Internal migration can be a radical adaptive strategy in

Briefing
Climate change
Keywords:
Climate change adaptation, radical
adaptation, migration, Bangladesh
Issue date
April 2015
Policy
pointers
Internal migration is
significant in Bangladesh
and could help poor
households gain greater
access to resources that,
in turn, can build long-term
resilience to environmental
stressors.
Internal migration can be
an opportunity for
adaptation, not an
undesirable consequence
of poverty.
Government policies
need to promote better
data collection and
research of existing
migration flows and
conditions so as to better
prepare for future human
movement due to climatic
stresses.
Facilitated and planned
migration need to be
streamlined into existing
development and climate
change measures.
Internal migration can be a
radical adaptive strategy in
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, people in rural communities often move within the country
to diversify their incomes. Such internal migration allows them to manage
added stresses from environmental change. Drawing from scoping
research, this briefing examines how internal migration can be understood
as an adaptive strategy and how key stakeholders can help move this
process forward. Policymakers must integrate climate change adaptation
into all levels of governance. By addressing the root causes of climate
vulnerability, the government and its development partners can become
more aware of the complex ways that climate change affects the lives of
the poor. In so doing, they can support managed internal migration as a
valid adaptive strategy.
A recent systematic review of evidence suggests
that migration, displacement and immobility
interact and respond to multiple drivers. Both
people who move and those who do not can be
trapped and vulnerable to extreme events, or
displaced entirely. Related loss of life and assets
represent a failure of adaptation (autonomous
and planned) to environmental change.1
If internal migration allowed climate-vulnerable
households to diversify their income and increase
their assets, they could become more resilient to
both environmental and non-environmental
challenges. As such, it could be a key adaptive
response to climate change. However, the many
uncertainties around the timing and severity of
climate change effects make it difficult to assess
vulnerabilities and coping capacities.
Given that migration will be largely internal (within
national borders) and seasonal, governments
need to better understand the intricate links
between migration patterns and sustainable
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development goals. In so doing, they can ensure
policies promote migration as an opportunity
for adaptation.
Migration as an adaptation strategy
Earlier neo-Malthusian assumptions suggested
resource scarcity would lead to increased
migration and conflict. More nuanced views see
migration as one of many strategies with several
different drivers.2 Environmental stressors, for
example, may erode important household assets,
and spark migration.3
Climate adaptation is ‘an adjustment in natural or
human systems in response to actual or expected
climatic stimuli or their effects to moderate harm
or exploit beneficial opportunities’.4 As one
response to climatic change risks, migration is
often driven primarily by poverty. Moving to
another community can improve access to
resources and enable people to take advantage
of seasonal employment. Moreover, sending
money home can help investments in household
IIED Briefing
Table 1. Reasons for
migrating to Dhaka
based on scoping survey
Reason for
Numbers of
migration
interviewees
Floods in 1988
47
and 1998
Homes water
34
logged
Storms and
10
tidal surges
Cyclones
12
Riverbank
40
erosion
Drought
2
Salinity intrusion
8
Loss of
40
homestead
and/or land
Social insecurity
38
Loss of
40
livelihood
Damages to
43
assets
TOTAL
51
assets and pay school fees, which may
strengthen overall adaptive capacity in the
long-term.
In eight case studies from Asia, Africa and Latin
America, the Institute for Environment and
Human Security (UNU-EHS) noted that internal
migration from rural-to-rural or rural-to-urban was
common.5 Rainfall variation had a more direct
relationship with migration in sites that depended
on rain-fed agriculture. Overall, research
suggests that internal migration intensifies
following major environmental stressors such as
droughts or excessive rainfall.6
Not all internal migration has positive impacts on
livelihoods. When people move due to extreme
weather events, they can end up with similar or
worse climate and socioeconomic risks. These
situations often leave household members
trapped away from their homes and more
vulnerable than before.7 Women, children and
elders, in particular, are more likely to suffer.
Migration in Bangladesh
Historically, migration has been an important
livelihood strategy for people in Bangladesh due
both to ‘pull’ factors (economic opportunities in
urban areas) and ‘push’ factors (environmental
stressors, including increasing climatic variability
The policy landscape
The National Adaptation Programme of Action and the Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan guide the country’s climate plans. The Climate Change Trust
Fund provides funds for implementation based on revenue from the national budget, while
the Climate Change Resilience Fund pools resources from development partners.12
Key policies relevant for internal migrants are: the Policy for Distributing Khas Land
among the Landless 1987, which gives priority to men, women and families that have
become landless due to river erosion; the National Agriculture Policy 1999; the National
Landuse Policy 2001; the Coastal Zone Policy 2005; the National Disaster Management
Policy 2008; and the more recent Rural Development Policy. Bangladesh is also a
signatory to the 2011 Nanson Declaration on Climate Displacement and Migration.
Legislation also protects the rights of slum dwellers on the basis of ‘no eviction without
rehabilitation or resettlement.’ Migrants in cities like Dhaka, however, also need to benefit
from employment policies that recognise labour in informal sectors. This applies especially
to women in garment factories, as well as men who pull rickshaws and work in
construction and brick-making. Other sectoral strategies and programmes do not
incorporate issues related to internal displacement and migration.
Response from policy makers
Interviews with senior policymakers suggest disagreement on how climate change
influences internal migration.
Some policymakers recognise that rural-urban and seasonal migration have been
occurring for generations. They also appreciate the migration rate has become
unprecedented, mainly due to perceived opportunities in metropolitan cities. Yet others
view traditional migration patterns as ‘opportunistic’, and more recent trends towards
climate-induced migration as ‘forced’ because people have few choices other than to
move. Still others view migration as a ‘threat’ to urban development.
They agreed that greater resilience among the rural poor could reduce unregulated
migration of people. They also recommended planned migration to other countries as an
option for migrants from ecologically vulnerable areas.
and rural poverty). The Planning Commission
puts the rate of internal population movement at
4.5 per cent, while non-government stakeholders
speculate that internal migrants are more than
double those going abroad.8 Until now there is no
way to accurately track the movement and flow of
people across the country.
As millions of Bangladeshis live in remote and/or
ecologically fragile areas, such as river islands
(chars) and cyclone prone coastal belts, seasonal
migration has been an important strategy.9 It has
helped reduce food insecurity, enhance people’s
access to basic services such as health and
education, and expand people’s networks and
access to information.
Typically, males from low-income families move to
rural or urban areas for seasonal employment. In
recent years, however, women have also started
migrating to urban areas independently. This new
trend is largely as a result of socioeconomic
vulnerabilities and the demand for labour in the
manufacturing and service sectors.10
The flow of people can affect the economy in
different ways. Since the 1980s, for example,
internal migrants working in the garment,
construction and transportation sectors have
contributed to the country’s economic growth. At
the same time, movement with limited job and
economic opportunities into cities gives rise to
urban slums and put pressure on infrastructure,
utilities, services and civic amenities.11
Migrant life in Dhaka
With an estimated 34,000 people for every
square kilometer, Dhaka is among the most
densely populated cities in the world.8 For the
scoping survey research reported here more than
50 migrant men and women of all ages from
North and South Dhaka, as well as the
embankment areas, were randomly selected.
Through individual interviews or focus group
discussions, participants shared insights into the
social, cultural and environmental factors in their
home villages that compelled them to move to the
city (Table 1).
An interplay of factors drives migration in
Bangladesh. For the most part it is the landless
and marginal farmers, vulnerable to losses in
productivity, lack of livelihood opportunities and
natural disasters, that are moving to the cities.
Respondents came to Dhaka City from all over
the country — from coastal areas and floodplains
to riverine areas, offshore islands and drylands.
Due to their reliance on rain for their crops,
farmers in areas prone to drought and floods
commonly migrate with the seasons or
agricultural cycle. Some migrants spend almost
six months in the city.
IIED Briefing
Adaptive capacity
of households
Planned migration as a
livelihood strategy
How planned migration
increases/decreases vulnerability
Where migration support
is needed
Low: in extreme
poverty
Unlikely due to resources needed
Could increase household vulnerability if
costs not recovered
Households need greater social protection
programmes to enable migration in the future
Could reduce socioeconomic vulnerabilities if
remittances support ‘trapped’ population in
climate-vulnerable areas
Local adaptation initiatives can include
training and capacity-building packages for
potential migrants from ‘hotspot’ areas
Movement between rural to rural
areas as agricultural labourers
during the lean season
Vulnerabilities of migrants could increase due
to poor housing and sanitation
Next steps to make
migration a radical
adaptation strategy
Existing vulnerabilities need to be addressed, through appropriate in-situ and ex-situ adaptation activities
Medium: at
poverty line
Likely — takes the form of
seasonal or cyclical migration to
cities and metropolitan areas
Could reduce vulnerabilities if costs are
recovered and households have food security
and are able to afford basic amenities
Longstanding as an income
diversification strategy for
households in rural areas
Migrant families can invest in education and
health with the extra income from remittances
Next steps to make
migration a radical
adaptation strategy
Government and NGOs working in climate-vulnerable areas can encourage off-farm alternative income activities
Welfare entitlements for poor households can be ensured through continuing programmes like ‘cash for work’
Households need assistance to ensure
costs of migration are covered, mainly
through employment opportunities, and a
conducive environment for migrants in
destination areas
Migration considered pre-emptively before climate tipping points are reached
Government can facilitate migration by creating urban hubs and encouraging resettlement in and around the growth centres
(currently 4,000 centres are being built by the Local Government Engineering Division)
Movements need to be mapped to inform decisions (the Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit are
mapping 17 sub-districts as pilots)
Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training and District Manpower Offices can play a role in human resource development
Good: above
poverty line
Very likely — in some cases
international migration as semiskilled labourers
Next steps to make
migration a radical
adaptation strategy
Migration must be considered as part of the country’s sustainable development goals to reduce inter-generational risks and
contribute to a more effective climate change response
Potential to provide households with enough
income to invest in adaptation risk-reduction
activities
Support needed for those left behind.
Research into how remittances can be part
of sustainable development process
Ensure basic rights of all citizens (including migrants) as stated in the constitution and other key policies and government programmes
Migrants to cities must be supported by employment policies recognising labour in informal sectors to ensure safety standards
Issues of internal displacement and migration addressed in related policies and the 3Rs (relocation, rehabilitation and
reconciliation) mainstreamed into sectoral activities of the government
Research and evaluation to assess learning from land reform projects like the Climate Victims Rehabilitation Project and also
projects funded by development partners such as Char Livelihoods Project and Char Development and Settlement Project
Most who migrated over the longer term moved
because of extreme weather events that destroyed
their livelihoods, including the floods of 1988 and
1998 and more recent super cyclones. After losing
land to riverbank erosion, storm surges and
permanent inundation, they saw Dhaka as a way
out. Slower processes such as prolonged spells of
frequent droughts, salt water contamination,
landlessness and lack of employment also drove
migration. Individuals who had left their families
commonly returned to their home villages monthly,
quarterly or annually, especially during the harvest
seasons and festivals.
physical vulnerability, migrants felt they were
‘better off’ in the city as they earnt enough money
to send their children to school.
Many tried to resettle in nearby areas and towns
before moving to Dhaka. Once in the city, they
found work in a few key sectors, including
transportation (mainly as rickshaw pullers),
construction, garments, recycling and garbage
collection, and informal services. They lived
mostly in fringe areas and slums or as squatters
on government-owned khaslands, or on
embankments on the outskirts of the city. While
these living conditions might increase their
Findings from this case study
Remittances, therefore, enable vulnerable
households to better cope with climate
vulnerabilities. On average, migrants in the
scoping survey had six family members with four
dependents. Usually, the women, children and
elderly depend entirely on remittances; they only
move to the city when economic circumstances
improve. As migration is expensive and risky,
migrants arrived in Dhaka with help from
informal networks.
Table 2 summarises our findings on how internal
migration could be a radical adaptation strategy.
Migration in Bangladesh was traditionally a man’s
domain. With limited opportunities in rural areas,
however, women are now moving to the cities,
largely to work in the garment and informal
service industries. Yet many women, children and
elders are often ‘trapped’ in villages or left behind.
Table 2. Planned
migration as a radical
adaptive strategy
IIED Briefing
Few internal migrants enjoy social support.
Internal migration works as a radical adaptation
strategy only when migrants become physically
and socially better off and can send money home.
Investment in origins and destinations of
migrants can turn unregulated migration into an
effective adaptation strategy. the resilience of
home locations can be strengthened. Migration
can generate income shared between people in
origin and destination communities. Migrants’
access to shelter and medical care at
destination needs assured.
Extreme climate events can force households to
move with little advance planning or help. The
financial and psychological impacts may heighten
vulnerability and leave migrants ‘trapped’ away
from home, perhaps even worse off. Planned and
facilitated migration can help improve the
capacities of households, raising income or
reducing financial hardships over the long term.
The Ministry of Labour and Employment and
related institutions can be catalysts for the
empowerment and employment of climateinduced migrants. The Ministry of Youth and
Education, along with District Manpower Offices,
can work in climate-affected areas to support the
process of migration.
Migrants in the city work primarily in informal
sectors, where jobholders do not benefit from
regulations and rights of employment. They live
mostly in fringe areas, with limited or no access to
basic amenities. With no institutional support
available for migrants, their prevailing conditions
cannot be viewed as radical adaptation.
Migrants use informal networks to reduce the
financial hardships and risks associated with
migration. These networks may also help reduce
intergenerational risks, ensuring individuals can
build upon the knowledge of previous migrants.
Recommendations
Migration in Bangladesh remains a ‘hit and miss’
strategy for households with little or no alternative.
For internal migration to become a radical
adaptation strategy, policy changes are needed.
••
••
Take a ‘rights-based’ approach to empower
migrants and families left behind. The
government could well support this process by
recognising how migration will fit into future
climate change scenarios.
Use financial streams such as the Municipal
Development Fund to develop low-cost,
disaster-resilient infrastructure.
••
Develop peri-urban areas with improved
transportation for migrant populations.
Gurgaon, a satellite town outside Delhi in India
that houses migrant workers, could be a model.
This policy would ease pressure on slums and
squatter settlements, as well as on amenities
like sanitation.
••
Create urban hubs and encourage settlement
in growth areas to help absorb migrants.
••
Scale-up construction of infrastructure such as
roads, bridges and culverts to complement the
ongoing projects to build growth centres
managed by the Local Government
Engineering Department.13
••
View urbanisation as an opportunity for
enhanced urban planning rather than a threat,
while considering land-use patterns and potential
conflicts in the planning process. Government
projects for the landless, such as the Climate
Victims Rehabilitation Project (‘Gucchagram’)
can help frame migration in a better light to
promote livelihood strategies of the poor.
••
Foster greater understanding among scientists
and policymakers on adaptation, resilience,
capacity building and disaster risk reduction,
especially in climate hotspots and vulnerable
areas.
••
Pursue more rigorous research on migration,
displacement and movements of people
internally and internationally.
Stephanie Andrei, Remeen Firoz and Simon
Anderson
Stephanie Andrei is a researcher at IIED. Remeen Firoz is a
consultant for IIED. Simon Anderson is head of IIED’s Climate
Change Group.
Notes
1 Black, R et al (2013) Migration, immobility and displacement outcomes of extreme events in nature and society. Environmental Science and Policy
27(1) S32–S43. / 2 Tacoli, C (2009) Crisis or adaptation? Migration and climate change in a context of high mobility. In: Guzman, JM et al. (eds)
Population Dynamics and Climate Change. IIED, London. / 3 Foresight (2011) Migration and global environmental change: Future challenges and
opportunities. Government Office for Science, London. / 4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2012) Managing the risks of extreme
events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: A special report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. / 5 Warner, K et al. (2012) Where the rain falls: Climate change, food and livelihood
security, and migration. Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS), Bonn. See www.ehs.unu.edu/file/get/10569.pdf. / 6 Kniveton, D
et al. (2008) Climate change and migration: Improving methodologies to estimate flows. International Organization for Migration, Geneva. / 7 Betts, A
(2010) Survival migration: A new protection framework. Global Governance 16(3) 361–382. / 8 General Economics Division, Planning Commission,
Ministry of Planning. (2011) Sixth Five Year Plan, FY 2011-15: Accelerating growth and reducing poverty. Part 2: Sectoral strategies, programmes and
policies. Government of Bangladesh / 9 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2007) Bangladesh capacity development action plan for sustainable
environmental governance. Government of Bangladesh. / 10 Afsar, R (2003) Internal migration and development nexus, migration and policies
pro-poor choices in Asia. Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit, Bangladesh and UK Department for International Development.
www.livelihoods.org. / 11 Shamsuddoha, Md et al. (2012) Displacement and migration from climate hot-spots: Causes and consequences. Center for
Participatory Research and Development and ActionAid Bangladesh. / 12 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009) Bangladesh climate change
strategy and action plan. Government of Bangladesh / 13 www.lged.gov.bd.
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