HOW TO GET A PH.D.

Transcription

HOW TO GET A PH.D.

HOW TO GET A PH.D.
Aarne Mämmelä 14.1.2004
VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND
HOW TO GET A PH.D.
Dr. AARNE MÄMMELÄ
Research Professor (VTT), Docent (HUT)
VTT ELECTRONICS
Kaitoväylä 1, P.O. Box 1100, FIN-90571 Oulu, Finland
Email: aarne.mammela@vtt.fi, http://www.vtt.fi/ele
Tel. 08-5512111, 08-5512482 (direct), 040-5762963 (GSM)
Fax 08-5512320
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1
OUTLINE
Introduction
I Research methods
II Literature reviews
II Scientific publication
Bibliography
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INTRODUCTION
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/
analysis
System
(prototype)
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
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2
HOW TO GET A PH.D. (2003-2004) at the
University of Oulu
1. Aarne Mämmelä, Research Methods: From Problem and
Hypothesis to Experiments
2. Tapio Seppänen, Characteristics of a Researcher
3. Aarne Mämmelä, Literature Reviews: Existing Knowledge from
Data Bases
4. Pekka Heinonen, Industrial Experiences on Ph.D. Students
5. Erkki Oja, Experiences of a Senior Researcher
6. Olli Silven, Peer Review Process: the Task of a Referee
7. Jani Mäntyjärvi, Experiences about Preparing a Doctoral
Thesis
8. Aarne Mämmelä, Final Result: a Scientific Publication
9. Kari Leppälä, Theory of Science for Engineers
http://www.infotech.oulu.fi/GraduateSchool/ICourses/to_phd_
2003.html
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I RESEARCH METHODS
• Definitions
• Research process
• problem and hypotheses
• research proposal
• creativity
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3
JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION: COLUMBUS
• Problem: a new way to India, competing hypotheses: over the
Atlantic (Spain), around Africa (Portugal), incomplete
”roadmap” and vision, difficulties with funding
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KNOWLEDGE AND LITERATURE
Researchers
Editor
Peer review
Literature (knowledge)
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4
SOME DEFINITIONS
• Research: Careful study or investigation to discover new
knowledge
• basic research (no specific application in mind)
• applied research (ideas into operational form)
• Development: Systematic use of the existing knowledge
• Note. Research and development are closely related. In
research a prototype is often developed.
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LEARNING PROCESS
Students learn
Concrete: "example sentences"
Abstract: "grammar"
Induction
Applications
(examples)
Principles
(theory)
Deduction
Professors teach
CONFLICT!
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HOW DOES A RESEARCHER WORK?
1. Make always notes in a notebook
2. Make plans for the future all the time (outlines,
roadmaps, visions)
3. Discuss, ask questions and argue (criticism)
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CREATIVITY: PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES
No clear rules exist
to find hypotheses.
Confusion
(disorder)
Problem
(question)
Synthesis
Hypotheses
(guesses)
Analysis
Criticism
(experiments)
Experience
(literature,
analogies)
Theory
(model,
order)
Peer review
Popper: Theories are only hypotheses that cannot be proved, they can
only be falsified. Theories are explanations, not only predictions.
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6
CREATIVITY: ORDER AND CHAOS
Order
Chaos
Creativity
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THREE FORMS OF ORDER
STATIC OR TIMELESS ORDER (TAXONOMY)
System
Subsystem 1
Subsystem 2
Subsystem 3
DYNAMIC ORDER (REDUCTIONISM)
Subsystem 1
Note. Causal
relationships.
Subsystem 2
GENERATIVE ORDER (HOLISM)
Subsystem 2
Subsystem 1
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Subsystem 3
Subsystem 3
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7
CONCEPT ANALYSIS
Object
Term
Concept
“a closed plane figure having
three angles and three sides”
(definition, properties)
triangle
(word)
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ANALOGIES IMPROVE CREATIVITY
LENGTH
FURNITURE (WEIGHT)
HEIGHT
REMOVAL VAN
TIME
BIT (ENERGY)
BANDWIDTH
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TIME SLOT
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8
COMMUNICATIONS IMPROVE CREATIVITY
Other researchers
Encouragement, criticism
YOURSELF
Landmark
Advisor
Paper
Oral communications
Written communications
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SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE IMPROVES CREATIVITY
Synthesis
Specifications
Comparisons
Measurement
results
Analysis
System
Synthesis
Parts
Analysis
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9
EXAMPLE: HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telegraph
Telephone
Wireless telegraph
Broadcast
Wireless voice
1860
1880
1900
Computers
1920
Computer networks
1940
Internet
WLAN
Voiceband modems
Mobile radio
Fixed links
Police radio
Mobile cellular
Satellite comms
Radar
Satellite navigation
Optical comms
1940
1960
1980
2000
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ROADMAP AND VISION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Ad hoc networks
WPAN
Digital broadcast
Mobile DVB
Multicast/unicast
Wireless Internet
Mobile universal
Mobile Internet
Satellite positioning
FWA
Supermacrocells
Mobile 3D voice
Megacells
Multi-sense interaction True virtual reality
Haptic interaction
3D telepresence
Mobile wide-screen
2000
2010
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2020
2030
2040
20
10
Brainstorming
•
•
•
•
•
A new problem is described and everyone is allowed to give ideas
No-one is allowed to criticize the ideas during brainstorming
Integrity and high ethical standards
Most successful if participants are experts in different fields
Best solution from any field that we can imagine
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BIG ISSUES GUIDING OUR WORK
Systems
engineering
History &
roadmaps
Fundamental
limits
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System models,
relationships,
complexity analysis
Reviews of literature
Physical limits,
optimal systems,
performance analysis
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RESEARCH IDEAS
To find research ideas, use your own intuition/expertise
and..
• know the literature, especially original landmark
papers (write brief well-organized summaries)
• do experiments early in your studies, use your
colleagues’ experience
• discuss with colleagues and students and teach them
(seminars)
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RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• Abstract
• Introduction
• problem and hypothesis
• Review of the literature
• good organization, concept analysis, historical notes
• Materials and methods
• system requirements, system specifications
• plan for operation, experimental procedures
• analytical and simulation tools
• Results
• results (for example experimental data) to be expected
• publication and other dissemination of research results
• Discussion and conclusions
• originality, open questions, limitations
• validation, significance, applications
• Time frame, budget
• intermediate objectives
• Bibliography
• list of references
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TIMING OF DOCTORAL THESIS (4 years)
1. Proposal
2. Courses
3. Literature
4. Experiments
5. Reports
6. Papers
7. Thesis
8. Defence
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BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS
• Analysis (= deduction)
1. Axiomatic system, for example, Newtonian mechanics
2. Theory based on models, for example Bohr’s atom model, ideal
gas model, Crick and Watson’s model for DNA molecule
• Observations and experiments (= experience)
• the problem is divided into smaller problems (reduction), and
observations and experiments are made to gain experience
• Hypothetico-deductive method
• analysis and experience are combined
• a problem and competing hypotheses are defined, some
observable results are derived from hypotheses and compared
with experiments
• most common method in science and engineering
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EXPERIMENTS (1)
Analysis
Simulation
Prototype
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EXPERIMENTS (2)
• Mathematical analysis (presentation of formal theory)
• creates best scientific papers
• simple, mathematically tractable problem, must be often
linear (numerical results needed)
• Simulations (empirical research)
• complicated systems can be developed rapidly, but slow
to simulate
• basic idea: lower level blocks are simplified and idealized
(hierarchy)
• key problem: realistic models for the environment (e.g.
channel)
• Prototyping (empirical research)
• more convincing than “pure” simulations, not so flexible,
slow and expensive to develop complicated systems
• environment (channel) simulators still needed
(approximations!), field tests expensive, repeatability?
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ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Simple
pendulum
System (specific)
- prototype
Analysis
(reverse engineering)
Wire
Synthesis
(engineering)
Parts (general)
- materials
Mass point
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REASONING: INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION
Experimental
l
T
Examples (specific)
- statistics
Induction
T
x
x x
x x
Theoretical
l
Deduction
Theory/model (general)
- knowledge (explanation)
Assumptions:
- small amplitude
- no friction
Definitions:
g is gravitational
acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Theory:
T = 2π l / g
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15
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD
T
l
Pendulum
x
T
x x
x x
l
Experiments
System
Examples
Induction
Synthesis
Analysis
Deduction
Relationships
Parts
Theory
T = 2π l / g
Wire
Mass point
Analysis
Synthesis
Special
General
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A MORE GENERAL VIEW
Requirements,
specifications
"PRACTICE"
Experimental
results
Comparisons
Examples
Induction
(reduction)
Analysis
(experiments)
Synthesis
Prototype
Analysis
(reduction)
Deduction
Model
Analysis
Synthesis
Parts
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"THEORY"
Synthesis
Parts
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II LITERATURE REVIEWS
•
•
•
•
Publications
Publishers
Data bases
Finding literature
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Introduction
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/
analysis
System
(prototype)
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
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Introduction (2)
• Motivation for literature searches:
• full grasp of subject (large picture)
• show originality of own work
• ideas for new research
• list of references (bibliography)
• Note. Every day almost 1000 papers in electrical engineering
are published, thus you must carefully select what you read.
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Motivation to know the history
Vision 1
Prediction with little
historical knowledge
Vision 2
Prediction with strong
historical knowledge
Past
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Present
Time
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18
Publications
Journal
papers
Conference
papers
Literature reviews
Own papers
Textbooks,
reviews
Reports
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Example original paper
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Example review paper
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Example magazine paper
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Publishers
Scientific
societies
Commercial
publishers
1. Non-profit scientific societies (“educate”)
• publish best journal and conference papers and some good
books
• examples: ACM (www.acm.org), APS (www.aps.org), IEEE
(www.ieee.org), SPIE (www.spie.org)
2. Commercial publishers (“make money”)
• publish good books
• examples: McGraw-Hill (www.mhhe.com), Prentice-Hall
(vig.prenhall.com), John Wiley & Sons (www.wiley.com)
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Data bases (1)
1. Bibliographies
• usually in textbooks, review and tutorial papers and IEEE Press
books, bibliographical notes in original papers (see the introduction of
the paper)
• use keywords “bibliographies” and “special issues” (for cumulative
indices) in abstracts journals
2. Digital libraries (whole papers included as .pdf files)
• IEEE Xplore from 1950 (for some journals from 1988)
3. Abstracts data bases
• INSPEC from 1969, 330000 new abstracts/year
4. Citation data bases
• Science Citation Index (SCI) from 1974, see ISI Web of Science
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Data bases (2)
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Use of a citation index
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
xx
x
xxxx
x xxxx
time
How to find this?
CITATION INDICES
x landmark paper
x
other paper
References (citations)
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Hints when looking for information
• try to understand the historical evolution by using bibliographical
notes (read and compare the lists of references)
• history will improve your understanding of the state-of-the-art
• historical evolution is always somewhat scattered (gaps
between papers, independent discoveries, etc.)
• read only high-quality landmark papers (learn to know good
groups)
• it is better to organize your material according to the relationships
of the topics (for example in a taxonomy: separate groups based on
some factor common to each, hierarchical structure, special cases)
• include historical notes as additional information
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Search according to the publication category (1)
1) Books
• data bases of the libraries of universities and research
institutes (largest libraries include Congress Library,
www.loc.gov, and British Library, www.bl.uk)
• Internet bookshops such as Amazon (www.amazon.com),
Barnes & Noble (www.bn.com) and Abebooks
(www.abebooks.com)
• see the www addresses of the most important book
publishers such as McGraw-Hill (www.mhhe.com), PrenticeHall (vig.prenhall.com), and Wiley (www.wiley.com)
• book reviews in many magazines
• use key words “books” or “book reviews” in abstracts journals
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Search according to the publication category (2)
2) Review and tutorial papers
• Proceedings of the IEEE (best reviews)
• IEEE Magazines (papers of varying quality)
• special issues in other journals
• use keywords “reviews”, “history” and “special issues” in
abstracts journals
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Search according to the publication
category (3)
3) Original landmark papers
• old landmark papers collected in bibliographies and IEEE Press
books (www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/press/)
• data bases such as IEEE Xplore, INSPEC or SCI
• for very old papers try abstracts journals (INSPEC since 1898,
Engineering Index (EI) since 1884) and special data bases
(MathSciNet since 1940)
• author and subject indices in the last issue of the year
• newest conference proceedings of best conferences (long
publication delays in journals)
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Search according to the publication
category (4)
4) Standards
• good source for state-of-the art system knowledge
• sold by standardization organizations, for example
• ANSI, American National Standards Institute, www.ansi.org
• IEC, International Electrotechnical Commission, www.iec.org
• IEEE, www.ieee.org
• ISO, International Standards Organization, www.iso.ch
• ITU, International Telecommunication Union, www.itu.int
• ETSI, European Telecommunication Standards Institute,
www.etsi.org
• must be an active member in standardization groups to have the
newest knowledge
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III SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION
•
•
•
•
Introduction
IMRAD structure of a paper
Organization of a paper
Conclusions
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Introduction (1)
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/
analysis
System
(prototype)
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
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Introduction (2)
Journal
papers
Conference
papers
Literature reviews
Own papers
Textbooks,
reviews
Reports
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Introduction (3)
Motivation for writing scientific papers:
• distribution of knowledge
• improves the quality of research
• maturation as a researcher (our “Olympic Games”)
• improve organization, use clear definitions, accurate
terminology
• measure of scientific merit for the researcher and for the
employer
• peer review process
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IEEE writing instructions
• Information for IEEE Transactions, Journals and Letters Authors,
www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/information.htm
(see “Information for Authors” and the templates)
• see also the writing instructions of the journal you are interested in,
www.ieee.org/organizations/tab/society.html
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Example original paper
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IMRAD structure of a paper
Introduction
• What question or problem was studied?
• Write the whole literature review here, do not continue it
elsewhere
Methods
• How was the problem studied?
• Describe the whole system model here (parameters
presented with symbols), do not continue the system
model description elsewhere
Results
• What were the findings?
• These must be your own results. Plagiarism (also selfplagiarism) strictly forbidden.
Discussion
• What do these findings mean?
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Structure of an IEEE paper
Abstract
1. What the author has done.
2. How it was done (if it is important).
3. Principal results (numerically, when possible).
4. Significance of the results.
I. Introduction
1. Nature of the problem.
2. Background of previous work.
3. Purpose and significance of the paper.
4. Method by which the problem is approached.
5. Organization of the paper.
II. Materials and methods
III. Results
IV. Conclusions
1. What is shown by this work and its significance.
2. Limitations and advantages.
3. Applications of the results.
4. Recommendations for further work.
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Structure of an IEEE paper (2)
READERSHIP
(PAST)
Introduction
(motivation,
orientation)
Scope
Methods and
Results
Conclusions
FUTURE
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Organization of the text (1)
• an easy holistic approach to start: write a draft and try to improve
it
• a more difficult serial approach: write a very detailed outline of the
table of contents and then finish the sentences
• treat each topic in one place only, minimize cross-references
to other parts
• study the material and use key words for outlining (a mind
map may also be useful)
• try to make the organization clear, unified and well balanced,
no gaps between sections, write a stand-alone document
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Organization of the text (2)
• define your system model, no silent assumptions allowed, everything
must be explicit
• use of terms, symbols and abbreviations must be unified during
outlining, do not use different synonymous terms, define all symbols,
abbreviations and new terms
• continue outlining until all the topics are covered and well organized
• make a list of figures and tables, use them sparingly
• based on the outline, write a table of contents (make a clear copy!)
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Conclusions
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/
analysis
System
(prototype)
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
General hints
• use bibliographies to improve your
efficiency in literature reviews (start from
books and reviews, see the introduction of
original papers), learn the terminology,
write a classification and see historical
trends
• define a problem and hypotheses (use
reduction: start from very simple models
and generalize, make experiments early in
your project)
• start to outline the paper right from the
beginning (there will never be “more time”),
emphasize good organization
• reserve time for all phases in your project
plan
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Writing, general
• M. Davis, Scientific Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, 1997, 296 pp.
(This is our course book at the University of Oulu.)
• Matt Young, The Technical Writer’s Handbook: Writing with Style and Clarity,
2nd ed. Mill Valley, CA: University Science, 2002 (This style manual is
recommended by IEEE, includes alphabetical entries.)
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
• Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2000,
1744 pp. (ISBN 0028631196). (A dictionary of American English, includes
163000 entries, recommended by Prentice-Hall. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, recommended by Wiley, includes 225000 definitions and is
available at www.m-w.com. A more comprehensive dictionary, recommended
also by Wiley is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged,
which includes 472000 entries.)
• Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press, 2002 (The largest
one-volume encyclopedia in English, includes 51000 entries, available at
www.bartleby.com/65/. The largest encyclopedia in the world is Encyclopedia
Britannica, including 65000 entries.)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grammars of the English language
• Rodney D. Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2002, 1860 pp. (ISBN
0521431468.) (This is the first comprehensive descriptive grammar of English
to appear for over fifteen years, a period which has seen immense
developments in linguistic theory at all levels. This book is destined to
supplant “A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language” as the
standard reference.)
• Randolph Quirk, Jan Svartvik (Contributor), Geoffry Leech (Contributor), and
Sidney Greenbaum, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, 7th
ed. Addison-Wesley Pub Co, 1989, 1779 pp. (ISBN 0582517346.) (This book is
an expanded and revised version of a series of grammars first published in
1972. Since its publication, this book has been the standard reference work
used by professional grammarians.)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Research methods, philosophy of science
• Ilkka Niiniluoto, Johdatus tieteenteoriaan: käsitteen- ja teorianmuodostus. 3rd
ed. Otava, 2002, 314 pp. (This is an introduction to the philosophy of science,
including formation of concepts and theories. The book includes a review of
the history and bibliographical notes. Ilkka Niiniluoto, Tieteellinen päättely ja
selittäminen. Otava, 1983, 416 pp. is a continuation of the book, including
scientific reasoning and explanation. The book includes bibliographical notes.
No English translation available.)
• Ernest Nagel, Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific
Explanation, 2nd ed. Hackett Pub Co, 1998, 618 pp. ( “This magisterial work is
worthy of careful study on all topics in the philosophy of science. Its account
of the nature of theories, its development of examples and its identification of
philosophical issues remains unrivaled. Nagel’s discussion of the structure of
theories, of reductionism and or the realism/antirealism issue set the agenda
for the next several decades.” A quotation from Alexander Rosenberg, The
Philosophy of Science: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge, 2000, 208 pp.)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cultural education
• Dietrich Schwanitz, Bildung: Alles was man wissen muss. Eichborn,
Frankfurt, 1999, 540 pp. [Dietrich Schwanitz, Sivistyksen käsikirja: Kaikki
mitä tulee tietää. Ajatus Kirjat, 2003, 613 pp.] (This book summarizes the
essence of the European culture starting from the ancient Greece. Until now
no English translation seems to be available. An earlier rather similar Finnish
book is Uusi Pikkujättiläinen, WSOY, 1985.)
Creativity
• D. Bohm and F. D. Peat, Science, Order and Creativity. Bantam Books, 1987
(Tiede, järjestys ja luovuus. Gaudeamus, 1992). (The authors discuss
fragmentation of research and the communication problems and emphasize
systems engineering and analogies.)
• W. Bennis & P. W. Biederman, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative
Collaboration. Addison Wesley, 1998, 239 pp. (The authors have considered
how great groups such as Disney work. Concrete vision, strong leader, and
talented people are emphasized.)
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HOW TO GET A PH.D.

Transcription

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