Grindstones and related artefacts from Aksum, Ethiopia

Lithics 22 (for 2001), 13-21
GRINDSTONES AND RELATED ARTEFACTS FROM AKSUM, ETHIOPIA
Laurel Phillipson
economy, excavations here recovered 46 grindstones,
INTRODUCTION
1 possible mortar and 26 topstones, including pesRecent intensive archaeological research and excava-
tles, mulIers, redressing implements and related arte-
tions at Axum, in the highlands of northern Ethiopia,
facts. As these artefacts were not fully discussed in
have done much to reveal the far-reaching contacts
the main excavation report, they are listed and de-
and cultural complexities of the literate, urban Ak-
scribed here (Tables 1 and 2).
sumite civilization which flourished from approximately the first to the eighth centuries A.D . [note:
MATERIALS
Aksum is the name of the ancient kingdom and its
capital; Axum is the modem town on the same site.]
The local topography is one of steep, boulder-strewn
Full accounts and bibliographies on Aksumite his-
hills, deeply-cut erosion gorges and broader valleys
tory, economics, environment and archaeological
whose fertility is limited primarily by seasonal rains
research are published in Bard et al. 2000 and
and the availability of water. Within this setting are
D.W.Phillipson 2000.
Alongside their spectacular
exposed complex juxtapositions of sedimentary, plu-
monuments, dressed-stone architecture, sophisticated
tonic, igneous and metamorphic rocks, most of which
coinage, plough agriculture, literature and church
were used by the Aksumites. Chalcedonies, cherts,
ritual, the Aksumites continued to use a variety of
quartz and glassy obsidian -- for which no immedi-
scrapers, backed microliths and other lithic tools.
ately local source has been located -- were used for
The
in
scrapers, microliths, and the blades of composite
L.Phillipson 2000 and 2001 and in D.W.Phillipson
harvesting knives. Syenite was extensively quarried
op. cit., passim.
to produce some of the world's largest carved mono-
lithics
are
illustrated
and
discussed
Particularly rich in its yield of lithic and other
liths and massive, finely dressed building blocks and
artefacts associated with an agricultural economy
architectural members. Sandstone, phonolite, basalt
was an area of predominantly Late Aksumite settle-
and marble were also used in smaller amounts as
ment about 1 km north of the main urban concentra-
building materials, while steatite, marble,
tion of buildings and monuments. This area, Kidane
chalcedony and limestone were fashioned into seals,
Mehret, apparently of prosperous but non-elite set-
lamps, beads, vellum bumishers and other small ob-
tlement, located on the edge of a broad, fertile valley,
jects.
rectangular-roomed
Coarser and harder stones, as listed in the tables,
houses and courtyards with undressed stone and rub-
were used for grindstones, where their particular
ble walls (D.W.Phillipson op. cit. pp 267-379. Along
properties were most serviceable. The predominant
with much other evidence of Aksumite agricultural
material of Aksumite grindstones is sandstone, abun-
consisted
of densely-placed
quartz,
13
Laurel Phillipson
Figure 1: Excavated rectangular, flat
grindstone from Kidane Mehre t, with
intact peripery
Figure 2: Excavated subrectangular,
concave grindstone from Kidane Mehret,
edges broken and attrited by subsequent
use
Figure 3: Excavated grindstone from
Kidane Mehret, transversally broken and
not subsequently reused
14
Laurel Phillipson
WHOLE GRINDSTONES
Plan
Material
Profile
;..
I:'!!
:;
~
~
.....
...
I:'!!
~
'=
~
;..
fine sandstone (6)
medium sandstone
(11)
coarse sandstone
(8)
very coarse sandstone (12)
granite (6)
basalt (2)
marble (1)
Totals (46)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-
-
-
-
17
I
I
~
I:'!!
.....I:'!!
etJ
:::
.....I:'!!e.J
~
.....
6
I
...
:::
~
...I:'!!
e.J
.,.!.
:::
~
~
e.J
I:'!!
'=
-
-
1
-
I
~
...
I:'!!
~~
~
e.J
e.J
-
1
-
1
1
-
-
...
I:'!!
~
e.J
:::
~
:::
~
e.J
.~
.c:
e.J
-
-
20x12x8
33x20x5
42x30x19
43x26x12
25x13x3
25x14x5
26x12x5
31x22x8
36x15x6
43x17x5
17xllx8
32x21x9
38x27x18
25x15x8
28x17x4
30x16x7
31x20x9
48x35x12
55x38x18
24x12x5
12x18x4
58x30x14
15x10x5
2
5
23
-
1
1
1
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
1
-
1
6
I
I
-
2
-
1
-
1
I
I
-
6
-
-
-
1
1
-
I - I
I7 I
3.75
7.5
25.0
13.5
1.5
3.5
3.5
8.0
6.0
6.25
3.75
5.25
32
5.25
3.0
3.75
4.00
20.0
32.5
2.0
1
32
1.0
~,.Q
1
1
1
(kg)
:s So
-
-
(cm)
~C.S
1
1
Weight
~
't::1
-
-
'"
Dimensions
BROKEN
GRINDSTONES
Thickness at
no
break
(cm)
1
1
1
-
2
4 to 7
5
4 to 8
5
2 to 8
6
5 to 20
5
2 to 11
23
Table 1: Excavated grindstones from Kidane Mehret
dantly available close to Adi Tsehafi, another Ak-
ANCIENT AND MODERN GRINDSTONES
sumite site about 5 km northwest of Aksum and even
closer to Kidane Mehret. This sandstone is generally
Although Aksum declined, possibly very rapidly, as
well consolidated and highly silicified, ranging in
an urban centre from about the eighth century, the
texture from a very fine siltstone -- used to produce
site has most probably had some level of continuous
flakes and blades found mainly in undated, probably
occupation to the present time. There has been in
MSA or LSA, surface occurrences -- to a very coarse
any case a direct continuation of many aspects of
sandstone with somewhat rounded inclusions, almost
Aksumite language and culture. Particularly in the
a breccia, similar in appearance to a millstone grit,
rural areas there is a strong economic and material
with all gradations in between. Finer textured grind-
conservatism, with most crops continuing to be
stones are made of granite, basalt and marble. Top-
grown and processed in much the same ways as was
stones used in conjunction with the grindstones were
done 2000 years and more ago.
fashioned of a greater variety of stones, predomi-
powered mills are used in Axum today, much of the
nantly of hard-wearing granite and basalt.
grain and foodstuffs in the town and virtually all in
15
While diesel-
Laurel Phillipson
its hinterland continues to be processed on elongated
of the grindstone from about a hand-span above it,
grindstones worn concave through use and repeated
making a characteristic and frequently-heard sound
dressing (re-roughing of the grinding surface), seem-
in some parts of the town. On occasion, the redress-
ingly identical in materials, shapes and sizes to the
ing of a grindstone will result in breaking it along
Aksumite examples excavated from Kidane Mehret.
some line of weakness, usually near an edge. Broken
Thus, it seems most instructive to consider the
grindstones continue to be used, with the fractured
archaeologically recovered specimens in conjunction
edge gradually becoming worn and merged with
with observations on grindstone types and uses made
other scars indicative of previous accidental damage
while visiting households in 1997.
or deliberate trimming (as in Fig. 2).
In plan shape the lower grindstones may be rec-
While modem grindstones are not discarded
tangular, sub-rectangular, sub-ovate, ovate or long
when broken, but used and reused until they are
ovate and in cross-section they are frequently rela-
completely worn away, a different use pattern seems
tively flat (Fig. 1), pIano-convex, concavo-convex
to have prevailed among the excavated examples,
(Fig. 2) or, if used on both sides, biconcave. Present-
half of which appear to have been deliberately trans-
day users attach no significance to the shapes of
versally broken. Most of the grindstones broken in
grindstones and do not name or distinguish them by
this way were more than 50 mm thick and showed no
their shape or size. They are named according to the
sign of use subsequent to the breakage (Fig. 3). Such
use to which they are put, which is determined in part
deliberate destruction of grindstones is not known as
by the roughness and hardness of the grindstone and
a modem practice and most modem examples of ac-
in part by the use of whatever is most readily avail-
cidental damage occur at the edges and corners of
able. Similarly, the various shapes of topstones [in-
grindstones.
cluded in this term are all the various upper grind-
Each of the several excavated grinding and as-
stones, pestles, mullers, etc. used in conjunction with
sociated topstone shapes has its apparent counterpart
lower grindstones] are distinguished neither by their
in common use in present-day Axum and it may rea-
shapes nor by the back-and-forth, rotary and/or
sonably be assumed that their ancient and modem
pounding motions with which they are employed, but
functions were similar. Tigrinya names of the various
are simply termed wadi [son of] the grindstone with
stones are as supplied by a local informant. In addi-
which they are used. While some lower grindstones
tion to the tabulated material from Kidane Mehret, a
were roughly shaped by dorsal and circumferential
late Aksumite residential site in the centre of Aksum,
trimming, many were not and the plan shape appears
designated the K site, yielded 14 broken and 3 whole
to have been inconsequential. The depth of concav-
grindstones, 1 pounder and 1 topstone of vascular
ity on the upper surface of the lower grindstones and
basalt. Possibly the low rate of recovery of topstones
thickness of the stone depends on the amount of use
relative to grindstones here may have been due to
it has received (see Figs. 1 and 3).
their non-recognition by the excavators.
Smoothness of the utilized surface
Until
propor-
cleaned, these artefacts were not easily distinguished
tionate to the amount of use it has received since its
from the natural stones and building rubble which
most recent dressing. This is done by hammering the
comprised much of the deposits.
grinding face with an approximately fist-sized,
Aksumite rubbish filling a major fourth-century
IS
roughly spherical sharpening stone of harder rock,
which is repeatedly thrown or bounced onto the face
16
Late and post-
Laurel Phillipson
Type
(general shape)
Comments
Material
Dimensions
(cm)
basalt
chert
41.5 long
5.0 diameter
4.9 diameter
POUNDERS
(battered ends)
sandstone
sandstone
6x5x4
9x7x6
0.25
0.5
TOPSTONES
(circular, flat faces
unless specified)
sandstone
sandstone
granite
granite
7x7x2
12xllx6
9x8x5
llxl0x4
0.082
1.0
0.5
0.5
biconvex
pounded circumference
pounded circumference
convex back
13x8x5
14x9x4
14x9x4
17xl0x5
19x1lx6
21xllx5
28x17x4
29x8x5
16xl0x4
20x14x3
1.25
1.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.5
4.25
1.5
1.5
2.0
2 ends pounded
1end pounded
biconvex, 2 ends pounded
TOPSTONES
Ovate to subrectangular,
flat face-convex back
unless specified
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
basalt
basalt
basalt
granite
amphibolite
MULLERS
(subcuboidal with flat
worn faces)
granite
granite
granite
7x7x4
9x6x7
9x6x7
1.25
0.5
1.25
DRESSERS
(battered sphoids)
chalcedony
granite
granite
granite
granite
8x6x5
7x6x6
8x7x5
8x7x6
8x7x6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
PESTLES
(Cylindrical)
Weight
(kg)
in two pieces
fragment
biconvex, worn both faces
biconvex, tapered ends
worn flat both faces, fire cracked
biconvex, worn both faces
subpyramidal, square face
Table 2: Excavated topstones and related artefacts from Kidane Mehret
chambered tomb complex known as the Mausoleum
flour and a second, which may be a piece of a broken
yielded an additional 5 whole and 1 broken grind-
grindstone, used to prepare salt, spices and vegetable
stones, 2 topstones and 2 pounders.
relishes. Used with the medkos for grinding grain is
Large lower grindstones are called medkos;
a flat-faced upper grindstone, wadi medkos, which
complete excavated specimens weigh from about 3
may be subrectangular, ovate or occasionally circular
kg to more than 30 kg and measure up to about 580 x
in plan and has a convex or hump-backed profile.
300 x 140 mm (Figs. 1-3). Most present day tradi-
Excavated examples range from 110 x 100 x 40 mm
tional households will have two such stones, a larger
to 280 x 170 x 40 mm in size and from 0.5 kg to
and newer or finer one used for grinding any grain to
about 4 kg in weight. Most weigh between 1 kg and
17
Laurel Phillipson
Figure 4: Excavated topstones from
Kidane Mehret
Figure 5: Methan and wadi methan used
regularly by a conservative, prosperous
family in Axum,' the tops tone is lying
face- up
Figure 6: Modern broken grindstone and
topstone used to pound limestone to a
jinepowder
18
Laurel Phillipson
2 kg.
For preparing spices and vegetable relish a
basalt and is used without a lower grindstone to rub
smaller rubbing stone of similar shape, also called
in powdered limestone to remove the hair from goat
wadi medkos, may be identified by the evidence of its
hide at an early stage in the preparation of vellum.
having been used at one or both ends as a light
The single excavated example, from the urban K site,
pounding tool to mash leaves or spices to a paste
not from Kidane Mehret, is subrectangular with a flat
(Fig. 4). Another shape of pounding/rubbing stone
face and convex back and measures 100 x 70 x 40
has two flat rubbed circular faces and a lightly bat-
mm. Modern examples tend to be circular (Fig.7).
tered circumference, one excavated example of
Also used in connection with vellum production are
which measures 110 x 100 x 40 mm.
small, highly polished burnishers of amorphous or
Grindstones of apparently identical size, shape
fine-grained silicious stone. An excavated example
and material to the medkos are also used mounted
recovered from a very late context is rectangular on
aslant into a waist-high clay dung stand which is
all sides, measures 45 x 27 x 25 mm and has had the
neatly shaped to retain the freshly ground flour.
Ge'ez [ancient Aksumite language] word meaning "to
These are termed methan and the flat faced, ovate or
grind", scratched into its face, presumably at some
hemi-cylindrical upper grindstones used with them
time subsequent to its use as a burnishing tool.
are termed wadi methan (Fig. 5).
Pestles of various sizes, wadi mogu, are used in
Additional upper and lower grindstones may be
conjunction with mortars, mogu, for pounding barley
owned by a household for such non-culinary tasks as
to remove the husks and for preparing coffee and
powdering limestone for use as a hide dressing or for
spices. Formerly, they may also have been used to
preparing paint or ink pigments. Often these ancil-
remove the husks from emmer wheat. Most of the
lary grindstones are the almost worn through or bro-
mortars and pestles presently in use are wooden, a
ken remnants of once larger specimens (Fig. 6).
few of the smaller ones are metal. In addition, a few
From repeated use, both the lower and upper
households in the Maleke Axum and Adi Kilte parts
grindstones eventually become too worn smooth to
of Axum have waist-high stone mortars of apparently
serve their intended function.
Aksumite workmanship.
When this happens
According to one infor-
they are redressed by hammering with a stone
mant, these and a number of large carved stone bowls
pounder, usually of granite, called a mawker. From
and other items were salvaged from Aksumite build-
repeated use, these stones come to assume a sub-
ing remains destroyed by Italian road-construction
spherical shape. Excavated examples measure about
operations in the mid 1930s. When found, the mor-
80 x 70 x 60 mm and weigh about 0.5 kg.
tars are said to have had only shallow bowl-shaped
Very fine grindstones, of which an excavated
depressions in their tops, which can be deduced from
marble example measures 150 x 100 x 50 mm, are
the profiles of their internal cavities; possibly they
called medhat and the small, fine mulIers or upper
were holy water stoops which had stood by the en-
grindstones used with them are wadi medhat. These
trances of ancient churches. After more than fifty
are used for preparing cosmetics and eye ointment or,
year's use, they now have deep, funnel shaped de-
with a small stone or metal roller in place of the up-
pressions. There is little possibility that such items
per grindstone, for expressing the seeds from teased-
can be other than Aksumite as there is no modern or
out cotton fibres.
recent tradition of stone carving other than the shaping of small steatite curios for sale to tourists, the
Another type of topstone, for which a local
name was not obtained, is made of coarsely vascular
19
Laurel Phillipson
Figure 7: Materials for present-day vellum preparation lying on an up-turned
grindstone: on the right, powdered limestone, needle and nylon thread in a tin
and a block of native limestone; on the
left, vascular basalt stone for rubbing
powdered limestone into a goat skin with
goat hairs and lime particles adhering.
Figure 8: Excavated broken pestle from
Kidane Mehret
fashioning of roughly-dressed grindstones and the
[references can be found in the bibliographies of the
quarrying of house building stone.
One complete
works cited here], but much remains to be researched
pestle, found broken in two pieces, and part of a sec-
and written. It should perhaps be added that, while
ond (Fig. 8), excavated at Kidane Mehret, are evi-
oxen are used to tread grain on open-air threshing
dence that the mortar and pestle were also used an-
floors, I know of no evidence for Aksumite use of
ciently; most of those mortars are likely to have been
animal-powered mills nor for rotary grindstones of
of wood, which was not preserved in these deposits.
any sort.
One example of what may have been a small mortar
or, equally likely, a lamp of an unidentified stone,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
perhaps trachyte, was recovered. It is circular, with a
Bard, K.A., Coltorti, M., DiBlasi, M.C. Dramis,
roughly-shaped exterior 84 mm in diameter, an interior diameter of 30 mm, and is 34 mm high.
F. and Fattovich, R. 2000. The Environmental His-
As an ethnographic account, this record is very
tory of Tigray (Northern Ethiopia) in the Late Holo-
superficial, based only on brief observations intended
cene: A Preliminary Outline. African Archaeological
to help give meaning and context to an excavated
Review 17 (2): 65-89
assemblage. Some recent research has been done on
highland Ethiopian food production and processing
20
Laurel Phillipson
Phillipson, D.W. 2000. Archaeology at Aksum,
Stone Age of Northeastern Africa. Poznan: Muzeum
Ethiopia, 1993-7. London; British Institute in Eastern
Archeologiczne w Poznaniu
Africa and Society of Antiquaries of London
Phillipson, L. 2000. Aksumite Lithic Industries.
African Archaeological Review 17 (2): 49-63
Elm Cottage
Phillipson, L. 2001. A Functional Consideration
of Gudit
Scrapers
from
Aksum,
Ethiopia
Madingley
in
Cambridge
L.Krzyzaniak et al. (ed.) Recent Research on the
CB38AD
21