Sarcophagi of the Roman Empire and Early Christian sculpture

Sarcophagi of the Roman Empire and Early Christian sculpture
Introduction
Until the 2nd century AD the Romans followed the Greek and Etruscan practice of
cremating their dead. The ashes were placed in a funerary or cinerary urn. The urns
were frequently sculptured and had a stylized representation of the deceased on the
lid. This practice was to continue until the end of the 1st century AD. For the wealthier
families the urn might be placed in an altar and a sculptured tombstone might be
commissioned; these acts were to memorialize the dead. From the 2nd century burials
became more popular and by the 3rd century AD it was the standard practice. The poor
were buried in cemeteries outside the town or city limits to avoid pollution within the
town or city; the wealthy were also buried in the same cemeteries but often in
elaborate tombs or sarcophagi within them. (Sarcophagus is from the Greek
‘sarxsark’ meaning ‘flesh’ and ‘sarkophagos’ meaning ‘flesh eating’). Most
sarcophagi in Rome were placed against a wall or niche in these tombs or mausolea;
therefore they were usually only decorated on the front and the two short sides.
2nd c BC cinerary urn with scene of battle between centaurs and Greeks, now Perugia,
Umbria (left) & 1st c AD tombstone of Roman legionnaire, Mainz, Germany (right)
For the wealthy, carved sarcophagi were characteristic. These were usually of marble
or, less frequently, of limestone and were frequently elaborately carved with scenes
from Greek mythology reflecting the taste of upper class Romans for Greek culture.
Other decorative themes illustrated aspects of the deceased’s personal and
professional life and included battle and hunting scenes or biographical events from
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the life of the deceased. A large number were decorated with garlands of flowers,
foliage or fruits.
2nd c sarcophagus from Ostia Antico – Centauromachy
2nd c sarcophagus from Ostia Antico – Death of Hector
The main production centres were in Rome and Northern Italy during the 2nd century
and early 3rd century AD. The raw material such as marble from Carrara or
Proconnessos Island, near the Dardanelles, finished or part-finished sarcophagi were
shipped to other parts of the Mediterranean. By the late 3rd century workshops were
established at several points along the coast of the Western Mediterranean such as
Arles, Narbonne and Tarragona and, later, at Marseilles. There was even a production
centre that used marble from Saint-Béat, in what is now in the Haute-Garonne of
France. The centres in Marseilles, which became active in the 5th century, and in
Narbonne employed limestone for many of the sarcophagi. During the 3rd and 4th
centuries these outlying centres of production followed the styles of those from Rome
and North Italy which were a blend of Eastern and Western influences. With the sack
of Rome by the Goths under Aleric between AD 410 and 420 the Italian dimension
declined; the wealthy in Italy no longer continued the custom of burying their dead in
ostentatious tombs or sarcophagi and trade links to the rest of the Mediterranean
declined. However, the Visigoths established themselves in Septimania and their
influence spread West to Aquitaine; they absorbed and developed the Roman custom
of using a sarcophagus for the deceased.
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A third century sarcophagus that is now in Arles museum shows a hunting scene. The
scene is set against a background of trees to suggest that it was taking place in a
forest. This use of trees was to be employed somewhat differently on early Christian
sarcophagi as we shall see. On the left a boar is being harassed by dogs and is about to
be speared by a hunter on foot. On the right a mounted hunter with assistants is
driving deer towards a net that is held by two slaves, identified by the lack of
protective clothing on their legs. Hunting was a ‘high status’ activity and this was a
theme that was repeated frequently and it was to continue to be used well into the 4th
century as may be seen with another sarcophagus that is at Arles. The person who
purchased this does not seem to have had time to have had the inscription panel
(imago clipeata) at the top completed. It contained the bodies of a young woman and
her new born baby, implying that they died in child-birth.
3rd c sarcophagus from Arles – Boar hunting
Mid 4th c sarcophagus from Les Saintes Maries, now in Arles museum – Deer hunting
The beginning of Christian art in the Roman Empire
After the death of Christ his disciples travelled throughout the Roman Empire taking
with them their beliefs. As a result it was not long before small groups of Christians
were to be found across the Empire. For more than two centuries the Roman
authorities tried to suppress the new religion, often with considerable brutality. The
refusal of Christians to participate in the Imperial pagan rituals was considered to be
treason. The most ruthless exactions were carried out on the orders of Diocletian
between 303 and 311. They ended in April of that year when Galerius issued an edict
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of toleration also known as ‘The Peace of the Church’, which allowed the Christians
freedom of worship. During this prolonged period of persecution Christian art was
inevitably low key, furtive and even ambiguous in that they used many of the images
and symbols of the existing pagan culture but gave them special Christian meanings.
So, for example the sign of a fish (Ichthys), peacocks, anchor, grape vines and the
‘Good Shepherd’ were common. The fish reminded the faithful that Christ urged his
flowers ‘to be fishers of men’. The anchor was a symbol of hope taken from Hebrews
6: 18-19: ‘Christ is like an anchor in our lives, sure and steadfast’. The Good
Shepherd recalls the shepherd in St Matthew who goes in search of his sheep that is
lost. The cross and crucifixion were not represented until several centuries later
because crucifixion was the punishment given to common criminals. Representations
of Christ and people from the Old and New Testaments did not appear until later
perhaps because of the Old Testament restrictions that forbade the production of such
images because they might be seen as encouraging idolatry.
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Two early Christian tomb stones, now in the Vatican museum
A mausoleum on the North side of Rome was dedicated to Santa Constantina
(Costanza), the daughter of Emperor Constantine. She died in 354 and it was thought
that she was buried here. There was a porphyry sarcophagus that was thought to be
hers (or that of her sister, Helena). It was removed to the Vatican in the 18th century
and a copy replaces it. It has reliefs of cupids harvesting grapes on the front and sides,
but no Christian motifs or symbols.
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Sarcophagus of Santa Constantina (Costanza), now in the Vatican museum
Classical mythology associated Hermes, who carried the souls of the dead to the after
life, with the image of the ‘Good Shepherd’ carrying a lamb or a sheep and it was a
very popular image because it was then associated with philanthropy. But it was also
a symbol of sacrifice; in the representations from Greece from the 3rd and 4th centuries
BC it was more likely that the lamb was being taken for sacrifice. The Romans,
adopting as they did, many aspects of Greek culture are likely to have viewed the
lamb in a similar light. It was not until the Christian era that the Good Shepherd
carrying a lamb was adopted the image was given a new meaning taking the phrase
from the Gospels of Jesus being described as the good shepherd of his flock. For a
time there may have been some confusion in the minds of new converts. An example
is provided by a sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that has images of three such
‘Good Shepherds’ set in a countryside of bucolic rural chaos. The object, which is
dated to around AD 370 and therefore at a time when Christianity was becoming well
established in Rome, almost certainly was not intended to have a Christian theme. On
the right a woman has her arms raised in the ‘orans’ position, a position of prayer that
had been used by both pagans and Jews before it was adopted by the early Christians
in Rome to indicate prayer. They probably saw the position as symbolising that of
Christ on the cross. The woman may represent the deceased person. On the right side
a figure holds a scroll; this is a very common feature, the scroll being a symbol of
authority. Though adopted as a Christian motif, the Good Shepherd is not a motif that
was incorporated into any of the friezes that contained several biblical scenes, but it
was used on the ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagi. Thus we have two motifs that provided
symbols of Christian values: Neighbourliness from the ‘Good Shepherd’ and
prayerfulness from the ‘Orans’ figure.
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Athens 350BC – Statue of shepherd carrying a lamb
Fragment of 4th c sarcophagus from St Honorat des Alyscamps, now in Arles museum
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Sarcophagus from AD 370 now in Lateran museum - Three shepherds in bucolic
pastoral scenes
4th c sarcophagus lid of ‘Iuliane’ with ‘Good Shepherd’, Jonah, sheep and ‘Orans’
figure
4th c Sarcophagus of Good Shepherds & ‘Orans’ figure in the choir of Sant Feliu,
Girona
A sarcophagus that was made a little before the end of the 3rd century has some hints
of a connection with a Christian burial: the sarcophagus shows a number of hunting
scenes on the front panel and on the left side of the lid; on the right side of the lid is
the unfinished bust of the deceased. On the left side of the front panel is a shepherd
carrying a ram, whilst on the right side there is a female with her arms raised as if in
prayer; this is the ‘Orans’ position. It is probable that the figure represents the
deceased but it is improbable that there is any suggestion that she was Christian.
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Late 3rd century Sarcophagus with pastoral scenes, now in the Vatican museum
It was Constantine’s decision to formally cease all persecution of Christians and
decriminalising the religion throughout the Empire that was the real turning point.
This was formalised in the Edict of Milan in 313, which left the Empire officially
neutral as regards religious conduct and belief. It was the Edict of Thessalonica in 380
that ordered all subjects of the Empire to adopt the Christian religion. These legal
changes led to the adoption of Christianity by Roman citizens of all social levels;
hitherto Christians had tended to be poorer members of society. With the arrival of
wealthy Christians there was a significant increase in the production of sarcophagi
with Christian images and motifs.
Pre-Christian sculptures provided models for sarcophagi produced for Christians.
Examples are provided by two sarcophagi – a pagan one that is from Sidamara and is
now in Istanbul; the other is Christian with Old and New Testament scenes that is
from Santa Maria Antiqua in Rome. Both show a seated teacher or philosopher. In the
Christian sarcophagus the seated man was intended to personify Christ as a teacher. In
front of him there is a female figure who is shown in the ‘Orans’ position, with arms
raised as in prayer. This pairing is intended to show the deceased as being a person
who had read and been guided by the teachings of Christ as set out in the gospels and
that she was a learned woman.
Sarcophagus of the Teacher from Sidamara, AD 250, now in Istanbul
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Sarcophagus of the Teacher from Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome, 3rd c
Despite the adoption of Christianity across the Roman Empire, pagan themes
continued to be employed to decorate sarcophagi. A good example is the ‘Dioscures
sarcophagus’ at Arles. This late 4th century sarcophagus has, along the main panel,
images of the twins of Roman mythology, Pollux and Castor, sons of Leda with their
horses, at each end. In between there are two couples, a young wife with her husband
and an older couple. The side panels, however, have a Christian theme: the
Multiplication of Bread & Fish and the arrest of Saint Peter.
Arles - ‘Dioscures sarcophagus, late 4th c, Front panel
Arles - ‘Dioscures sarcophagus, late 4th c, Left side panel
By the time of the Edict of Milan images of Christ were well developed. He is
generally shown as a clean-shaven young man with long hair, robed in a toga but
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bare-footed. Rarely is he shown with a nimbus around the head. He was generally
shown in narrative scenes that were mostly derived from the New Testament. In most
4th century scenes Christ is shown holding a stick or wand in one hand; he uses this to
point to the person or the object that is the object of the miracle he is performing
rather like a magic wand.
The use of the trepan drill added an element of vitality to the figures; eyes were often
pierced and filled with lead; the use of the trepan was a technique that was adopted by
sculptors in the West from the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond.
Images of Christ from two Sarcophagi of AD 300 in the Vatican (left & centre) and
one in Arles dated AD 325
But there was no consistency in the representations of Christ. A damaged sarcophagus
that is dated to AD 300 in the Palazzo Massimo museum in Rome shows Christ as a
mature middle aged and bearded man. To the right of the break Christ has his hand on
the head of a young boy. This gesture is probably related to the giving of the Holy
Spirit or baptism. The representations of Christ with a nimbus or a halo are few and
are mostly confined to those sarcophagi that have just three narrow blocks of
sculpture on the front panel. Examples are to be seen on a 4th century sarcophagus in
Arles museum and on an early 5th century sarcophagus that is known as the ‘Geminus
sarcophagus’ and which is in St Trophime, at Arles. The latter is unusual in that above
the head of Christ there is a small cross.
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Sarcophagus from AD 300 showing the Miracles of Christ, now in Palazzo Massimo
museum, Rome
Arles – 4th c sarcophagus, detail of Christ (left)
‘Geminus sarcophagus’, detail of Christ (right)
& St Trophime – Early 5th c
The ‘Peace of the Church’ gave great impulse to the production of Christian
sarcophagi with biblical stories covering their exposed panels, but the trend had begun
from the middle of the 3rd century; characters and scenes were arranged without any
obvious logical narrative sequence or sense of continuity. This type is sometimes
described as having ‘The continuous frieze’. The same people may be repeated across
the face of the sarcophagus; a change of scene may be indicated by an individual
turning his or her back or the insertion of a tree, as shown in the illustration above.
Scenes from the Old Testament might run beside scenes of the Miracles of Christ or
events from the life of St Peter. Thus, as in the example below, the sacrifice of Isaac
by Abraham, Jonah and the whale and Daniel, who is shown naked, because that is
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the way people were put into the arena to be eaten by beasts, in the lions’ den between
King Cyrus and Habakkuk are set beside scenes of Christ and St Peter, who, lower
right, is arrested in Rome and baptises his warders, both apocryphal tales. The scene
of St Peter baptising his wardens and of his arrest also appear on the left side of the
upper example. It is noteworthy that the wardens and those arresting Christ all wear
identical caps on both sarcophagi. The principle behind the scenes was that of
Christian salvation and the hope of eternal life after death for the deceased. St
Matthew’s Gospel uses the tale of Jonah being swallowed by the whale, though that is
usually represented by a huge serpent and not a whale, and then regurgitated to
foretell the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ: ‘For as Jonah in the belly of the seamonster for three days and three nights, so will the Son of Man be in the earth for
three days and three nights’. (Matthew 29: 39-40). In this way the tale of Jonah’s
salvation from death and his enjoyment of the peaceful rest that was to follow
reinforced the message of salvation; God would save the deceased and their families
if they stood firm in the faith. That of Daniel, similarly, shows how he was restored
unharmed through faith, endurance and the power of God. It has already been stated
that Christ usually points with a stick to the object of the miracle; an exception always
to this convention is when he is shown healing the man born blind, when Christ places
mud on his eyes. The female figure to the left of this scene is a representation of the
deceased in the act of prayer. These scenes seem to have been already familiar to the
sculptors before the easing of the restrictions on Christian worship and must have
been developed during the period of persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.
Frieze sarcophagus of AD 300 now in the Vatican museum
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Double register sarcophagus with scene of Jonah & the Whale, AD 300 now in the
Vatican museum
Another front panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah and the Whale has
an interesting and unusual scene. The sarcophagus has two registers. On the lower
register there are two scenes with a reptile climbing a tree. To the right of the Jonah
scene two naked figures stand each side of the tree. These are undoubtedly Adam and
Eve being tempted by the snake to eat the forbidden fruit. The tree to the left of the
Jonah scene has a clothed figure beside the tree. This has been interpreted as
representing Daniel poisoning the Dragon of the Babylonians, an apocryphal story in
which the King challenges Daniel to prove that the dragon his people worship is not a
God. Daniel poisons the beast and it dies, proving that it was mortal.
Panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah & the Whale, AD 340
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Panel of a sarcophagus at Arles with scenes of Jonah & the Whale, AD 340; detail
A 4th century sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that includes a scene with Daniel in
the lions’ den shows the naked, boyish Daniel in the ‘Orans’ position with, on his
right, a youth who points to a scroll that he is holding and on his left Habakkuk who is
holding a loaf that is inscribed with a cross indicating that it is Eucharistic bread; this
links the Old Testament story to the New Testament and Christian salvation.
4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum – Detail of Daniel in the lions’ den
Also derived from the Book of the Prophet Daniel is the story of Chaste Susanna. In
the choir of Sant Feliu in Girona eight front panels of sarcophagi from the Roman
period have been set into the walls. One from the 4th century is known as ‘Chaste
Susanna’ and it tells the story of Susanna, the wife of Joachim. On the sarcophagus,
from right to left, the scenes show Susanna walking in her garden when she is
approached by two men; she refuses their sexual advances, so they take her before a
judge and they accuse her of adultery. The judge sentences her to death by stoning.
She prays for God’s help and Daniel proves her innocence; she is freed and her
accusers are sentenced to death. It is a story that was used across the Roman world on
sarcophagi. A sarcophagus in Carrara marble from the middle of the 4th century that is
at Arles is also known as ‘Chaste Susanna’. On this, the story occupies part of the
upper register with Daniel in the lions’ den on the lower register.
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4th c sarcophagus of ‘Chaste Susanna’ in Sant Feliu, Girona, Catalonia
Mid 4th c sarcophagus ‘Chaste Susanna’ in Arles museum
Other Old Testament scenes that focused on ‘Salvation’ included Noah’s Ark with
God’s covenant to man, the Crossing of the Red Sea and the scene of the Original Sin
and the Garden of Eden. A late 4th century sarcophagus in Arles museum has an
unusual detail at the right edge of the panel illustrating the crossing of the Red Sea. It
shows a female with a tambourine; she has been identified as Miriam, the prophetess
and sister of Aaron; she is mentioned in Exodus 15:20. The Crossing of the Red Sea
was a popular them especially in the second half of the 4th century through into the 5th
century. Two in Arles show considerable similarities in their details.
Sarcophagus illustrating the Crossing of the Red Sea; now in the Vatican museum
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Late 4th c sarcophagus now in Arles museum – Red Sea crossing, detail of right end
Late 4th c sarcophagus now in Saint Trophime, Arles – Red Sea crossing, detail of
right end
A scene taken from Daniel that was used to how God aids the faithful is that of three
young Jewish men who, on the orders of the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, are
thrown into a furnace because they stood by the faith and endured. The sculptor has
added the figure of a slave busy stoking the furnace. Strangely, the Jews wear
Phrygian bonnets. The fragment below illustrates this vividly. To the left Noah is
receiving back the dove which is holding an olive branch in its bill.
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4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum – Three Jews in the Fiery Furnace
The scene of the three Jews being sent to the fiery furnace after rejecting the order to
worship the idol of Nebuchadnezzar is found on an early 3rd century Proconnessos
marble sarcophagus at Arles. It is known as the ‘Farewell of Christ’. In the centre is
young-looking Christ, who is clean-shaven. His feet rest on a low stool and he holds a
partially opened scroll. His apostles are set around him in three groups. To the left
Moses strikes the rock to produce the miraculous spring and then there are the three
Jews. This fragment is a mould; the original is in Aix-en-Provence. To the right of the
couch Christ is restoring life to the daughter of Zaire who crouches at his feet. On the
extreme right Christ bids farewell to the assembled faithful.
‘The Farewell to Christ’ sarcophagus at Arles. Early 3rd c.
Very similar scenes and episodes feature in quite different sequences on sarcophagi
from the same period. This reflects the system of creating the sarcophagi. Teams of
sculptors would work on the same sarcophagi in the manner of a conveyer belt. Each
sculptor might be responsible for one or possible two scenes. He would move from
work to work as he became free, so he would be unlikely to follow the same colleague
twice. If there was to be a central disc for the image of the deceased or for an epitaph
(imago clipeata), it would be left blank until the time of purchase of the sarcophagus
by the family of the deceased. A surprising number of these plaques or imago clipeata
were left blank. The sarcophagus of Agape & Crescentianus, which is dated to AD
330-360, is decorated on three sides. The front has scenes from the life of Christ and
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St Peter; the two sides have scenes from the Old Testament. Contrary to the usual
convention, Christ does not hold a stick in any of the scenes. The lid is decorated with
the Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace on the left and, on the right, Jonah being
spewed from the mouth of the whale and then lying under a pergola. In the centre is
an inscription panel held by two genii. The translation of the inscription reads:
‘Crescentianus made this tomb for his beloved spouse Agape who lived with her
husband for 55 years, one month and 5 days and was laid to rest on 23 December –
and for himself while he was still alive’ (and the following was added later) ‘and who
was led to his tomb on 30 August and lived one hundred and one years’. Each of the
scenes is framed by an arch supported by columns with capitals. On some sarcophagi
the various scenes are divided by trees, which are thought by some to represent
Paradise. An example is to be seen at Narbonne. This is a 4th century marble
sarcophagus that is in the style associated with Arles. It is deeply sculptured with
young, clean-shaven Christ at the centre between two doves. To his side are Ss Peter
and Paul; on the right is a tree with a serpent. Whether the sarcophagus is a local work
or one imported from Arles cannot be determined. The inclusion of trees to separate
scenes on the front panel was a fairly common device. It certainly facilitated the
separation of the different scenes.
The sarcophagus of ‘Agape & Crescentianus’, AD 330-360, Vatican Museum
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Narbonne – 4th c ‘Arles’ style sarcophagus
A mid 4th c sarcophagus with trees, in Preconnesos marble. Arles
The ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus that is in Sant’Ambrogio basilica, Milan, is dated
to the last two decades of the 4th century. It is carved on all four sides. The front
shows Christ seated amongst the apostles, none of whom has any feature that would
enable them to be identified individually. At his feet are the deceased adoring the
symbolic Lamb of God. The deceased also appear on the front of the lid between, on
the left, the idol of Nebuchadnezzar and three youths, and, to the right, the Epiphany.
On this panel the sculptor has created five divisions by inserting a structured
framework in the background. This format was to be repeated on the two side panels.
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4th c ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus, Milan – Front panel
On the right panel, below the scene of the Nativity on the lid, Elijah is shown
ascending to Heaven in a chariot of fire with, below the horses; then the Original Sin;
Noah sending out the dove whilst standing in a very small tub that represents the ark,
and Moses receives the Law. The left panel illustrates Abraham’s sacrifice of his son,
and four saints turning towards the front scene.
‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus, Milan – Right & left side panels
At the corners of the ‘Sant’Ambrogio’ sarcophagus are four masks that wear ornate
hair styles. These featured on pagan sarcophagi such as the 3rd century pagan
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sarcophagus that is in the Louvre; the main scene is taken from the Endymion cycle
and continued into the Christian era. These heads usually represented the heads of
theatre masks, but also Medusa, Mithras or even young men. In South-west France at
Aire-sur-Ardour, there is a 4th century sarcophagus known as the ‘Sarcophagus of
Sainte Quitterie’. The front panel has a complicated repertoire of biblical scenes
indicating that it was a Christian sarcophagus; at the corners of the lid are heads of
Medusa. In Rome there is an early 3rd century sarcophagus with heads representing
the sun and the moon, sometimes symbols of immortality, on the front. In Narbonne
at the church of St Paul Serge is a late 3rd century Christian sarcophagus known as the
‘Lege Feliciter’ sarcophagus. At the two front corners the mask has been replaced by
a head with a sun and a moon. To the sides are the heads representing the deceased
supported by an angel: the wife by the left corner and the husband at the right corner.
The inclusion of pagan motifs is not so much an acceptance at the time of the
continued use of pagan motifs; but rather it is an example of the adoption and
‘Christianisation’ of the pagan motifs.
3rd c top of a sarcophagus – Arles
3rd c ‘Selene & Endymion’ sarcophagus now in Louvre
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Aire-sur-Ardour – Sarcophagus of Ste Quitterie; 4c
National museum, Rome – Early 3rd c sarcophagus
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The ‘Lege Feliciter’ sarcophagus at St Paul Serge, Narbonne; late 3rd c
The use or re-use of sarcophagi for the burial of Christians was not uncommon. The
museum at Arles provides several examples. One is the tomb of St Hilaire, who was
bishop of Arles from 429 to 449. The main part of the sarcophagus, made in the late
3rd century, is now in the Louvre. It showed the legend of Prometheus. The top of the
sarcophagus is at Arles. It is of stone and is plain except for a long inscription at one
end:
SACRO
SANCTAELE
GI ANTESTIS
HILARIVS
HIC QUIESCIT
To the left of the last two lines is a small dove above the ‘Chi-Rho’; on the right side
is an ivy leaf above another dove and a chalice.
In the Treasury Museum of St Peter’s, Rome there is another sarcophagus named after
the Roman senator to whom it was dedicated: Junius Bassus, who died in 359 and was
one of the first Christians to be buried in the recently built basilica of St Peter’s. This
sarcophagus is generally agreed to be one of the masterpieces of early Christian
sculpture. It has two registers each of four scenes; these are in niches that are almost
square; these are formed by decorated columns topped by small Corinthian style
capitals. Between the two registers the sculptor has inserted groups of small animals.
The top of the sarcophagus has, unfortunately, been badly mutilated, but around the
base of the lid is an inscription. One of the most striking things about the sculpture is
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the remarkable depth of the carving so that figures stand clear of others that are
carved in light relief behind them.
The 4th c sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, Treasury museum of St Peter’s, Rome – Front
panel
The upper register has scenes, from the left, of Abraham’s sacrifice, the arrest of St
Peter in Rome, Christ seated on a throne over a symbolic heaven, represented by the
bearded head of Uranus (another example of a pagan symbol that was adopted by
Christianity) and between Saints Peter and Paul; Christ is passing a scroll, the
Gospels, to St Peter; this is followed by two scenes of Christ being presented to Pilate,
who, in the last scene, is about to wash his hands. Christ is shown holding a scroll.
The scene of Christ enthroned is also described as ‘Traditio Legis’. The lower
register shows Job seated on a dung hill in front of his wife and a friend, the Original
Sin, Christ’s entry into Jerusalem with Nicodemus in the tree, Daniel, who is clothed
in this version the result of a restoration in the 18th century, in the lions’ den and St
Paul being led to his death, a story that is not in the gospels; St Paul is usually
identified as having a bald head. The side panels show putti gathering grapes and the
seasons. Here the carving lacks the depth of that on the front panel.
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The sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, Treasury museum of St Peter’s, Rome – A side
panel
In the museum at Arles there is a spectacular sarcophagus from the first half of the 4th
century that was found at Les-Saintes-Maries; it is known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The
Spouses (Les Epoux)’. It has three registers including the lid, with a remarkable
variety of scenes from the Old and New Testaments and from the apocrypha.
Throughout the sculptures show extensive detailed working including deep carving
and the use of the trepan drill. The two dedication discs are blank so the names of the
deceased are unknown, but these were obviously important members of the
community. They are richly attired and were probably members of the administrative
elite. The side panels of the sarcophagus are almost plain.
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4th c sarcophagus known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The Spouses (Les Epoux)’ in Arles
One scene needs further explanation. It is to be found to the left of the disc with the
busts of the two deceased. There are two scenes; the one nearer the centre shows a
young Christ beside an older man who is presenting his young son to Christ who is in
the act of curing the child’s infirmity. The scene to the left shows the same young
Christ looking to a much older seated man. Behind this seated figure and behind
Christ are two middle aged men. In front of Christ are two small naked figures; Christ
has his right hand on the head of one, a young female; the other is male. A somewhat
similar scene is on the left side of a sarcophagus in the Vatican that is known as the
‘Dogmatic’ or ‘Trinity’ sarcophagus. In this one, which is to the left of the scene of a
young looking, clean shaven Christ holding a sheaf of corn in his right hand and a
dead hare in the other; he is standing between Adam and Eve, there are three bearded,
middle aged men. The man on the right of these has his hand on the head of a naked
girl. Behind her is another prone figure, that of a naked boy. Both scenes have been
interpreted as being the Creation on Man. The three middle aged men represent the
Trinity. The two small figures are Adam and Eve at the moment of their creation. The
figures are naked, perhaps because in the 4th century baptism was conducted with the
person to be baptised being naked. The hare and sheaf of corn may represent the
labour and toil to which the sinners were to be sent.
4th c sarcophagus known as ‘The Trinity’ or ‘The Spouses (Les Epoux)’ in Arles,
detail of scenes left of the deceased
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‘Dogmatic’ or ‘Trinity’ sarcophagus, AD 330-340. Vatican museum. Detail
A 4th century sarcophagus, known after the deceased as ‘The Crispina sarcophagus’,
shows the deceased holding a scroll with her name, Crispina, and the ‘Chi-Rho’
symbol at the top. The carving of the figures on this lacks the depth and quality seen
on others, such as that of Junius Bassus.
4th c ‘Crispina’ sarcophagus, now in the Vatican – Detail
‘Traditio Legis’ was to be a theme that was to be used regularly. The museum at Arles
has a fine late 4th century example in Carrara marble. Christ towers over his disciples
as he passes a long scroll containing the Law to St Peter. At Christ’s feet are two
lambs, symbolising Christ’s role as shepherd of his flock. To the left of Christ there
are two figures separated by a palm. One is carrying a phoenix, a symbol of the
resurrection. Scenes with Christ set between his disciples became frequent in the
second half of the 4th century. A fragment of a late 4c sarcophagus in the Vatican
shows a group of apostles carrying a paten in one hand and, in the other, a scroll that
symbolises authority. Above each there is a star and a hand that holds a crowning
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wreath. A late 4th century sarcophagus at Arles, known at the ‘Cross of Anàstasis
sarcophagus’ has the same detail of a wreath over the heads of the apostles.
4th c sarcophagus at Arles - Traditio Legis’
Fragment of late 4th c sarcophagus in the Vatican museum - Apostles
The mystery of the incarnation of the Son of Man and his revelation to mankind at the
Epiphany are cornerstones of the ‘stories of Christian Salvation’. The early decades of
the 4th century saw the introduction of the liturgical festival of the Nativity. With it
sculptors developed detailed illustrations of the Nativity and the coming of the Magi.
Some of the details, such as the ox and ass in the manger, are derived from apocryphal
accounts in the Gnostic gospels (see The Nativity & the Assumption of Mary –
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Origins of the Imagery at http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesquedecoration ). Strangely, the figure of Joseph does not appear in the earlier images of
the Nativity. Examples are to be found on two late 4th century sarcophagi at Arles and
in another in the Vatican museum. In all the examples the Magi are wearing Phrygian
caps and pointing upwards; in the one from the Vatican the star and the heads of two
camels have been added. The Epiphany was frequently illustrated using the three
Magi. As with Daniel, who defied a tyrant king in defence of his faith in God, so the
Magi had also defied a tyrant king so as to protect the new-born Christ. On the left of
the lower example is the less frequently illustrated scene of Ezekiel raising the dry
bones, taken from Ezekiel 37: 1-10.
Detail from two late 4th c sarcophagi at Arles
4th c sarcophagus of the Nativity in the Vatican museum
Another 4th century sarcophagus in the Vatican museum that illustrates the story of
Ezekiel restoring life to dry bone shows Ezekiel addressing Christ as he restores life
to the son of the widow of Nain. The deceased is to the right of Christ. She is making
a sign with two fingers of her right hand towards another image of Christ who stands
to her left; she holds a book or codex in the other hand. This arrangement indicates
that she is communicating with Christ through the activity of reading the scriptures.
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Early 4th c ‘Ezekiel’ sarcophagus in the Vatican museum
The ‘Marcus Claudius’ sarcophagus fails to include Mary watching over her child;
instead Joseph is shown leaning on a stave as he watches the child. In the ‘Dogmatic’
sarcophagus a male figure is shown behind Mary as she receives the Magi at the
Epiphany. This is possibly Joseph or the prophet Balaam.
Detail of ‘Marcus Claudius’ sarcophagus AD 330 (left) & ‘Dogmatic’ sarcophagus,
AD 325-350 (right)
The sarcophagus known as ‘The Two Brothers’, after the two heads in the ‘imago
clipeata’; the head on the left was probably originally intended to be female, judging
by the positioning of the body and the outstretched right arm and hand. The scenes
that are illustrated include many that are already familiar including Daniel naked in
the lions’ den. But top left shows the resurrection of Lazarus and the foretelling of the
denial of Christ by St Peter. Below the central disc with the two brothers is a small
apocryphal scene of St Peter teaching a centurion, Corneillius, and another warden;
they were later converted to Christianity by St Peter. That scenes of events in the life
of St Peter feature so frequently is perhaps due to the fact that it was in Rome that the
events took place and his name was therefore closely associated with Rome in the
minds of its Christians. There was no concern that the events are not recorded in the
New Testament.
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Sarcophagus of ‘The Two Brothers’ AD 325 now in the Vatican museum
In the Vatican museum there is a fragment of a sarcophagus that dates from AD 325;
it shows Christ in a boat rowed by three disciples, John, Luke and Mark. It has an
interesting resemblance to a 12th century fragment from the West door of the great
Catalan abbey of Sant Pere de Rodes. This fragment, by the ‘Maître de Cabestany’,
shows Christ before Saints Andrew and Peter and is now in Barcelona.
Fragment of a sarcophagus from AD 325 now in the Vatican – Christ with three
disciples
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Sant Pere de Rodes – A fragment of the 12th c West door, now in the Fredric Marès
museum, Barcelona
The Greek word for Resurrection is ‘Anàstasis’. The term is used to refer to the
triumphal banner that is placed in the centre of the front panel; it combines the two
arms of the cross with the monogram of Christ’s name, the ‘Chi Rho’ or XP, crowned
with a laurel wreath and flanked by two doves. The name alludes to the Easter victory
of Christ and it transforms the humiliating image of the cross into a symbol of victory.
Below the banner are two soldiers. The scenes to the sides refer to Christ’s Passion;
two more are on the end panels; the scenes are separated by trees, which effectively
replace the more usual architectural columns. This sarcophagus is sometimes referred
to as ‘The Sarcophagus of the Resurrection’.
Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ and trees from AD 340 now in the Vatican museum
An ‘Anàstasis’ sarcophagus in Carrara marble, known as the ‘Constantine II’, is in the
Arles museum. It dates from the late 4th century. The top has at the centre a blank
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dedication plaque that is held by two winged cherubs. Either side are imago clipeata
with the heads of the deceased. At the ends of the lid are two masks. The centre of the
front panel is dominated by the cross of ‘Anàstasis’ crowned by a wreath. Each side
of the cross are six apostles, each holding a book or scroll. Their heads are all
crowned with a small wreath. The side panels are decorated with the baptism of Christ
at one end and Moses and St Peter with his jailer. These side panels are executed in a
different style to that used on the front.
Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ known as ‘Constantine II’ at Arles. Late 4th c. Front
panel
Sarcophagus with ‘Anàstasis’ known as ‘Constantine II’ at Arles. Late 4th c. End
panels
From the 2nd century through to the end of the 4th century a number of themes that had
no religious connotation remained popular: hunting scenes in particular but also
scenes of rural life and women playing musical instruments. These represented
elements in the social life of the senatorial class. After the Empire converted to
Christianity such themes continued to be used but the dedication plaque gave a clear
indication that the deceased was Christian. A damaged early 4th century sarcophagus
in marble from Carrara provides an example. It shows naked cherub-like figures
harvesting olives. It is from Arles and was probably produced in a local workshop
there.
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Early 4th c Cararra marble sarcophagus fragment with olive harvesting; Arles
In the introduction it was stated that the raw material for sarcophagi was shipped from
as far away as Proconnessos, near the Dardanelles; several sarcophagi at Arles are
carved in Cararra marble; there is one in marble from St Béat, in Haute Garonne.
Christ stands at the centre holding in his left had the Law. Each side are two disciples;
those nearest him carry a basket of bread and a dish of small fish, symbols of the
Eucharist. At the ends are Abraham, who is about to sacrifice his son, and Daniel,
who is slaying the dragon of Babylon, who is poisoning the dragon of Babylon. The
inclusion of these two Old Testament figures is probably to draw attention to the fact
that these Jewish scenes and narratives have been superseded by the new Law. Each
person is framed by fluted columns and is set within a deep recess in the form of a
scallop shell arch.
Mid 4th c sarcophagus in St Béat marble showing symbols of the Eucharist. Arles
The Louvre and Arles museum have sarcophagi that have several features in common.
Both are known as the ‘Concordus’ sarcophagus and date from the late 4th century. In
both Christ is shown seated between the apostles. Christ is bearded and rests his feet
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on a low stool. He holds an open book on which is inscribed: Dominus legem dat. The
apostles hold scrolls or codices. Four are inscribed with the names of the evangelists,
Matthew and Mark to Christ’s right and Luke and John on his left. Behind the
apostles, in light relief, is a line of heads, probably representing disciples. At the left
end of the Arles sarcophagus is a small roof, below which a woman is seated; she
holds a child that she appears to be offering or presenting to Christ. The sarcophagus
in Arles has a lengthy epitaph to Bishop Concordius, who died in about 390. This
sarcophagus is decorated with griffins on the short sides.
4th c ‘Concordius’ sarcophagus in Arles
4th c ‘Concordius’ sarcophagus in the Louvre
The crypt of St Victor basilica at Marseille has several interesting and unusual
sarcophagi. Amongst them is 5th century one known as the ‘Allegorical’ sarcophagus.
The central scene of the lamb has been restored using 17th and early 19th century
drawings. The frieze on the lid shows three lambs with palm trees each side of the
‘Chi-Rho’. On the main panel, in the centre, is a lamb that symbolizes Christ. It is
standing on a mountain from which flow the Four Rivers of Paradise (Genesis 2;10); a
large sheep drinks from one river and a deer from another. Rising up on each side of
the mountain are palm trees. Each side are scenes that are associated with the
Eucharist; on the left is the Feast of Cana and on the right, badly damaged, is the
Feeding of the 5,000. This is one of four sarcophagi in the crypt which include the
central position of the Four Rivers of Paradise. Two of the others, also from the 5th
century are known as the ‘Companions of Sainte Ursule’ sarcophagus and the
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‘Companions of Saint Maurice’ sarcophagus. Both show Christ at the centre standing
on a flat mountain with the four rivers flowing down the sides.
St Victor crypt, Marseille – 5th c, ‘Allegorical sarcophagus’
St Victor crypt, Marseille – 5th c ‘Companions of Ste Ursule’ sarcophagus
The fourth sarcophagus with the Four Rivers of Paradise that is at St Victor is in the
basilica proper and it is known as ‘Traditio Legis’. At the centre Christ is standing
bare footed on the mountain down which flow the four rivers. Behind Christ are
palms. He is passing a scroll to a disciple whilst greeting another who stands to his
right. On the left side is the scene of Abraham about to sacrifice his son, Isaac, who is
seated with his hands bound and his back to his father. The hand of God is in the
upper corner; a lamb is in the lower one. At the other end there is an illustration of
Christ restoring the sight to a blind man.
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St Victor, Marseille – 5th c sarcophagus ‘Traditio Legis’
Child mortality was considerably more prevalent then than it is today in Europe.
There are a small number of examples of sarcophagi that were intended for children.
The example below shows, from the left, the Miracle at Cana, a female figure in the
‘orans’ position between two saints and, on the right, the resurrection of the son of the
widow of Nain. A second sarcophagus for a child, also in the Vatican museum, has a
fuller repertoire of scenes: the Magi, St Peter and his jailers, Jonah, Abraham and
Isaac, the arrest of St Peter by Processus and Martinianus and a very naked Daniel.
Sarcophagus for a child from circa AD 300, now in the Vatican museum
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4th c sarcophagus for a child, now in the Vatican museum
It is possible that some confusion may be caused when a sarcophagus is re-used. An
example is to be seen in the so-called ‘Gayole sarcophagus’ at Brignoles, in Provence.
In Preconnesos marble and dating from the mid 3rd century, it was not manufactured
in Gaul; the style is more reminiscent of works from Greece. This damaged
sarcophagus is decorated, from left to right, with a helios bust, a fisherman, a tree
with a bird in it, three lying rams and an anchor, an ‘Orans’ figure, another tree with a
bird in it, a seated person and a smaller standing person, the Good Shepherd and one
behind him, another tree with a bird in it and finally a seated man with a long stick
and another ram. The ‘Orans’ figure and the Good Shepherd have been interpreted as
having a Christian context. The epigraph would indicate that it was re-employed in
the late 5th century.
Brignoles, 3rd c Gayole sarcophagus, re-used in the late 5th c.
Some early sarcophagi lacked the detailed sculptures; instead the front panel was
decorated with a pattern of thin ripples known as ‘Strigilate’. The Metropolitan
Museum, New York has a fine example that is dated as AD 220 and it is, therefore,
pre-Christian; the ‘Strigilate’ format first appeared in the 1st century AD. The
‘Strigilate’ or ‘Strigils’ are named after the curved implements used by Greek and
Roman athletes to scrape dirt and moisture from their skin after intense exercise.
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Roman ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus from AD 220, now Met, NY
‘Julia Latronilla’ sarcophagus from Rome AD 330, now Jerusalem
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Roman ‘Strigil’, Walters Art Museum
By the end of the 4th century increasing numbers of ’Strigilate’ sarcophagi were used.
They were usually decorated with a central sculpture that was between two blocks of
‘Strigilate’ decoration. At the corners were two more sculptures. The end panels were
usually covered with more ‘Strigilate’ decoration that might contain a small motif in
the centre, such as a flower. In the museum at Arles there is a 4th century example
which has a sculpture of a young-looking, long-haired Christ holding a cross, showing
that the cross was now an accepted symbol and was no longer associated with
humiliation. At each corner is an unidentifiable apostle. A second one, also 4th century
and at Arles, shows a woman in the ‘Orans’ position with apostles at each end. All
three figures have a rolled scroll at their feet, indicating that they are learned people.
Another, at Apt, shows Christ standing in the centre panel holding a cross; at either
end of the front panels are apostles; on the short end panels are twin panels with
figures of disciples, whilst the back panel is decorated with ‘Imbrication’.
Late 4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Arles
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Late 4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Arles
4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus now in Apt
The Barcelona archaeological museum has an unusual sarcophagus. The sculpture on
the central panel shows a veiled woman between two male figures, the left one much
younger than the one on the right. Perhaps this is a scene of Mary being comforted by
St John and another apostle after the Crucifixion. Further, this might be to comfort the
widow of the deceased for whom this sarcophagus was intended. At the left end two
soldiers are arresting St Peter in Rome; at the right corner Christ is shown healing the
son of a Roman soldier; both stories are apocryphal.
4th c sarcophagus in Barcelona archaeological museum – Mary and apostles
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5th c Roman ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘The Law-giver’, now in Tarragona
Supporting an altar in a side chapel in St Trophime, at Arles, is a sarcophagus from
the first decade of the 5th century that is known as the ‘Geminus sarcophagus’; it is
named after Paulus Geminus, who was responsible for the financial administration for
five provinces of Gaul, working from Vienne some time before 395; he almost
certainly lived some time in Arles and was buried in the first decade of the 5th century.
Made using a Carrara marble with grey horizontal streaks, it has three bays divided by
fluted columns on the front panel; Christ is seated on a throne in the centre; he has an
elliptical halo that has a small crucifix at the apex; this is a Latinised ‘Chi Rho’. In his
right hand he holds a book, the Bible. To his right is St Peter, holding a cross; the
figure at Christ’s left side is probably St Paul.
‘Geminus Sarcophagus’ at St Trophime, Arles; early 5th c; Christ and two apostles
A second example of a sarcophagus indicating that the decision to move the centre of
administration South to Arles brought about the relocation of key staff is to be seen in
a fragment of a late 4th or early 5th century sarcophagus lid at Arles. The fragment
shows three dolphins; across two of the dolphins there is an epitaph that is inscribed
either side of a cross:
HIC CONDITVS I
NOMINE TOLO
BRITANNVS N
ACET
SANVS
ATIONE
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PROCONSVL
IS DOLOR
This implies that Tolosanus was transferred from Brittany to Arles at time of the
move of the Prefecture of the Pretorius to Arles
Fragment of a late 4th c sarcophagus lid named after Tolosanus, now in Arles
A 4th century sarcophagus from St Cizy that is now in Toulouse shows a further
reduction in the amount of sculpture so that the only motif is the ‘Chi Rho’ symbol.
However, the lid has an interesting decorative pattern called ‘Imbrication’, that is
found on later works of Merovingian origin after the end of Gallo-Roman France. It is
possible that this decoration was intended to represent the roofing of an earthly home
for the deceased; the pattern closely resembles Roman tiles of the 4th and 5th centuries.
The patterns of ‘Strigilate’ used to decorate the front of sarcophagi were not
consistent.
4th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘Imbrication’ on the lid from St Cizy, now in St
Raymond museum, Toulouse
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A late 5th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus with ‘Imbrication’ in the church of Pujols, Lot-etGarrone
5th c ‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus at St Vincent, Mas d’Agenais
At St André-le-Bas church, Vienne, a 6th century sarcophagus front combines the ‘Chi
Rho’ symbol with ‘Imbrication’ patterns each side.
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6th c sarcophagus front at St André-le-Bas, Vienne
From the end of the 4th century the fashion began to change. There was a significant
decline in the sculpturing of the human figure. The use of floral and foliage
decoration began to feature increasingly. An example is provided by a damaged
sarcophagus that is at St Guilhem-le-Désert, in the Languedoc. It is known as ‘Albane
and Bertrane’ sarcophagus and dates from the early 6th century. The main part of the
front panel is decorated with biblical scenes divided by decorated columns, whilst the
front of the lid has elaborate foliage patterns.
6th c ‘Albane and Bertrane’ sarcophagus at St Guilhem-le-Désert
By the end of the 6th century the use of figures on the sarcophagi was reduced to
three: Christ at the centre between two apostles. They were replaced by sarcophagi
that carried floral and foliage decoration, but with the added Christian symbol of the
‘Chi Rho’ to confirm that the deceased was Christian. By the 6th century such
sarcophagi had become the norm. Particularly fine examples are in the Musée St
Raymond in Toulouse, Musée du Périgord, in Périgueux and in Bordeaux museum.
They are ornately decorated with swirls of vines bearing leaves and fruit. The vine
had featured on 2nd and 3rd century pagan sarcophagi as part of a scene showing the
grape harvest. In the early years of Christianity it was a symbol of a Christian life;
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later it came to symbolise the Church and even to symbolise the Eucharist. But it must
be said that the vine was often used in an entirely decorative context.
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, AD 350; side panel. Now in Vatican Treasury museum
The sarcophagus in Toulouse has on the front panel three vases from which rise vines
with luxurious foliage and fruits, symbolising biblical ‘True Vine’. On the example in
Périgueux the ‘Chi Rho’ is set within a wreath that has a flower head at the top. The
laurel wreath in Roman times was a symbol of victory and, consequently, of
immortality. Some from this period have no over Christian symbol such as the ‘Chi
Rho’. There are examples in the cloisters of Elne Cathedral.
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4th c sarcophagus from St Sauveur, Toulouse now in the Musée St Raymond,
Toulouse
6th c sarcophagus now in the Musée du Périgord, Périgueux
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6th c sarcophagus now in the Bordeaux museum
6th c sarcophagus at Elne Cathedral cloisters
A sarcophagus that is now in the Louvre but which was for a long time at Soissons, in
Northern France, had originally been made in the Midi; it provides an example of
local export. It is richly decorated with vines around a ‘Chi Rho’ that is set within a
wreath signifying victory and immortality. At the corners are slim columns with small
Corinthian-style capitals.
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6th c. sarcophagus from Soissons, now in the Louvre
A 5th century sarcophagus in Tarragona shows the Roman symbolism of the laurel
wreath had spread across to the western edges of the Roman Empire. At each end of a
‘Strigilate’ sarcophagus stands a figure in Roman clothing looking as if they were
important state officials of magistrates; however it is considered by some that they
represent Saints Peter and Paul. In the centre a laurel wreath surrounds a blank
dedication plaque. In the corners are small flower heads. Below the disk are the Four
Rivers of Paradise.
Sarcophagus from early 5th c now in Tarragona
In the Cité museum at Carcassonne there is a Merovingian sarcophagus from Floure;
it has similar foliage decoration but it also has each side of the front panel a sheaf of
wheat. A 5th century sarcophagus with similar motifs is to be seen at Moissac, in the
Quercy; this is an indication that both the custom of using sarcophagi and the
adoption of styles and motifs used in Septimania had acceptance in Aquitaine. The
sarcophagus at Moissac has the additional Christian symbolism of the Eucharist in the
form the early Christian symbol of two small doves drinking from a chalice that is
below the ‘Chi-Rho’.
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6th c sarcophagus from Floure, now in Carcassonne
5th c sarcophagus at Moissac
A fragment from a late 6th century sarcophagus has been secured to the wall of the
cloisters at Vaison-la-Romaine. It shows an unusual combination of motifs: tendrils of
vines with grapes, a chalice that has a small rosette on the bowl and, above the
chalice, a small cross.
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Late 6th c sarcophagus fragment, Vaison-la-Romaine
The Italian city of Ravenna provides a significant contrast in the development of style
and decoration. In the 5th century Ravenna became the Western capital of the Roman
empire instead of Rome as the emperor sought safety from invading Huns. From the
6th century until 751 it was the seat of the Ostrogoth king; at the invitation of the
Byzantine emperor, Theodoric invaded Northern Italy and captured Ravenna in 493.
Though Christian, he was an Arian, but sought to recreate the glories of the old
Roman Empire. With the flourishing new artistic developments came wealth and the
rich citizens advertised their status in death as they had done in life. Some of the
surviving sarcophagi are huge. Many were produced in Constantinople using marble
extracted from the quarries on Proconnesus. By the late 5th century some workshops
were established in Ravenna. An early sarcophagus in a local museum was made for a
eunuch called Seda, from the court of Theodoric. Between two simple arches is a long
epitaph that specifies his court duties and status.
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Ravenna, Archiepiscopal Museum. Early 5c sarcophagus for Seda, a court eunuch
As happened elsewhere, the epigraph fell out of fashion and sarcophagi were
decorated with Christian themes and symbols. Near the tourist entrance to San Vitale,
in Ravenna is a fine example on a very large sarcophagus. The front shows the three
Magi, wearing Phrygian caps, running to present their gifts to Christ. On the back are
two peacocks with the Chi-Rho between them whilst on one end is the scene of Daniel
standing between two lions. In the church of San Francesco a 5c sarcophagus does
follow the earlier Roman traditional style. Known as ‘The apostles’, it shows Christ
between four apostles. Each is set within a scalloped niche. The remaining apostles
are shown on the sides and back. Another late 5th century sarcophagus in the
Archiepiscopal Museum shows, on the front, two lambs standing almost head to head;
behind each are bays with a large cross and, on the outer bay, palm trees. The rear
face is similar except that the lambs are replaced by two large birds with a chalice
between them and a ‘Chi rho’ above the chalice. This sarcophagus is thought to be of
local manufacture because it is less ornate than imported models and there are locally
defined changes.
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Ravenna, San Vitale. A 5c sarcophagus with the Epiphany scene
Ravenna, San Francesco. ‘Apostles’ sarcophagus, 5th c
Ravenna, Archiepiscopal Museum. A late 5th c sarcophagus of local manufacture
In general there are few sarcophagi with the lavishly sculptured biblical scenes that
were prevalent in Rome and Gaul in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Those biblical scenes
that were produced were comparatively simple. An example is found in the Ravenna
National Museum, where there is a 5th century sarcophagus made from attractively
grey veined Proconnessus marble; it illustrates ‘Traditio Legis’; it is, however, a more
sophisticated product than most from the same period that were produced in Gaul.
The ends are decorated with a scene of Daniel and the lions and the raising of the son
of the widow of Nain. More typical of the period is one in Sant’Apollinare in Classe.
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This 6th century sarcophagus has two lambs, each carrying a cross, on the front panel
with a crudely made ‘Chi Rho’ between them. On the lid are two peacocks
approaching a chalice; this symbolizes the Mass.
Ravenna National Museum. 5th c sarcophagus of ‘Traditio Legis’
Sant’ Apollinare in Classe – 6th c sarcophagus with lambs and peacocks
Still in Sant’Apollinare in Classe, there is a 5th century sarcophagus; it was to be reused in the late 7th century for Archbishop Theodorus’ tomb. There are three bays on
the front; the outer two have a large cross. The centre bay is much larger and shows a
gabled arch supported by two large columns. Across the arch are curtains that are
partially opened. This is intended to represent an altar. The ends are decorated with a
lamb that has a halo around the head and which stands below two birds and a
wreathed ‘Chi Rho’ and two chalices each with a pair of birds. The symbolic altar is
most unusual; however, in the Cleveland Museum, in America, there is an altar with
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reliquary that was made in the first half of the 6th century for the church of San
Carlino, in Ravenna. The similarities are remarkable.
Sant’Apollinare in Classe. 5th c sarcophagus illustrating an altar
Ravenna, San Carlino. Early 5th c altar, now Cleveland Museum, US
An 8th century sarcophagus in the Civic museum at Pavia is decorated with two
peacocks drinking from a chalice on top of which is a small cross. In so doing they are
combining the old pagan symbols of Roman worship with the new Christian ones.
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The panel is decorated with flowers, swirls and small rosettes with flowers, leaves and
birds. These are motifs that were to be carried West across Europe to Spain by the
Visigoths. A late 6th century sarcophagus from Jaen has two birds below vine
branches; set within four rosettes is a disk with a most unusual scene: there is the
seated figure of Mary; on her lap is Christ; Mary holds a tall cross in her right hand.
Lombard sarcophagus of Abbess Theodata from Sta Maria della Pusterola, AD 735,
now Pavia civic museum
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Late 6th c Visigoth sarcophagus from Jaen, now in private hands, with detail of central
disk
From the 6th century a new motif made its appearance; it was the six pointed star. The
St Raymond museum, Toulouse has a fragment of the front of a 6th century
sarcophagus with this simple motif set between ‘Strigilate’. An example in Narbonne
has a more complicated star motif that is at the centre of panels with plants and
foliage that were typical of that century. Another in Narbonne replaces the star motif
with the sun.
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Fragment of a 6c sarcophagus now in the St Raymond museum, Toulouse
Detail of the front of a 6c sarcophagus in Narbonne
Late 6th c ‘strigilate’ sarcophagus with sun motif at Narbonne
Along with the star motif came an interlocking circle motif, one that was to be used
extensively in the Romanesque sculpture of the 11th and 12th centuries. A 7th century
example from Narbonne has the motif beside a cartouche with Adam & Eve in the
Garden of Eden at one end and foliage at the other. The reverse side is decorated with
‘Imbrication’ patterns. This sarcophagus is of marble when most of those found in
Narbonne from the late 6th century onwards are from limestone.
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7th c sarcophagus in Narbonne
Conclusions and Summary
The sculptural programmes on the early Christian sarcophagi of the Roman Empire
were a logical development from those used for the deceased of wealthy families
during the first two centuries of that millennium. The subjects and styles reflected the
dogmas of the new religion and its development after the uncertain and dangerous
period of persecution. There is a noticeable decline in the ambitions of the sculptors
from the 4th century onwards. The programmes were simpler and less demanding of
both the time and skills of the artisans. During the 3rd to 5th centuries there was some
consistency in the styles used in Rome and in the regions of Western Europe. But,
following the sack of Rome in 455, the provinces developed their own formats and
styles; this was particularly the case in France (Gaul), where most production seems
to have been concentrated in the area of Septimania; this area ceased to be Roman
after it was seized by the Visigoths in 411. Production was concentrated around Arles,
Marseilles and Narbonne. Local workshops in Provence had flourished from the 2nd
century with the construction and decoration of arcs of triumph. Examples of such
monuments stand still in cities such as Saintes, in the West of Gaul, to Trier, Vienne,
Orange and Nîmes in the East of Gaul. However, the Rhineland and upper Rhone
centres were to decline towards the latter decades of the 4th century, whilst that at
Arles was to flourish. In part, this may be attributed to the decision in 308 to make
Arles a residence for the Emperor Constantine. This gave special economic
importance to the Rhone valley and its port at Arles. Around 395 the administrative
centre and mint were transferred from Trier. From the 5th and 6th centuries some
production does seem to have taken place further West, towards Aquitaine, which had
been ceded to the Visigoths by Honorius in AD 413. In Spain production seems to
have been confined to the Mediterranean coast and mostly around Tarragona, the
capital of Roman Iberia. Although they were Christian, the arrival of the Visigoths in
AD 411 led to a tailing off of production in Iberia, unlike Visigoth ruled Septimania
where it continued for a further two centuries. On the other hand the Ostrogoth
conquest of North-east Italy and the installation of their capital in Ravenna led to the
development of a renewed artistic style that was to continue and evolve in the area for
five centuries.
It is striking that throughout the period under review that there was consistency in the
choice of narratives that were used and, as a consequence, those that were neglected.
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From the Old Testament Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, Noah and the ark, the
Exodus and Red Sea Crossing, several stories from Daniel including Susanna, which
is apocryphal, Abraham & Isaac and Elijah’s chariot to heaven and Jonah. But
amongst those that were mainly ignored are Moses, Cain & Abel, David and Samson,
all of which were common subjects for Romanesque sculptors. From the New
Testament there are naturally many examples of the events of Christ’s life from the
Nativity through to his appearance before Pontius Pilate with a particular emphasis
given to his miracles. But there are no illustrations of the Temptations, the Last
Supper, the Crucifixion, his burial, the empty tomb or of Christ’s appearances after
his Resurrection and none of the Ascension. Other New Testament scenes that were
used are those concerning the life and death of St Peter and, to a lesser extent, St Paul.
In this regard, many are apocryphal but seem to have had general acceptance despite
the strictures against the use of non-canonical and heretical books and manuscripts
that emanated from the Synods of Carthage of AD 397 and 419. (See
http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration and The Nativity & the
Assumption of Mary – Origins of the Imagery). Events from the life of Mary that are
common in Romanesque sculpture are ignored; examples include the Annunciation,
Visitation, the flight to Egypt, the Presentation of Christ at the Temple and her
Assumption into Heaven.
It was not until the 12th century that Western Europe was to see such quality in the
sculpting of the human figure, the vivid depiction of biblical scenes and works of
sculpture on a comparable scale. It is very probable that in the early decades of the
Romanesque period the artisans would have referred to the many surviving
sarcophagi for the models.
References:
Benoit, Fernand. ‘Sarcophages Paléochrétiens d’Arles et de Marseille’. Supplément à
Gallia V. 1954.
Davies, Richard E. ‘Carving in Faith; preliminary thoughts on Constantinian era
sarcophagi in the Vatican museum Pio Cristiano’. Morrow, Georgia. 2014.
Elsner, Jaś. ‘The Christian Museum in Southern France; Antiquity, Display and
Liturgy from the Counter-Revolution to the Aftermath of Vatican II’. Oxford Art
Journal 32.2. 2009.
Février, Paul-Albert. ‘Le sarcophagi à inscription ‘x lege filiciter’ (Narbonne, Aude)’.
Anales du Midi, Vol 73, issue 53, 1961.
Février, Paul-Albert. ‘Sarcophages d’Arles’. Congrès Archéologique de France – Pays
d’Arles’ Tome 134, 1979.
Huskinson, Janet. ‘Degrees of Differentiation: Role Models on Early Christian
Sarcophagi’. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Supplementary Volumes
No. 7. 2008.
Krikken, Mariska. ‘The Sheep Bearer in Christian Art’. Bachelor Thesis at Leiden.
June 2012.
Markov, Deborah. ‘Some Born-Again Christians of the Fourth Century’. The Art
Bulletin Vol. 63, No. 7. 1981.
McCann, Anna Marguerite. ‘Roman Sarcophagi in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’.
New York, 1978.
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Sassier, Aymeric. ‘L’évolution de la sculpture paléochrétienne et préromane en
Septimanie’. Etudes Roussillonnaises Tome VI 1957.
Sorabella, Jean. ‘A Roman Sarcophagus and its Patron’. Metropolitan Museum
Journal No. 36, 2001.
Webb, Matilda. ‘The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome’. Sussex
Academic Press, Canada. 2010.
http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration & From Antiquity to
Romanesque
http://www.romanesqueheritage.com/romanesque-decoration & The Nativity & the
Assumption of Mary – Origins of the Imagery
A selection of internet sites that provide some further information:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rsar/hd_rsar.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christian_sarcophagi
http://www.christianiconography.info/sarcophagi.html
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/early-christian-artarchitecture-sculpture.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture
http://study.com/academy/lesson/early-christian-art-and-architecture.html
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture/early-christian.htm
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/early-christian1/a/earlychristian-art
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/early-christian1/a/santamaria-antiqua-sarcophagus
https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19841/bathesis0739901.pdf?s
equence=1
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/70067/3/Couzin_Robert_201311_Ph
D_thesis.pdf
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophage_pal%C3%A9ochr%C3%A9tien
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