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PRODUKTIVITI
BIL. 12, JUN'92 PERBADANAN PRODUKTIVITI NEGARA
WORK CULTURE AND WORK ETHOS
By
Dr. Rajen Mehrotra
(Page 5)
PLANNING FOR PRODUCTIVITY:
DISCUSSION ON A CASE EXAMPLE
By
Professor R.P. Mohanty
(Page 18)
THE DETERMINANTS AND ALLOCATIVE
EFFICIENCY OF COCOA PRODUCTION
IN WEST MALAYSIA
(Page 37)
KE ARAH MENINGKATKAN PRODUKTIVITI
USAHAWAN WANITA SELARAS DENGAN
MATLAMAT WAWASAN 2020:
KES KAJIAN UTARA MALAYSIA
Oleh
Sabitha Marie an
(Page 52)
KESAN-KESAN KUMPULAN DAN PERSEKITARAN
KE ATAS KEBERKESANAN PERLAKUAN
KUMPULAN KERJA DI LEMBAH KLANG,
SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIA
By
Guok Eng Chai
(Pago 66)
ISSN 0127-8223
0000053835
Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].
jurnat
PRODUKTIVITI
jurnal
PRODUKTIVITI
Penasihat/Adviser
Ir. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi
(Ketua Pengarah)
Ketua Pengarang
Halimah All
(Pengarah)
Tim. Ketua Pengarang
Mohd. Zaki Hamzah
(Tim. Pengarah)
Pengarang
Sujaidi Dasuki
Sidang Pengarang
Isa Abu Bakar
Muhamad Saufi Ahmad
Dr. Abd. Wahab Muhamad
Joseph Paul
Annie Thomas
Jurina Abd. Hamid
Noorunsah Jakkaria
Lilian Monica Kam Swee Lian
Penerbit/Publisher
Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara
(National Productivity Corporation)
Peti Surat 64
Jalan Sultan 46904
Petaling Jay a, Malaysia
Tel: 7557266
Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jurnal
ini. 'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semua
aspek ekonomi dan pengurusan serta lain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannya
dengan konsep produktiviti. Rencana-rencana yang tersiar akan diberi
honorarium dan tidak semestinya raerupakan pendapat NPC.
RflPCE
'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara
(Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Industri) Peti Surat 64,
Jalan Sultan, 46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
Telefon: 7557266(15 talian),
Teleks:MA 36312PDPN. Telegram: Dayapeng.
NAFAS BAKU
Respon yang menggalakkan dari para ilmuan untuk 'JP'
ini tidak cukup sekadar diberi ucapan terima kasih.
Semuanya yang sampai di unit penerbitan NPC menjadi
'bank ilmu' yang tidak ternilai harganya dari aspek
pembangunan pengurusan dan pembangunan tenaga
manusia khasnya. Justeru kami juga menerbitkan
banyak lagi majalah yang menangani isu-isu produktiviti
dan kualiti, adalah lebih bermanfaat seJdranya rencanarencana yang tujuan asal penulisnya ditujukan kepada
'JP'kami siarkan di dalam majalah terbitan NPC yang
lain tanpa menjatuhkan nilai dan martabat penulisnya.
Mulai tahun 1993, tiga penerbitan NPC iaitu Produktiviti,
Spektrum QCC dan TQC akan disatukan menjadi satu
penerbitan sahaja dengan nama bant 'Produktiviti &
Kualiti'yang sekaligus memperluaskan lagi ruang dan
fokusnya, di mana rencana-rencana ilmiah dan berat
dimuatkan bagi memberikan kekuatan kepada
penerbitan berkenaan. Dengan gagasan ini kita
memohon prihatin para ilmuan menyumbangkan
rencana-rencana ilmiah dan separuh ilmiah yang ada
hubungkaitnya dengan produktiviti dan kualiti,
pembangunan usahawan dan IKS bagi memberikan
nafas baru pada penerbitan itu.
Kami juga merasa sama-sama dukacita kerana terpaksa
menyimpan rencana-rencana yang anda kirimkan
untuk 'JP'ini dengan penantian yang agak lama.
Sekali lagi jutaan terima kasih dan ribuan maaf - SD.
Biodata
Name
: Rajendra Nath Mehrotra
Date of birth
: 26 January, 1945
Academic Qualification:
B.E. (Elect.) (Hons), University of Bombay,1966
B.E. (Mech.) (Hons), University of Bombay,
1967 Master of Management Studies, University
of Bombay, 1970. Post graduate Diploma in
Industrial Management, University of Delft, The
Netherlands, 1979. Ph.D (Mgmt.) University of
Bombay, 1982.
Present Position General Manager (Works),
Sandoz (India) Ltd., Thane and Hon. Professor,
Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies,
University of Bombay, India.
WORK CULTURE AND WORK ETHOS
Dr. Rajen Mehrotra*
Background:
"Work Culture" and "Work Ethos" is an area which of late, has commenced receiving increasing attention. Work is part of our life and
the only way to derive benefit from nature's resources, is by altering
or processing which finally leads to working on or with them. Work
is surrounded by an array of attitudes, beliefs, norms, values, forms
and customs which have differed with the passage of time. Work has
had two sides which are paradoxical in character. On the one hand
work is painful and difficult and on the other it is need fulfillment
and enjoyment of life. People have experienced joy in work and have
realised that work itself is a reward.
Barry Z. Posner, W. Alan Randolph and Max S. Wortman in "A
New Ethic For Work; The Work Ethic" have shown how feelings and
attitudes of work have changed, over time and a diagramatic representation is attached.
Work ethos is culture specific. Traditionally we as Indians have
been people who looked upon work with respect and dignity and did
not work for reward. However, with rapid industrialisation, we seem
to have lost these precious traditional values and are now left with
very little love for one's work, or pride in our own work.
In our present day environment we do not hesitate to "stop" or
"slow down" work so as to achieve our own desired objective. During
the pre-1947 era this approach was adopted for achieving the country's
independence. Today the same approach with higher intensity and
coupled with violence is adopted by either side (i.e. management and
trade unions or ruling political party and opposition political party)
but the objective has changed. This approach has led to an absence of
trust and faith on both sides with attitudes getting hardened and the
final impact is that the common man suffers by paying a higher price
for goods and services and the pace of economic hampering of the
development of the country. Every country inherits a culture along
with history and arising out of this inheritance flows a work ethos.
Similarly, every organisation in a country with the passage of time and
based on its own history builds a work ethos in its work environment.
Loyalthy, declining commitment and falling work ethos are
making Indian companies look out for Indian models to improve
work ethos. While management principles are universal, management practices are culture specific and one can learn from success
stories of companies in our country wherein the managements have
made a conscious effort at improving the working climate and
achieving higher work ethics. Mr. D.M. Silvera in his book "Human
Resource Development - The Indian Experience" has identified the
management practices from various angles at improving work ethics
in the following seventeen companies (M/s. Hindustan Lever Ltd.,
Steel Authority of India Ltd., Indian Hotels Company, Bharat Heavy
Electricals Ltd., National Therman Power Corporation, Petrofils
Cooperative Ltd., International Airport Authority of India, Steel
Tubes of India Ltd., Maruti Udyong Ltd., The Malayala Manorama
Group, Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd., Crompton Greaves Ltd.,
Hindustan Development Finance Corporation, Voltas Ltd., Larsen &
Toubro Ltd., The Tata Iron & Steel Co., Ltd., I.T.C. Ltd). This documentation helps one to explore the feasibility of visualising the application of some of these practices in ones own environment. There
may be many more companies in India that have high work ethics;
but because they are not documented, it does not mean that they do
not exist. In the small scale sector work ethics is high though in most
cases this attitude amongst labour stems from fear of the loss of
employment while in management because management is none
other than the owner. Work ethos in each organisation will depend
on how we design work and its relationships. In today's organisation, work is economically compensated on a time-rated relationship
and not a piece-rated relationship. Incentive schemes is a super
imposition of the latter on the former.
This paper deals with "Work Culture & Work Ethos" only in the
context of the large-scale organised manufacturing sector. This paper
does not deal with the service sector, agricultural sector nor the small
scale manufacturing sector. The paper mainly concentrates on
Productivity which is the need of the hour for our country.
Concept of Work
Work consists of the proper application of brain and body; work
available is of two types (i.e. innovative and routine). With continuity
of service in an organisation or profession work develops a future
expectation which is called career. Changing technology also changes
the character of work, however revolutionary technological changes
brings in rapid and extensive change in skills required for work.
Most of us are daily present for eight hours at our place of work
but do we really work for the time we are present, what is our rating
as per industrial engineering concept when we work. Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru said, "Work is Worship", when we look at our coun-
try we find this has just remained a slogan and in some cases the slogan has also got transformed to "Worship is Work".
Do we really have an environment for work in our country? A
comparative study made by the Government of India revealed that no
country has so large a number of holidays as ours. We have recently
joined the band wagon of the industrialised countries by having 5
work days per week without cutting down on our festival holidays. In
our environment a certain number of employees tend to enjoy sick
leave as an annual entitlement of their service condition and not
when they are really sick. If every holiday fell on a day other than
Saturdays and Sundays and if the leave entitlement taken by
Government of India employees in a year was taken into consideration
then they would not be present for more than 174 days in a year. It
means that they would take leave every alternate day. Can we really
afford this luxury? Or are these decisions political in nature so as to
keep the employees happy? While one recognises the need to cele-
brate festivals, have a weekly rest and an annual vacation, one cannot
lose sight of affordability of these benefits by organisations and the
development of the country by keeping resources idle.
Work has two components i.e. the prescriptive and the discretionary; it is easy to define the prescriptive component, it is the discretionary component that lies in the grey area. Increased automation
helps in reducing if not eliminating the discretionary component.
The concept of "Go Slow" / "Work to Rule" is the reflection of the
attitude and behaviour pattern of labour in using the discretionary
component of work for projecting their point of view. Similarly, allocating "Lower Grade/Skill Work" though "Similar Grade/Skill Work"
is available is reflection of the attitude and behaviour pattern of management in using the discretionary component of work for projecting
their point of view.
The importance of work to the employee is to earn a livelihood
and also obtain a role identity within the organisation and the community. Work thus leads to an economic as well as an emotional relationship between the employee and the organisation. Organisations
that have built up strong emotional relationship with their employee
have had lesser problems on work ethos as well as productivity. Also
increasing affluence of society arising out of either a higher remuneration or because husband and wife both are working has brought about
a change in attitude towards extra work. This behaviour can be seen
when employees today refuse to work extra hours or on weekly/festival holidays even though they are paid extra remuneration for the
extra hours of work. At the same time one can see some employees
working extra hours not only on normal days but also on weekly/festival holidays without any additional remuneration. This differential
behaviour pattern is because of a personal satisfaction in work commitment towards the organisation/profession and at times expectation
of career growth so as to achieve something in life and excell.
Business Ethics:
When we talk about "Work Culture" & "Work Ethos" there is
going to be a reawakening of "Business Ethics" and not only labour
but also Government, shareholders and consumers are going to question the practices of corporate sector. It is true that major industrialisation in our country only took place after the sixties but I have no
reason to believe that managements in industry today are any more
ethical or unethical than their fore-fathers in business 50 or 100 years
back. But one thing is clear that "Business Ethics" will be talked
about more openly and will also be questioned by labour in organisations.
Managements will not only have to learn to distinguish between
but also learn to answer questions to the satisfaction of labour with
reference to the operations being healthy or sick; buying being competitive or incompetitive; executives being capable or incapable; paying taxes or evading taxes; sales being white or black. The grey and
dark areas of management will get questioned by labour, because of
increasing literacy, rising aspirations, soft corner by Government, liberal interpretation of laws by courts and easy availability of information regarding occurance of dark and grey areas of operations in other
organisations.
Recently I had opportunity to read Philips Employees' Union's
"White Paper On Proposed Sales of Assets and On Prevalent Practices
In The Name of Housing In Peico Electronics & Electricals Ltd. Logic
of Interest" dated 10th. April, 1989. The same union had earlier also
made a presentation to the Company Management on "Fiscal
Discipline" and on 29th. May, 1989 the same union did another presentation on "Analysis of Publicity Expenses And Advertising
Reaching People Economically". Peico Electronics & Electricals Ltd's
profitability has drastically fallen and one can see the changing trends
wherein the Union today is not only questioning but also offering
some suggestions on what is normally construed as "Management
Prerogative".
I see a changing trend for the future wherein Unions are going to
question managements for their performance, more so when organisations become sick. Also organisations will find it uncomfortable
avoiding answering questions and one hopes that the practices of the
managements are ethical and not in grey areas. Organisations cannot
expect labour to observe cost reduction when managements them-
selves indulge in extravagant spending. We cannot ask for high work
ethos from labour if the managements itself indulges in visible unethical practices. I do firmly believe that it is a managerial failure if an
organisation becomes sick. One of the main job's of management is to
see that the organisation not only lives but grows. Michael Josephson
of Josephen Institute For the Advancement of Ethics, Los Angeles,
USA, writes "Ethical looseness is partly inspired by the deregulatory,
anything goes mood of the people convince themselves that a new
norm of acceptability applies because of the general atmosphere of
corruption".
Productivity:
Quite often productivity is confused with profitability.
Manufacturing organisations that are highly profitable are not necessarily having high productivity, however, organisations having,high
productivity are likely to be profitable. The various areas for productivity improvement in an organisation are capital, raw material, land,
plant and machinery, product, process, technology, market, labour
and management.
Improving plant and machinery availability by reducing break
downs and having periodic preventive maintenance is part of manufacturing management's work ethics. Ensuring availability of raw
material at competitive prices and selling the products profitably is
part of commercial management's work ethics. Maintaining fiscal discipline is part of financial management's work ethics. Improving product and process technology is part of R & D management's work
ethics. Ensuring productive quantity and quality output of work is a
joint act of line management and labour work ethics. Unfortunately,
this area gets debated heavily and solutions take a very long time to
emerge. Quite often people argue that labour cost varies from 4% to
15% depending upon the industry and the concentration of productivity improvement must be in other areas. The relevant question is
not labour cost, but productivity, of labour, if productivity of labour is
low it clearly results in lower capacity utilisation of plant and
machinery and hence lowering the productivity by an underutilisation of an asset which in most cases is purchased out of borrowed capital from the nationalised banks.
Activity sampling studies in the large size manufacturing sector
indicate that productivity is low. Our culture on work ethics is poor
and presently there is hardly any legislation in the- country that helps
in improving productivity of bargainable employees. While we have
legislation in terms of maximum working hours per week and minimum paid holidays and leave, the practice varies from one industry to
another depending upon historical reasons and the bargaining powers
of the unions and management. Also legislation will not be able to
solve the problem of work ethics.
A tabulation of comparative Study of Productivity of Labour
based on studies conducted by Bombay Productivity Council in 25
organisations in Western India as part of the consultancy assignment
is given in Annexure I. These studies are over a five year period and
are only a reflection of the present state of affairs in Industry. It is
easy for everybody to continue status quo rather than bring about
change. The impact of continuing to live in the wonderland of low
productivity is that the cost of production goes up and if there is competition the survival of the manufacturing unit itself is threatened.
Quite a few manufacturing units that enjoyed a sheltered market and
did not concentrate on labour productivity because the consumer paid
a higher price for shielding and safeguarding low productivity are in
problem today. With the development of technology and also entry of
new manufacturing units the consumer is not only getting a choice
but is able to buy goods at a competitive price. Organisations that
have low labour productivity are bound to become sick in the future.
Factors That Hinder Productivity
Inadequate/poor infrastructure such as power cuts, delays in
travel/transport, poor communication systems, delays in governmental approvals, poor quality of education, inadequate medical facilities
at ESIS/Civil hospitals, shortage of raw materials are factors which do
hinder productivity. In spite of these, the Indian Manager has learnt
to live and grow in this environment because change/improvement in
these factors will take time.
Absence of a stable growing market will hinder productivity. I
firmly believe that this is a challenge to the managerial personnel in
marketing and companies must ensure that they have a continuity of
demand for their products if they want labour productivity to
improve.
An inefficient and outdated technology coupled with poor maintenance of plant and machinery and use of poor quality raw material
will affect productivity badly.
Uncontrolled high overtime and built in restrictive work practices by the workmen will hinder any productivity improvement.
Low morale, absence of team spirit, among the employees of an
organisation will only result in a bad industrial relations environment
which will finally affect productivity. Also, absence of a value system
for work ethics at all levels will hamper productivity.
10
Over protection of bargainable employees because of the sympathetic attitude of the government, legislation and judiciary. In the name
of social justice, maximum damage to productivity has been achieved.
This has resulted presently in bargainable employees having very poor
work ethics and no fear for perpetuating poor productivity norms.
Non-Conventional Approach
Behavioural scientists strongly believe that the building of a positive work climate can result in improvement in productivity. A manufacturing man's problem is to ensure that the positive work climate is
really positive and not an approach of avoiding to recognise the presence of low productivity of labour, The presence of shop floor problems such as refusal, delay in working on modified/new equipment,
process, products by labour is an indication that management needs to
invest time and effort to change the work climate and make it positive.
Some of the approaches that could be adopted are listed below.
However, this is not an exhaustive check list. A continuous monitoring and evaluation of these need to be done to ensure that they are
achieving the desired result. Also the involvement of top management is essential for their success.
i) Quality Circles/Productivity Circles/Small Group Activity
ii) Suggestion Scheme
iii) Shop Committees
iv) Sports/Drama Club
v) Credit Society
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
Committees for Religious Celebration
Canteen Committee
Contest
Open Forums
Workmen Development Programme
In order to make non-conventional approach successful also
managerial personnel need training so that they are cost and productivity conscious. They also need to develop skills for ushering in
change in a planned manner. They have to develop a desire to retrain
their workmen and interact with them, at the same time they need to
set a self example on high work ethics. Also managerial personnel
need to question deviations, and build a culture of management by
walking around (mbwa). Managerial personnel need to develop bias
for action in time frame by a good follow up and also have speedy
communication (upward and downward).
The bargainable employees at the workmen level once recruited
cannot be easily retrenched in today's environment even if their peril
formance is below par. At least selfish interest forces a major responsibility on management to continuously upgrade the knowledge and
skill of the workmen. The development of the bargainable employees
will be incomplete until we are able to build them into effective team
members for the organisation and understand their responsibility
towards their family. The bargainable employee's central focus in
most cases is on regularly getting monthly salary so as to combat infla-
tion and look after the family while the central focus of the organisation is on surviving and then growing in today's competitive business
environment. The approach in training the bargainable employees is
to make them visualise that the central focus of the organisation is not
in contradiction of the bargainable employees focus. Unfortunately,
the task becomes tough because a large number of trade unions in our
country have tried to tarnish the image of managements by branding
them as exploiters in the economy. Trade Unions in order to build up
solidarity and team spirit amongst the union members have over several years built up a negative attitude of the workers towards their
management. This attitude can partially be changed by class room
training and a face to face dialogue with the bargainable employees.
Also a visible genuine concern for bargainable employees by the management would reduce if not eliminate the problems towards improving plant availability and productivity of labour.
Conclusion
Individual large size manufacturing units will have to find their
own solutions of improving work culture and productivity by use of
technology, systems and behavioural science. The benefits of apply-
ing some non-conventional approaches to productivity improvement
is that a positive work climate can be developed and the employees
visualise themselves as members of a team and put in honest efforts to
achieve the desired goal. A challenging task ahead is not only to
make bargainable employees members of the team, but also to ensure
that managerial personnel continue to work as a team. Quite often
executives in their enthusiasm to excel start competing with each
other for the up-man-ship and forget that they are all members of a
team supposed to work for achieving the organisational goal. The process of organisational change for improving work ethos is never as
neat and tidy as it appears on paper, it involves overcoming hurdles
and obstacles which may come from Union Leaders, workmen and at
times from managers.
Bibliography
Jeffrey Gandz, "Ethics Comes Out of The Closet", Business Quarterly,
School of Business Admn., Univ. of Ontario, Canada, Autumn 1988,
Vol. 53, No. 2.
12
Mali Paul, "Improving Total Productivity", John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1978.
Me Farland D.E, "Management & Society - An Instructional
Framework". Prentice Hall, 1982.
Mehrotra Rajen, "Improving Productivity and Work Commitment",
ILO/CIE National Conference on Improving Productivity & Work
Commitment, lOa and 11 Sept. 1987, Bombay.
Mehrotra Rajen, "Work Ethics and Productivity", Conference On Work
Ethics, Cffi, 20 and 21 Jan. 1989, Bombay.
Mundel Marvin E, "Improving Productivity and Effectiveness", Prentice
Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1983.
Naydamma Y, "Factors which Hinder or Help Productivity
Improvement In the Asian Region", APO, Tokyo, 1980.
Ovid P.J., "New Cultures For Managers And Workers", ACHIEVE,
Journal of Bombay Productivity Council, April-June, 89.
Smith I.G., "The Measurement of Productivity".Gower Press, U.K. 1973.
Sumanth D.J., "Productivity Engineering and Management", McGrawHill Book Company, New York, 1985.
Singh B.K. "Improving Productivity and Work Commitment - Theme
Paper", ILO/CIE National Conference on Improving Productivity & Work
Commitment, 10 & 11 Sept. 1987, Bombay.
Silvera D.M. "Human Resource Development, The Indian Experience",
Newsindia Publications, New Delhi, 1988.
13
ANNEXURE1
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOUR
(All figures in %)
Type of Company
Dept. 1
Dept 2
Overall
Dept. 4
Dept. 3
Name
Eff.
Name
Eff.
Name
Eff.
Name
Eff.Eff.
1. Petroleum Co.
Bulk Delivery
Section
73
Operation
42
Maintenance
62
Stores
31
46
2. Ship Yard
Ship Building
26
Ship Repair
21
Maintenance
24
Paint Shop
35
27
3. Steel Mfg. Unit
Furnace
48
Rolling Mill
85
Maintenance
60
Delivery
Section
55
52
4. Automobile
Battery Unit
Plates Mfg
36
Assembly
42
Charging
28
Testing
31
34
5. Material Handling
Eqpt. Co.
Machine Shop
48
Assembly
45
Testing
32
Packing
60
42
6. Carbon Black
Mfg. Unit
Operations
43
Packing
58
Maintenance
47
Material
Handling
51
48
7. Rayon Mfg. Unit
Viscose
38
Spinning
30
Textile
68
Packing
54
39
8. Civil Engg.
Structural
Machine Shop
41
Welding
36
Assembly
51
Paint Shop
29
40
Dept 1
Type of Company
Dept 2
Dept 4
Dept 3
Overall
Name
Eff
Name
Eff
Name
Eff
Name
Eff
Eff
Basic Mfg
40
Tableting
33
Maintenance
36
Packing
52
37
Manufacturing
32
Packing
49
-
-
-
-
35
11 Cable
Manufacturing Co
Coiling
52
Winding
46
Packing
51
-
-
49
12
Machine Shop
46
Inspection
Testing
46
Painting
33
Assembly
37
39
9
Pharmaceutical
Unit
10
Gum
Manufacturing Co
Light
Engineering Co
13
Machinery
Mfg Co
Pre-fabn cation
38
Fabrication
40
Glass Lining
41
Assembly
44
42
14
Pipe Mfg Co
(Engg Unit)
Machining
48
Welding
38
Inspection
69
Testing
64
61
15
Engg Co
Machine Shop
47
Assembly
41
-
-
-
-
42
16
Pharmaceutical
Unit
Manufacturing
49
Packing
58
-
-
-
-
52
17 Electronic Unit
PCB
68
Machine Shop
53
Fabrication
36
Assembly
54
56
18 Container
Mfg Unit
Machine Shop
46
Assembly
13
Shot blasting
62
Painting
58
48
Dept. 1
Type of Company
Dept. 3
Dept 2
Dept 4
Overall
Name
Eff
Name
Eff.
Name
Eff.
Name
Eff
Eff
19. Pharmaceutical Unit
Chemicals
48
Tablets
Making
62
Packing
53
-
-
54
20. Cosmetics Co.
Shampoo
63
Lipsticks
78
Creme
69
Powder
73
70
21. Textile Mill
Dyeing
38
Printing
41
Finishing
43
Packing
40
22. Tubes Mfg Unit
Production
59
Maintenance
41
Inspection
56
-
-
53
23. Hoists Mfg. Unit
Machine
64
Assembly
52
Painting
56
Packing 46
46
58
24. Engg Unit
Machine Shop
50
Assembly
46
Testing
41
-
-
46
25. Car Repairing Unit
Servicing
68
Repairs
43
Painting
51
Testing 56
56
49
Biodata
Dr. R.P. Mohanty is currently a Professor at
National Industitute for Training in Industrial
Engineering (N1TIE), Bombay, India. Previously
he was a visiting Professor in the Division of
Industrial Engineering and Management at Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok.
He was Head of Production Management Department as well as Dean of
Research Programmes at National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering
(NITIE). He was also the National Chairman of Indian Institution of Industrial
Engineering. He has very wide ranging experiences in education, management
development, research, consultancies in both government and industries. He has
published more than 120 papers in various reputed international journals and has
also completed some national level research projects. He has received 'National
Awards' for his outstanding constribution in the field of industrial engineering and
management. He has also chaired in several international connferences.
PLANNING FOR PRODUCTIVITY:
DISCUSSION ON A CASE EXAMPLE
By
Professor B.R Mohanty
INTRODUCTION
The case study presented in Appendix-1 is a real-life situation experienced by the author during his study of an organisation in India. The
company is a Private limited organisation manufacturing a variety of
engineering products, medium in scale of operations and catering
mostly to the domestic markets. The company started off very well,
but in mid 80's, it began experiencing problems which are described
in a summary form in the case example.
The author has used this case study in some of his management
development programmes, and recently, in a 'LONG PRODUCTIVITY
COURSE' for the India Oil Corporation. This large corporation is one
of the excellently managed organisation in the Public Sector and has a
market share of 70% or more. The company has a highly professionalised management cadre and a very dedicated technostructure.
The participants involved in the discussion of the case study
include executives with engineering background and having 5 to 10
years of experience in various functional areas of management. The
objective of the exercise was to develop simulated experience and
learn the complex dynamics of productivity management. The discussions were very participative, interactive and stimulating.
Therefore, the author has made an attempt here to present the synopsis of their findings for the benefits of management professionals.
Some of the references used for making this discussion are presented
in reference section. However, the author provided the following
basic guidelines for discussion in the class room;-
Description of the situation and constructing a rich picture.
-
Assessment of the situation by stretching the imagination
and developing a conceptual style to embrace intricacies of
the situation.
18
-
Casual analysis of the situation and explanation by eliminating unrealistic experiences.
-
Projecting the future by developing a flexible organisation
structure and integration instruments.
SITUATION ANALYSIS
The Chairman of ABC Co. Ltd., appointed Mr. Venkatraman to
evolve and implement productivity improvement programmes in the
company. Mr, Venkatraman could not muster enough support from
the line managers in implementing the ideas and procedures evolved
by him in direct consultation with the Chairman. The productivity of
the company had steadily decreased over the last 3 years, with
adverse implications on all the key parameters like profitability, pro-
duction, employee-morale etc. At the insistence of the Plant Manager
(Mr. Agarwal), the Chairman agreed to a meeting of Managers to
evolve a suitable plan of actions for the future. The objective of the
meeting was to provide an answer to a simple question: where to go
from now?
In Table 1, a synoptic analysis of the situation is presented.
Some key parameters are taken for assessment. Preferences and judgments are exercised to establish the trends based upon whatever factual information the case provides.
Some of the preliminary questions were raised in the case example. They are presented as follows:Sr.
No. Question
Answer
1.
Is the Chairman right in
The Chairman is right in
involving Mr. Venkatraman
in formulating the
Productivity improvement
selecting Mr. Venkatraman
in view of his wide experience
and expertise in the field
programmes?
of Plant Engineering functions.
Is Mr. Venkatraman
Mr. Venkatraman is competent
to handle the productivity
affairs, because he possesses
2.
competent to handle the
productivity affairs?
the requisite personal
attributes i.e. persuassiveness,
willingness to work hard and
the necessary technical skills.
3.
What are the basic
The bottlenecks to
19
bottlenecks to
productivity drive?
productivity drives are:-
(i) Improper management of
change.
(ii) Lack of involvement of
managers in the process.
(iii) Absence of communication
channels between the
various management
levels.
(iv) Low morale of the
workforce,
(v) Absence of a system to
share the gains of
productivity.
4.
How do you suggest to
organise for driving
up Productivity?
The suggestions are presented
in the subsequent sections.
CAUSE - EFFECT ANALYSIS
The cause-effect relationship of various attributes are presented
in Table 2.
In an ideal organisation, the sub-systems represented in Fig. 1
should aim at functioning in perfect harmony for attainment of corporate objectives such as profit, growth and survival. Line activities are
normally performed by the techno-structure and operating-core.
Support-structure carries out staff functions to assist the line management. The diverse pulls and pushed from various sub-systems and
from environments give rise to conflicts and discords, which if
moulded properly, may lead to the healthy growth of an organization.
Free flow of communication among the various sub-systems is an
important pre-requisite for successful attainment of corporate objectives. In the present case, there is no free flow of communication
between support structure and other sub-systems. The strategic apex,
carries out policy formulation tasks and direct down below. The techno-structure and operating core are not engaged jointly to implement
the productivity plans. Rather, it has been assigned to MR. VENKATRAMAN, who is a manager in the support structure. The various
natural pulls among the sub-systems are therefore leading to conflicts
which are barriers to productivity drives. In summary, it can be said
20
that Mr. Venkatrdman through the Chairman of the company has not
been able to eventuate a rythm, a tone and above all a harmony in the
total productivity management set-up.
SOLUTIONS ENVISAGED
The solution strategies have been conceptualised as per the following guidelines:
(i) Global manner of perceiving as opposed to the micro-level
analytic approaches,
(ii) In Corpprating new ideas with experiential memories by
holding on to the factual premises of the case.
A.
DEFINE - OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
FOR THE ORGANISATION
(i)
OBJECTIVES
TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY through the development
and formulation of a five year productivity improvement
programme.
(ii)
STRATEGIES
Long Terms strategies
a)
Scientific forecast of demands.
b)
Evolution of a scientific pricing policy for the products.
c)
Identification of technological requirements in line
with the market requirements.
d)
Introduction of human resource development programmes.
e)
Modernisation of plant and equipment,
Medium Term strategies
a)
Introduction of incentive schemes by designing
through productivity measurement systems for
employees at all levels.
21
b)
c)
Improvement in working environment by creating a
culture conductive to change through management by
examples or management by ideologies.
Standardisation of systems and procedures to discard
adhocracy in decision making.
Short Term strategies
B)
a)
Development of a proper communication channel
between various levels of management and work
groups.
b)
Introduction of productivity improvement techniques
by educating the workers and supervisors.
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
The organisation structure presented in Fig. 2 is suggested to
achieve the above objective and implement the strategies:
C)
ROLE OF THE RESPONSIBILITY CENTRES:
The role of each responsibility centre is briefly mentioned in
Table 3.
D)
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A proper communication system has to be designed during the
following three phases:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Productivity Formulation Phase
Productivity Implementation Phase
Productivity review and Maintenance Phase
The communication requirements during the above three phases
could be categorised in terms of various channels as given in
Table 4.
E)
CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES
As suggested in the organisation structure. Constitution of the
various committees for implementation of the Productivity programmes is described in Table 5.
22
F)
IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES
A detailed schedule for the implementation of the action Plans
maybe as follows:[i) While long term strategies will be formulated by work consultative committee, the translation of strategies to detailed
action plans and their implementation will rest upon productivity working team.
(ii) Detailed action plans for the strategies formulated are presented in Table 6.
CONCLUSION
Success or failure of any system largely depends on the initiatives
and enthusiasm of the human elements constituting the organisation.
However, to manage the complex process of productivity affairs of an
organisation, one needs to develop a concept of management by ideology rather than the styles such as, management by objectives or management by information. Such styles are necessary but may not be suffi-
cient. These are only instruments for organisation. Management by
ideology is workable provided the following premises are built:
-
Superordinate organisational missions
Long term strategic objectives
-
A two-way communication system
-
Consultative decision making culture
The case study has been analysed with these motives in mind to
develop and perpetuate a culture of management by ideology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledge the Indian Oil Corporation,
particularly to Mr. Bakshi, Director of Marketing, Mr. MGK Masud,
Deputy General Manager of Management Services Dept. and others in
the Training Department of the company. Deep sense of appreciation is
expressed to those beloved participants of Indian Oil Corporation who
deliberated and spent some fruitful time to discuss the case example.
APPENDIX-1
Planning for Productivity: A Case Example
Three years ago, the Chairman cum Managing Director of ABC
Ltd. began implementation of a five-year productivity improvement
23
plan. As part of the productivity improvement programme, the
Chairman recruited Mr. Venkatraman as a Special Assistant and positioned him in the plant operations department under Plant Manager
Mr. Agrawal, but reporting directly to Chairman. Venkatraman had a
very wide range of operating experiences in many plant engineering
functions; though not diplomatic, he was very persuasive and hard
working.
By now things were moving, but not everyone agreed on the
direction. Mr. Venkatraman and the Chairman cum M.D. seemed to
be spending most of their time convincing each other that the organisation was on the verge of a great era and that the current economic
and political situations demand that the business and organisational
conditions should be stabilised before further take-off. In contrast
other managers in the organisations were sceptical about such comments and were considering productivity improvement plans as the
designs of those two persons namely, the M.D. and Venkatraman.
The past three years have been characterised in the following
way:
Three years ago: Production output was high, demand was very
strong, prices were low, profits were marginal. Employment level was
at 250, receiving average wages and reasonably content; no job
descriptions or standards were in use; employees were nonunionised.
Two years ago: production output, prices, profits were all higher
than the previous year.
Employment level increased up to 350; some junior managers
left the company and some new ones were recruited. Work standards
were formulated in some departments, but not implemented.
One year ago: Production outputs began to level off, but prices
climbed higher and profits held up fairly well. Some portions of the
plant were modernised. Employment level was 350; but employees
complained of being bored with their work, and others began to resist
the pressures for more output. Unionised efforts were under full
activity, labour standards were difficult to implement.
To-day Production outputs have fallen down. Input costs have
grow higher, prices of the products are stable. Demands stills continues to rise. Profit figures have fallen. Employment level has
remained at 350. Complaints about the work methods, safety programmes, fringe benefits were gradually mounting up.
At the request of the Plant Manager Mr. Agrawal, the M.D. agreed
24
to conduct a senior-level meeting to review the situations.
How do you organise the discussion? Answer the following
questions?
1.
2.
Was the Chairman right in involving Mr. Venkatraman in
formulating the productivity improvement programme?
Was Mr. Venkatraman competent to handle the productivity affairs.
3.
What are the basic bottlenecks to productivity drive?
4.
How would you suggest organising the drive for productivity improvement?
REFERENCES
1.
Mohanty, R.P.; Lecture Notes on Productivity Management.
2.
Mohanty, R.P.; Primary Tasks and Root Definitions for Action Research
in Productivity - This paper was presented at the International
Productivity Congress, Bombay, Feb. 1983.
3.
Mohanty, R.P.; Consensus and Conflicts in Conceiving Productivity,
Malaysian Productivity Journal, Vol. 3, Jan., 1987.
4.
Riggs, J.L.; Productivity by Objectives, Prentice Hall, New York, 1986.
25
Table 1: SITUATION ANALYSIS
ATTRIBUTES
YEAR
PRODUCTION
OUTPUT
DEMAND
PRICE
PROFITS
EMPLOYMENT
WAGES
STANDARDISATION
HIGH
STRONG
LOW
MARGINAL
250
AVERAGE
NOT
EXISTING
EMPLOYEE
MODERN
UNION
a
3 YEARS
BACK
HIGHER
_
HIGHER
HIGHER
350
_
1 YEAR
BACK
REDUCED
_
HIGHER
HIGHER
350
_
PRESENT
POSITION
FURTHER
REDUCED
2 YEARS
BACK
INCREASING
STABLE
(-) DENOTES UNFAVOURABLE TREND
(+) DENOTES FA VOURABLE TREND
LOWER
350
PRESSURE
FOR MORE
WAGES
STANDING
DEFINED
IN SO ME
DEPTS.
DIFFICULTY
FACED IN
IMPLEMENTATION
-
_
_
INCRESED
-
_
-
SOME
RETURN
OF PLANT
MODERN-
NOT
EXISTING
-
ACTIVE
-
TABLE 2 : CAUSE - EFFECT ANALYSIS
Effect
1.
Reduction in Output
Cause
(i)
Discontentment among the
Managers and workers due to
complaints on wages, working
methods, safety programs etc.
(ii)
Lack of experience and skills
on the part of the work force.
(iii)
Unionised activities are
growing and resulting in
making the organisation more
grievance-oriented.
Demand increment
(iv)
Increasing employee turnover.
(v)
Lack of involvement of people
in the process of management.
Due to external factors relating to
economic conditions and market
mechanisms.
Price stability
(although demand
is increasing)
(i)
Lack of a rational pricing
policy of the company.
(ii)
Price increase may not be
sustained by the market.
(iii)
(iv)
Manpower Strength has
increased by 40%.
Capital cost has increased due
to modernisation.
(v)
4. * Declining Profits
Reduction in output with
prices remaining stable.
Input costs have gone up particularly
in the form of material cost.
5.
Increase of Manpower
(i)
Over-optimism of the
Chairman regarding expension
programmes.
27
Table 2 (Contd.)
Cause
Effect
(ii)
Lack of a rational assessment
for the requirements of
manpower.
6.
Pressure for increase
(i)
in salaries and wages
Principle of work justice has
not been applied in evolving
wage structure. Further, profit
sharing plans or incentive
schemes do not exist.
(ii)
Evolution of the union has
lead to forceful collective
bargaining power.
7.
Failure to introduce
(i)
Lack of systematic work study
job standard sprogrammes and
their implementation.
8.
Employee-turnover
(i)
Lack of motivation
(ii)
Lack of involvement of the
employees in the decision
making process.
(iii)
9.
10.
Modernisation
Unionised Activity
Inadequate job-contentment
(i)
Need and potential for growth
(ii)
To increase productivity
(i)
Need for collective bargaining
(ii)
Culminating effect of changes,
feeling of indifference between
workers and the management.
28
Table 3 : ROLE OF RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE
RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE
1.
Shop Councils
FUNCTIONS AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
(a)
To act as intermediary among
the workers, productive coordinator, productivity coordinating committee.
(b)
To synthesise the activities of
work with the corporate
policies enunciated by
productivity coordination
committee,
2.
Supervisors
(a)
To act as a vital link between
workers and the line
management in the process of
implementation of
productivity improvement
techniques by motivating the
workforce, and by tracking
productivity programmes.
3.
Productivity
Co-ordinal or
(a)
To collect data and
information relevant to
productivity improvement
programmes, analyse them and
formulate action plans for the
use of the productivity coordination committee and
work consultative council.
4.
Productivity
Co-ordinating
Committee
(a)
To make frequent interactions
with the work consultative
committee, productivity coordinator, shop councils to
evaluate the productivity
improvement proposals during
the phase of formulation.
(b)
To act as an effective agency to
evolve the workable plans so
as to percolate them to all
5.
Works Consultative
(a)
29
levels.
To examine productivity
Table 3 (Contd.)
RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE
FUNCTIONS AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
Committee
management policies and creat
a conducive climate to bring
about quantum jumps in
productivity through an
interactive process based on
mutual-trust and on the
principles of work justice for
all.
6.
Productivity
(a)
To act as the custodian of
productivity management
process and to be instrumental
in active implementation and
monitoring of the productivity
improvement programmes.
Table 4 : COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Sr.
No. Phase
Co minimic ation
Requirement
1.
Feed-forward (F/F) F/F - Information inputs
and feed-within
from outside environment,
(F/W)
economic, technological,
social and political.
Formulation
Communication Channel
F/W - Information relating
to the influences of
proposed changes within
the organisation from the
techno-structure, operating
core and the support
structure.
2.
Implementation Feed-Within
30
F/W - (i) The nucletts of
the information channel
will be the Productivity
Co-ordination Committee.
Table 4 (Contd.)
Sr.
No. Phase
Communic ation
Requirement
Communication Channel
(ii) Actual impact of
changes within the
organisation at all levels
and resultant
communication to correct
negative effects. The
communication should
mainly centre around the
middle level linemanagement.
3.
Maintenance
& Review
F/B - Feed backs on
Feed-Back
(F/B)
impact of final changes
introduced from
supervisors and workers to
productivity co-ordination
committee and to the apex
body for review and
rewards.
Table 5 : CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES
Committee
Members
Work Consultative Headed by CMD. Members
are Senior Level Managers
Committee
and the representatives of
the shop councils.
Frequency
of
Meetings
Quarterly
Productivity
Co-ordination
Headed by the General
Manager (Operation).
Members are all the line
Managers. Productivity
Co-ordinator as the
Secretary of this Committee.
Monthly
Productivity
Working Team
Headed by CMD with
all Senior Managers as
Monthly
31
members
4.
Represented by elected
members of the trade Union
and supervisors as opinion
Shop Council
Weekly
leaders.
Constitutes like managers
Downline
Management
Weekly
responsible for on-the-job
implementation.
Table 6: ACTION PLANS
Strategy
Functional Team
Action Plan
responsible
[i) LONG TERM
Scientific
Evolve a computerised
forecasting system
Marketing/Production
Pricing
Policy
evolution
Study sensitivity of
Production/Marketing/
Finance
Technological
Requirements
in line with
the market
requirements
Technological scanning,
feasibility analysis,
cost-benefit analysis.
Production/Finance
Introduction
Job enrichment,
redeployment, job
Personnel/Production
Demand
forecast
of human
Pricing to demand and
develop a pricing model
resource
development
programmes
rotation. Improvement
Modernisation
and
Standardisation
(a)
in working environment,
training, counselling,
design of reward systems
Replacement of old,
obsolete equipments
Production/Management
Services
with automated systems.
(b)
Work standards be
made by work study
techniques.
Manualisation of
detailed job
descriptions
32
Production/Personnel/
Management services
Table 6 (Contd.)
Action Plan
Functional Team
Productivity
linked
incentive
policy
Productivity parameters
related to labour should
be identified and a
detailed weightage based
formula can be evolved.
Management services/
Production/Personnel
Improvement
in work
environment
Work environment should
be designed in principle
with human engineering
Production/Management
Strategy
responsible
ii) MEDIUM TERM
Services
(iii) SHORT TERM
Development
proper
channel of
communication
Formal communication
Management Services
channels should be developed
in line with those suggested
in communication systems.
Informal communications
should be encouraged
through participative
Production/Personnel
approach.
Crystalise
the organisational
Role analysis and Goal
setting, and Management of
Productivity by objectives.
Personnel/Management
Services/Production
Different contemporary
productivity techniques be
Management services/
Production
structure
Introduction
of modern
productivity
evaluated and applied
improvement
based on their stability.
techniques
33
STRATEGIC APEX
TECHNOSTRUCTURE
SUPPORT
STRUCTURE
OPERATING
CORE
FIG. 1 AN ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
34
PRODUCTIVITY
WORKING TEAM
CONSULTATIVE
COMMITTEE
PRODUCTIVITY
COORDINATION
GROUP
DOWNLINE
MANAGEMENT
PRODUCTIVITY
CO ORDINATOR
ACTION PLANS, PROGRAMMES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
WORK
GROUPS
FIG.
nnnnnnn
nnnn
2 SUGGESTED ORGANISATIONS STRUCTURE
35
Biodata
Name
: Dr. Nasuddin b. Othman
Date of Birth
:
Place of Birth
: Muar, Johore
19.2.1951
Education:
1. Muar High School
2.
Diploma In Planting Industry and
Management (ITM) - 1972
3.
M. Sc. (Agriculture Development) - Ghent,
Belgium (1983)
4. Ph.D. - University of Stirling, Scotland
(1987 - 1990)
Occupation:
Senior Lecturer and Principal of ITM Cawangan
Pahang
THE DETERMINANTS AND ALLOCATIVE
EFFICIENCY OF COCOA PRODUCTION
IN WEST MALAYSIA
By
DE. NASUDDINB. OTHMAN
ABSTRACT
The principal objectives of this study are to identify the production
factors that determine cocoa production and to evaluate the efficiency
of Malaysian cocoa smallholders in allocating the resources available
to them. Cross-sectional data collected from 260 cocoa smallholders
were used for the study. The average production function estimated
by the Ordinary Least Squares techniques was employed in the analy-
sis. The results indicated that farmer's age, land size, labour, fertilisers, farm implements, extension contact, living capital, farmer's education and farm records and accounts were the main determinants of
cocoa production. The study also established the fact that the cocoa
smallholders were highly inefficient allocatively.
INTRODUCTION
In spite of the dominant role agriculture plays in the overall economic development of the country mainly through its contribution to
the Gross Domestic Product, employment and foreign exchange earnings, this sector is still beset with the problem of low agricultural productivity in the production of major export crops (rubber, oil palm
and cocoa) at the smallholder's level (Information Malaysia Yearbook,
1989). As for cocoa although this crop is the third major export crop
in the country, at the farm level production per hectare from the
smallholders is relatively low averaging about 400 to 600 kg of dried
beans per hectare as compared to the about 1000 to 2500 kg from the
plantation sector (Economic Report, 1988/1989).
It has been observed that in spite of all the various efforts undertaken by the government in recent years such as the provision of
extension and credit facilities, there seems to have been not much
change in the productivity status of this group of producers.
Persistent low productivity would be detrimental to the government's objective of eradicating poverty and achieving an equitable dis37
tribution of wealth among its population. Thus if agriculture was to
play a more important role in the development programmes in
Malaysia, increasing attention should also be given to the strategy of
increasing cocoa productivity.
There are actually several factors which lead to the farmers to
produce below their potential. Among them is the presence of either
allocative inefficiency and or technical inefficiencies.
This study however, concentrates on the question of allocative
efficiency and at the same time attempts to identify the production
factors that determine cocoa productivity at the farm level. It is hoped
that the new information generated could be utilised to improve the
productive capacity of the existing farms as well as the new cocoa
areas which the government wish to develop at the rate of 20000
hectares annually.
PRODUCTION FUNCTION USED IN THE ANALYSIS
Average production functions are used in this analysis. The
Cobb-Douglas form of production function was chosen as the basis of
the analysis in this study mainly on a priori grounds connected with
the logic of production, its attractive economic theory properties and
its statistical manageability.
The estimated farm production function used in its logarithmic
form is written as:
log Y = log a0 + aj log X t +.....+ a8 log X8 + b^
+.....+ b 1Q D 10 + u
Where
log Y = log of expected income from cocoa and coconut
(measured in terms of Malaysian $)
log Xj = log of age of farmers (in years)
logX 2 = log of land size (acres)
log X3 = log of labour (man-days)
log X4 = log of services from farm implements
(Malaysian $)
log X5 = log of extension contact (number of contacts per year)
log X6 = log of chemical cost comprising cost of weedicide
and pesticide (Malaysian $)
log X7 = log of fertiliser cost (Malaysian $)
log X8 = log of living capital comprising cocoa and coconuts
(Malaysian $)
38
D-i
D2
= Region Teluk Baru
= Region Bagan Datoh
D3
D4
D5
= Region Rungkup
= Region Hutan Melintang
= Soil-Selangor Series
D6
D7
= Soil-Kangkong Series
= Educational Level of Farmers
D8
= Educational Level of Spouses
D9
D10
= Educational level of Children
= Farm Records and Accounts
Cross-sectional data collected from 260 cocoa smallholders from
the region of Hilir Perak which is considered as one of the largest
cocoa growing areas of the country were used for the study. The data
gathered were confined to the calendar year 1988.
A number of regression models were estimated by using the
Ordinary Least Squares regression technique and all the variables
except the dummies were transformed into the logarithmic form to the
base e. To obtain regression models that were meaningful and interpretable for the problem under investigation, a number of computer
runs were undertaken. In each run, minor modifications were made
on the regression equations based on the inclusion of different sets of
independent variables.
Initially, the following variables, namely; credit, farming experience, maintenance and harvesting labour, pesticides and weedicides
were supposed to be incorporated into this analysis. Based on the data
collected, only three farmers were reported to take credit for the production of cocoa under coconut. Owing to their small number, this
input was, therefore, not included in the analysis. Farming experience
is normally associated with the age of the farmers. Because of the
inconsistencies in the results, farming experience was dropped from
the main equation, Similarly, the splitting of labour into maintenance
and harvesting labour also produced inconsistencies in the results
obtained. Thus, it was decided that these two types of labour should
be aggregated into one variable, that is, total labour. The same principle also applies in the case of weedicides and pesticides, where they
were grouped into one input,' namely, chemicals, in this analysis.
As regard to the dummy variables that were included in the production function analysis, the rule which was applied was to drop
one variable less than the number of values of the original variable.
Otherwise, the Ordinary Least Squares technique would breakdown
because of the perfect collinearity between the intercept and all the
dummy groups. In this study, the regional dummy, Hutan Melintang
(D4) was dropped from the analysis. This dropped dummy is mea39
sured as a norm and coefficients of other regional dummies measure
the shift from this normal level.
STATISTICAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
From the results (see Table 1.1) the adjusted coefficient of multiple determination (that is the R square) obtained was 0.8680, which
means that approximately, 87 per cent of the variation in the depen-
dent variable could be explained by the variation in the independent
variables included in the analysis. Thirteen per cent of the variation
might be due partly to input factors which were not being taken into
account such as climatic factors and quality differentials.
From the examination of the correlation coefficients it was
shown that land size was highly correlated with living capital (r =
0.91) and labour (r = 0.85). Such a high value of the bivariate relationship according to Heady and Dillon (1966) indicated the presence of
multicollinearity among the explanatory variables.
The pertinent question that arises is the extent or the 'degree' of
multicollinearity that is acceptable in the analysis. Until now no consensus has been reached regarding this issue (Thomas, 1985).
TABLE l.l: OVERALL PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS FOR THE ENTIRE
SURVEY AREA
INPUTS
REGRESSION (R,)
PARAMETERS
Constant
Farmers' age
Land size
Labour
Farm Implements
Extension contact
Chemicals
Fertilisers
Living Capital
Region Teluk Baru
Region Bagan Datoh
Region Rungkup
Soil-Kangkong Series
Farmer's Education
Spouse's Education
Children's Education
Farm Records/Accounts
Adjusted R square
F - Statistic
D - W Statistic
No. of Cases
4.8918***
-0.1190*
0.5091*"*
0.1481***
0.0092*
0.0057*
0.0032
0.0167***
0.2207***
0.0029
-0.0043
0.0331
0.0120
0.1399*"
-0.0418
-0.0087
0.1139**
ao
ai
a2
a
3
84
a
5
36
a?
as
bi
b2
b3
be
b7
be
b9
b
io
0.8680
105.39***
1.95
260
# Figure in brackets are the standard errors.
Level of significance:
* 10 per cent, * * 5 per cent
*** 1 percent
40
(0.5300)*
(0.0697)
(0.0779)
(0.0526)
(0.0050)
(0.0032)
(0.0021)
(0.0029)
(0.0585)
(0.0880)
(0.0656)
(0.0399)
(0.0708)
(0.0699)
(0.0628)
(0.0326)
(0.0546)
Klein (1962) suggested that multicollinearity was not a problem
for prediction if
rij<R
where R is the square root of the coefficient of multiple determi-
nation and r,j is the correlation between Xj and Xj where i = 1 ....k.
Applying this method, the outcomes obtained showed that for
land and living capital, R value of 0.8947 was less than the value of
the sample correlation of 0,907, thus indicating that the degree of multicollinearity was quite severe. On the other hand, for land and labour,
the situation is reverse since the R value of 0.9022 was higher than the
sample correlation of 0.849. The same also applies in the case of
labour and living capital where the R value (0.8958) was higher than
the value of r (0.777).
To reduce the problem of multicollinearity in this study, it was
therefore, decided that living capital should be expressed on a per
acre basis. From the correlation coefficients all the bivariate relationships were below 0.8 indicating the absence of multicollinearity
among the variables. Further, the results obtained in Table 1.2 are
similar to Table 1.1 in terms of the level of significance of the run on
explanatory variables, as well as the value of the adjusted R square.
Only the magnitude of land size differed.
From the result it was indicated that farmers' age had a significant and negative relationship with expected income. The plausible
explanation is that older farmers in this area might find difficulties in
coping with the latest technology in cocoa farming compared to
younger farmers who tend to make better decisions concerning their
farming operations because of their access to knowledge about cocoa
production through the various sources available.
Spouse's education did not contribute significantly towards
expected income analysis. The plausible explanation is that since the
husbands were more dominant in the decision making process, it
appeared that although the spouses might possess the necessary technical knowledge, they were not able to influence their husbands to be
more innovative and receptive towards modern farm practices.
In this study, it seemed that formal education of the children did
not contribute significantly to expected income. From the survey, it
was found that the farmers rarely involved their children in their
farming operations. This probably could be attributed either to a lack
of interest on the part of the children to be involved in cocoa farming
or might be because of the positive attitude that farmers had towards
their children's education that encouraged them to study and excell
41
TABLE 1.2: OVERALL PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS FOR THE ENTIRE
SURVEY AREA (AFTER REDUCING THE MULTICOLLINEARITY
PROBLEM)
INPUTS
Constant
Farmer's age
Land size
Labour
Farm Implements
Extension contact
Chemicals
Fertilisers
Living Capital
Region Teluk Baru
Region Bagan Datoh
Region Rungkup
Soil-Kangkong Series
Farmer's Education
Spouse's Education
Children's Education
Farm Records/ Accounts
Adjusted R square
F - Statistic
D - W Statistic
No. of Cases
PARAMETERS
REGRESSION (R)
4.8918***
-0.1190*
0.8779***
0.1481***
0.0092*
0.0057*
0.003Z
0.0167***
0.2207***
0.0029
-0.0043
0.0331
0.0120
0.1399"
-0.0418
-0.0087
0.1139*'
ao
a
i
32
as
34
as
%
a7
ae
bi
b2
b3
be
D7
be
b9
b
io
(0.5300)#
(0.0697)
(0.0299)
(0.0526)
(0.0050)
(0.0032)
(0.0021)
(0.0029)
(0.0585)
(0.0880)
(0.0656)
(0.0399)
(0.0708)
(0.0699)
(0.0628)
(0.0326)
(0.0546)
0.8680
105.39***
1.95
260
# Figure in brackets are the standard errors.
Level of significance: * 10 percent, ** 5 percent
*** 1 percent
for the pursuit of other more lucrative professions. Under such circumstances, it was logical to find that children's education did not
have a significant impact on cocoa production.
Regional influence did not contribute significantly to the income
obtained as none of the regional dummies were significant in this
analysis. Perhaps the underlying factor why there was no significant
difference among the regions was because of the fact that all the
regions concerned produced the same type of crops and used similar
technology for crop production.
Soil type as an input was also found not to be significant in this
study. In this survey area, the two types of soil that were being extensively used for cocoa and coconut production were the Kangkong and
Selangor series which were predominantly marine clay. According to
Kee (1967) this marine clay had been found to be the richest soil in
the country in terms of its nutrient status. However, exhaustive use of
the soil due to long period of cultivation might deplete the nutrient
contents available.
42
From the correlation coefficient, it was found that D (Kangkong
Series) had a positive significant association with fertiliser and this
was probably one of the reasons why it did not contribute significant-
ly to the production of cocoa since its influence has been 'blurred' by
fertilisers which was statistically significant in the estimated function.
During the reference period, there was no major insect infestation and most of the farmers did not apply any insecticides for control
measures. Those who applied it used only a small amount. Such a
quantum of course, would have a negligible effect on cocoa production. The same applies in the case of weedicides where, on the average only about 1.5 litres were used for every acre annually. Hence the
low quantity of chemicals applied was too small to cause any variation in the production of cocoa. Another possibility was that the lack
of technical knowledge among older farmers might result in improper
application techniques.
Thus from this analysis the inputs that were found to have significant influence on expected income were the farmer's age, land
size, labour, fertilisers, farm implements, extension contact, living
capital, farmer's education and farm records and accounts.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
Comparison with other cocoa production function studies which
have been undertaken by other research workers at the international
level was hampered due to the differences in the specification of the
variables adopted. As such in this section concentration was given
only to those variables which had been treated individually in these
studies.
For land size as an input, the finding from the present study corresponds to the outcomes with all the previous investigations that
were conducted by De Souza Menezes et al (1974), Thirtle (1984) and
Boateng (1982) except in the case that was carried out by Costa and
Reiss (1982), where this input was not statistically significant.
In the case of labour, the result from the present research is in
accord with the findings undertaken by Costa and Reiss (1982), De
Souza Menezes et al (1974) and Thirtle (1984).
Finally, as for farmer's age, only Boateng (1982), incorporated
this input in his production function study. He, however, indicated
that this production factor was not statistically significant in the
analysis conducted. This result, therefore, differs from the present
finding.
43
ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY
In the analysis made, only the essential inputs comprising land
size, fertilisers, labour, living capital and farm implements which
were significant in the model were chosen and non-significant inputs
were left out as they had no impact on the expected income (Knenta,
1971: Koutsoyiannis, 1977). These significant factors of production
were then regressed onto the dependent variable and the new estimates obtained are shown in Table 1.3.
From the regression model as depicted in the table 1.3 all the
elasticities as reflected by the values of the regression coefficients,
were less than unity which gave an indication that diminishing
marginal returns to each of the input factor: holding each of the inputs
constant, the marginal return of each input will decrease the more that
factor is used. This conclusion is vital in the economic analyses for it
indicates the first condition for the optimum use of resources.
RETURNS TO RESOURCES
From the estimated elasticities we can obtain a set of estimated
marginal productivities. The Cobb-Douglass production function is
very convenient for calculating these values, especially, when the
variables are measured in value flows. Because of the multiplicative
nature of the production function used in this study, the estimated
marginal revenue products were calculated at the geometric means of
the variables and consequently related to the average farm.
TABLE 1.3: PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS - EFFECTS OF
THE SIGNIFICANT INPUTS ___
INPUTS
POOLED DATA
4.3267*
0.9289" *
0.0091* *
Constant
Land Size
Farm Implements
Fertilisers
Labour
0.0213*
0.1301*
0.2452*
Living Capital /acre
Adjusted R Square
F-Statistic
D - W Statistic
No. of Cases
0.8601
319.38***
1.81
260
Ib
1.33
Figure in brackets are the standard errors.
Level of significance: * 10 per cent, * * 5 per cent
**" 1 per cent
44
(0.4436)#
(0.0283)
(0.0048)
(0.0025)
(0.0523)
(0.0572)
Strictly speaking, allocative efficiency exists if there is a situa-
tion of perfect competition. The latter implies price taking behaviour
and perfect markets which are characterised by perfect communication, instantaneous equilibrium and costless transactions (Pasour,
1981). In this area, while factors market tend towards partial competition, the capital market for land was relatively much less perfect.
Under such a situation, the factor share had also to depend upon the
demand elasticity of output and the supply elasticity of the input.
Yotopoulos and Nugent (1976), however, stated that since these two
values were not easily available, the assumption of perfect competition served as the next best alternative in detecting resource misallocation in the analysis of production function.
Since in this study, farmers seemed to have approached a perfect
knowledge of some of the relevant variables and were price-takers
both in the output and input market, it was reasonable to assume that
they were operating in a competitive environment. In this case, we
could then express the equilibrium condition as the equality between
the marginal revenue product of each of the input factor and the
marginal cost to detect whether there was any resource mis allocation
in the production process.
In the calculation of the marginal revenue products of the input
factors, it was assumed that the prices of the cocoa beans and the nuts
were fixed. Since the data used were cross-sectional in nature, prices
did not exhibit much variation during the reference period.
MARGINAL FACTOR COST
The marginal factor cost of fertiliser used in this study was based
on the average price of the input per kilogramme. As for labour the
marginal factor cost was based on its opportunity cost. From field
observations, during the period where no harvesting was undertaken
or no maintenance work had to be performed, some farmers remained
totally unemployed and under such situation during this slack season
the opportunity cost of labour should be zero.
Because of the seasonal nature of agricultural production the
opportunity cost of labour tends to vary with season (Upton; 1987).
Yotopoulos (1967) suggested that the opportunity cost of labour could
be computed throughout the year by weighing the seasonal wage rate
by the proportion of the total agricultural work that was performed
during the peak season. However, in this study, this technique was
not adopted owing to the lack of the relevant data.
Sen (1966) and Bardhan (1973), however stated that the opportunity cost of family labour is equal to the wage rate multiplied by the
45
probability of success in securing alternative employment. If the
probability is equal to one which happens during the situation of full
employment the opportunity cost of labour will be zero when the
probability of success is zero. In this study, a probability level of 0.5
was taken to compute the opportunity cost of labour. Based on the
response given by the respondents, the chances of success in securing
alternative employment such as plantation and factory workers as
well as odd jobs were only 50%.
The wage rate used by the Department of Agriculture in the computation of this input was M$12.00 per man-day. Thus based on the
probability level of 0.5, the opportunity cost of labour was M$6.00 per
man-day throughout the year.
As for the case of land size, it was rather difficult to determine
its opportunity cost in this study area. During the study period, it was
found that the average annual rent for every acre of land was
MS300.00. Assuming that this figure is correct, since data on annual
rent are not easily available, so the marginal factor cost of this input
would then be based on the average rent that was being computed.
In the case of capital inputs comprising farm equipment and living capital, the marginal factor costs were based on the opportunity
cost of a dollar worth of these inputs invested in the Agricultural Bank.
ESTIMATES OF MARGINAL REVENUE PRODUCTS
The estimates of the marginal revenue products with respect to
the significant inputs were presented in Table 1.4. The marginal revenue products indicate the returns which on, the average, are expected from the addition of one more unit of the various input factors. As
shown in Table 1.4, a dollar's worth of labour contributed M$0.89 to
the expected income. Such a low return from this input might be
attributed to the measurement error that arises. Since there are great
variations in the age and skills of the labour used, this might cause a
downward bias in the coefficients and thus causes the estimates to be
very low. The low returns from labour, therefore, makes cocoa farming
a less attractive activity to the rural youth. This has resulted in the
exodus of this labour force to the cities as is now being observed.
The marginal returns for land was MS3.00. This implied that this
input was consistently too sparingly being used in the region
involved. This might be attributed to the imperfections in the land
market. Also it could be that the market rental of land was below the
economic value of land. However, since this factor of production is a
constraint in this study area, no further expansion could take place in
order to get higher returns.
46
TABLE 1.4 : MARGINAL REVENUE PRODUCT AT THE GEOMETRIC MEANS
_______OF THE INPUTS_________'_______________________
INPUTS
POOLED DATA
Marginal Revenue Product
us
Labour
Land Size
Farm Tools
Fertilisers
Living Capital
0.89
3.00
3.06
4.45
0.20
(0.3593)#
(0.0915)
(1.6125)
(0.5227)
(0.0455)
Geometric Means
us
Labour (man-days)
Land Size (Acres)
Farm Tools (M$)
Fertilisers (M$)
Living Capital (MS)
67.97
2.89
8.34
13.40
3519.24
# Figures in brackets are the standard errors.
As shown in Table 1.4, the marginal returns for fertiliser was
around MS4.45. Owing to the very low level of fertilisers being
applied, while from the agronomic experiments it is known that the
output of cocoa is closely associated with the amount of fertilisers
used, an estimated marginal returns of M$4.45 was quite high. This
shows that the cocoa farms in this area were still underfertilised.
As for living capital, the returns from this input was very low in
the analysis made. Such a low marginal returns for this input factor
was anticipated since it was composed of two different types of crops,
namely; cocoa and coconut with varying ages, therefore, there is
bound to be great variation in the productivity status of this input.
This as consequence might bias the production coefficient downwards
and thus caused the estimates to be very low.
Futhermore it was suspected that the use of expected yield concept obtained from field experiments might not actually reflect the
true yield potentials of the cocoa and coconut trees planted by smallholders owing to the differences in agronomic and management practices.
In the case of farm implements, the returns was MS3.06 in the
analysis made. Considering the low level of investment in agricultural
implements such a high marginal return implied that the farms were
underequipped during the period under study.
The extent to which the farmers, on the average, should change
the relevant MRP through resource reallocation in order to arrive at
47
TABLE 1.5: PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN MRP REQUIRED TO EQUATE
WITH MARGINAL COST OF INPUTS
CATEGORY
FERTILISERS
Pooled Data
77.53
CHEMICALS LIVING
CAPITAL
-
432.50
LAND
SIZE
FARM
TOOLS
LABOUR
66.67
65.20
12.36
the equality of MRP and MC is given in Table 1.5. The great change in
the marginal revenue products for most of the inputs indicates that
there are major deviations from allocative efficiency in the study area.
This is at variance with the conclusions of most studies on traditional
agriculture such as those conducted by Schultz (1964) and Sahota
(1968).
Because of the inequality between the marginal revenue products
of these inputs with their respective marginal costs we can, therefore,
conclude that these factors of production were not allocatively efficient in crop production in relation to their ruling input and output
prices.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study has clearly identified that among the input factors
used by the cocoa smallholders, the ones which had significant
impact on the production of cocoa were land size, labour, living capital, farm implements and fertilisers. Among the management proxies,
only farmer's age, extension contact, farmer's education and the practice of keeping farm records and accounts were important. Inputs such
as chemicals, spouse's and children's education as well as soil types
did not have any significant influence on cocoa production.
The data presented in this study also pointed to the fact that the
cocoa smallholders were highly inefficient allocatively. Computation
of the ratios of the Marginal Revenue Products indicated that appreciable deviations from allocative efficiency were found for land size,
labour, living capital, fertilisers and farm implements.
From this study, it emerged that land size was the most important determinant that affects cocoa production. However, since this
input is a constraint and was too sparingly used by the farmers, in
order to achieve allocative efficiency, it is therefore suggested that
more efforts should be directed at group farming in the area.
The low dosage of the complementary inputs used in the production process might imply that the farmers still lack awareness of the
benefits of these inputs. Because of the risk involved and because of
48
their limited resources, the extension efforts must not only be in the
form of routine advice but must seek to convince them by specific
demonstration and economic evidence relating to the costs and benefits. Farmers also should be encouraged to keep a record of their farm
activities in order to assist them in monitoring, understanding and
evaluating future problems. It is recommended that more intensive
effort must be made by the extension workers to encourage more farmers to undertake this form of activity to enable them to make effective
decisions at the farm level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARDHAN, P.K. (1973)
'Size, Productivity and Farm Returns to Scale :
An Analysis of Farm-Level Data in Indian
Agriculture', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.
81 (3), pp. 13701386.
BOATENG, M.Y. (1982)
'Problems of Increasing Output Of Small Cocoa
in Ghana. A case-study of the Ashanti Cocoa
Project', Ph. D. Thesis, University of Missouri,
Columbia.
COSTA, A.D.S., and REIS, A.J.D. (1982)
'Eficiencia Economia Dos Recursos Em Dois
G r u p o s De Propriedades C a c a u e i r a s Do
Municipio De Ilheus, Bahia, Proceeding of the
8th International Cocoa Research Conference, 1823 Oct. Lagos, Nigeria, pp. 621-626.
DE SOUZA MENEZES, J.A., PANIAGO, }., LADEIRA, H,O. and BANDERA,
A.L. (1974)
' E c o n o m i c i d a e Dos I n s u m o s M o d e r n o s em
Fazendas De Cacau', Revista Theobroma, Vol. 4
(2), pp. 21-33.
HEADY, E.G., and DILLON, J.L. (1966)
Agricultural Production Function, Iowa State
University Press, Ames.
KEE, N.S. (1967)
'Fertiliser Problems in Mixed Cocoa-Coconut
Plantings', in Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaya',
edited by J.W. Blencowe and P D. Turner, Kuala
Lumpur, pp. 23-31.
KMENTA, J. (1971)
Elements of Econometrics. The Macmillan, New
York.
KOUTSOYIANNIS, A (1973)Theory of Econometrics, The Macmillan Press
Limited, London.
49
M A L A Y S I A , M I N I S T R Y OF F I N A N C E (1988). ECONOMIC REPORT
1988/1989
Jabatan Percetakan Negara, Kuala Lumpur
MALAYSIA (1989)
I n f o r m a t i o n Malaysia Yearbook, B e r i t a
Publishing, Kuala Lumpur.
PASOUR, E.G. Jr. (1981)
'A F u r t h e r N o t e on the M e a s u r e m e n t Of
Efficiency and Economics of Farm Size', Journal
of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 32 (2), pp. 135143
SAHOTA, G.S. (19G8)
'Efficiency of Resource Allocation in Indian
Agriculture', Journal of Agricultural Economics,
Vol. 50 (3), pp. 586-602.
SCHULTZ, T.W. (1964)
Transforming Traditional Agricultural, Yale
University Press, New Haven.
SEN, A.K. (1966)
'Peasants and Dualism With or Without Surplus
Labour', Journal of P o l i t i c a l Economy, Vol.
LXXIV (5) Oct. pp. 438-450.
THIRTLE, C. (1984)
'Cocoa P r o d u c t i o n in Eastern C a m e r o o n ' ,
Manchester Paper on Development, Issue 10, pp.
45-54.
THOMAS, R.L. (1985)
Introductory Econometrics: Theory and application, London, Longman.
UPTON, M, (1987)
African
Farm
Management,
Cambridge
University Press.
YOTOPOULOS, P.A. and NUGENT, B.J. (1976)
Economics
of
Development
Empirical
Investigations, Harper International Edition,
Harper, Row Publishers.
YOTOPOULOS, P.A. (1967) A l l o c a t i v e
Efficiency
in
Economic
Development. A Cross-section Analysis of Epirus
Farming, Athens, Centre of Economic Research.
50
Biodata
Sabitha binti Marican dilahirkan di Johor.
Mendapat Diploma dalam bidang Mikrobiologi
dari Institut Teknologi Mara pada tahun 1982,
sebelum bertugas sebagai Penolong Pegawai
f
•
;
ib-,- • . ...... - - . . ,,.<•;.
Penyelidik selama 3 bulan, dan 7 bulan sebagai
Pegawai Perhubungan Awam di Mardi, Selangor.
Kemudian melanjutkan pelajaran di Amerika Syarikat dalam bidang Kesihatan
Alam Sekitar dan menerima Ijzah Serjana Muda dari Point Park College pada
tahun 1985. Selepas itu beliau berpeluang menjalankan praktikal selama 2 bulan
di Department of Environment Resources di Pittsburgh, sebelum melanjutkan
pelajaran ke peringkat Ijazah Lanjutan dan menerima Ijazah Pentadbiran Awam di
Universiti Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania pada tahun 1987. Pada masa ini bertugas
sebagai Pensyarah di Universiti Utara Malaysia dalam Bahagian Pentadbiran
Awam.
Bidang pengkhususan beliau ialah 'Dasar Awam', 'Stress Management', 'Conflict
Management'dan 'Career Development'. Pernah juga menjalankan penyelidikan
tentang kesan kependudukan setinggan di Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur.
KE ARAB MENINGKATKAN PRODUKTIVITI
USAHAWAN WANITA SELARAS DENGAN
MATLAMAT WAWASAN 2020:
KES KAJIAN UTARA MALAYSIA
Oleh
Sabitha Marican
Peranan wanita mendapat perhatian yang lebih besar daripada kera-
jaan dalam Rancangan Malaysia ke Enam (RM6) memandangkan
golongan ini mempunyai potensi besar dalam bidang ekonomi dan
pembangunan sosial. Ini disebabkan walaupun harnpir separuh daripada penduduk negara ini adalah kaum wanita, jumlah tenaga buruh
hanyalah 35% sahaja. Maka selaras dengan matlamat kerajaan, di
bawah RM6, kerajaan telah menyediakan peruntukan sebanyak $20
juta bagi membantu Urusetia Hal Ehwal Wanita (HAWA) melaksanakan program-program dan projek-projek menurut Dasar Wanita
Negara untuk pembangunan kaum wanita.
Maka salah satu dari aspek yang patut diberikan perhatian yang
lebih ialah bidang keusahawanan, terutama sekali setelah kerajaan
Malaysia melaung-laungkan kejayaan kehidupan mereka. -Dengan itu
penulis telah membuat kajian ke atas usahawan kecil wanita di Utara
Malaysia, untuk menyingkap sedikit sebanyak masalah. Usahawan
kecil wanita dalam mencapai produktiviti dalam bidang ini. Pertama
penulis akan membincangkan mengenai mengapa penglibatan usahawan kecil wanita penting di negara kita. Kedua faktor-faktor yang
telah digunakan oleh penulis sebagai asas untuk mengkajrhalanganhalangan dan masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh usahawan wanita.
Ketiga mengulas data yang telah diperolehi dan akhir sekali akan diutarakan cadangan-cadangan untuk mengatasi halangan dan tanggapan
ke atas usahawan wanita.
Penglibatan usahawan kecil wanita perlu diberikan tumpuan
kerana industri kecil menyumbangkan 19% kepada guna tenaga, 12%
kepada hasil keluaran negara, dan 7% kepada harta tetap dan nilai
ditambah. Dan memandangkan 35.5% daripada gunatenaga di negara
kita terdiri daripada kaum wanita ini menunjukkan penelitian terperinci ke ats penglibatan wanita dalam ekonomi dan produktiviti negara
tidak dapat diketepikan.
52
Seterusnya faktor yang telah digunakan sebagai asas untuk
kajiannya mengenai masalah dan halangan yang dihadapi oleh usahawan kecil wanita adalah seperti berikut. Pertama ialah mengenai
faktor-faktor asas mengenai kualiti asas seorang usahawan.
KUALITI ASAS USAHAWAN
KEUSAHAWANAN
Usahawan
o Sikap
o Pengetahuan
o Kemahiran
o Mengenai
Peluang
Peluang
dan
Suasana
Ekonomi
Sumber
Bantuan
Dari rajah di atas kita dapat melihat bahawa faktor-faktor seperti
pengetahuan, kemahiran, mengenai peluang dan dibantu dengan
suasana dan peluang ekonomi bersama sumber-sumber bantuan yang
boleh didapati dapat menentukan naik turunnya seseorang usahawan
itu.
Faktor seterusnya yang digunakan sebagai asas untuk kajian ini
ialah melihat dari sudut sifat seorang usahawan yang hampir mirip
dengan sifat seorang pemimpin. Antaranya ialah harus:
-
-
mempunyai semangat dan ketahanan,
berdisiplin.
konsisten dalam perilakunya.
berkebolehan menyelesaikan masalah.
berani mengambil risiko.
membuat keputusan dengan cepat.
mempunyai daya pemikiran kreatif dan inovatif.
rajin serta bersungguh-sungguh dalam usahanya.
berkebolehan dalam mengenalpasti peluang-peluang yang
sedia ada.
53
Faktor ini diberikan perhatian kerana tidak ramai dalam
masyarakat kita yang yakin bahawa wanita boleh jadi pemimpin. Dan
memandangkan sebagai usahawan yang berjaya perlu sifat-sifat
kepimpinan yang sedemikian, maka pandangan stereotaip seperti ini
perlu dikaji sama ada benar atau hanya sebagai tanggapan yang menjadi batu penghalang dalam usaha wanita industri kecil ini.
Bercakap mengenai tanggapan, gambarajah yang berikut menunjukkan faktor-faktor tanggapan am terhadap wanita. lanya diteliti untuk
mengetahui sejauhmana ianya benar dalam mempengaruhi penglibatan
wanita sebagai usahawan kecil. Dari gambarajah ini jelas kelihatan
bahawa kaum lelaki dipandang lebih positif daripada kaum wanita.
TANGGAPAN
Tanggapan terhadap usahawan wanita adalah berlainan sedikit.
Secara ringkas wanita dan lelaki digambarkan secara berikut.
-
kuat
agresif
-
lemah
pasif
-
berdikari
-
tdk mampu diri
-
berorientasi
-
berorientasikan
objektif
-
subjektif
Seterusnya penulis akan membentangkan penemuan-penemuan
penting dari kajian yang telah dijalankan.
PROF AIL AM
1.
Umur
21-30
31-40
41-50
2.
Status Perkahwinan
Peratus
31.8%
37.9%
30.3%
Bujang
Berkahwin
Janda
3.
18.2%
69.7%
10.5%
Taraf Pendidikan
Sekolah Rendah
Sekolah Menengah
23.1%
44.6%
Kolej/universiti
21.5%
Sijil-sijil dalam bidang
keusahawanan atau yang
setaraf dengannya
10.8%
54
Pada amnya kita dapat melihat bahawa ada perkembangan yang
positif di negara kita. Di mana kita dapat melihat bahawa lebih lima
puluh peratus daripada usahawan wanita adalah dalam lingkungan
usia yang muda iaitu antara 21 - 40 tahun. Ini menunjukkan kerajaan
mempunyai harapan untuk meningkatkan lagi penglibatan mereka
kerana usahawan-usahawan wanita ini telahpun mula menjinakjinakkan diri dalam bidang usahawan. Satu lagi faktor di sini ialah
kebanyakan usahawan wanita ini telah berkahwin (70%). Peratus ini
menunjukkan walaupun telah berumahtangga ianya tidak menjadi
halangan untuk mereka menceburkan diri dalam bidang perniagaan.
Maka ianya tidaklah seperti tanggapan orang ramai di mana tempat
wanita adalah di dapur.
Mengenai taraf pendidikan mereka kebanyakkan adalah sama ada
sekolah menengah atau sekolah rendah. Di samping itu 10.8% sahaja
mempunyai sijil-sijil dalam bidang keusahawanan atau yang setaraf
dengannya. Maka ini merupakan satu faktor yang perlu diperhatikan
kerana tidak ramai yang mendapat pengetahuan secara formal mengenai
selok belok perniagaan. Pengetahuan formal ini merupakan salah satu
faktor yang penting dalam membantu usahawan berjaya dalam perniagaannya. Kemahiran melalui pengalaman boleh diperolehi, tetapi
bersama-sama dengan pengetahuan formal ini ianya akan menjadikan
usahawan itu lebih peka dalam mengendalikan urusan niaganya.
Penemuan-penemuan penting yang berikut adalah mengenai
pengalaman, latihan dan modal usahawan kecil wanita. Ianya adalah
seperti dalam rajah yang berikut:
Pengalaman, Latihan dan Modal
1.
Peratus
2.
3.
Bekerja sendiri sebelum menceburkan diri dalam
bidang sekarang
- 60
Bekerja dalam bidang yang sama (usahawan)
- 50.8
Mendapat modal dari saudara mara dan simpanan sendiri - 56
4.
Memerlukan modal sebanyak 55,000-510,000
- 44
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Memilih bidang ini kerana berminat
Perniagaan ini milik sendiri
Menjalankan perniagaan selama 2 hingga 5 tahun
Mempunyai kurang dari 10 pekerja
Pekerja-pekerja dari adik beradik atau saudara-mara
-
83.1
73
50
84.6
55.2
10. Tidak pernah mengikuti apa-apa kursus formal yang
ditawarkan oleh kerajaan
11. Membuka perniagaan atas inisiatif sendiri
12. Tidak setuju untuk makan gaji jika diberi pilihan
13. Tidak setuju bahawa bekerja dengan kerajaan member!
mereka status yang tinggi berbanding dengan apa yang
mereka lakukan sekarang
55
- 55.3
- 93.8
- 90
- 80
Secara amnya kita dapat melihat bahawa kebanyakan mereka
sebelum menceburkan diri dalam bidang usahawan bekerja sendiri
dan dalam bidang yang sama atau yang berkaitan dengan perniagaan
mereka. Bermakna jika dahulu mereka makan gaji mengambil upah
menjahit pakaian, sekarang mereka telah membuka kedai jahit sendiri,
Majoriti daripada mereka menceburkan diri dalam bidang yang mereka pilih kerana berminat.
Mengenai modal mereka, kebanyakan memerlukan modal antara
$5,000 dan 310,000 ringgit. Walaupun modal yang mereka perlukan
kecil, tetapi malangnya kebanyakan terpaksa mendapatkannya dari
saudara mara ataupun simpanan sendiri.
Separuh daripada usahawan kecil wanita ini merupakan orang
baru dalam perniagaan yang mana perniagaan mereka adalah antara 2
hingga 5 tahun. Mereka juga tidak mempunyai pembantu yang ramai,
iaitu 84.6% mempunyai kurang daripada 10 orang pekerja. Dan
kebanyakan daripada mereka adalah adik beradik sendiri ataupun
saudara mara. Ini merupakan satu halangan kerana kebanyakan mereka kekurangan modal dan dengan itu mereka tidak dapat mengambil
ramai pembantu, dan ini kerapkali menganggu mereka dalam mengendalikan pasaran dan permintaan pelanggan.
Bukan sahaja kebanyakan mereka adalah orang baru dalam arena
ini, malah lebih separuh daripada mereka tidak pernah mengikut apaapa kursus formal yang ditawarkan oleh kerajaan. Walhal latihan itu
amat penting untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dalam mengendalikan
perniagaan mereka. Seterusnya lebih 93% daripada mereka membuka
perniagaan atas inisiatif sendiri. Maka ini merupakan satu lagi ciri-ciri
positif di mana wanita itu tidaklah pasif seperti yang dikatakan selalu,
tetapi mempunyai motivasi dan sanggup menghadapi cabaran. Di
samping itu mereka juga memandang tinggi bidang usahawan kerana
90% daripada mereka tidak setuju bahawa bekerja dengan kerajaan
memberi mereka status yang tinggi berbanding dengan apa yang mereka lakukan sekarang. Perlu diingatkan bahawa kebanyakan mereka
adalah kecil dalam bidang makanan, teksitil jahitan dan bermodalkan
kurang daripada $10,000. Ini menunjukkan mereka yakin dengan
usaha mereka walaupun perniagaan mereka kecil.
Sikap
Seterusnya adalah mengenai sikap usahawan wanita seperti yang
ditunjukkan dalam gambarajah berikut.
Sikap
Peratus
Tidak harus mengutamakan persahabatan, kemurahan
hati serta sifat malu atau segan.
56
-
62.1
Menjadi usahawan bukan kerana ingin dikenali (terkenal).
-
65.1
Tidak percaya bahawa kejayaan dalam keusahawanan
bergantung kepada jantina.
-
85
Usahawan wanita masih boleh menghadapi
berbagai cabaran.
-
74.2
Percaya terhadap usaha sendiri.
-
82.7
sokongan dan bantuan dari pihak swasta.
-
1.9
Masalah mendapatkan bantu an-bantu an yang
disediakan adalah lebih tinggi untuk kaum
wanita dari usahawan lelaki.
-
56.5
Tidak tahu tentang wujudnya agensi-agensi kerajaan
dan swasia yang boleh membantu meningkatkan
prestasi perniagaan mereka.
-
72.2
Mengatakan telah berjaya dengan adanya
Maklumat wujudnya agensi-agensi kerajaan
yang boleh membantu:
-
kurang tahu
tidak ambil tahu
- 51.4
- 21.4
-
merasa kewujudan agensi-agensi tidak penting
-
21.4
-
71.2
Wanita juga mempunyai daya ketahanan yang tinggi
terhadap tekanan dan berupaya mengendalikan perniagaan
samabaik kalaupun tidak lebih baik dari kaum lelaki
Secara amnya, sebahagian besar daripada masyarakat kita
beranggapan bahawa wanita itu lemah, emosional dan pasif. Namun
begitu data menunjukkan sebaliknya. Penemuan yang pertama
menunjukkan bahawa mereka tidak hams mengutamakan persahabatan, kemurahan hati serta sifat malu atau segan. Ini menunjukkan
mereka tegas dalam menjalankan perniagaan. Tanggapan yang meny-
atakan wanita kebanyakkannya bersifat materialistik juga dapat
disangkal kerana ramai yang menjadi usahawan bukan kerana ingin
terkenal tetapi kerana minat dan yakin atas usaha sendiri, dan masih
mempunyai sifat rendah diri.
Seterusnya walaupun ramai yang mengganggap bidang ini merupakan monopoli kaum lelaki tetapi ramai yang tidak percaya kejayaan
sebagai usahawan bergantung pada jantina dan yakin bahawa
kejayaan mereka adalah atas usaha sendiri (82.7%). Hakikat ini
57
menunjukkan usahawan wanita tidak merasakan diri mereka lemah
(74%), tetapi boleh menghadapi berbagai cabaran.
Lebih separuh daripada usahawan wanita mengatakan wanita
lebih sukar untuk mendapatkan bantuan jika dibandingkan dengan
usahawan lelaki. Memandangkan hanya 15.7% sahaja yang mengatakan mendapat sokongan kerajaan. Ini mungkin disebabkan
ramai (72.2%) tidak tahu tentang wujudnya agensi-a^ensi kerajaan
dan swasta yang boleh membantu meningkatkan prestasi perniagaan
mereka. Ini disebabkan lebih separuh kurangtahu mengenai kewuju-
dan agensi agensi tersebut, dan 21.4% memang tidak ambil tahu,
dan 21.4% merasakan kewujudan agensi-agensi tidak penting.
Maklumat ini penting kerana hampir setengah daripada usahawan
wanita tidak mengambil berat mengenai maklumat wujudnya agensiagensi kerajaan yang boleh membantu dalam meningkatkan pernia-
gaan mereka. Keadaan ini hams diperbaiki, kerana tanpa maklumat
dan bantuan kerajaan maupun dari pihak swasta hanya akan menjejaskan peluang mereka dalam perniagaan. Dan dari sumber-sumber
maklumat dan bantuan yang sedemikianlah mereka boleh membesarkan dan mempertingkatkan perniagaan mereka, agar tidak hanya
bergantung kepada modal sendiri atau saudara mara sahaja dan di
samping itu dapat mempelajari selok belok perniagaan dan cara-cara
mengendalikan perniagaan kerana kebanyakkannya adalah berpendidikan rendah.
Sebagai wanita mereka tidak dapat lari dari tanggungjawab
rumahtangga. Seterusnya adalah mengenai persoalan pembahagian
peranan rumahtangga dan kerja.
Persoalan pembahagian peranan rumahtanggan - kerja
Kegiatan perniagaan jarang sekali menjejaskan
penumpuan mereka terhadap masalah rumahtangga
Peratus
- 95.3
Tidak setuju bahawa usahawan wanita yang berjaya tidak
mempunyai ciri-ciri kewanitaan dan justeru itu kurang
kebolehan dalam peranan sebagai pembimbing rumahtangga
- 87.8
Tidak setuju wanita mengutamakan masalah rumahtangga
daripada masalah di tempat kerja
- 73.9
Sepertimana yang dirujuk dari rajah di atas, lebih 95% daripada
usahawan wanita mengatakan penyertaan mereka sebagai usahawan
tidak menjejaskan tumpuan rnereka terhadap rumahtangga. Ini
menunjukkan mereka peka dalam membahagikan masa antara kerja
dan tanggungjawab di rumah.
58
Sepertimana tanggapan masyarakat bahawa kebanyakan wanita
tidak dapat berjaya dalam dunia yang penuh dengan cabaran dan
menjadi pembimbing anak-anak pada masa yang sama. 87.8% tidak
setuju bahawa wanita akan hilang ciri-ciri kewanitaan dan justeru itu
kurang kebolehan dalam peranan wanita ini juga berpendapat bahawa
mereka berupaya menyelesaikan masalah di tempat kerja maupun di
rumah. Mereka pandai membahagikan masa untuk keluarga dan perniagaan. Perlu diingatkan di sini bahawa ramai wanita yang terpaksa
bekerja dua kali lebih besar untuk menunjukkan bahawa mereka berupaya menjalankan tugas mereka dengan kerjaya.
Rumusan Kajian
Secara amnya dari penemuan di atas kita dapat merumuskan
seperti yang berikut: iaitu ciri positif usahawan kecil wanita ialah:
1.
Mempunyai cita-cita untuk membangunkan perniagaan.
2.
Sanggup menyediakan modal dengan usaha sendiri atau pinjaman dari saudara mara.
3.
Mempunyai minat dalam bidang ini dan ada peluang untuk
meningkatkan diri dalam bidang yang diceburi.
4.
Keupayaan untuk menghadapi tekanan menunjukkan mereka
sanggup menghadapi cabaran.
5.
Mereka tidak berapa gemar untuk makan gaji. Jika ada pilihan,
menunjukkan boleh bergantung pada diri sendiri.
6.
Kebanyakan usahawan wanita berpendapat wanita boleh menceburkan diri dalam bidang usahawan dan tidak menjejaskan tanggungjawab mereka pada rumahtangga.
Seterusnya ciri-ciri usahawan kecil wanita yang perlu diatasi
ialah :
1.
usahawan wanita menghadapi masalah dalam mendapatkan
modal, sama ada untuk memulakan atau memperkembangkan
perniagaan.
2.
kurang mengambil tahu tentang peluang-peluang yang disediakan dan kurang menerima/tidak tahu tentang bantuan seperti
khidmat nasihat atau latihan dari pihak kerajaan dan swasta.
a.
tahap pendidikan yang rendah dan kurang pengetahuan mengenai pengurusan moden.
59
Cadangan
Setelah kita meninjau penemuan di atas maka halangan
penglibatan wanita, dalam bidang usahawan perlu dikaji dari banyak
aspek. Mengikut El-Namaki, 1989 jenis-jenis halangan yang sering
dihadapi oleh usahawan wanita dalam membangunkan bidang usahawan mereka ialah seperti berikut:
1.
2.
3.
Halangan struktur (teknologi, kredit)
Halangan pekerjaan (tradisional, kemahiran dll.)
Halangan pendidikan (latihan dan vokasional)
4.
Halangan sosial dan budaya (nilai dan norraa)
5.
6.
Halangan peranan (status, minoriti, ciri-ciri kepimpinan)
Halangan tingkahlaku (keyakinan diri, harga diri, dll.)
Kesemua halangan ini jika tidak di atasi boleh berlaku dan akan
membelenggu penglibatan usahawan wanita dan akan terus
menanamkan sifat stereotaip dan tanggapan negatif terhadap mereka.
Di antara cara-cara untuk mengatasi halangan usahawan wanita
ialah pertama memberikan bantuan atau nasihat dari segi jenis dan
lapangan perniagaan yang hendak diceburi. Ini disebabkan ada yang
masih ragu-ragu dan tidak tahu yang mana yang perlu mereka ceburi
memandangkan ramai mempunyai pengalaman yang kurang dalam
arena ini.
Seterusnya teknik-teknik jualan juga harus diperkenalkan kerana
kebanyakkannya berniaga secara setempat dan untuk mengurangkan
persaingan mereka harus diberi tajuk dalam memperluaskan lagi skop
jualan, misalnya memperkenalkan produk mereka ke seluruh negara
dan mengadakan pengiklanan. Faktor ini perlu diberikan perhatian
kerana kebanyakan pengusaha kecil menghadapi persaingan sesama
sendiri apabila sesuatu perusahaan atau pengeluaran berasaskan sumber tempatan yang hanya tertumpu di satu-satu kawasan sahaja. Oleh
kerana perniagaan usahawan wanita berskala kecil maka selain daripada masalah pengurusan, kerana mereka kurang bersedia dengan
sumber maklumat, kajian pasaran, mutu dan hal teknikal seperti
bungkusan dan reka bentuk mereka juga tidak peka dengan arah turun
naiknya permintaan pasaran. Maka garis panduan umum mengenai
barangan, pasaran, persaingan harus diperkenalkan, lebih-lebih lagi
kepada pendatang baru dalam arena usahawan ini. Dengan itu usahausaha untuk meningkatkan penglibatan mereka dalam kursus-kursus
keusahawan perlu difikirkan.
Di samping itu usahawan kecil wanita menghadapi masalah
jurang teknologi yang besar, dengan rata-rata belum mencapai tahap
yang tinggi. Sebahagian besar pengusaha kecil masih bersifat tradi60
sional dalam pengerakan serta teknik pengeluaran mereka. Dengan itu
hasil dan mutu pengeluaran juga akan menjadi rendah dan tidak
dapat memenuhi kehendak dan kualiti pasaran.
Menyentuh tentang kursus seperti mana yang kita dapati dalam
kajian ini, tidak ramai yang tahu tentang wujudnya kursus-kursus
sedemikian, walaupun terdapat begitu banyak program-program yang
wujud untuk meningkatkan usahawan. Contohnya seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam gambarajah berikut:
1.
MEDEC (Malaysian Enterpreneurial Development Centre).
2.
NPC (Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara).
3.
MARA (untuk Bumiputra).
4.
Kementerian Belia dan Sukan (Untuk usahawan-usahawan
muda).
5.
Pusat Pembangunan untuk peniaga kecil (UPM).
6.
Pusat Pembangunan Usahawan untuk graduan (dikendalikan
oleh JPA).
7.
Pusat Pembangunan Usahawan, iaitu suatu program usahasama
dengan
MARDI
PORIM
FRIM (Forest)
CIAST (Centre for Instructor and Advanced Training Skill).
8.
CIAST mengadakan usahasama dengan Pusat Latihan Belia.
Dari penyelidikan penulis walaupun program-program usa-
hawan adalah banyak tetapi terdapat rungutan bahawa tidak ramai
peserta. Ini mungkin disebabkan di samping ramai yang kurang
tahu mengenainya, kebanyakan kursus dianjurkan di bandar-bandar besar dan bukannya di kawasan setempat usahawan. Terdapat
juga kursus-kursus lain yang berjangka masa panjang dan ada yang
sampai enam bulan. Ini merupakan masalah besar kepada pengusa-
ha kerana kebanyakan mereka menjalankan sendiri perniagaan
mereka di samping masalah kekurangan pekerja. Selain daripada
itu kebanyakkan kursus-kursus juga mengenakan bayaran antara
$400 - $3000 yang mana adalah tinggi untuk usahawan-usahawan
kecil. Dari itu kelayakan kursus itu haruslah diadakan dengan
kerap, padat dan pendek di samping memperbanyakkan latihan
percuma.
61
Satu lagi masalah utama dan yang serius adalah masalah modal.
Kebanyakannya menggunakan modal sendiri atau saudara mara.
Dengan itu mereka tidak dapat memperkembangkan perniagaan dan
akan berada di takuk lama. Kebanyakan mereka sukar mendapatkan
modal dari bank. Selalunya pihak bank akan mengambil kira faktorfaktor asas dalam membuat pinjaman, iaitu sikap, modal dan syarat-
syarat pinjaman, penjamin dan sandaran. Manakala pengusaha sendiri
mempunyai masalah yang menyebabkan bank tidak meluluskan pinjaman. Lazimnya masalah mereka adalah pengusaha tidak ada akaun di
Bank, modal yang dikeluarkan oleh pengusaha adalah lebih kecil daripada pinjaman yang diharapkan. Seterusnya sikap pengusaha, iaitu
mohon pinjaman hari ini dan berharap diluluskan esok, tidak mempu-
nyai pengalaman dalam bidang yang dtceburi, tidak tahu dengan tepat
berapa banyak yang diperlukan untuk membuka perniagaan dan tidak
ada rancangan perniagaan juga menjadi batu penghalang dalam men-
dapatkan pinjaman perniagaan mereka.
M e l i h a t k a n masalah yang sedemikian bank-bank harus
memainkan peranan yang penting iaitu memperbanyakkan lagi skimskim yang mudah untuk membuat pinjaman dengan kadar faedah yang
rendah dan pinjaman jangka masa panjang. Bercakap tentang sikap,
sikap stereotaip pegawai-pegawai bank juga harus diperbaiki dengan
memberi peluang yang lebih banyak kepada usahawan wanita.
Misalnya, mengikut Presiden Usahawan Wanita Bumiputra Datin
Salmah Supawan, pengalaman telah membuktikan kaum wanita lebih
bertanggungjawab dan peka dalam membayar balik pinjaman atau
hutang mereka dengan mana-mana institusi kewangan berbanding
dengan kaum lelaki. Seterusnya sikap bank lebih mengutamakan
keuntungan dari memberi perkhidmatan untuk meningkatkan taraf
hidup wanita yang berkecimpung dalam perniagaan juga harus diubah.
Ramai juga wanita gagal mendapat pinjaman dan kemudahan
kredit dengan bank kerana tidak cekap dalam membuat kertas kerja
pinjaman, memandangkan ramai berkelulusan rendah. Maka harus
ada inisiatif untuk membantu mereka. Seterusnya pihak bank juga
bukan sahaja mengutamakan pinjaman tetapi perlu disusuli dengan
perkhidmatan selepas pinjaman dan memberikan perundingan percuma ketika mereka menghadapi kesukaran dalam perniagaan bagi
menjamin kejayaan usahawan kecil wanita yang berkenaan.
Akhir sekali sikap stereotaip bahawa wanita tidak berupaya menjalankan dua kerjaya harus dikikis. Memandangkan dasar kepen-
dudukan 70 juta akan dicapai lebih awal daripada yang dijangkakan,
maka kerajaan juga harus menyediakan lebih banyak pusat-pusat penjagaan kanak-kanak yang berkualiti ianya penting kerana dapat membantu mengurangkan beban wanita dalam menjalankan perniagaan.
Memandangkan lebih ramai lagi wanita yang akan berkecimpung
62
dalam ekonomi negara pada masa akan datang. Ini juga adalah selaras
dengan kehendak Wawasan 2020 untuk membina masyarakat yang
bukan sahaja maju tetapi penyayang.
Kesimpulan
Memandangkan negara kita sekarang ini giat berusaha untuk
melengkapkan diri menjadi negara yang maju lagi moden menjelang
tahun 2020, maka peranan wanita sebagai usahawan juga tidak harus
diabaikan dalam pembangunan negara, kerana bukan sahaja bilangan
wanita merupakan hampir separuh dari tenaga kerja di Malaysia,
malahan bidang usahawan juga merupakan salah satu cara yang dapat
mendokong cita-cita Wawasan 2020. Dengan menyediakan peluang
yang lebih banyak kepada mereka yang menceburi bidang ini, negara
akan dapat meningkatkan ekonomi serta kualiti kehidupan rakyatnya.
RUJUKAN
A.Aziz Deraman. Budaya niaga usahawan Melayu. Mastika, Okt., 1990.
Baharudin Omar. Delima peniaga bermodal kecil di ibu kota. Mastika, Feb.
1990
Ciri-ciri dan kuatiti usahawan berdaya maju. Utusan Malaysia, 1/7/1991.
Data' Khalid Ibrahim. Bahaya 'Broker Agen' dalam mencapai Wawasan 2020.
Mastika, Ogos, 1991.
Dato' Seri Rafidah Aziz. Usahawan Melayu mesti ada disiplin. Mastika, Okt.,
1990.
Kao, J. Entrepreneurship, Creativity and Organization, Englewood Cliff, N.J.:
Prentice Hall, 1989.
Masabumi Suzuki. Outline of Japan's policies for SME. International
Conference on SME, 28 - 30 May, 1990.
Mahmood, N.M. an exploration of the personality profile of small scale business b u m i p u t r a and n o n - b u m i p u t r a entrepreneurs. Malaysian
Management Review, 25, 2, Aug, 1990.
Mohd Yusuf. Usahawan kecil dan masalahnya. Dewan Masyarakat, Jan., 1988.
Pelan Induk Perindustrian. Dasar-dasar utama Kerajaan. INTAN, 1988.
Sabitha, M. G Mahmood, N.M. Profile, Challenges and Strategies of Woman
Entrepreneurs. A case study in Northern Malaysia. Kertas kerja, XVII
Pacific Science Congress, Hawaii, Mei, 1991.
63
Sudin Haron. Small scale entrepreneurs; Perceptions of Malaysian commercial bankers. Malaysian Management Review, 25, 2 Aug. 1991.
Usahawan wanita tubuh persatuan. IUB, Sept. 1990.
Wanita tidak mampu buat keputusan punca gagat jadi pengurus. Utusan
Malaysia, 14/8/1991.
Yep Putih. Keusahawanan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1989.
64
Biodata
En. Guok Eng Chai ialah Pegawai Penjnding, di
Unit Penyelidikan Produktiviti dan Pembangunan
Sistem di bawah Jabatan Pengukuran dan
Penyelidikan Produktiviti, Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara (NPC).
Sebelum penyusunan semula struktur organisasi NPC, beliau menjalankan tugas
sebagai Pegawai Latihan dan Penyiasatan dalam bidang Perkembangan
Pengurusan (Management Development).
Beliau memperolehi Ijazah Sarjana Sastera (M.A.) dalam bidang Pengurusan,
Universiti Sains Malaysia pada Ogos, 1991. Encik Guok pernah mengetuai
beberapa projek penyelidikan produktiviti dan kualiti anjuran NPC.
KESAN-KESAN KUMPULAN DAN PERSEKITARAN
KE ATAS KEBERKESANAN PERLAKUAN
KUMPULAN KERJA DILEMBAH KLANG,
SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIA
GUOKENGCHAI
ABSTRAK
Rencana ini merupakan tesis penulis untuk memenuhi keperluan Ijazah
Sarjana Sastera (M.A.) dalam bidang pengurusan, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Mei 1990. Artikel ini juga merupakan sambungan daripada
rencana pertama tentang kajian tersebut di atas yang dikeluarkan dalam
Jurnal Produktiviti Bil 11 Disember 1991 yang menumpukan kepada
penemuan-penemuan berikut: (1) penemuan univariat; (2) penemuan
dwi-variat; dan (3) penemuan variat berganda.
PENGENALAN
Artikel ini mengemukakan penemuan penyelidikan berasaskan
data yang diperolehi daripada soal-selidik kajian (sila lihat Lampiran
1 dalam rencana pertama). Penemuan yang dikemukakan oleh
pengkaji di sini mengikut pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran,
pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuk sumber bahan) serta pembolehubah keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja; kesemua itu yang
dibincangkan di bahagian rangka teoritis dalam rencana pertama.
Laporan penemuan univariat tentang pembolehubah-pembolehubah tersebut dari segi corak taburan akan dibincangkan terlebih
dahulu. Penemuan univariat itu akan juga menerangkan perbezaan
keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja dari sudut jenis kumpulan
kerja 'Small Group Activity'- (SGA) yang disukat dengan nisbah "F".
Seterusnya perhubungan dwi-variat di antara pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuk
sumber bahan) dengan keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja akan
dikemukakan. Akhirnya artikel ini akan membincangkan penemuan
tentang perkaitan variat berganda di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah tersebut.
Artikel ini juga menekankan penemuan empirik tentang model
keberkesanann perlakuan kumpulan kerja di Semenanjung Malaysia.
Untuk menguji perkaitan variat berganda, kajian ini menggunakan
rosot kembali (Multiple Regression) berganda dua kuasa terkecil.
66
Analisis variat berganda itu akan menganggap pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuk
sumber bahan) sebagai pembolehubah antejadian sepertimana diterangkan dalam rencana pertama. Dari penemuan penyelidikan yang
diperoleh kita dapat menentukan samada data empirik mempunyai
konsistenan demi menyokong model keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja.
PENEMUAN UNIVARIAT
Taburan kekerapan untuk selurub, sampel (Jadual 1) tentang peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan menunjukkan satu
kadar penerimaan yang sangat tinggi secara perbandingan. 76.5 peratus sampel itu melaporkan kadar penerimaan sebanyak 80 peratus ke
atas, manakala 87.9 peratus melaporkan kadar penerimaan 60 peratus
ke atas.
JADUAL I
KOD-KODIDENTIFIKASI DAN TABURAN UNIVARIAT
UNTUK PEMBOLEHUBAH-PEMBOLEHUBAH YANG
DIGUNAKAN DALAM KAJIAN INI
Kod-kod
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
N
%
Pembolehubah Berg ant ung:
Keberkesanan Perlakuan Kumpulan Kerja
Yj
Peratusan Cadangan Projek
Diterima oleh Pengurusan (CADANG)
Di bawah 20%
20-39%
40 - 59%
60-79%
80% ke atas
0
3
0
2.3
13
15
9.8
11.4
101
76.5
132 100.0
Skor Kesanggupan Ahli-Ahli Kumpulan
Bekerjasama Secara Pasukan (PASUKAN)
Kurang dari 4 markah
0
4-5markah
4
3.0
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
10-11 markah
8
33
45
6.1
25.0
34.1
67
0
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
N
%
12-13markah
30
22.7
Melebihi 13markah
12
9.1
132 100.0
Y3
Skor Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap Positif
Ahli-Ahli Kumpulan Hasil Daripada
Pengalaman Kumpulan (SIKAP)
Kurang dari 4 markah
4 - 5 markah
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
1
0
7
33
0.8
0
5.3
25.0
10 - 11 markah
12 -13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
33 25.0
41 31.1
17 12.8
132 100.0
Pembolehubah Antejadian:
Faktor Kumpulan dan Persekitaran,
Faktor Proses Kumpulan serta Sumber Bah an
Xl
Skor Proses Intra Kumpulan (INTRA)
Kurang dari 6 markah
6 - 8 markah
9 -11 markah
12 -14 markah
15 -17 markah
18 - 20 markah
Melebihi 20 markah
0
0
0
0
4
3.0
8
6.1
46 34.8
58 43.9
16 12.2
132 100.0
X2
Sejauhmanakah Perbincangan Strategi
Dipraktikkan (STRATEGI)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
TidakPernah
Antara di bawah Kadang-Kadang dan
Tidak Pernah
Di bawah Kadang-Kadang
Kadang-Kadang
68
25
18.9
9
10
30
6.8
7.6
22.7
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
N
%
(5)
(6)
Di atas Kadang-Kadang
Antara di atas Kadang-Kadang dan Selalu
20
16
15.2
12.1
(7)
Selalu
22
16.7
132 100.0
X3
Sejauhmanakah Pertimbangan Input
Individu Dipraktikkan (INPUT)
(1)
TidakPernah
(2)
Antara di bawah Kadang-Kadang dan
3
2.3
(3)
(4)
TidakPernah
Di bawah Kadang-Kadang
Kadang-Kadang
3
5
32
2.3
3.8
24.2
(5)
(6)
Di atas Kadang-Kadang
Antara di atas Kadang-Kadang dan Selalu
33
29
25.0
22.0
(7)
Selalu
27
20.4
132 100.0
Skor Pengurusan Sempadan (SEMPADAN)
Kurang dari 4 markah
4 - 5 markah
6-7markah
8 - 9 markah
10-11 markah
12 -13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
35
51
26.5
38.6
23
17.4
15
5
1
2
11.4
3.8
0.8
1.5
132 100.0
X5
Sejauhmanakah Lengkapnya
Sumber-Sumber Bahan (BAHAN)
(1)
Tidak Lengkap Langsung
(2)
Antara di bawah Sederhana dan Tidak
Lengkap Langsung
(3) Di bawah Sederhana
(4) Sederhana
(5) Di atas Sederhana
(6) Antara di atas Sederhana dan Sangat
Lengkap
69
5
3.8
4
3.0
4
18
11
3.0
13.6
8.3
31
23.5
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
(7)
Sangat Lengkap
N
%
59
44.8
132 100.0
X6
Pembahagian Jantina (LELAKI1)
Dibawah20%
20-39%
31
16
23.5
12.1
40 - 59%
60-79%
9
16
6.8
12.1
80% ke atas
60
45.5
132 100.0
Kombinasi Keturunan (TURUN)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Satu Kombinasi
Melayu/Cina/India (termasuk dll.)
Dua Kombinasi
(Melayu dan Cina)
[Melayu dan India (termasuk dll.)]
[Cina dan India (termasuk dll.)]
Tiga Kombinasi
14
10.6
56
42.4
62
47,0
[Melayu, Cina, dan India (termasuk dll.}]
132 100.0
X8
Sejauhmanakah Tahap Pelbagai Kebolehan
dan Kemahiran (KEBOLEH)
(1)
Rendah
1
0.8
(2)
AntaradibawahSederhana dan Rendah
6
4.5
(3)
Di bawah Sederhana
11
8.3
(4)
Sederhana
42
31.8
(5)
(6)
Di atas Sederhana
Antara di atas Sederhana dan Tinggi
40
27
30.3
20.5
(7)
Tinggi
5
3.8
132 100.0
1 Menunjukkan perkadaran bilangan ahli-ahli lelaki berbanding dengan a h l i - a h l i
perempuan.
70
JADUAL l, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
Xg
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
N
%
Skor Kesepaduan (SEPADU)
Kurang dari 4 markah
4 - 5 markah
0
0
6
19
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
10-11 markah
12 - 13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
44
43
20
0
0
4.5
14.4
33.3
32.6
15.2
132 100.0
X10
Skor Kepimpinan (PIMPIN)
Kurang dari 4 markah
4 - 5 markah
0
4
15
33
39
23
18
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
10-11 markah
12 - 13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
0
3.0
11.4
25.0
29.5
17.4
13.7
132 100.0
Xn
Sejauhmanakah Aktifnya Komunikasi (KOM)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Tidak Aktif Langsung
Antara di bawah Sederhana dan Tidak
Aktif Langsung
Di bawah Sederhana
Sederhana
Di atas Sederhana
Antara di atas Sederhana dan
Terlalu Aktif
Terlalu Aktif
2
1.5
1
4
35
24
0.8
3.0
26.5
18.2
40
26
30.3
19.7
132 100.0
Saiz Purata Kumpulan (SAIZ)
Kurang dari 6 ahli-ahli
6 - 9 ahli-ahli
10 - 13 ahli-ahli
23 17.4
76 57.6
29 22.0
71
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Pembolehub ah-p embolehub ah
Kod-kod
14 - 17 ahli-ahli
N
%
1
3
Melebihi 17 ahli-ahli
0.8
2.2
132 100.0
X
13
Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA) (JENIS)
(!)
BukanQCC
(2)
QCC
39
93
29.5
70.5
132 100.0
X14
Skor Teknik Keputusan Berkumpulan (TEKNIK]
Kurang dari 10 markah
10-14 markah
15-19 markah
0
7
25
51
37
12
0
20 - 24 markah
25 - 29 markah
30 - 34 markah
Melebihi 34 markah
0
5.3
18.9
38.6
28.0
9.2
0
132 100.0
Xis
Skor Alat Statistik (ALAT)
Kurang dari 14 markah
14 - 20 markah
21-27 markah
28 - 34 markah
7
7
22
42
38
13
3
35 -41 markah
42 -48 markah
Melebihi 48 markah
5.3
5.3
16.7
31.8
28.8
9.8
2.3
132 100.0
^16
Skor Pembahagian Tugas (BAHAGI)
Kurang dari 4 markah
1
11
15
31
35
4 - 5 markah
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
10 - 11 markah
72
0.8
8.3
11.4
23.5
26.5
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
12-13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
N
22
17
%
16.7
12.8
132 100.0
:17
Pembahagian Jam Mesyuarat (PEJABAT1)
Di bawah 20%
20-39%
7
3
5.3
2.3
40 - 59%
60 - 79%
6
6
4.5
4.5
110
83.4
80%keatas
132 100.0
:18
Skor Latihan (LATIH)
Kurang dari 20 markah
20 - 29 markah
30-39 markah
40-49 markah
50-59 markah
60-69 markah
Melebihi 69 markah
9
7
16
37
47
15
1
6.8
5.3
12.1
28.0
35.6
11.4
0.8
132 100.0
X19
Skor Sistem Maklumat (MAKLUM)
Kurang dari 4 markah
4 - 5 markah
6 - 7 markah
8 - 9 markah
10-11 markah
12 -13 markah
Melebihi 13 markah
1
6
10
26
46
29
14
0.8
4.5
7.6
19.7
34.8
22.0
10.6
132 100.0
1 Menunjukkan perkadaran jam waktu pejabat yang digunakan dalam mengendalikan
mesyuarat berbanding dengan jam waktu sendiri.
73
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
X20
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
N
%
Skor Sistem Ganjaran (GANJAR)
Kurangdari 2 markah
2 -3 markah
4 -5 markah
6-7markah
Melebihi 7 markah
34
44
33
15
6
25.8
33.3
25.0
11.4
4.5
132 100.0
X21
Skor Sokongan Pengurusan (SOKONG)
Kurang dari 8 markah
8-11 markah
12 -15 markah
16 - 19 markah
2 0 - 2 3 markah
24 -27 markah
Melebihi 27 markah
1
1
13
31
39
37
10
0.8
0.8
9.8
23.5
29.5
28.0
7.6
132 100.0
Dari jadual tersebut di atas kita dapati 90.9 peratus sampel itu
mengatakan bahawa mereka sanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan di
antara "sederhana" dan "sangat sanggup" sepertimana dicerminkan
oleh pencapaian skor 8 markah ke atas pada skel kesanggupan ahliahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan. Di samping itu 31.8 peratus sampel itu melaporkan bahawa ahli-ahli kumpulan mereka hampir sangat sanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan sepertimana dicerminkan oleh pencapaian skor 12 markah ke atas pada skel kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan.
Tentang sejauhmanakah kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahliahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan, 93.9 peratus
sampel itu mengatakan bahawa kegiatan kumpulan mereka adalah di
antara "sederhana berjaya" dan "amat berjaya" sepertimana dicerminkan oleh pencapaian skor 8 markah ke atas pada skel kejayaan
perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan. Manakala 43.9 peratus sampel itu melaporkan
bahawa kegiatan kumpulan mereka hampir amat berjaya dalam mencapai perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan sepertimana dicerminkan oleh pencapaian skor 12 markah ke atas pada skel kejayaan
74
perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan.
Nampaknya taburan-taburan untuk pembahagian jantina, kombinasi keturunan, saiz purata kumpulan, jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA),
pembahagian jam mesyuarat, dan skor sistem ganjaran menunjukkan
darjah-darjah kepencongan (skewness) yang berlainan. Begitu juga
dengan pembolehubah-pembolehubah seperti proses intra kumpulan,
perbincangan strategi, pertimbangan input individu, pengurusan sempadan, sumber bahan, kebolehan dan kemahiran, kesepaduan,
kepimpinan, komunikasi, teknik keputusan berkumpulan, alat statistik, pembahagian tugas, latihan, sistem maklumat, dan sokongan pengurusan. Kepencongan-kepencongan itu mencerminkan beberapa bias
dalam sampel; kebanyakan kumpulan memperolehi bilangan ahli-ahli
lelaki yang tinggi berbanding dengan ahli-ahli perempuan; kombinasi
Melayu, Cina, dan India (termasuk dll.) yang tinggi serta saiz purata 6
hinggaQ ahli-ahli.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA)
Satu set penemuan yang penting dalam kajian ini mempertimbangkan tentang wujudnya perbezaan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA)
dari segi keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja. Sampel sampingan
QCC dan Bukan QCC adalah berbeza apabila perbezaan di antara varians-varians masing-masing diuji secara berertian dari segi statistik
oleh nisbah "F". Jadual 2 menunjukkan perbezaan berertian secara
statistik di antara QCC dan Bukan QCC dari sudut pengurusan sem-
padan, pembahagian jantina, kesepaduan, saiz purata kumpulan, alat
statistik, pembahagian jam mesyuarat, latihan, dan sokongan pengurusan. Sebaliknya jadual tersebut menunjukkan persamaan taburan
skor di antara sampel sampingan QCC dan Bukan QCC dari segi peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan, kesanggupan ahliahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan, kejayaan perubahan sikap
positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan,
proses intra kumpulan, perbincangan strategi, pertimbangan input
individu, sumber bahan, kombinasi keturunan, kebolehan dan
kemahiran, kepimpinan, komunikasi, teknik keputusan berkumpulan, pembahagian tugas, sistem maklumat, dan sistem ganjaran.
Antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah itu, terdapat persamaan yang
begitu rapat terutama dari segi proses intra kumpulan, sumber bahan,
dan kombinasi keturunan.
Kesimpulannya sampel tentang "Small Group Activity" (SGA)
dalam kajian ini menunjukkan pencapaian yang tinggi dari segi: peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan; kesanggupan ahli-
ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan; dan kejayaan perubahan
sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpu75
lan, Walau bagaimanapun sampel itu tidak menunjukkan perbezaan
jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) yang berertian dari segi aspek-aspek
keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja. Sebaliknya terdapat per-
bezaan-perbezaan yang penting di antara sampel sampingan QCC dan
Bukan QCC dari segi pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian seperti
pengurusan sempadan, pembahagian jantina, kesepaduan (cohesiveness), saiz purata k u m p u l a n , alat statistik, pembahagian jam
mesyuarat, latihan, dan sokongan pengurusan.
JADUAL2
PERBEZAAN JENIS KUMPULAN KERJA (SGA) DARI SEGI
PURATA, SISIHAN PIAWAI (S.P), NISBAH "F", DAN UJIAN "t"
UNTUK PEMBOLEHUBAH-PEMBOLEHUBAH DALAM KAJIAN INI
QCC*
Bukan QCC*
(N = 39)
(N - 93)
Nisbah
Y!
Y2
Y3
X:
Xz
X3
CADANG
PASUKAN
SIKAP
INTRA
STRATEGI
INPUT
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xn
Xj 2
X14
SEMPADAN
BAHAN
LELAKI
TURUN
KEBOLEH
SEPADU
PIMPIN
KOM
SAIZ
TEKNIK
X15
X16
X 17
X16
ALAT
BAHAGI
PEJABAT
LATIH
X19 MAKLUM
X 20 GANJAR
X21 SOKONG
a
b
*X13
Ujian
"t"
X
S.P.
x"
S.P.
86.763
19.076
87.179
20.705
1.18
0.112
10.495
2.389
10.231
1.939
1.52
-0.610
10.505
2.408
11.051
1.863
1.67
1.265
17.269
2.622
17.897
2.521
1.08
1.271
3.871
2.117
4.692
1.779
1.42
2.127a
5.204
1.340
5.026
1.581
1.39
4.968
2.347
5.769
3.099
1.74a
1.450
5.753
1.640
5.538
1.668
1.03
-0.682
48.295
39.242
87.163
18.609
4.45b
7.706b
-0.662
2.355
0.686
2.385
0.633
1.17
0.233
4.409
1.096
5.154
1.247
1.29
3.421
10.989
2.164
12.077
1.511
2.05a
3.296b
0.01
0.073
10.247
2.339
10.282
2.800
5.161
1.262
5.590
1.390
1.21
1.726
8.495
2.846
7.128
3.715
1.70a
-2.0583
23.935
4.669
20.205
4.503
1.08
-4.232b
33.699
6.751
26.923
12.053
3.19b
-3.300b
9.710
2.925
9.769
2.709
1.17
0.109
85.435
29.719
97.921
6.821
18.98b
3.819b
48.290
11.022
41.205
18.638
2.86b
-2,217b
9.968
2.594
11.051
2.235
1.35
3.903
2.027
1.359
1.709
1.41
20.710
4.951
22.077
= Paras keertian .05
= Paras keertian .01
= QCC, Bukan QCC
76
3.710
2.277s
-6.876b
a
1.78
1.742
PENEMUAN DWI-VARIAT
Analisis penemuan dwi-variat di bahagian ini berdasarkan
matriks korelasi (zero order) bagi setiap dimensi keberkesanan per-
lakuan kumpulan kerja. Dimensi itii ialah peratusan cadangan projek
diterima oleh pengurusan (Yj), kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan (Y2), dan kejayaan perubahan sikap positif
ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3),
Dalam membuat analisis matriks korelasi bagi setiap dimensi tersebut,
kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) iaitu QCC dan Bukan QCC akan
dijadikan konstan. Ini membolehkan kita menganalisis pembolehubah yang mempunyai perkaitan berertian secara statistik dengan
lebih sistematik dan terkawal.
Peratusan Cadangan Projek Diterima Oleh Pihak Pengurusan (YJ
Jadual 3 menunjukkan matriks korelasi untuk seluruh sampel.
Pembolehubah-pembolehubah dalam model empirik yang mempunyai
perkaitan-perkaitan secara berertian dari segi statistik dengan peratu-
san cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan (Y a ) merangkumi pembolehubah proses kumpulan seperti proses intra kumpulan, pengurusan sempadan, dan sumber bahan serta pembolehubah kumpulan dan
persekitaran iaitu saiz purata kumpulan, sistem maklumat, dan sokongan pengurusan. Antara korelasi-korelasi itu, terdapat lima korelasi
terbaik seperti proses intra kumpulan, Xj (r=.286); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.222); saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=-.238); sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.228); dan sokongan pengurusan, X 2 i (r=.227). Korelasi
yang baik ialah sumber bahan , X5 (r=.180).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila identiti jenis
kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan, terdapat satu corak1 perkaitan dwi-variat dalam sampel sampingan QCC (Jadual 4) yang hampir
sama dengan seluruh sampel. Kecuali pengurusan sempadan, sumber
bahan, dan sistem maklumat, terdapat perkaitan secara berertian di
antara peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dan pembolehubah antejadian yang tertentu dalam sampel sampingan QCC.
Korelasi-korelasi terbaik untuk peratusan cadangan projek diterima
oleh pengurusan merangkumi saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=—.284);
dan sokongan pengurusan X 2 i (r=,311). Lain korelasi yang penting
termasuk proses intra kumpulan, Xa (r=.245).
Mungkin keadaan ini wujud disebabkan oleh saiz sampel: sampel QCC adalah lebih
besar, lebih kurang 70 peratus dari seluruh sampel. Maka pekali-pekali dalam sampel QCC akan mempunyai nilai-nilai hampir dengan pekali-pekali dalam seluruh
sampel, tetapi bukan semestinya dalam segala perhubungan. Tetapi disebabkan oleh
saiz sampel yang lebih kecil (30 peratus dalam sampel Bukan QCC), pekalipekalinya harus ditaksirkan secara berhati-hati kerana kemungkinan pekali-pekali
itu tidak boleh dipercayai (unreliable).
77
JADUAL 3
MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SELURUH SAMPEL (N = 132)
Y,
Y]
Yz
Y3
Xt
Xz
Xj
X4
X5
X6
X7
XB
X9
X10
XM
X, 2
X, 3
X,,
X 15
X, 6
XI7
X, g
X,9
X ZD
X zl
CADANC
PASUKAN
SIKAP
!NTRA
STRATEGI
INPUT
SEMPADAN
BAHAN
LELAKI
TURUN
KEBOLEH
SEPADU
PIMPIN
KOM
SAIZ
JEN1S
TEKNIK
ALAT
BAHAGI
PEJABAT
LATIH
MAKLUM
GANJAR
SOKONG
Y3
1
145
1
.228b -586b
286b 514b .492b
- 008 .241b 264b
109 .384b .390*
.222b .317b 435b
180' .322b .312b
170 - 065 .163
-.030
- 035 -.060
021 -337b .441b
075 .451b ,537b
.398b
.389b
.152
-.238b -.114
-.010
.053
-340b
-.043
.017
.39Bb
.066
.356b
- 048 -.220'
.159
.432b
-228b .460b
-.003
.230b
-227b -454b
.031
' Di paras keeitian 0.05
b
Y,
Di paras keerttan 0 01
X,
1
,235b
X,
X3
X,
XB
X6
X7
XB
X9
X1()
Xn
Y
A
12
'A
Y
13
Y
A
14
X
1B
X
16
X
17
X
1S
X
19
X
20
X
1
3Blb 329b 1
.247 -326b .290b
.276b 140
307b
.028 090 - 054
1
236b
1
214* •-.097
1
006
- 030 - 064 -.051
.084
222b 1
.290b 158
157
237b 202' 226b -.031
1
437b 1
-532b 284b 406b 32 7b .210' 223b -.077
159 - 074 -.034 -316b .39Bb 1
31 Ob -342b 324b .304b .214*
.42Bb .360b .226b 178* 289b .123
.457b .4Blb .243b 1
.096
054
-.187' -.280b -148 - 107 - 166 .024 -.186' .049-.036 - .110 -.058 -.150
1
-.110 -.111- 183* .058 - 141 OBO - 4BOb -.020 -.267b - 243b -.006 -.124
197*
1
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
.227
149
310 -.349 -.070
.188' .133
.34 Bb 1
.242 .3U
303
.403 .174* 047
339b .644b 1
,325b -280b 200* 274b 344b .314b - 189' .028 -269b .209' 422b .187* .037
231b -295b 29 5b 477b .269b 179* - 118 .024.348b 2B9b ,348b .189' - 044 - 010 ,389b .355b 1
b
-.178* - 114 061 - 042 - 127 --007
042 -.054 - 070 --206» -.176* -.132 -.019 - 222 - 073 - 223b -.073
1
b
b
231b
607b .693
455b-.103
385b -349b 223b 394b 339** 41 3 - 110 -015 -369b 262b .385b .276b 032
b
376b-.067
516b .461b 386b 51 5b 421b .434b 035 -.112 330b 509b .406b 338b - 136 -.196' -310b 334
b
2141 .083 06 B
225b
253b .101 - 097 .044
- 033 .127
.091
120
.516b 342
404b .092 -,246b
.112
b
.463b .503b 286b .508b .294b -334b 079 -.008
.312b 54Bb .40 l
.340b -.062 - 135 168
.250b .2Blb .031
1
450b
1
-349b
094
1
.342b
.621b
.168
1
Z1
JADUAL 4
MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SAMPEL SAMPINGAN Q£C (N = 93)
YI
Y,
Yz
Y3
X,
CADANG
PASUKAN
SIKAP
INTRA
X2
STRATEG1
X3
X4
X5
INPUT
SEMPADAN
BAHAN
X6
LELAKI
X7
X8
Xg
X10
Xn
Xu
XM
X16
X16
X17
X]8
Xlg
X20
X21
TURUN
KEBOLEH
SEPADU
PIMPIN
ROM
SAIZ
TEKNK
ALAT
BAHAGI
PEJABAT
LATIH
MAKLUM
GANfAR
SOKONG
Y
3
v
A
l
Xi
X,
X4
XB
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xn
X M,
X14
X1S
X,8
X,T
Xla
X1B
XM
XZ1
1
.1001
.216*
-608b 1
245* .4B2b 498b
1
.205' 175
1
b
b
358b
1
.001
-464b 409 -473
.1312BOb 4B8b .199 .264b .344b 1
b
b
b
387
360
.317
141
330b .198
1
124
.19
- 4
076
148 -.056 -.025
-.123
.152
-.123
1
.019
- 02B -044
.142
-.009
261*
1
009
Oil - Oil
1
-.015 404b 477b .234* .159 .26Bb ,284b .244* .068 .007
b
b
b
b
11
1
.076
.466 .504 -539
192
439* .37 2 .250* .130- 091 45B
b
b
366b -424b .271b .274b - .142
006
.410b .484b 1
-111
.466b 406 -466
.119
3Blb 499b .37 lb .166
.244* .35Bb .188 - .014
.184
439b -482b 29911 1
-.284b -.119
-.230' -.271b -.125
- 206* -.193
-.092
- .100 - 013 022
.003 - 072 -.110
b
b
b
b
b
-.034
.305b .208' .413b .267b
-320b 253' .206' .306 .374 .3B6 .2B2 - ,307 -.091
.028
.439b 371b .33911 .204* .419b .428b .247* - .113
.075
3B4b -314b 474b -3Blb
b
- 047 .357
200
.33 lb .299b 528b .229b .182 - .200
.014
.377b -312b 4B9b .207*
-.052
-.223* -.218' -.151 .036 -.028
-.194
.003 - .071 -.075 - 167 --292b - 225* -.195
b
b
b
b
472b -409b .41 8b .416b
169
-531b .490*" .396b .278 .522 .432 .405 - .071 -.027
b
180
.513b .504b .423b .326b .537 .405b .453b - 134 -.128
-311b -469b -548b -370b
239' 399b 012
189
.017
140
003
.228* .346b .183 .200
-356b 062
320b
b
b
517b .285
413b- 001
.021
317b -5B2b 573b 40Bb
.31 lb -519b .4 SB6 .542b .268
- 092
* Di paras keertian 0 05
b
Y*
Di paras keertian 0.01
191
1
-.088
-.013
-529b 1
-.143
-418b -463b 1
1
.041 -.005 -.243* -.071
-.182
521b .546b MfP -.089
1
-.092
475b -522b -403b -.125
.566b
- 046 112
.184
.026 -.154 .211'
- 058
247* .389b .284b -.004 .464b
1
1
231* 1
627** 334b
1
JADUAL 5
MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SAMPEL SAMPINGAN BUKAN QCC (N = 39)
Y,
Y,
Yz
Ys
Xj
Xj
X3
X4
Xs
XB
X7
Xa
Xe
X10
Xn
X, z
X, 4
X, B
Xt6
X17
X 1B
X ]9
XM
X21
CADANG
PASUKAN
SKAP
INTRA
STRATEGI
INPUT
SEMPADAN
BAHAN
LELAKI
TURUN
KEBOLEH
SEPADU
PIMPIN
ROM
SAIZ
TEKNIK
ALAT
BAHAGI
PEJABAT
LATIH
MARLUM
GANJAR
SOKONG
Y si
X,
X,
X3i
079
- 12Q
219
542b
254
-47Sb
- 170 -.154
E44b
083
-493b
090
.201
303
- 039 -.260
.422b
42 5b
391'
190
.014
50 Sb
380*
.33B*
361*
341*
- 060
.201
- Ill - 264 - 245 -.205
171
364'
003
193
334'
367'
268
257
388*
524b
217
441b
.413b
.533b
113
.350'
Xs
*<
1
1
276
.273
550b
1
388' 662b 455b 1
1
208 .486b 41 Bb 356*
31.195
6* 402* 219
330* 1
b
326*
310
381* 464
426b .238
1
304 .131
211
207
.190
340'
.254
204
138
005
125
.195
356' .315
- 126 - 181 - 240 - 172 -.196 -.063 -.034
290
32 5J
357' -.002
084
.025
.084
' Di paras keertian 0.05
Di paras keertian 0.01
b
YZ
.498b
.462b .172
.099
.132
.309
081
.089
-.105
.013 -.073
412b .184
.381*
,461b 113
-423b
296 .378' .225
-.144 -.098 -.178
.320* .248
343*
-487b .558b ,431b
.250
158
.211
.379'
.271
.574b
.301
X6
X,'
Xg
**9
*MG.
*11
X lz
XH
x,B
xle
x]7
x1B xla
x™ xz]
1
.130
1
.048
.170 1
.200
.338* -.144
1
182
.130 - 334' 245
1
237
1
-.067
.116
-.122
.183
b
b
.018
248 -.265
432 ,441 .145 1
.205 - 193 .191
1
.024 -.255 -.036 -.076
.098
1
.377* .145-.001
.360* .361* .480*" 190
b
757b
1
430b .141- 013 -456b .424* .445 .119 -.053
.047 .149
174
.181.053
.330' 242
155
.420b .308
1
.042 -.028 .046 - 109 - 192 -.056 -.169 -.054
.109 -.030 -.226 1
.386* .218
.168
,715b .770b .493b .050 1
.451b .194 .013
482b .280
.56011
111
465b 342* - 089 .252
193 - 128 229
365* .3191 -.095 .516b
.261
.189 210
.091
.314-.114
171
472b 496b .382* -.342* .42&
.146
146
.164
- 125 225
326' -.022
108
.015
187
.266
.190 .073 .326*
1
.236 1
.56 lb
.074 1
Seterusnya terdapat lima korelasi berertian di antara pembolehubah k u m p u l a n dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proses
kumpulan dengan peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dalam sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5). Walau
bagaimanapun pekali-pekali berkenaan adalah lebih tinggi berbanding dengan sampel sampingan QCC dan seluruh sampel. Misalnya
proses intra kumpulan, XT (r=.388 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.245
untuk QCC); pertimbangan input individu, X 3 (r=.316 untuk Bukan
QCC Iwn r = .001 untuk QCC); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.381
untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.131 untuk QCC); pembahagian tugas, X1B
(r=.338 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=-.047 untuk QCC); dan sistem
maklumat, X19 (r=.364 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.180 untuk QCC).
Data-data itu menunjukkan pembolehubah-pembolehubah tersebut
mempunyai kesan-kesan yang lebih tinggi terhadap peratusan
cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dalam sampel Bukan
QCC berbanding dengan sampel QCC. Antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah tersebut, kecuali proses intra kumpulan, pembolehubahpembolehubah lain seperti pertimbangan input individu, penguru-
san sempadan, pembahagian tugas, dan sistem maklumat merupakan
pembolehubah-pembolehubah yang penting khas untuk peratusan
cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dalam sampel Bukan
QCC.
Secara rumusan penemuan yang dibincangkan mencerminkan
corak perkaitan dwi-variat yang lebih kurang konsisten di antara bebe-
rapa pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah
proses kumpulan dengan peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh
pengurusan untuk seluruh sampel dan sampel sampingan QCC.
Walau bagaimanapun satu perkara yang menarik yang dapat diru-
muskan daripada penemuan yang dibincangkan ialah kumpulan
Bukan QCC lebih menitikberatkan pertimbangan input individu dan
pembahaigan tugas dalam usaha meningkatkan peratusan cadangan
projek diterima oleh pengurusan.
Kesanggupan Ahli-Alili Kumpulan Bekerjasama Secara Pasukan (Y2)
Jadual 3 menunjukkan kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan (Y 2 ) mempunyai lebih korelasi berertian secara
statistik berbanding dengan peratusan cadangan projek yang diterima
oleh pengurusan (YJ. Terdapat kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan memperolehi perkaitan sangat berertian de-
ngan segala pembolehubah proses kumpulan iaitu proses intra
kumpulan, X: (r-.514); perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.241); pertimbangan input individu, X 3 (r=.384); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=,317);
dan surnber bahan, X 5 fr=.322). Tambahan pula kesanggupan ahliahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan berkait secara berertian
dengan pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran. Kecuali korelasi
81
pembahagian jam mesyuarat, X17 (r=-,220) yang baik, yang lain merupakan korelasi-korelasi terbaik seperti kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8
(r=.337); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.45l); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.398); komunikasi, X ai (r=.389); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.340); alat
statistik, X15 (r=.398); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=.356); latihan, X18
(r=.432), sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.460); sistem ganjaran, X 20 (r=.230);.
dan sokongan pengurusan, X 2 i (r=.454).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dikawal, terdapat korelasi-korelasi berertian yang
sama untuk kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara
pasukan dalam seluruh sampel dan juga dalam sampel sampingan
QCC kecuali untuk perbincangan strategi (Jadual 4). Pembolehubah
yang mempunyai perkaitan berertian dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahli
kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan meliputi pembahagian jam
mesyuarat, X17 (r=-,223), dan sistem ganjaran, X 20 (r=.228); keduadua itu adalah kurang penting berbanding dengan pembolehubah
lain yang lebih penting seperti proses intra kumpulan X j (r=.482);
pertimbangan input individu, X3 (r=.464); pengurusan sempadan, X4
(r=.280); sumber bahan, X 5 (r=.387); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8
(r=.404); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.466); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.466); komunikasi, X n (r=.38l); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X 14 (r=.320);
alat statistik, X15 (r=.439); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=,357); latihan,
X18 (r=.53l); sistem maklumat, X1Q (r=.513); dan sokongan pengurusan, X 21 (r-.519).
Untuk sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5), terdapat
kurang korelasi-korelasi berertian bagi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpu-
lan bekerjasama secara pasukan berbanding dengan sampel sampingan QCC dan seluruh sampel. Pembolehubah yang mempunyai
perkaitan berertian dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan dalam sampel Bukan QCC termasuk pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=.361); latihan, X18 (r=.334); dan sistem maklumat,
X19 (r=.367); ketiga-tiga itu kurang penting berbanding dengan pembolehubah lain yang lebih penting iaitu proses intra kumpulan, X a
(r=,662); perbincangan strategi, X 2 (r=.486); pengurusan sempadan,
X 4 (r=.464); kesepaduan, X 9 (r=.542); komunikasi, X n (r=.475);
teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.422); dan alat statistik, X15
(r=.425).
Sebagai rumusannya penemuan yang dihasilkan menunjukkan
satu corak perkaitan dwi-variat yang konsisten di antara kebanyakan
pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pcmbolehubah proses kumpulan dan sumber bahan dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahli
kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan. Memang konsistenan itu
boleh didapati dalam seluruh sampel, sampel sampingan QCC, dan
sampel sampingan Bukan QCC.
82
Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap Positif Ahli-Ahli
Kumpulan Hasil Daripada Pengalaman Kumpulan (Y3)
Jadual 3 menunjukkan kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli
kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3J memperolehi
korelasi-korelasi berertian yang sama dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahli
kumpulan b'ekerjasama secara berpasukan (Y 2 ). Di samping itu
kejayaan perubahan sikap positif hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan mempunyai perkaitan berertian dengan saiz purata kumpulan.
Korelasi-korelasi yang baik bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positif
ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan termasuk
saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=—.187); pembahagian jam mesyuarat,
X17 (r=-.178); dan sistem ganjaran, X20 (r=.214). Manakala korelasikorelasi terbaik merangkumi proses intra kumpulan, X t (r=.492);
perbincangan strategi, X 2 (r=.264); pertimbangan input individu, X3
(r=,390); pengurusan sempadan, X 4 (r=.435); sumber bahan, X 5
(r=.312); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (r=.44l); kesepaduan, X 9
(r=.537); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.310); komunikasi, X n (r=.426); teknik
keputusan berkumpulan, X 14 (r=.227); alat statistik, X15 (r=.325); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=.23l); latihan, X18 (r=.385); sistem maklumat,
X19 (r=.516); dan sokongan pengurusan, X21 (r=.463).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan, terdapat kejayaan perubahan sikap
positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan
dalam sampel sampingan QCC (Jadual 4) memperolehi korelasi-kore-
lasi berertian yang lebih kurang sama dalam seluruh sampel. Walau
bagaimanapun pembolehubah yang sangat penting iaitu pembahagian
tugas yang didapati dalam seluruh sampel tidak menjadi penting
dalam sampel sampingan QCC.
Korelasi-korelasi yang baik bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positif
ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sampel sampingan QCC meliputi perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.205); saiz
purata kumpulan, X 12 (r=-.230); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14
(r=.253); dan pembahagian jam mesyuarat, X17 (r=-.218). Manakala
korelasi-korelasi terbaik merangkumi proses intra kumpulan, X^
(r=,498); pertimbangan input individu, X3 (r=.409); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.488); sumber bahan, X 5 (r=.360); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (r=.477); kesepaduan, Xg (r=.504); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.406);
komunikasi, X n (r=.499); alat statistik, X15 (r=.37l); latihan, X18
(r=.490); sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.504); sistem ganjaran, X 2 o (r=.346);
dan sokongan pengurusan, X21 (r=.458).
Seterusnya sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5) menunjukkan kekurangan korelasi berertian bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap
83
positif ahli-ahli kumpulan berbanding dengan sampel sampingan
QCC.
Kecuali pembolehubah pembahagian tugas, segala pembolehubah yang penting bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli
kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sampel
sampingan Bukan QCC boleh didapati juga dalam sampel sampingan
QCC. Korelasi yang baik untuk kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahliahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sampel
sampingan Bukan QCC meliputi pertimbangan input individu, X3
(r=.402); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.326); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (r=.325); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.391); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=.341); dan latihan, X18 (r=.388). Manakala korelasi terbaik termasuk proses intra kumpulan, X a (r=.455); perbincangan strategi, X 2 (r=.418); kesepaduan, X 9 (r=.644); alat statistik, X15
(r=.505); sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.524); dan sokongan pengurusan,
X21 (r=.441).
Secara kesimpulan analisis dwi-variat secara keseluruhan mem-
perolehi had-had yang menyebabkan kesukaran dalam menjawab
soalan-soalan penyelidikan yang dibincangkan awal dalam rencana
pertama. Analisis itu tidak mengkaji tentang kemungkinan perkaitanperkaitan kepalsuan (spuriousness) yang diakibatkan oleh kesan pembolehubah yang mengelirukan (confounding variable) terhadap korelasi dwi-variat. Oleh itu analisis variat berganda akan diperkenalkan
untuk mengatasi had-had tersebut.
PENEMUAN VARIAT BERGANDA
Tujuan asas untuk membuat penilaian awal penyuaian terbaik
(goodness of fit)itu ialah untuk mengkaji pelanggaran-pelanggaran
kasar terhadap model seperti "outliers", heteroscedasticiti, lengkung
linear (curvilinearity), dan ketinggalan masa dan susunan (omission of
time and order) (Cohen & Cohen, 1983 ; 127-130). Program komputer
SAS seperti analisis reja piawai (standardized residual analysis) digunakan untuk mengenalpasti masalah-masalah yang tersebut khasnya
masalah "outliers". Oleh kerana reja piawai mempunyai purata
kosong dan unit sisihan piawai, model itu dianggap betul atau diterima apabila reja jatuh di antara ± 2 sisihan piawai (dirujuk daripada
Aminudin, 1981: 118). Tambahan pula untuk menentukan kemungkinan kolinearan berganda [multicollinearity) di antara pembolehubahpembolehubah bebas, teknik "Variance Inflation Factor" dalam program komputer SAS digunakan.
Seterusnya model ini akan diuji dengan mengawal kesan perbezaan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA). Tujuan untuk mengawal kesan
QCC dan Bukan QCC ialah untuk menspesifikasikan dengan jelasnya
84
perhubungan fungsional yang terlibat. Kajian-kajian lalu kurang
mengkaji tentang kumpulan dalam organisasi. Kecuali kajian
Gladstein (1984) yang berasaskan kumpulan-kumpulan jualan dalam
organisasi, kebanyakan kajian lalu merupakan penyelidikan makmal.
Maka kawalan untuk jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dalam kajian ini
boleh memperbaiki teori keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja
dengan memmjukkan perbezaan yang disebabkan oleh faktor tersebut.
Ini akan menambahkan pengetahuan kita dalam bidang keberkesanan
perlakuan kumpulan kerja di organisasi dalam konteks Semenanjung
Malaysia.
Penilaian Awal Tentang Penyuaian
Keputusan tentang model penyuaian terbaik untuk seluruh sampel yang berdasarkan analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah
(Stepwise Regression) dilaporkan di Jadual 6. Analisis reja menunjukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergantung, terdapat titik-titik "outliers" di mana reja-reja melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Tetapi kes-kes
"outliers" itu bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y 2 , dan Y3 adalah
kurang daripada dua peratus1 jumlah sampel. Oleh itu tidaklah perlu
untuk kita menghapuskan kes-kes itu dalam penganalisaan model
muktamad bagi pembolehubah bergantung yang tersebut. Manakala
kes-kes "outliers" bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y t ialah 2.3
peratus jumlah sampel. Oleh kerana kes-kes itu dalam lingkungan
lebih kurang 2 peratus jumlah sampel, maka tindakan tidak diambil
untuk menghapuskan "outliers" itu.
Berdasarkan analisis petak reja (residual plots), terdapat tiada
masalah yang nyata berkenaan dengan lengkung linear, heteroscedasticiti, dan ketinggalan masa dan susunan bagi seluruh sampel.
Manakala ujian kolinearan berganda juga menunjukkan tiada interaksi
berertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian bagi
seluruh sampel,
Jadual 7 dan 8 menunjukkan keputusan model keberkesanan perlakuan k u m p u l a n kerja u n t u k sampel QCC dan Bukan QCC
berdasarkan analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah apabila
kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dikawal dalam model am. Analisis
reja untuk model keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja untuk sam-
pel QCC (Jadual 7) menunjukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergantung, terdapat juga "outliers" yang melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Keskes "outliers" itu bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y1( Y 2 , dan Y3
ialah 1.1 peratus sampel QCC. Maka kes-kes "outliers" itu tidak perlu
dihapuskan.
1 Menurut Cohen & Cohen (1981 : 128), kes-kes "outliers" yang diantara satu dan dua
peratus jumlah sampel tidak perlu dihapuskan
85
JADUAL 6
ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANAN
PERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA
Pembolehubah
Bergantung
c1
Pembolehubah
Peramal Berertian
R
Kuasa Dua
(Beta)
Ya
CADANG
X 21 SOKONG
X, 2 SAIZ
.077
.126
.263
-.222
Y2
PASUKAN
Xl INTRA
X i a LATIH
X 9 SEPADU
.265
.337
.371
.304
.269
.219
Y3
SIKAP
X9
Xiq
X4'
X8
XT
.288
.368
.407
.439
.186
.178
.203
.194
.205
SEPADU
MAKLUM
SEMPADAN
KEBOLEH
INTRA
.467
Ip < 0.05
JADUAL 7
ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANAN
PERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA : SAMPEL QCC
Pembolehubah
Bergantung
Y!
CADANG
Pembolehubah
Peramal Berertian
Kuasa Dua
O1
(Beta)
X 21 SOKONG
X 12 SAIZ
.097
.168
-.267
.348
.357
-.191
R
Y2
PASUKAN
X18 LATIH
X21 SOKONG
X 17 PEfABAT
.282
.377
.413
Y3
SIKAP
X 19
XB
X,
X4
.254
MAKLUM
KEBOLEH
INTRA
SEMPADAN
Ip < 0.05
86
.368
.444
.506
.296
,178
.272
.304
.278
JADUAL8
ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANAN
PERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA : SAMPEL BUKAN QCC
Pembolehubah
Pembolehubah
R
Q1
Bergantung
Peramal Berertian
Kuasa Dua
(Beta)
Y,
CADANG
XI
INTRA
.174
Y2
PASUKAN
Xt
X, 4
Xn
X18
INTRA
TEKNIK
KOM
LATIH
.438
Y3
SIKAP
X9 SEPADU
X15 ALAT
.529
.591
.637
.414
.480
.627
.494
.265
-.336
.523
.283
Ip < 0.05
Seterusnya analisis petak reja untuk model keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja bagi sampel QCC memmjukkan tiada masalah
yang nyata berkenaan dengan lengkap linear, heteroscedasticiti, dan
ketinggalan masa dan susunan. Ujian kolinearan berganda juga
menunjukkan tiada interaksi berertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian bagi sampel QCC.
Di samping itu analisis reja untuk model keberkesanan per-
lakuan kumpulan kerja bagi sampel Bukan QCC (Jadual 8) menun-
jukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergantung terdapat juga "outliers"
yang melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Memandangkan kes-kes "outliers"
bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y 2 , dan Y3 adalah lebih kurang
dua peratus sampel Bukan QCC, maka "outliers" itu tidak perlu diha-
puskan. Tetapi kes-kes "outliers" bagi pembolehubah bergantung
iaitu Y t adalah 5.1 peratus sampel Bukan QCC. Oleh itu tindakan
diambil untuk menghapuskan kes-kes "outliers" itu.
Seterusnya analisis petak reja menunjukkan tiada masalah yang
nyata berkenaan dengan Icngkung linear, heteroscedasciti serta ketinggalan masa dan susunan untuk sampel Bukan QCC. Ujian kolinearan
berganda juga menunjukkan tiada interaksi berertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian bagi sampel Bukan QCC.
87
.417
Keputusan Mulct am ad Tentang Model Am
Keberkesanan Perlakuan Kumpulan Kerja
Dalam analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah, pemboleh-
ubah bergantung meliputi peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh
pengurusan (¥5), kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara
pasukan (Y2), dan kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3). Manakala pembolehubah antejadian disifatkan sebagai pembolehubah peramal (predictor
variables). Hanya pembolehubah antejadian yang mempunyai perkaitan berertian dengan pembolehubah bergantung di dalam analisis
dwi-variat diambilkira dalam analisis rosot kembali langkah demi
langkah itu. Cara itu membolehkan kita mewujudkan satu persamaan
ramalan (prediction equation) untuk setiap pembolehubah bergantung
dengan memilih satu pembolehubah antejadian pads satu masa,
bermula dengan memilih pembolehubah antejadian yang merupakan
peramal terbaik, Seterusnya lain pembolehubah antejadian ditambahkan secara langkah demi langkah sehingga terdapat tiada pembolehubah yang memperolehi sumbangan berertian dalam persamaan
ramalan. Penambahan setiap pembolehubah antejadian dalam mod
langkah demi langkah itu berasaskan nilai "F" minima 0.05. Terlebih
dahulu analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah dijalankan atas
model am keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja untuk seluruh
sampel. Seterusnya analisis itu dijalankan dengan mengawal kesan
jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) iaitu QCC dan Bukan QCC.
Peratusan Cadangan Projek Diterima oleh Pengurusan (YJ
Merujuk kepada Jadual 6, saiz varians bagi Yj (peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model am ialah 13 peratus (R2 = .126).
Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk sokongan pengurusan, X 2 i,
(Beta = ,263); dan saiz purata kumpulan, X 12 (Beta = -.222). Ini
menunjukkan kumpulan SGA yang meningkat peratusan cadangan
projek diterima oleh pengurusan: diberi sokongan pengurusan; dan
mirip kepada mempunyai saiz purata kumpulan yang kecil.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jenis
kumpulan kerja (SGA) dikawal dalam model am, saiz varians bagi Yj
(peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapat
dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model QCC ialah
17 peratus (R2 = .168) (Jadual 7). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk sokongan pengurusan, X 21 (Beta = .296) dan saiz purata kumpulan, X 12 (Beta = -.267). Ini menunjukkan kumpulan QCC yang
meningkat peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan:
diberi sokongan pengurusan; dan mirip kepada mempunyai saiz purata kumpulan yang kecil. Walau bagaimanapun sokongan pengurusan
88
dan saiz purata kumpulan dalam model QCC mempunyai kesan-kesan
yang lebih besar berbanding dengan kesan kedua-kedua pemboleh-
ubah itu dalam model am. Contoh-contoh: sokongan pengurusan, X21
(Beta = .296 untuk model QCC Iwn Beta = .263 untuk model am); dan
saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (Beta = -.267 untuk model QCC Iwn Beta
=-.222 untuk model am).
Manakala Jadual 8 menunjukkan saiz varians bagi Y t (peratusan
cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapat dijelaskan
oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model Bukan QCC ialah 17
peratus (R2 = .174). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk proses
intra kumpulan, Xj (Beta=.417). Ini bererti bahawa kumpulan Bukan
QCC yang meningkat peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan berkomunikasi berterus-terang, sokong-menyokong pendapatp e n d a p a t , dan mengurangkan k o n f l i k interpersonal semasa
bermesyuarat.
Secara rumusan model QCC dan Bukan QCC merupakan modelmodel yang berupaya memberi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan model am. Saiz varians bagi peratusan cadangan projek
diterima oleh pengurusan dalam model QCC ialah 17 peratus (R2 =
.168) (Jadual 7) dan 17 peratus (R 2 = .174) (Jadual 8) dalam model
Bukan QCC berbanding dengan saiz varians sebanyak 13 peratus
(R2=.126) (Jadual 6) dalam model am.
Kesanggupan Ahli-Ahli Kumpulan Bekeijasama Secara Pasukan (Y2)
Jadual 6 menunjukkan saiz varians bagi Y2 (kesanggupan ahli-
ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan) yang dapat dijelaskan
oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model am ialah 37 peratus
(R 2 = .371). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk proses intra
kumpulan, X a (Beta = .304); latihan, X18 (Beta = .269); dan kesepaduan, X9 (Beta = .219). Data-data tersebut menunjukkan kumpulan SGA
yang mempunyai ahli-ahli yang sangat sanggup bekerjasama secara
pasukan: mempraktikkan komunikasi berterus-terang, sokongmenyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik interpersonal semasa bermesyuarat; diberi latihan yang mencukupi; dan
berpandukan kepada konsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demi
untuk kepentingan dan kcbaikan kumpulan.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jenis
kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan dalam model am, saiz varians bagi Y 2 (kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara
pasukan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian
bagi model QCC ialah 41 peratus (R 2 = .413) (Jadual 7).
Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk sokongan pengurusan, X 21
(Beta = .357); latihan, X 18 (Beta = .348); dan pembahagian jam
89
mesyuarat, X 17 (Beta = —.191). Ini bermaksud kumpulan QCC yang
mempunyai ahli-ahli yang sangat sanggup bekerjasama secara
pasukan: diberi sokongan pengurusan; diberi latihan yang mencukupi; dan kurang menggunakan jam waktu pejabat (regular meeting)
berbanding dengan jam waktu sendiri (ad hoc meeting) dalam mengendalikan mesyuarat.
Manakala Jadual 8 memmjukkan saiz varians bagi Y 2 (kcsanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan) yang dapat
dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model Bukan QCC
ialah 64 peratus (R2 = .637). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat merangkumi proses intra k u m p u l a n , X^ (Beta = .627); teknik keputusan
berkumpulan, X14 (Beta = .494); latihan, X 18 (Beta = -.336); dan
komunikasi, X a i (Beta = .265). Data-data tersebut menunjukkan
kumpulan QCC yang mempunyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang sangat
sanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang,
sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik
interpersonal semasa bermesyuarat; menggunakan teknik-teknik membuat keputusan berkumpulan; kurang memerlukan latihan dalam
menyelesaikan projek; dan berkomunikasi secara aktif semasa
bermesyuarat.
Apabila kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan
dalam model am, terdapat pembolehubah latihan kekal mempengaruhi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan
dalam model QCC dan Bukan QCC. Walau bagaimanapun kesan pembolehubah latihan mempunyai tahap kesan yang berlainan dalam
model am, model QCC, dan model Bukan QCC. Contoh: latihan, X18
(Beta = -.336 untuk model Bukan QCC Iwn Beta = .348 untuk model
QCC Iwn Beta = .269 untuk model am). Justeru itu arahan kesan pombolehubah latihan ke atas kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bckcr-
jasama secara pasukan dalam model Bukan QCC merupakan satu
kesan yang negatif. Di samping itu pembolehubah proses intra
kumpulan kekal mempengaruhi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara p a s u k a n dalam model B u k a n QCC sahaja.
Pembolehubah proses intra kumpulan mempunyai kesan yang lebih
besar dalam model Bukan QCC berbanding dengan kesannya dalam
model am. Contoh: proses intra kumpulan, X-[ (Beta = .627 untuk
model Bukan QCC Iwn Beta = .304 untuk model am).
Ringkasanya model Bukan QCC merupakan model yang memporolehi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan model QCC dan
model am (lihat Jadual 6, 7, dan 8). Saiz varians untuk kesanggupan
ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan dalam model Bukan
QCC ialah 64 peratus (R 2 =.637) berbanding dengan 41 peratus
(R2=.413) dalam model QCC dan 37 peratus (R 2 = .371) dalam model
am.
90
Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap Positif Ahli-Ahli
Kumpulan Basil Da rip a da Pengalaman Kumpulan (Y3)
Merujuk kepada Jadual 6, saiz varians bagi Y3 (kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan basil daripada pengalaman
kumpulan) yang dapat dijclaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian
bagi model am ialah 47 peratus (R2 = .467). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat meliputi proses intra kumpulan, X a (Beta = .205); pengurusan
sempadan, X4 (Beta = .203); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (Beta =
.194); kesepaduan, X9 (Beta = .186); dan sistem maklumat, X19 (Beta =
.178). Ini menunjukkan kumpulan SGA yang mencapai kejayaan
perubahan sikap positif di kalangan ahli-ahli hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang, sokong-menyokong
pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik interpersonal semasa
bermesyuarat; berhubung dengan kumpulan-kumpulan atau individuindividu di dalam dan luar syarikat untuk menjayakan projek; mempunyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang pelbagai bakat; berpandukan kepada
konsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demi untuk kepentingan dan
kebaikan kumpulan; dan mempunyai sistem maklumat yang berkesan
di mana mereka diberi maklumat-maklumat penting oleh ketua
jabatan dalam mengendalikan projek.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jenis
kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan dalam model am, saiz varians bagi Y 3 (kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan
hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh
pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model QCC ialah 51 peratus (R2 =
.506) (Jadual 7). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk proses intra
kumpulan, X t (Beta = .304); pengurusan sempadan, X4 = (Beta = .278);
kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (Beta = .272); dan sistem maklumat,
X19 (Beta = .178). Data-data itu menunjukkan kumpulan QCC yang
mencapai kejayaan perubahan sikap positif di kalangan ahli-ahli hasil
daripada pengalaman kumpulan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang,
sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik
interpersonal semasa bermesyuarat; berhubung dengan kumpulankumpulan atau individu-individu di dalam dan luar syarikat untuk
menjayakan projek; mempunyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang pelbagai
bakat; dan memperolehi sistem maklumat yang berkesan di r, ana
mereka diberi maklumat-maklumat penting oleh ketua jabatan dalam
mengendalikan projek.
Manakala Jadual 8 menunjukkan s"aiz varians bagi Y3 (kejayaan
perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman k u m p u l a n ) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas
berertian bagi model Bukan QCC ialah 48 peratus (R 2 = .480).
Pembolehubah bebas terlibat merangkumi kesepaduan, X 9 (Beta =
.523); dan alat statistik, X 15 (Beta = .283). Ini bermaksud kumpulan
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Bukan QCC yang mencapai kcjayaan perubahan sikap positif di kalangan ahli-ahli hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan: berpandukan
kepada konsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demi untuk kepentingan dan kebaikan kumpulan; dan menggunakan alat-alat statistik
dalam menyelesaikan projek,
Rumusannya apabila kesan jenis k u m p u l a n kerja (SGA)
dijadikan konstan dalam model am, terdapat empat pembolehubah
berertian untuk kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan
hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam model QCC. Semua
pembolehubah itu boleh juga didapati dalam model am di mana pembolehubah sistem maklumat mempunyai kesan yang sama dan pembo-
lehubah-pembolehubah lain mempunyai kesan-kesan yang lebih besar
dalam model QCC berbanding dengan kesan-kesan pembolehubahpembolehubah dalam model am.
Di samping itu terdapat dua pembolehubah yang penting untuk
kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada
pengalaman kumpulan dalam model Bukan QCC. Antaranya hanya
pembolehubah kesepaduan juga didapati dalam model am. Tetapi
pembolehubah kesepaduan mempunyai kesan yang lebih besar dalam
model Bukan QCC berbanding dengan model am.
Ringkasannya model QCC dan Bukan QCC merupakan modelmodel yang berupaya memberi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berbanding
dengan model am. Saiz varians bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positif
ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam
model QCC ialah 51 peratus (R 2 =.506) [Jadual 7) dan 48 peratus
(R2=.480) (Jadual 8) dalam model Bukan QCC berbanding dengan saiz
varians sebanyak 47 peratus (R2=.467) (Jadual 6) dalam model am.
RINGKASAN DAN KESIMPULAN
Artikel ini telah membincang pcnemuan-penemuan secara saling
berkaitan dari segi ketiga-tiga analisis univariat, dwi-variat, dan variat
berganda. Analisis univariat itu tertumpu kepada taburan kekerapan
dan. perbezaan berertian tentang jenis kumpulan ker.ja (SGA) dari
sudut peratusan dacangan projek yang diterima oleh pengurusan,
kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan, dan
kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada
pengalaman kumpulan. Seterusnya analisis dwi-variat mengkaji
perkaitan berertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian
dan pembolehubah bergantung di kalangan seluruh sarnpel. Di samping itu jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) juga dikawalkan dalam analisis
dwi-variat itu. Akhirnya analisis variat berganda digunakan untuk
menentukan sccara perbandingan pembolehubah peramal berertian
terhadap keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja.
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BIBLIOGRAFI
Aminudin Sulaiman (1981), A Multi-variate Model of Rural Mobility in
Peninsular Malaysia. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Syracuse
University, Ann Arbor: University Microfilm International.
Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied Multiple Regressiori'/Correlation
Analysis for the Behavioural Science, 2nd edn. New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates Inc.
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