producers were not tied to a specific industrial park but
could produce anywhere. Two major centres of clothing production developed, one in and
around the capital of Antananarivo, and one in Antsirabe, approximately three hours to the
south of Antananarivo. Before the crisis of 2002, the industry consisted of 150 firms, with
an estimated 150,000 people directly employed (Salinger 2003).
The development of the industry in Madagascar cannot be discussed in isolation.
Mauritius has played an important role in Madagascar. Much of the initial investment in
the clothing industry in Madagascar came from Mauritius; as the small island nation grew
economically, so did the price of labour. Producers in Mauritius outsourced labourintensive functions to Madagascar with its cheaper wages. The Mauritians were already in
Madagascar in 2001 when AGOA took effect, and they were able to quickly take
advantage of AGOA benefits (Gibbon 2002, Salinger 2003). French investors also have a
significant presence in the country, and the number of Asian investors increased once
Madagascar was eligible for AGOA benefits.
36
CRISIS OF 2002
In December 2001, Madagascar experienced a political crisis after the presidential
elections that lasted for six months. The winner of the presidential race between Marc
Ravalomanana and Didier Ratsiraka was disputed, with both candidates claiming victory.
Ratsiraka’s supporters barricaded themselves in the major port city of Tamatave
(Toamasina), refusing to allow any finished goods to leave or imported inputs to travel to
Antananarivo. They also mined bridges along the road from Antananarivo and Tamatave.
Ratsiraka’s supporters also created a new central bank in Tamatave, causing the
international banking community to freeze the Central Bank of Madagascar’s foreign
holdings (IMF 2003). The crisis finally ended when international observers declared
Ravalomanana the official winner of the election, and foreign states recognized his
presidency. The crisis finally came to an end in July 2002.
By this time, however, the clothing and textile sector had already been deeply
affected by the crisis. Overall, GDP fell by 12%, and output from the apparel sector in
2002 fell by 70%. An estimated 100,000 workers were laid off; most EPZ firms shut
down for the duration of the crisis (IMF 2003).
The crisis has had lasting effects on
Madagascar’s clothing industry. Large, well-known companies have left, including Novel
and Crystal who employed together a total of 16,000 people in 2002 (Gibbon 2003). An
estimated 30,000 to 40,000 jobs were permanently lost due to the crisis as companies
restructured or closed permanently (Salinger 2003, Manchester Trade Team 2005). Of the
estimated 150 EPZ textile and clothing firms open in 2001, only 118 EPZ textile and
clothing firms are now estimated to be operating.
CURRENCY DEVALUATION
During the first six months of 2004, the Malagasy currency, the Malagasy franc
(FMG) experienced a significant depreciation against the dollar and the euro. Figure 5.1
shows the depreciation as indexed to January 2003. The FMG lost half its value against
the dollar and the euro between February and June 2004. This depreciation came at a key
period of time. The depreciation of the FMG gave clothing firms a ‘bit of breathing
space,’ by stimulating exports and reducing the costs of production just before the end of
the MFA (Ambassade de France, 2005). The depreciation also came at a time when the
renewal of the third country fabric provisions was uncertain, as it was set to expire in
September 2004. Buyers at this time were holding back as to where they would place
37
orders for future seasons. The depreciation kept Madagascar attractive for business.
Firms benefited: they are paid in dollars and local costs were suddenly cut in half.
Figure 5.1: Depreciation of the Malgasy Franc 6
Main Foreign Currencies/FMG - Indices (Jan 2003=100)
120
EUR/FMG
110
USD/FMG
100
90
80
70
60
50
09/2005
08/2005
07/2005
06/2005
05/2005
04/2005
03/2005
02/2005
01/2005
12/2004
11/2004
10/2004
09/2004
08/2004
07/2004
06/2004
05/2004
04/2004
03/2004
02/2004
01/2004
12/2003
11/2003
10/2003
09/2003
08/2003
6/2003
07/2003
01/2003
40
Despite the increase of exports, the currency depreciation had its downside. The deflation
made imports more expensive, in particular oil, for which Madagascar has no natural
reserves. In addition, Madagascar experienced two cyclones at the same time, destroying
valuable crops. The end result is that inflationary pressures increased substantially in
2004, resulting in an inflation level of 9.3 percent (year-on-year) in May 2004 (IMF
2004). Rice, the staple diet of Malagasies, is imported to Madagascar; the average worker
found their buying power reduced. As local production of rice was down due to cyclones,
rice prices rose even further than expected with the depreciation.
So while the
depreciation was helpful for industry, it made life difficult for the worker.
INDUSTRIAL POLICY FOR THE CLOTHING AND TEXTILE INDUSTRY
The government in Madagascar faces many difficulties. On one hand, agriculture
employs four-fifths of the working population and contributes the largest percentage to
GDP.
The clothing and textile industry, however, brings in much needed foreign
exchange and, as a sector, employs the largest number of people outside of government.
Despite this, the government in Madagascar has not directed any specific policies at the
apparel industry. For government, priorities lie with development in rural areas, where
most of the poor are located. A report by the Manchester Trade Team (2005) found that
6
Time series data comes from the average monthly currency rates from www.xe.com/ucc
38
the government in Madagascar lacks a clear vision for the long term future of the industry,
and offers no concrete plan to assist firms with competitiveness in the post-MFA apparel
context. As Salinger (2003) noted, neither the government nor the private sector as a
whole prepared a strategy for Madagascar’s textiles industry after the expiration of the
MFA, nor is there a strategy for the expiration of the third-country fabric provision in
2007.
Government does have some programs directed towards industry in general,
although not directly at the clothing and textile industry. The most important program to
affect industry is mentioned above, the Export Processing Zone legislation that
encouraged clothing and textile producers to come to Madagascar. This legislation has
been fundamental to fostering the apparel industry, as having EPZ status provides various
incentives, including duty-free import of inputs used in exports and corporate tax holidays.
The government does have various bureaus to assist firms. One of the government
bureaus is GUIDE (Guichet Unique des investissements et du Développement des
Entreprises – Office of Investment and Enterprise Development). GUIDE facilitates the
creation of firms, offering a sort of ‘one stop shop’ for registration of the company and for
any problems that may arise afterwards. Another program whose mandate has expired is
CAPE (Comité d’Appui et de Pilotage pour la Relance des Entreprises- Committee for
Support and Guidance of Private Sector Renewal). CAPE was introduced to help firms that
closed during the crisis restart by coordinating actions by the different ministries involving
the private sector, restoring confidence in the business climate, and offering training
programs, funding and forums for firm managers (CAPE 2002)
Foreign governments have been working with the industry. The EU Centre for the
Development of Enterprise (CDE) has assisted in the creation of a cluster, Text’Ile Mada,
and USAID has a program called JUMPSTART which offered business linkage and
development services to small and medium Malagasy firms (Salinger 2003).
But the government could also be seen as being practical in its consideration of the
industry. According to the Minister of Industry, Trade and Development of the Private
Sector (MICDSP), Madagascar has no chance of ever competing with the giants of China
and India. Only with heavy investment could Madagascar develop its cotton value chain
through to production, and even then would be competing with the heavily subsidized
cotton industry of the US (Fanjanarivo 2005). Madagascar can compete in certain niche
markets, but not in the same categories as China produces.
39
5.2.2 Physical Infrastructure
Political upheaval is not the only problem with which firms must contend.
Physical infrastructure plays an important part in how competitive industry is. Two major
factors in Madagascar are electricity and the transportation system. The high costs of
electricity and overland transport contribute to the precarious situation in which firms find
themselves.
Low electricity prices and a stable electricity supply are essential for competitive
textile and clothing production. Electricity is needed for lighting and sewing machines,
with textile production using twice as much electricity as assembly.
Madagascar’s
electricity supply is controlled by the national electric company, JIRAMA. A survey of
electricity costs in Madagascar in 2001 found that Madagascar’s textile and clothing
industry firms paid between 6 and 8 US cents per kilowatt hour (kwH), which in 2001 was
more expensive than in most developing countries producing textiles and clothing, but less
than Taiwan, South Korea and Turkey (Salinger 2003).
Salinger (2003) found that
JIRAMA was required by law to purchase a certain amount of fuel to run the power plants
from GALANA, the state refinery, at prices that include government taxes, contributing to
the high prices of electricity that are passed on to the consumer. Also, producers in
Madagascar do not benefit from bulk or industrial discounts as industrial users (Salinger
2003). In 2004, a German company began managing JIRAMA, although it still belongs to
the government. The new management is currently restructuring and the electricitygenerating equipment being updated. Prices for electricity in 2004 and 2005 have been
erratic, making it difficult for producers to budget for electricity costs.
Besides electricity, transport proves to be another hurdle that apparel firms must
contend with to produce their garments. Road transport is the only realistic option as air
freight is prohibitively expensive for producers operating on slim margins. Containers
arriving at and departing from the port in Tamatave must travel along a hazardous road
between there and Antananarivo. It is a two-lane road, sometimes dropping down to a
single lane (See Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3). A journey of 350 kilometres can take days,
depending on the amount of traffic on the roads. Trucks are forbidden to travel into the
capital between the hours of 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. in order to alleviate the traffic bottlenecks
that tie up the city during the day. Accidents and theft are common occurrences along this
treacherous road. This causes high transport and insurance costs for transport within
Madagascar. Producers report that overland container transport between the port and
Antananarivo costs just as much as between China and Madagascar (Salinger 2003).
40
Figure 5.2: Traffic Jam on Road between Antsirabe and Antananarivo
Figure 5.3: Bridge on Major Road between Antananarivo and Tamatave (Toamasina), the port
Unfortunately for Madagascar, the island is not on a direct shipping route.
Containers must pass via Durban and wait for a feeder ship to and from Madagascar.
Delays, cancellations and problems with ships are common (Salinger 2003). This causes
delays in an industry where on-time delivery is essential. Electricity and transport are
essentials for industry competitiveness and are relatively easy to upgrade.
41
Basic
infrastructure is like on-time delivery and quality in the clothing industry: both expected to
be there at the end of the day.
5.2.3 Vertical Integration within the Clothing and Textile Industry
Complementing the presence of the actual clothing factories are two textile
production facilities and a few manufacturers of accessories, including buttons, zips. In
addition, both hand and machine embroidery firms are present.
The numbers of
companies in Madagascar had increased 24% from 1997 to 2001 (USITC 2002, K-23).
Madagascar has the possibility of domestically sourcing fabric and yarn normally
imported from Asia. Having domestic fabric and yarn production facilities in seen as an
advantage as competition in the international apparel industry increases. Cost is less a
deciding factor as time-to-market and services offered by the producer become just as
important. Salinger (2003) states that the constantly changing world of fashion requires
more than just vertical integration within a single firm, but actual coordination between
the different stages and actors in the production process from design through production to
retail. Due to the increasing importance of lead times, coordination between the different
actors along the production chain is increasingly necessary. Thus, developing the nascent
cotton and fabric production in Madagascar would be an advantage. One cannot discuss
the clothing industry in Madagascar without talking of the domestic possibilities in cotton
and textile production. HASYMA is the local parastatal that controls most of the domestic
cotton production and COTONA is the joint Malagasy/Mauritian venture in fabric
production. Domestic production will become particularly relevant in September 2007,
when the third country fabric provision of AGOA expires and Madagascar (to qualify for
AGOA tariff-free benefits), must source fabric domestically or from other SSA countries.
Below these two entities and their capabilities are discussed in greater depth.
HASYMA (MADAGASCAR COTTON COMPANY)
As stated above, domestic cotton and fabric production is key for the future
competitiveness of the industry as a whole in Madagascar. The most important benefit of
having cotton production, ginning, spinning and weaving in-country is the time-saving
factor. Getting fabric from China or India delays an order by three to five weeks. Should
more fabric be available in Madagascar, producers could see a decrease in the time needed
for production. HASYMA is the parastatal organization that “coordinates production,
collection, and first-stage processing of seed cotton in Madagascar” (Salinger 2003).
42
HASYMA assists small and large-scale farmers with fertilizers and seed, timing of
planting, and cultivation practices. By fixing a contract with producers at the beginning of
the growing season, HASYMA guarantees itself a certain number of kilos of cotton. The
price however is not guaranteed to the farmers, and fluctuates with international prices.
HASYMA operates as a monopsony: it is the only buyer of cotton and has the only
available cotton processing equipment. What is clear, according to Salinger (2003), is that
there is a domestic demand for cotton that outweighs domestic production. In 2001, 63%
of all clothing exports, and 85% of volume exported, were cotton products.
Salinger
found that domestic usage of cotton (in the form of cotton fabric) was twice what
HASYMA could produce.
Madagascar, however, shouldn’t strive for complete
independence, but can offer higher quality fabric and different types of fabric weights to
domestic producers (Salinger 2003). HASYMA was privatised in 2004, with 51% being
sold to Groupe Dargis, a French cotton growing company. HASYMA plans to increase its
cotton production over the next few years. HAYSMA easily sells its high quality cotton
on the international market, finding prices obtain in Madagascar to be too low.
Considering that 12-13,000 people are employed as cotton farmers, the cotton industry
represents a large segment of the workforce.
COTONA (LA COTONNIÈRE D’ANTSIRABE)
Cotona is the largest textile mill in Madagascar. Cotona, with its sister company
Socota in Mauritius, has the ability to produce several different weights of fabric for
manufacturers. Cotona focuses on medium and heavy weight fabrics (i.e. denim material),
while Socota produces lighter shirt-weights. Both Socota and Cotona have the ability to
work with cotton blend fabrics, i.e. cotton mixed with Lycra and polyester. Manufacturers
often need several different types of fabric weights to meet customer demands, and the
availability of different weights of fabric is important.
Cotona currently has 900 employees on a 24 hour shift, but its capacity is limited
by its outdated equipment. Cotona’s fabric production steadily declined for many years.
In 2003 and 2004, Cotona has seen a turnaround, with the number of metres of fabric
produced in 2004 one-third higher than in 2003. Cotona has the capacity to produce for
one-third of local needs, approximately 14 million meters (Imani Development 2004).
However, Cotona offers little advantage despite its proximity to producers as it has a six to
seven week lead time on orders (Imani Development 2004). Cotona directly exports to
different countries less than 10% of its total production. Just over half (55%) of total
43
production is exported either to the EPZ in Madagascar or to factories in Mauritius. Of
the fabric used by EPZ factories, most of it is destined for European buyers.
The
remainder of production is sold on the local market. Cotona only offers woven fabrics,
not knitted. Cotona does not however offer all the different weights of fabrics that
manufacturers need.
AUXILIARY FACTORIES
There are two factories that produce knitted (i.e. t-shirt) fabric. These include
Festival and SAMAF (Société Anonyme Malgache d’Applications du Fil); most fabric
made is for in-house orders. There also exists a dyeing mill, at which producers can dye
their yarn and fabric.
Several embroidery firms also provide their services to
manufacturers, either via hand embroidery or commercial embroidery. One additional
fabric mill, SOUMACO produces fabric for bed linen.
There is room for both cotton and textile production to expand to meet local
demand. Though it would be difficult and expensive for Madagascar to become more
self-sufficient, there is a present need for more textiles to be produced locally. Should the
third country fabric provision expire, firms would probably leave Madagascar unless local
production could step in to fill the void. A critical mass of textile production facilities is
necessary to support the number of clothing firms, and the foundations are in place upon
which to build.
5.2.4 Wages and Productivity in Madagascar
One of Madagascar’s main attractions is its low wages. For producers, wages
generally make up 25-45% of their costs, so saving costs on labour can be crucial for
survival. Going hand-in-hand with wages is productivity and the ability to improve
productivity over time.
In 2002, average hourly pay in Madagascar was $0.33, compared with $0.68 in
China and $1.25 in Mauritius, placing it among the cheapest in the world (USITC 2002).
Table 5.2
shows the differences in labour costs between Madagascar and similar
countries. Only Ghana and Mozambique have lower wage rates, but also have lower
productivity. Malagasy workers are known for their ‘nimble fingers’ in making high
quality embroidery and lace, giving Madagascar an advantage in hand-embroidered and
smocked apparel (USITC 2002). However, despite these two advantages, productivity is
44
not as high as China or Mauritius, and the workers have little formal training as due to the
lack of textile or sewing schools.
High productivity is crucial to the competitiveness of a firm and an industry. High
levels of productivity allow a firm to complete an order on time and reduce the number of
workers necessary to complete an order, thus lowering costs. Cadot and Nasir (2001)
found that while worker productivity in Madagascar is low by international standards, it is
improving and low wages more than compensate for it. Indications are that since 2001,
productivity levels have increased substantially.
Table 5.2 compares Madagascar’s productivity to other countries. Madagascar
falls about average when comparing different levels of productivity. The index of unit
labour cost means that, for example, in Madagascar it takes just over two cents of labour
in Madagascar to make $1 in revenue.
Table 5.2: Unit Labour in Standardized Garment Production
Task Level
Efficiencya
Monthly
Wage b
Index of
Unit
Labour
Cost c
Madagascar
Kenya
Ghana
Mozambique
Lesotho
South
Africa
India
EPZ
China
14-15
12-15
12
10-11
18
15
16
18-22
$55-65
$60-65
$30-45
$40-50
$82-95
$255
$70-75
$150
0.023
0.026
0.022
0.029
0.035
0.050
0.027
0.040
a
The average number of shirts a machine operator can produce in a workday
Wage for a semi-skilled sewing machine operator in the garments industry
c
For men’s casual shirts
Note: From World Bank (2001).
b
Madagascar lacks training schools to improve worker productivity. Due to the
lack of a training school for textile and clothing workers, workers arrive without any skills
and must be trained in-house. The Agènce Française du Développement (AFD – French
Agency for Development) assisted in the creation of a training school, FORMACO, but its
mandate finished in 2000, and no new training institution has been created. Two other
training institutions were short-lived due to the lack of interest shown by producers (ILO
2004).
5.3
Conclusion
Madagascar is part of a region that matters little in the cutthroat industry of
apparel. Apart from South Africa, the region lacks proper infrastructure to support a
growing textile and clothing industry. As previously stated, Madagascar is a unique case
45
of clothing and textiles in a developing African country due to the access to both the EU
and the US market, has among some of the low wages on the continent, and has the
possibilities of a cluster due to the textile mills and accessory makers already present.
However, Madagascar is not without its problems; the future is uncertain for producers
there due to the increased competition from countries in Asia who are cheaper and have
workers that are more productive. Clothing and textiles is an important industry for
impoverished countries in Africa. What happens in Madagascar is indicative of what will
happen in Africa as a whole. Thus, the next chapter deals with the findings from the field
research and the implications for other apparel–producing countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
46
Chapter 6 : Findings from Madagascar
Figure 6.1: Clothing Factories
in Antananarivo and
Antsirabe, Madagascar
47
Chapter 6 details findings from fieldwork undertaken in Madagascar during three weeks in
April 2005. This chapter describes the vulnerabilities and challenges firms in Madagascar
face in the increasingly competitive world of apparel production.
As previously
mentioned, little is known about the industry. Thus, this chapter begins with a general
overview of the firms sampled, and discusses location, age, product, destination market.
Broader, industry-wide issues are also discussed. A deeper discussion on labour issues
including wages and productivity is included. Finally, macroeconomic issues such as
government industrial policy, post-crisis resilience, and international prices are examined.
6.1
General Overview of the Industry
A total of 21 firms were interviewed during the three weeks of field research
undertaken in Madagascar. Of the total clothing factory population of 118 firms according
to a list obtained at the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and the Private Sector (MICDSP), all
but four of them are located within the environs of Antananarivo, with 2 factories in
Antsirabe and 2 factories in Mahajanga. Nineteen of the firms sampled had production
units and offices located in the capital of Madagascar, Antananarivo. Two firms surveyed
had production units in Antsirabe, a city three hours south of Antananarivo.
As stated in the methodology, firms were selected by nationality (as defined by the
nationality of the majority of the shareholders or owners) and size (number of employees).
Firms fell into five major nationality groupings: Asian, Malagasy, Mauritian, US, and
European (Table 6.1). Two nationalities are represented in the Asian group: Chinese and
Sri Lankan. European Union firms were from France and the Netherlands. It was decided
to use regional groupings such as ‘EU’ and ‘Asian’ because the sample size was not large
enough to draw conclusions about individual nationalities.
Clothing firms in Madagascar are relatively young, with the average age being 7.3
years.
Firms exporting to the US (n=12) are younger (5.8 years), due to duty-free
preference into the US only starting in 2001 under AGOA. Firms exporting to the EU
(n=8) are older. Madagascar has had duty-free preference to the EU since the end of
colonisation. Firms exporting to the US were also larger, and EU exporting firms were
smaller (Table 6.1).
Export destination market was a major characteristic for firms: most exported to
one market or the other. Only one firm exported to both.
48
Table 6.1: Key Characteristics of Firms Interviewed by Export Market (n=21)
CHARACTERISTICS
# of firms
Average Age
Nationality of
firms
Average # of
Employees
Average # of
Clients:
Range:
Predominantly US
Market
MARKET OF DESTINATION
Predominantly
Equally to Both
EU Market
Markets
All Firms
12
8
1
21
5.8 years
10.4 years
14 years
7.3 years
Asian
(1, n=8)
N/A
3500
1740
Asian (6, n=8)
Malagasy (3, n=5)
US (2, n=2)
EU (1, n=4)
EU (3, n=4)
Malagasy (2, n=5)
Mauritian (2, n=2)
Asian (1, n=8)
1819
1401
6 clients
14 clients
9 clients
15
Range from 2-20
Range from 1-50
Range from 1-50
Firms in the sample corroborated Gibbon’s findings that the Asian firms were more likely
to export to the US than to the EU (Gibbon 2002 and 2003). As shown in Table 6.1,
Asian and US firms exported predominantly to the US, and Mauritian and European firms
predominantly exported to the EU. Malagasy-owned firms were split, with three firms
primarily exporting to the US and two exporting to the EU. There was one firm of Asian
nationality that exported equally to both markets (50%/50%). A firm was categorized as
exporting predominately to one market if 70% or more of its production went to one
destination market. Several firms exported to both markets, but one market destination
was largely preponderate. Two firms exporting to the EU also export in small amounts to
the US, and three firms exporting to the US also export a certain percentage to EU
countries.
Three firm managers said they would like to strike a better balance between
the two markets rather than produce almost exclusively for one or the other:
Currently, I’m 90% US and 10% EU. I’d like to see 70% US and 30% EU
by the end of 2005. But the ideal is 60% US and 40% EU. The EU offers
better prices, so I have a better chance of breaking even (Key informant 63).
Exporting to both markets allows producers to balance large and small orders and ensures
they have year-round production. There is also a difference between EU clients and US
clients. US buyers, according to Gibbon (2002), demand a high percentage of total
production, making it difficult for producers to have other clients.
Madagascar supports this conclusion:
49
Evidence in
To supply the US market, the factory must work, for example, 10 days straight, 24
hours per day. This is difficult for a smaller producer to accomplish especially if
they have other customers (Key Informant 61).
Serving the US market and US buyers make it difficult to plan for the future as a firm
never knows if the US buyer will come back to them. EU clients, although demanding
smaller orders, are seen as being more stable clients. As a key informant explained,
With the EU firms, you build a relationship with the client, but with the US
firm you are a yo-yo. The US client comes back to you when it suits them
(Key Informant 18).
We don’t do the US. In 2002, we had 3 units dedicated to the US, but now
our strategy is to get out of the US market. The US market is too demanding
and strict with their orders. The EU is much easier to work with (Key
Informant 39).
Three firm managers stated that they will only produce for European clients because
American clients are too inflexible in their demands. Firms realize that to balance their
production, it is best to produce to some extent for both markets: small EU orders can fill
up empty production, or large US orders can fill up production for long periods.
I know that it is bad to focus on one market. Our ratio of 70% US and 30% EU is
a good ratio, but we are looking into new EU markets: France, Germany. The
difference between the US and the EU market is that the US offers prices 5%
lower than the EU (Key Informant 53).
We produce 93% for the US. We are trying to start for the EU or Canadian
market, trying to diversify our client base. We would like to see 90% US, 3%
France, 3% Canada (Key Informant 40).
In sum, the different markets have different characteristics that make them
attractive based on the needs of the manufacturers. Manufacturers can decide for what
markets they want to produce, depending on their firm strategy.
The firms interviewed produced a variety of garments. Madagascar produces
mostly cotton apparel in both knitted and woven segments. Knitted or woven fabric
garments fall into different product groups and face different levels of tariffs. Of the 21
sampled firms, six firms (29%) produced only knitted products.
The major knitted
product is by far sweaters: (HS 6110) which alone accounted for 9% of Madagascar’s total
exports in 2003 (COMTRADE 2005). Six firms (29%) interviewed made jeans and other
cotton trousers for men and women. Combined, these two categories (HS 6203 and 6204),
accounted for 11% of Madagascar’s total exports in 2003 (COMTRADE 2005). These
three categories of apparel together accounted for 20% of Madagascar’s total exports.
50
Madagascar is thus heavily reliant on a few categories of exports for export revenue. This
indicates that these categories are dominant because historically they were quotaconstrained, and producers went to Madagascar to circumvent quota restrictions.
Three of the firms interviewed made cashmere sweaters.
As cashmere is
considered a scarce material, garments made from cashmere do not need to meet the rule
of origin restrictions placed on other goods. Cashmere sweaters are also high value-added
products. The other major categories of products produced include t-shirts (n=3), work
clothes (n=1), winter coats (n=1), kids’ dresses (n=1), men’s shirts (n=1), costumes (n=1),
and embroidered items (n=1).
6.1.1 Buyers
Madagascar’s factories produce for a variety of buyers.
Of the 21 firms
interviewed, 18 firms specified the types of buyers they served. Table 6.2 shows the types
of clients served, and the number of times that firms in Madagascar reported working for a
certain type of client. By far, firms in Madagascar served independent retailers the most,
with 10 firms reporting serving that type of client. Most of the independent retailers are
US-based. The next highest category served is department store label, also for the US
market.
The lower end-market segments, including low-end department stores and
discounters, are generally associated with lower margins and the US market (Gibbon
2002). Firms serving the EU market were more likely to sell to supermarkets, mail-order
catalogues, and high-end to mid department stores in general.
51
Table 6.2: Clients Served in Madagascar (n=18)
Type of Client
Supermarket
Department Store,
High-end
Department Store,
mid
Department Store,
Low-end
Discounter
Department Store
Label
Independent Retailer
Wholesalers
Boutiques
Specialized
workwear
Mail-order
Examples of Types of Clients
Mentioned
Carrefour, Auchan, LeClerc
Galleries Lafayette, Dillard’s, P und
C
Sears, JCPenny’s
No. of firms reporting as
serving that client type
3
Mervyn’s, C&A
5
3
3
Kmart, Wal-mart, Target
Gloria Vanderbilt, l.e.i., Columbia,
Levi’s, Jordache, US Polo, Calvin
Klein, Paris Blues Columbia
Gap Group, Benetton, Decathlon,
Celio, Petit Ange, Abercrombie &
Fitch, The Limited, Zara
Costco
3
8
10
2
1
Groupe Quintet
1
La Redoute, Vert Baudet
2
*Note: Firms reported serving different categories of clients concurrently.
Table 6.3 shows the spread of countries to which firms in Madagascar reported exporting.
The connection with France is clearly seen: of the 21 firms surveyed, 11 of them exported
to France. Links with the larger EU markets can be seen below: four firms exported to the
UK, and 3 firms exported to Germany and Italy. A total of 14 firms exported to some
extent to the United States.
Table 6.3: Location of Clients Reported
End-market country
Asia
European Union
North America
Japan
France
United Kingdom
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
US
No. of firms reporting
exports to that country
1
11
4
3
3
1
1
14
Table 6.4 details the different methods producers use to obtain orders from buyers.
Firms with parent companies are sent orders; it is the parent company that has contact with
buyers. Firms that do not have parent companies acquired their clients through indirect
contact, i.e. via a sourcing office. About half (n=11) of the firms interviewed obtained
their clients through their parent company located in Asia, the US, or Europe. One firm
52
has agents in Europe that work to sell their products, but the agents are non-dedicated.
Two firms are working in partnership with the local textile mill in a clustering
arrangement to offer full package supply from weaving to delivery. The textile mill,
Cotona, seeks out clients and attends trade fairs on behalf of firms. Although many
mentioned word of mouth as a way they obtain some clients, it was not the main approach
used for most firms except for one. Two firms have direct representatives in other
countries.
Table 6.4: Main Method of Obtaining Buyers by Firms in Madagascar
Type of Method
Direct contact
Indirect
Word of mouth
Trade fair
Own representatives
overseas, including sales
offices
Other direct contact
In partnership with Cotona
Agents in other countries
Parent company
Agents in Madagascar
# of firms reporting
use of this method
1
1
2
2
2
2
11
1
How firms in Madagascar obtained their buyers is essential to figuring out what
place Madagascar fills in the value chain and how vulnerable the industry is.
Are buyers
seeking out producers in Madagascar or must producers chase after buyers? It appears
that buyers flocked to Madagascar after AGOA preferences started, but most buyers fled
after the crisis.
Buyers talked about Madagascar a lot in 2000-1, encouraging suppliers to come
here, but no one is talking about it now (Key Informant 96).
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the structure of buying and sourcing within the
international garment industry as a whole is changing. Firms mentioned that relationships
with buyers, mainly European, are becoming more direct, with fewer European buyers
passing through intermediaries or sourcing offices. Some buyers have a dual strategy:
they source via buying or sourcing houses as well as directly with the manufacturers. For
manufacturers that have parents companies, buyers pass via the parent company office in
Hong Kong, but the relationship between the buyer and the parent company was reported
as direct. This changes the nature of the relationship between buyer and producers in
Madagascar: it may be the end or the decreasing of importance of triangular
53
manufacturing. This subject deserves further research, as it ultimately changes the way
that value chain researchers perceive the buyer/manufacturer relationship.
The presence of buying offices appears to play an important role. Before the crisis,
different buyers had offices in Madagascar, including Levi’s, the Gap, and Liz Claiborne.
Sourcing agents, including MAST (the sourcing agents for The Limited Group) Linmark,
and Li & Fung also had offices in Madagascar. Sourcing offices play a key role in
sending orders to countries. Unfortunately, the crisis forced sourcing offices to close.
“If a buyer leaves, then so will the vendors [producers]. It is the buyers who
decide the future of factories in Madagascar” (Key Informant 65).
This has significant repercussions for the future of Madagascar’s clothing industry.
Buyers can do more than just give orders. In the automotive value chain, endbuyers assist their suppliers in upgrading their capabilities. The garment value chain
works differently depending on the type of garment being produced. Generally, those
producing the cheapest garments receive no assistance from end-buyers. Gibbon (2002)
found that that independents, like Gap and Benetton are “widely considered to usually
make poor or non-existent contributions to improvements in supplier capabilities” (2002,
38). Only firms that produce for high-end buyers mentioned that buyers helped them
upgrade. One firm in particular that has developed a long-term relationship with a highend buyer has production specialists who visit firms to upgrade their production processes.
6.1.2 Quality Control
Quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) 7 seem to be shifting from
externally-imposed processes to being incorporated organically into the production
process at each stage. Whereas in the past clients would regularly send quality controllers
to inspect the production line themselves, it is now expected that the firm will ensure an
acceptable quality level. When asked about quality control, most firms were equipped
with their own trained quality control people; rarely was the client or an outside agency
involved. One quality assurance agency was interviewed, but their role was more to assist
the producers in finishing the order and doing spot checks, rather than to sit on the
production lines. If the quality control or assurance is external, the QC can be done by
either a QC representative from the buyer or through an outside agency. In Madagascar,
7
Quality Control involves physical, continual inspection of goods throughout production to verify that the
end product is of high quality. Quality Assurance involves continuous improvement of the production
process to prevent problems from occurring (Dale 1997).
54
there was one internal North American buyer quality assurance office, and two external
quality assurance agencies that clients hired to oversee quality for them. One quality
assurance agency interviewed said that the way that clients oversee quality control has
changed, particularly for those producing for the US market. More and more, US buyers
are sending their own QA to the factories rather than hiring an outside agent to inspect
garments. At the same time, buyers expect firms to become responsible for their own QC
(Key Informant 18).
There is an international statistical method of quality control, named the
‘Acceptable Quality Level.’ Although familiar is the ‘AQL’ (Acceptable Quality Level)
system, a 5-point scale, firms in Madagascar stressed that one buyer’s AQL of 2.5 was
another’s 0.5. Firms stressed that they achieved a minimum AQL, usually 2.5, as a
standard within the whole factory. Having a minimum standard proves to buyers that the
firm has an acceptable product, regardless of the AQL dictated by the client.
One firm’s strategy for the future includes dedicated quality controllers trained by
the buyer, but employed by the firm.
These quality controllers oversee the quality
throughout the production process. Quality of the product had to be worked out between
the client and the producers before filling the order. Quality was mentioned by several
producers as being a way to attract and keep clients who are willing to pay more.
My strategy is to upgrade the quality [of our product]. If we maintain quality, the
buyers will pay 10 cents more (Key Informant 53).
By having a consistently high quality product, firms reported that buyers were ready to
offer a higher price.
6.2
Factors of Competitiveness
Outside factors also play a role in the competitiveness of firms. Manufacturers
mentioned mounting production costs are making survival difficult. Logistical problems
with customs, inland and sea transport, electricity costs and reliability, and rent increase
the vulnerability of producers in Madagascar.
It emerged from the interviews with
manufacturers that the largest logistical problem by far is transport, both to, from, and
within Madagascar. Inefficiencies and delays at ports and with transport associations
make it difficult for producers in Madagascar to compete. Rising rent costs and electricity
put an additional squeeze on producers’ bottom lines. These problems are further detailed
in the section below.
55
6.2.1 Transport and Customs
Over three-quarters (n=16, 76%) of firms surveyed reported that transportation
within, to and from Madagascar was a hindrance to efficient production. The major
problem cited was the condition of the road between the capital, Antananarivo and the
port, Tamatave, a distance of 300 kilometres. It can take up to one week for containers of
raw materials to arrive at the factories from the port due to delays at customs and slow
travel speeds. In addition, the capital, around which most factories are located, is plagued
by traffic jams. Cargo trucks going in and out of the capital are limited by law to rolling
only between the hours of 20:00 and 6:00.
Road capacity in another issue: were
production in Madagascar to increase, the roads might not be able to support an increase in
traffic that would come with industry expansion (Salinger 2003).
For many firms, Madagascar’s location is the greatest hindrance.
As one
interviewee stated, “It’s a problem of geography” (Key Informant 28).
Due to
Madagascar’s distance not only from raw material suppliers but also destination markets,
it takes producers up to four months to complete an order. This amount of time is
increasingly unacceptable for buyers. Many time-dependent fashion lines and buyers are
out of reach for producers in Madagascar because of time constraints.
The time
breakdown in Table 6.5 shows just how tight producers’ timelines are: from the day the
order is place, it takes approximately one week for the fabric to be made, three weeks to
have it shipped from the fabric factory (usually in China), and one week to have it shipped
from the port to the factory. A transportation industry informant, however, said that the
one week is the minimum, with delays sometimes extending to two weeks or even to one
month (Key Informant 98).
Table 6.5: Production Steps and Corresponding Time for Firms in Madagascar
Production Step
Fabric production
Shipment of fabric and accessories
Shipment from port to factory, including
customs inspections
Manufacturing
Shipment back to port, including customs
inspections
Shipment to destination market
Transport Time
1-2 weeks
3 weeks (average, Asia to Madagascar)
7 days Tamatave to Antananarivo
8-9 days Tamatave to Antsirabe
3 weeks
1 week
3 weeks Tamatave to EU ports
4 weeks (min) to US ports
56
Once the container reaches the factory, it takes an average of three weeks to manufacture
the product depending on the size of the order and another week in transit back to the port.
Finally, it takes three weeks for a container to arrive at European destinations, with a
minimum of four weeks required for US destinations. This equals a minimum lead time
of 13 weeks for production from order placement to delivery.
Such long lead times limit producers’ possible products by forcing a CMT focus
that has limited value-added, and hindering the industry’s and producers’ ability to
upgrade. Many managers echoed one informant’s statement:
Lead times are important for turn around.
Madagascar is involved in
replenishment goods: it is core products that are being done here. It is hard to do
fashion dependent items (Key Informant 96).
Transport issues for some have made it difficult to expand to new markets. Factory
owners would like to expand to new markets, but find the distances and delays difficult to
foster new producer-client relationships:
We have one client in the US, but we’ve had a hard time developing the
relationship. The main problem isn’t China, it’s the delays [in transport] (Key
Informant 34)
Long lead times and high transport costs make producers vulnerable to competition from
places that are closer to the US and EU markets. Producers are finding it difficult to move
up to higher value-added garments as they are usually more fashion dependent and must
be delivered to market quickly. Manufacturers in Madagascar would find it difficult to go
for flexible delivery, which some buyers prefer to better manage their inventory.
Frequency of boats arriving with raw materials is a limiting factor. The two largest
shipping companies, Maersk Logistics and MSC (Mediterranean Shipping Company) only
have one boat each per week arriving from Asia with raw materials. For export however,
the frequency of boats is greater. Maersk has four boats per week that take exports to the
port at Durban, South Africa, from where containers are transferred to ships destined for
the EU and the US.
The cost of transport to and from Madagascar has also been increasing regularly.
According to a transportation industry official,
The costs for maritime transport from Asia have increased the most. A 20-foot
container in January 2004 cost $1200 to ship from Asia to Madagascar. In
December 2004, that price rose to $1900 in December 2004. This is an
increase of 58% . . . Now it is $2,230 (as of April 2005) due to rising petrol
prices (Key Informant 98).
57
Rising shipping prices are becoming difficult for producers to manage. Producers are
finding their margins being squeezed as buyers demand cheaper prices and transport costs
rise. Some factory owners compared the lack of competition in shipping to a cartel; there
is a lack of competition between shipping companies that drives up prices.
There is also a lack of competition amongst the transport companies within
Madagascar, and this shows in the prices demanded for inland transport.
Several
interviewees said that it cost just as much to send a container from Tamatave (the port) to
Antananarivo as it does to get a container from the port in France to the warehouse.
It isn’t normal that [the transport in Madagascar] is more expensive that in France
[given that fuel prices are higher in France than in Madagascar] (Key Informant
34).
Not only is the ground transport between Bordeaux and Dunkirk cheaper, it’s
faster too [than between Tamatave to Tana]” (Key Informant 18).
One manufacturer stated that transport costs add 30 US cents to each garment produced in
his factory (Key Informant 53). Another stated that transport costs added 10% to the final
product (Key Informant 96). These additional costs, plus the uncertainties associated with
the possibility of delays along the road between Tamatave and Antananarivo contribute to
the precarious situation of garment producers in Madagascar.
Manufacturers also complained of the long delays in moving containers through
customs. Customs inspectors were considered inefficient, and a few firms claimed that
sometimes minor bribes such as cigarettes were necessary to facilitate the inspection of
containers. Although customs inspectors had improved over the past few years, problems
still remain in moving containers quickly through.
One firm mentioned that a new
computerized system for tracking containers through the port had been instituted, but that
the customs inspectors ‘refused’ to learn the new system. One factory manager faced a
delay of three days when the main customs inspector took two days leave, without
appointing someone else to inspect containers. Thus, the container was delayed for 3 days
due to the leave taken as well as the resulting backlog of containers that needed to be
inspected.
6.2.2 Electricity and Rent
Another difficulty that firms in Madagascar are facing is increasing rent costs. Six
firms interviewed (29%) report high or increasing rent costs. The firms interviewed pay
$2 to $5 per square metre per month, amounting to 10-20% of the price of the finished
58
garment. One firm is considering moving elsewhere within Madagascar or relocating
entirely due to rent costs (Key Informant 71). One firm bought its premises after the crisis
when rent prices were low, and has found that buying and building is cheaper than renting.
Energy prices are also increasing for producers in Madagascar. One key informant
told us:
JIRAMA’s prices have increased 25% over the past 18 months. It will go up 18%
this month [April] (Key Informant 63).
Additional increases are expected to pay for the modernization of the outdated equipment
that JIRAMA, the national electricity company, currently uses (Key Informant 4).
In May and June 2005 after the field research was undertaken, producers have
experienced further difficulties with the electricity supply. According to an industry
official in Madagascar, prices for electricity have increased an additional 30-60%, further
squeezing producers’ bottom lines. Besides cost increases, fluctuating power currents and
power outages of up to two hours during the day occur daily, making it difficult for
producers to fill their orders. Several of the companies interviewed are in difficulty as
they have been unable to finish their orders (Key Informant 6). Power outages and
fluctuations, in addition to halting production, also introduces flaws into fabrics and knitto-shape items, thus requiring that the item or fabric being knitted be redone or scrapped.
6.2.3 Raw Materials
The main raw material used in clothing is fabric; buttons, thread, tags and other
accessories must be sourced. Despite the presence of textile factories and accessory
makers in Madagascar, all but two of the factories reported obtained the majority of their
fabric and accessories from other countries. One firm is vertically integrated and weaves
and dyes its own fabric, finding this more efficient than purchasing and shipping fabric
from Asia. Another firm sources approximately 85% of their fabric from their own mill in
Mauritius.
Firms that source from abroad usually source from China and India. Eleven firms
(52%), source solely from Asia, six of whom said they only source from China. Other
Asian countries mentioned include Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Pakistan. Within Europe,
four firms source a portion of their fabric from Italy, three from France, one from the
Netherlands and one from Switzerland. Three firms (14%) said that they sourced fabric
locally, but no more than 40% of their fabric needs. Many firm owners would have like to
source from Cotona, but their quality is unacceptable for the international market or its
59
prices are too high. Within sub-Saharan Africa, one firm sourced jean fabric from a denim
mill in Lesotho, and two firms sourced fabric from Mauritius.
6.2.4 Wages and Productivity in Madagascar
One of the main attractions for producers in Madagascar is the low wage rates and
relatively productive workforce.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, wages in
Madagascar are amongst the lowest in the world and productivity, although low, is
improving. Workers in Madagascar are considered to be skilled with their hands, with
many firms using hand and machine embroidery. This section goes into further detail
about wages, training, turnover, and absenteeism.
According to the firm managers interviewed, workers are given a base salary with
a minimum required number of pieces to be completed. In addition to the basic salary,
workers are given individual or team bonuses, depending on the bonus strategy used by
each firm. Twelve firms (57%) used an individual bonus system and four firms (20%)
used a team bonus system. Five firms (24%) did not report what type of bonus system
they used. Firms reported that workers base salaries start at 20€ per month and rise to 40€
per month, plus bonuses (Key Informant 85). Over half (57%) of manufacturers feel that
workers are not necessarily motivated to produce more, despite incentive programs,
agreeing with this statement:
The Malagasies could produce more if they put their minds to it. Right now they
just do enough to put food on the table, and nothing more (Key Informant 28).
However, six producers (29%) said that productivity was not a problem, and three (14%)
gave no response to the question.
High productivity levels are key for a firm’s and an industry’s ability to compete.
It allows a firm to complete an order faster and lowers the number of workers necessary to
complete an order, thus lowering the average costs. In 2002, productivity levels of
Malagasy workers, although high for African workers, were computed at being less than
half of those of Chinese workers and 75% of those of Mauritian workers (Tait 2002).
However, indications are that since 2002 productivity levels have increased substantially.
We now have 700 employees, but we are 40% more productive than when
we had 1100 employees before the crisis. The crisis [of 2002] allowed us to
restructure our factory. But is this enough to compete with China? No (Key
Informant 34).
An industry official believes that productivity in Madagascar is about 70-80% the
international average, with slight variations between firms (Key Informant 85). As one
60
interviewee stated, if workers in China can produce 10 shirts in a day, workers in
Madagascar can only produce 6 or 7 (Key Informant 50).
Depending on the type of work, productivity levels varied. Filling repeat orders
for large US and EU buyers is easier as productivity levels are higher and turnaround
times faster on repeat orders.
We are trying to do core product runs with our buyer so that our productivity is
quite high (Key Informant 96).
Firms preferred doing repeat goods because that allowed their workers to obtain very high
levels of productivity. One manufacturer explained that it always takes a few days turn
around time to change the production line from one order to the next. This takes a few
days, longer if workers have difficulties adapting to the new product.
When
manufacturers have large orders of 30,000 – 100,000 pieces, turn around time does not
matter as much because workers have time to learn.
When orders are smaller, it is hard to maintain quality (Key Informant 40).
For an order or 10-30,000 pieces, productivity isn’t a problem, but for an order of
less than 1,000, it’s a problem (Key Informant 39).
With smaller orders, the turnaround time is the same, but only 10-20,000 pieces are
produced. Maintaining quality is also difficult as the number of rejected garments is
usually the same no matter how large the order
Malagasy workers are considered by the firms to be very adept with close-up work
requiring the hands.
Workers learn very fast and have quick hands (Key informant 40).
For work requiring fingers, Madagascar does better. This isn’t rumour: it’s the
truth (Key Informant 4).
It is these abilities, especially in embroidery, that give Madagascar an advantage over
other countries, but as other countries’ workers become skilled, such advantages may
erode over time.
6.2.5 Training
Lack of training was mentioned by many interviewees as being a hindrance to
efficient production. Due to the lack of a training school for textile and clothing workers,
workers arrive without any skills at all and must be trained in-house. As mentioned in the
previous chapter, there are no permanent training schools for sewing machine operators
61
and others in the clothing and textile industry. Firms are always looking for trained
workers to fill in empty positions.
It takes time to train a worker on the different
machines:
It takes 3-6 months to train people on knitting machines… We need stable people
who stay and are skilled (Key Informant 4).
A lack of training goes hand in hand with high turnover. As soon as people acquire skills,
they become valued workers and move to another factory that pays more for a skilled
person.
Three firms mentioned that university graduates were working on the production
lines. It was difficult for these graduates to find jobs that pay well, and production line
jobs allowed them to not only earn a base salary, but the firms mentioned that they were
the most likely to profit from the bonuses offered to workers.
6.2.6 Turnover and Absenteeism
Relatively speaking, turnover was less pressing than increasing rent and shipping
costs. Turnover seemed to be related to the location of the factory. Interviewees in
factories located in large industrial zones in and around Antananarivo complained about
workers leaving as soon as they were trained. As mentioned above, after being trained,
workers go to the firm next door and receive higher wages because they were then
considered as having experience. Firms mentioned turnover rates of 2-10% of their total
workforce. Knitting factories in particular reported high turnover at the beginning stages
of training.
Turnover is very high for new workers – after three days they leave. Empty
machines don’t produce anything. We always have empty machines (Key
Informant 39).
Knit workers leave – it’s hard, heavy work, and you stand all day. It isn’t pleasant
(Key Informant 39).
But some firms mentioned that absenteeism is a more of a problem than turnover. One
firm, which normally has a turnover rate of 2% found that its absenteeism rates increased
during the planting and harvesting seasons, as workers left to look after their farms (Key
Informant 96).
One firm has been more proactive about reducing their turnover. The firm decided
to relocate outside of the industrial zones to make it more difficult for workers to leave.
We wanted a location far away from other factories – to stop our employees from
skipping to other factories. Workers in the industrial parks were leaving for 10
62
FMG 8 more. Although we had to pay a lot in the beginning to train the unskilled
workers here, we now have less than 2% turnover per year (Key Informant 34).
For this firm, it seems to have been a successful strategy, but obviously not every factory
can do the same. In December 2004, an ILO-sponsored workshop between producers,
workers and government in Madagascar found the producers are not looking for a training
school per se, but rather for government assistance with in-hour training (ILO 2004). As
another strategy to combat absenteeism, some factories give a bonus at the end of each
month if the worker was present every day (Key Informant 6).
6.2.7 Social Actions
‘Social actions’ or non-monetary benefits some firms provide to their workers are
particular to Madagascar. During the devaluation in 2004, some firms, for example, offer
as a non-monetary benefit a bag of rice. A number of firms provide rice at a subsidized
price to their employees, the cost of which is later withdrawn from the employee’s pay
check. Otherwise, to receive duty-free rice the employee would be forced to stand in line
for government (imported) duty-free rice, causing them to be absent from work. From
January to June 2004, workers would miss work to stand in line for governmentsubsidized rice, the only rice workers could afford. It appears that such assistance has
been discontinued since the currency has stabilized.
Factories reported serving free
lunches for their employees, with one factory providing three meals per day (Key
Informant 63). Three firms also had clinics onsite.
6.3
Typology of Performance
While researching, it became apparent that firms fell into four distinct categories of
status based on the criteria of employment (whether or not they had laid off workers),
investments made in manpower or machines, and future orders. This section provides a
snapshot of firms at the time research was undertaken. Firms are classified as ‘shrinking,’
‘stable,’ ‘wait and see,’ or ‘expanding’. A firm identified as shrinking had no orders past
August 2005, were currently producing at partial capacity, and had permanently laid-off
one-third to one-half of their employees. Closure appeared to be imminent. Wait and see
means that a firm has orders for six months, but will not be making any investments in the
near future as the future is unclear. Some wait and see firms had temporarily laid-off
workers. Stable firms have orders at least through next year and had no changes in
8
Franc malgache – Malagasy franc. The official currency in Madagascar until January 2005. It has been
replaced by the ariary. However, the FMG is still in circulation.
63
employment levels; they did not seem in danger of closing their doors. Expanding firms
are increasing the number of production lines and employees. Using this rubric, four
(19%) firms were identified as are shrinking, two (10%) are wait and see, 11 (52%) as
stable, and four (19%) as expanding (Table 6.6).
Table 6.6: Firm Current Status by Nationality and Market Destination
Market
Firm Nationality
US
US
Current Status
Asian
Shrinking
FIK
Wait and see
Stable
O
HU B
W
S
AQ
R
Expanding
E
T
X
D
EU
European Mauritian Malagasy
N
CG J V
FIKN
OS
CHU
V W B*
T
AGJ
RQ B*
DEX
* Firm B exports equally to both markets.
Note: Firms are identified by a randomly assigned letter.
The four firms identified as shrinking and the two that are wait and see are firms
serve the US market, indicating that half of those producing for the US have uncertain
futures past 2005. There are no firms serving the EU market that are identified as
shrinking or wait and see (Table 6.6). Of the 11 firms considered stable, five serve the US
and five serve the EU markets, with one firm equally serving both markets.
This implies that market destination plays a role in stability of production.
Performance seems to be dependent on the market to which firms export. Significantly,
there are no firms serving the EU market that are identified as shrinking or wait and see.
Furthermore, three out of the four classified as expanding and half the firms identified as
stable serve the EU market. No firms serving the EU market were identified as shrinking
or wait and see. It appears that in this sample, market of destination partially determined
the current status of firms, possibly due to the different nature of the EU value chain. This
appears to reinforce the claim that European buyers being easier to work with and better at
maintaining relationships than US buyers.
Nationality also relates to performance. Asian firms find themselves in more a
precarious position as half of Asian firms surveyed are identified as shrinking or wait and
see. One Malagasy firm was identified as shrinking. These firms are facing tough
competition from China and other competitors on the product level; these firms considered
64
to be shrinking specialize in basic denim jeans and t-shirts and have seen prices forced
down by intense international competition.
Despite how dire the situation was predicted to be, 70% of the sampled firms will
survive at least until next year. Overall in the industry, only five of 118 textile and
clothing firms had closed up to April 2005, leaving 5000 people unemployed; an
additional three firms laid off a total of 3000 people (Rambelo 2005a).
6.4
Macroeconomic Conditions and Context
The operating conditions for firms in Madagascar do not occur in isolation.
Macroeconomic conditions, including the currency and government focus on rural
development, have affected industry in Madagascar. Prices that producers obtain for their
garments are in flux: since the quotas ended, prices have dropped dramatically. As costs
rise while prices received drop, producers are being squeezed from both sides. This
section discusses government’s industrial policy, falling international prices and
competition with China.
6.4.1 Government Industrial Policy
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the clothing and textile industry in
Madagascar is not the main focus of the government’s development strategy. Interviews
with industry officials and firms confirmed this view.
The government is currently
focused on rural development, not industrial development. Firms repeatedly mentioned
that there was a lack of interest of government in the industry, despite the industry’s
importance in terms of employment and revenue generated. Most interviewees reported
never having seen a government official.
Firm managers with experience in other
countries compared the interest of government in Madagascar to elsewhere, finding that
other countries tend to be more attentive to the problems the clothing and textile industry
faces.
Government is concentrating on agriculture because [that way] people ‘will always
have enough to eat’. At this point, it is too late for the government to do anything
anyways [for the clothing industry] (Key Informant 28).
In [other countries with garment factories], the government comes as soon as there
is a problem to see if they can do something” (Key Informant 71).
The government is a wall. They are not interested in textiles. The companies in
the EPZ are foreign firms, not Malagasy, so we are not considered important (Key
Informant 61).
65
Firms operate with little assistance or communication from government. It appears that an
open channel of communication between the Ministry of Industry and firms or their
associations would assist the industry in clearing up inconveniences that hinder the
smooth flow of commerce. The major government program towards industry is the EPZ
legislation: firms pay no or little corporate tax for the first five years of production. Apart
from the EPZ legislation, little is being done to support industry.
What assistance the government has provided is more crisis-driven than policydriven. After the 2002 political crisis, the government program set up the Fonds d’appui
pour le Secteur Privé (Support Funds for the Private Sector: FASP) program that assisted
firms with their post-crisis recovery, by providing funds for capital investments and
training.
Government has helped. They gave us a loan through FASP, and offered training
for heads of production and workers (Key Informant 58).
However, that program reached the end of its mandate in 2004. JUMPSTART, a program
funded by USAID, assisted small and medium handicraft and clothing enterprises develop
their business skills and find clients. One firm interviewed found their clients in this
manner.
6.4.2 Post-crisis Resilience
Before the crisis, an estimated 120,000 people were employed in EPZ garment
firms. Between 30 and 40,000 jobs were lost due to the crisis as companies restructured
or closed permanently (Salinger 2003 and Manchester Trade Team 2005).
Of the
estimated 140 to 160 EPZ textile and clothing firms open in 2001, approximately 25% of
the textile and clothing firms left. There are currently 118 EPZ textile and clothing firms
registered with the Ministry of Industry.
Of the 21 firms interviewed, 17 were present and producing in Madagascar when
the 2002 political crisis started. Of those 17, seven firms managed to stay open despite the
conditions. Ten firms were unable to meet orders over the crisis period and closed. Firms
that remained open continued to produce because they were concerned about losing
longstanding clients with whom they had developed a relationship.
During the crisis, it was better to get the product out no matter what than lose the
client (Key Informant 25).
We didn’t lose any customers in 2002. We did everything possible to satisfy our
customers, even flying raw materials in to Tana (Key Informant 96).
66
Firms went to great lengths to export their garments, especially once the main road to the
port was blockaded. The road between Tamatave and Antananarivo was blockaded from
March to July 2002, during which time firms had to find other means of transport. Some
firms had to send their shipments by air at an enormous cost, causing some to fall deeply
into debt. Three firms reported sending shipments via a combination of truck and canoe to
the port after the roads were blocked.
Interviewees stressed that they could not lose a client, to do so was to let the parent
company down. It was unknown if the clients would come back after the crisis was
finished. The buying offices for MAST, Li & Fung, Eddie Bauer, Gap, Dockers and
Levi’s closed during the crisis or in its immediate aftermath and have not reopened. Such
buying office are quickly set up and quickly moved, giving the industry a footloose nature.
When there is no buying office in-country, there is an additional distance between the
buyers and the producer, making it more difficult for firms to have steady contact with
buyers in Madagascar, and in turn, to obtain orders from buyers.
6.4.3 Prices and Upgrading
Not only has the end of the MFA released China from the quota restraints, but as
the volume of garments available internationally increases, prices are decreasing for core
products that most factories in Madagascar produce. For producers who make basic
denim products, which China produces in abundance, prices per dozen have decreased
substantially since January 2005. Eleven firms (52%) report that prices offered per dozen
have decreased 30-50% in the past six months. These firms reported difficulties making
ends meet with the lower prices that their clients offered. One firm said it could not make
ends meet if prices fall further and would be forced to close (Key Informant 25).
Madagascar also has several cashmere garment manufacturers, but the prices for their
product are relatively stable.
Firms were hesitant to report on prices received per garment from the buyers.
Only one firm was forthcoming with this information. As an example of how far prices
have dropped, this firm reported that price it receives per pair of basic five pocket jeans
has dropped from $5.25 to $3.75, a 30% drop (Key Informant 25). This same firm has
seen its margin on its products be reduced from 55 cents per garment to 20 cents per
garment. (In a similar study conducted on the clothing and textile industry in Swaziland,
67
prices for school uniform pants reportedly fell from $21 per dozen to $9.50 per dozen in
January 2005.)
At the same time as there is a race to the bottom for prices, a better price can be
obtained for quality. Firms mentioned that clients are willing to pay more for a better
product. “The basic product price has decreased, but clients are ready to pay for more
value-added” (Key Informant 39). Producers reported receiving more orders and larger
orders as they improve their quality standards. Several firms mentioned quality
improvements as a strategy for the future: the firms are trying to make more fashiondependent items with higher value-added. In essence, as per value chain theory, producers
are trying to move up the value chain by acquiring higher rents within the value chain via
quality improvements and more value-added.
Most firms reported that clients would often compare their prices to those that
could be obtained in China or India. Some firms reported not being able to meet their
clients’ price demands and then having that client leave.
6.4.4 David versus Goliath: Competition with China
Firm managers recognized that their toughest competitor is China. Interviewees
constantly discussed the competition from China, in terms of its higher productivity,
political stability, in-country availability of raw materials, and proximity to the US market
(Key Informant 40). All these attributes make doing business in China easier, compared
to Madagascar. Higher productivity and comparatively lower wages make competing with
China difficult.
In Madagascar, workers work 8 hours/day for $50/month, which is cheap. But in
China they work 12-16 hours/day with twice the productivity (Key Informant 40).
Despite these advantages, two firms reported that buyers returned after going to China.
Chinese firms prefer large orders of relatively simple products. EU buyers tend to have
smaller orders, which may be why firms that export to the EU are more stable than those
who produce for the US market.
We have clients that don’t go to China because the product they want is too
complicated (Key Informant 39).
Prices have decreased 15% to 25%. But the styles we are doing are more and more
complicated because buyers pass to us orders they cannot have made in China
[because the garments are too complicated] (Key Informant 63).
68
In addition, firms reported that buyers returned to Madagascar because of problems faced
in China, including cultural and linguistic barriers.
Buyers don’t want to have all their orders in China, even if China is the best
competitor. So what is the alternative? Madagascar (Key Informant 85).
We have clients that have come back to us after going to China. They prefer a
more stable environment (Key Informant 83).
Sourcing entirely from one country can be a risky business strategy, so buyers will
continue to source from other countries. The most oft-quoted phrase was that buyers “do
not like to put all their eggs in one basket,” indicating that buyers will not source entirely
from China so as to better manage their supply chain.
Finally, one firm manager visits firms in China to learn new techniques and
processes. A firm owner reported visiting China regularly to see new technologies,
production techniques and fabrics.
I go to China twice a year. I see what the fabric suppliers are doing in China. I see
what the competition is doing. They [Firms in China] don’t see us as competition.
Other firms in Madagascar don’t do this [visit Chinese firms] (Key Informant 34).
Manufacturers in Madagascar face almost overwhelming competition when competing
with China. In China, logistics are better organized, more services are offered, fabric and
accessories are widely available, and the time to market is much shorter than for
Madagascar. But what manufacturers in Madagascar do have are links to Europe and a
common language and business culture. Most manufacturers are finding ways to survive.
6.5
Conclusion
This chapter summarized the essential findings of the field research undertaken in
Madagascar, including the sampled firms’ basic characteristics and the challenges these
firms face in terms of productivity, physical infrastructure, government policy, and
international competition.
Firms in Madagascar are vulnerable to changes in local and international conditions.
Madagascar lacks reliable service delivery of electricity and roads, while the cost for these
services are rising. At the same time, prices manufacturers receive for their products are
declining. Profit margins are thin. Increases in production costs and decreases in prices
cannot be predicted, making it difficult for manufacturers to prepare for the future.
Despite these challenges, manufacturers have been able to survive. Yet there are
many support measures that can be implemented to assist firms. Something as simple as a
69
dual carriageway 300 kilometres long between the capital and the port would lessen the
vulnerability of firms in Madagascar. Government is focusing its energies and resources
on rural development while neglecting industrial development. Basic programs such as
monetary support for capital investment or interest subsidies could help firms make
important capital purchases that would help stabilize their position in the international
clothing context.
Government pressure on the port authorities could accelerate the
clearance time at the port, saving manufacturers valuable time in the production process.
With a little support firms can continue to operate and expand in Madagascar, facilitating
the industrial development of the country. What is certain is that the international clothing
and textile condition are in continual flux, and firms must be able to continuously adapt.
70
Chapter 7 : Conclusion
The structure of the clothing and textile industry as a whole is changing. China is
surging ahead, increasing its production output at unbelievable rates. At the same time,
competition is forcing prices down for garments around the world, making it difficult for
manufacturers to compete. The Multifibre Arrangement, the backbone of the industry for
40 years, has now been abolished. It was the MFA that gave rise to quota-hopping and
thus triangular manufacturing, which brought the industry to Madagascar. It is these
problems that garment firms in Madagascar must face.
There are indications in the research undertaken in Madagascar that the process of
triangular manufacturing is changing. Firms mentioned that relationships were becoming
more direct with buyers, in particular European buyers. This may have huge implications
for Madagascar for two reasons. First, this could mean the end or at least the diminishing
of importance of triangular manufacturing.
Second, most of manufacturers’ orders
originally came via sourcing houses, rather than directly from buyers. The question
remains as to how manufacturers will receive orders in the future.
These direct
relationships between manufacturer and buyer are a sort of ‘black box’; little is known by
researchers how this process works. This is an area of the value chain that deserves
further research.
Another element that gave rise to the industry is the special trade treatment that
Madagascar has received from both the major markets. The tariff-free entry for goods
from Madagascar that AGOA and ACP preferences provided, gave the industry the
jumpstart necessary to grow. Madagascar will face new pressures in the future for two
reasons. First, AGOA preferences are being eroded as similar preferences are being
awarded to other countries. Tariff-free preferences may not offer such a major advantage
to sub-Saharan African countries much longer. Second, in September 2007, countries in
sub-Saharan Africa will be forced to source fabric locally or regionally. Fabric from SSA
is currently considered by manufacturers and buyers alike to be too expensive and too
flawed to meet quality guidelines. A solution therefore will need to be found to deal with
post-2007 constraints.
Not only must firms in Madagascar face challenges in the international arena, they
must also contend with many local problems. In terms of the infrastructural environment,
costs for electricity and transport are increasing, the roads and ports are inefficient, and
71
government is considered unhelpful.
These factors are unique to the situation in
Madagascar and have affected the competitive performance of the industry. A clear
question would be what can be done to assist firms in dealing with these issues.
Pressures on firms have increased: in addition to worker productivity being low,
manufacturers must cut costs and wages, and produce more at a higher quality. There is
no protection from China. To deal with these new international conditions, firms and the
industry as a whole can upgrade. Upgrading – by function, process or product – is the
generally accepted way of ensuring that a firm maintains or strengthens its position within
the chain.
Upgrading increases the competitiveness levels.
Individual firms or the
industry as a whole can upgrade, and government can assist upgrading by offering
support. The section below discusses the various strategies that firms and the industry are
following to become more competitive in the increasingly competitive apparel industry.
7.1
Strategies for Post-MFA Survival
There are firms that are leaving Madagascar for a variety of reasons. Some find the
local problems within Madagascar too great and believe the future lies elsewhere. Other
firms can no longer survive in the new international context and have closed their doors.
But the industry is far from dead. The next section discusses the different strategies that
firms have developed. As one key informant stated
It is survival of the fittest in this industry, but there are many ways for factories to
survive here (Key Informant 2)
As per value chain theory discussed in Chapter 3, firms have different ways of upgrading
or strategizing for the future. Firms in Madagascar recognized their precarious position
and are working to improve their situation, either by increasing productivity, upgrading
quality, or expanding to different markets. Five firms (24%) are focusing solely on
offering more services to clients as a post-MFA strategy, four firms (19%) are working on
increasing the quality of their product to attract more buyers and three firms (14%) are
concentrating on productivity. Two firms are focusing on upgrading both services and
quality, while one firm is focusing on both services and productivity. The four firms that
have been classified as shrinking in Chapter 6 produced either jeans or t-shirts, two
categories of product that face head-on competition from China. Firms in Madagascar
could also upgrade by switching production to other garments that China produces less of,
or garments that have high tariff barriers, like synthetics.
72
7.1.1 Firm Specific Strategies
Besides general upgrading strategies, three firms in particular are following unique
strategies. Although also incorporating the basics of improving productivity and quality,
the strategies also include different perspectives on options open to manufacturers in
Madagascar
OWNING THE PRODUCTION: FIRM T
One firm in Madagascar is a wholly-owned subsidiary of a brand name in a major
market. Despite the international trend of disconnecting production from design, the
parent company of Firm T has decided to own most of their production units outright
rather than deal with intermediaries. Setting up shop in Madagascar was a strategic
decision: lead times were calculated, capabilities of the workforce were taken into
account. Firm T has a continuous production arrangement so that there is never a wait for
raw materials and the sewing lines never stop. Firm T’s edge over the others is that the
parent company purchases all the raw materials to receive bulk discounts, as well as takes
care of the financing for transport and production. Each factory associated with the parent
company fills in a different niche of the market. Some do high-end garments, while other
factories like the one in Madagascar produce mainly lower-end jeans. All production is
destined for retail stores in the United States.
Instead of employing different actors along the value chain for design, production
and sourcing, this company has everything within the same company except the
manufacturing of raw materials. By keeping everything within the same company, costs
are lower than if the stages of design, sourcing and production were separate entities.
However, the individual factory in Madagascar has little say in its future – if the strategy
for the company as a whole is to pull out of sub-Saharan Africa, then there is little that can
be done to ensure the factory remains. This company has gone against international trends
of slicing up the different stages of the value chain to different actors and has instead taken
control of almost all the stages.
FOCUSING ON ONE CLIENT: FIRM J
Having only one client might be risky, but one firm’s strategy is to work with one
client. So far this strategy has been successful, as the firm’s one-year contract with its
buyer has been renewed for an additional year. The buyer Firm J works for produces highend garments for the European market.
73
Formerly a subcontractor specializing in denim jeans, Firm J had the opportunity
in late 2003 to work for a very high-end brand name. Firm J operates as a CMT (cut,
make, trim) operation for their buyer. All the raw materials needed to make the garments
arrive on the container and Firm J only assembles the final garment. This is partially due
to the high costs of the specialized raw materials needed for the garment.
Firm J’s buyer seems intent on developing a long-term relationship with this firm.
Technicians sent by the buyer came and instructed the workers at Firm J on how to
assemble the garments due to the complexity of the garments. And due to the fact that the
production line workers are always working with the same type of garment and fabric,
workers have increased their productivity.
This buyer consumes most of the production time and space in Firm J. It would be
difficult for this firm to find other clients to fill in the production space left open during
season changes. This firm would like to diversify its buyer portfolio, but the manager did
not appear eager to expand due to the risk and costs involved with expansion.
This is not an easily replicable situation; this type of opportunity may not be
available to every factory. Firm J is a small factory of less than 400 employees and cannot
take on more orders for other clients without radically expanding production and number
of employees, a strategy which the manager feels might compromise quality. For the near
future, the strategy is to focus on this one client. Thus far, the strategy appears to be
working; Firm J is in the running for a five-year contract.
IF YOU CAN’T BEAT THEM, JOIN THEM: THE CASE OF FIRM D
Instead of watching orders flee from factories in Madagascar to factories in China
and India, one firm has decided to take the initiative and invest in India. The typical setup of factories is having a parent company in Asia, and a subsidiary factory in
Madagascar. Instead, one firm is doing the reverse. The company is based in Mauritius,
but has moved production units to India while keeping production units in Madagascar.
The parent company analyzed buyer behaviour and found that buyers only go to where the
sourcing offices are located. If there is no sourcing office in a country, buyers are less
likely to order from that company. The parent company of Firm D has found that many
buyers go to sourcing offices located in a particular area of India.
We have been in India for two months now. Buyers go to India. Before, we had to
go search for buyers, now they visit India twice a year . . . In India, there are all the
[fabric and accessory] suppliers we need (Key Informant 83).
74
The parent company not only opened up an office and a factory in India in January 2005,
but also expanded production units in Madagascar.
The firm expects to double the
number of employees in the future (Key Informant 83).
At the same time, the firm has focused on developing high levels of quality by
employing quality control officers who are trained by the buyer and act on the buyers’
behalf while the order is in production. This has led to the firm being able to dictate prices
to buyers and to be at full production capacity. This firm is producing for mid- to highrange buyers. This firm has been able to move up the value chain from producing lowend, low-price garments to high quality, fashion-oriented garments.
In addition, the firm has access to fabric produced by a textile mill within its
group. Approximately 80% of their fabric comes from the firm’s own mill, with the
remainder coming from COTONA (the textile mill in Madagascar) and China, Taiwan,
and Indonesia. The parent company has been preparing for the effects of the end of the
MFA for three years, and now feels competent to handle the new context.
7.1.2 Industry-specific strategy
As a general industry upgrading strategy, the government could pursue the
development of more forward and backwards linkages in the clothing and textile industry.
Backwards linkages include developing fabric mills and cotton production within
Madagascar. There is just one major woven fabric mill in Madagascar. As stated in
Chapter 4, this mill does not have the capacity to produce for even half the garment
manufacturers in Madagascar. Madagascar also produces cotton, but most is exported. In
2007, the AGOA third country fabric provision will expire, and clothing manufacturers
must find regional sources for fabric in order to qualify for duty-free access. Having
fabrics available within the same country would be an added bonus, saving manufactures
three to four weeks of lead time. Government could target the development of fabric mills
within Madagascar as an industrial policy. However, with less than two years remaining
before the third country fabric provision expires, timelines are very tight, and government
must act quickly.
In February 2005, a clustering organization called ‘Text’Ile Mada’ officially
opened for business, intending to assist the firms in Madagascar upgrade and compete at a
higher level internationally. Supported with funds from the Centre for the Development
of Enterprise (CDE) of the European Union, the objective is to foster a textile cluster
75
similar to those found in Italy and France and help firms in Madagascar survive the
intense competition expect after the end of the MFA.
Regarding the MFA, firms knew that there must be an industry-level response for
2005: we must organise. This was an element of motivation in creation the cluster:
together we are strong (Key Informant 85).
The cluster hopes to limit vulnerability by acquiring new know-how and experience as
members share their knowledge.
There are currently 17 members of the cluster, each with a different specialization.
The cluster is comprised of garment and lingerie manufacturers, industrial and manual
embroidery firms, quality controllers, and a transport company (Zafimaharo 2005). This
grouping of different firms allows the cluster members to offer a wider range of services.
The objective of the cluster is to seize the opportunity to offer Madagascar as an
alternative to China . . . We are relying on the quality of production and on
[offering] services. That’s our focal point (Key Informant 85).
The variety of firms available in Madagascar is one of the advantages the cluster has,
providing clients with a ‘one-stop shop’ at which they can order fabric and embroidery
and different styles of garments. Since many orders are too large for smaller firms to
manage, the cluster will coordinate production sharing amongst members.
Some firms cannot offer more than 12,000 pieces of production capacity at a time.
The cluster permits firms to share production capacity and access new
opportunities in terms of orders (Key Informant 85).
The cluster hopes to help members to access new markets with the expansion of
production capacity (Zafimaharo 2005). Not only can the cluster obtain economies of
scale on production, but also on transport. Already, the cluster has obtained a bulk
discount of 25% on transport costs for members (Rambelo 2005b).
The cluster will also organize workshops on production techniques, orders, and
training costs among members. The cluster organisers hope that the sharing of knowledge
between members will increase productivity. As members of the cluster have a maximum
of 1000 employees; not all firms can take part. The organizers of the cluster believe that
the larger firms would find it difficult to work with others due to differing needs (Key
Informant 85). The cluster is hoping that the combination of extra services offered to
clients, higher value-added and better quality garments produced within the cluster, and
larger production capacity will attract buyers who would have otherwise filled their orders
in China.
76
7.2
Infrastructure
Infrastructure, particularly affordable utilities and quality roads, plays an important
role in the survival of any industry. Madagascar lacks efficient ports and sufficient roads
to handle the volume of container traffic the clothing industry entails.
One policy
direction the government could take is to address these concerns by improving the road
system and ensuring that the ports function efficiently. Firms mentioned infrastructure as
the main problem they face. Government could assist firms just by enlarging the road
from the port to Tana, which would not only help the clothing firms, but commerce in
general.
Electricity supply and costs were also mentioned by manufacturers as a hindrance
to production. Government could prioritize electricity distribution to manufacturers or
encourage the electricity company JIRAMA to offer lower rates for industrial consumers.
7.3
A Regional Strategy – Synergising the Value Chain
Another alternative would be to create a regional strategy. Although sub-Saharan
Africa accounts for less than 1% of global exports of clothing and textiles, within the
region a wide variety of textile and clothing producers are available, particularly in South
Africa. Unfortunately, four key informants reported that the fabric quality produced out of
South Africa was not acceptable and the lead times were too long. Lesotho and Swaziland
also have fabric mills: Lesotho a denim mill, and a knitted fabric mill is opening in
Swaziland in early 2006. It would make sense to create a regional strategy so that
countries in SSA work together to face competition from countries in Asia. Fabric mills
could be upgraded and their production capacity expanded to cater for manufacturers in
SSA. Mills could specialize in different fabrics so there is no duplication. More buyers
would be attracted to a unified region rather than separate small countries vying against
each other. A regional cluster approach might result in the expansion of industry in all
countries.
For example, Coughlin et al studied the Southern African Development
Community (SADC) region, and found that great opportunities lie in working together as
a region on such simple policies such as customs clearance and financing, besides on
fabrics (Coughlin et al 2001). Although needing further research to better understand the
capacities of the textile industry in Southern Africa and the needs of the marketplace, a
regional strategy does hold promise.
Madagascar is an interesting case of industrial development brought on by global
factors as well as internal ones. The country is in desperate need of formal employment,
77
which the clothing and textile industry has provided. However, the global apparel value
chain is in flux and firms are faced with increasingly difficult circumstances as costs rise
and prices fall in the intense competition. Madagascar’s major advantage, tariff-free
preference to the US market is being eroded. The third country fabric provision that
allows Madagascar to import fabric from the cheapest country will expire in 2007, and
there is currently no regional alternative fabric source. This thesis researched in greater
depth the industry to better understand its dynamics as well as looked at how firms are
coping with the changing international conditions. For the most part, firms are adapting
and upgrading, but the future with the end of the third country fabric provision and the
changes to the EU preferences schemes is still uncertain.
continue to upgrade and invest to cope with these changes.
78
Hopefully, the firms will
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Appendix: Interview Schedules
MADAGASCAR & THE POST-ATC QUOTA CONTEXT
FIRM INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Date:
Company Name:
Name & position of
respondent:
Type of firm & product 9
1.
Basic about the industry
Current situation in T&C; Origin of investments;
Current problems;
History of set up –pre- & post crisis discussion
2.
Basic about the firm
a. Basic History of set up (set up date, origin) – if pre-crisis, what happened in 2002?
And afterwards? Why stayed?
b. Origin of ownership
i. part of a foreign company?
YES
NO
ii. Parent company country:
_____________
iii. what is the origin of ownership:
% domestic: __________
% foreign: __________
Note that total domestic & foreign = 100
c. Employees: current number & change over time
d. Product
What are your 3 major products that you manufacture? Confirm knitted/woven –
cotton/synthetics (HS code to 2 digits?).
e. Market of destination & main product exported to market & changes over time.
Choice of Markets: feelings about AGOA – EU (& individual EU markets) vs.
US market.
Markets of destination and what % of your production value do they constitute?
Market
EU
US
% Total
production value
f.
Strengths of the firm (price, product, quality, technical standards, delivery
services, logistics etc.)
g. Current state of competition - Experience with their competitors relative to China
(overseas production experience? Market knowledge base?) – Asian,
international, regional
k. Area(s) in which the parent company supported your establishment in 2004.
Specify for any change in involvement that would have occurred between
2004 and 2005 the extent to which it is caused by the abolition of the MFA.
Comment if appropriate.
9
Need to approach, all the Mau, EU & Mala. Firms & a sub-set of Asian. Minimum = 30 firms. 5
embroidery. In plan B: 5 veg. Fibres. One accessory firm.
84
3.
Export / specific
a. Export pattern discussion – history of export.
b. Orders: how orders were secured? Relationship with customers.
En faisant référence à vos plus grands clients étrangers, en quelle année avezvous établi une relation avec ceux-ci? Quel genre de relation est actuellement en
place avec ces clients? Modèle des relations avec les clients
-
Année où une relation a été établie/histoire des liens
Commandes faites directement par le détaillant à l’étranger
Commandes par le biais d’un grossiste
Commandes par le biais d’un agent ou d’un représentant à l’étranger
Commandes par le biais d’un agent ou d’un représentant basé à
Madagascar
Segments de marche:
- Lignes pour des grandes marques (Armani etc.) – sous licence ?
- Lignes de marque pour des magasins specialises dans les vetements/
succursales (chaines) – qualite
- Magasins de rabais
- Catalogues
- Supermarches
- Autres (boutiques)
c. key determinants of export success
Changements au niveau des determinants de la performance - over the last 12
months (1=not important, 5=moderately important, 10=critically important).
General problem areas.
- Economies of scale, average cost & MC change.
- Price competitiveness
- Technology competence & Product development capacity – design
-
(dessinateurs & stylists?) & Investment depuis 2001?
Manufacturing processes
Product quality
Labour & Management skills
OU
key constraints to exporting. Ampleur des problèmes (1=not important, 5=moderately
important, 10=critically important)
- Problème propre à l’entreprise – par exemple rejet, mauvaise synchronisation
des commandes, etc.
- National – augmentation des coûts (salaires, transport, prix des matières
premières)
- International:
–
–
–
4.
Augmentation de la competition causée par le déclin des prix
internationaux pour vos produits;
Déplacement par les acheteurs en faveur de nouveaux producteurs
Asiatiques
difficultés chez les détaillants dans votre marché étranger principal
VC
a.
Present VC
- Origine des importations des produits textiles & accessoires - most important
raw material component suppliers by country and give us a sense of their
relative importance. Check whether fabrics supplied from within the company.
ROO;
- Linkages, changes in product ranges etc. Import / input quality & link input
quality to output quality.
85
b.
Employees – Labour recruitment dimension. Discussion of minimum
entry requirements and/or employee qualifications as well as of training
programme. Characteristics of employment / migration – importance of the sector
in terms of generating an income. Productivity changes / current productivity level
c.
Payment of employees – salaire a la pièce / système de bonus.
5.
MFA abolition:
d. How long have been thinking and planning for the predicted/possible effects of
the end of the MFA? If foreign company, discuss role of the parent company &
changes of behaviour around foreign company’s response being shaped by the MFA.
e. Current changes & changes in strategy (VC) – reason for change.
- Intra-firm changes – EOS
- Inter-firm changes – subcontracting?
- Product changes
- Functional changes
- Expanding scope
f. Changements au niveau des clients en 2004.
g. Ability to influence changes (brand product image). Future plans: expansion,
relocation etc. over the next year. Over the coming 2 years (end of the AGOA?).
h. Future Opportunities? In Madagascar? Possibility of a further relocation?
6.
SUPPORT:
Industry organisation
i.
Activities, support. Role to play in terms of trade impact.
Government
j.
Activities, support, strategy.
k.
Assessment of what is lacking in the area of govt support.
86
MADAGASCAR & THE POST-MFA QUOTA CONTEXT
GOVERNMENT
Date:
Government unit & main function:
Name & position of respondent:
5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Basics
Comment on the current industrial policy of Madagascar.
Comment on the trade policy & on trade devts.
Comment on the T&C industry
- Importance of the industry:
ƒ for the economy?
ƒ Workforce dimension - Characteristics of employment / migration
– importance of the sector in terms of generating an income.
ƒ performance and changes over time. Number and changes in
employees – if recent changes in number of employees explain.
ƒ workers – general level of education/training facilities.
Productivity support.
ƒ System of payment of employees – salaire a la pièce / systeme de
bonus.
Role & challenges facing the government department (general and specific) in dealing
with the problems facing the industry.
6.
Support
a.
c.
Relationship with the industry? Comment on Public-private partnership. Input from the
industry?
(State of) research carried out on the industry for the government. International indicator
of performance: where is Madagascar situated? Has gvt got a sense of this? Source of
information?
Support to the industry?
ƒ How is Madagascar & the Malagasy industry represented
overseas – EPZ advertising, fairs etc.? (Incentives for fairs, backup of representative organization etc.)
ƒ Plan to support the industry?
ƒ Positions of the WBk? / IMF? Donor agencies?
7.
Context
a.
b.
c.
Main changes in strategy exhibited by the industry over a 1 year (to 2 year) period.
Origin of investment & motivation of the investors. Relations with parent companies?
How are the various markets perceived? US/EU – Other markets?
Importance of AGOA in terms of its role in the expansion of the industry. How does the
industry as a whole relate to AGOA?
EU market access advantages?
Obstacles facing the industry
• transport, suppliers, credit etc.
• Present value chain
- Main players. Import / input quality & link input quality
to output quality.
- Relationship between textiles and clothing firms / main
players. Changes in linkages?
The MFA abolition
b.
d.
8.
87
a. How long has the industry been thinking and planning for the predicted/possible
effets of the end of the MFA?
b. Current changes & changes in strategy (VC) – reason for change.
- Intra-firm changes – EOS
- Inter-firm changes – subcontracting?
- Product changes
- Functional changes
- Expanding scope
c. Changements au niveau des clients et des relations au niveau du commerce
international en 2004.
d. Specific issues facing the industry since Jan. 2005. Changes 2004/2005?
Competitiveness issues – factors that underlie improved competitiveness?
- Production changes?
- Price competitiveness?
- Product development? Product quality
- Labour & Management skills development?
Au niveau des problemes:
- Commentaires qui concernent les problèmes propres à l’entreprise – par
exemple rejet, mauvaise synchronisation des commandes, etc.
- Au niveau de l’augmentation des coûts (salaires, transport, prix des matières
premières)?
Que disent les entreprises au sujet de la competition? (déclin des prix internationaux?,
Déplacement par les acheteurs en faveur de nouveaux producteurs Asiatiques? Etc.)
e.
Commentataires au niveau de la loi en ce qui concerned les conditions de travail? /
droit du travail & droits des travailleurs? Labour law. Etc.
f.
Ability to influence changes (brand product image). Future plans: expansion,
relocation etc. over the next year. Over the coming 2 years (end of the AGOA?).
g.
Future Opportunities? In Madagascar? Possibility of a further relocation?
9.
The future
a.
Ability of the industry itself to generate changes (e.g. brand product image, product
change). Future plans: expansion, relocation etc. over the next year. Over the coming 2
years (end of the AGOA?). Expansion of the industry.
b.
Future Opportunities?
i.
In Madagascar or threat of relocation?
ii.
ROO, APE, pertes des avantages preferentiels?
c.
d.
e.
Future plans for the EPZ?
Diversification strategy? How does gvt think about diversification?
Changes to the organization structure, objectives etc. and changing government role in this
regard.
Feedback on the questionnaire & list of firms that has been/will be visited.
88
MADAGASCAR & THE POST-MFA QUOTA CONTEXT
INDUSTRY ORG
Date:
Industry org:
Name & position of respondent:
10.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11.
Basics about the organisation
History of the organisation
Role & change in role
Membership base (main feature, change)
Relationship with other organizations? Proliferation of organization?
Effectiveness of organization?
Context - The MFA abolition
a.
Trade EU vs. US: How important is AGOA – in terms of its current (relative to former)
role in the expansion of the industry? How does the industry as a whole relate to AGOA?
EU market access advantages?
b.
Domestic focus. How do the Malagasy firms fare compared to others? Models of
production?
c.
Specific issues facing the industry since Jan. 2005. Changes 2004/2005?
How long has the industry been thinking and planning for the predicted/possible effects of the end
of the MFA?
Response to the changes?
d.
Other obstacles facing the industry – transport, suppliers, credit etc.
Relationship between textiles and clothing firms / main players. Present VC –Import /
input quality & link input quality to output quality.
Competitiveness ƒ General direction of changes?
- Intra-firm changes – EOS
- Inter-firm changes – subcontracting?
- Product changes
- Functional changes
- Expanding scope
ƒ
Linkages, changes in product ranges etc. Export / relationship with
buyers.
What is happening in terms of foreign customers & of price-point / orders?
Modèle des relations avec les clients
Année où une relation a été établie/histoire des liens
- Commandes faites directement par le détaillant à l’étranger
- Commandes par le biais d’un grossiste
- Commandes par le biais d’un agent ou d’un représentant à l’étranger
- Commandes par le biais d’un agent ou d’un représentant basé à
Madagascar
Segments de marche:
- Lignes pour des grandes marques (Armani etc.) – sous licence ?
- Lignes de marque pour des magasins specialises dans les vetements/
-
succursales (chaines) – qualite
Magasins de rabais
Catalogues
Supermarches
Autres (boutiques)
89
e.
key determinants of export success
Changements au niveau des determinants de la performance - over the last 12
months (1=not important, 5=moderately important, 10=critically important).
General problem areas.
- Economies of scale, average cost & MC change.
- Price competitiveness
- Technology competence & Product development capacity – design
-
(dessinateurs & stylists?) & Investment depuis 2001?
Manufacturing processes
Product quality
Labour & Management skills
OU
key constraints to exporting. Ampleur des problèmes (1=not important, 5=moderately
important, 10=critically important)
- Problème propre à l’entreprise – par exemple rejet, mauvaise synchronisation
des commandes, etc.
- National – augmentation des coûts (salaires, transport, prix des matières
premières)
- International:
– Augmentation de la competition causée par le déclin des prix
internationaux pour vos produits;
– Déplacement par les acheteurs en faveur de nouveaux
producteurs Asiatiques
– difficultés chez les détaillants dans votre marché étranger
principal
12.
Emploi
a.
Importance of the industry in terms of generating an income - Characteristics of employment /
migration. Labour recruitment dimension. Discussion of minimum entry requirements and/or
employee qualifications as well as of training programme.
b.
Situation with the workers – general level of education/training facilities – is that important?
Flexibility, labour legislations. Productivity performance and changes over time. Number and
changes in employees – if recent changes in number of employees explain.
c.
Productivity changes / current productivity level – suggestion scheme to the workers.
13.
a.
The future
Ability of the industry itself to generate changes (e.g. brand product image, product change).
Future plans: expansion, relocation etc. over the next year. Over the coming 2 years (end of
the AGOA?).Expansion of the industry.
b.
Future Opportunities?
i.
In Madagascar or threat of relocation?
ii.
ROO, APE, pertes des avantages preferentiels?
c.
Role of the government:
ƒ Should the govt help the industry?
ƒ Future contribution of the EPZ? Diversification strategy? How does gvt think
about diversification?
d.
Changes to the organization structure, objectives etc. and changing relationship with
government?
Feedback on the questionnaire & list of firms that has been/will be visited.
90