effect of select yogic practices and aerobic exercises on somatotype

Transcription

EFFECT OF SELECT YOGIC PRACTICES AND AEROBIC
EXERCISES ON SOMATOTYPE COMPONENTS AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP WITH HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL
FITNESS AND BIOCHEMICAL VARIABLES
Dissertation submitted to the Pondicherry University
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
award of the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Physical Education
Submitted by
H. RAVIKUMAR
Under the guidance of
Dr. D. Sakthignanavel, M.A., M.P.Ed., M.Phil., P.G.D.Y., Ph.D
Reader in Physical Education and Sports
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
PUDUCHERRY- 605 014
July 2009
Dr. D. SAKTHIGNANAVEL, M. A., M. P. Ed., M.Phil., P.G.D.Y., Ph. D.,
Reader,
Department of Physical Education and Sports,
Pondicherry University,
Puducherry 605 014.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled, “EFFECT OF SELECT
YOGIC
PRACTICES
AND
AEROBIC
EXERCISES
ON
SOMATOTYPE
COMPONENTS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL
FITNESS AND BIOCHEMICAL VARIABLES” submitted by H. Ravikumar, for
the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy is a record of research
work done under my supervision during the period Feb 2003 to July 2009
and thesis has not formed the basis of the award of any Degree,
Diploma, Associateship, Fellowship or any other similar title of any
University or Institution.
I also certify that the thesis represents an independent work on the
part of the candidate.
Place: Puducherry
Date:
(Dr. D. SAKTHIGNANAVEL)
Research Supervisor
July 2009
ii
Dedicated to my beloved Guru
Late. Dr. Amrit kumar Moses
Reader
YMCA College of Physical Education
Nandanam, Chennai-600 035.
iii
CURRICULUM VITA
NAME OF THE AUTHOR
:
H. Ravikumar
PLACE OF BIRTH
:
Puducherry
DATE OF BIRTH
:
20.08.1970
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ATTENDED
Y.M.C.A College of Physical Education, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.
DEGREES AWARDED
Degree of Bachelor of Physical Education and sports, 1988-1991. (BPES)
Y.M.C.A College of Physical Education, Madras University, Chennai.
Degree of Bachelor of Physical Education, 1991-1992. (B.P.Ed)
Y.M.C.A College of Physical Education, University of Madras,Chennai.
Master of Physical Education, 1992-1993. (M.P.Ed)
Y.M.C.A College of Physical Education, University of Madras, Chennai.
Master of Philosophy in Physical Education, 1993-1994. (M.Phil)
Pondicherry University, Puducherry .
Post graduate diploma in Sports Managements, 1998-1999. (PGDSM)
Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamilnadu, India.
iv
AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST
Physiology
Sports Medicine
Nutrition
Yoga
Aerobics
Athletics
Cricket
Handball
Table tennis
Chess
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Physical Education Teacher
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Madhya Pradesh, 1994-95
Kendriya Vidyalaya, Cochin, Kerala, 1995-97
M.A. Govt. Hr. Se. School, Embalam, Puducherry, 1997-2001
Kamaraj Govt. Middle School., Puducherry, 2001-2006.
Lecturer in Physical Education
Bharathy Govt. Hr. Sec. School, Bahour, Puducherry, 2006-08
K.K. Govt. Hr. Sec. School, K.T Kuppam Puducherry, From 2008
v
SPECIAL REMARKS
Represented Pondicherry in Senior National Hand ball
Championship 1993.
Certified State level Referee in Football, Handball, Table tennis
and Athletics.
Certified Nutrition and wellness Advisor.
vi
Acknowledgement
I
owe
a
deep
sense
of
gratitude
to
my
guide
Dr.D.Sakthignanavel, Reader Department of Physical Education and
Sports,
Pondicherry
University
for
his
valuable
guidance
and
encouragement.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. P.K.Subramaniam, Head of the
Department of Physical Education and Sports, Pondicherry University,
who graciously and enthusiastically accepted to work on this research
study.
I wish to record my sincere gratitude to Mr. G.Anbazagan,
Director, Department of Adi Dravidar Welfare, Puducherry and Mr.
N.Gandhirajan, Deputy Director, Adi Dravidar Welfare, Puducherry for
giving permission to under go the research work for the students residing
in Govt. Boys Hostel, lawspet, Puducherry.
I thank Dr. D.Senthilnathan, Reader, Earth Science Department,
Pondicherry University, Puducherry, who accepted to be an external
guide for my research study.
I express my sincere thanks to Mr. R.Ramesh, Yoga instructor from
Puducherry, who helped for this research study on the yogic practices.
I thank Mr. M.Devaraj, Lab Technologist, Devaraj clinical lab, Lenin
Street, Puducherry for his help in testing Biochemical variables.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Mr. K.Kumar, Physical
Education Teacher, Kendriya Vidyalaya No.1, Puducherry, who helped
me technically in video and photographic part of my research
programme.
vii
I am very much thankful to Mr. G. Robert, Lecturer in English,
Kamban Govt Hr. Sec. School, Nettapakkam, Puducherry, for going
through the language part of the thesis.
My sincere thanks to all lecturers in Physical Education and
Physical Education Teachers of Puducherry who helped me in the
completion of research programme.
H.RAVIKUMAR
Place : Puducherry.
Date :
July 2009
viii
TABLES OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
xvii
INTRODUCTION
1
CHAPTER
I
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses
Delimitations
Limitations
Definition of the Terms
Significance of the Study
II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
37
III
METHODOLOGY
113
Selection of Subjects
Experimental Design
Selection of Variables
Selection of test
Somatotype parameters
Physical fitness parameters
Biochemical parameter
Pilot study
Orientation of Subjects
Training program
Collection of data
Reliability of data
Statistical Analysis
ix
IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY 148
Analysis of Data
Results of the Study
Discussion on Findings
V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
252
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
260
Books
Periodicals
Theses and Project
APPENDICES
I
Training Program on Yogic Practices
269
II
Training Program on Aerobic Exercises
276
III
Pre and Post test Data of Control group
Anthropometric measurements
283
Skinfold measurements
283
Pre and Post test data of Control group
Health Related Physical Fitness.
284
Biochemical measurements
284
Pre and Post test Data of Yogic group
285
Skinfold measurement
285
Health Related Physical Fitness.
286
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
x
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
TABLE
Biochemical variables
286
Pre and Post test Data of Aerobic group
287
Skinfold measurement
287
Health Related Physical Fitness
288
Biochemical Variables
288
Calculated values of Somatotype Component of Pre
test of Control, Yogic and Aerobic group
289
Calculated values of Somatotype Component of Pre
and Post test of Control, Yogic and Aerobic group
289
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE NO
I
Reliability Co-efficient of the Selected Variables
145
II
Analysis of Covariance for control, Yogic and Aerobic
Group of Endomorphic Component
150
Group of Mesomorphic Component
152
Group of Ectomorphic Component
154
Scheffe’S Test for significance difference between the
Paired adjusted mean of Ectomorphic component
155
Group of Height
157
III
IV
V
VI
xi
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
Paired adjusted mean of Height
158
Group of Weight
160
Paired adjusted mean of Weight
161
Group of Humerus width
163
Group of Fumer width
165
Group of Bicep girth
167
Paired adjusted mean of Bicep girth
168
Group of Calf girth
170
Paired adjusted mean of Calf girth
170
Group of Arm Strength
173
Paired adjusted mean of Arm Strength
173
Group of Abdominal Strength
175
Paired adjusted mean of Abdominal Strength
176
Group of Total Flexibility
178
Paired adjusted mean of Total flexibility
179
xii
Group of Percent Body fat
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXIII
XXXIV
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
181
Paired adjusted mean of Percent Body fat
181
Group of Twelve minutes run
184
Paired adjusted mean of Twelve minutes run
184
Group of Low Density Lipoprotein
187
Group of High Density Lipo protein
189
Paired adjusted mean of High Density Lipoprotein
190
Group of Triglycerides
193
Group of Very low Density lipoprotein
195
Group of Total cholesterol
196
Group of Hemoglobin
199
Paired adjusted mean of Hemoglobin
199
Group of Fasting Blood Sugar
201
Correlation between Endomorphic component and
Experimental Variable
205
Correlation between Mesomorphic component and
206
Correlation between Ectomorphic component and
207
xiii
XXXVIII
Partial Correlation between Endomorphic components
and Experimental Variable
209
Partial Correlation between Mesomorphic component
and Experimental Variable.
211
Partial Correlation between Ectomorphic component
and Experimental Variable.
212
Multiple Correlation between Endomorphic component
214
Multiple Correlation between Mesomorphic component
216
Multiple Correlation between Ectomorphic component
217
Differences between pre and post test
Correlation
221
Partial Correlation
223
Multiple Correlation
225
XXXXVII
Mean Somatotype components
226
XXXXVIII
Mean Score of Experimental Variables
237
XXXIX
XXXX
XXXXI
XXXXII
XXXXIII
XXXXIV
XXXXV
XXXXVI
TABLE
I
II
III
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE NO
Bar diagram of pre test, post test, post adjusted mean of
Endomorphic Component
151
Mesomorphic Component
153
Ectomorphic Component
156
xiv
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
Height
159
Weight
162
Humerus width
164
Fumer width
166
Bicep girth
169
Calf girth
171
Strength
174
Abdominal Strength
177
Total Flexibility
180
Percent Body fat
182
Twelve minutes run
185
Low Density Lipoprotein
188
High Density Lipo protein
191
Triglycerides
193
xv
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
Very low Density lipoprotein
195
Total cholesterol
197
Hemoglobin
200
Fasting Blood Sugar
202
XXII
Control Yogic and Aerobic group of Somato type Component 227
XXIII
Somatogram of pre test Control group somatotype
230
XXIV
Somatogram of post test Control group somatotype
231
XXIV
Somatogram of pre test Yogic group somatotype
232
XXVI
Somatogram of post test Yogic group somatotype
233
XXVII Somatogram of pre test Aerobic group somatotype
234
XXVIII Somatogram of post test Aerobic group somatotype
235
SHEET
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE NO
I
Details of Experimental Variables
117
II
Details of the Yogic practices
122
III
Details of the Aerobic Exercise
125
IV
Heath Carter rating form
290
xvi
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
During the last two decades, there has been a tremendous
increase in the number of people participating in Physical Fitness fad. In
the early 1970s, fitness programs have become a trend that is now very
much a part of the life. The increase in the number of fitness participants
is attributed primarily to scientific evidence linking vigorous exercise and
positive lifestyle habits to better health and improved quality of life.
Many research findings show that the physically inactive and
negative life style leads to serious threat to an individual’s health.
Movement and activity are basic functions needed by the human
organism to grow, develop and maintain health.
However physical
activity is no longer a natural part of our lifestyle. We live in automated
world where most of the activities that used to require strenuous physical
exertion can be accomplished by machines with the simple pull of a
handle or push of a button. Most of them use machines even for small
works.
So, people are loosing power, Endurance, co-ordination and
making the body lazy.
With developments in the technology, three additional factors
have significantly changed our lives and have had a negative stress and
environment. Fatty food, sweets, alcohol, tobacco use, excessive stress
1
2
and pollution in general, have determined effect. The leading causes of
death in the country today are basically Cardio- vascular disease which
includes heart disease and cerebro- vascular disease and Cancer.
While Physical inactivity is one of the most significant risk factors, so
studies have also documented that multiple interrelation usually exists
between risk factors. Physical inactivity, for instance often contributes to
an increase in (a) Body Weight (fat) (b) total cholesterol /HDLCholesterol ratio (c) triglycerides (d) tension and stress (e) blood pressure
and (f) risk of diabetes. Research, however also indicates that the odds
of surviving a heart attack are much greater for people who engage in
a regular aerobic program.
Athletes in various sports seemingly have different objectives when
it comes to weight control and proper body composition. For some,
gaining weight through lean body mass (muscle) is the goal, for others to
look slim or making weight is the goal. The non athlete may have a
simple concern to avoid obesity. The common goal is an adequate
knowledge about physical fitness and nutrition values to fit the athletes
or non athletes to their lifestyle.1
1
Richard W.Bowers & Edward L. Fox, Sports Physiology, (3rd Edition;
Dubuque, Iowa : Wm.C. Brown Publishers, 1992), P.315.
2
3
Somatotype
Body build or Somatotype as a term means the morphological or
structural characteristics of the human body as reflecting qualities
related to
1. Health, disease, immunity.
2. Capacity for physical exertion.
3. Social adaptability through and personality attitudes.
Psychologist often classifies individuals on the basis of body type or
physique. This is based on the body structure of an individual through
such classification it has been thought possible to distinguish certain
physiological and personality trait might be associated with each type.
One method of classification is that promulgated by Kretchmer who
classified the human body today into four groups, Asthenic, Athletic,
Pyknic and Dyplastic.2
Sheldon’s3 three aspects or components of bodily morphology as
determined by him were called Endomorphy, Mesomorphy and
Ectomorphy. The three descriptions were derived from the terms used to
describe the three initial layers in the early embryonic forms of higher life.
2
Charles A. Bucher, Foundation of Physical Education (7th Ed; St.
Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, 1971), P.241.
3
John Croney, Anthropometry for Designer, (Melbourne: Van
Norstrand Remblold company, 1971), pp. 38-43.
3
4
(I) Endomorphy
Total Physique: Round and soft with large fat storage. In extreme form
pear shaped. Abdomen is full and extensive and the thorax appears
small. The limbs appear short and ineffective. Shoulders are full and
round supporting a round head. The skin is soft and smooth, fine hairs
with little showing on the body.
Endomorphic skeleton:
In side view the vertical column appears
straightened in the thoracic region. Body girdles of trunk and pelvis is
approaching the circular. All the bones are small with tuberocities and
protections rather rounded.
Head and Trunk:
Features small and in obtrusive small cranium in
relation to wide palate and face and short neck. The trunk is ling and
heavy at the base. The greatest body width is near the waist, which is
difficult to determine the thorax is wide at the base. The whole trunk
and head has a forward pushing penguin – like appearance.
Arms and Legs: The limbs are short and from an inflated appearance
proximal they rapidly taper down to small and weak dorsal extremities.
There is no angularity and so in the male where there can be
appearance of breasts, there is a suggestion of femenity.
4
5
(II) Mesomorphy
Total Physique: Square and rigorous in appearance, with much
prominent muscle.
Shoulder predominates with thorax wide at the
apex and the abdomen small.
The limbs appear large and strong.
Neck is short with a rugged head showing prominent eminencies. Skin is
rather coarse, as is the hair.
Mesomorphic skeleton: All the curves of the vertebral column are well
shown. Bony girdles of trunk and pelvis are wider laterally than in the
anterio-posterior dimension. All the bones are heavy, with all the ridges
and processes well defined.
Head and Trunk:
The face is large compared with the cranium. The
forehead is often shallow and facial eminencies and angular tends to
approach 90 degrees. The neck is long and the strenomasloid triangle
well marked. The massive thoracic, the waist is low with the abdomen
almost perpendicular in profile.
Arms and legs: There are generally heavy and well muscled, particularly
at their proximal ends. The hands and foot are also large capable in
appearance and the forearm and calf muscles are very prominent.
(III) Ectomorphy
Total Physique:
Fragile and slender with a minimum of either factor
muscle. The trunk generally appears short and poorly positioned and is
5
6
accompanied by long spindly limb shoulder are wide but droop, the
neck is slender and can appear inadequate for the head, which often
has cranium. The skin is thin and hairs brittle.
Ectomorphic skeleton: In the vertebral column the cervical thoracic
curves are well marked to the point of distortion, and the lumbar curves
is flattened.
The sub-coastal angle is acute although the thorax is
shallow in anterior posterior dimension particularly in the region of the
Sternum bone. Bones are light but so variable in length, for the stature in
this component has a wide range.
Head and Trunk:
Feature is finely etched with a slight chin brow can be
large, the cranium and brain are very extensive. The thyroid gland is
prominent and the neck hangs forward from the shoulders. The trunk is
shallow and flat, the abdomen protruding in front of thorax in profile.
The distinct sag forward of the abdomen is due to ineffective
musculature.
They appear weak and long with slight musculature.
Their weakness is more noticeable at the proximal ends and toes and
fingers are long and delicate.
Physical Fitness
The American Medical Association defines fitness as the general
capacity to adapt and respond favorably to physical effort. This implies
that individuals are physically fit when they can meet ordinary as well as
6
7
the usual demands of daily life safely and effectively without being
overly fatigued and still have energy left for leisure and recreational
activities.
Physical Fitness can be classified into two categories: Healthrelated fitness and Motor skill related fitness.
Health related Physical Fitness
Physical Educators have long believed that exercise is important to
maintain good health. Today degenerative diseases like Cancer, Heart
disease, Strokes have replaced communicable disease like tuberculosis,
Pneumonia as leading to death. Medical Research shows that poor
aerobic fitness, obesity and lack of development of certain types of
muscular strength, flexibility are related to certain disease.
Health
related Physical fitness is defined by the following components.4
 Muscular strength endurance
 Cardiovascular endurance
 Muscular Flexibility
 Body composition
The motor skill-related aspects of physical fitness are greater
significance in athletics. General Motor ability has been considered as
4
Ted A Baumgartner & Andrew S.Jackson, Measurement for
Evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise science, (Dubque Lowa:
Wm C. Brown Publishers, 1982), P.10.
7
8
one’s level of ability in wide range of activities. It has been thought of as
an integrated composite of such individual trait as
 Agility
 Balance
 Coordination
 Power
 Reaction time
 Speed
While these components are important in achieving success in
athletics and games, they are not crucial for the development of better
health. So the investigator has given importance on the Health –related
Fitness as the experimental variable.
Muscular Strength endurance
Strength5 is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against
resistance.
Strength should not be considered a product of only
muscular contraction.
It is, in fact, a product of voluntary muscle
contraction caused by the neuro-muscular system.
strength is divided into three types.
The ability of
They are Maximum Strength,
Explosive strength and Strength Endurance.
The Strength Endurance
5
Hardayal Singh, Science of Sports Training, (New Delhi: D.V.S
Publication, 1995), pp.84-87.
8
9
consists of two motor abilities. It is the ability to overcome resistance
under condition of fatigue.
Muscular strength and endurance6 are interrelated, a basic
difference exist between the two.
Strength is defined as ability of
muscle or group of muscles to exert maximum force against resistance.
Endurance is the ability of a muscle to exert sub-maximal force against
on cardiovascular endurance. Weak muscle cannot repeat an action
several times, nor sustain it for a prolonged period of time.
Cardio Vascular Endurance
Cardio-vascular Endurance, Cardio-vascular fitness or aerobic
fitness has been defined as the ability of the lungs, heart and blood
vessels to deliver adequate amounts of oxygen and nutrition to the cells
to meet the demands of prolonged Physical activity.
Cardiovascular endurance is determined by maximal amount of
oxygen that the human body is able to utilize per minute for physical
activity. The value is commonly expressed in millimeters of oxygen per
kilogram of body weight per minute of physical activity (ml/kg/min).
Since all tissues and organs of the body utilize oxygen to function, a
6
Werner W K. Hoeger and Sharon A. Hoeger, Fitness and Wellness
(Colorado:Morgan publishing company, 1990), P.16.
9
10
higher amount of oxygen consumption is required for a more efficient
cardiovascular system.7
Flexibility
Flexibility, mobility and suppleness all mean the range of limb
movement around joints. In any movement there are two groups of
muscles at work, protagonist muscles which cause the movement to
take place and opposing the movement and determining the amount
of flexibility are the antagonistic muscles.
Body Composition
Athletes in a variety of sports seemingly have different objective
when it comes to weight control and proper body composition. For
some, gaining lean body weight (muscle) is the goal for others looking
slim or making weight is a goal. The non athletes may have a simple
concern to avoid obesity. Common among these goals is an adequate
knowledge base concerning nutrition and obesity.
The body may be regarded as being composed basically of two
functions: Body fat and lean body mass (fat free weight)
1. Body Fat: The amount of body fat (adipose tissue) that is stored
is determined by two factors:
the number of fat storing cells, or
adipocytes; and the size, or capacity, of the adipocytes. It has been
7
Ibid., P.12 .
10
11
shown that the number of fat cells cannot be effectively decreased by
exercise or dietary restriction once adulthood is reached. During weight
reduction fat loss in adults, it is the size but not the numbers of
adipocytes that decreases.
However, exercise and diet programs
introduced during the early childhood lead to a reduction in both
number and size of fat cells during adult years. This is true even though
exercise and diet programs may not be continued into adulthood. This
emphasise how important it is to formulate good nutritional habit and
good exercise habit early in life as well as throughout life.
2. Fat Free weight (Lean Body Mass): When the weight of body fat
is subtracted from the total body weight, the remaining weight is
referred to as fat free weight or lean body weight. The fat free weight
(FFW) consists of skeletal muscle mass, bone, skin, non-fat organ tissue
and other tissues in the body. The muscle mass makes up about 40
percent to 50 percent of the fat free weight and that of college age
men is about 85 percent of their total body weight and the women 75
percent.8
8
Richard W.Bowers, Op. cit., P.317.
11
12
Biochemical variables
Blood
Blood9 is considered a tissue consisting of Red blood corpuscles
(erythrocytes), White blood corpuscles (Leukocytes), platelets and liquid
plasma. It is a carrier for gas, oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, metabolites, and
products of digestion, hormones, enzymes and clotting factor.
A 70 kg individual has a blood volume about six liters (85ml/kg)
about one twelfth of the body weight and about three liters of plasma
(45ml/kg). Blood has many diverse functions.
1. Respiration- transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
carbon di oxide from the tissue to the lungs.
2. Nutrition- transport of digested and absorbed nutrition.
3. Excretion- transport of metabolic wastes to the excretory organs.
4. Maintenance of body temperature and osmotic pressure.
5. Defense against infection.
6. Transport of metabolites and hormones from the sites of production
to target organs
and enzymes, chiefly the plasma specific enzymes.
9
S. Ramakrishnan, et.al, Textbook of Medical Biochemistry,
(Madras: Orient Langman limited, 1980), P.135.
12
13
The substances present in the blood could be divided into three
major types,
1. Protein like (albamin & enzymes), 2. Neutral molecules (Glucose),
Ionic species (Sodium, Potassium & Bicarbonate).
Lipids
Lipid10 comprises 18-20 percent of the total body weight in the
human adult. Neutral fat(Triglycerides, triacyl glycerols) is the forms in
which fat is stored in the body adipose tissue, the subcutaneous fat
pads, peri-renal fat depots, inter – muscular connective tissue and the
fat depots of mesentery and omentum. About 70-80 percent of the
lipids in adipose tissue are due to triacyl glycerols.
Lipids are also present in other areas of the body. In the
decreasing order of lipid content in percentage, the tissues rank as
follows: skeleton 25, heart 17, pancreas14, brain 12, kidney 7, muscle 6,
lever 3 & blood 0.57.
Phospholipids, cholesterol and cerebrosides are not stored in the
adipose tissue. They are present, however, in all other tissues and have
certain structural functions and physiological roles in the cells. The lipids
of the brain are mostly cholesterol, phospholipids and cerebrosides. But
they are low neutral fat.
10
The adrenal cortex, testes, ovary and
Ibid., P. 209.
13
14
corpusluteum have high content cholesterol. The major part of the lipids
of our diet consists of neutral fat with smaller amounts of Phospholipids,
steroids and glycolipids.
Lipids are transported through blood plasma, from their sites of
origin to their sites of utilization or storage, the level of plasma lipid at any
time can be considered to represent the net balance between
production, utilization and storage.
Lipids, through hydrophobic
compound, are present in plasma as stable hydrophilic lipoprotein
complexes. These complexes are combination of triacyl glycerols and
phospholipids, with cholesterol and plasma protein.
Chylomicrons: The fat derived from intestinal absorption is transported to
storage depot as chylomicrons, which consist of 1 percent of Protein
and 99 percent of lipid. The lipid fraction contains triacyl glycerols (88
percents), which are kept as stable emulsion by combining with
Phospholipids (8 percent) and cholesterol (4 percent).
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL): The triacyl glycerols derived from
the liver are transported as very density lipoprotein consisting of protein
(7-10 percent) and total lipids (90-93 percent). This density is 0.96-1.006.
The total lipids are made up of 56 percent triacyl glycerols, 20 percent
Phospholipids, 15 percent cholesterol ester, 8 percent free Cholesterol
14
15
and one percent free fatty acids. The Svedberg floatation unit of VLDL is
20-400.
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL): These are formed from VLDL during
circulation in blood. Their Sf values are 2-20 and density of 1.019-1.063.
LDL has 21 per cent protein and 79 percent lipids. The total lipids are
made up of 14 percent free cholesterol and 1 percent free fatty acids.
LDL is rich in cholesterol (58 percent) and carrier of cholesterol from the
liver to the peripheral cells (direct cholesterol transport)
High density lipoprotein (HDL): There are three fractions of high Density
Lipoproteins, HDL1, HDL2 AND HDL3 of density 1.063-1.210.
HDL2
contains 33 percent protein and 67 percent total lipid in which
Phospholipids and cholesterol fractions are greater than triacyl glycerol.
It has 16 percent triacyl glycerols 43 percents Phospholipids and 41
percent cholesterol, HDL is very low. Changes in HDL run parallel to
those of HDL2. HDL (reverse cholesterol transport) transports Cholesterol
from the peripheral cells to the liver.
Free fatty acids: The free fatty acids derived from adipose tissues and
released by lipolytic hormones are transported as FFA-albumin complex
(contains 99 percent albumin and one percent fatty acids). Some 25-30
molecules of free fatty acids are present in combination with a molecule
15
16
of albumin. The FFA of plasma are metabolically the most active and
have a half-life of only 2 - 3 minutes.
Triglycerides or Triacyl Glycerol
Fat has a basic usable form in the body fatty acid. Fat taken in
through diet are digested, producing fatty acid and a substances called
Glycerol. After fatty acid is absorbed by intestinal cells, they are
converted into Triglycerides. Triglycerides are broken down, into one
mole of glycerols and three moles of free fatty acids and released.
Triglyceride represents the storage form of fatty acid that is found
in the adipose (fat) tissue and in the skeletal muscle. When needed by
the muscle the fatty acid from the adipose tissue are released from the
triglycerides and are transported by the blood to the muscle, where
they are oxidized.
Mobilization of fatty acid from the body fat stores to the muscle is
an important consideration with respect to the reduction of body weight
through the loss of body weight.
There are two major fuel form of fat available to the muscle during
exercise.
1. Fatty acid transported by the blood stream from adipose tissue during prolonged exercise of moderate intensity these blood
16
17
borne fatty acid represent a major source of fuel for ATP
production by the oxygen system.
2. Triglyceride stores within the skeleton muscle, studies show that the
T.G are used to considerable extent during prolonged endurance
activities.
Hemoglobin11
Heme is a prosthetic group of some conjugated protein in the
body like hemoglobin, myoglobin and cytocromes, which are of
paramount importance in respiration.
Hemoglobin is the combination of heme with globin through
different linkage like salt linkages polar and van der Waal’s forces gives
function of transport of oxygen and to a minor degree carbon-di-oxide
during respiration. The oxygen that is inhaled should be taken to each
cell to be used for cellular respiration by mitochondria in the utilization of
nutrition like glucose. Heme alone without globin cannot combine with
oxygen reversibly. Human hemoglobin contains 0.34 percent of iorn
which corresponds to the molecular weight of 16400.
But, osmotic
pressure weights of about 65000 for hemoglobin suggesting 4 irons per
atoms per molecule of Hb.
11
Ibid., pp.83-90.
17
18
Yoga
Yoga is a way of life, an integrated system of education for the
body, mind and inner spirit. The art of right living was perfected and
practiced in India thousands of years ago but, since yoga deals with
Universal truth its teachings are as valid today as they were in ancient
times. Yoga is a practical aid, not a religion and its techniques may be
practiced by Buddhist, Jews, Christians, Muslims, Hindus and Atheist alike.
Yoga is union for all.
Over the centuries four different paths of yoga have been
developed. They are
1. Karma Yoga- Active path -It is selfless service, works in both Physical
and mental, eliminates ego, but it works on Spiritual
levels.
2. Jnana Yoga- Philosophical path - An Intellectual approach (Viveka discrimination, Vairagya- dispassion to spiritual).
3. Bhakthi Yoga-Devotional path - teaches techniques for their
sublimation such as Chanting, Prayer and repetition of
Mantras. Emotional energy is channeled into devotion,
turning anger, hatred and jealously in a positive
direction.
18
19
4. Raja yoga- Scientific path – It prescribes a Psychological approach,
based on practical system of concentration and control
of the mind Right conduct, a healthy body and steady
posture, breath control and withdrawal of senses.
The eight stages or limbs of Raja yoga called Astanga Yoga .They are
1. Yamas
(abstension)
2. Niyamas
-Truth, non violence, control of sexual energy, non
stealing non covetousness.
(observances)
-Austerities, purity, contentment, study, surrender of
the ego.
3. Asanas
-Steady poses.
4. Pranayama
-Control of Vital energy.
5. Pratyahara
-Withdrawal of senses.
6. Dharana
-Concentration of the mind.
7. Dhyana
-Meditation.
8. Samadhi
-The Super conscious state.
Hatha Yoga is a form of Raja yoga which emphasizes only Asanas
and Pranayama.12
Asanas
The third limb of yoga is asana or posture.
Asanas brings
steadiness, health and lightness of limbs. A steady and pleasant posture
produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind. Asanas
are not merely gymnastic exercises they are postures.
Asanas have
been evolved over the centuries so as to exercise every muscle nerve
12
Sivananda Yoga Vendanta Centre, Yoga
Bod,(Montreal, Canada: Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 1996), pp. 6-7.
mind
&
19
20
and gland in the body which includes fine Physique and keep body free
from disease.
The names of the asana are significant and illustrate the principle
of evolution. Some are named after Vegetation like the tree (Vrksa)
and the lotus (Padma), Some insects like the locust (salabha) and the
Scorpion (Vrschika), Some aquatic animals and amphibians like the
fish(Matsya), the tortoise (Kurma) the frog (bheka or manduka),or the
crocodile(nakra), some birds like the cock(kukkuta) the heron(baka),
peacock (mayura), the swan(hamsa some quadruped the dog(svana)
the horse(Vatayana), the camel(Ustra) and the lion(simha). Creatures,
that crawls like the serpent (bhujanga), human embryonic state
(garabha pinda).
Asanas are named after legendary heros like
virabhadra and Hanuman, son of the wind.
Sages like Bharadvaja,
Kapila, Vasistha, Visvamithra are remembered by having asana named
after them.
Some asanas are also called after god, of the Hindu
pantheon like Avataras.
Pranayama
‘Prana’ means breath, respiration, life vitality wind, energy or
strength. It also called vital breath. ‘Ayama’ means length, expansion,
stretching or restraint Pranayama thus connotes extension of breath and
its control. The control is over all functions of breathing, namely
20
21
(1) Inhalation or Inspiration which is termed as Puranka (filling up)
(2) Exhalation or expiration which is called rechaka (emptying the lungs)
and
(3) Retention or holding the breath, a state where there is no inhalation
or exhalation which is termed as Kumbhaka.
Pranayama practices the nostrils nasal passages and membranes,
windpipes lungs and diaphragm are the only parts of the body actively
involved. These alone feel the impact of the body of prana the breath
of life. Improper practice of Pranayama leads to respiratory diseases
and nervous system.
By its proper practices one is freed from most
disease.13
Aerobic Fitness
Aerobic (with oxygen) endurance is generally characterized by
modern contraction of large muscle group for an extended period of
time, during
which maximum cardio respiratory adjustment are
necessary, as in swimming, bicycling and distance running.
Since
aerobic endurance refers to ability of heart, vascular system and lings to
provide oxygen and nutrient to working tissues and to remove the waste
product of metabolism, it is quite clear that the primary goal of aerobic
13B.K.S
Iyangar, Light on Yoga, (India: Harper Collins publisher’s pvt.
Ltd., 2000), P.40.
21
22
endurance training is to improve and /or increase the capacity and
efficiency of three system in order that a greater amount oxygen can be
supplied to the cells. This type of training is often referred to as cardio
respiratory or cardiovascular training.14
Aerobic dance a way to fun as well as a way to be fit. Muscle
building exercises, fat burning movements and stretching into routine
are some aerobic exercises played on music. Many dance forms are
used, including disco, jazz, and ballet. All ages can benefit from aerobic
dance.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of
selected Yogic Practices (Asana & Pranayama) & Aerobic exercises on
Somatotype Components and its relationship with selected Health
Related Physical Fitness Components such as Muscular Strength &
Endurance, Cardio vascular Endurance, Muscular Flexibility and Body
composition, and Bio-chemical variables of collegiate men.
14
Larry G.Shaver, Essentials
(Minneapolis: Burgess, 1981), P.267.
of
Exercise
of
Physiology,
22
23
HYPOTHESES
Keeping in view the statement of the problem, it was hypothesized
that:
1. There
would
not
components such
be
any
significant
as Endomorphic
effect
on
Somatotype
component, Mesomorphic
component and Ectomorphic component as a result of fourteen
weeks of training on selected Yogic Practices & Aerobic exercises.
2. There would not be any significant effect on Health Related Physical
Fitness Component such as Strength endurance, Muscular flexibility,
Cardio-vascular endurance and Body composition as a result of
fourteen weeks of training on selected Yogic Practices & Aerobic
exercises.
3. There would not be any significant effect on Bio-chemical changes
such as Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS), Hemoglobin (Hb), Low Density
Lipoprotein (LDL), High Density Lipoprotein (HDL), Triglycerides (TG),
Total Cholesterol (TC) and Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) as a
result of fourteen weeks training on selected Yogic Practices &
Aerobic exercises.
23
24
4. There would not be any significant relationship among Somatotype
components such
as Endomorphic
component, Mesomorphic
component and Ectomorphic component on select Health Related
Physical Fitness Variable and Bio-chemical variables as a result of
fourteen weeks training on selected Yogic Practices & Aerobic
exercises.
DELIMITATION
1. For the purpose of this study forty five college men were selected at
random from the colleges around the Puducherry, and they were
staying in the Government hostel during the training period.
2. The training period was limited to 14 weeks.
3. The tests were administered for College men age ranged from 18 to
25 years.
4. Motivational
techniques
were
not
used
to
attain
maximum
performance.
5. The subjects were divided into three groups.
The Control group
consisted of 15 subjects, who were not undergone any training. The
Yogic group consisted of 15 subjects, who had undergone asanas
and pranayama practices. The Aerobic group consisted of 15
subjects who had undergone rhythmic aerobic exercises.
24
25
6. The Harpend skinfold caliper was used to find the skinfold thickness of
the subjects.
7. The skinfold from seven sites in the body was tested to assess percent
body fat.
8. The Cooper test (Twelve minutes run or walk) was used to find the
cardio vascular endurance.
9. Only shoulder, trunk, hip and back flexibility were measured.
10. Only arm and abdominal strength test were used to find a strength
endurance
11. The Bio-chemical variables such as, LDL, HDL, TG, TC, VLDL, FBS and
Hb were considered.
LIMITATION
1. The participation in sports competition and other physical activities
by the subjects during the training period could not be controlled.
2. The effect of unidentified and uncontrollable factors like food habits,
lifestyle that might have influenced the selected test item is
accepted as limitation.
3. Previous training and experience were not taken into consideration.
25
26
4. The changes in climate condition such as temperature, atmospheric
pressure humidity during the training as well as testing period could
not be controlled and their influence on the result of the study was
recognized as a limitation.
DEFINITION OF THE TERM
Somatotype
There is some difference between Body build, Body size and Body
composition. These are the main factors considered for the study. The
Body build refers to morphology or the form and structure of the body.
Sheldon assisted by Stevens and Trucker15, after extensive
research came to the belief that human being could not be classified
into first three physique types, but that nearly all the three individual are
mixture.
However, they did designate three primary components of
body build that provide first order criteria for differentiating among
individuals.
The names of the three components were derived from
three layers of embryos namely Endomorph, Mesomorph & Ectomorph.
15
W. H. Sheldon, S. S. Stevens and W.B. Trucker, The Varieties of
Human Physique, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940), P.347.
26
27
Endomorphic components
The first component of the somato type is called Endomorphic
component.
The Endomorph is named after endoderm, from which
functional elements of digestive system emanate. Endomorphy is
measured by the fat underneath the skinfold in relation to height.
Mesomorphic component
The Second component of the somatotype is called Mesomorphic
component Mesomorphy named after the mesoderm, from which
Anthropometric measurements of muscles and bones are assessed.
Mesomorphy is measured by joint widths (a measure of skeletal size) and
lean limb girths (as a measure of lean muscle mass; corrected for fat
mass) in relation to height.
Ectomorphic component
The Third component of the somatotype is called Ectomorphic
component. Ectomorph is named after the ectoderm, from which
develops sensory organs. Ectomorphy is measured as the Ponderal index
(a measure of mass per unit in kg and height in cms).
27
28
Heath- Carter
For assessment of Body Build and composition somato typing
system is used. It is a Sheldon system of Classification proposed to assess
by Heath- Carter16 somato-rating. Heath-carter rating helps to asses the
first, second and third component of Somatotype.
Yoga
The word Yoga is derived from Sanskrit root ‘yuj’ means to mind
and yoke. It is true union of our will with the will of God. Our ancient
stages have suggested eight sages of yoga to secure purity of body,
mind, soul and final communion with God.
These eight stages are
known as Ashtanga Yoga.17
Asanas
Asanas is a state of being, and by definition there could be
thousands of probable states, which one can achieve. Pathanjali has
defined asana ‘Sthir Sukha Asanam’ that is ‘Asana means steady and
comfortable posture’.18
16
Jack .H. Wilmore, University of Aragon, Training and Sports and
Activity, (London: Allyn and Bacon, 1980), P.125.
17
Banerji .F.E, Orgin and Development of Yoga, (Calcutta: Punithi
pusthak, 1995), P.124.
18
Jack Peter, Master the Yogic Power, (Delhi: Punithi, Abishek
Publication, 2006), P.37.
28
29
Pranayama
Pranayama means breath control.
breath and ayama means a control.
In Sanskrit, Prana means
In modern literature, on yoga
prana, means even in the compound Pranayama, has been often
interpreted to means a subtle psychic force or a subtle cosmic
element.19 According to Geore,20 prana means a subtle life Geore
which provides energy to different organs (including mind) and also
many vital processes (eg.Circulation, respiration etc.,) Ayama means
signifies the voluntary effort to control and direct this prana.
Aerobic Fitness
Aerobic fitness has been defined as the ability of the lungs, heart,
and blood vessels to deliver adequate amount of oxygen and nutrients
to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged activity.
Aerobic
capacity is usually assessed by measuring maximal oxygen consumption
(VO2 max). The oxygen required for the break down of carbohydrate
and fat comes from air we breathe.21
19
Swami Kuvalayananda,
Prakashan, 1966), P.35.
Pranayama,
(Bombay:
Popular
20
M.M.Geore, Anatomy and Physiology of Yogic Practices,
(Lonavala: Kanchan Prakashan, 1984), P.107.
21
Richard W Bower, Op. cit., P.30.
29
30
Strength Endurance
Strength Endurance is the ability to overcome high resistance or to
act against high resistance under condition of fatigue. Strength
Endurance can be form of static of dynamic strength depending on the
fat whether the movement is static (Isometric) and dynamic (isotonic).22
Flexibility
Johnson and Nelson23 defined flexibility as the ability of an
individual to move the body and its part through a wide range of motion
as possible with undue strain to the articulation and muscle attachment.
Cardiovascular Endurance
Cardiovascular endurance is the body's ability to do large muscle
work, for example moving the body over a period of time. This ability is
dependent on the cardiovascular system's ability to pump blood and
deliver oxygen through your body. Cardiovascular endurance should be
a central component of your overall fitness program. Improving
cardiovascular endurance not only increases the supply of oxygen and
energy to your body, but also decreases your risk of important diseases
22
Hardayal Singh, Science
D.V.S.Publishers, 1995), P.87.
of
Sports
Training,
(NewDelhi:
23
Barry L. Johnson and Jack K. Nelson, Practical Measurement for
Evaluation in Physical Education, (Minneapolis: Burges Publishing
company, 1969), P.199.
30
31
that may shorten your life, such as heart disease, stroke and high blood
pressure.24
Body composition or Percent body fat
The amount of body fat (adipose tissue) that is stored is
determined by two factors: the number of fat storing cells, or adiposities
and the size, or capacity, of the adipocytes. It has been shown that the
number of fat cells cannot be effectively decreased by exercise or
dietary restriction once adulthood is reached during weight reduction
involving fat loss in adults, it is the size but not the numbers of adiposities
that decreases. 25
Skinfold Measurement
Body fat composition may also be reasonably estimated from
measurement of subcutaneous fat as reflected by skinfold thickness.
The thickness of the fold reflects the amount of fat underneath the skin
and it is measured in millimeter with the skinfold caliper.26
Blood lipids
Lipids may be defined as organic substances insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvent like Chloroform ether and benzene.
24
Werner Op. cit., P.42.
25
Gene M. Adam, Exercise Physiology (Fullerton: W.M.C Brown
Publishers, 2007), P. 211.
26
Richard W.Bowers , Op. cit., P.135.
31
32
Lipoproteins are complex lipid.
Lipo proteins are formed with by
combination of prosthetic group. eg. Serum lipo protein like LDL, HDL,
VLDL, Chylomicrons etc. 27
Low Density lipoprotein (LDL)
Low Density Lipo protein are synthesized in plasma VLDL..
The
function is to transport cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissues. 28 Lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is being referred as bad cholesterol.
High LDL cholesterol leads to a buildup of cholesterol in arteries. The
higher the LDL level in your blood, the greater chance you have of
getting heart disease.
High Density lipoprotein (HDL)
High-density lipoproteins are synthesized in liver and intestine. HDL
helps to transport free cholesterol from peripheral tissue to the liver
where it can be categorized. It is a reverse cholesterol transport.
29
High-density lipo-protein (HDL) cholesterol is sometimes called good
cholesterol. The higher your HDL cholesterol level, the lower your chance
of getting heart disease.
27
Pankaj Naik, Biochemistry,(New Delhi: Jaypee Brother Medical
Publishers (p) Ltd, 2007), pp. 40-55.
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
32
33
Total Cholesterol (TC)
Total Cholesterol is a measure of approximate cholesterol level in
the blood consists of total LDL, HDL and one fifth of Triglycerides. The
increase of total cholesterol level to 200 is the risk of heart problem.
Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
Very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is synthesized liver which
transports of endogenous triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues.30
VLDL is one of the three major types of lipoproteins. Each type contains
a mixture of cholesterol, protein and triglyceride, but in varying amounts.
LDL contains the highest amount of cholesterol. HDL contains the highest
amount of protein. VLDL contains the highest amount of triglyceride, a
blood fat. Like LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol is considered a type of
"bad" cholesterol because elevated levels are associated with an
increased risk of coronary artery disease.
Triglycerides (TG)
Triglycerides are fatty acids that are required from optimal health
and cannot be synthesized by the body are called as essential fatty
acid. Twhich is supplied through diet. TG is major storage and transport
from fatty acid.
TG is highly concentrated stores metabolic energy
which have two significant form of metabolic fuel, polysaccharides such
30
Ibid.
33
34
as glycogen. The main function serves more energy stores and supply
energy. Hormones regulate the release of triglycerides from fat tissue so
they meet the body's needs for energy between meals. 31
Fasting Blood sugar
Glucose is the primary energy source for the human body. After
absorption, the metabolism of all human body After absorption the
metabolism hormones proceeds according to the body requirement,
This metabolism results in energy production by conversion of carbon-dioxide and water, storage of glycogen in liver or triglycerides in adipose
tissues and conversion to keto acids or amino acid or protein . The
concentrations of blood glucose in the blood are regulated by a
complex interplay of multiple pathways modulated by several
hormones. Normal glucose disposal depends on ability of pancreas to
secrete insulin, the ability of the pancreas to secrete insulin, the ability of
insulin to promote uptake of glucose into peripheral tissues and the
ability of insulin to suppress hepatic glucose production. 32
31
Ibid.
32
Carl.A Brutis, Edward R. Ashwood, David E. Bruns and Barbara G
Sawyer, Fundamendals of Clinical Biochemistry, (New Delhi : Reed. E
Sevier India Pvt Ltd., , 2006), P.117.
34
35
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Iron rich substances inside red blood cells called Hemoglobin. The
blood becomes bright when hemoglobin and oxygen are combined.
The blood turns dark red when oxygen transfers from the hemoglobin
into the body cells. 33
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1. The findings of the study will provide guidance to physical
educationist and coaches to analyse the body type or somatotype
components of the athletes which help to adopt the proper training
schedule.
2. The findings of the study will add to the quantum of knowledge on
effect of the Yogic practices and the Aerobic exercises on physical,
physiological, body composition and bio-chemical changes.
3. The result of the study will be helpful to the physical educationist and
coach to adopt the Yogic practices or aerobic exercises.
4. The result of the study will help to find the relationship between
somatotype components and health related physical fitness such as
physical, physiological and Body composition of variables and
33Ruth
Ann Althaus et. al., Health, (Glenview,Illinois: Scott Foreman
and company, 1987), P.117.
35
36
Biochemical variables with the effect the Yogic practices and
Aerobic exercises of fourteen weeks training.
5. The result of the study will help to impart the Yogic practices or
Aerobic Exercises to overweight and obese people depending on
the age group and health status or lifestyle.
6. The result of the study will help to overcome the lifestyle diseases.
7. The result of the study will help to find the relationship between
somatotype and physical fitness components and biochemical
variables.
36
37
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The development of Sheldon‘s system, researcher is
proposed to study & analyse the effect of selected Yogic Practices
(Asanas & Pranayama) & Aerobic exercise on Somatotype Components
and
relationship
with
selected
Health
Related
Physical
Fitness
Components such as Muscular Strength & Endurance (Arm strength),
Cardio vascular Endurance (Twelve minutes run), Muscular Flexibility
(Flexibility Measures) & Body composition (Percent Body fat)and Biochemical (lipid profiles-TG, LDL, HDL, TG, TC, FBS and Hb).
Benson and Toyee1 presented a novel approach for measuring
body size estimation in normal and eating-disordered women and men.
Clinical categories of body types were used as prototypes. By
comparing the subjective appearance of a person’s body with
prototypes, we can understand how different attributes of his or her
body shape contribute to perception of body size. Body composition,
Body-Image computer- graphics and eating disorder were analyzed.
After lifelike random distortions have been applied to parts of their body
1
Benson P J and Tovee, “A computer-graphic technique for the
study of body size perception and body types”, MEDLINE (R), 31(3),
(August, 1999): pp.446-54.
38
image, individuals adjust their body shapes until they converge on their
perceived veridical appearance. Exaggeration and minimization of
particular body areas measured with respect to their true shape and
with different prototypes can be expressed as numerical deviations. In
this way, perceived body size and body attractiveness can be
appraised during the course of diagnosis and treatment of eating
disorders.
Dolgener, et.al.,2 stated that a series of body build composition
variables were determined on a group of 29 female ballet and modern
dancers. The purpose of this study was to quantify the components of
body build and physique of group of high ability female ballet and
modern dancers.
All measurements were obtained with the subjects
wearing two piece bathing suits.
Body weight and height, body
diameters, circumferences and skinfold were measured. Skinfold such
as chest, mid auxiliary, triceps, subscapular abdominal super-iliac, thigh,
calf, knee and diameter such as deltoid, biacrominal, chest-iliac,
bitrochanteric knee, ankle, elbow, wrist, Girths such as neck, shoulder,
chest, minimum abdomen maximum abdomen , hips, thigh, knee, calf,
deltoid, biceps, extended biceps flexed, forearms, wrist. The average of
trials was used as the measurement at each site. T-Test was computed
2
Forrest A.Dolgener, Thomas c. Spasoff and Wendy E. St. John,
“Body Composition of High Ability Female Dancers”, Research Quarterly,
51(1980): pp.599-607.
39
between the two groups on all the measured and computed variables
to determine if differences exited between the modern and ballet
dancers.
Somatogram, which represents a comparison of ballet
dancers with a group of non-dancers as described by Behnke and
Wilmore, indicated that the dancers are different from the non-dancers
in body build.
Solley
3
study was made to further analyze factor in physical role
played by this growth that would enable the teacher to understand
better for the factors in the growth of children. The purpose was to
determine the status of physique, change in physique and speed in
growth pattern of children in a typical elementary school. The wetzel
Grid was introduced as a diagnostic instrument in the first four grades of
the campus school, Wisconsin State College at River Falls. Measurement
of height and weight were made within one week of January 15 each
year. Therefore, progress of growth as studied in that over one year
period ranging from January to January.
All ages were scored from
school record. After each measurement period, growth curves were
plotted on the Grid. The proposition of students the significance of the
relationship between the growth factors was further analyzed for the
proportion.
3
The chi-square test of independent was employed to
William H. Solley, “Status of physique, Change in Physique and
speed in the Growth pattern of school children Grades 1-8”, Research
Quarterly, 30( 1959): pp. 465-477.
40
determine the significance of relationship that existed among
physique, change in physique and speed and among these factors and
sex and grade level. Change of physique and speed of growth also
showed a significant relationship. The relationship between speed and
sex were statistically significant while speed and grade level appeared
to be non-related.
Brown4
was designed to determine the relationship between
body type and body alignment and center of balance. The purpose of
this study was to determine if there was any relationship between the
constitutional body type and the static postures of adult college
women.
The subjects participating in this investigation were 58
volunteer, young adult, college women at the Washington State
University. There were 27 subjects either majoring or minoring in Physical
Education. The remaining 31 had various other major. The subjects had
a mean age of 20.15 years, a mean height of 65.6 inches and mean
weight of 139 lbs. Each individual was somato typed according to the
photographs, the center of balance was determined utilizing the Lovett
and Renold technique and the body alignment was taken by utilizing
the modified Howland alignometer.
It was concluded that somato
typed for young adult women was not related to body alignment since
4
Gaydena M. Brown, “Relationship between Body Types and
Static Posture of young Adult Women”, Research Quarterly,
31(1960):pp.403-407.
41
other studies have found significant relationship between body type
and body alignment in men.
Pierson5 selected twenty-one untrained subjects, based on body
build to investigate certain relationships between heights, lean body
mass, body fat, reaction time and over-all body speed of untrained
subjects. Subjects were selected to represent the following body builds:
short and heavy, short and light, tall, heavy, tall, and light. There were
five, four, five and seven subjects respectively in each group. After the
subjects’ height and weight were coded, simply reaction time was
measured. This involved finger lift in response to a visual stimulus and to
distinguish it from RT measured in conjunction with over-all body speed
was designated by laboratory RT. The time of a sprint start was then read
from the first chronoscopic and over-all body speed in second. Reaction
time as thus measured was designed operational RT. The present study
may be interpreted as indicating that the speed, which the untrained
individual can react, has little relationship to his size or composition.
Laubach and Conville6 study was to investigate the relationship
between various aspects of flexibility and selected anthropometric
5
William R. Pierson, “Body size and speed”, Research quarterly,
32(1961): pp.196-199.
6
L.Laubach and T. Mc. Conville, “Relationship between flexibility
Anthropometry and the somatotype of college men”, Research
Quarterly, 37(1966): pp. 241-251.
42
measurements and the somatotype of college men.
Sixty three
Antioch College male students’ volunteers, who were paid for their
participation in this study, were used as subjects. Ages of the students
ranged from 16 to 25 years.
Forty-six anthropometric measurements
were measured. The means standard deviation and coefficients of
variation were computed for the fourteen flexibility measurements. The
Sheldon method was used for the somatotype assessments, the
fourteen-flexibility measurement significant beyond the 0.01 level of
confidence. There was a general lack of relationship between flexibility
measurements and somatotype components.
High coefficients of
correlation between the anthropometric measurements utilized in the
study and the somatotype components.
Slaughter and Loheman 7 study was to determine the association
of somatotype and body composition in boys of 7 to 12 years old.
Somatotype was measured by two methods. Sheldon’s revised trunk
index method and Heath – Carter’s anthropometric method were used.
Body composition was estimated as fat and lean body mass using a
whole body method. The subjects were 45 young boys with a mean
age of 10.04 years ranging from 7.25 to 12.59 years.
These boys
participated in the University of Illinois sports- fitness program during the
7
M.H. Slaughter and T.G. Loheman, “Relationship of Body
Composition to somato type in Boys Ages 7 to 12 years”, Research
Quarterly,48(1977): pp.752-757.
43
summer of 1975. Heath-carter’s first component and Ectomorphy,
Percent
body
fat
was
significantly
related
to
all
somatotype
components of both methods except for Sheldon’s mesomorphy.
Absolute lean body mass was significantly correlated with Sheldon’s
Ectomorphy.
It was concluded that the Endomorphy, the first
component reflect body fatness to a considerable extent, but that little
association between lean body mass and mesomorphy existed among
children.
Marcel Hebelinck and Postma8 study was to determine number of
physical characteristics and somatotype rating of College physical
education Majors in South Africa. Among these characteristics and
rating of college Physical education major at the University of
Stellenbosch and the relationship of these characteristic and ratings with
certain, motor fitness tests were analysed. Physiological factors, such as
muscle action and efficiency of the circulatory and respiratory systems
and psychological data were obtained from fifty-two male physical
education majors. All were junior and seniors in the Department of
Physical Education and aged from 18 to 25 years.
Height, weight,
shoulder width, neck girth, waist girth, shoulder width, neck girth, waist
8
Marcel Hebelinck and John W. Postma, “Anthropometric
Measurements, somatotype Ratings and certain Motor Fitness Test of
Physical Education Majors in South Africa”, Research Quarterly, 34(1963):
pp: 327-333.
44
girth, reciprocal ponderal index and waist neck girth index were taken.
The Sheldon method was used for the somato typing and points were
allocated
for
endomorphic,
mesomorphic
and
Ectomorphic
characteristics. The fitness tests were administered such as 60 yard dash,
chinning, dipping, standing vertical jump, standing broad jump and
putting the shot. The sum of these scores for the six tests used indicated
the total motor fitness in this investigation. The result showed that the
mesomorphic type has the better motor fitness scores.
Herman et.al.,9 studied on
measurement
characteristic
such
body size was determined by
as
height,
weight
,muscle
development of adipose tissue and skeletal or body structure. The study
was to identify the relationship of extreme body type to range of
flexibility at Pennsylvanian State University in 1953.
It was also to
determine whether some prediction could be made about flexibility in
terms of known body size. Thirty-five of thinnest fattest and most
muscular students were selected. Ages ranges from 18 and 22 years.
They were judged whether their body type related to ectomorphy or
mesomorphy or endomorphy. A black and white grid with horizontal
diameter and perpendicular planes were placed behind it to be used.
Later, as a guide for photogrametric purpose the relaxed pose of
9Herman
J. Tyrance, “Relationship of Extreme Body type to Range
of Flexibility”, Research Quarterly, 29(1958): p.349.
45
different measurement were taken. The Panatonic X -ray films was
used with en-posture time set 1/25 seconds and the lens stopped down,
f = 4.5.
Five breath measurements taken in rear pose.
In statistical
technique their correlation to determine flexibility and somatotype
variable, somatotype and flexibility multiple correlation caused to show
predictive value of flexibility, when associated with somatotype criteria.
To determine the possible extent of influence of similar flexibility traits in
different body type chi-square was used.
The‘t’ was used value to
determine significant of differences between the group means of the
three-body type. It concluded that the significant difference between
two laterals types such as endomorphy and Mesomorphy were found.
Lan Bach and convellee10 pointed out the relationship between
flexibility and anthropometry using lighter technique of 63 college male
students as subjects by excluded the subject with physical deformities
and organic deficiency.
The subject age ranged between 16 to 25
years with mean age of 19 years. He computed lean body mass from
different skinfold measurements. It was concluded that the body fat as
measured by skinfold caliper yielded fairly high significant, negative
correlation with flexibility measurement.
10
Lloyd L. Lanbach, Jhohn Mc convellee J., “Relationship
between flexibility and Anthropometry and the somatotype of college
Men” Research Quarterly, 37(March 1966), P.241.
46
Rider and
Daly11
conducted an experiment study on the effect
of flexibility on enhancing spinal mobility in older women. Ten week
flexibility training program was given to female old women with mean
age of 71.8 They were randomly assigned to either the experimental
group (Flexibility Training) or control group ( no training). Prior to initiation
of training, all subjects were rested for total spinal mobility the combined
sum of spinal flexion and extension. After final test it was found that a
significant improvement in the spinal mobility accord due to flexibility
training.
Cureton, et.al.,12 studied on the body fatness and performance
difference between men and women.
For the purpose the physical
performance test and the percent body fat were tested. The Skinfold
thickness measured to find out percent body fat and the physical
performance by modified pull-ups, Vertical jump, 50 yard dash; 12
minutes run were measured for 55 male college students.
It was
concluded that greater body fatness was lesser the physical fitness. This
partly explains why women on an average do not perform as well as
men on strenuous task requiring movements of body weight.
11
R. Rider and J.Daly, “Effect of Flexibility on enhancing spinal
mobility in older women” Journal of sports Medicine and physical
Fitness, 31(1991): P.231.
12
Kirk J. Cureton, Lary D.Hensley and Antinette Tiburzi, “Body
Fatness and performance difference between men and women”,
Research Quarterly, 5(1979), P.333.
47
Madanmohan,
et.al.,13
conducted study to determine the effect
of yoga training on reaction time, respiratory endurance and muscle
strength. For this investigation they selected 27 male medical students
volunteer residing in the college hostel.
Their age was 18-21 years,
weight 50-69 kg and height 161-179 cm.
The experimenting subjects
were tested on visual and auditory times (RT.), maximum expiratory
pressure(MEP) maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), 40 mm Hg test,
breath-holding time after expiration(BHT exp), Breath holding time after
inspiration(BHT insp), and hand grip strength (HGS).
The researchers
found out that there was a significant decrease in visual RT as well as
auditory RT (from 194.18 + 126.46 + 10.75mmHg) while MIP increased
from 72.23 + 6.45+ 90.92 +60.03mm Hg. Both these charged being
statistically (P<0.001) from 36.57 + 83.36 + 3.95s and 13.78+ 0.58 to 16.67)
0.47 Kg respectively BHT exp. Increased from 32.15 + 1.41 to 44.53 +3.78
(P<0.01 and BHT insp. Increased from 63.69 + 5.38 to 89.07 + 9.61 (P<0.05).
They concluded that yogic practice showed a significant reduction in
visual and auditory RT and significant increase in respiratory pressure
breath holding times and Hand grip strength.
13
Madanmohan, et.al., “Effect of yoga on reaction Time,
Respiratory Endurance and Muscular Strength’’, Indian Journal of Physio.
Pharmac., 36 (1992): pp. 229-233.
48
Gopal et
al.14
studied the effect of Yogasanas and Pranayama
on blood pressure, pulse rate and some respiratory function. Two groups
of male volunteers of 20-33 years in age and having the same averaging
height and weight were studied. The experimental group of 14 subjects
in Yogasanas and Pranayama for a period old six weeks. The control
group consisted of 14 normal untrained subjects, who carried out nonyogic exercise i.e. involved in long walk and light games. Pre-test and
post-test were conducted to both the groups before and after training.
The result showed that a corresponding increase in respiratory function.
K.N.Udappa et.al.15
carried out a comparative study on the
effect of yogic postures namely sarvangasana, shirshasana and
halasala along with their complementry postures namely matayasana,
mayurasana and pashchimathanasana on physical, Physiological
endurance and metabolic changes.
The subjects were six healthy
young males of average age of 20. At the end of every third month the
under mentioned physical and physiological factors, such as
body
weight, abdominal girth, chest girth, rate of inspiration, breath – holding
time, vital capacity, pulse rate and blood pressure were assessed.
14
K. S. Gopal, et.al., “Effect of yogasanas and Pranayama on
Blood Pressure Pulse Rate and some Respiratory Function”, Indian
Journal of Physiological Pharmac., 17 (1973): pp. 272-276.
15
K.N Udupa, et.al. “A Comparative study on the Effect of some
individual yogic Practices in normal persons”, Research Quarterly, 63
(1975): pp.166-171.
49
Simultaneously
the
volunteers
were
tested
with
biochemical
investigation, such as fasting blood sugar, total serum lipid, total serum
Protein, Plasma cortisol, urinary 17 –hydroxycorticosteroids, urinary 17betosteriods and urinary catecholamines (UMA).
The training on
sarvangasana appears to induce prominent physiological effect,
especially in cardio-respiratory system with fewer amounts of physical
changes. It also produces some important endocrine and metabolic
effects. The remaining two types of practices produce more of physical
effects and lesser amount of Physiological changes.
Khanna et.al.,16 studied on a cross-sectional sample comparison
of 313 subjects of 8-14 years of ages.
The subjects of the study
participated actively in some other physical activity. Cycle ergometer
was used to evaluate cardio-pulmonary responses. Each subject were
given a graded protocol exercise starting with an initial work of 1W/Kg of
body weight and thereafter every two minutes work load was increased
by 0.5w/kg till exhaustion.
Oxygen consumption, carbon-di-oxide
production, ventilation, heart rate and oxygen pulse were recorded
after every 30 seconds on a computerized ergoneumo test during
exercise and recovery of Oxygen was computed.
16
It had been
G.L.Khanna et.al., “Prediction of Aerobic and Anaerobic
Capacity from Maximal, Sub-maximal and recovery cardiopulmonary
responses in children”, Journal of sports Science in Physical
Education,Vol.4, No.1(1992): pp.1-7.
50
concluded that VO2/min and HR at 2 W/Kg of work Load can best
predict maximum aerobic capacity and oxygen debt. Recovery VO2
value at 2nd min can predict VO2 max and O2 debt VCO2 /min, max
and O2 pulse have highest.
Ashok and Rupiner17
studied to examine the distribution of
subcutaneous fat in young adult physically active 50 males and 50
females and aged 18-24 years. The conditioning program consisting of
exercises targeted to improve flexibility, Strength and cardio respiratory
endurance for 90 days. The data significantly analyzed by using the SPSS
X Software. The ANOVA and Scheffe Post hoc tests were used to derive
the result.
The result showed that the distribution pattern of
subcutaneous fat in the form Skinfold thickness in males was sub
scapular (maximal) followed by calf, triceps suprailiac, biceps (minimal).
The subcutaneous Skinfold thickness from the observed body sites
significantly decreased (except Subscapular in females) with the
progression of a conditioning program but it could not change the
preconditioning distribution pattern of subcutaneous fat in both males &
females. Whereas the Body fat Percentage significantly decreased and
LBM% significantly increased only in females after conditioning program.
These findings indicated that a conditioning program on the one hand
17
Ashok Kumar & Rupinderr Mokhal “Fat Distribution after a
Conditioning Programme in Males & Females”, Journal of sports Science
in Physical Education, Vol.1 No.1& 2(2005): pp.74-80.
51
lowers the total body fat by mobilizing and using the subcutaneous fat
and on the other hand increase lean body mass (LBM) both in males &
females.
Ravinderan et. al.,18
studied to assess the changes in blood
glucose level before and after the aerobic exercise with two types of
recovery periods 20 min and 60 min respectively.
Ten men students
were randomly selected as subjects from 50 students of department of
physical Education, Annamalai University. Their age ranged 19-22 years.
For aerobic Conditioning, inclination of treadmill set at 5.5percent and
speed was 10 km/hr-1 for 15 minutes on completion of the aerobic
exercise, post blood samples (ante-cubital vein
were collected from
Group I & Group II with a recovery of 20 minutes & 60 minutes
respectively. The result shows that t ratio for the difference between pre
and post test for 20 minutes test on blood glucose level was decreased
after aerobic exercise at different condition of recovery period.
The
longer recovery after aerobic activity impacted on re-synthesis of
glucose.
18
Ravinderan. V.Gopinath, A.S. Nageswaran & K.Sivakumar et all,
“Repletion of Blood Glucose After Aerobic Exercise at Different Recovery
Periods”, Journal of sports Science in Physical Education, Vol.24,
No.1(2001): pp. 5-9.
52
Bowman et.
al.,19
studied to find whether the age-associated
reduction in baroreflex sensitivity was modifiable by exercise training. The
purpose of the study was to find the effect of the Aerobic exercise and
the Yoga, a non-aerobic control intervention, on the baroreflex of
elderly persons was determined. Baroreflex sensitivity was quantified by
the α-index, at high frequency and mid-frequency, derived from
spectral and cross-spectral analysis of spontaneous fluctuations in heart
rate and blood pressure. Twenty-six (10 women) sedentary, healthy,
normotensive elderly and the mean age of 68 years and range from 62–
81 years subjects were selected for the study. Fourteen (4 women) of the
sedentary elderly subjects completed 6 weeks of aerobic training, while
the other 12 subjects(6 women) completed 6 weeks of yoga. Heart rate
decreased in following yoga but not aerobic training.
VO2 max
increased by 11% following yoga and by 24% following aerobic training.
No significant change in αMF occurred after aerobic training. Following
yoga, but not increased. Short-duration aerobic training does not modify
the α-index at αMF or αHF in healthy normotensive elderly subjects. αHF but
not αMF increased following yoga, suggesting that these parameters are
19A.J
Bowman,R.H.Clayton, A.Murray, J.W Reed, M.M.F.Subhan &
G.A Ford “Effects of Aerobic Exercise Training and Yoga an the
Baroreflex In Healthy Elderly Persons” The Journal of the European Society
for Clinical Investigation, Vol. 27, No.5 (Oct. 2003): pp. 443-449.
53
measuring distinct aspects of the baroreflex that are separately
modifiable.
Gilliam and Burke
20
analysed the effect of exercise on serum lipids
a six-week study involving 14 females ages 8-10 years. The subjects
participated in various aerobic activities for 35 minutes per session. The
results showed that a significant increase in HDL-C levels with no change
in TC levels. The main flaw in this study was a lack of a control group.
Additionally, intensity was described as “strenuous” but was not
quantified, the length of the study was short (six weeks) and the
frequencies of the exercise sessions were not reported.
Linder et. al.,21 examined the effect of an eight-week
walk/jog program at heart rate (HR) intensity of 80 % of peak HR on 29
boys, ages 11-17 years. No effect was observed for TC, TG, HDL-C, or
LDL-C. The inherent problem in this study was the inclusion of boys who
are at differing maturational stages.
20Gilliam,
T.B. and Burke, M.B. (1978) “Effect of exercise on serum
lipids and lipoproteins in girls ages 8 to 10 years”, Artery 4 (1978): 203-213.
21Linder,
C.W., DuRant, R.H. and Mahoney O.M, “The effect of
physical conditioning on serum lipids and lipoproteins in white male
adolescents”. Medicine and Science and Sports and Exercise, 15 (1983):
pp.232-236.
54
Savage et.
al.,22
walk/jog/run program with 8-9 year old boys
resulted in no alterations in TC or LDLC or HDL-C levels after the 11-week
study. However, they did note an overall improvement in the TC/HDL
ratio.
Ignigo and Mahon
23
examined the effects of ten week exercise-
training program on TC, TG, HDL-C and LDL-C in boys and girls ages 9-10
years. Eighteen children participated in an exercise training program
and ten children served as control group. The exercise program
included 60 minutes of aerobic activity, three times per week at an
exercise intensity that elicited heart rates of 160-180 b·min-1 (80-90 % of
peak HR). TG was the only variable that was favorably altered after the
10-week exercise intervention. Although the authors mentioned the use
of heart rate monitors, they also mentioned that heart rates were
monitored by pulse counting and thus it was not clear how many
subjects were using heart rate monitors at any one time. Additionally,
the inclusion of both boys and girls in a relatively small sample size may
result in an affect that independent of the exercise intervention.
22Savage,
M. P., Petratis, M.M., Thomson, W.H., Berg, K., Smith, J.L.
and Sady, S.P. “Exercise training effects on serum lipids of prepubescent
boys and adult men”. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,18(2)
(1986): pp.197-204.
23Ignico,
A.A. and Mahon, A.D. “The effects of a physical fitness
program on low-fit children”, Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport,
66 (1995): pp.85-90.
55
Blessing and Williford
24
done an experimental study for 16 week
training on Blood lipid and physiological responses in adolescents of the
longest to date, their subjects were 25 males and females who ranged in
age from 13-18 years. The 16-week training program involved 40 minutes
of various aerobic activities at an intensity that was to approach 90% of
previously determined peak work capacity. Intensity was measured by
the subjects obtaining a radial pulse. The results showed that a positive
alteration in TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, TC/HDL-C levels after the 16 weeks of
exercise training. The inherent problem with this study was the inclusion
of both males and females in the same study. Additionally, the age
range of 13-18 years was too broad due to the differing maturational
stages of this group.
Rowland et.al.,25 conducted a thirteen week study that included
34 boys and girls of ages ranged from 10 to 13 years. First, there was not
a control group. Instead, the subjects acted as their own controls to try
and minimize the genetic effects of trainability between subjects.
However, this study design did not control the effect on growth and
24Blessing,
D.L., Keith, R.E. and Williford, H.N. “Blood lipid and
physiological responses to endurance training in adolescents”, Pediatric
Exercise Science, 7(1995): pp.192-202.
25Rowland,
T.W., Martel, L., Vanderburgh, P., Manos, T. and
Charkoudian, N. “The influence of short-term aerobic training on blood
lipids in healthy 10-12 year old children”, International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 17(7) (1996): pp. 487-492.
56
maturation. Second, although heart rate monitor were used to
measure exercise intensity, only seven subjects used the monitors during
each exercise session. The result showed that exercises intensity was
only collected on each subject for one out of three exercise sessions
each week. A final source of error was again subject heterogeneity. As
mentioned previously, the inclusion of adolescent boys and girls in the
subject pool makes interpretation of blood lipid and lipoprotein changes
difficult.
Stergioulas et.al.,26 examined the effect exercise training had on
HDL-C levels in 18 boys ages ranged 10 to 14 years. The subjects were
chosen from a group of 1000 Greeks who participated in a survey that
was conducted in 1993. HDL-C levels increased significantly after the
eight-week training program. There were several inherent problems with
this study. First, it is difficult to ascertain how exercise intensity was
measured. They indicated that exercise was set at 75 % of physical
working capacity that was an exercise with heart rate of 170 b·min-1.
However, it is not clear whether a peak exercise test was completed
prior to the exercise intervention or whether peak heart rate information
was gathered from the Greek survey results of 1993. If exercise heart rate
was estimated, than it was questionable that a heart rate of 170 b·min-1
26Stergioulas,
A., Tripolitsioti, D., Bouloukos, A. and Nounopoulos, C
“The effects of endurance training on selected coronary risk factors in
children”, Acta Paediatrica, 87(4) (1998): pp.401-404.
57
would be accurate for boys with an age ranged from 10 to 14 years.
Second, the authors did not describe whether or not heart rate was
monitored during the exercise sessions. A final source of error was
subject heterogeneity.
Although only boys participated in the study,
their maturity level was not assessed. Assessment of maturity levelwas
pertinent because there were most likely significant differences in the
boys who ages ranged from 10-14 years and, as mentioned above,
testosterone has been shown to adversely affect the blood lipid and
lipoprotein profile of males.
Stergioulas and Filippou27 conducted a second study with 10-14
year old boys. In this study all subjects completed peak exercise tests for
the determination peak HR. The subjects completed 4 training sessions
per week at 80 % of their peak HR for 8 weeks. Significant, positive
alterations were observed for all variables at the end of the eight weeks.
However, it again needed to be pointed out that the probable maturity
differences among the subjects made the data difficult to accurately
interpret.
27Stergioulas,
A.T. and Filippou, D.K. “Effects of physical
conditioning on lipids and arachidonic acid metabolites in untrained
boys: a longitudinal study”. Applied Physiololgy of Nutrition Metabolism,
31(4) (2006): 432-441.
58
Stoedefalke et.al., (2000)
28
has the longest well controlled
exercise training study to examine the effects of exercise training on post
menarchial 13-14 year old girls. The twenty week study included twenty
experimental subjects and eighteen control subjects. All subjects
underwent peak exercise tests to determine maximal HR values. Subjects
exercised three times per week for 20 minutes on either a treadmill or
cycle ergometer. Exercise intensity was kept at 75-80% of maximal HR as
verified by HR monitors. No significant change in TC, HDL-D, LDL-C or TG
was observed in either group.
Welsman et. al.,29 examined the effect two separate modes of
aerobic training had on TC levels in 35 girls’ aged from 9-10 years. The
exercise intervention lasted eight weeks and exercise intensity was set at
approximately 80 % of peak HR. All subjects underwent peak exercise
tests to determine peak HR values. No changes in TC or HDL-C were
observed in either group. Subjects exercising on the cycle ergo meters
with heart rate monitors so that exercise intensity could be accurately
measured. Subjects who participated in the aerobic dance program
underwent a pilot study to determine which routines would consistently
28Stoedefalke,
K., Armstrong, N. and Kirby, B.J. “Effect of training
on peak oxygen uptake and blood lipids in 13 to 14-year-old girls”, Acta
Paediatrica, 89(11) (2000): pp. 1290-1294.
29Welsman,
J.R., Armstrong, N., Winter, E.M. and Kirby, B.J.
“Responses of young girls to two modes of aerobic training”, British
Journal Sports Medicine, 31(2) (1997): pp.139-42.
59
elicit heart rates above 150 b·min-1. Additionally, if the subjects in the
aerobic dance group experienced a decline in sub-maximal HR than
the dance routines may not have been rigorous enough to elicit HR
levels of 150 b·min-1 in the latter weeks of the study.
Tolfrey et.al.,30 conducted a very well controlled study with 48 prepubertal boys and girls of which twenty eight of the subjects completed
an exercise training intervention. They controlled for exercise intensity by
using HR monitors and through constant encouragement, they were
able to have all subjects maintain an exercise intensity of 79% of peak
HR. The subjects pedaled on cycle ergometer three times per week for
12 weeks. The results showed that there was no difference over time for
TG and TC between the two groups. However, the exercise group
experienced an increase in HDL-C and a decrease in LDL-C levels.
Changes in the blood lipid profile were independent of alterations in
peak VO2. In fact, the control group started out with a higher peak VO2
and maintained the greater peak VO2 until the end of the study
suggesting that it was the exercise training which directly effected blood
lipid profiles and not peak VO2. This was the first study that had
adequately controlled for exercise intensity and, although it probably
30Tolfrey,
K., Campbell, I.G. and Batterham, A.M. “Exercise training
induced alterations in prepubertal children's lipid-lipoprotein profile”,
Medicine and Science and Sports and Exercise, 30(12) (1998), pp.16841692.
60
unrealistic to expect children to continue to exercise at a constant
intensity, doing the same mode of exercise outside of an experimental
setting, the study did advance our knowledge of the effects a highly
structured exercise training program has on blood lipids and lipoproteins
in pre-pubertal children. The major design flaw was the inclusion of both
boys and girls in the study. Additionally, as mentioned above, few
studies have lasted longer than 12 weeks and it would have been
beneficial to observe whether a longer training period resulted in more
dramatic differences.
Tolfrey et.al.,31
conducted a second training study with 34
subjects, ranged 10-11 year old boys and girls. All subjects exercised
three times per week at 80 % of peak HR. Again all subjects wore HR
monitors for the 12-week exercise-training program. Unlike other studies,
the study was unique in that exercise duration was individualized to
match energy expenditure targets. Two groups were established. A LOW
group that expended 100 kcal·kg -1 and the MOD group that expended
140 kcal·kg -1. The exercise training program elicited no change in TC,
HDL-C
or
LDL-C
irrespective
of
exercise
duration
and
energy
expenditure. The authors suggest that the exercise volume may have
been insufficient to elicit a change.
31Tolfrey,
K., Jones, A.M. and Campell, I.G. “Lipid-lipoproteins in
children: an exercise dose-response study”, Medicine and Science and
Sports Exercise, 36(3) (2004): 418-427.
61
Williford and
Blessing32
study was to examine exercise training
effects in black, male adolescents. Twelve boys completed a 15 week, 5
day per week exercise training program. The exercise sessions took
place for 30 minutes during a regularly scheduled physical education
class. The subjects jogged at 70-90 % of their pre-determined peak heart
rates. It was not clear how HR was monitored. Unique to this study was
the inclusion of a weight-training program that took place two times per
week. The 15-week exercise-training program resulted in significant
increases in HDL-C and significant decreases in LDL-C. No change in TC
occurred. The authors point out that further research was needed
regarding the effects of ethnicity and the effects of exercise training on
blood lipids and lipoproteins.
Borecki et.al.,33 assessed major gene effects for baseline HDL-C,
LDL-C, TG, and their training responses (post-training minus baseline) in
527 individuals from 99 White families and 326 individuals from 113 Black
families in the HERITAGE family study. The baseline phenotypes were
adjusted for the effects of age and BMI, and the training response
32Williford,
H.N. and Blessing, D.L. “Exercise training in black
adolescents: changes in blood lipids and VO2 max”, Ethnic Disease, 6(34) (1996): pp. 279-285.
33An
P, Borecki IB, Rankinen T, Després JP. “Evidence of major
genes for plasma HDL, LDL & TG level at baseline and in response to 20
weeks of endurance training”, International journal for sports medicine,
26(6)(Jul-Aug 2005): pp.414-19.
62
phenotypes were adjusted for the effects of age, BMI, and their
respective baseline values, within each of the sex-by-generation-byrace groups, prior to genetic analyses. In Whites, we found that LDL-C at
baseline and HDL-C training response were under influence of major
recessive genes and multifactor (polygenic and familial environmental)
effects. Interactions of these major genes with sex, age, and BMI were
tested, and found to be no significant. In Blacks, we found that baseline
HDL-C was influenced by a major dominant gene without a
multifactorial component. This major gene effect accounted for 45 % of
the
variance,
and
exhibited
no
significant
genotype-specific
interactions with age, sex, and BMI. Evidence of major genes for the
remaining phenotypes at baseline and in response to endurance
training were not found in both races, though some were influenced by
major effects that did not follow Mendelian expectations or were with
ambiguous transmission from parents to offspring. In summary, major
gene effects that influence baseline plasma HDL-C and LDL-C levels as
well as changes in HDL-C levels in response to regular exercise were
detected in the current study.
63
Mahmoud34
examined the effect of prolonged submaximal
exercise followed by a self-paced maximal performance test on
cholesterol (T-Chol), triglycerides (TG), and high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol (HDLC). Nine trained male athletes cycled at 70% of maximal
oxygen consumption for 60 min, followed by a self paced maximal ride
for 10 min, venous blood samples were obtained at rest, at 30 and 60
min
during
submaximal
exercise,
and
immediately
after
the
performance test. Lactic acid, haematocrit (Hct), haemoglobin (Hb), TChol and TG were measured in the blood, while plasma was assayed for
HDL-C. Plasma volume changes in response to exercise were calculated
from Hct and Hb values and all lipid measurements were corrected
accordingly. In order to ascertain the repeatability of lipid responses to
exercise, all subjects were re-tested under identical testing conditions
and experimental protocols. When data obtained during the two
exercise trials were analysed by two-way ANOVA no significant
differences between tests were observed at 0.05 level. Consequently
the data obtained during the two testing trials were pooled and
analysed by one-way ANOVA. Blood lactic acid increased nonsignificantly during the prolonged submaximal test, but rose markedly
34Mahmoud
S. El-Sayed and Angelheart J.M. Rattu, “Changes in
lipid profile variables in response to submaximal and maximal exercise in
trained cyclists”, European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 73, No. 1-2
(April 1996): pp.88-92.
64
following the performance ride. Lipid variables ascertained at rest
were within the normal range for healthy subjects. ANOVA showed that
blood T-Chol and TG were unchanged (P > 0.05), whereas HDL-C rose
significantly (P < 0.05) in response to exercise. Post hoc analyses
indicated that the latter change was due to a significant rise in HDL-C
after the performance ride. It was concluded that apparent favorable
changes in lipid profile variables occur in response to prolonged sub
maximal exercise followed by maximal effort, and these changes
showed a good level of agreement over the two testing occasions.
Ring and Serge35
analysed regular endurance exercise has
favorable effects on cardiovascular risk factors. However, the impact of
an exercise induced change in aerobic fitness on blood lipids often
inconsistent. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of
nine consecutive months of training on aerobic fitness and blood lipids in
untrained adults. Thirty subjects 35–55 years of age (wt: 73.1 ± 13.6 kg,
height 171.1 ± 9.0 cm, %body fat 24.6 ± 6.3%, 14 males and 16 females)
were randomly assigned to an exercise (EG) (N = 20) and control (CG)
(N = 10) group. All subjects completed an incremental treadmill test,
anthropometric measurements, and venous blood sample collection
36Susanne
Ring-Dimitriou, Serge P “Nine months aerobic fitness
induced changes on blood lipids and lipoproteins in untrained subjects
versus controls” The European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol.99, No.
3 (Feb 2007): pp. 291-299.
65
before and after the 9 months of exercise. Participants in the exercise
group were supervised and adjusted for improvements in running
performance, whereas no change was administered for the control
group. One-way and multivariate ANOVA was conducted to determine
significant differences in means for time and group in selected variables
[body mass, % body fat, BMI; VO2peak, km/h at 2.0 (v-LA2) and 4.0 (v-LA4)
mmol l−1 blood lactate (LA) concentration, km/h of the last load (v-max);
TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TG, Apo B, Apo A-1, and Lp (a)]. Correlation
coefficients and multivariate regression analysis was used to determine
the association between aerobic fitness and blood lipids. The exercise
group improved significantly (P < 0.0001) in VO2peak, v-LA2, v-LA4, v-max
and exhibited a significant decrease in Apo B (P < 0.04) compared to
the control group (NS). In nine months period, EG achieved 24% increase
in VO2peak and 18% reduction in Apo B, denoting the impact of
cardiovascular fitness on cardiovascular risk.
Boudou et.al.,36
investigated the effect of an exercise training
program on lipid profile in correlation with DHEA level and body weight
and body composition in type 2 diabetic men. Longitudinal, controlled
clinical intervention study with exercise training consisting of an 8 week
36P.Boudou,
E de Kerviler, D Erlich, P Vexiau and J-F Gautier
“Exercise training-induced triglyceride lowering negatively correlates
with DHEA levels in men with type 2 diabetes”, International Journal of
Obesity, 25(2001): pp.1108 -1112.
66
supervised program of aerobic exercise (75% VO2 peak, 45 min), twice
a week and intermittent exercise, once a week, on a bicycle ergometer.
Sixteen men (age 45.4±7.2), HbA1c 8.15±1.7%, body mass index (BMI)
29.6±4.6 kg/m2) were randomly divided into two groups: trained group
(n=8) and control group (n=8). Lipid, apo - and lipoprotein and DHEA
concentrations. Cross - sectional areas of subcutaneous and visceral
adipose tissue and mid-thigh muscle by magnetic resonance imaging.
Training decreased visceral (153.25±38.55 vs 84.20±21.30 cm2, P<0.001),
subcutaneous (241.55±49.55 vs 198.00±39.99 cm2, P<0.001) adipose tissue
area and triglyceride levels (2.59±1.90 vs 1.79±1.08 nmol/l, P<0.05) and
increased mid-thigh muscle cross-sectional area (148.30±36.10 versus
184.35±35.85
cm2, P<0.001), and DHEA levels (11.00±3.10 versus
14.25±4.10 nmol/l, P<0.05) with no modification in body weight. Changes
in triglycerides were negatively correlated with changes in DHEA (r=0.81, P=0.03). This correlation was independent of changes in abdominal
fat distribution. Training decreases abdominal fat depots, improves
muscular mass and affects favorably triglyceride and DHEA levels.
Changes in triglycerides and DHEA were inversely related.
Hager et.al.,37 examined the association between aerobic fitness
and serum cholesterol and the effects of controlling for gender, body
37R
L Hager, L A Tucker, and G T Seljaas “Aerobic fitness, blood
lipids, and body fat in children”, American Journal of Public Health,
85(12) (December1995): pp.1702–1706.
67
composition, abdominal fat, and dietary saturated fat in 262 children.
The 1-mile run was used to estimate fitness. Skinfold were used in
assessing body fat. Fit children had lower total cholesterol, low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride levels and higher high-density
lipoprotein cholesterol levels than unfit children, except after adjustment
for body fat and/or abdominal fat. Unfit children appear to be at an
increased risk of unhealthy levels of serum cholesterol due primarily to
increased levels of body fat.
Khanna et.al.,38 studied this studywas based on a cross-sectional
sample comparison of 313 subjects of 8-1 years. All subjects of this study
used to participate actively in some or the other physical activity. Cycle
ergometer was used to evaluate cardio-pulmonary responses.
Each
subject are given a graded protocol exercise starting with an initial work
of 1 W/Kg of body weight and thereafter every two minutes work load
was increased by 0.5 w/kg till exhaustion.
Oxygen consumption,
carbon-di-oxide production, ventilation heart rate and oxygen pulse
was
recorded
after
every
30
seconds
on
a
computerized
ergoneumotest during exercise. and recovery O2 was computed from
the recovery responses of O2 consumption. It has been concluded that
38G.L.Khanna
et al.,“Prediction of Aerobic and Anaerobic
Capacity from Maximal, Subnaximal and recovery cardiopulmonary
responces in children”, Journal of sports Science in Physical Education,
4(1)(1992): pp.1-7.
68
VO2/min and HR at 2 W/Kg of work Load can best predict maximum
aerobic capacity and oxygen debt. Recovery VO2 value at 2nd min can
predict VO2 max and O2 debt VCO2 /min, max and O2 pulse have
highest. Whereas BE has lowest coefficient of determination with VO2
max.
Ashok & Rupiner39 studied to examine the distribution of
Subcutaneous fat in young adult physically active males (N=50) and
females (N=50 )aged from 18-24 years, before and after a 90 days
conditioning programme consisting of exercises targeted to improve
flexibility, Strength and Cardio respiratory endurance. The data was
significantly analyzed by using the SPSS X Software. The ANOVA and
Scheffe Post hoc tests were used to derive the result. The result shows
that the distribution pattern of subcutaneous fat in the form Skinfold
thickness in males was sub scapular (maximal) followed by calf, triceps
suprailiac, biceps (minimal). The subcutaneous Skinfold thickness from
the observed body sites significantly decreased (except Sub scapular in
females) with the progression of a conditioning programme but it could
not change the preconditioning distribution pattern of subcutaneous fat
in both males & females. Whereas the Body fat Percentage significantly
decreased (before 23.87 ± 3.20 & after 20.86 ± 2.41) and LBM%
39Ashok
Kumar & Rupinderr Mokhal “Fat Distribution after a
Conditioning Programme in Males & Females ”, Journal of sports Science
in Physical Education,Vol.1 No.1& 2 (2005): pp.74-80.
69
significantly increased (before 76.00 ± 3.20 after 79.14 ± 2.80) only in
females after conditioning programme. These findings indicate that a
conditioning programme on the one hand lowers the total body fat by
mobilizing and using the subcutaneous fat and on the other hand
increase lean body mass (LBM) both in males & females.
Ravinderan et.al.,40 studied to assess the changes in blood
glucose level before and after the aerobic exercise with two types of
recovery periods 20 min and 60 min respectively. Ten men student were
randomly selected as subjects from 50 students of department of
physical Education Annamalai University. Their age ranged 19-22 years.
For aerobic Conditioning, inclination of treadmill set at 5.5percent and
speed was 10 km/hr-1 for 15 minutes on completion of the aerobic
exercise, post blood samples (ante-cubital vein
were collected from
Group I & Group II with a recovery of 20 minutes & 60 minutes
respectively. The result shows that t ratio for the difference between pre
and post test for 20 minutes test on blood glucose level was decreased
after aerobic exercise at different condition of recovery period, the
longer recovery after aerobic activity impact on re-synthesis of glucose.
40
G.Ravinderan, V.Gopinath, A.S. Nageswaran & K.Sivakumar et
all, “Repletion of blood Glucose after Aerobic Exercise at different
recovery
periods”, Journal
of
sports
Science
in
Physical
Education,Vol.24(1) (2001): pp.5-9.
70
Isabel
et.al.,41
studied to analyse the role played by aerobic
exercise training in the plasma lipoprotein profile, prebeta 1-HDL
concentration, and in the in vitro HDL3 ability to remove cholesterol from
macrophages and inhibit LDL oxidation in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM)
patients and control subjects, in the fasting and postprandial states.
Healthy controls (HTC, N = 11; 1 M/10 F) and subjects with type 2
diabetes mellitus (DMT, N = 11; 3M/8F) were engaged in a 4-month
aerobic training program, and compared with a group of sedentary
subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DMS, N = 10; 4 M/6 F). All groups
were submitted to an oral fat load test to analyze all parameters, both
at the beginning of the investigation protocol (basal) and at the end of
the study period (final).
Exercising did not modify body weight, BMI,
plasma concentrations of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL
cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), glucose, insulin, or HOMA-IR, but it
reduced the waist circumference. The HDL3 composition did not
change, and its ability to remove cell cholesterol was unaltered by
aerobic training. In DMT but not in HTC, aerobic training improved 15%
the HDL3 protective effect against LDL maximal oxidation rate in the
fasting
state,
and
reduced
24%
the
plasma
prebeta
1-HDL
concentration in the postprandial state, suggesting an enhanced
41Isabel
C. D. Ribeiro; Rodrigo T. Iborra, “HDL Atheroprotection by
Aerobic Exercise Training in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus”, Med Sci Sports
Exerc., 40(5) (2008): pp.779-786.
71
prebeta 1-HDL conversion into larger, more mature HDL particles. In this
regard, regular aerobic exercise enriched HDL2 with TG in the fasting
and postprandial states in HTC and in the fasting phase in DMT. Our
results show that aerobic exercise training in diabetes mellitus improves
the HDL efficiency against LDL oxidation and favors HDL maturation.
These findings were independent of changes in insulin resistance and of
the rise of plasma HDL cholesterol concentration.
Woolf-May et.al.,42 studied the effect of two different 18-week
walking programmes on aerobic fitness, selected blood lipids and factor
XIIa . Forty-nine previously sedentary or low active individuals aged 4071 years were allocated to three groups. The long walking group
participated in an 18-week walking Programme which consisted of
walks lasting 20-40 min; the repetitive short walking group completed
walks of between 10 and 15 min, up to three times a day, with no less
than 120 min between each walk; and the control group maintained
their low level of activity. Both walking programme began at a
prescribed 60 min/week, which increased steadily up to 200 min/week
by week 12. During the study, the long walking group walked for an
estimated 2514 min (139 min/week), expending an estimated 67.5 MJ
42Woolf-May
K.; Kearney E. M.; Jones D. W.; Davison R. C.
R.; Coleman D.; Bird S. R, “The effect of two different 18-week walking
programmes on aerobic fitness, selected blood lipids and factor XIIa ”,
Journal of Sports Sciences,Vol.16, No.8, (Nov. 1998): pp.701-710(10).
72
(3.72 MJ.
week-1)
at an estimated 73% of their age-predicted
maximum heart rate and 68% of their estimated V O2max. The repetitive
short walking group walked for an estimated 2476 min (135 min. week1),expending
an estimated 58.5 MJ (3.17 MJ week-1) at an estimated
71% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate and 65% of their
estimated V O2max. The results showed a statistically significant reduction
in heart rate during a standardized step test (pre- vs. -post-intervention)
in both walking groups, indicating an improvement in aerobic fitness,
although the control group showed a higher average heart rate during
the post-intervention test, indicating reduced fitness. When compared
with the male subjects pre-intervention, the females possessed more
favorable levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (P < 0.001),
apolipoprotein (apo) AI (P < 0.001) and ratios of total cholesterol: HDL
cholesterol (P < 0.02) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol: HDL
cholesterol (P < 0.02). Compared with the controls post-intervention, the
walking groups showed no statistically significant changes in total
cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, apo AI, apo AII, apo B, or
the ratios of total cholesterol: HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol: HDL
cholesterol, apo AI : apo B or apo AI : apo AII (P > 0.05). Relative to the
walking groups, factor XIIa increased in the control group (P < 0.05). We
conclude that, although both walking programme appeared to
improve aerobic fitness, there was no evidence of improvements in the
73
blood lipids or associated apolipoproteins of the walking groups.
Further analysis indicated that this apparent lack of change may have
been related to the subjects" relatively good pre-intervention blood lipid
profiles, which restricted the potential for change. The implications of the
observed changes in the coagulation/fibrinolytic factors remained
unclear.
Prasad et.al.,43 studied the Impact of Pranayama and Yoga on
Lipid Profile In Normal Healthy Volunteers.
The present study was
conducted on normal healthy volunteers, 41 men and 23 women, to
evaluate the impact of Pranayama and Yoga asana on blood lipid
profiles and free fatty acids, in two stages. In stage-I, Pranayama was
taught for 30 days and in stage-II, yogic practices were added to
Pranayama for another 60 days. A Significant reduction was observed in
triglycerides, free fatty acids and VLDL-cholesterol in men and free fatty
acids alone were reduced in women at the end of stage-I. A significant
elevation of HDL-cholesterol was seen only in the men at the end of
stage-I. At the end of stage-II, free fatty acids increased in both men
and women, and women demonstrated a significant fall in serum
cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-and VLDL-cholesterol. The results indicated
43Prasad
KVV, Sunita M .Raju PS, Reddy MV, Sahay BK, Murthy KJY,
“Impact of Pranayama And Yoga on Lipid Profile In Normal Healthy
Volunteers”, Journal of Exercise Physiology, Vol. 9 No. 1 (Feb. 2006):
pp.1-6.
74
that HDL-cholesterol was elevated in men with Pranayama, while
triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol decreased in women after yoga
asana. The results of the present study indicated that Pranayama and
yoga asana can be helpful in patients with lipid metabolism disorders
such as coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia etc.
Reza et.al.,44 study was to investigate the effects of aerobic
exercises on serum paraoxonase-1 (PON1) activity, arylesterase (ARE)
activity, and lipoprotein profile. Forty-four non-active healthy men
volunteered to participate in this research. They were randomly assigned
into three groups: vigorous aerobic exercise group (VAE-group, n=15),
moderate aerobic exercise group (MAE- group, n=17) and control group
(n=12). Duration of training was 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week and each
session lasted 30-45 minutes. VAE-group and MAE-group carried out
exercises at 80-85 and 60-65 percent of maximal reserve heart rate.
Dependent variables were measured in the three phases of the study,
including pre-test, mid-test and post-test. Results did not show any
significant changes in PON1 activity, ARE activity, low density lipoprotein
cholesterol (LDL-c), or total cholesterol (TC) concentration after aerobic
exercises. However, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), HDL44Reza
Gharakhanlou, M. Esmaeil Afzalpour, Abbas Ali Gaeini and
Nader Rahnama, “Effects of Aerobic Exercises on the Serum
Paraoxonase 1/Arylesterase Activity and Lipid Profile in Non-Active
Healthy Men” International Journal of Sports Science and Engineering,
Vol. 1 No. 2 (2007): pp. 105-112
75
c/Total cholesterol ratios and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max)
significantly increased (P<0.05) and body mass index (BMI) conversely
decreased (P<0.05) due to vigorous aerobic exercises. The lack of
significant interaction between PON1/ARE activity and aerobic exercises
in an Iranian group (with AA phenotype) along with low PON1 activity of
our subjects probably confirm the concept of racial variability of PON1
activity.
Herrera et.al.,45 study was to examine the association of
somatotype with blood pressure during ageing. The Heath-Carter
anthropometric somatotype and both systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP)
blood pressures were recorded. The sample included 809 healthy
institutionalized elders (370 males and 439 females) from geriatric units in
Caracas, Venezuela. Ages ranged from 60 to 102 years. Productmoment correlation coefficients between somatotype components and
both blood pressure readings were calculated. Principal component
analysis and homogeneity analysis by means of alternative least squares
tests were also performed. Results showed that Females were more
endomorphic and mesomorphic than males. Males were more
ectomorphic than females. SBP showed a downward tendency with
45H.
Herrera, E. Rebato, R. Hernándezb, Y. Hernández-Valerab, M.A.
Alfonso-áncheza “Relationship between Somatotype and Blood Pressure
in a Group of Institutionalized Venezuelan Elders”, International Journal
of Exprimental, Clinical Behavioural, Regenerative and Tecnological
Gerontology, Vol. 50, No.4 (2004): pp.223-229.
76
age in males, while in females the tendency was for the SBP to
increase. Correlations among variables were from low to moderate and
ranged from -0.37 to +0.34 in males, and from -0.18 to +0.32 in females.
Correlations tended to be stronger in the younger age group and
differences between sexes were found. A negative tendency in the
correlation between ectomorphy and both SBP and DBP was found,
except for the oldest age group, for which the correlation was positive.
Endomorphy and mesomorphy showed a stable correlation pattern with
blood pressure in males, while in females this pattern was more irregular
and less consistent. Conclusion: Individuals with high levels of SBP and
DBP had mean somatotypes, which were similar to those of other male
groups characterized by myocardial infarct, coronary heart disease and
the risk of hypertension, indicating that these somatotypes may be
associated with cardiovascular risk factors. The results indicated that
individuals who
present
a cardiovascular risk
profile
are
more
endomorphic and mesomorphic and less ectomorphic than those with
a lower cardiovascular risk profile.
Katzmarzyk
et
al46
investigated
the
relationships
among
subcutaneous fatness, subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) distribution,
46P
T Katzmarzyk, R M Malina, T M K Song and C Bouchard,
“Physique, subcutaneous fat, adipose tissue distribution, and risk factors
in the Québec Family Study,” International Journal of Obesity, Vol. 23,
No. 5 (May 1999): pp. 476-484.
77
somatotype and risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). The
sample included 1410 (715 male and 695 female) youths and adults
from the Québec Family Study.
Six skinfold and the dimensions
necessary for the derivation of the Heath-Carter anthropometric
somatotype (endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy) were measured.
The six skinfolds were summed to provide an index of subcutaneous
adiposity (SUM). In addition, the trunk-to-extremity skinfold ratio, adjusted
for SUM using regression procedures (TER), and the first principal
component (PC1) of skinfold residuals (also adjusted for SUM) were used
to indicate SAT distribution, independent of the overall level of fatness.
Risk factors for CHD included systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and
fasting glycaemia, triglycerides (TGs), plasma cholesterol, high and low
density lipoprotein (HDL-C and LDL-C) cholesterol, and the HDL-C total
cholesterol (CHOL) ratio. In general, SUM was positively correlated with
endomorphy
and
mesomorphy,
and negatively
correlated
with
ectomorphy. On the other hand, SAT distribution was not associated
with somatotype, except in females where TER and PC1 were negatively
correlated with mesomorphy. The result of forward stepwise regression
analyses to predict CHD risk factors, indicated that a significant
proportion of the variance in the risk factors could be accounted for by
SUM, SAT distribution and somatotype (up to 16%). SUM was the best
predictor, entering the regressions first (most important) in six of 15
78
significant regressions in males and 14 of 16 significant regressions in
females. Somatotype components enter as predictors 10 times in males,
and six times in females. Similarly, TER and PC1 enter as predictors nine
times in males and five times in females. It was concluded that 15
Somatotype was related to SUM, while somatotype and SAT distribution
are largely independent of one another. Furthermore, SUM, somatotype
and SAT distribution were significant predictors of biological risk factors
for CHD.
Hoshizaki & Bell47 studied Seventeen measures of joint flexibility
were obtained on 190 volunteer subjects, 124 women and 66 men. Using
a Leighton flexometer and a Universal goniometer seventeen measures
of flexibility were taken. A principle axes method of factor analysis with
oblique rotation revealed four significant factors. The first factor had 14
significant factor loadings (r>0.30) with Factor II having 13, Factor III, 11
and Factor IV, 16. Each factor included one very high coefficient; Factor
I had trunk lateral flexion (0.96), Factor II, shoulder flexion-extension
(0.91), Factor III, trunk flexion-extension and Factor IV, hip flexion (0.94).
These variables also had high coefficients in the other three factors
which were reflected by high communality values; trunk lateral flexion (h
= 0.92), hip flexion (h = 0.88) trunk flexion-extension (h = 0.88) and
47
T. B. Hoshizaki and R. D. Bell “Factor analysis of seventeen joint
flexibility measures” Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1984):
pp.97 – 103.
79
shoulder flexion-extension (h = 0.83). Analysis of the data indicated four
factors representing an underlying structure for body flexibility. Within the
four factors, four variables contributed a high percentage of the
variance, suggesting total body flexibility may be represented using
these four measures.
Alysia et.al.,48 studied to compare cardiovascular fitness between
obese and nonobese children. Based on body mass index, 118 were
classified as obese (boys [OB] = 62, girls [OG] = 56), while 421 were
nonobese (boys [NOB] = 196, girls [NOG] = 225). Cardiovascular fitness
was determined by a 1-mile [1.6 km] run/walk (MRW) and estimated
peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and analyzed using two-way analyses
of variance (Gender x Obese/Nonobese). MRW times were significantly
faster (p < .05) for the NOB (10 min 34 s) compared to the OB (13 min 8 s)
and the NOG (13 min 15 s.) compared to the OG (14 min 44 s.).
Predicted VO2peak values (mL.kg-1.min-1) were significantly higher (p <
.05) for the NOB (48.29) compared to the OB (41.56) and the NOG
(45.99) compared to the OG (42.13). MRW was compared between
obese and nonobese participants on the President’s Challenge (2005),
the National Children and Youth Fitness Study, and FITNESSGRAM® HFZ
48
Alysia Mastrangelo.M, Edward C. Chaloupka, and Peter
Rattigan, “Cardiovascular Fitness in Obese Versus Nonobese 8–11-YearOld Boys and Girls”, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 79,
No. 3 (September 2008): pp. 356–362.
80
standards. The nonobese boys and girls scored higher on all three,
exhibiting
better
cardiovascular
fitness
as
compared
to
obese
counterparts.
Photiou, et.al.,49 conducted general socioeconomic conditions as
well as the physical environment have undergone remarkable changes
in Hungary during the past 30 years. Unfortunately, these positive
processes have resulted in a reduction of habitual physical activity
along with unfavorable changes in dietary habits. Therefore, the
purpose of the present study was to compare some selected
morphological and functional parameters of 7–14-year-old Hungarian
schoolboys living in the middle of the 1970s and at the beginning of the
new millennium. It was hypothesized that there would be significant
differences in morphological and functional characteristics of the
Hungarian schoolboy populations, because they were assessed 30 years
apart. Means of height, body mass, body mass index (BMI), the sum of
five
skinfold
tests,
percentage
of
body
fat,
and
two
running
performance times (400 m and 1,200 m) of the boys (N = 3,672) studied
in 1975 were compared to those of the boys (N = 3,758) in 2005. Data
were analyzed using two-tailed independent samples t tests (p < .05).
We observed significant secular changes in body mass and height. In
49
Photiou. A, J. H. et.al., “Lifestyle, Body Composition, and Physical
Fitness Changes in Hungarian School Boys”, Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, Vol. 79, No.2 (June 2008): pp.166–173.
81
addition, boys in 2005 had significantly more subcutaneous fat
compared to 1975. The running times for the two distances were
significantly poorer at the time of the second investigation. The
remarkable and unfavorable changes in body composition and cardio
respiratory performance were attributed to the continuously decreasing
intensity of habitual physical exercise and a lifestyle that had become
more sedentary (watching TV, playing computer games, etc.). Radical
interventions are necessary to reduce these risks associated with the
high prevalence of cardiovascular disease in Hungary, and the
challenge to resolve the problem requires combined efforts at the
educational, societal, corporate, and governmental levels.
Robert Buresh et.al.,50 study was to determine the relationships
between:
(a)
measures
of
body
size/composition
and
heat
production/storage, and (b) heat production/storage and heart rate
(HR) drift during running at 95% of the velocity that elicited lactate
threshold, which was determined for 20 healthy recreational male
runners. Subsequently, changes in skin and tympanic temperatures
associated with a vigorous 20-min run, HR, and VO 2 data were
recorded. It was found that heat production was significantly correlated
50
Robert Buresh, Kris Berg, and John Noble “Heat Production and
Storage Are Positively Correlated With Measures of Body
Size/Composition and Heart Rate Drift During Vigorous Running”,,
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol.76, No. 3(Sep. 2005):
pp. 267–274.
82
with body mass ( r = .687), lean mass ( r = .749), and body surface area
(BSA, r = .699). Heat storage was significantly correlated with body mass
( r = .519), fat mass ( r = .464), and BSA (r = .498). The percentage of
produced heat stored was significantly correlated with body mass ( r =
.427), fat mass ( r = .455), and BSA ( r = .414). Regression analysis showed
that the sum of body mass, percentage of body fat, BSA, lean mass, and
fat mass accounted for 30% of the variability in heat storage. It was also
found that HR drift was significantly correlated with heat storage ( r =
.383), percentage of produced heat stored ( r = .433), and core
temperature change ( r = .450). It was concluded that heavier runners
experienced greater heat
production, heat
storage, and core
temperature increases than lighter runners during vigorous running.
Haus et.al.,51 studied the effect of aerobic exercise on skeletal
muscle myofibrillar proteolysis in humans.
Relatively littlewas known
about the dynamics of the skeletal muscle protein pool following
aerobic exercise. Myofibrillar protein synthesis has recently been shown
to be substantially elevated for 3 days after a strenuous 60 min bout of
one-legged aerobic exercise, and this increase was surprisingly equal to
or greater than what has been shown numerous times following
51
J.M. Haus , B.F. Miller , C.C. Carroll , E.M. Weinheimer , T.A.
Trappe, “The effect of strenuous aerobic exercise on skeletal muscle
myofibrillar proteolysis in humans”, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine &
Science in Sports, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp.260 – 266.
83
resistance exercise over the same time course. Because net protein
accretion was the sum of protein synthesis and degradation, we sought
to directly measure skeletal muscle myofibrillar proteolysis in five healthy
young males in response to an identical strenuous 60 min aerobic
exercise bout and at the same time points (rest, 6, and 24 h postexercise and 48 and 72 h post-exercise in a subset of subjects). We
measured skeletal muscle myofibrillar proteolysis by monitoring the
release of the natural tracer 3-methylhistidine (3MH) from the vastus
lateralis muscle into the interstitial space via microdialysis. Skeletal
muscle interstitial 3MH concentration was no different (P>0.05) from rest
(5.16±0.38 nmol/mL) after 6 (5.37±0.55 nmol/mL), 24 (5.40±0.26 nmol/mL),
48 (5.50±0.74 nmol/mL), or 72 h (4.73±0.28 nmol/mL). These results
suggested that proteolysis of the myofibrillar fraction of skeletal
musclewas relatively refractory to an intense aerobic exercise stimulus
for up to 3 days, despite the large increase in synthesis of this muscle
fraction following the same exercise stimulus. The apparent net
myofibrillar protein accretion in the hours and days after exercise may
occur in order to offset the large elevation in mixed muscle proteolysis
that has been shown during similar bouts of intense one-legged aerobic
exercise.
84
GarcIa-Lopez
et.al.,52
study was aimed at investigating the
effects of a 21-week period of progressive strength or endurance
training on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) antioxidant
enzyme gene expression and activity in healthy middle-aged untrained
men. Strength (n=11) and endurance (n=12) training were performed
twice a week, including resistance exercises to activate all the main
muscle groups or cycle-ergometer pedaling, respectively. mRNA levels
of
catalase,
glutathione
peroxidase
,
mitochondrial
superoxide
dismutase and cytosolic superoxide dismutase were increased after 21
weeks of strength training, while endurance training induced significant
changes only in MnSOD and GPx mRNA levels. CuZnSOD protein
content was significantly increased only in strength-trained subjects. The
program of strength or endurance exercise training had no significant
effects on the activity of any of the antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion,
in a middle-aged population, 21 weeks of strength or endurance
training was a sufficient stimulus to up-regulate mRNA levels of PBMC
antioxidant enzymes, the strength training being a more optimal
stimulus. However, the discrepancies between enzyme protein and
mRNA levels suggest that the present systematic strength or endurance
52
D. Garcia-Lopez, K. Hakkinen, M. J. Cuevas, “Effects of strength
and endurance training on antioxidant enzyme gene expression and
activity in middle-aged men”, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine &
Science in Sports, Vol. 17 No. 5, pp.595 – 604.
85
training period had no beneficial effects on enzymatic antioxidant
defense mechanisms in previously untrained middle-aged men.
Prasad et al53 presented a study on normal healthy volunteers, 41
men and 23 women, to evaluate the impact of Pranayama and Yoga
asanas on blood lipid profiles and free fatty acids, in two stages. In
stage-I, Pranayama was taught for 30 days and in stage-II, yogic
practices were added to Pranayama for another 60 days. A Significant
reduction was observed in triglycerides, free fatty acids and VLDLcholesterol in men and free fatty acids alone were reduced in women
at the end of stage-I. A significant elevation of HDL-cholesterol was seen
only in the men at the end of stage-I. At the end of stage-II, free fatty
acids increased in both men and women, and women demonstrated a
significant
fall
in
serum
cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-and VLDL-
cholesterol. The results indicated that HDL-cholesterol was elevated in
men
with
Pranayamam,
while
triglycerides
and
LDL-cholesterol
decreased in women after yoga asanas. The results of the study indicate
that Pranayama and yoga asanas can be helpful in patients with lipid
metabolism disorders such as coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus
and dyslipidemia etc.
53Prasad
KVV, Sunita M, Raju PS, Reddy MV, Sahay BK, Murthy KJY,
“Impact of pranayama and yogasana on lipid profile in normal healthy
volunteers”, JEP online 9(1) (2006): pp.1-6.
86
Henry J.
Montoye54
studied on a modification of the Harvard
Step Test was administered to approximately 4700 males and females,
age 10-69 in Tecumseh, Michigan. Heart rate response to this
standardized exercise test is an estimate of capacity for muscular work.
A blood sample was drawn one hour after a glucose challenge on the
same day the exercise test was given. Four skinfolds were measured as
an index of body fatness. It was the purpose of this analysis to study the
relationship of glucose tolerance to heart rate response to exercise. All
analyses were done in age and sex-specific sub-groups. The correlation
coefficients were low but positive in all but one sub-group and half of
the coefficients are statistically significant. This suggests that poor fitness
for work (high heart rate in response to exercise) was related, albeit
weakly, to lowered glucose tolerance. However, there was a positive
relationship between body fatness on the one hand and serum glucose
and heart rate response to exercise on the other. When the effect of
body fatness was eliminated the relationship of heart rate response to
exercise and glucose tolerance remained about the same; low but
statistically significant in some age groups.
54Henry
J. Montoye, Walter Block, Jacob B. Keller, and Park W.
Willis “Glucose Tolerance and Physical Fitness:An Epidemiologic Study in
an Entire Community” Europ. J. appl. Physiol., 37(1977): pp.237-242.
87
Sanchez-Munoz
55
study were to describe the anthropometric
characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite male and
female junior tennis players, to compare the anthropometric data, body
composition and somatotype of the first 12 elite junior tennis players on
the ranking with the lower ranked players, and to establish an
anthropometric profile chart for elite junior tennis players. A total of 123
subjects (57 males and 66 females) elite junior tennis players
participated in this study. The athletes were divided into two groups, the
first 12 and the lower ranked players, according to gender. A total of 17
anthropometric variables were recorded of each subject. There were no
significant differences in height and weight between the first 12 and the
lower ranked boys, while the first 12 girls were significantly taller than the
lower ranked girls. Significant differences were found for humeral and
femoral breadths between the first 12 and the lower ranked girls. The
mean (SD) somatotype of elite male junior tennis players could be
defined as ectomesomorphic (2.4 (0.7), 5.2 (0.8), 2.9 (0.7)) and the mean
(SD) somatotype of elite female junior tennis players evaluated could be
defined as endomesomorphic (3.8 (0.9), 4.6 (1.0), 2.4 (1.0)). No
significant differences were found in somatotype components between
the first 12 and the lower ranked players of both genders.
55Sanchez-Munoz
The
C, Sanz D, Zabala M., “Anthropometic
characterstics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis
players” Br J Sports Med., 41(11) (Nov 2007): pp. 793-9.
88
conclusion, when comparing the first 12 and the lower ranked elite
junior tennis players of both genders, no significant differences were
observed in any measured item for the boys. By contrast, significant
differences were observed in height and humeral and femoral breadths
between the first 12 and the lower ranked girls, whereby the first 12 were
taller and had wider humeral and femoral breadths than the lower
ranked players. These differences could influence the playing style of
junior female players.
Bandyopadhyay56 studied on 50 sedentary males and 128 sports
persons (volleyball=82, soccer=46) of 20-24 years of age were selected
from West Bengal, India, to evaluate and compare their anthropometry
and body composition. Skinfolds, girth measurements, body fat
percentage (%fat), and endomorphy were significantly higher among
sedentary individuals, but lean body mass (LBM) and mesomorphy were
significantly (p<0.001) higher among the sports persons. Soccer and
volleyball players were found to be ectomorphic mesomorph, whereas
sedentary subjects were endomorphic mesomorph. The soccer and
volleyball players had higher %fat with lower body height and body
mass than their overseas counterparts. %fat exhibited a significant
correlation with body mass index (BMI) and thus prediction equations for
56Bandyopadhyay
A. “Anthropometry an body composition in
soccer and volleyball players in west Bengal, India”, Journal of
Physiological Anthropology, 26(4)(Jun. 2007): pp.501-5.
89
%fat from BMI were computed in each group. The present data will
serve as a reference standard for the anthropometry and body
composition of Indian soccer and volleyball players and the prediction
norms for %fat will help to provide a first-hand impression of body
composition in the studied population.
Malousaris et.al.,57 purpose of this study was to describe the
morphological characteristics of competitive female volleyball players.
For this purpose, body weight and height, breadths and girths as well as
skinfold thickness at various body sites were assessed in 163 elite female
volleyball players (age: 23.8+/-4.7 years, years of playing: 11.5+/-4.2,
hours of training per week: 11.9+/-2.9, means+/-S.D). Seventy-nine of
these players were from the A1 division and the rest from the A2 division
of the Greek National League. Two-way ANOVA was used to compare
the differences in these characteristics between competition level and
playing position. Body height ranged from 161cm to 194cm, and the
mean value (177.1+/-6.5cm) was not inferior to that of international
players of similar calibre. Adiposity of these players (sum of 5 skinfolds:
51.8+/-10.2mm, percent body fat: 23.4+/-2.8) was higher than that
reported in other studies in which, however, different methodology was
used.
Volleyball
57Malousaris
athletes
of
this
study
were
mainly
balanced
GG, Bergeles NK, Barzouka KG, Bayios IA, Nassis GP,
Koskolou MD., “Somatotype,size and body composition of competitive
female volleyball players”, J Sci Med Sports, 11(3) (Jun. 2008): pp.337-44.
90
endomorphs (3.4-2.7-2.9). The A1 division players were taller and slightly
leaner with greater fat-free mass than their A2 counterparts. Significant
differences were found among athletes of different playing positions
which are interpreted by their varying roles and physical demands
during a volleyball game. The volleyball players who play as opposites
were the only subgroup of players differing between divisions; the A2
opposites had more body fat than A1 opposites. These data could be
added in the international literature related to the anthropometric
characteristics of competitive female volleyball players.
Bale P et.al.,58 study was to investigate the differences in
somatotype, % fat, and strength in relation to body mass of two groups
of American football players. One hundred and forty-three football
players (85 high schools and 58 colleges) were classified into five weight
groups (< 73 kg, 73-82 kg, 83-91 kg, 91-100 kg, > 100 kg). Body
composition was estimated from skinfold, and somatotype was
determined using the Heath-Carter method. Strength was measured
from one-repetition maximum (1-RM) lifts in the bench press and
deadlift. Most of the somatotypes were dominant mesomorphs for the
high school player and endo-mesomorphs for the college player. The
weight groups in both the high school and college footballer showed
58Bale
P, Colley E, Mayhew JL, Piper FC, Ware JS., “Anthropometric
and somatotype variables related to strength in American football
players”, J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 34(4) (Dec. 1994): pp.383-9.
91
significant differences in % fat, somatotype, and strength measures
between the lower and higher weight categories. Weight was a greater
factor dictating strength in either lift in the high school player than in the
college player. A higher mesomorphic component was a more
important factor determining strength in the college player while a lower
ectomorphic component contributed more in the high school player.
The proportion of the variance accounted for by regression equations
for the bench press and deadlift was 17% to 41% in the high school
player and 35% to 61% in the college player. Although football requires a
large individual at certain positions, the question remains concerning
overall size versus muscularity to achieve a superior performance level.
Gualdi-Russo and Graziani59 studied on Somatotype of 1593 young
Italian sport participants (717 males and 876 females) were described
and analyzed. The average somatotype for sport participants was 2.74.7-2.7 for males and 3.6-3.7-2.8 for females. The predominance of
mesomorphy on the other two components was found in all sport-groups
examined. This was particularly evident in males for gymnasts and rowers
and in females for martial arts competitors. As for sexual dimorphism,
females
were
endo-mesomorphs,
while
males
were
balanced
mesomorphs. Somatotype show statistically significant changes with the
59Gualdi-Russo
E, Graziani I., “Anthropometric somatotype of
Italian sport participants” J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 33(3) (Sep.1993):
pp.282-91.
92
level of performance in some sport-groups with an increase in the
mesomorphic component (in ballgames and martial arts) and in the
endomorphic component (in swimming). Comparisons with other sportgroups from literature were greatly limited by several genetic and
environmental factors.
Susanne et.al.,60 study was to investigate the correspondence of
physique structures estimated by the Heath-Carter anthropometric
somatotyping method and a factor analysis based on the same set of
10 variables used by Heath-Carter. The investigation was carried out on
a group of 200 healthy young adults of 20 years of age who were
students of physical education. The mean somatotype was 2.7-4.6-3.0 for
the males and 3.3-3.4-3.1 for the females. The 73% of the total variance
in males and 75% in females were represented by three factors. They
were identified as muscular, fatness and skeletal factors in the males,
and in the females as muscular-trunk fatness, skeletal and limb fatness
factors. A PCA gives different results depending on the measurements
used for the calculation. The same set of variables as for the somato
typing method was used intentionally to extract the PCA factors and to
evaluate the possible correspondence between these factors and the
Heath-Carter components. On the basis of the correlation between the
60Susanne
C, Bodzsár EB, Castro S., “Factor analysis and
somatotyping, are these two physique classification methods
comparable”, Annals of Human Biology, 25(5) (Sep.1998): pp.405-14.
93
factors and the somatotype components, one can conclude that
there was: (1) a high correspondence between endomorphy and
fatness factors in both sexes; (2) that mesomorphy correlated positively
with the muscular factor in males and negatively with the skeletal factor
in both sexes; and (3) that ectomorphy was highly positively correlated
with the skeletal factor and negatively with the other two factors in both
sexes. Factors and somatotype components do not correspond exactly
which leads to the following conclusions: (1) The three somatotype
components cannot be identified as orthogonal factors in a factorial
analysis based on the same measurements as for the somatotype, e.g.
the ectomorphy componentwas not an independent factor in males or
in females; (2) The muscle measurements and bone width used to
estimate mesomorphy in somatotyping scored in two independent
factors; and (3) The factor structure of the 10 measurements was sex
dependent.
Hayward JS61 studied the hyperthermic response to exercise in a
warm (30 degrees C), humid (80% relative humidity) environment was
obtained for 27 men who exhibited a wide range of body physique in
terms of the mesomorphy component of somatotype. Increase in
tympanic
temperature
61Hayward
(Yty)
was
significantly
dependent
on
JS, Eckerson JD, Dawson BT., “Effect of mesomorphy on
hyperthermia during exercise in a warm, humid environment”, Am J Phys
Anthropol. 70(1) (May 1986): pp. 11-7.
94
mesomorphy rating (X) according to the regression equation Yty = 0.390 + 0.088X. Increase in rectal temperature (Yre) was also significantly
dependent on mesomorphy rating according to the equation Yre = 0.100 + 0.066X. The hyperthermic response was significantly correlated
with other measures of physique, including ectomorphy, surface
area/weight ratio, and body weight, but was not correlated with fatness
or fitness. The results support the generalization that during exercise in
warm, humid environment individual differences in heat strain can be
highly dependent on physique, especially if fitness and fatness are
similar. In this context, mesomorphy appears to provide the optimum
description of physique variation. Individuals with a mesomorphy rating
greater than 7 warrant designation as being at high risk for heat
intolerance during exercise in environments that significantly impair the
rate of body heat loss.
Peeters
et.al.62
studied
the
genetic
and
environmental
determination of variation in Heath–Carter somatotype (ST) components
(endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy).Multivariate path analysis
on twin data for Eight hundred and three members of 424 adult Flemish
twin pairs (18–34 years of age). The results indicated the significance of
62M
W Peeters, M A Thomis, R J F Loos, C A Derom, R Fagard, A
L Claessens, R F Vlietinck and G P Beunen, “Heritability of somatotype
components: a multivariate analysis”, International Journal of
Obesity,31(2007): pp.1295–1301.
95
sex differences and the significance of the co-variation between the
three somatotype components. After age-regression, variation of the
population in ST components and their covariation was explained by
additive genetic sources of variance (A) shared (familial) environment
(C) and unique environment (E). In men, additive genetic sources of
variance explain 28.0% (CI 8.7–50.8%), 86.3% (71.6–90.2%) and 66.5%
(37.4–85.1%)
for
endomorphy,
mesomorphy
and
ectomorphy,
respectively. For women, corresponding values were 32.3% (8.9–55.6%),
82.0% (67.7–87.7%) and 70.1% (48.9–81.8%). For all components in men
and women, more than 70% of the total variation was explained by
sources
of
variance
shared
between
the
three
components,
emphasising the importance of analysing the ST in a multivariate way.
The findings suggesed that the high heritabilities for mesomorphy and
ectomorphy reported in earlier twin studies in adolescence were
maintained in adulthood. For endomorphy, which represents a relative
measure of subcutaneous adipose tissue, however, the results suggest
heritability may be considerably lower than most values reported in
earlier studies on adolescent twins. The heritability was also lower than
values reported for, for example, body mass index (BMI), which next to
the weight of organs and adipose tissue also includes muscle and bone
tissue.
Considering
the
differences
in
heritability
between
musculoskeletal robustness (mesomorphy) and subcutaneous adipose
96
tissue (endomorphy) it may be questioned whether studying the
genetics of BMI will eventually lead to a better understanding of the
genetics of fatness, obesity and overweight.
Porcari
et.al.,63
studied
the
effects
of
self-administered
neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) on changes in strength,
endurance,
selected
anthropometric
measures,
and
subject’s
perceived shape and satisfaction of the abdominal wall. Twenty-four
adults (experimental group) stimulated their abdominals 5 days per
week (20-40 minutes per session) for 8 weeks and refrained from
engaging in any additional exercise during the study. A control group
(N=16) refrained from exercising the abdominals or engaging in any
other exercise training during the study. Subjects were tested at the
beginning, mid-point, and end of the study. Isometric strength of the
abdominal muscles was tested using an isokinetic dynamometer,
endurance was measured using the ACSM curl-up test, abdominal
circumference was measured using a steel tape measure, and body
shape and satisfaction were assessed via questionnaire. The stimulation
group had a 58% increase in abdominal strength, whereas the control
group did not change. The stimulation group also had a 100% increase
63John
P. Porcari , Jennifer Miller , Kelly Cornwell , Carl Foster, Mark
Gibson, Karen McLean
and Tom Kernozek, “The effects of
Neuromuscular Electrical stimulation training on abdominal strength,
Endurance and selected Anthropometric measures”, Journal of Sports
Science and Medicine, 4 (2005): pp.66-75.
97
in abdominal endurance versus a 28% increase in the control group.
Waist circumference decreased by of 3.5 cm in the stimulation group
compared to no significant change in the control group. All 24 subjects
in the stimulation group felt that their midsections were more “toned”
and “firmed” and 13/24 (54%) felt that their posture had improved as a
result of the stimulation. None of the control group subjects reported
changes in these parameters. There were no significant differences in
body weight, BMI, or skinfold thickness over the course of the study in
either group. NMES, as used in the current study, resulted in significant
improvements in the muscular strength and endurance of the
abdominal region, as well as subject’s perceived shape and satisfaction
of the midsection.
Liliam F. Oliveira64 studied on Incline Dumbbell Curl (IDC) and
Dumbbell Preacher Curl (DPC) were variations of the standard Dumbbell
Biceps Curl (DBC), generally applied to optimize biceps brachii
contribution for elbow flexion by fixing shoulder at a specific angle. The
aim of this study was to identify changes in the neuromuscular activity of
biceps brachii long head for IDC, DPC and DBC exercises, by taking into
account the changes in load moment arm and muscle length elicited
64Liliam
F. Oliveira , Thiago T. Matta , Daniel S. Alves , Marco A.C.
Garcia and Taian M.M.Vieira., “Effect of the shoulder position on the
biceps brachii EMG in different dumbbell curls” Journal of Sports Science
and Medicine, 8 (2009): pp.24-29.
98
by each dumbbell curl protocol. A single cycle (concentric-eccentric)
of DBC, IDC and DPC, was applied to 22 subjects using a submaximal
load of 40% estimated from an isometric MVC test. The neuromuscular
activity of biceps brachii long head was compared by further
partitioning each contraction into three phases, according to individual
elbow joint range of motion. Although all protocols elicited a
considerable level of activation of the biceps brachii muscle (at least
50% of maximum RMS), the contribution of this muscle for elbow
flexion/extension varied among exercises. The submaximal elbow flexion
(concentric) elicited neuro muscular activity up to 95% of the maximum
RMS value during the final phase of IDC and DBC and 80% for DPC at
the beginning of the movement. All exercises showed significant less
muscle activity for the elbow extension (eccentric). The Incline Dumbbell
Curl and the classical Dumbbell Biceps Curl resulted in similar patterns of
biceps brachii activation for the whole range of motion, whereas
Dumbbell Preacher Curl elicited high muscle activation only for a short
range of elbow joint angle.
Kerstin Stoedefalke65 aimed describe the effects of exercise
training in children and adolescents on the following blood lipids and
lipoproteins: total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol
65Kerstin
Stoedefalke, “Effects of exercise training on blood lipids
and lipoproteins in children and adolescents”, Journal of Sports Science
and Medicine, 6 (2007): pp.313-318.
99
(HDL-C), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and triglycerides
(TG). Only studies that described mode, frequency, duration and
intensity of the exercise were included in the review. The results of the
studies reviewed were equivocal. Clearly the effects of exercise training
on the blood lipid and lipoprotein levels of normolipidemic children and
adolescents were equivocal. Of the 14 studies reviewed, six observed a
positive alteration in the blood lipid and lipoprotein profile, four of the
studies observed no alteration in the blood lipid and lipoprotein profile
and one study observed a negative effect on HDL-C but an overall
improvement in the lipid and lipoprotein profile due to the decrease in
the TC/HDL ratio. It appeared that methodological problems presented
in the majority of the exercise training studies limited the ability to make
conclusive, evidence based statement regarding the effect exercise
training has on blood lipid levels in normolipidemic children. Most of the
research design flaws can be linked to one or more of the following:
small numbers of subjects in each study, low or no representation of girls,
inclusion of both boys and girls in the subject pool, inclusion of boys and
girls at different
maturational stages in the subject pool, exercise
training regimes that do not adequately control for exercise intensity,
exercise training regimes that do not last longer than 8 weeks and
exercise training studies that do not have an adequate exercise volume
to elicit a change. Ideally, future research should focus on longitudinal
100
studies which examine the effects of exercise training from the
primary school years through adulthood.
Michael and Jason66 study was to examine the relationships
between measures of isometric force (PF), RFD, jump performance and
strength in collegiate football athletes. The subjects in this study were
twenty-two men [(mean ± SD):age 18.4 ± 0.7 years; height 1.88 ± 0.07 m;
mass 107.6 ± 22.9 kg] who were Division I college football players. They
were tested for PF using the isometric mid thigh pull exercise. Explosive
strength was measured as RFD from the isometric force-time curve. The
one repetition maximum (1RM) for the squat, bench press and power
clean exercises were determined as measures of dynamic strength. The
two repetition maximum (2RM) for the split jerk was also determined.
Vertical jump height and broad jump was measured to provide an
indication of explosive muscular power. There were strong to very strong
correlations between measures of PF and 1RM. The correlations were
very strong between the power clean 1RM and squat 1RM. There were
very strong correlations between 2RM split jerk and clean 1RM, squat
1RM, bench 1RM and PF. There were no significant correlations with RFD.
The isometric mid thigh pull test does correlate well with 1RM testing in
college football players. RFD does not appear to correlate as well with
66Michael
R. McGuigan and Jason B. Winchester, “The relationship
between isometric and dynamic strength in college football players”,
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine,7 (2008): pp.101-105.
101
other measures. The isometric mid thigh pull provides an efficient
method for assessing isometric strength in athletes. This measure also
provides a strong indication of dynamic performance in this population.
Bayios et.al.67 aims of the this study were to determine the
anthropometric profile, body composition and somatotype of elite
Greek female basketball , volleyball and handball players, to compare
the mean scores among sports and to detect possible differences in
relation to competition level. A total of 518 female athletes, all members
of the Greek first National League (A1 and A2 division) in B, V and H
sport teams participated in the present study. Twelve anthropometric
measures required for the calculation of body composition indexes and
somatotype components were obtained according to the established
literature. Result shows that the athletes were the tallest (P<0.001)
among the three groups of athletes, had the lowest values of body fat
(P<0.001) and their somatotype was characterized as balanced
endomorph (3.4-2.7-2.9). B athletes were taller and leaner than H
players, with a somatotype characterized as mesomorph-endomorph
(3.7-3.2-2.4). H athletes were the shortest of all (P<0.01), had the highest
percentage
67
of
body
fat
(P<0.001)
and
their
somatotype
was
L.A.Bavios, N K Bergeles, N G Apostolidis, K S Noutsos, M D
Koskolou, “Anthropometric, body composition and somatotype
differences of Greek elite female basketball, volleyball and handball
players”, Sports Med Phys Fitness, 46 (2) (Jun 2006): pp.271-80.
102
mesomorph-endomorph (4.2-4.7-1.8). In comparison with their A2
counterparts the A1 division players were taller (P<0.001) and heavier
(P<0.01), but at the same time leaner (P<0.001), and exhibited higher
homogeneity in somatotype characteristics (P<0.05). It was concluded
that the Anthropometric, body composition and somatotype variables
of Greek female elite team ball players varied among sports; selection
criteria, hours of training and sport-specific physiological demands
during the game could explain the observed differences. More data are
certainly needed to define the anthropometric profile of B, V and H
female athletes internationally.
Bale68 studied on the relationship of Physique and body
composition to strength in a group of physical education students ,for
the purpose fifty-three specialist women physical education students
were measured anthropometrically and from these measurements
somatotype and body composition were estimated. Leg, back and grip
strength dynamometers were used to measure strength indices. Arm
strength was calculated from each subject's pull-ups and push-ups and
lung capacity was measured using a spirometer. The somatotype ratings
and percent fat measurements indicate that the P.E. students are
generally more muscular and less fat for their age than non-P.E. students.
68
P. Bale, “The relationship of Physique and body composition to
strength in a group of physical education students”, Brit. J. Sports Med.,
Vol.14, and No.4 (December 1980): pp. 193-198.
103
There was a strong relationship between percent fat and the
endomorphy rating and a moderate relationship between lean body
weight and mesomorphy. The moderate relationship of the strength
variables with the muscular rating, whether expressed as mesomorphy or
lean body weight, suggests that the higher a subject's muscular
component the greater their dynamic strength.
Abbas and Mohsen.,69 studied on comparative and correlational
study of the Body image in active and inactive Adults and with body
composition and somatotype. The purpose of the study was to examine
the effect of regular participating in physical activities on body image
and its relationship with body composition and somatotype.
One
hundred and twenty men and women and their ages ranges from 25 to
65 were randomly selected and then divided into two namely active
and inactive groups through the median split technique based on the
physical activity index score.
Physical self description questionnaire
which considered of body fat, global physical and appearance sub
scales were used 2x2MANCOVA (gender x group) with covariates of
body fat and body Mass Index was used to analyses the data. The result
show significant interaction for gender and group in body image
69
Abbas Bahram and Mohsen shafizadeh , “A comparative and
correlational study of the Body image in active and inactive Adults and
with body composition and somatotype” Journal of Applied science,Vol
6, No.11 (2006): pp. 2456-60.
104
subscales.
between
Also, the result revealed inverse significant relationship
body
image
and
body
fat,
BMI,
endomorphy
and
mesomorphy and direct relationship with ectomorphy. In conclusion,
one’s attitude toward his/ her body stem from his/ her physical ability
and size. In addition, active men have more positive body image than
women.
Fabunmi and Gbiri 70 studied on the ability to maintain either static
or dynamic balance has been found to be influenced by many factors
such as height and weight in the elderly. The relationship between other
anthropometric variables and balance performance among elderly
Nigerians has not been widely studied. The aim of this study was to
investigate the relationship between these other anthropometric
variables and balance performance among old individuals aged >60
years in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study used the ex-post facto design and
involved two hundred and three apparently healthy (103 males and 100
females) elderly participants with ages between 60 years and 74 years,
selected using multiple step-wise sampling techniques from churches,
mosques and market place within Ibadan. They were without history of
neurological problem, postural hypotension, orthopeadic conditions or
injury to the back and/or upper and lower extremities within the past
70Fabunmi
AA and Gbiri CA, “Relationship between balance
performance in the elderly and some anthropometric variables”, African
Journal Med Med Sci., 37(4) (Dec. 2008):pp.321-6.
105
one year. Selected anthropometric variables were measured,
Sharpened Romberg Test (SRT) and Functional Reach Test (FRT) was used
to assess static balance and dynamic balance respectively. All data
were summarized using range, mean and standard deviation. Pearson's
product moment correlation coefficient was used to determine the
relationship between the physical characteristics, anthropometric
variables and performance on each of the two balance tests. The results
showed that there were low but significant positive correlations between
performance on FRT and each of height, weight, trunk length, foot
length, shoulder girth and hip girth.
There was low significant and
positive correlation between SRT with eyes closed and arm length, foot
length and shoulder girth and there was low but significant positive
correlation between SRT with eyes opened and shoulder girth and foot
length.
Anthropometric variables affect balance performances in
apparently healthy elderly.
Amit Bandyopadhyay71
studied on Anthropometry and Body
Composition in Soccer and Volleyball Players in West Bengal 50
sedentary males and 128 sportspersons (volleyball-82, soccer-46) of 20–
24 years were selected from West Bengal, India, to evaluate and
compare their anthropometry and body composition. Skinfolds, girth
71
Amit Bandyopadhyay, “Anthropometry and Body Composition
in Soccer and Volleyball Players in West Bengal, India”, Journal
Physiological Anthropology, 26(2007): pp.501–505.
106
measurements, body fat percentage (%fat), and endomorphy were
significantly higher among sedentary individuals, but lean body mass
and mesomorphy were significantly higher among the sportspersons.
Soccer and volleyball players were found to be ectomorphic
mesomorph,
whereas
sedentary
subjects
were
endomorphic
mesomorph. The soccer and volleyball players had higher %fat with
lower body, height and body mass than their overseas counterparts.
%fat exhibited a significant correlation with body mass index and thus
prediction equations for %fat from BMI were computed in each group.
The present data will serve as a reference standard for the
anthropometry and body composition of Indian soccer and volleyball
players and the prediction norms for percent fat will help to provide a
first-hand impression of body composition in the studied population.
Luiz Guilherme et. al72 objective was to analyse the relationship of
maximal aerobic power and the muscular strength (maximal isotonic
strength and vertical jump explosive power) with the running economy
(RE) in endurance athletes. Twenty-six male runners performed in
different days the following tests: a) incremental test to determine the
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the intensity corresponding to
the VO2max. b) constant-velocity treadmill run to determine RE; c) 1-RM
72
Luiz Guilherme et. al., “Relationship of maximal aerobic power
and muscular strength”, Journal Physiological Anthropology, 26(2007):
pp.501–505.
107
test in the leg press and; d) maximal vertical jump test (VJ). VO2max
was significantly correlated with RE. However, the IVO2max the maximal
isotonic strength and the VJ were not significantly correlated with RE.
One concludes that the maximal aerobic power can explain in part the
inter-individual RE variability in endurance athletes. However, maximal
isotonic strength and explosive strength seem not to be associated with
RE values observed in this group of athletes.
Madan mohan et.al.73 studied on the effects of yoga training on
cardiovascular response to exercise and the time course of recovery
after the exercise. Cardiovascular response to exercise was determined
by Harvard step test using a platform of 45 cm height. The subjects were
asked to step up and down the platform at a rate of 30/min for a total
duration of 5 min or until fatigue, whichever was earlier. Heart rate (HR)
and blood pressure response to exercise were measured in supine
position before exercise and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 minutes after the
exercise. Rate-pressure product [RPP = (HR × SP)/100] and double
product (DoP = HR × MP), which are indices of work done by the heart
were also calculated. Exercise produced a significant increase in HR,
systolic pressure, RPP & DoP and a significant decrease in diastolic
pressure. After two months of yoga training, exercise induced changes
73
Madanmohan et. al., “Modulation of Cardiovascular responses
to exercise by yoga training”, Indian J Physiol Pharmacol,48 (4) (2004):
pp.461–465.
108
in these parameters were significantly reduced. It was concluded that
after yoga training a given level of exercise leads to a milder
cardiovascular response, suggesting better exercise tolerance.
Jyotsana R Bharshankar et. al74 conducted a study to examine
the effect of yoga on cardiovascular function in subjects above 40 yrs of
age. Pulse rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure and Valsalva ratio
were studied in 50 control subjects (not doing any type of physical
exercise) and 50 study subjects who had been practicing yoga for 5
years. From the study it was observed that significant reduction in the
pulse rate occurs in subjects practicing yoga. The difference in the
mean values of systolic and diastolic blood pressure between study
group and control group was also statistically significant. The systolic and
diastolic blood pressure showed significant positive correlation with age
in the study group as well as in the control group. The significance of
difference between correlation coefficient of both the groups was also
tested with the use of Z transformation and the difference was significant
(Zsystolic = 4.041 and Zdiastolic = 2.901). Valsalva ratio was also found to
be significantly higher in yoga practitioners than in controls (P<0.001).
Our results indicate that yoga reduced the age related deterioration in
cardiovascular functions.
74
Jyotsana R Bharshankar et. al. “Effect of Yoga on
cardiovascular system in system in subjects above 40 years”. Indian
journal of pharmacol, 47 (2) (2003): 202–206.
109
Stefan J
et.al.75
examined cross sectional the physical activity
patterns associated with low, moderate, and high levels of cardio
respiratory fitness. Physical activity was assessed by questionnaire in a
clinic population of 13,444 men and 3972 women 20 to 87 years of age.
Estimated energy expenditure (kcal.wk-1) and volume (min.wk-1) of
reported activities were calculated among individuals at low, moderate,
and high fitness levels (assessed by maximal exercise tests). The result
shows that average leisure time energy expenditures of 525 to 1650
kcal.wk-1 for men and 420 to 1260 kcal.wk-1 for women were associated
with moderate to high levels of fitness. These levels of energy
expenditure can be achieved with a brisk walk of approximately 30
minutes on most days of the week. In fact, men in the moderate and
high fitness categories walked between 130 and 138 min.wk-1, and
women in these categories walked between 148 and 167 min.wk-1. It
concluded that most individuals should be able to achieve these
physical activity goals and thus attain a cardio respiratory fitness level
sufficient to result in substantial health benefits.
75
J R Stofan, L DiPietro, D Davis, H W Kohl, 3rd, and S N Blair,
“Physical activity patterns associated with cardiorespiratory fitness and
reduced mortality: the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study”, Am J Public
Health, 88(12) (Dec. 1998): pp.1807–1813.
110
Vaithianathan76
studied the effects prior to and after training on
selected physical and physiological variables.
For this purpose 70
physically fit and untrained boys were randomly assigned to one of the
two groups: Group I (experimental group) performed circuit training five
days a week for a period of 12 weeks; Group II (control group) were
restricted to participate in any of the training programme. Prior to and
at the end of training period all subjects were tested for muscular
strength, muscular endurance, cardio-respiratory endurance, blood
pressure, vital capacity and respiratory rate.
The results of the study
indicated that circuit training improved the efficiency significantly in
physical fitness variables such as muscular strength, muscular endurance
and cardio-respiratory endurance and also physiological variables such
as blood pressure, vital capacity and respiratory rate.
Shakthignanavel77 studied the effect of continuous running yogic
pranayama and combination of continuous running and yogic
pranayama exercises on cardio- respiratory endurance, selected
76
K.Vaithianathan, “Effect of Training and After on Selected
Physical Physiological Variables”, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Annamalai
University, Oct 1988.
77
D.Shakthignanvel, “Effect of Continuous Running Yogic
Pranayama and Combination of Continuous Running and Yogic
Pranayama Exercises on Cardio- respiratory Endurance, Selected
Physiological and Psychological Variables”, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis,
Annamalai University, Sep 1995.
111
physiological and psychological variables. Sixty male students were
selected from one hundred eighty from the age group of fourteen to
eighteen years from schools of Puducherry. Four groups were randomly
divided as Group I to IV. The respective training on Continuous running
group, Pranayama group, Continuous and Pranayama group and
Control group were given. The control group did not undergo any
training. The experimental variables such as Forced Expiratory volume in
the First second and peak expiratory flow rate, respiratory pressure such
as Maximum inspiratory pressure maximum expiratory pressure and
40mmHg test were measured, Rate pressure product, Cardio respiratory
endurance by 12 minutes run/walk test were conducted.
The
Psychological variables such as mental health Self confidence State
anxiety were also tested.
The Analysis of covariance was used for
significance. It was concluded that there were significant difference
found in all the three experimental group in Peek expiratory flow rate,
maximum inspiratory pressure and 40 mmHg , for continuous running
and combination of continuous running and Pranayama improved
cardio respiratory endurance, Self confidence level and state anxiety,
combined
health,
continuous running and Pranayama improved Mental
continuous
running
improved
Forced
expiratory
volume,
Pranayama practices improved maximum expiratory pressure and there
was no significant difference found in all experimental group for Forced
112
Vital capacity, systolic, Diastolic, Mean pressure, pulse pressure and
rate pressure.
113
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the procedures followed in the Selection of
subjects, Experimental design, Selection of Variables , Pilot study for the
construction of training program, Orientation of the subjects , Training
program, Collection of data, Reliability of data and Statistical procedure
adopted to analyse the data are presented.
Selection of Subjects
For the purpose of the study forty-five college male students were
selected at random from Govt. college boy’s hostel, Lawspet,
Puducherry. They were studying in the colleges around Puducherry and
their age ranges from 18 to 25 years. They are divided into three groups
namely the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group.
These groups were undergone 14 weeks of progressive training. The
Control group consists of 15 subjects, who were not undergone any
training. The Yogic group consists of 15 subjects who undergone the
practice of Asanas and Pranayama. The Aerobic group consists of 15
subjects who undergone rhythmic Aerobic exercises.
A qualification
criterion for the experimental group was some participation in school or
college level sports and games in order to sustain the training process.
The same criterion was also used for control group.
114
Experimental Design
The Experimental design used for this study was similar to random
group design by selecting 45 college students residing in Govt. hostel,
who were divided into fifteen subjects in each group. The Experimental
groups namely the yogic group and the aerobic group underwent
training for fourteen weeks in their respective discipline. The yogic group
dealt with Asanas and Pranayama practices. The aerobic group deals
with rhythmic Aerobic exercises. But the control group did not involve in
any training.
Selection of Variables
For the purpose of this study, the research scholar reviewed the
available
scientific
literature
pertaining
to
the
somato
type
anthropometric measurements, Health related physical Fitness variables
and Biochemical variables from books, journals, periodicals, magazines
and research papers. The following variables and tests were selected:
I.
Somatotype
1. Endomorphic component
(i)
Triceps skinfold (Skinfold caliper)
(ii)
Subscapular skinfold
(iii)
Supraillium skinfold
(iv)
Calf skinfold
115
2. Mesomorphic component
(i)
Height (Stadiometer)
(ii)
Humerus width (Vernier caliper)
(iii)
Femur width
(iv)
Bicep girth (Measuring tape)
(v)
Calf girth
3. Ectomorphic component
II.
(i)
Height
(ii)
Weight (Weighing machine)
Health related Physical Fitness Components
1. Physical Strength Endurance
(i)
Push ups
(ii)
Pull ups
(iii)
Bent Knee sit ups
(iv)
Extended knee sit ups
2. Muscular Flexibility
(i)
Sit and reach test
(ii)
Truck extension Test
(iii)
Upward backward arm movement test
3. Cardiovascular Endurance
(i)
Twelve minutes run/walk (Cooper Test)
116
4. Body composition
III.
(i)
Triceps skinfold
(ii)
Subscapular skinfold
(iii)
Suprailium skinfold
(iv)
Midaxillary skinfold
(v)
Abdominal skinfold
(vi)
Thigh skinfold
(vii)
Chest skinfold
Bio chemical Variables
1. Lipid test
(i)
Low density lipoprotein (LDL),
(ii)
High density lipoprotein (HDL),
(iii)
Triglycerides (TG),
(iv)
Total cholesterol (TC) and
(v)
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL).
2. Blood test
1. Fasting blood sugar (FBS),
2. Hemoglobin (Hb)
Selection of Test
In the present study the researcher selected some of opted test
for the purpose on assessment of their existence and performance.
117
118
Somatotype Parameters
Early in this centuries and anthropologists readily accepted the
existence of discrete types and tried to find them in what we recognize
today as the complex as the complex continuum of human variation.
Sheldon’s Somatotype concept of continuous variation was a striking
advance over precious system of classification. He recognized that
every individual instead of being of a particular type was mixture of all
the three basic components of physique, but that there were present in
varying degrees in different individuals. Tucker& Lessa (1940) originally
called pyknosomic, somatosomic and leptosomic, but then named by
Sheldon endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy.1 In the modern
study lot research have been done on somatotype. So in this study to
asses’ somatotype of the subjects Sheldon classification supported by
Heath carters’ rating form was used to find the Endomorphy,
Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy.
Physical Fitness Parameters
The health related components of physical fitness include
cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength and endurance muscular
1
J.E Lindsay Carter and Barbara Honeyman Heath, Somatotype
Development and Application, (Cambridge:Cambridge University press ,
1990), P.3.
119
flexibility and body composition. To improve overall fitness an
individual has to participate in specific programs to develop one o the
four components. The term wellness in all-inclusive umbrella composed
of a variety of activities aimed at helping individual recognize
components of life style that are detrimental to their health.
This
concept goes far beyond absence of disease and optimal physical
fitness.2 So, in this study to asses the cardiovascular endurance the
Cooper’s 12 minutes run /walk test, to asses the Muscular strength and
endurance
Arm strength and abdominal tests, to find the Muscular
flexibility sit and reach , trunk extension and upward backward arm
movement test and finally the body composition skinfold measurement
were taken to predict the body fat.
Biochemical Parameters
Since lot of studies have been done related to the analysis of Bio
chemical variable,
The investigator like to analyse the changes
between the biochemical variable between the experimental groups,
The selected biochemical variables on Lipid test were Low density
lipoprotein (LDL), High density lipoprotein (HDL), Triglycerides (TG), Total
cholesterol (TC) and Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). Blood test such
as Fasting blood sugar (FBS), Hemoglobin (Hb)
2
Werner W K. Hoeger and Sharon A. Hoeger, Fitness and Wellness
(Colorado:Morgan publishing company, 1990) , P.5.
120
Pilot study
A Pilot study was conducted before finalizing the training program
to ensure the intensity and duration of Yogic practices and Aerobic
exercises.
Ten students were randomly selected for pilot study from
each group. They were asked to practice their respective training. The
average performances of the ten students from each group were
calculated and that was fixed as an initial load for the Experimental
group.
Orientation of the subjects
The researcher explained to the subjects for the study about the
purpose of the training program and their part in the research
programme. A week was spent to teach on Yogic practices and
Aerobic exercises for the respective groups before commencement of
training program.
Training Program
During the training period the Yogic and the Aerobic group
underwent fourteen weeks of training on their respective program. The
Yogic group was trained on Asanas and Pranayama.
The Aerobic
group was trained on Aerobic exercises with rhythmic music for 60
minutes with an intensity that elicited heart rates of 160-180 b·min-1 (8090 % of peak HR). The Progressive load method was used up to fourteen
121
weeks for the respective groups.
The training was given between
5.P.M to 6.30 P.M every day for 5 days a week with warming up,
experimental training and warming down. The training schedule is
enclosed in appendices.
The following Asanas and Pranayama were practiced:
1. Suriya Namskar
Yogic practices
Asanas
17. Yoga mudra.
32. Salabhasana.
2. Tatasana.
18. Uthita Badmasana.
33. Dhanurasana
3. Utkattasan.
19. Simasana.
34. Vajrasana.
4. Artha kati Chakarasana.
20. Janu Sirasasana.
35. Ustrasana.
5. Artha Chakarasan.
21. Uthana padaasana
36. Maga mudra.
6. Uttanasana.
22. Patchimuthanasana.
37. Bharath vajarasana
7. Virabhadarasana-I.
23. Poorva Uthanasana.
38. Vakarasan.
8. Virabhadarasana-II
24. Navasana.
39. Artha matchiendirasana
9. Virabhadarasana-III
25. Vibharitakarani.
40. Chakarasan.
10. Trikonasana .
26. Sarvangasana.
41. Sasakasana.
11. Prasarita pada Uthanasana.
27. Halasana.
42. Arthasirasana.
12. Badakonasana.
28. Matchiasana.
43. Virkshana.
13. Swatikasana
29. Supta vajrasanas
44. Parivurta Trikonasan..
14. Ubhavista Konasana.
30. Bujangasana.
45. Majariasana.
15. Raja kapotasana
31. Artha Salabasana.
46. Pavanamuktasana.
16. Badhmasana.
47. Savasana.
Pranayama
1. Suka purva Pranayama
5. Sheetkari.
9. Kabhalapathi.
2. Chandra Pranayama.
6. Chandra bhedana.
10. Basthrika.
3. Suriya Pranayama.
7. Suriya Bhedana.
11. Nadisudhi.
4. Sheetali
8. Brhamari Pranayama.
122
123
124
The following rhythmic aerobic Exercises (Low impact) :
Aerobic Exercises
Medium phase
24. Walk front & back elbow bent
1. Shift weight side move left and right.
25. Chicken arm with forward kick.
2. Hand press to knee (chest to thigh).
26. Sunshine single and double.
3. Step touch hands side.
27. Sidestep bicep curls.
4. two step side move.
28. Step and cross.
5. Forward backward move with crossing hands.
29. March.
6. Step press side elbow.
30. Step step change.
7. Step Bicep curl.
31. Press and move forward and backward.
Medium fast phase
32. Knee up lift elbow split upward.
8. Squat press.
33. Swinging hands.
9. Sideward thigh lift hands side.
34. Step and reach.
10. Sideward thigh lift hands forward.
35. Side move arm over the head pull.
11. Sideward thigh lift with click.
36. Walk front and back elbow bent up.
12. March forward and backward with elbow up &
down.
37. Elbow knee forward and backward tough.
13. March sideward with elbow lift.
39. Side move elbow up.
14. Step down March.
40. Side launch with arm stretch up
15. Walk forward backward kick.
41. Side launch with arm stretch forward
16. Cross moves crossing hands.
42. Press up Kick Knee.
17. Sunshine movements.
43. Step side forward upward move.
18. Elbow knee lift.
44. Moving march stretch.
Faster phase
45. Side step kick.
19. Chicken arms.
46. Double step Kick.
20. Reach up.
47. Ankle arm touch.
21. Stretch leg back arm out.
48. Knee elbow touch.
22. Great biceps.
52. Double curl knee touch march.
23. Steps touch side.
38. Chicken turn.
125
126
Collection of Data
The Primary purpose of this study was to analyze the Somatotype
or body type Components of the control group, Yogic group & Aerobic
Group using Heath- Carter3 Anthropometric somato rating method. The
following procedures and scoring methods and equipments were used
and followed to find out the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
test, Health related Physical Fitness Variables and Bio Chemical
Variables.
1. Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
Ten anthropometric dimensions are needed to calculate the
anthropometric Somatotype: stretch stature, body mass, four skinfold
sites (Triceps, Subscapular, Supra-iliac Medial calf), two bone breadths
(biepicondylar humerus and femur), and two limb girths (arm flexed and
tensed, calf). The following descriptions are adapted from Carter and
Heath (1990). Further details are given in Ross and Marfell- Jones (1991),
Carter (1996), Ross, Carr and Carter (1999), Duquet and Carter (2001)
and the ISAK Manual (2001).
3
Edward L .Fox and Donald K. Matthew’s, The Physiological Basis
of Physical Education and Athletics, (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1976),
pp.516-520.
127
Although much of the previous description deals primarily with
males, reliantly Health and Carter have contributed extensively to the
field of Somato typing for both men and women. They suggested that
there are essentially three methods of obtaining a Somatotype rating.4
(1)
Rating
an
Anthropometric
without
a
Somatotype
by
experienced
photograph
(2)
Photoscopic
or
inspection
rating
Somatotype with photo
(3)
Combination of the above two type of study.
From the above said methods, the first method is used to find out
the Somatotype of the athletes. The Heath-Carter Somatotype Rating
Form was used to find the Endomorphic component, Mesomorphic
Component and Ectomorphic Component.
(1) Record pertinent identification data in top section of rating
form
Measuring procedures of Somato type component variables
(A)
Objective: Estimation of body fat by skinfold measurement thickness.
4
Ibid.
128
Materials & Equipment: Skinfold caliper should have upscale inter-jaw
pressures of 10 gm/mm2 over the full range of openings. The Harpenden
Skinfold caliper (Manufactured by British Indicators & distributed by
United States by Quinton Equipment) was used to calibrate for correct
jaw tension and gap width.
Direction & Scoring method: Estimation of body fat by skinfold thickness
measurement. Measurement can use from 3 to 9 different standard
anatomical sites around the body and only the right side is usually
measured (for consistency). The tester pinches the skin at the
appropriate site to raise a double layer of skin and the underlying
adipose tissue, but not the muscle. The calipers are then applied 1 cm
below and at right angles to the pinch, and a reading in millimeters
(mm) was taken two seconds later. The mean of two measurements
should be taken. If the two measurements differ greatly, a third should
then be done, then the median value taken. There are many common
sites at which the skinfold pinch can be taken. The sites are followed
(i)
Triceps: This measurement was taken at a site halfway between
hip of the acromial process and tip of elbow. The measurement is taken
with the arms hanging freely.
The skinfold measure is taken on the
backside of the right arm parallel to the long axis of the arm.
129
(ii)
Subscapular: The skinfold is lifted at the tip of right scapula on
the diagonal plane about 45 degree from Horizontal plane. The caliper
is placed about one centimeter in a laterally downward angle.5
(iii)
Suprailium: The skinfold is cited diagonally following natural line
of illiac crest, just above crest of ileum at the mid-auxiliary line.
(iv)
Calf:
The subjects sit or stand with right knee bent about 90
degree and right foot resting. The caliper site was at the level of medial
site of maximum calf circumference.
The investigator grabs the fold
parallel to the long axis of the calf on its medial aspects.6
Endomorphy rating7 (steps 2-5)
(2) Record the measurements for each of the four skinfolds.
(3) Sum the triceps, subscapular, Suprailium & calf skinfold. Record the
sum in the box opposite SUM3 SKINFOLDS (Triceps, Subscapular,
Suprailium). Correct for height by multiplying this sum by (170.18/height
in cm).
5
Henry J. Montoya, Measurement of Body Fatness, An Introduction
to Measurement in Physical Education,(Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon
Inc., 1978), P:160.
6
Gene M. Adam, Exercise Physiology laboratory manual,
(Dubuque, IA: W.M.C. Brown Publishers, 1990), P. 211.
7
Carter, J.E.L, Ph.D., The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
Instructional Manual, (RossCraft Surrey, Canada ,March 2002), pp.1-26.
130
(4) Circle the closest value in the SUM3 SKINFOLDS table to the right.
The table is read vertically from low to high in columns and horizontally
from left to right in rows. "Lower limit" and "upper limit" on the rows
provide exact boundaries for each column. These values are circled
only when SUM3 SKINFOLDS are within 1 mm of the limit. In most cases
circle the value in the row "midpoint".
(5) In the row for Endomorphy circle the value directly under the column
for the value circled in number (4) above.
(B) Mesomorphic Component
Objective:
Estimation of Anthropometric measurements like height,
weight, width, girth.
Materials and Equipment: Anthropometric equipment includes a
stadiometer, weighing scale, small sliding caliper and fiberglass tape
measure. The small sliding caliper is a modification of a standard
anthropometric caliper or engineer’s vernier type caliper. For accurate
measuring of biepicondylar breadths the caliper branches must extend
to 10 cm and the tips should be 1.5 cm in diameter.
Direction & Scoring method: The following directions were followed to
measure height, weight, humerus width, Femur width, Bicep girth and
Calf girth.
131
(i)
Height: Taken against a height scale or stadiometer. Take
height with the subject standing straight, against an upright wall or
stadiometer, touching the wall with heels, buttocks, back and the heels
together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and to take and hold a
full breath. Lower the headboard until it firmly touches the vertex.
Reading is noted on top of the head.
(ii)
Humerus width: Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The
width between the medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus,
with the shoulder and elbow flexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at
an angle approximately bisecting the angle of the elbow. Place firm
pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.
Reading is noted to the nearest 0.5 mm when two blades compressed
on either side.
(iii)
Femur Width: Biepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat the
subject with knee bent at a right angle. Measure the greatest distance
between the lateral and medial epicondyles of the femur with firm
pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.
Reading is noted to the nearest 0.5 mm when two blades compressed
on either side.
(iv) Bicep girth: Upper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. The
subject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees and the elbow to 45 degrees,
132
clenches the hand, and maximally contracts the elbow flexors and
extensors. Take the measurement at the greatest girth of the arm.
Greatest girth when arm is maximally flexed at elbow at right angle.
Reading is noted to the nearest 0.5 mm.
(v)
Calf girth: The subject stands with feet slightly apart. Place the
tape around the calf and measure the maximum circumference.
Reading is noted to the nearest 0.5mm.
Mesomorphy rating (steps 6-10)
(6) Record height and breadths of humerus and femur in the
appropriate boxes. Make the corrections for skinfolds before
recording girths of biceps and calf. (Skinfold correction: Convert
triceps skinfold to cm by dividing by 10. Subtract converted triceps
skinfold from the biceps girth. Convert calf skinfold to cm, subtract
from calf girth.)
(7) In the height row directly to the right of the recorded value, circle
the height value nearest to the measured height of the subject. (Note:
Regard the height row as a continuous scale.)
(8) For each bone breadth and girth circle the number nearest the
measured value in the appropriate row. (Note: Circle the lower value
if
the
measurement
falls
midway
between
two
values.
This
133
conservative procedure is used because the largest girths and
breadths are recorded.)
(9) Deal only with columns, not numerical values for the two
procedures below. Find the average deviation of the circled values
for breadths and girths from the circled value in the height column as
follows:
(a) Column deviations to the right of the height column are positive
deviations. Deviations to the left are negative deviations. (Circled
values directly under the height column have deviations of zero
and are ignored.)
(b) Calculate the algebraic sum of the ± deviations (D). Use this
formula: Mesomorphy = (D/8) + 4.0. Rounding the obtained value
of mesomorphy to the nearest one-half (½) rating unit.
(10) In the row for mesomorphy circle the closest value for
mesomorphy obtained in number 9 above. (If the point is exactly
midway between two rating points, circle the value closest to 4 in the
row. This conservative regression toward 4 guards against spuriously
extreme rating).
(C) Ectomorphic Components
Objective:
weight.
Estimation of Anthropometric measurements like height,
134
Materials & Equipment: Anthropometric equipment includes a
stadiometer, weighing scale
Direction & Scoring method: The height-weight ratio (HWR), or height
divided by the cube root of weight.
(i)
Height: Taken against a height scale or stadiometer. Take height
with the subject standing straight, against an upright wall or
stadiometer, touching the wall with heels, buttocks, back and the heels
together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and to take and hold a
full breath. Lower the headboard until it firmly touches the vertex.
Reading is noted on top of the head.
(ii)
Body mass (weight): The subject, wearing minimal clothing, stands
in the center of the scale platform. Record weight to the nearest tenth
of a kilogram. A correction is made for clothing so that nude weight is
used in subsequent calculations.
Ectomorphy rating (steps 11-14).
(11) Record weight (kg).
(12) Obtain height divided by cube root of weight (HWR). Record the
values of HWR in the appropriate box.
(13) Circle the closest value in the HWR table to the right. (See note in
number (4) above.)
135
(14) In the row for ectomorphy circle the ectomorphy value directly
below the circled HWR.
Move to the bottom section of the rating form. In the row for
Anthropometric Somatotype, record the circled ratings for Endomorphy,
Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy.
Health related Physical Fitness Variable
1. Muscular strength & Endurance
(a) Arm Strength
Arm Strength8 (actually arm-shoulder muscular endurance) is
scored accordingly to the following formula:9
Arm strength = (Pull-ups +Push-ups) (W/10 +H-60)
In which W represents the weight in pounds and H represents the
Height in inches. Fraction scores are corrected to the nearest whole
numbers at the end.
8
Barry L.Johnson and Jack K.Nelson, Practical measurement for
evaluation in Physical Education, (Surgeeth Publication, 1988), P.129.
9
H. Harrison Clarke and David H. Clarke, Application of
Measurement to Physical Education, (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950.),
P.123.
136
Push ups
Objective: To measure the endurance of the arm and shoulder girdle.
Equipment and material: A floor mat.
Direction: From a straight arm front leaning rest position, the performer
lowers the body until the chest touches the mat and then pushes
upward to the straight arm support. The exercise is to be continued for
as many as repetition possible without rest. The body must not sag or
pike upward but maintain a straight line throughout the exercise.
Pull-ups
Objective: To measure the muscular endurance of arms and shoulder
girdle in pulling the body- upward.
Equipment and Material: The equipment needed is horizontal bar (1½
inches in diameter raised to a height.
So the tallest performer cannot
touch the ground from the hanging position. If standard equipment is
not available a piece of pipe or the rugs of a ladder can be used.
Direction and Scoring method: The performer should assume the
hanging position with the overhand grasp (palm forward) and pull his
body until the chin is over the bar. After each- chin-ups, he should return
to fully extended hanging position. The exercise should be repeated as
many times as possible.
137
(b) Abdominal Strength
Abdomen plus Psoas10
Objective: To measure the muscular Strength endurance of abdomen
with the influence of Psoas muscle.
Equipment and Material: Floor mat
Direction and Scoring method: The Subject in supine lying position with
knees extended, hands behind neck and holding the feet by another
person.
The head should reach near the knee and come back to
original position, is scored as one count.
The maximum number of
complete sit up is noted.
Abdomen minus Psoas
Objective: To measure the Muscular Strength Endurance of abdomen
without the influence of Psoas muscle.
Equipment and Material: Floor Mat.
Direction and scoring method: The Subject in supine lying position with
knees in bent position, buttocks and heals close together, hands behind
neck and holding the feet by another person. The head should reach
near the knee and come back to original position is scored as one
count. The maximum number of complete sit up is noted.
10
Harrison Clarke, Op. cit., P.131-133.
138
2. Muscular Flexibility
The flexibility measures taken at back, shoulder, trunk and hip.
To measure the flexibility or extensibility of the back, the shoulder, the
trunk and the hip flexion, the following tests were used..11
i.
Sit and Reach test,
ii. Trunk Extension and
iii. Upward Backward arm movement test.
These tests were selected because they were found to assess the extent
of flexibility of therefore mentioned body parts in the absence of valid
testing apparatus. According to Jenson and Hirst12 these tests measure
the flexibility of the specific regions of the body.
The selected flexibility tests are easy to administer and are
described below:
(i) Sit and Reach Test
Objective: To measure trunk flexion and ability to stretch back and thigh
muscles.
11
William D. Mc Ardle, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch, Essntials of
Exercise Physiology, (Auflage. Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia,
Baltimore 2006), P.498
12
Clayne R. Jensen,Clytha C. Hirst, Measurement in Physical
Education and Athletics,(New York: Mac Milan Publishing company,
1980), pp.116-121.
139
Equipment: Sit & reach box, Meter scale
Direction: The subject assumed a sitting position on floor with knees fully
extended and toes of feet facing forward. The subject flexed the knees
with arms fully extended and with hands placed on top of each other.
Three trials will be given to each subject. Each attempt is held for one
second and the measurement is taken to the nearest centimeter. The
investigator placed a meter to the inner side of the ankle joint. If subject
is not able to reach the scale, no score was given.13
(ii) Trunk Extension Test
Objective: To test the flexibility in the region of spine and back extension
Equipment and Materials: Meter scale and Yard stick
Direction & Scoring method: The subject is asked to take prone position
on the table with hands closed together near the small of the back with
a partner pressing downward on the back of the legs. The subject is
asked to lift his chest from the table as high as possible. The distance
from the table to the suprasternal bone notch will be measured in
centimeters.14
13
Evaluation in Physical Education, (Minneapolis: Burges Publishing
company, 1969), pp.199-213.
14
Jensen and Hirst, Loc. cit.
140
(iii) Upward Backward Arm Movement Test
Objective: To measure flexibility of the shoulder and shoulder girdles.
Equipment and Material:
Meter Scale and stick (2 feet long and 2
centimeter width)
Direction: The subject lies in a prone position on a table with the chin
touching the table and the arms reaching forward directly in front of the
shoulder.
The subject held a stick horizontally with both hands by
keeping the arms straight and held it firmly. Then the subject raised the
arm upward as far as possible. The vertical distance from the bottom of
the stick to the table will be measured to the nearest centimeter.15
3. Body Composition
Percent Body Fat
Objective: Estimation of Body Density and then calculating the Percent
body fat using skinfold measurement thickness.
Materials & Equipment: Skinfold caliper should have upscale inter jaw
pressures of 10 gm/mm2 over the full range of openings. The Harpenden
Skinfold caliper (Manufactured by British Indicators & distributed by
United States by Quinton Equipment) was used to calibrate for correct
jaw tension and gap width.
15
Ibid.
141
Direction & Scoring method: Estimation of body fat by skinfold
thickness measurement. Measurements were taken in seven different
anatomical sites around the body. The right side is usually only measured
(for consistency). The tester pinches the skin at the appropriate site to
raise a double layer of skin and the underlying adipose tissue, but not
the muscle. The calipers are then applied 1 cm below and at right
angles to the pinch, and a reading in millimeters taken two seconds
later. The mean of two measurements should be taken. If the two
measurements differ greatly, a third should then be done, then the
median value taken.
There are many common sites at which the
skinfold pinch can be taken.
To Predict Body Density from the Sum of Skinfold fat, Generalized
Regression equation was used. The sites are followed
(i)
Triceps: This measurement was taken at a site halfway between hip
of the acromial process and tip of elbow.
The measurement is
taken with the arms hanging freely. The skinfold measure was taken
on the backside of the right arm parallel to the long axis of the arm.
(ii)
Subscapular: The skinfold is lifted at the tip of right scapula on the
diagonal plane about 45 degree from Horizontal plane. The caliper
was placed about one centimeter in a laterally downward angle.16
16
Henry J. Montoye, Op. cit., P: 160.
142
(iii)
Suprailium: The skinfold was cited diagonally just above crest of
ilium at the spot where an imaginary line would come down from
anterior axillary line.
(iv) Midaxillary: The Subject stands on his feet. The skinfold was cited
vertically on the midaxillary line at the level of the xplohoid process
of the sternum.
(v)
Abdominal: The Subject stands on his feet. The skinfold was cited
vertically taken at a lateral distance of approximately 2cm from the
umbilicus.
(vi) Thigh: The Subject stands with right leg forward. The skinfold was
cited vertically on the anterior aspect of the thigh midway
between hip and knee joints.
(vii) Calf: The subjects sit or stand with right knee bent about 90 degree
and right foot resting. The caliper site was at the level of medial site
of maximum calf circumference. The investigator grabs the fold
parallel to the long axis of the calf on its medial aspects.17
17
Gene M. Adam, Op. cit., P. 211.
143
Calculating Percent Body
Fat18
from Body Density
Specific Formula for Percent Body Fat from Body Density is
Percent body fat = [(4.95 ÷ BD) – 4.50] x 100
Calculating Body Density from Skinfold Measurements
Calculation of body density19 from Seven-Site Formula for male
(Chest, Midaxillary, Triceps, Subscapular, Abdomen, Suprailiac, Thigh).
Body density = 1.112 – (0.00043499 X
Sum of seven
skinfolds) + (0.00000055 X [Sum of seven skinfolds] 2) –
(0.00028826 X Age)
4. Cardiovascular Endurance
(viii) Twelve Minutes Run.20
Objective: To measure Cardio vascular Endurance.
Equipment and Material: Stop watch, whistle, clapper, etc...
Direction: The subjects are asked to stand on start line of 400m track.
The subject will start running after the command “on your mark” &
“Clap” with Clapper. The stop watch will start to see the subjects to run
18
Jackson, A. S., and M. L. Pollock, Practical assessment of body
composition for Physician and Sports medicine, (Media, PA: Williams &
Wilkins, 1985), pp:76–90.
19
Ted A Baumgartner & Andrew S. Jackson, Measurement for
Evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise Science, (Dubque Lowa:
Wm C. Brown Publishers, 1982), P.249
20
H. Harrison Op. cit., P: 151.
144
twelve minutes. The distance an individual can run in Twelve minutes
is to be measured as soon as a long whistle.
Bio-Chemical variable
The following Biochemical parameters (Fasting lipid profile) were
analyzed through the experienced Computerized Clinical lab in
Puducherry.
1. Hemoglobin.
2. Fasting blood sugar.
3. Low density lipoprotein.
4. High density lipoprotein.
5. Triglycerides
6. Total cholesterol.
7. Very low density lipoprotein.
Reliability of data
Reliability was established by test and retest method.
Fifteen
subjects were tested on selected variables. The reliability coefficients
obtained for test and retest data are presented in Table I.
145
TABLE – I
Reliability Coefficient of test retest method
S.N
Variables
Correlation
1.
Height
0.995
2.
Weight
0.987
3.
Humerus width
0.983
4.
Femur width
0.923
5.
Bicep girth
0.921
6.
Calf girth
0.899
7.
Sit and reach test
0.841
8.
Trunk extension test
0.881
9.
Upward backward arm Movement
0.817
10.
Push ups
0.775
11.
Pull ups
0.789
12.
Bent Knee sit ups
0.842
13.
Extended knee sit ups
0.850
14.
Twelve minutes run/walk
0.91
15.
Triceps skinfold
0.832
16.
Sub scapular skinfold
0.899
17.
Supraillium skinfold
0.851
18.
Midaxillary skinfold
0.885
19.
Abdominal skinfold
0.901
20.
Thigh skinfold
0.945
21.
Calf skinfold
0.842
22.
Chest skinfold
0.898
146
Statistical Analysis
The statistical tests used for analysis of data are given below.
An analysis of co-variance was used to determine, if any,
significant difference were present among the Control group, the Yogic
group and the Aerobic group on the Experimental Variable such as
Somatotype
components
(Endomorphic,
Ectomorphic
Components),
the
Health
Mesomorphic
related
Physical
and
fitness
Variables(Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total flexibility measures,
Percent Body fat and Twelve minutes run) and Bio-Chemical Variable
such as Fasting Blood Sugar(FBS), Low Density Lipoprotein(LDL) High
Density Lipoprotein(HDL),Triglycerides(TG), Total Cholesterol(TC) and
Very low Density Lipo protein (VLDL). The level of Significance used to
test the F ratio21 was at 0.05.
For test of significance for ANCOVA
Scheffe’s post hoc test22 was calculated.
To
determine
the
relationship
between
the
Somatotype
Components such as Endomorph, Mesomorph and Ectomorph on the
Health related Physical fitness such as Muscular strength Endurance,
Flexibility measures, Percent Body fat and Cardiovascular Endurance
21
H. Harrison Clarke and David H. Clarke, Advanced Statistics,
(New York: Prentice-Hall, 1970.), P.36.
22
Ibid., P.39.
147
and Bio-Chemical Variable such as FBS, LDL, HDL, TG, TC and VLDL
was derived by Pearson product moment Correlation.
The partial relationship (r12.3456) between Somatotype Component
and Experimental Variables were derived by Fourth order Partial
Correlation.23
The combined relationship between Somatotype Component
and Experimental Variables such as Health related physical fitness
component and biochemical variables separately calculated by
Multiple Correlation.24
To determine the significance between pre-test and post test
Correlations25
Fourth
order
Partial
Correlation26
and
Multiple
Correlations27 of Somatotype Component on Experimental Variables is
tested by the application of ‘t’ ratio. A standard error of the difference
between z’s was also calculated.
23
Ibid., P.55.
24
Ibid., P.61.
25
David H. Clarke, and H. Harrison Clarke, Research processes in
Physical Education, Recreation, and Health, (New York: Prentice Hall
Date Published: 1970), P.237.
26
H. Harrison, Ibid., P.57.
27
Ibid., P.63.
148
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY
The analysis of the data on the Somatotype components,
selected Health Related Physical Fitness components and Bio-Chemical
Variables after fourteen weeks of training on Yogic practices (Asanas
and Pranayama) and Aerobics Exercises have been explained in this
chapter. In order to find the difference among the Control group, the
Yogic group and the Aerobic groups, the data pertaining to the
variables under the study have been examined by an analysis of
covariance for each variable separately. The secondary purpose of
examining the data was to find the different type of relationship like
correlation, partial correlation and multiple correlation between the
Somatotype
component
such
as
Endomorphic
Component,
Mesomorphic Component and Ectomorphic Component with Health
related Physical Fitness variable and Bio Chemical Variables of pre test
and post test. Finally the analysis on somatotype component through
Somatogram arrived with the help of Heath - Cater somatotype rating
method for pre and post test of the Control group, the Yogic group and
the Aerobic group was discussed.
The groups were selected at random and they were from passive
participation in sports or games. The students were selected from the
149
Government Boys Hostel Puducherry, where the students studying in
the college in undergraduate level.
The analysis of covariance
endeavored to analyse the data of the Control and two Experimental
groups (Yogic and Aerobic). The level of significance to test the F ratio,
obtained by the analysis of covariance was fixed at 0.05 level of
confidence, which was considered to be the appropriate in view of the
fact that highly sophisticated equipments were not used for more
stringent level of significance. The secondary purpose was to compare
in different angles between Somatotype component and Experimental
variables of Health related Physical fitness variables and Bio-chemical
variables of pre and post test. The Pearson product moment correlation,
fourth order partial correlation and multiple correlations were used and
to find the differences between correlations of the pre and post test
‘t’ratio was used. The significance of 0.05 was used as confidential level.
The final computation was graphical analysis of somatotype component
through Somatogram from the pre and post test of the Control group,
the Yogic group and Aerobic group. The Somatotype calculation and
analysis by sweat technologies software was used for graphical plotting
of somatotype components.
150
Result of Endomorphic component
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Endomorphic
component among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table II. Since the computed value of F
ratio was 0.22 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of
3.21, the null hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
TABLE: II
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CONTROL, YOGIC THE AEROBIC GROUP
OF ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT
SOV
Between
df
SSx
2
4.31
SSy
3.34
SSxy
3.72
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
0.40
F
ratio
Critical
Value of
F0.05
0.20
0.97
Within
41
80.93
68.07
48.95
38.46
0.94
Total
43
85.24
71.41
52.67
38.86
1.14
0.22
3.21
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was non significant for
Endomorphic component, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance
was not applicable.
151
FIGURE: I
BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING PRE TEST, POST TEST AND POST ADJUSTED
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF ENDOMORPHIC
COMPONENT
ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT
3.3
3.5
3.1
3.17
2.98
3
2.87
2.76
2.6
2.8
2.5
MEAN SCORE
2.5
2
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
1.5
1
0.5
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure-I, it could be observed that
Endomorphic component had some changes by Yogic practices
(Asanas and Pranayama) and Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects
of experimental groups.
But there was no significant decrease in
Endomorphic component was found.
The result by and large was in conformity with the finding of
Gualdi-Russo and Graziani.,1 concluded in his study that significant
1Gualdi-Russo
et.al., Journal for Sports Med Phys Fitnes,. 33: 282.
152
different found in swimming when compared with ball games and
M.W. Peters 2 stated the hereditary factors influences in significance.
Result of Mesomorphic component
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Mesomorphic
component among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table III. Since the computed value of F
ratio was 1.22 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of 3.21
and the null hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
TABLE: III
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP
OF MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT
Source
Critical
F
of
df SSx
SSy
SSxy SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2 2.88
0.10
0.13
0.62
0.31
Between Sets
0.51 1.22
3.21
41 57.60 24.10 27.98 10.51
0.26
Within Sets
43 60.48
Total
24.20
28.11
11.13
0.57
Mesomorphic component, the scheffe ’s Post hoc test for significance
was not applicable.
From the above finding of figure-II, it could be observed that
Mesomorphic component had some changes in Yogic practices
2M
W Peeters et.al., International Journal of Obesity,31: 1301.
153
Mesomorphic component was found.
FIGURE: II
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF MESOMORPHIC
COMPONENT
MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT
1.87
2
1.8
1.6
1.43
1.3
MEAN SCORE
1.4
1.29
1.17
1.2
1.17
1.07
1.11
1.00
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
Marcel Hebelinck,3stated that mesomorphic type had good motor
fitness and Gualdi-Russo and Graziani stated that ball games and
martial games increases the mesomorphic component Bavios et al.4
3
Marcel Hebelinck and John W. Postma, Research Quarterl,34:
327.
4L.A.Bavios
et a., Sports Med Phys Fitness, 46 : 271.
154
stated the basket ball and Hand ball athletes were in mesomorphic
type with combination of Ecto and Endomorphic component.
Result of Ectomorphic component
The result of analysis of covariance for Ectomorphic component
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic Exercise
group is presented in Table IV. Since the computed value of F ratio was
3.75, which was significantly higher than the table value of 3.21, the null
hypothesis was rejected at 0.05 level.
TABLE: IV
OF ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT
Source
Critical
F
of
Value
df SSx
SSy
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
1.30
0.65
Between Sets 2 18.98 10.30 13.93
0.42
3.75
3.21
41
53.77
64.20
55.40
7.12
0.17
Within Sets
Total
43 72.75 74.50
69.33
8.42
0.82
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for
Ectomorphic component, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance
was used. The F ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean
on Ectomorphic component among the Control group, the Yogic group
and the Aerobic group is presented in Table IV and Figure III.
155
TABLE: V
SCHEFFE‘S TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAIRED
ADJUSTED MEAN OF ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT
Critical
Paired Adjusted Ectomorphic Mean
Mean
Ft
Value of
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
F0.05
4.06
3.85
0.21
1.94
4.06
3.85
3.58
0.48
9.95
3.58
0.27
3.10
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 3.58 and the Aerobic
group was 4.06.
The obtained value of F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted means of the Control and Aerobic group
was 9.95 which were higher than the table value of 6.42 and so it was
significant at 0.05 level.
The adjusted mean of the Yogic group was 3.85, the Control
group was 3.58 and the Aerobic group was 4.06. The calculated value
of F ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the
Control and Yogic group and the Control and Aerobic group were 3.10
and 1.94, which were lower than the table value of 6.42 and were not
From the above finding of figure-III, it could be observed that
Ectomorphic component increased significantly by Yogic practices
156
FIGURE: III
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF ECTOMORPHIC
COMPONENT
ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT
4.5
4.4
4.5
4.06
3.85
4
3.58
3.6
3.4
3.27
3.5
2.87
MEAN SCORE
3
2.5
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
The results indicate that with a 14 weeks training is adequate for
significant effect on Ectomorphic component.
These results by and large were in conformity with the finding of
William H. Herrera5 stated cardiovascular disease less in Ectomorphic
5H.
Herrera et. al., International Journal of Exprimental, Clinical
Behavioural, Regenerative and Tecnological Gerontology, 50: 223.
157
and
Bale6
stated that lower ectomorphic component contributed
more in the high school player.
Result of Height
Since the F ratio of Mesomorphic component was insignificant,
some of the variables which derived the Mesomorphic component were
significant. So, the investigator analysed the changes in related variables
of Mesomorphic component.
The result of analysis of covariance for Height among the Control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic Exercise group is presented in
Table VI. Since the computed value of F ratio was 10.10, which was
significantly higher than the table value of 3.21, the null hypothesis was
rejected at 0.05 level.
TABLE: VI
OF HEIGHT
Critical
F
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
of F0.05
2
14.88
15.51
14.62
1.14
0.57
BS
0.24 10.10
3.21
41 1458.07 1451.63 1453.68
2.32
0.06
WS
Tot
43 1472.95 1467.14 1468.30
6Bale
3.46
0.63
P, Colley et.al., J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 34: 383.
158
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for the
Height, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F ratio
for difference between the paired adjusted mean on Height among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group is presented in
Table V and Figure IV.
12.13 and 17.65 which were higher than the table value of 6.42 and they
were significant at 0.05 level.
TABLE: VII
SCHEFFE ‘S TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAIRED
ADJUSTED MEAN OF HEIGHT
Paired Adjusted Height Mean
Aerobic
168.91
Yogic
168.61
168.91
168.61
Mean
Difference
Ft
0.30
12.13
168.55
0.36
17.65
168.55
0.06
0.52
Control
Critical Value
of F0.05
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Aerobic group was 168.91, the Yogic
group was 168.61 and the Control group mean 168.55, the obtained
value of F ratio for the difference between the adjusted mean of the
Yogic and Aerobic group and the Control and Aerobic group were
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 168.55 and the Yogic
group was 168.61. The calculated value of F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted mean of Control and Yogic group was
159
0.52, which was lower than the table value of 6.42 and were not
From the above finding of figure-IV, it could be observed that
Height remains same in yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama) and
increased significantly by Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of
experimental groups.
FIGURE: IV
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF HEIGHT
HEIGHT
169.5
169.27 169.2
169
168.91
169
168.7
168.61
MEAN SCORE
168.55
168.5
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
167.87 167.87
168
167.5
167
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
significant effect on Height.
160
Sanchez-Munoz
7
showed a significant change in height among junior
players and Solley8 stated that change in physique that is height and
weight showed improvement in every year since younger age group.
Result of Weight
The result of analysis of covariance for Weight among the Control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic Exercise group is presented in
Table VI. Since the computed value of F ratio was 9.89, which was
significantly higher than the table value of 3.21, the null hypothesis was
rejected at 0.05 level.
TABLE: VIII
OF WEIGHT
Source
Critical
F
of
df
SSx
SSy
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2
412.04
264.31
327.89
14.04
7.02
Within
41
1398.53
1368.67
1368.73
29.10
0.71
Total
43
1810.57
1633.98
1696.62
43.14
7.73
Between
0.84
9.89
3.21
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for Weight,
the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F ratio for
difference between the paired adjusted mean on Weight among the
7
Sanchez-Munoz, et. al., British Journal of Sports Med.41, :.793.
8
William H. Solley, Research Quarterly, 30: P. 465.
161
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group, is presented
in Table VIII and Figure V.
TABLE: IX
ADJUSTED MEAN OF WEIGHT
Paired Adjusted Weight Mean
Aerobic
56.05
Yogic
Mean Difference
Ft
0.12
0.16
57.29
1.24
16.35
57.29
1.37
19.80
Control
55.92
56.05
55.92
Critical
Value of
F0.05
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Control group was of 57.29, the Yogic
group was 55.92 and the Aerobic group was 56.05. The obtained value
Control and Yogic group and the Control and Aerobic group were 19.80
and 16.35 which was higher than the table value of 6.42 and so it was
also significant at 0.05 level.
The adjusted mean of the Yogic group was 55.92 and the Aerobic
group was 56.05. The calculated value of F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted mean of the Control and Yogic group was
0.12, which was lower than the table value of 6.42 and was not
162
FIGURE: V
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF WEIGHT
WEIGHT
62
60.53
59.33
60
57.8
57.29
58
56.53
56.05
MEAN SCORE
55.92
56
PRE TEST
POST TEST
53.4
54
POST ADJUSTED
53.2
52
50
48
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure-V, it could be observed that
Weight decreased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) and Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of
The results indicate that with 14 weeks of training is adequate for
significant effect on yogic practices than aerobic exercises.
These result by and large were in conformity with the finding of
concluded that Weight decreases with different variation of asana and
163
Boudou
et.al.9
stated that the decrease in abdominal fat with aerobic
exercises and Solley10stated that the change in physique that is height
and weight showed in every year since the younger age group.
Result of Humerus width
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Humerus width
group is presented in Table X. Since the computed value of F ratio was
2.01 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of 3.21, the null
hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
TABLE: X
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC
GROUP OF HUMERUS WIDTH
Source
of
df
SSx
SSy
F
ratio
Critical
Value
of F0.05
2.01
3.21
Variance
Between
2
1.57
0.20
0.39
0.61
0.31
Within
41
18.14
8.41
6.26
6.25
0.15
Total
43
19.71
8.6
5.9
6.9
0.5
0.39
Humerus width, the scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was not
applicable.
9
P.Boudou, Loc.cit.
10
William H. Solley, Loc.cit.
164
FIGURE: VI
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF HUMERUS WIDTH
HUMERUS WIDTH
4.86
4.9
4.82
4.8
4.7
4.54
MEAN SCORE
4.6
4.5
4.45
4.45
4.39
4.34
4.4
4.29
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
4.25
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure-VI, it could be observed that
Humerus width had some changes in Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises as done by the subjects of
experimental groups. But there was no significant decrease in Humerus
width was found.
Sanchez-Munoz 11 found a significant change in Humerus width on tennis
players may be in involvement in games with equipment.
11Sanchez-Munoz
. Loc.cit.
165
Result of Femur width
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Femur width
group is presented in Table XI. Since the computed value of F ratio was
2.57 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of 3.21, the null
hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
TABLE: XI
GROUP OF FUMER WIDTH
Source
Critical
F
of
Value
df SSx
SSy SSxy SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2 0.39 5.06 0.82
6.67
3.34
Between
1.14
2.57
3.21
41 23.21 69.74 19.60 53.19
1.30
Within
Total
43 23.50 74.80 18.82
59.86
4.64
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was non significant for Femur
width, the scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was not applicable.
166
FIGURE: VII
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF FUMER WIDTH
FUMER WIDTH
8.6
8.41
8.4
8.27
8.18
8.29
8.18
8.2
MEAN SCORE
8
7.8
7.67
7.58
7.6
7.37
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
7.37
7.4
7.2
7
6.8
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure-VII, it could be observed that
Femur width slight decreased by the Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) and the Aerobic exercises.
But there was no significant
decrease in Fumer width was found.
Sanchez-Munoz 12 found a significant change in Femur width on tennis
players may be in involvement in games with equipment.
12Ibid.
167
Result of Bicep Girth
The result of analysis of covariance for Bicep girth among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic Exercise group is
presented in Table XII. Since the computed value of F ratio was 36.59,
which was significantly higher than the table value of 3.21, the null
TABLE: XII
GROUP OF BICEP GIRTH
Source
Critical
F
of
df
SSx
SSy
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2 30.91 30.11
-5.71 60.96 30.48
Between
0.91 36.59
3.21
41 126.60 148.03 120.07 34.15
0.83
Within
Total
43 157.51 178.14 114.36
95.11
31.3
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for Bicep
girth, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F ratio for
difference between the paired adjusted mean on Bicep girth among
the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group is presented
in Table XIII and Figure VIII.
168
TABLE: XIII
SCHEFFE ‘S TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PAIRED ADJUSTED MEAN OF BICEP GIRTH
Critical
Paired Adjusted Bicep Girth Means
Mean
Ft
Value of
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
F0.05
22.43
24.97
2.54
57.99
6.42
22.43
25.13
2.70
65.59
24.97
25.13
0.16
0.23
The adjusted mean of the Aerobic group was 22.43, the Yogic
group was 24.97 and the Control group was 25.13, the obtained value of
F ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the
Yogic and Aerobic group, Control and Aerobic group were 57.99 and
65.59 which was higher than the table value of 6.42 and so it was also
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 25.13, and the Yogic
group was 24.97.
The calculated value of F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted mean of the Control and Yogic group was
0.23, which was lower than the table value of 6.42 and were not
From the above finding of figure VIII, it could be observed that
Bicep Girth decreased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and
169
FIGURE: VIII
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF BICEP GIRTH
BICEP GIRTH
27
26.04
26
25.47
25.23
25.13
24.97
25
MEAN SCORE
24.07
24.07
24
PRE TEST
POST TEST
23.24
POST ADJUSTED
23
22.43
22
21
20
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
significant effect on Bicep Girth.
Dolgener, et.al.,13 stated that girth improved with dancers than non
dancers.
Result of Calf Girth
The result of analysis of covariance for Calf girth among the
13
Forrest A.Dolgener,et.al., Research quarterly, 51: 599.
170
presented in Table XIV. Since the computed value of F ratio was 48.88,
TABLE: XIV
OF CALF GIRTH
Source
Critical
F
of
Value of
df
SSx
SSy
ratio
Variance
F0.05
Between
2
35.28
9.13
Within
41
122.52
138.40
Total
43
157.80
147.50
-7.38
46.64
23.32
120.67
19.56
0.48
113.30
66.20
23.80
0.69
48.88
3.21
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for Calf girth,
the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F ratio for
difference between the paired adjusted mean on Calf girth among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group is presented in
Table XV and Figure IX.
TABLE: XV
PAIRED ADJUSTED MEAN OF CALF GIRTH
Paired Adjusted Calf Girth Means
Aerobic
Yogic
28.08
30.02
28.08
30.02
Mean
Difference
Ft
1.94
59.40
30.77
2.69
113.82
30.77
0.75
8.77
Control
Critical
Value of
F0.05
6.42
171
The adjusted mean of the Aerobic group, the Yogic group and
Control group mean were 28.08, 30.02 and 30.77, the obtained value of
F ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the
Yogic and Aerobic group and the Control and Aerobic group and the
Control and Yogic group were 59.40, 113.82 and 8.77, which was higher
than the table value of 6.42 and so they were significant at 0.05 level.
FIGURE: IX
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF CALF GIRTH
CALF GIRTH
31.79
32
30.93
30.77
31
30.17
MEAN SCORE
30
29.63
30.02
29.63
29.06
PRE TEST
POST TEST
29
POST ADJUSTED
28.08
28
27
26
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure IX, it could be observed that Calf
Girth
decreased
significantly
by
Yogic
practices
(Asanas
and
172
significant effect on Calf Girth.
This result by and large was in conformity with the finding of Amit
Bandyopadhyay14 stated that good improvement was noticed in volley
ball and football players on calf girth and Dolgener, et.al.,15stated that
bicep girth improved with dancers than non dancers.
Result of Arm Strength
The result of analysis of covariance for Arm Strength among the
presented in Table XVI. Since the computed value of F ratio was 7.14,
which was significantly higher than the table value of 3.21 and the null
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant, the Arm
Strength, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F ratio
for difference between the paired adjusted mean on Arm Strength
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group is
presented in Table XVII and Figure X.
14
Ibid.
15 Ibid.
173
TABLE: XVI
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CONTROL ,YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP
OF ARM STRENGTH VARIABLE
Critical
F
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
of F0.05
BS
2 10.680
15.96
12.94 0.77
0.39
0.23 7.14
3.21
WS
41 1608.39 1597.29 1601.72 2.22
0.05
Total
43
1619.07
1613.25
1614.66
2.99
0.44
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 114.28, the Yogic
group was 114.20 and the Aerobic group mean of 114.51 and the
obtained value of F ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted
mean of the Yogic and Aerobic group and the Control and Aerobic
group were 13.40 and 7.15, which was higher than the table value of
6.42 and so it was significant at 0.05 level.
TABLE: XVII
PAIRED ADJUSTED MEAN OF ARM STRENGTH
Paired Adjusted Arm Strength Means
Aerobic
Yogic
114.51
114.20
114.51
114.20
Mean
Difference
F
0.31
13.40
114.28
0.23
7.15
114.28
0.08
0.97
Control
t
Critical
Value of
F0.05
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 114.28 and the Yogic
group was 114.20 and the calculated value of F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted mean of the Control and Yogic group 0.97
174
were lower than the table value of 6.42 and was not significant at
0.05 level.
From the above finding, it could be observed that Arm Strength
increased significantly by Aerobic Exercises and decreased by Yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama) as done by the subjects of
FIGURE: X
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF ARM STRENGTH
ARM STRENGTH
114.93
115
114.75
114.6 114.54
114.5
114.51
114.28
MEAN SCORE
114.2
114
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
113.65
113.52
113.5
113
112.5
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
significant effect on Arm Strength.
175
These result by and large were in conformity with the finding of
Madanmohan, et.al.16 stated that yogic practice showed a significant
increase Hand grip strength, Vaithianathan17 stated circuit training
improved muscular strength endurance and Luiz Guilherme et. al.,18
stated that the maximal aerobic power improved strength endurance.
Result of Abdominal Strength
The result of analysis of covariance for Abdominal Strength among
the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic Exercise group is
presented in Table XVIII. Since the computed value of F ratio was 24.03,
which was significantly higher than the table value of 3.21 and the null
TABLE: XVIII
OF ABDOMINAL STRENGTH
Critical
F
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x
MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
of F0.05
2 191.24 5427.38 779.16 4288.42 2144.21
BS
9.45 24.03
3.21
89.23
WS 41 8090.00 8497.73 6257.07 3658.32
Tot
43 8281.24 13925.11 7036.23 7946.74 2233.44
16
Madanmohan, et.al., Indian Journal of Physiological Pharmacy
36: 229.
17
Vaithianathan,Unpublished, Thesis, (1988): 210.
18
Luiz Guilherme et. al., “Journal Physiological Anthropology,26: 50.
176
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant, the
Abdominal Strength, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was
used. The F ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean on
Arm Strength among the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group is presented in Table XIX and Figure XI.
TABLE: XIX
ADJUSTED MEAN OF ABDOMINAL STRENGTH
Paired Adjusted Abdominal Strength Means
Aerobic
Yogic
56.65
44.07
56.65
44.07
Mean
Difference
F
12.58
13.31
32.61
24.04
48.57
32.61
11.45
11.02
Control
t
Critical
Value of
F0.05
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group were 32.61, 44.0 and 56.65. The obtained value of F ratio
for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the Control
and Yogic group and the Control and Aerobic group, the Yogic and
Aerobic group were 11.02, 48.57 and 13.31 which were higher than the
table value of 6.42 were also significant at 0.05 level.
From the above finding of figure XI, it could be observed that
Abdominal Strength increased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas
and Pranayama) and Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of
177
FIGURE: XI
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF ANDOMINAL
STRENGTH
ABDOMINAL STRENGTH
58.8
56.65
60
50
44.07
42.4
37.29
40
MEAN SCORE
33.9
32.13
32.61
32.33
PRE TEST
POST TEST
30
POST ADJUSTED
20
10
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
significant effect on Abdominal Strength.
John P.Porcari.19 result showed a significant improvements in the
muscular strength and endurance of the abdominal region and
19John
P. Porcari Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 4:66.
178
Vaithianathan20
declared that the circuit training improved the
efficiency in muscular strength.
Result of Total Flexibility
The result of analysis of covariance for Total Flexibility among the
presented in Table XX. Since the computed value of F ratio was 9.17,
TABLE: XX
OF TOTAL FLEXIBLITY
SOV
df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x
MSy.x
BS
2
4846.18
476.93
-740.73
3943.28 1971.64
WS
41 14559.07 19072.27 12220.47
8814.75
214.99
Tot
43 19405.25 19549.20 11479.70 12758.03
2186.6
S.Dy.x
F
ratio
Critical
Value of
F0.05
14.66
9.17
3.21
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant, the Total
Flexibility, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F
ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean on Total
Flexibility among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
group is presented in Table XXI and Figure XII.
20
Vaithianathan, op.cit.
179
group was 140.57 and the Aerobic group was 153.10.
The obtained
value of F ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of
the control and Yogic group and the Yogic and Aerobic group were
23.87 and 6.47 which was higher than the table value of 6.42 was also
The adjusted mean of the Control group mean of 140.57 and the
Aerobic group was 153.10.
The calculated value of F ratio for the
difference between the paired adjusted mean of the Control and
Aerobic group was 5.48, which was lower than the table value of 6.42
were not significant at 0.05 level.
From the above finding, it could be observed that Total flexibility
increased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama) and
Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of experimental groups.
TABLE: XXI
ADJUSTED MEAN OF TOTAL FLEXIBLITY
Paired Adjusted Total Flexibility Means
Aerobic
Yogic
153.10
166.73
153.10
166.73
Control
Mean
Difference
t
F
13.62
6.47
140.57
12.54
5.48
140.57
26.16
23.87
Critical
Value of
F0.05
6.42
180
FIGURE: XII
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF TOTAL
FLEXIBILITY
TOTAL FLEXIBILITY
180
166.73
152.5
154.73
149
160
156.67
153.1
146.73
140.57
128.2
140
MEAN SCORE
120
100
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
80
60
40
20
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
significant effect on Total Flexibility.
Rider and Daly21 stated that the flexibility training improved flexibility
more than other training.
Result of Percent Body Fat
The result of analysis of covariance for Percent Body fat among
21
R. Rider and J.Daly, Journal of sports Medicine and physical
Fitness, 31: 231.
181
presented in Table XXII.
Since the computed value of F ratio was
5.82, which was significantly higher than the table value of 3.21, the null
TABLE: XXII
OF PERCENT BODY FAT
Source
Critical
F
of
df
SSx
SSy
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2 26.53 62.18 18.07 50.30 25.15
Between
2.08
5.82
3.21
41 839.80 729.18 680.80 177.28
4.32
Within
43 866.33
Total
791.4
698.9
227.6
29.5
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant, the Percent
Body fat, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F
ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group for Percent Body
fat is presented in Table XXIII and Figure XIII.
TABLE: XXIII
ADJUSTED MEAN OF PERCENT BODY FAT
Critical
Paired Adjusted Percent Body Fat Means
Mean
t
F
Value of
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
F0.05
10.19
7.79
2.41
10.05
10.19
7.79
9.82
0.37
0.24
9.82
2.03
7.17
6.42
182
The adjusted mean of the Yogic group, the Aerobic group and
the Control group were 7.79, 10.19 and 9.82 and the obtained value of F
ratios for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the Yogic
and Aerobic group and the Control and Yogic group were 10.05 and
7.17 which were higher than the table value of 6.42 and they were
FIGURE: XIII
BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING PRE TEST, POST TEST AND POST
ADJUSTED MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF
PERCENT BODY FAT
PERCENT BODY FAT
12.00
10.57
10.38
9.98
10.77
10.19
9.82
10.00
9.45
9.00
7.79
MEAN SCORE
8.00
PRE TEST
POST TEST
6.00
POST ADJUSTED
4.00
2.00
0.00
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
183
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 9.82 and the
Aerobic group was 10.19 and the calculated value of F ratio for the
difference between the paired adjusted mean of the Control and
and was not significant at 0.05 level.
From the above finding, it could be observed that Percent Body
fat decreased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama)
than Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of experimental groups.
significant effect on Percent Body fat.
These results by and large were in conformity with the finding
Ashok and Rupiner,22 found that the Body fat Percentage significantly
decreased on conditioning programme and Robert Buresh et.al.,23
stated that was heavier runners experienced greater heat production
and fat reduction than lighter.
Result of Twelve Minutes Run (Cardio vascular Endurance)
The result of analysis of covariance for Twelve minutes run among
presented in Table XXIV. Since the computed value of F ratio was 5.82,
22
Ashok Kumar, Journal of sports Science in Physical Education 1:
23
Robert Buresh, et.al., Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport
74.
76: 267.
184
TABLE: XXIV
GROUP OF TWELVE MINUTES RUN TEST
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x
MSy.x
BS
2
2433333.3
2908000.01
1310000.01
2293704.95
1146852.40
WS
41
7263666.6
5119000.01
5533000.01
904311.96
22056.39
Total
43
9696999.9
8027000.02
6843000.02
3198016.91
1168908.79
S.Dy.x
F
rati
o
148.51
52.0
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for the Twelve
minutes run, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F
ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean on Twelve
minutes run among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
group is presented in Table XXV and Figure XIV.
TABLE: XXV
ADJUSTED MEAN OF TWELVE MINUTES RUN TEST
Critical
Paired Adjusted 12 Minutes Run Means
Mean
Ft
Value of
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
F0.05
2410.20
2481.85
71.65
1.75
2410.20
2481.85
1967.94
442.26
66.51
1967.94
513.91
89.81
6.42
185
The adjusted mean of the Control group, the Yogic group of
and the Aerobic group were 1967.94, 2481.85 and 2410.20 respectively
and the obtained value of F ratios for the difference between the paired
adjusted mean of Control and Yogic group and Control and Aerobic
group were 89.81 and 66.51 which were higher than the table value of
6.42 and were also significant at 0.05 level.
FIGURE: XIV
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF TWELVE MINUTES
RUN (CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE)
TWELVE MINUTES RUN
3000
2613.33
2481.85
2410.20
2296.67
2500
2253.33
2063.33 1993.33
1967.94
MEAN SCORE
2000
1730.00
PRE TEST
POST TEST
1500
POST ADJUSTED
1000
500
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
The adjusted mean of the Yogic group and the Aerobic group
were 2481.85 and 1967.94 respectively and the calculated value of F
186
ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the
Yogic and Aerobic group was 0.24, which was lower than the table
value of 6.42 and was not significant at 0.05 level.
From the above finding, it could be observed that Twelve minutes
run (cardio vascular endurance) increased significantly by Yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama) than Aerobic Exercises as done by
the subjects of experimental groups.
significant effect on cardio vascular endurance.
These result by and large were in conformity with the finding
Madan mohan et.al.,24 stated that increase in respiratory pressure
breath holding times on yogic practices, Vaithianathan25 indicated that
circuit training improved the efficiency of cardio-respiratory endurance
and Sakthignanavel26 stated that continuous running and combination
of continuous running and Pranayama improved cardio respiratory
endurance.
24
Madanmohan et. al., Loc.cit.
25
Vaithianathan, Loc.cit.
26
Shakthignanvel , Unpublished, Thesis, (1995) P.119
187
Result of Low density Lipo-protein
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Low density
lipo-protein among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table XXVI Since the computed value of F
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was non significant for Low
density lipo-protein the scheffe ’s Post hoc test for significance was not
applicable.
TABLE: XXVI
OF LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEIN(LDL)
Critical
F
Value
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
ratio
of F0.05
2 5992.99 785.85 730.57 732.50 366.25
BS
13.84 1.91
3.21
WS 41 15633.02 8555.32 3325.04 7848.11 191.42
Tot
43 21626.01 9341.27
4055.6
8580.61 557.67
From the above finding and figure XV, it could be observed that
Low density lipo-protein
decreased by Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) and increased in Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects
of experimental groups. But there was no significant change found in
Low density lipo-protein.
188
FIGURE: XV
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF LOW DENSITY
LIPOPROTEIN
LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEIN
120
107.51
98.51
98.51
97.82
92.29
100
90.47
89.00
87.86
79.80
MEAN SCORE
80
PRE TEST
POST TEST
60
POST ADJUSTED
40
20
0
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
The result by and large was in conformity with the finding of Linder
et.al.,27 stated that there was no effect on walk/ jog was observed for
LDL-C, Blessing et.al.,28 showed that a positive alteration in LDL, Williford
et.al.,29 stated significant increases in LDL-C,
Borecki et. al.30 seen
changes in LDL levels in response to regular exercise were detected,
27Linder,
et.al, Medicine and Science and Sports and Exercise ,15:
232.
28Blessing
et.al. Pediatric Exercise Science, 7: 192.
29Williford,
30An
H.N, Ethnic Disease, 6: 279.
P, Borecki IB, International journal for sports medicine 26:414.
189
Prasad
et.al.,31
LDL-cholesterol decreased significantly for women,
and Prasad KVV et.al.,32 showed a significant fall in LDL cholesterol.
Result of High Density Lipoprotein
The result of analysis of covariance for High Density Lipoprotein among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table XXVII. Since the computed value of
F ratio was 3.74, which was significantly higher than the table value of
3.21, the null hypothesis was rejected at 0.05 level.
TABLE: XXVII
OF HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
Source
Critical
F
of
df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2 22.05
53.66 -26.86 80.51 40.25
Between
3.28 3.74
3.21
41 396.32 529.16 186.53 441.37 10.77
Within
43 418.37
Total
582.82
159.79 521.98
51.02
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant for the High
Density Lipo-protein, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was
used. The F ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group for
High Density Lipo-protein is presented in Table XXVIII and Figure XVI.
31Reza
1: 105.
32Ibid.
Gharakhanlou, International Jl of Sports Science and Eng,
190
TABLE: XXVIII
ADJUSTED MEAN OF HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
Critical
Paired Adjusted Hdl Means
Mean
Ft
Value
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
of F0.05
33.24
35.84
2.60
4.70
33.24
35.84
32.71
0.52
0.19
32.71
3.12
6.79
6.42
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 32.71, the Yogic
group mean of 35.84. The obtained value was F ratio for the difference
between the paired adjusted mean of the control and the Yogic group
was 6.79 which was higher than the table value of 6.42 and was also
The adjusted mean of the Aerobic group was 33.24, the Control
group was 32.71 the Yogic group was 35.84. The calculated value of F
ratio for the difference between the paired adjusted mean of the
Aerobics and Control group and the Yogic and Aerobic group were
0.19 and 4.70 which were lower than the table value of 6.42 and were
not significant at 0.05 level.
191
FIGURE: XVI
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF HIGH DENSITY
LIPOPROTEIN
HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN(HDL)
35.84
36
35.40
35
33.47
34
33.60
MEANN SCORE
33.24
32.85
32.79
32.71
33
PRE TEST
POST TEST
31.77
POST ADJUSTED
32
31
30
29
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding, it could be observed that High density
lipo protein increased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) than Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of
significant effect on High density lipo protein.The results by and large
were in conformity with the finding Linder et.al,33 Blessing et.al.,34 Williford
33Linder,
Loc.cit.
192
et.al.,35
studied a significant increases in HDL-C, Borecki et.
al.36
showed arrived some changes in HDL-C levels in response to regular
exercise, Prasad KVV et.al,37 shown a significant elevation of HDLcholesterol and Mahmoud
38
showed a favorable changes in HDL lipid
profile.
Result of Triglycerides
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Triglycerides
group is presented in Table XXIX. Since the computed value of F ratio
was 0.52 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of 3.21, the
null hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
34Blessing,
op.cit.
35Williford,
H.N. Loc.cit.
36An
P Borecki , op.cit.,.
37Ibid.
38Mahmoud
S, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 73: 88.
193
TABLE: XXIX
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF
TRIGLYCRIDES
Critical
F
Value
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
ratio
of F0.05
2
858.13
713.91
747.60 159.67 79.84
BS
12.42 0.52
3.21
W S 41 19424.67 11733.73 10247.00 6328.18 154.35
Total 43 20282.80 12447.64 10994.60 6487.85 234.19
Triglycerides the scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was not
applicable.
FIGURE: XVII
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF TRIGLYCERIDES
TRIGLYCERIDES
102
99.87
100.20
99.6
99.29
100
97.35
97.33
98
94.63
MEAN SCORE
96
94
PRE TEST
91.47
92
89.60
90
88
86
84
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
194
From the above finding of figure XXVII, it could be observed
that Triglycerides level decreased by Yogic practices (Asanas and
Triglycerides level was found.
The results by and large was in conformity with the finding of
Linder et.al.,39 seen that there was no effect was observed for TG,
Williford et.al.,40 avowed a significant
increases
in
Triglycerides,
Mahmoud,41 result was that TG were unchanged on prolonged maximal
exercise, Prasad et.al.,42 showed a significant fall in triglycerides.
Result of Very Low Density Lipoprotein
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Very Low
Density Lipoprotein among the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic Exercise group is presented in Table XXX. Since the computed
value of F ratio was 2.36 which was insignificantly lower than the table
value of 3.21, the null hypothesis was accepted at 0.05 level.
39Linder,
Loc.cit.
40Williford,
H.N. Loc.cit.
41Mahmoud,
42Reza
Loc.cit
Gharakhanlou, op.cit.
195
TABLE: XXX
VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
Source
Critical
F
of
df
SSx
SSy
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
2
0.31 40.31
-3.09 42.17 21.08
Between Sets
2.99 2.36
3.21
41 1461.47 495.84 433.97 366.97
8.95
Within Sets
43 1461.78
Total
536.2
430.9
409.1
30.0
Very Low Density Lipoprotein the scheffe ’s Post hoc test for significance
was not applicable.
FIGURE: XVIII
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF VERY LOW
DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
VERY LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEIN
21
20.53
20.5
20.07
20
20.57
20.07
20.06
19.87
20
MEAN SCORE
19.5
PRE TEST
POST TEST
19
POST ADJUSTED
18.33
18.5
18
17.5
17
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
18.31
196
From the above finding, it could be observed that Very low
density lipo-protein decreased by Yogic practices (Asanas and
experimental groups. But there was no significant decrease found in
Very low density lipo-protein.
Prasad et.al.,43 showed a significant fall in VLDL-cholesterol.
Result of Total Cholesterol
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Total
Cholesterol among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table XXXI. Since the computed value of F
TABLE: XXXI
TOTAL CHOLESTEROL
Critical
F
SOV df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x
MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
of F0.05
BS
2
2417.73
322.13
534.13
429.21 214.61
15.17 0.93
3.21
WS
41 10433.07 12703.87 5837.87 9437.26 230.18
Total
43
12850.80
43Ibid.
13026.00
6372.00
9866.57
444.89
197
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was non significant
for Total Cholesterol the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was not
applicable.
FIGURE: XIX
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF TOTAL
CHOLESTEROL
TOTAL CHOLESTEROL
158.87
160
155
150
147.07
148.41
146.53
MEAN
146.00
145.15
145
141.40
140.93
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
140.44
140
135
130
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
From the above finding of figure XIX, it could be observed that
Total
cholesterol
decreased
by
Yogic
practices
(Asanas
and
Total cholesterol.
198
The result indicates with 14 week training, adequate and
significant effect could be noticed in yogic practices than aerobic
exercises.
The results by and large were in conformity with the finding of
Linder et.al.,44 seen that there was no effect was observed for TC,
Blessing et.al.,45 confirmed that a positive alteration in TC after 12 weeks
aerobic training and Mahmoud,46 stated that TC were unchanged on
prolonged maximal exercise.
Result of Hemoglobin
The result of analysis of covariance for Hemoglobin among
presented in Table XXXII. Since the computed value of F ratio was 10.25,
44Linder,
Loc.cit.
45Blessing,
Loc.cit.
46Mahmoud
Loc.cit.
199
TABLE: XXXII
OF HEMOGLOBIN
Source
Critical
F
of
df SSx
SSy SSxy SSy.x MSy.x S.Dy.x
Value
ratio
Variance
of F0.05
8.14
4.07
Between Sets 2 17.94 5.83 0.13
0.63 10.25
3.21
41
33.96
23.20
15.32
16.29
0.40
Within Sets
43 51.90
Total
29.0
15.4
24.4
4.5
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was significant, the
Hemoglobin, the Scheffe’s Post hoc test for significance was used. The F
ratio for difference between the paired adjusted mean on Hemoglobin
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group is
presented in Table XXXIII and Figure XX.
TABLE: XXXIII
SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PAIRED ADJUSTED MEAN OF HEMOGLOBIN
Critical
Paired Adjusted Hemoglobin Means
Mean
Ft
Value of
Difference
Aerobic
Yogic
Control
F0.05
11.52
12.20
0.68
8.67
11.52
12.20
11.09
0.43
3.50
11.09
1.11
23.19
6.42
group was 11.09 and Aerobic group was 11.52 and the obtained value
200
Control and Yogic group and the Yogic and Aerobic group were
23.19 and 8.67 which were higher than the table value of 6.42 was
The adjusted mean of the Control group was 11.09 and the
Aerobic group was 11.52.
The calculated value of F ratio for the
difference between the paired adjusted mean of the control and
and was not significant at 0.05 level.
FIGURE: XX
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF HAEMOGLOBIN
HEMOGLOBIN (Hb)
12.5
12.20
11.87
11.85
12
11.87
11.52
11.5
MEAN SCORE
11.11
11.09
11.09
11
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
10.33
10.5
10
9.5
9
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
201
From the above finding, it could be observed that Hemoglobin
increased significantly by Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama)
than Aerobic Exercises as done by the subjects of experimental groups.
significant effect on Hemoglobin. These results by and large were in
conformity with the finding of Mahmoud47 declared that Plasma volume
changes in response to exercise which were calculated from Hct and
Hb values with the effect of prolonged maximal exercises.
Result of Fasting Blood Sugar
The result of analysis of covariance for the score of Fasting Blood
Sugar among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
Exercise group is presented in Table XXXIV. Since the computed value of
F ratio was 0.52 which was insignificantly lower than the table value of
TABLE: XXXIV
FASTING BLOOD SUGAR
SOV
df
SSx
SSy
SSxy
SSy.x
MSy.x
BS
2
274.86
408.02
268.63
268.52
134.26
WS
41
11364.04
11618.10
3411.64
10593.88
258.39
Total
43
11638.90
12026.12
3680.37
10862.40
392.65
47Mahmoud
Loc.cit.
S.Dy.x
F
ratio
Critical
Value of
F0.05
16.07
0.52
3.21
202
Since, the calculated value of F ratio was non significant
for Total Cholesterol the Scheffe ’S Post hoc test for significance was not
applicable.
From the above finding of figure XXI, it could be observed that
Fasting Blood Sugar decreased by Yogic practices (Asanas and
Fasting Blood Sugar.
FIGURE: XXI
MEAN OF CONTROL, YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF FASTING
BLOOD SUGAR
FASTING BLOOD SUGAR (FBS)
89.87
89.8
90
88.93
87.20
88
MEANM SCORE
86
84.54
83.83
83.60
84
83.24
83.17
PRE TEST
POST TEST
POST ADJUSTED
82
80
78
CONTROL
YOGIC
AEROBIC
203
Ravinderan et.al.,48 confirmed that the blood glucose level was
decreased after aerobic exercise at different condition of recovery
period and Montoye49 stated glucose tolerance remained about the
same with physical fitness level.
Result of Coefficient Correlation between Somatotype Component and
Experimental Variables
The results of Coefficient of correlation (r) for the pre and post test
of the Control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group are
presented to analyse the relationship between Somatotype component
such as Endomorphic component, Mesomorphic component and
Ectomorphic component and Experimental Variables of Health related
Physical Fitness
such as Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total
Flexibility, Percent Body fat and Twelve minutes run, and Biochemical
variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL were compared
for each test.
48
Ravinderan. et. al, Journal of sports Science in Physical
Education.24(1):5.
49Henry
J. Montoyeer. e.al., Europ. J. appl. Physiol. 37: 242.
204
The
Coefficient
of
Correlation
for
pre
test
between
Endomorphic Component and Percent Body fat among the control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group were 0.91, 0.95 and 0.98
respectively and which exceeds the table value of 0.482 which was
shown in Table XXXV, and so it was significant at 0.05 level.
A non
significant relationships were found in pre test of the control group, the
Yogic group and the Aerobic group between Endomorphic Component
and other experimental
variables such as Arm strength, Abdominal
Strength, Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run, Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL,
and VLDL.
The Coefficient of correlation for post test between Endomorphic
Component and Percent Body fat among the control group, the Yogic
group and the Aerobic group were 0.91, 0.84 and 0.74 respectively and
which exceeds the table value of 0.482, and so it was significant at 0.05
level.
A non significant relationships were found in post test of the
control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group between
Endomorphic Component and other experimental
variables such as
Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run,
Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
205
TABLE XXXV
CORRELATION BETWEEN ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
Coefficient of
Correlation(r)
Control
Pre
Post
-0.57
Arm Strength
0.32
Abdominal Strength
0.14
Total Flexibility
*0.91
Percent body fat
-0.17
12 min run
-0.35
Hemoglobin
0.12
Fasting blood sugar
-0.06
Total Cholesterol
0.28
Triglycerides
-0.23
HDL
0.08
LDL
0.28
VLDL
-0.61
0.20
0.16
*0.91
-0.37
-0.43
0.01
0.02
0.18
-0.24
0.09
0.16
Yogic
Pre
Post
-0.42
0.03
-0.04
*0.95
-0.15
0.13
-0.16
-0.05
-0.17
0.05
0.03
0.12
-0.46
0.08
-0.14
*0.84
0.35
0.16
-0.12
-0.03
-0.17
0.13
-0.030
0.07
Aerobic
Pre
Post
-0.02
-0.45
0.01
*0.98
-0.49
-0.23
-0.32
-0.17
0.33
0.05
0.13
-0.09
-0.43
-0.40
0.05
*0.74
-0.61
0.09
-0.07
-0.05
-0.30
0.12
-0.09
-0.16
The Coefficient of correlations for pre test between Mesomorphic
Component and Percent Body fat among the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group were 0.52 and 0.60 respectively, which exceeds the table
value of 0.482 shown in Table XXXVI, and so it is significant at 0.05 level.
A non significant relationships were found in pre test of the control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group between Mesomorphic
Component and other experimental variables such as percent body fat
Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run,
Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
The Coefficient of correlation for post test between Mesomorphic
Component and Percent Body fat, the Yogic group was 0.78, which
206
exceeds the table value of 0.482, and so it is significant at 0.05 level.
A non significant relationships were found in post test of the control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group between Mesomorphic
Component with the other experimental variables such as Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run, Hb, FBS, TC, TGL,
HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
TABLE XXXVI
CORRELATION BETWEEN MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
Coefficient of
Control
Yogic
Aerobic
correlation( r )
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Arm Strength
-0.01 -0.07 -0.66 -0.69 -0.44 -0.59
0.43
0.42
0.14
0.26 -0.18 -0.42
Abdominal Strength
0.09 -0.02 -0.37 -0.53
0.20 -0.26
Total Flexibility
-0.07
0.22 *0.52 *0.78 *0.60
0.38
Percent body fat
-0.19 -0.08 -0.39 -0.25 -0.75 -0.61
Twelve minutes run
-0.36 -0.10
0.26
0.31 -0.03
0.14
Hemoglobin
0.20
0.36 -0.29 -0.18
Fasting blood sugar -0.60 -0.41
0.02 -0.17
0.07
0.05 -0.10
0.14
Total Cholesterol
0.02 -0.08 -0.12
0.06
0.31
0.23
Triglycerides
-0.10 -0.03
0.07
0.01 -0.16
0.27
HDL
-0.11 -0.21
0.14
0.04
0.02
0.01
LDL
0.03 -0.07 -0.16
0.07
0.05
0.36
VLDL
The Coefficient of correlations for pre test between Ectomorphic
Component and Arm strength among the Yogic group and the Aerobic
group were 0.69 and 0.66 respectively, which exceeds the table value of
0.482 shown in Table XXXVII, and so it was significant at 0.05 level.
Similarly, the correlation between Ectomorphic component and Twelve
minutes run for pretest in the Aerobic group was 0.537and so it was also
207
significant at 0.05 level. But, a non significant relationships were found
in pre test of the Control group, the Yogic group the Aerobic group
between Ectomorphic Component and with other experimental
variables such as Percent body fat, Arm strength, Abdominal Strength,
Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run, Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
TABLE XXXVII
CORRELATION BETWEEN ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
Coefficient of
Control
Yogic
Aerobic
Correlation( r )
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT
Arm Strength
0.07
0.08 *0.69 *0.61 *0.66 *0.67
-0.48 -0.36 0.04 -0.23 -0.02
0.32
Abdominal Strength
-0.51 -0.31 0.21 0.29 0.15
0.28
Total Flexibility
-0.30 -0.50 -0.61 -0.77 -0.50 -0.35
Percent body fat
-0.23 -0.27 0.24 0.20 0.54
0.48
Twelve minutes run
-0.43 -0.48 0.26 0.36 0.32 -0.31
Hemoglobin
-0.14 -0.07 -0.14 -0.22 0.35
0.13
Fasting blood sugar
0.33
0.44 0.13 -0.08 -0.35 -0.35
Total Cholesterol
0.11
0.11 0.09 -0.10 -0.38 -0.42
Triglycerides
-0.29 -0.23 0.13 -0.14 -0.35 -0.46
HDL
0.11
0.24 0.10 -0.04 -0.08 -0.20
LDL
0.11
0.12 0.06 -0.13 0.02 -0.57
VLDL
The Coefficient of correlation for post test between Ectomorphic
Component and Arm strength among the Yogic group and the Aerobic
group were 0.61 and 0.67 respectively, which exceeds the table value of
0.482, and so it was significant at 0.05 level. Similarly, the correlation
between Ectomorphic component and Twelve minutes run for post test
in the Aerobic group was 0.48, which exceeds the table value of 0.482
and so it is significant at 0.05 level. But, a non significant relationships
208
were found in pre test of the control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic
group
experimental
between
Ectomorphic
Component
and
other
variables such as Percent body fat, Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Twelve minutes run, Hb, FBS, TC, TGL,
HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
Result of Partial Correlation between Somatotype Component and
The result of Fourth order partial correlation for the pre and post
test of the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group were
presented to analyse the relationship between Somatotype component
such as Endomorphic component, Mesomorphic component and
Ectomorphic component and Health related Physical Fitness such as
Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent Body fat,
Twelve minutes run.
Similarly, Fourth order partial correlation was
computed between Somatotype component such as Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic Components and Biochemical variables
such as Hb, FBS, TC, TG, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
The
partial
Correlation
for
pretest
between
Endomorphic
group and the Aerobic group were 0.88, 0.96 and 0.98 respectively,
Similarly, Endomorphic Component and total flexibility for pretest on
Aerobic group and 12 minutes run test on Yogic group were 0.51 and
209
0.67 respectively, which exceeds the table value of 0.482 was shown
in Table XXXVIII, and so it was significant at 0.05 level. A non significant
relationships were found in pre test of the control group, the Yogic and
the Aerobic group between Endomorphic Component and Health
related Physical Fitness variables such as Arm strength, Abdominal
Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes run, and Biochemical
variables such Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
TABLE: XXXVIII
PARTIAL CORRELATION BETWEEN ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
r
S.N
r12.3456
r13.4562
r14.5623
r15.6234
r16.2345
r12.3456
r13.4562
r14.5623
r15.6234
r16.2345
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Control
Fourth order partial
correlation
Pre Post
-0.15 0.16
Arm Strength
0.35 0.41
Abdominal Strength
-0.01 -0.17
Total Flexibility
*0.88 *0.90
Percent body fat
-0.07 -0.53
Twelve Minutes run
0.12 0.12
LDL
-0.16 -0.16
HDL
0.07 0.07
Triglycerides
-0.06 -0.06
VLDL
-0.12 -0.12
Hemoglobin
Yogic
Pre Post
Aerobics
Pre Post
0.22
0.11
-0.25
*0.96
*0.67
0.12
0.34
-0.03
*0.85
*0.61
-0.17
0.36
*0.51
*0.98
0.47
-0.80
0.13
*0.71
*0.64
-0.41
0.05
-0.05
0.02
0.10
-0.11
-0.17
0.15
-0.15
0.09
-0.21
0.20
-0.11
0.39
-0.10
-0.26
-0.21
0.16
0.13
0.40
-0.05
The partial Correlations for post test between Endomorphic
group and the Aerobic group were 0.90, 0.85 and 0.64 respectively,
Similarly, Endomorphic Component and total flexibility for post test on
Aerobic group and 12 minutes run test on Yogic group were 0.71 and
0.61 respectively, which exceeds the table value of 0.482, and so it was
210
significant at 0.05 level. A non significant relationships were found in
post test of the control group, the Yogic and the Aerobic group,
between Endomorphic Component and Health related Physical Fitness
variables such as Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and
Twelve minutes run, and Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL,
HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
The partial Correlations for pre test between Mesomorphic
Component and Arm strength of the Control group was 0.50, Total
flexibility of the Aerobic group was 0.90 and Abdominal strength of the
Control group and the Yogic group and the Aerobic group were 0.62,
061 and 0.58 respectively, which exceeds the table value of 0.482 was
shown in Table XXXIX, and so it was significant at 0.05 level.
A non
significant relationships were found in pre test of the control group, the
Yogic and the Aerobic group between Mesomorphic Component and
rest of the Health related Physical Fitness variables such as Percent body
fat Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes
run, and Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and
VLDL.
The partial Correlation for post test between Mesomorphic
Component and Arm strength of the Control group was 0.50 and
abdominal strength of the Control group was 0.61, which exceeds the
table value of 0.482 was shown in Table XXXIX, and so it was significant
211
at 0.05 level. A non significant relationships were found in post test of
the control group, the Yogic and the Aerobic group between
Mesomorphic Component and rest of the combination with Health
related Physical Fitness variables such as Percent body fat Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes run, and
Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
TABLE: XXXIX
PARTIAL CORRELATION BETWEEN MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
r
S.N
r12.3456
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
r13.4562
r14.5623
r15.6234
r16.2345
3
4
5
6
r12.3456
r13.4562
r14.5623
r15.6234
r16.2345
The
Control
Yogic
Fourth order Partial
correlation
Pre
Post
Pre Post
*0.50 *0.50 -0.74 -0.58
Arm Strength
*0.62 *0.61 *0.49 0.21
Abdominal Strength
0.28
0.47 0.04 -0.54
Total Flexibility
-0.19 -0.17 0.07 0.76
Percent body fat
-0.48 -0.39 -0.56 -0.41
12 min run
-0.45
LDL
-0.45
0.40
-0.13
0.13
-0.56
0.40
-0.13
0.13
-0.56
HDL
Triglycerides
VLDL
Hemoglobin
partial correlation
for Pre
Aerobics
Pre
Post
-0.58
*0.58
*0.90
0.71
-0.83
-0.63
-0.17
0.36
-0.10
-0.46
0.25
0.09
-0.44
-0.25 -0.25
0.28 -0.21
0.08 0.22
-0.39 0.36
-0.25
0.37
-0.04
-0.11
0.39
-0.38
0.47
-0.26
0.26
test between
Ectomorphic
component and Arm strength of the Yogic group and Aerobic group
were 0.61 and 0.70 respectively, which exceeds the table value of 0.482.
was shown in Table XXXX, A non significant relationships were found in
pre test of the control group, the Yogic and the Aerobic group between
Mesomorphic Component and rest of the combination with Health
212
related Physical Fitness variables such as Percent body fat Arm
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes run,
and Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL..
TABLE: XXXX
PARTIAL CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
r12.3456
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
Control
Fourth order Partial
correlation
Pre Post
-0.40 -0.36
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength -0.62 -0.52
-0.63 -0.62
Total Flexibility
-0.24 -0.14
Percent body fat
-0.12 -0.13
Twelve minutes run
0.16 0.16
LDL
r13.4562
r1.45623
r15.6234
r16.2345
3
4
5
6
HDL
Triglycerides
VLDL
Hemoglobin
r
S.N
r12.3456
r13.4562
r1.45623
r15.6234
r16.2345
-0.21 -0.21
0.01 0.01
-0.01 -0.01
-0.16 -0.16
Yogic
Pre
Post
Aerobics
Pre
Post
*0.61 *0.31
-0.16 -0.31
-0.05 -0.03
-0.34 -0.71
0.24 0.34
*0.70 0.69
-0.07 0.11
-0.33 -0.30
-0.59 -0.09
-0.15 0.23
-0.07
-0.01
-0.15
0.07
-0.06
-0.09
0.25
-0.02
0.04
-0.05
-0.32
-0.28 -0.38
-0.41 0.36
-0.13 -0.49
0.29 0.03
0.35
The partial Correlation for Post test between Ectomorphic
Component and Arm strength of the Aerobic group was 0.69 which
exceeds the table value of 0.482. was shown in Table XXXX, A non
significant relationships were found in post test of the control group, the
Yogic and the Aerobic group between Mesomorphic Component and
rest of the combination with Health related Physical Fitness variables
such as Percent body fat Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total
Flexibility and Twelve minutes run, and Biochemical variables such as Hb,
FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
213
Result of Multiple Correlations between Somatotype Component and
The result of Multiple correlation coefficient for the pre and post
test of the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group results
are presented to analyse the correlation between Somatotype
component
such
as
Endomorphic
component,
Mesomorphic
component and Ectomorphic component and combined effect of
Health related Physical Fitness such as Arm strength, Abdominal
Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent Body fat, Twelve minutes run. Similarly,
multiple correlation coefficients was computed between Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic Components and Biochemical variables
such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
The Multiple Correlation for pre test between Endomorphic
Component and Health related Physical fitness variables such as Arm
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent body fat and
Twelve minutes run among the control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group are 0.93, 0.97 and 0.99 respectively, which exceeds the
table value of 0.786 shown in Table XXXXI, and so it was significant at
0.05 level. A non significant relationship was found in pre test among the
control group, Yogic group and the Aerobic group of Endomorphic
Component with the Biochemical variables such as, Hb, TGL, HDL, LDL,
and VLDL.
214
The Multiple Correlation for post test between Endomorphic
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, percent body fat and
Twelve minutes run among the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group were 0.94, 0.91and 0.92 respectively, which exceed the
table value of 0.786, and so it is significant at 0.05 level. A non significant
relationship was found in post test of the control group, the Yogic group
and the Aerobic group between Endomorphic Component Biochemical
variables such as Hb, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
TABLE: XXXXI
MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ENDOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
S.N
Control
Multiple Correlation
Pre
1
2
Arm Strength
3
Abdominal Strength
4
Total Flexibility
5
Percent body fat
6
12 min run
1
2
LDL
3
HDL
4
Triglycerides
5
VLDL
6
Hemoglobin
Post
Yogic
Pre
Post
Aerobics
Pre
Post
*0.93 *0.94 *0.97 *0.91 *0.99 *0.92
0.45
0.48
0.26
0.44
0.46
0.56
215
The Multiple Correlation for pre test between Mesomorphic
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, percent body fat and
Twelve minutes run for the Yogic group and the Aerobic group were 0.85
and 0.96 respectively, which exceeds the table value of 0.786 shown in
Table XXXXII, and so it was significant at 0.05 level. A non significant
relationship was found in pre test for the control group
Mesomorphic
Component
and
Health
related
between
physical
fitness
component and a non significant relationship also found in the control
group and the Yogic group and the Aerobic group between
Mesomorphic Component with the Biochemical variables such as, Hb,
TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
The Multiple Correlation for post test between Mesomorphic Component
and Health related Physical fitness variables such as Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility,
Percent body fat and Twelve
minutes run among, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group were 0.93
and 0.80 respectively, which exceed the table value of 0.786, and so it
is significant at 0.05 level. A non significant relationship was found in post
test of the control group on Health related physical fitness component
and a non significant relationship also found in the control group and
the Yogic group and the Aerobic group
between Mesomorphic
216
Component and Biochemical variables such as, Hb, TGL, HDL, LDL,
and VLDL.
TABLE: XXXXII
MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
S.N
1
Control
Multiple
Correlation
Pre
Yogic
Aerobics
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
0.64
*0.85
*0.93
*0.96
*0.80
0.52
0.49
0.39
0.40
0.65
2
Arm Strength
3
Abdominal Strength
4
Total Flexibility
5
Percent body fat
6
12 min run
1
0.66
2
LDL
3
HDL
4
Triglycerides
5
VLDL
6
Hemoglobin
0.45
MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MESOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
The Multiple Correlation for pre test between Ectomorphic
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent body fat and
Twelve minutes run for the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group were 0.79, 0.79 and 0.84 respectively, which exceed the
217
table value of 0.786 shown in Table XXXXIII, and so it was significant at
0.05 level. A non significant relationship was found in pre test among the
Control group, the Yogic and the Aerobic group between Ectomorphic
Component and Biochemical variables such as, Hb, TGL, HDL, LDL, and
VLDL.
TABLE: XXXXIII
MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ECTOMORPHIC COMPONENT AND
S.N
EXPERIMENTAL
VARIABLES
CONTROL
Pre
1
2
Arm Strength
4
Abdominal
Strength
Total Flexibility
5
Percent body fat
6
12 min run
1
2
LDL
3
HDL
4
Triglycerides
5
VLDL
6
Hemoglobin
3
0.79
0.48
YOGIC
AEROBICS
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
0.75
0.79
*0.85
*0.84
*0.79
0.53
0.31
0.38
0.57
0.76
The Multiple Correlations for post test between Ectomorphic
strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility,
Percent body fat and
Twelve minutes run among the Yogic group and the Aerobic group
were 0.85 and 0.79 respectively, which exceed the table value of 0.786,
218
and so it was significant at 0.05 level. A non significant relationship
was found in post test for the control group
between Ectomorphic
Component and Health related physical fitness component and a non
significant relationship also found in the Control group and the Yogic
group and the Aerobic group between Ectomorphic Component and
Biochemical variables such as, Hb, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL.
significant relationship between selected Somatotype component and
selected Experimental variables.
Pierson
50
Laubach
stated that a little relationship to the size or composition,
51
stated that there is a general lack of relationship between
flexibility measurements and somatotype components, Slaughter52
stated that the first component reflect body fatness to a considerable
extent, Marcel Hebelinck53 derived that mesomorphic type has better
motor fitness scores, Robert Buresh et.al.,54 stated that heavier runners
experienced greater heat
production, heat
storage, and core
temperature increases than lighter runners during vigorous running,
51 William
R. Pierson, Research Quarterly, 32: 196.
51
L. Laubach and et. al., Research quarterly, 37: 241
52
M.H. Slaughter et. al., Research Quarterly, 48: 752.
53
Marcel Hebelinck et. al., Loc.cit.
54
Robert Buresh et. al., Loc.cit.
219
P.Bale
55
result found on significant relationship between percent fat
and the endomorphy rating, The moderate relationship of the strength
variables with the muscular rating, Henry J. Montoye56 stated that the
body fatness was eliminated the relationship of heart rate response,
Abbas Bahram et.al.,57
between
body
mesomorphy
image
and
Bandyopadhyay
58
result revealed inverse significant relationship
and
direct
body
fat,
relationship
BMI,
with
endomorphy
ectomorphy,
and
Amit
stated that the significant relationship found with
percentage (%fat) and Endomorphy.
55
P. Bale, Loc.cit.
56Henry
J. Montoye, et. al., Europ. J. appl. Physiol., 37: 237.
57Abbas
58Amit
501.
Bahram et. al., Journal of Applied science,6: 2456.
Bandyopadhyay, Journal Physiological Anthropology, 26:
220
Result of differences between Correlation Coefficient from pre test and
post test for Somatotype Component
In Table XXXXIV, the result of t ratio was obtained from the
difference between the correlation coefficients from the pre test and
post test results of the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic
group.
The t ratio for the Endomorphic components on percent body fat
of the Aerobic group showed 3.00, the obtained values of t ratio
exceeds the table value of 2.064, but a significant relationship was
obtained at 0.05 level.
Since, the obtained value of t ratio for rest of the combination for
the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on
Somatotype
components
(Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic
and
Ectomorphic components) and Health related Physical Fitness variables
such as Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent Body
Fat and Twelve minutes run and for the Aerobic group of Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes run and
Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL was
lesser than the table value of 2.064, a non significant relationships were
found at 0.05 level.
221
TABLE: XXXXIV
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CORRELATION FROM PRE TEST AND POST
TEST RESULT FROM ‘t’ RATIO
S.N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Experimental variables
Endomorphic Components
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Minutes Run
Hemoglobin
Fasting Blood Sugar
Total Cholesterol
Triglycerides
High Density Lipo Protein
Low Density Lipo Protein
VLDL
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Minutes Run
Hemoglobin
Fasting Blood Sugar
Total Cholesterol
Triglycerides
VLDL
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Minutes Run
Hemoglobin
Fasting Blood Sugar
Total Cholesterol
Triglycerides
VLDL
Control
Yogic
Aerobics
0.091
0.315
-0.044
0.073
0.465
0.185
0.267
-0.201
0.278
0.041
-0.042
0.322
0.098
-0.102
0.234
1.366
-1.261
-0.090
-0.112
-0.049
1.632
-0.215
0.149
0.137
0.993
-0.116
-0.095
*3.000
0.297
-0.783
-0.629
-0.293
1.537
-0.172
0.535
0.172
0.140
0.024
0.282
-0.715
-0.266
-0.647
-0.445
0.471
0.244
-0.190
0.245
0.227
0.071
-0.322
0.356
-1.146
-0.356
-0.122
-0.459
0.059
-0.434
0.137
0.246
-0.551
0.349
0.601
1.108
0.707
-0.357
-0.407
-0.280
-0.567
0.222
-1.080
0.006
-0.776
-0.012
-0.290
-0.501
0.490
0.084
0.112
-0.167
-0.317
0.007
-0.155
-0.296
-0.007
0.293
0.656
-0.220
0.393
0.107
-0.268
0.180
0.510
0.444
0.676
0.329
0.473
-0.049
-0.862
-0.340
-0.378
0.195
1.564
0.597
-0.001
0.106
0.276
0.301
1.420
222
Result of differences between Fourth Order Partial Correlation from pre
test and post test for Somatotype Component
In Table XXXXV, the result of t ratio was obtained from the
differences between the fourth order partial correlation from the pre test
and post test results of the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group. The t ratio for the Endomorphic components on Percent
body fat of the Aerobic group showed 3.16, the obtained values of t
ratio exceed the table value of 2.064, but a significant relationship was
obtained at 0.05 level for the Aerobic group between Endomorphic
component and Percent Body Fat of Health related Physical Fitness
variables.
Since, the obtained value of t ratio for rest of the combinations
between
Somatotype
components
such
as
(Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic components) and Health related
Physical Fitness variables such as Arm strength, Abdominal Strength,
Total Flexibility, Percent Body Fat and Twelve minutes run and for the
Aerobic group of Arm strength, Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility and
Twelve minutes run and Biochemical variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL,
HDL, LDL, and VLDL was lesser than the table value of 2.12, a non
significant relationships were found in the Control group, the Yogic
group and the Aerobic group at 0.05 level.
223
TABLE-XXXXV
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FOURTH ORDER PARTIAL CORRELATION FROM PRE TEST
AND POST TEST RESULT FROM ‘t’ RATIO
S.N
Experimental variables
1 Endomorphic components
2 Arm Strength
3 Abdominal Strength
4 Total Flexibility
5 Percent Body Fat
6 Twelve Minutes Run
1 Endomorphic components
2 Low Density Lipo Protein
Control
Yogic
Aerobics
0.62
0.14
0.24
0.34
0.92
0.202
-0.49
-0.43
1.5
0.2
1.26
0.5
-0.28
3.16
1.84
0.001
0.42
0.80
3 High Density Lipo Protein
4 Triglycerides
0.001
-0.4
-0.53
0.001
0.34
0.56
5 Very Low Density Lipo Protein
6 Hemoglobin
0.001
0.02
-0.99
0.001
0.19
-0.41
0.12
0.04
0.44
0.04
0.18
-0.35
0.67
1.16
-1.85
-0.29
0.11
1.67
*2.18
1.73
-0.74
0.001
0.02
1.05
0.001
-0.01
-1.17
0.001
0.98
1.48
0.001
-0.29
-1.02
0.001
-1.51
0.31
2 Arm Strength
0.08
0.61
0.02
0.20
0.30
-0.36
4 Total Flexibility
0.03
-0.05
-0.05
5 Percent Body Fat
0.18
0.74
-1.00
6 Twelve Minutes Run
1 Mesomorphic Component
0.001
-0.20
-0.74
0.001
-0.13
-0.99
4 Triglycerides
0.001
0.17
0.20
0.001
-0.2
-1.54
6 Hemoglobin
0.001
-0.07
0.73
0.001
1.14
0.53
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Minutes Run
4 Triglycerides
6 Hemoglobin
1 Mesomorphic Component
224
Result of differences between Multiple Correlations from pre test and
post test for Somatotype Component
In Table XXXXVI, the result of t ratio was obtained from the
difference between the multiple correlations between
component with Health related Physical Fitness
Somatotype
and Biochemical
variables from the pre test and post test results of the Control group, the
Yogic group and the Aerobic group.
Since, the obtained value of t ratio for Somatotype components
such as Endomorph, Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic components was
lesser than the table value of 2.921, a non significant relationships were
found in the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on
Health related Physical Fitness variables such as Arm strength,
Abdominal Strength, Total Flexibility, Percent Body Fat and Twelve
minutes run and for the Aerobic group of Arm strength, Abdominal
Strength, Total Flexibility and Twelve minutes run and Biochemical
variables such as Hb, FBS, TC, TGL, HDL, LDL, and VLDL at 0.05 level.
significant relationship between pre and post test of selected
Somatotype component and selected Experimental variables.
225
TABLE- XXXXVI
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CORRELATIONS FROM PRE TEST AND POST TEST
RESULT FROM‘t’ RATIO
S.n
1
2
3
4
5
6
Exprimental variables
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Min Run
Control
Yogic
Aerobics
0.16
1.12
*2.12
0.08
0.40
0.26
0.06
1.64
1.70
0.30
0.26
0.72
0.20
0.38
0.34
0.14
0.16
0.70
1 Endomorphic Component
4 Triglycerides
6 Hemoglobin
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
Arm Strength
Abdominal Strength
Total Flexibility
Percent Body Fat
Twelve Min Run
5 Triglycerides
1 Ectomorphic Component
2 Arm Strength
4 Total Flexibility
5 Percent Body Fat
6 Twelve Min Run
1 Ectomorphic Component
2 Endomorphic Component
5 Triglycerides
226
Herman et.al.,59 stated in his study that the ‘t’ value to determine
significant of differences between the group means of the three-body
type which concluded that the significant difference between two
laterals types endomorphic and Mesomorphic.
Analysis of somatotype components with Somatogram illustration
In table XXII and figure XXII, the mean of somatotype component
of pre and post test of the Control group, the Yogic group and the
Aerobic group was presented to analyse with Somatogram.
TABLE: XXXXVII
THE MEAN SOMATOTYPE COMPONENT OF PRE AND POST
TEST OF THE CONTROL GROUP, THE YOGIC GROUP AND THE
AEROBIC GROUP
Mean Somatotype
Pre test
Post test
Control group
2.6 - 1.3 - 4.4
2.5 - 1.2 - 4.5
Yogic group
3.3 - 1.4 – 3.3
3.2 - 1.1 – 3.6
Aerobic group
3.2 - 1.9 – 2.9
2.9 – 1.2 – 3.4
59Herman
J. Tyrance, Research Quarterly, 29: 349.
227
FIGURE: XXII
BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING PRE TEST AND POST TEST MEAN OF CONTROL,
YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP OF SOMATOTYPE COMPONENTS
The distribution of somatotype of control group pre test was
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXIII). The Somatogram showed that
out of 15 subjects, 8 subjects lay in Ecto-endomorph, 3 subjects lay in
Endo-ectomorph, 2 subjects lay in Ectomorph, and 2 subjects lay in
Ectomorphic. The mean of somatotype component were 2.6 - 1.3 - 4.4
also lay in Ecto endomorphic somatotype.
The distribution of somatotype of the Control group post test was
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXIV). The Somatogram showed that
Endo-ectomorph, 2 subjects lay in Ectomorph, and 2 subjects lay in
228
Ectomorph. The mean of somatotype component were 2.5 - 1.2 - 4.5
also lay in Ecto endomorphic somatotype.
The distribution of somatotype of the Yogic group pre test was
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXV). The Somatogram showed that
Endo-ectomorph, 3 subjects lay in Endo-mesomorph, 1 subject lay in
Ecto-mesomorph and. 1 subjects lay in Ectomorph.
The mean of
somatotype component were 3.3 - 1.4 – 3.3 also lay in Endo - ectomorph
somatotype.
The distribution of somatotype of the Yogic group post test was
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXVI). The Somatogram showed that
Endo-ectomorph, 1 subject lay in Endomorph, 1 subject lay in Endomesomorph and. 1 subjects lay in Endo-mesomorph.
The mean of
somatotype component was 3.2 - 1.1 – 3.6 also lay in Ecto - endomorph
somatotype.
The distribution of somatotype of the Aerobic group pre test was
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXVII). The Somatogram showed that
Endo-ectomorph, 3 subjects lay in Endo-mesomorph, 1 subject lay in
Meso-endomorph, 1 subject lay in Mesomorph and 1 subject lay in
229
Midtype. The mean of somatotype component were 3.1 - 1.9 – 2.9
also lay in Endo - Ectomorph somatotype.
The distribution of somatotype of the Aerobic group post test is
plotted in the Somatogram (Figure XXVIII). The Somatogram showed
that out of 15 subjects, 5 subjects lay in Ecto-endomorph, 3 subjects lay
in Endo-ectomorph, 4 subjects lay in Endomorph, 1 subject lay in Endo
mesomorph, 1 subject lay in Ectomorph and 1 subjects lay in Ecto esomorph. The mean of somatotype component was 2.9 – 1.2 – 3.4 also
lay in Ecto - endomorph somatotype.
significant changes found in individual and Means somatotype and its
components
as shown in Somatogram of pre and post test on the
Control group, Yogic group and Aerobic group.
Sanchez-Munoz
60
study indicates that the dancers are different from
the non-dancers in body build through the Somatogram analysis.
60Sanchez-Munoz
, Loc.cit.
230
FIGURE: XXIII
SOMATOGRAM SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOMATOTYPE ON PRETEST
CONTROL GROUP
231
FIGURE: XXIV
SOMATOGRAM SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOMATOTYPE ON
POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP
232
FIGURE: XXV
PRETEST YOGIC GROUP
233
FIGURE: XXVI
POSTTEST YOGIC GROUP
234
FIGURE: XXVII
PRETEST AEROBIC GROUP
235
FIGURE: XXVIII
POSTTEST AEROBIC GROUP
236
Discussion on findings
The result of the study indicated that the Somatotype components
such as
Endomorphic
Component, Mesomorphic Component and
Ectomorphic Component, the Health Related Physical Fitness components
such as Muscular strength and Endurance, Cardiovascular endurance,
Muscular flexibility and Body composition, and Bio-Chemical Variables such
as LDL, HDL, TG, VLDL, TC, FBS and Hb improved significantly by undergoing
fourteen weeks of training on Yogic practices and Aerobics Exercises by
the subjects of experimental groups.
The mean score of Experimental Variable for the control group, the
Yogic group and the Aerobic group, pre test, post test and adjusted Post
test is presented for discussion in table XXXXVIII.
237
TABLE: XXXXVIII
PRE TEST, POST TEST, POST ADJUSTED MEAN OF THE EXPREMENTAL VARIABLES FOR
THE CONROL GORUP, THE YOGIC GROUP AND THE AEROBIC GROUP
S.N
Variables
Pre
Control group
Post
Adj
Pre
Yogic group
Post
Adj
Pre
Aerobic group
Post
Adj
1
ENDOMORPHIC
2.60
2.50
2.76
3.30
3.17
2.98
3.10
2.87
2.80
2
MESOMORPHIC
1.30
1.17
1.29
1.43
1.07
1.11
1.87
1.17
1.00
3
ECTOMORPHIC
4.40
4.50
3.58
3.27
3.60
3.85
2.87
3.40
4.06
4
HEIGHT
169.20
169.20
168.55
167.87
167.87
168.61
168.70
169.00
168.91
5
WEIGHT
53.20
53.40
57.29
57.80
56.53
55.92
60.53
59.33
56.05
6
HUMERUS WIDTH
4.45
4.45
4.54
4.82
4.29
4.25
4.86
4.39
4.34
7
FUMER WIDTH
8.18
8.18
8.27
8.29
7.37
7.37
8.41
7.67
7.58
8
BICEP GIRTH
24.07
24.07
25.13
25.47
25.23
24.97
26.04
23.24
22.43
9
CALF GIRTH
29.63
29.63
30.77
30.93
30.17
30.02
31.79
29.06
28.08
10
ARM STRENGTH
114.60
114.54
114.28
113.65
113.52
114.20
114.75
114.93
114.51
11
ABDOMINAL STRENGTH
33.90
32.13
32.61
32.33
42.40
44.07
37.27
58.80
56.65
12
TOTAL FLEXIBILITY
152.50
149.00
140.57
128.20
154.73
166.73
146.73
156.67
153.10
13
PERCENT BODY FAT
9.00
8.98
9.82
10.38
9.45
7.79
10.87
10.77
10.19
14
TWELVE MINUTES RUN
2063.33
1993.33
1967.94
1730.00
2253.33
2481.85
2296.67
2613.33
2410.20
15
LDL
98.51
98.51
97.82
107.51
90.47
87.86
79.80
89.00
92.29
16
HDL
32.85
32.79
32.71
31.77
35.40
35.84
33.47
33.60
33.24
17
TRIGLYCERIDES
99.87
99.60
97.35
97.33
100.20
99.29
89.60
91.47
94.63
18
VLDL
20.00
20.07
20.06
19.87
20.53
20.57
20.07
18.33
18.31
19
TOTAL CHOLESTEROL
146.53
147.07
148.41
158.87
146.00
140.44
141.40
140.93
145.15
20
HAEMOGLOBIN
11.11
11.09
11.09
10.33
11.85
12.20
11.87
11.87
11.52
21
FASTING BLOOD SUGAR
89.87
89.80
88.93
83.83
83.60
84.54
87.20
83.24
83.17
DIFFERENCES AMONG CONTROL GROUP, YOGIC GROUP AND AEROBIC
GROUP
1.
The Endomorphic components showed no significant difference
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on
fourteen weeks of training as done by the subjects of experimental
group. It showed that the training could not affect the above said
variables within the frame work of duration on the age group relating to
this particular study.
But the above finding pointed out if lesser the score then better
the result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post
adjusted mean as showed in bar diagram (Figure:1) the Aerobic
exercises reduces more the Endomorphic component than the Yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama).
2.
The Mesomorphic components showed no significant difference
group. It showed that training could not affect the above said variables
within the frame work of duration and the age group relating to this
particular study. But the above finding pointed out if lesser the score
then better the result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the
post adjusted mean as showed in bar diagram (Figure:2) the Aerobic
239
exercises reduces more in Mesomorphic component than the yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama).
3.
The Ectomorphic components improved significantly among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on fourteen
weeks of training as done by the subjects of experimental group. The
above finding pointed out that the pre test mean, the post test mean
and the post
adjusted mean as shown in bar diagram(Figure:3) the
Aerobic exercises improved more in Endomorphic component than the
yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama). The weight plays vital role in
Ectomorphic component as the weight reduces. Further the height and
weight are also discussed below.
4.
The height showed a significant change among the Control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group fourteen weeks of
training as done by the subjects of experimental group.
The above
finding pointed out that the pre test mean, the post test mean and the
post
adjusted mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:4) that the
Aerobic exercises improved more in height than the yogic practices
(Asanas and Pranayama).
5.
The body weight improved significantly among the Control group,
the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on fourteen weeks of training as
done by the subjects of experimental group. The above finding pointed
240
out that the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted
mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:5) that the Aerobic exercises
improved more in body weight than the yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama).
6.
The Humerus width showed no significant difference among the
weeks of training as done by the subjects of experimental group. It
showed that training could not affect the above said variables within
the frame work of duration on the age group relating to this particular
study.
adjusted mean which showed in bar diagram (Figure:6) the yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama) reduces more the Humerus width
such as the subcutaneous fat, tendons and cartilage than the Aerobic
exercises .
7.
The Fumer width showed no significant difference among the
241
study.
adjusted mean which showed in bar diagram (Figure:7) the yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama) reduces more the Femur width such
as
the subcutaneous
fat, tendons and cartilage than the Aerobic
exercises.
8.
The Bicep girth showed a significant change among the Control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on fourteen weeks of
The above
finding pointed out if lesser the score then better the result of the pre test
mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted mean as shown in the
bar diagram (Figure:8) that the Aerobic exercises reduces more in Bicep
girth than the yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama). This proved
that better muscle tonus and fat burning improved underneath the skin.
9.
The Calf girth showed a significant change among the Control
The above
finding pointed out if lesser the score then better the result of the pre test
mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted mean as shown in bar
242
diagram (Figure:9) that the Aerobic exercises improved more in Calf
girth than the Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama). This proved
that better muscle tonus and fat burning improved underneath the skin.
10.
The Arm strength showed a significant change among the Control
training as done by the subjects of experimental group. The above
finding pointed out if higher the score then better the result of the pre
test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted mean as shown in
bar diagram (Figure:10 ) that the Aerobic exercises increases more the
Arm strength than the Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama).
11.
The Abdominal strength showed a significant change among the
above finding pointed out if higher the score then better the result of the
pre test mean, the post test mean and the post
adjusted mean as
shown in bar diagram (Figure:11) that the Aerobic exercises increases
more the Abdominal strength than the Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama).
12.
The Total Flexibility showed a significant change among the
243
above finding pointed out if higher the score then better the result of the
pre test mean, the post test mean and the post
adjusted mean as
shown in bar diagram (Figure:12) that the Aerobic exercises increases
the spine, back and shoulder
Flexibility
than the Yogic practices
13.
The Percent body fat showed a significant change among the
above finding pointed out that decrease in the score meant better the
result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted
mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:13) that the Yogic practices
(Asanas and Pranayama) reduces more the Percent body fat than the
Aerobic exercises.
14.
The Twelve minutes
run showed
a significant
change in
cardiovascular endurance among the Control group, the Yogic group
and the Aerobic group on fourteen weeks of training as done by the
subjects of experimental group. The above finding pointed out if higher
the score then better the result of the pre test mean, the post test mean
and the post adjusted mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:14) that
the Aerobic exercises increases the cardio vascular endurance more
than the Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama).
244
15.
The Low density lipo protein showed no significant difference
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group in on
within the frame work of duration on the age group relating to this
particular study.
adjusted mean as were shown in bar diagram (Figure:15) the yogic
practices (Asanas and Pranayama) reduces the Low density lipo
protein. But the Aerobic exercises showed an increase in LDL this may be
due food habit such as egg, milk, more saturated oil usage, hotel food
etc. which could not be controlled during the training period.
16.
The High density lipo protein showed a significant difference
group. The above finding pointed out if higher the score then better the
result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted
mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:16) that the Aerobic exercises
increases the High density lipo protein more than the Yogic practices
245
17.
The Triglycerides showed no significant differences among the
Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group in on fourteen
study.
the result of the pre test mean, post test mean and post adjusted mean
as shown in bar diagram (Figure:17). The Aerobic exercise reduces
Triglycerides more than the Yogic practices (Asanas and Pranayama).
This showed that Aerobic exercises induces more on hormones and
regulate the release of triglycerides from fat tissue so they meet the
body's needs for energy between meals.
18.
The Very low density lipo protein showed no significant differences
among the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group in on
particular study.
But the above finding pointed out that lesser the score then better
the result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted
246
mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:18).
The Aerobic exercise
reduces Very low density lipo protein than Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama).
19.
The Total Cholesterol showed no significant differences among the
study.
But the above finding may pointed out if lesser the score then
better the result of the pre test mean, post test mean and post adjusted
mean which showed in bar diagram (Figure:19) the Aerobic exercise
reduces
Total
Cholesterol
than
Yogic
practices
(Asanas
and
Pranayama).
20.
The Hemoglobin showed a significant difference among the
above finding pointed out that higher the score then better the result of
the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted mean as
shown in bar diagram (Figure:20) that Yogic practices (Asanas and
247
Pranayama) increases the Hemoglobin more than the Aerobic
exercises.
21.
The Fasting Blood sugar showed no significant differences among
the Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group on fourteen
showed that the training could not affect the above said variables
particular study.
But the above finding pointed out that lesser the score then better
the result of the pre test mean, the post test mean and the post adjusted
mean as shown in bar diagram (Figure:21), the Aerobic exercise
reduces Fasting Blood sugar than Yogic practices (Asanas and
Pranayama) both stays in normal level.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOMATO TYPE COMPONENT AND EXPERIMENTAL
VARIABLE OF CONTROL GOUP YOGIC GROUP AND AEROBIC GROUP
22.
The result of relationship between somatotype component and
Experimental variables for pre test and post test showed a significance
only with (1) Endomorphic component with percent body fat in both
Yogic practices (Asanas & Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises (2)
Mesomorphic component with percent body fat in both Yogic practices
(Asanas & Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises (3) Ectomorphic
248
component with Arm strength in both Yogic practices (Asanas &
Pranayama)and Aerobic exercises and Ectomorphic component with
twelve minutes run in Aerobic exercises only.
23.
The result of partial relationship between somatotype component
and Experimental variables for pre test and post test showed
significance only with (1) Endomorphic component with percent body
fat in both Yogic practices (Asanas & Pranayama) and Aerobic
exercises (2) Mesomorphic component with Total flexibility in both Yogic
practices (Asanas & Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises.
24.
The
result
of
multiple
relationship
between
somatotype
component and Experimental variables for pre test and post test
showed a significance only with (1) Endomorphic component with
Health related physical fitness variables in both Yogic practices (Asanas
& Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises (2) Mesomorphic component with
& Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises. (3) Ectomorphic component with
& Pranayama) and Aerobic exercises
25.
The result of difference between the relationship from pre and
post test results of correlation coefficient between Somatotype
components with Health Related Physical Fitness Variables and Bio
Chemical Variables showed a significant relationship between the
249
Endomorphic Component and the percent body fat for the Aerobic
group. There was no significant relationship obtained from the
Somatotype component and the Experimental variables, except for the
above relationship.
26.
The result of difference between the partial relationship from pre
and post test values of Fourth order Partial correlation between
Somatotype components with Health Related Physical Fitness Variables
and Bio Chemical Variables showed a significant relationship between
the Endomorphic component and the Percent body fat of Health
Related Physical Fitness Variables for Aerobic group. An insignificant
relationship was obtained from the Somatotype component with Health
Related Physical Fitness variable and Bio Chemical Variables, except for
the above partial relationship.
27.
The result of difference between the multiple relationships from
pre and post test values of multiple correlations between Somatotype
components and Health Related Physical Fitness Variables and between
Somatotype components and Bio Chemical Variables showed a
significant relationship between the Endomorphic components and the
Health Related Physical Fitness Variables for the Aerobic group. An
insignificant relationship was obtained from the Somatotype component
with the Health Related Physical Fitness variables and Somatotype
250
component with Bio Chemical Variables except for the above
relationship.
SOMATOTYPE COMPONENT ON SOMATOGRAM
Control group on somatotype
28.
In control group, since there was no training given there no much
difference seen in the somatotype between pre and post test.
The
Somatogram figure XXIII and XXXIV showed that the pre test mean (2.6 1.3 - 4.4) and post test mean (2.5 - 1.2 - 4.5) of the control group
Somatotype component values lay in the Ecto-endomorphic area itself.
There was very slight change seen in the mean values of first, second
and third components of somatotype components (Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic).
Yogic group on somatotype
29.
In Yogic group, since the Yogic practices involves different types
and variation of intensive practice of 14 weeks of asana and
Pranayama, the effect was seen in the somatotype component
between pretest and post test. The Somatogram figure XXV and XXVI
showed that the pre test mean (3.3 - 1.4 – 3.3) was at the Endoectomorphic area of Somatogram which was more on Endomorphic
and after yogic practices the post test mean (3.2 - 1.1 – 3.6) value of
somatotype components were
in Ecto-endomorphic area but
movement was noticed toward slight Ectomorphic type. There were
251
slight changes noticed in First component (Endomorphic) and more
changes noticed in second and third component (Mesomorphic and
Ectomorphic)
Aerobic group on somatotype
30.
In Aerobic group, since the Aerobic exercises involves different
types and variation of intensive practice of 14 weeks of moving,
humping and turning movements, the effect was seen in the
somatotype
component
between
pretest
and
post
test.
The
Somatogram figure XXVII & XXVIII showed that the pre test mean (3.2 1.9 – 2.9) were at the Endo-ectomorphic area of Somatogram which
was more on Endomorphic and after Aerobic exercises the post test
mean were (2.9 – 1.2 – 3.4) value of somatotype components were
moved more to Ecto-endomorphic area but movement was noticed
more towards Ectomorphy . There were more changes noticed in first,
second
and
third
component
of
Somatotype
components
(Endomorphic, Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic) when comparing with
control and Yogic group.
252
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
The development added new dimension to the study of
morphology. Anthropometry was first used in study of morphology in
seventeenth century.
The objective of the present study is to find out whether the effect
of selected Yogic Practices (Asana & Pranayama) & Aerobic exercises
on Somatotype Components and its relationship with selected Health
Related Physical Fitness and Bio-chemical variables of collegiate boys.
For the purpose of the study forty-five college male students who
are residing in the Government boys’ hostel, lawspet, Puducherry were
selected at random from 250 students and their age ranges from 18 to
25 years. They were divided into three groups namely Control group,
Yogic group and Aerobic group.
The Control group consisted of 15
subjects, the Yogic group consisted of 15 subjects and Aerobic group
consisted of 15 Subjects.
During the training period the Yogic group and the Aerobic group,
underwent fourteen weeks of training on their respective program. The
Yogic group was trained on Asanas and Pranayama.
The Aerobic
group was trained on Aerobic exercises with rhythmic music with various
253
types of aerobic type movements. The Progressive load method was
used up to fourteen weeks for the respective groups. The training was
given during 5.P.M to 6.30 P.M every day for 5 days a week. The data
pertaining to pre test and post test of experimental variables were
derived through the following methods.
The Somatotype component of the subjects were analysed with
Anthropometric measurements. Endomorphic Component was derived
from Triceps, Sub-scapular, Suprailliac and Calf skinfold. A mesomorphic
component was derived from Height, Humerus Width, Femur Width,
Bicep Girth and Calf Girth, and Ectomorphic component was derived
from Height and Weight.
The Health related physical fitness components such Muscular
Strength and Endurance, Muscular Flexibility, Cardio vascular Endurance
& Body Composition were tested using the following test methods.
Muscular strength and Endurance is measured by Arm strength with Pullup and push-ups test, and Abdominal strength with Straight and bend
knee Sit-ups tests. Muscular flexibility was tested with Sit and reach test,
trunk extension and upward backward arm movement test. Cardio
vascular Endurance was tested with twelve minutes run Coopers’ test.
Body Composition was tested with the help of skinfold caliper in different
regions of the body such as Triceps, Subscapular, Suprailium, Midaxillary,
254
Abdominal, Thigh and Chest skinfold. The Bio Chemical variable LDL,
HDL, TG, VLDL, TC, Hb and FBS were tested with help of authorized lab.
The experimental variable were derived, analaysed and discussed
on Endomorphic component, Mesomorphic components, Ectomorphic
component, Height, Weight, Humerus width, Fumer width, Arm strength,
Abdominal strength, Total flexibility , Percent Body fat, twelve minutes
run, LDL, HDL, TG, VLDL, TC, Hb and FBS.
The primary analysis of Pre-test and Post test data of the control
and Experimental groups such as Yogic group and Aerobic group were
statistically examined for significant
differences. The
Analysis of
covariance was used find F ratio for the differences among the control
group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group for the experimental
variables. The Scheffe’s post hoc test was analaysed and the result also
showed that there was a significance difference. In all the cases .05
level of confidence were selected to reject the null hypothesis.
The secondary purpose was to find out the different relationship
(simple,
partial
and
Multiple)
between
somatotype
component
(Endomorphic component, Mesomorphic component and Ectomorphic
component) and Experimental variable (Health related physical fitness
variables and Bio chemical variables) were computed by Simple
correlation, Partial correlation and Multiple correlation.
255
Similarly, the difference between the pre-test and post-test of
different relationship (Simple, Partial and Multiple) between somatotype
component
(Endomorphic,
Mesomorphic
and
Ectomorphic
component) and Experimental variable (Health related physical fitness
variables and Bio chemical variables) were computed by ‘t’ test.
Somatogram chart was used to plot the body type or somatotype
which assessed form Heath carter somatotype rating form for the Pre
and post test of Control group, the Yogic group and the Aerobic group.
Conclusions
1. The Ectomorphic component was significantly improved by the
Aerobic exercises than the Yogic practices.
2. There were no significant effect on the Yogic practices and the
Aerobic exercises on Endomorphic and Mesomorphic component
3. The Height was significantly increased in Aerobic exercise.
4. The Weight was significantly decreased in the Yogic practices
than aerobic exercise
5. There was no significant effect on Humerus and femur width in the
Yogic practices or the Aerobic Exercises.
6. The Bicep and Calf girth were decreased significantly in the
Aerobic exercises than the Yogic practices.
256
7. The Arm strength and Abdominal Strength were significantly
improved in the Aerobic exercises than the Yogic practices.
8. The flexibility was improved significantly in the Yogic practices
then aerobic exercise.
9. The percent body fat was significantly decreased in the Yogic
practices than Aerobic exercises.
10. The cardiovascular endurance was improved in the Yogic
practices than the Aerobic exercises.
11. There was no effect on the Aerobic exercise or the Yogic
practices on LDL, VLDL, T.G, T.C and FBS.
12. The HDL and Hemoglobin were significantly improved in the Yogic
practice than the Aerobic exercise.
13. The significant relationship between the Endomorphic component
and Percent body fat was found in the Pretest and the Post of all
the three groups.
14. The significant relationship between the Mesomorphic component
and Percent body fat was found in the Pretest of the Yogic group
and the Aerobic group and the Post test of the Aerobic group.
257
15. The
Significant
relationship
between
the
Ectomorphic
component and the Arm strength was found in the Pre test and
the Post test of the Yogic group and the Aerobic group.
16. The partial relationship between Endomorphic component and
total flexibility was found in the pretest and the post test of
Aerobic group, the Endomorphic component and percent body
fat was found in all the three group and the Endomorphic and
twelve minutes run was found significant in the pre and Post test of
the Yogic group.
17. The partial relationship between Mesomorphic component and
Arm strength was found in the pretest and the post test of Control
group, the Mesomorphic component and abdominal strength
was found in the Pre test and Post test of the Control group and
the pre test of the Aerobic group and the Yogic group.
18. The partial relationship was found in Ectomorphic component and
Arm strength in the pre test and post test of the Yogic group and
Aerobic group.
19. The combined relationship between Endomorphic component
and HRPF components were found significant in pre test and post
test of all the group.
258
20. The combined relationship between Mesomorphic component
and HRPF components were found significant in pre test and post
test of the Yogic group and Aerobic group.
21. The combined relationship between Ectomorphic component
and HRPF components were found significant in post test of the
Yogic group, and the pre test and the post test of Aerobic group.
22. The significance between the Pre and post test correlation was
found in the Endomorphic component and the Percent body fat
in Aerobic Exercise.
23. The significance between the Pre and Post test partial correlation
was found in the Endomorphic component and the Percent body
fat, and Mesomorphic component and total flexibility in Aerobic
Exercises.
24. The significance between the Pre and Post test multiple
correlation was found in the Endomorphic components and the
Health related Physical Fitness Components in Aerobic Exercise.
25. The Somatogram Showed that distance between the mean
somatotype values of Aerobic group were Endo-ectomorph
moved
more
toward
Mesomorphic
component
of
Ecto-
endomorphic than Yogic Group. It concludes that somatotype
changes happened more in Aerobic exercises
259
Recommendations
The results of the study have yielded the following
recommendation.
1. The same study may be conducted for female students
2. Combination of Yogic practices and Aerobic exercise
on
different age group, different intensity and different sex may be
studied
3. Similar study may be conducted for motor fitness or skill related
physical fitness variables of one or two or more games.
4. Biochemical analysis can be deeply analysed on somatotype.
5. Study on effect of yogic practices, aerobic exercise and
combination on obesity management can also be studied.
6. Effect of Plyometric exercises on obesity management can also
be studied.
260
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269
Appendix - I
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Yogic Practices (Asanas and Pranayama)
Duration: 14 Weeks.
Weekly: 5 days.
Time: 45 minutes.
Week-1
Warming up
1. Shoulder rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
4. Knee bending movements
5. Ankles loosening movements
6. Chest expansion
Asanas (2 repetition)
1. Tatasana
2. Utkattasan
3. Artha kadichakavasana
4. Uthanasana
5. Virkshana
6. Sasakasana
7. Suriya Namskar- 12 steps 2
rounds
Pranayama(9 rounds)
1. Suka purva pranayama
2. Chandra Pranayama
3. Suriya Pranayama
Week-2
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
Asanas(2 repetition)
1. Tatasana
2. Utkattasan
3. Artha kati chakarasana
4. Artha Chakarasan
5. Uthanasana
6. Virkshana
7. Trikonasana
8. Badhmasana
9. Yoga mudra
10. Vajrasana
11. Sasakasana
rounds
Pranayama (9 rounds)
1. Cheetali (Cooling Pranayama)
3. Chandra Pranayama & Suriya
pranayama(Balancing)
270
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Yogic Practices (Asanas and Pranayama
Week-3
Week-4
Warming up
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
6. Chest expansion
1. Tatasana
2. Utkattasan
4. Artha Chakarasan
5. Uthanasana
6. Trikonasana
7. Parivurta Trikonasan
8. Prasavita pada Uthanasana
9. Virkshana
10. Badhmasana
11. Yoga mudra
12. Vajrasana
13. Sasakasana
14. Savasana
rounds
1. Cheetali (Coolong Pranayama)
2. Cheetkari
4. Chandra Pranayama & Suriya
pranayama(Balancing)
1. Savasana
2. Badhmasana
3. Uthita Badmasana
4. Yoga mudra
5. Janu Sirasasana
6. Raja kapotasana
7. Pachimuthasana
8. Bujangasana
9. Artha Salabasana
10. Vajrasana
11. Sasakasana
rounds
3. Suriya pranayama(Balancing)
4. Chandra bhedana
5. Suriya Bhedana
6. Brhamani Pranayama
271
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-5
Week-6
Warming up
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
6. Chest expansion
rounds
rounds
2. Tatasana
2. Vajrasana
3. Utkattasan
3. Sasakasana
4. Badhmasana
5. Artha Chakarasan
5. Yoga mudra
6. Uthanasana
6. Uthita Badmasana
7. Trikonasana
7. Simasana
8. Parivurta Trikonasan
8. Uthana Padasana
9. Prasarita pada Uthanasana
9. Navasana
10. Virkshasana
10. Sarvangasana
11. Badhmasana
11. Machi asana
12. Yoga mudra
12. Bujangasana
13. Uthita Badmasana
13. Salabasana
14. Padakonasana
14. Maga muthra
15. Ubhavista Konasana
15. Pada Konasana
16. Janu Sivasana
16. Tatasana
17. Raja kapotasana
17. Trikonasana
18. Pachimuthasana
18. Prasarita pada Uthanasana
19. Bujangasana
19. Uthanasana
20. Artha Salabasana
20. Savasana
21. Vajrasana
22. Sasakasana
23. Savasana
3. Suriya Pranayama
1. Brhamam
4. “Om” Chanding
272
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-7
Week-8
Warming up
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
6. Chest expansion
rounds
rounds
2. Tatasana
2. Utkattasan
3. Utkattasan
3. Badhmasana
4. Yoga mudra
5. Artha Chakarasan
5. Uthita Badmasana
6. Uthanasana
6. Simasana
7. Trikonasana
7. Janu Sirasana
8. Badhmasana
8. Pachimuthasana
9. Yoga mudra
9. Uthana Padasana
10. Navasana
11. Simasana
11. Sarvangasana
12. Janu Sirasana
12. Machi asana
13. Pachimuthasana
13. Bujangasana
14. Navasana
14. Salabasana
15. Sarvangasana
15. Vajrasana
16. Halasana
16. Maga muthra
17. Machi asana
17. Bharath vajrasan
18. Bujangasana
18. Artha Sirasasana
19. Salabasana
19. Tatasana
20. Vajrasana
20. Trikonasana
21. Maga muthra
21. Uthanasana
22. Majariasana
22. Savasana
23. Paranamuktasana
Pranayama(9 rounds)
24. Savasana
1. Brhamari
Pranayama
2. “Om” Chanding
1. Kabhalapathi( 30 strokes) (3
times)
2. Basthrika (3 rounds)
3. Nadisudhi (9 rounds)
273
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-9
Week-10
Warming up
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
6. Chest expansion
rounds
rounds
2. Tatasana
2. Utkattasan
3. Utkattasan
3. Badhmasana
4. Uthita Badmasana
5. Artha Chakarasan
5. Yoga mudra
6. Uthanasana
6. Shimasana
7. Trikonasana
7. Janu Sirasana
8. Badhmasana
8. Patchimuthanasana
9. Yoga mudra
9. Poorvavotanasana
10. Bujangasana
11. Simasana
11. Salabasana
12. Janu Sirasana
12. Dhanurasana
13. Pachimuthasana
13. Vajrasana
14. Navasana
14. Ustrasana
15. Sarvangasana
15. Maga muthra
16. Halasana
17. Machi asana
17. Badakonasana
18. Bujangasana
18. Arthasirasana
19. Salabasana
19. Tatasana
20. Vajrasana
20. Uthanasana
21. Maga muthra
21. Artha Chakarasan
22. Majariasana
22. Trikonasana
23. Paranamuktasana
23. Pariruruta Trikonasan
24. Savasana
24. Majariasana
25. Pavanamuktasana
1. Kabhalapathi ( 60 strokes , 2
26. Savasana
times)
Pranayama(9 rounds)
2. Basthrika( 6 rounds)
4. Basthrika (3 rounds)
3. Nadisudhi( 9 rounds )
5. Nadisudhi (9 rounds)
274
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-11
Week-12
Warming up
Warming up
1. Shoulder rotation.
1. Shoulder rotation.
2. Neck rotation.
2. Neck rotation.
3. Hip rotation.
3. Hip rotation.
4. Knee bending movements.
4. Knee bending movements.
5. Ankles loosening movements.
5. Ankles loosening movements.
6. Chest expansion.
6. Chest expansion.
Asanas (repetation)
Asanas
rounds
rounds
2. Tatasana.-2
2. Tatasana
3. Utkattasan.-2
3. Utkattasan
4. Uthanasana.-5
4. Badhmasana
5. Artha kati chakarasana.-2
5. Yoga mudra
6. Artha Chakarasan-3
6. Badakonasana
7. Trikonasana-2
7. Patchimuthasana
8. Virabhadarasana-I -1
8. Uthana Padasana
9. Parivuruta Trikonasan-1
9. Navasana
10. Prasaritha Pada uttanasana-1
10. Vibharithakurani-1
11. Virkshasana -1
11. Sarvangasanas
12. Badakonasana-1
12. Halasana
13. Badhmasana -1
13. Matsyasana
14. Yoga mudra -5
14. Bujangasana
15. Pachimuthasana-5
15. Salabasana
16. Uthana Padasana -3
16. Dhanurasana
17. Navasana -3
17. Vajrasana
18. Vibharithakurani -1
18. Maga muthra
19. Sarvangasanas -2
19. Chakarasan
20. Halasana -1
20. Pavanamukthasana
21. Matsyasana -3
21. Savasana
22. Bujangasana -5
22. Trikonasana
23. Salabasana -3
23. Parivuruta Trikonasan
24. Dhanurasana -4
24. Pariruruta Pada utanasana
25. Vajrasana -1
25. Uthanasana
26. Maga muthra -5
27. Arthasirasana -1
Pranayama
28. Savasana
1. Cheetali -6 rounds
Pranayama
2. Cheetkari. – 9 rounds
1. Brhamari -9 rounds
3. Nadisudhi.- 12 rounds.
2. Nadisudhi – 12 rounds
275
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-13
Week-14
Warming up
Warming up
2. Neck rotation
2. Neck rotation
3. Hip rotation
3. Hip rotation
6. Chest expansion
6. Chest expansion
Asanas
Asanas
rounds
rounds
2. Savasana
2. Savasana
3. Vajrasana
3. Vajrasana
4. Sasakasana
4. Sasakasana
5. Badhmasana
5. Badhmasana
6. Yoga mudra
6. Yoga mudra
7. Badakonasana
7. Shimasana
8. Pachimuthasana
8. Janusirasana
9. Poorva Uthanasana
9. Patchimuthasana
10. Navasana
10. Poorva Uthanasana
11. Sarvangasanas
11. Navasana
12. Halasana
12. Sarvangasanas
13. Matsyasana
13. Halasana
14. Bujangasana
14. Matsyasana
15. Salabasana
15. Bujangasana
16. Dhanurasana
16. Salabasana
17. Ustrasana
17. Dhanurasana
18. Maga muthra
18. Maga muthra
19. Chakarasan
20. Vakarasan
20. Pavanamukthasana rolling
21. Chakarasan
21. Arthasirasana
22. Pavanamukthasana
22. Trikonasana
23. Arthasirasana
23. Uthanasana
24. Savasana
24. Savasana
Pranayama
Pranayama
1. Cheetali -6 rounds
1. Cheetali 9 rounds
2. Cheetkari – 9 rounds
2. Nadisudhi 15 rounds
3. Nadisudhi 15 rounds
3. Basthrika – 1 repetition
276
Appendix - II
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Aerobic Exercise (Low impact)
Duration: 14 Weeks.
Weekly: 5 days.
Time: 40 minutes.
Week-1
Week-2
Medium phase
Medium phase
1. Shift weight side move left and
right.
2. Hand press to Knee (chest to thigh).
2. Hand press to Knee (chest to thigh). 3. Step touch hands side.
4. Two step side move.
5. Forward backward move with crossing
5. Forward backward move with
crossing hands .
7. Step Bicep
hands
7. Step Bicep
Medium fast phase
8. Squat press.
277
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-3
Medium phase
1.
Week-4
Medium phase
Shift weight side move left and
right.
Hand press to Knee (chest to
thigh).
2. Hand press to Knee (chest to
3.
Step touch hands side.
4.
Two step side move.
5.
Forward backward move with
crossing hands.
6.
Step press side elbow.
7.
Step Bicep curl.
7. Step Bicep curl.
2.
Medium fast phase
right.
thigh).
crossing hands .
Medium fast phase
8.
Squat press.
8. Squat press.
9.
Sideward thigh lift hands side.
12. March forward and backward with
elbow up & down.
elbow up & down.
14. Step down march.
278
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-5
Medium phase
Week-6
Medium phase
right.
2. Hand press to Knee (chest to
thigh).
crossing hands.
4. Two step side move.
7. Step Bicep curl.
crossing hands.
Medium fast phase
7. Step Bicep curl.
8. Squat press.
Medium fast phase
8. Squat press.
elbow up & down.
elbow up & down.
Faster phase
19. Chicken arms.
Faster phase
20. Reach up.
19. Chicken arms.
20. Reach up.
22. Great biceps.
23. Step touch side.
22. Great biceps.
23. Step touch side.
279
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-7
Week-8
Medium fast phase
Medium fast phase
1. Squat press.
1. Squat press.
3. Sideward thigh lift hands
forward.
3. Sideward thigh lift hands
forward.
5. March forward and backward
with elbow up & down.
5. March forward and backward
with elbow up & down.
7. Step down march.
7. Step down march.
Faster phase
Faster phase
12. Chicken arms.
12. Chicken arms.
13. Reach up.
13. Reach up.
15. Great biceps.
15. Great biceps.
16. Step touch side. Walk front &
back elbow bent
16. Step touch side. Walk front &
back elbow bent
17. chicken arm with forward kick.
20. Step and cross.
20. Step and cross.
21. March.
21. March.
280
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-9
Faster phase
Week-10
Faster phase
1. Chicken arms.
1. Chicken arms.
2. Reach up.
2. Reach up.
4. Step touch side.
4. Step touch side.
9. March.
9. March.
10. Press and move forward and
backward.
10. Press and move forward and backward.
12. Step and reach.
12. Step and reach.
15. Elbow knee forward and backward
tough.
16. Chicken turn.
16. Chicken turn.
20. Press up Kick Knee.Step Step
change.
20. Press up Kick Knee.Step Step change.
21. step side forward upward move.
22. Side step kick.
22. Side step kick.
281
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-11 & 12
Medium phase
1.
Shift weight side move left and right.
2.
Hand press to Knee (chest to thigh).
3.
Step touch hands side.
4.
two step side move.
5.
Forward backward move with
crossing hands
6.
Step press side elbow.
7.
Step Bicep curl.
29. Step and cross.
30. March.
backward.
34. Swinging hands.
Medium fast phase
35. Step and reach.
8.
Squat press.
36. Chicken arms.
9.
Sideward thigh lift hands side.
tough.
elbow up & down.
40. Chicken turn.
42. March.
46. Step Step change.
19. Faster phase
20. Chicken arms.
21. Reach up.
49. Side step kick.
23. Great biceps.
51. Ankle arm touch. ,Knee elbow touch.
282
TRAINING PROGRAMME
Week-13 & 14
Medium phase
crossing hands
58. Step Bicep curl.
80. Step and cross.
81. March.
backward.
85. Swinging hands.
Medium fast phase
86. Step and reach.
59. Squat press.
87. Chicken arms.
tough.
elbow up & down.
91. Chicken turn.
93. March.
97. Step Step change.
70. Faster phase
71. Chicken arms.
72. Reach up.
100. Side step kick.
74. Great biceps.
283
Appendix –III
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF CONTROL GROUP ANTHROPOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
Weight
(Kg)
Height (Cm)
SN
Name
age
Width(Cm)
Humerus
Girth(Cm)
Fumer
Bicep
Calf
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
PRABU
21
176.0
176.0
55
55
4.20
4.20
8.40
8.40
24.5
24.5
32.0
32.0
2
BALAMURALI
18
179.0
179.0
60
61
4.00
4.00
9.00
9.00
22.5
22.5
30.0
30.0
3
ANADARAJ.C
21
170.5
170.5
54
55
4.60
4.60
9.20
9.20
23.5
23.5
30.5
30.5
4
AYAPPAN.A
19
166.0
166.0
44
44
4.50
4.50
8.50
8.50
23.5
23.5
29.5
29.5
5
PARASURAMAN.P
21
164.0
164.0
45
45
4.20
4.20
8.70
8.70
23.0
23.0
28.5
28.5
6
ELANGAIRAJ
20
172.0
172.0
55
54
5.20
5.20
8.60
8.60
28.0
28.0
32.0
32.0
7
SUNDERA V’MOURTHY.K
20
170.5
170.5
65
65
3.90
3.90
8.40
8.40
23.5
23.5
31.5
31.5
8
SASIKUMAR.S
20
165.0
165.0
45
46
4.45
4.45
7.00
7.00
23.5
23.5
26.5
26.5
9
MUGUNDHAN.V
18
164.0
164.0
51
52
4.56
4.56
8.20
8.20
25.5
25.5
28.5
28.5
10
RAMADOSS.P
24
169.0
169.0
62
62
5.00
5.00
8.50
8.50
25.5
25.5
30.5
30.5
11
SIVACHANDIRAN
20
165.5
165.0
54
55
4.20
4.20
8.90
8.90
24.5
24.5
29.5
29.5
12
SIVAMANI.S
18
172.0
172.0
50
50
5.00
5.00
7.50
7.50
22.0
22.0
28.5
28.5
13
SURIYA NARAYANAN
23
169.0
169.0
50
50
4.50
4.50
8.00
8.00
24.5
24.5
28.0
28.0
14
SELVAKUMAR
19
165.5
165.0
54
54
4.20
4.20
6.90
6.90
23.5
23.5
29.5
29.5
15
BALAMURUGAN
20
171.0
171.0
54
53
4.20
4.21
6.90
6.9
23.5
23.5
29.5
29.5
Appendix –IV
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF CONTROL GROUP SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS
SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS (mm)
S.N
Triceps
Subscapular
Suprailliac
Midaxillary
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Calf
Thigh
Post
Pre
Abdominal
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Post
1
2.45
2.45
2.75
2.75
2.1
2.1
1.25
1.25
10.05
10.05
9.1
9.1
2
3.50
3.5
5.25
5.25
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
12.00
12.OO
8.75
8.75
3
7.50
7.5
6.6
6.6
3.75
3.75
2.75
2.75
6.55
6.55
5.90
5.9
4
14.6
14.6
12.6
12.6
11.6
11.6
13.00
13.00
14.45
14.45
13.75
14.25
5
10.75
10.75
9.5
9.5
7.25
7.25
5.5
5.5
17.00
17
9.75
6
8.60
8.5
6.65
6
10.25
9.35
10.5
5.85
22.75
21.65
13.15
7
11.80
11.8
13.5
13.5
12.8
12.8
8.45
8.45
22.2
22.2
24.25
8
9.50
9.85
7.6
7.75
7.6
8.85
10.25
10.75
14.5
15.25
Pre
Chest
Post
Pre
Post
4.1
4.1
10.05
10.05
9.75
9.75
12.01
12.00
7.25
7.25
6.55
6.55
16.15
11.65
14.45
14.45
9.5
8.6
8.75
17
17
12.05
11.5
11.5
22.75
21.65
24.25
23.4
23.4
22.2
22.2
11.25
12
18.25
18.75
14.5
15.25
9
16.00
16.45
13.5
13.85
9.00
9.1
9.25
9.95
13.6
13.9
10.00
11.55
12.5
12.8
13.6
13.9
10
6.70
6.7
11.55
11.55
13.00
13
13.05
13.05
11.2
11.2
10.25
10.25
15.95
15.95
11.2
11.2
11
6.50
6.5
9.25
9.25
6.5
6.5
8
8
12.45
12.45
13.5
13.5
14.75
14.75
12.45
12.45
12
4.80
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.85
4.85
4.85
4.85
4.85
4.85
4.9
4.95
4.85
5.5
4.85
4.85
13
6.75
6.75
12
12.00
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.6
9.95
7.3
7.5
24.5
23.5
8.6
9.95
14
4.75
4.75
9.75
9.75
12.00
12
9.75
9.75
14.00
14.00
14.5
14.5
14.25
14.25
14.00
14.00
15
4.75
5.05
9.75
5.25
12
12.5
9.75
10.00
14.00
14.00
14.5
14.25
14.25
14.5
14.00
14.00
284
Appendix –V
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF CONTROL GROUP HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL
FITNESS
Abdomen Test
S.N
Pull ups
Push ups
Flexibility measures(Cm)
Minus
psoas
Plus psoas
Sit & Reach
12 minutes
Run
(Mts)
Up & Back
arm
movement
Trunk extn
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
8
7
26
26
6
6
7
7
51
51
63
50
53
53
2200
2100
2
6
6
14
14
16
15
10
9
49
40
48
40
22
20
2600
2600
3
10
9
20
20
25
25
25
25
40
40
58
55
46
46
2700
2500
4
5
5
25
25
20
20
10
11
31
31
43
43
38
38
2000
1800
5
6
5
23
22
35
33
11
12
38
38
38
38
32
30
1600
1600
6
5
5
28
27
18
15
3
5
43
42
43
42
44
45
1450
1450
7
2
2
1
1
18
12
18
18
45
41
65
65
76
72
2300
2300
8
8
7
30
30
11
10
13
11
41
39
45
44
75
60
1450
1450
9
6
5
26
26
35
30
7
8
36
36
43
43
40
40
1400
1400
10
13
13
24
24
31
28
18
15
37
35
40
40
36
30
2150
2000
11
7
7
8
8
26
26
21
21
33
33
31
31
35
35
2100
2100
12
15
15
23
23
23
23
10
10
30
30
41
41
42
42
1600
1600
13
8
8
30
30
19
19
10
10
33
33
40
40
51
51
2200
2200
14
6
5
11
11
27
25
4
4
30
30
52
51
57
57
2600
2200
15
4
4
11
12
27
25
4
4
30
28
52
50
57
57
2600
2600
1
Appendix –VI
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF CONTROL GROUP BIOCHEMICAL VARIABLES
Hemoglobin
Fasting
blood sugar
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
12.40
12.40
92
92
128
128
90
90
31
31
79
79
18
18
2
12.00
12.00
76
76
155
155
96
96
38
38
98
98
19
19
3
11.60
11.60
92
92
136
136
72
72
34
34
87
87
15
15
4
9.4
9.4
74
74
140
140
138
140
28
28
84.4
84.4
27.6
27.6
5
10.8
10.8
83
83
146
146
84
84
29
29
99.2
99.2
16.8
16.8
S.N
Total Cholesterol
Triglycerides
HDL
LDL
VLDL
6
10.4
10.4
95
95
172
172
108
102
34.4
34.4
116
116
21.6
21.6
7
11.80
11.80
90
90
128
128
138
138
29
29
71
71
28
28
8
11
11
106
106
160
166
94
94
32
32
109
109
18.8
18.8
9
10.5
10.5
90
90
181
181
70
70
36.2
36.2
130.8
130.8
14
14
10
11.60
11.60
83
83
114
114
92
92
36
36
90
90
18
18
11
11.00
11.00
74
74
131
131
70
70
31
31
86
86
14
14
12
10.2
10.2
80
80
173
173
120
120
34.2
34.2
114.4
114.4
24
24
17.2
13
10.4
10.4
87
87
140
140
86
86
28
28
94.8
94.8
17.2
14
11.80
11.80
113
113
147
147
120
120
36
36
109
109
24
24
15
11.80
11.5
113
112
147
149
120
120
36
35
109
109
24
25.0
285
Appendix –VII
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF YOGIC GROUP ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Width(Cm)
Height (Cm)
S.N
Name
Weight (Kg)
age
Pre
Post
Pre
Pos
t
Humerus
Girth(Cm)
Fumer
Bicep
Calf
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
SIVAMOUTHRY.
20
163.0
163.0
50.0
49.0
5.5
4.00
9.0
6.4
23.0
23.0
28.0
27.0
2
SENTHILKUMARAN.B
22
169.0
169.0
58.0
56.0
5.0
3.9
8.0
1.0
27.0
24.5
30.0
28.0
3
PANDIAN.K
22
179.0
179.0
66.0
65.0
5.0
4.2
8.5
7.9
26.0
26.0
32.0
31.5
4
SATHISH.M
22
152.0
152.0
53.0
51.0
5.0
1.3
8.0
7.0
27.0
28.5
30.0
30.0
5
TAMILARASAN.T
20
172.0
172.0
60.0
57.0
4.5
4.1
8.2
7.0
23.0
24.0
31.5
30.0
6
MANIVANNAN.A
21
168.0
168.0
61.0
60.0
5.0
3.9
8.5
7.2
27.0
27.5
31.5
30.5
7
KRISHNAMOURTHY.M
21
169.0
169.0
61.0
61.0
5.0
5.1
8.5
7.9
26.0
23.5
33.0
32.5
8
BABU.V
20
168.0
168.0
51.0
50.0
4.0
4.0
8.0
6.9
22.0
21.5
29.5
29.0
9
MUTHAMIZH.M
20
162.0
162.0
58.0
56.0
5.0
4.2
8.2
6.8
27.0
27.5
30.5
30.5
10
SATHISH.S
20
175.0
175.0
60.0
59.0
4.2
4.1
8.2
7.6
23.0
23.5
31.0
29.5
11
BASKAR.G
20
177.0
177.0
59.0
59.0
4.9
4.6
9.2
7.9
26.0
26.5
32.0
31.5
12
DINESH KUMAR.S
21
163.0
163.0
56.0
56.0
5.0
1.1
8.0
7.6
25.5
25.5
30.0
31.0
13
HARIKRISHNAN
21
166.0
166.0
55.0
54.0
4.8
4.7
7.0
7.6
27.5
26.5
31.0
30.0
14
SAMPATH
22
175.0
175.0
68.0
66.0
5.2
5.0
9.2
8.9
27.0
26.0
34.0
33.0
15
SELLADURAI.M
20
160.0
160.0
51.0
49.0
4.2
4.1
7.0
6.8
25.0
24.5
30.0
28.5
Appendix –VIII
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF YOGIC GROUP SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS
Triceps
Subscapular
Suprailliac
Midaxillary
Calf
Thigh
Abdominal
Chest
S.N
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
6.00
7.00
7.25
6.95
8.00
7.00
8.75
4.75
11.25
12.00
10.50
10.50
5.50
8.10
11.25
12.00
2
6.50
5.95
11.75
7.00
9.00
3.40
11.00
6.25
19.00
7.75
12.50
6.25
14.95
9.75
19.00
7.75
3
6.85
3.40
9.75
6.75
4.75
9.25
4.50
3.25
4.50
6.00
4.50
4.95
4.50
11.75
4.50
6.00
4
19.00
11.75
12.75
17.45
23.00
14.60
16.00
15.00
25.50
17.40
18.40
16.65
29.75
33.50
25.50
17.40
5
9.50
5.25
13.75
11.00
8.25
5.50
8.10
7.25
24.00
11.60
15.25
9.25
15.50
10.10
24.00
11.60
6
13.50
7.50
17.00
14.00
9.75
8.65
6.30
5.25
17.50
12.15
14.25
9.95
12.75
9.50
17.50
12.15
7
13.50
8.00
8.60
9.10
8.00
4.45
5.25
4.45
5.25
5.45
18.50
10.50
15.95
9.60
5.25
5.45
8
10.50
3.75
14.00
7.75
11.00
5.75
11.00
4.90
11.00
11.75
12.70
9.25
16.00
8.50
11.00
11.75
9
8.75
6.00
11.00
9.60
12.25
8.25
11.50
11.50
11.50
10.50
19.25
10.00
20.25
16.25
11.50
10.50
10
8.60
5.60
11.50
8.25
11.00
4.75
6.50
4.75
6.50
10.25
14.15
13.25
13.75
8.75
6.50
10.25
11
9.00
7.95
9.25
6.75
8.00
6.75
4.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
17.50
11.75
6.00
13.95
4.00
5.00
12
4.65
9.50
8.15
12.75
6.50
10.50
9.85
9.25
9.85
9.50
3.65
10.45
9.65
15.25
9.85
9.50
13
8.25
6.80
8.70
6.20
4.00
3.80
4.50
3.80
4.50
4.40
8.05
7.45
5.75
5.75
4.50
4.40
14
19.00
14.50
13.25
10.00
9.65
8.40
14.00
9.90
14.00
8.95
24.30
15.25
19.00
15.25
14.00
8.95
15
10.25
9.60
14.95
13.10
10.50
9.60
11.65
9.00
17.50
13.00
12.70
8.50
11.00
8.00
17.50
13.00
286
Appendix –IX
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF YOGIC GROUP HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS
Abdomen Test
S.N
Pull ups
Push ups
Minus
psoas
Plus psoas
Sit &
Reach
Trunk extn
Up & Back
arm
movement
12 minutes
Run
(Mts)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
6
8
16
18
13
24
18
27
24
36
32
44
43
43
1400
2000
2
5
10
29
30
20
40
10
15
39
57
33
53
53
59
1200
2000
3
5
10
26
30
20
20
14
15
45
50
37
44
33
29
2000
2800
4
4
7
30
35
12
20
6
15
25
29
43
43
37
45
1400
2000
5
5
6
10
13
9
18
2
12
45
53
55
63
52
55
1600
2200
6
10
12
46
41
37
38
30
30
38
42
42
46
44
51
1800
2200
7
9
9
6
12
13
15
10
18
45
55
49
55
50
62
2000
2300
8
6
11
11
15
22
22
12
12
44
48
53
59
37
96
2800
2900
9
6
20
37
38
25
29
13
14
45
45
49
55
41
64
1500
2300
10
10
11
10
15
6
6
6
6
39
55
58
68
38
70
1200
2000
11
6
9
22
25
37
25
11
25
40
40
46
46
30
40
1550
1800
12
8
8
25
28
23
24
4
22
41
44
42
48
43
54
1800
2300
13
15
18
45
45
20
24
13
20
49
53
51
53
53
60
2600
2900
14
6
9
25
29
26
32
20
28
30
42
67
69
31
41
1200
1800
15
8
10
14
26
18
20
15
20
33
43
49
58
50
56
1900
2300
Appendix –X
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF YOGIC GROUP BIOCHEMICAL VARIABLES
S.
N
Haemoglobin
Fasting blood
sugar
Total
Cholesterol
Triglycerides
HDL
LDL
VLDL
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
9.2
12.0
105.0
101.0
174.0
172.0
80.0
78.0
34.8
38.0
123.2
118.0
16.0
16.0
2
9.8
11.2
82.0
89.0
170.0
136.0
112.0
96.0
34.0
34.0
113.0
82.0
22.4
20.0
3
11.0
12.2
98.0
86.0
157.0
145.0
114.0
93.0
31.4
35.0
102.8
91.0
22.8
19.0
4
9.4
12.0
90.0
92.0
157.0
138.0
98.0
110.0
31.4
32.0
106.0
84.0
19.6
22.0
5
9.8
11.0
8.4
87.0
150.0
130.0
70.0
90.0
30.0
31.0
106.0
81.0
14.0
18.0
6
9.0
11.8
87.0
82.0
146.0
178.0
80.0
102.0
29.2
41.0
100.8
117.0
16.0
20.0
7
9.0
11.5
78.0
80.0
138.0
153.0
74.0
88.0
27.6
37.0
95.6
98.0
14.8
18.0
8
12.0
10.2
72.0
70.0
165.0
142.0
68.0
104.0
33.0
33.0
118.4
88.0
13.6
21.0
9
12.4
12.4
97.0
95.0
158.0
146.0
74.0
108.0
31.6
35.0
111.6
89.0
14.8
22.0
10
12.2
13.0
104.0
74.0
142.0
162.0
90.0
120.0
28.4
38.0
95.6
100.0
18.0
24.0
11
10.4
11.8
80.0
82.0
184.0
110.0
130.0
124.0
36.8
28.0
121.2
58.0
26.0
24.0
12
11.0
13.0
107.0
78.0
154.0
120.0
88.0
83.0
30.8
32.0
105.6
71.0
17.6
17.0
13
9.4
11.9
74.0
70.0
140.0
136.0
138.0
103.0
28.0
39.0
84.4
78.0
27.6
24.0
14
10.8
12.2
74.0
74.0
174.0
162.0
154.0
120.0
34.8
39.0
108.4
98.0
30.8
26.0
15
9.5
11.5
101.0
94.0
174.0
160.0
90.0
84.0
34.8
39.0
120.0
104.0
24.0
17.0
287
Appendix –XI
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF AEROBIC GROUP ANTHROPOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
S.
N
Name
Age
Height (Cm)
Width(Cm)
Weight
(Kg)
Humerus
Girth(Cm)
Fumer
Bicep
Calf
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Pos
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
MATHISH MENON
19
177.0
177.0
57
55
4.20
3.70
8.00
8.02
23.5
21.5
31.0
28.0
2
DHARANIDHARAN
20
161.5
161.5
65
65
8.20
4.90
9.80
9.20
29.5
24.8
36.0
32.9
3
ILAVARASN
21
161.5
162.0
59
57
5.00
5.20
8.00
8.50
25.5
22.5
31.0
29.0
4
ANBARASAN
18
165.0
166.0
60
58
4.90
4.02
8.60
8.03
26.5
25.2
33.0
29.6
5
VELU
24
169.0
169.0
64
63
4.90
5.30
9.60
9.10
26.5
24.5
32.0
29.5
6
KUMAR.K
19
173.0
173.0
56
54
4.60
3.60
8.90
7.70
25.0
21.8
30.0
26.5
7
PANDIAN
27
171.0
171.5
65
63
5.00
5.00
9.00
8.05
28.5
27.5
31.0
28.9
8
MAKENDRAN
22
172.5
173.0
75
73
5.10
4.90
8.60
9.30
29.0
26.4
34.5
32.4
9
VENGADAKRISHNAN.K
19
172.5
173.0
60
58
4.80
4.60
8.60
8.20
24.6
22.5
34.3
30.0
10
THIRUSANDARAN
24
164.5
165.0
53
53
4.60
3.80
7.80
6.60
26.5
22.4
28.5
25.5
11
DEIVAKUMAR
23
170.0
170.0
53
52
4.20
3.90
6.50
7.00
25.0
21.5
30.5
26.0
12
DAVAMANI.P
22
160.5
160.5
54
55
4.50
4.30
7.90
8.00
24.5
20.0
31.5
29.5
13
MOHAN.V
23
165.0
166.0
65
64
5.00
4.20
8.60
9.00
27.5
24.9
32.5
30.9
14
CHANDRAEGARAN
18
168.0
168.0
58
57
4.20
4.20
9.00
7.80
24.5
22.0
32.0
30.5
15
RAJA.R
24
179.5
179.5
64
63
4.30
4.30
7.20
7.60
24.0
21.0
29.0
26.7
Appendix –XII
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF AEROBIC GROUP SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS
SN
Triceps
Pre
Post
Subscapular
Pre
Post
Suprailliac
Pre
Post
Midaxillary
Pre
Calf
Post
Pre
Thigh
Post
Pre
Post
Abdominal
Pre
Chest
Post
Pre
Post
1
5.05
2.75
9.00
4.80
2.25
5.65
7.50
1.75
12.45
3.50
10.80
9.50
4.00
3.10
12.45
3.50
2
18.10
18.50
26.75
23.50
25.45
21.50
13.50
11.75
24.60
11.00
24.15
22.00
34.10
33.50
24.60
11.00
3
2.25
5.50
10.05
9.25
6.50
6.75
4.50
5.50
11.10
8.75
13.25
6.75
7.00
10.25
11.10
8.75
4
3.75
4.60
8.60
3.50
7.10
4.00
4.00
4.60
13.50
7.50
8.60
5.95
10.10
8.60
13.50
7.50
5
12.75
7.50
19.50
19.25
19.25
8.50
18.50
11.50
14.65
9.75
19.00
11.75
23.60
22.65
14.65
9.75
6
12.10
8.60
10.40
11.25
6.10
5.00
5.00
8.85
10.75
17.40
11.10
11.95
9.15
12.90
10.75
17.40
7
18.50
15.20
24.00
20.20
21.40
18.80
18.90
17.10
17.75
21.00
21.50
24.60
33.60
36.50
17.75
21.00
8
17.00
14.75
13.25
16.75
19.75
14.45
7.75
10.60
10.25
16.50
18.00
21.50
24.95
23.80
10.25
16.50
9
7.90
9.00
12.50
10.80
2.45
5.75
1.45
9.25
10.10
9.45
12.60
13.05
12.25
12.65
10.10
9.45
10
7.10
7.75
5.50
9.75
6.25
3.10
5.60
3.60
9.50
6.00
5.60
8.50
17.45
9.75
9.50
6.00
11
7.25
4.95
4.75
7.95
9.10
4.90
8.10
5.25
12.00
8.95
6.50
7.50
4.75
12.55
12.00
8.95
12
7.65
14.50
9.10
13.75
4.45
9.00
3.95
5.25
11.00
18.00
8.00
10.25
17.00
14.25
11.00
18.00
13
8.75
13.00
17.75
14.95
13.35
8.00
8.65
8.90
19.00
15.50
8.75
11.90
14.25
16.45
19.00
15.50
14
6.00
16.10
11.10
19.00
6.25
12.50
8.50
14.00
11.50
18.00
16.75
16.00
18.00
19.45
11.50
18.00
15
4.75
8.50
9.75
12.75
5.75
9.50
6.25
10.05
10.40
11.00
14.75
11.45
10.75
14.25
10.40
11.00
288
Appendix –XIII
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF AEROBIC GROUP HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL
FITNESS
Abdomen Test
Pull ups
S.
N
Push ups
Plus
psoas
Minus
psoas
Sit & Reach
Trunk
extn
12 minutes
Run
(Mts)
Up & Back
arm
movement
Pr
e
Pos
t
Pre
Pos
t
Pr
e
Pos
t
Pre
Pos
t
Pre
Post
Pr
e
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
2
3
3
4
6
6
7
6
15
8
29
17
18
30
16
10
32
35
15
29
25
13
25
37
17
16
43
42
3
44
46
39
54
47
43
63
53
45
54
44
42
46
52
43
2550
1600
2400
2800
2000
2700
4
11
12
26
31
38
34
27
34
45
47
30
39
45
56
2200
2600
5
4
5
22
30
15
31
15
35
38
44
44
47
17
58
2100
2700
6
12
15
21
38
40
41
21
51
44
41
55
58
41
71
2700
2900
7
9
11
22
30
10
30
18
18
38
40
25
41
31
54
2150
2300
8
4
5
25
25
12
23
8
29
50
51
44
67
66
63
2400
2300
9
10
6
12
9
12
9
36
18
44
6
30
18
38
17
25
20
53
43
55
37
53
56
42
61
59
52
48
60
71
2300
2000
2700
2600
11
8
9
30
23
15
35
8
26
45
38
61
62
57
68
2500
2800
12
8
9
20
17
25
19
20
31
41
48
46
58
42
48
2250
2600
13
14
9
6
10
4
35
10
25
18
17
15
26
23
23
11
41
30
42
35
52
40
52
58
55
61
49
58
60
51
2500
2300
2800
2600
15
10
10
16
23
14
27
8
20
51
58
50
58
42
58
2500
2800
Appendix –XIV
PRE AND POST TEST DATA OF AEROBIC GROUP BIOCHEMICAL VARIABLES
Haemoglobin
SN
Fasting blood
sugar
Total
Cholesterol
Triglycerides
HDL
LDL
VLDL
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
1
12.0
11.6
76.0
80.0
136.0
120.0
83.0
82.0
32.0
29.0
87.0
75.0
17.0
16.0
2
11.6
12.6
80.0
102.0
127.0
130.0
98.0
87.0
30.0
34.0
77.0
78.0
20.0
18.0
3
10.8
11.4
87.0
102.0
158.0
164.0
88.0
106.0
37.0
39.0
103.0
104.0
18.0
21.0
4
12.0
11.4
81.0
78.0
142.0
140.0
92.0
105.0
33.0
32.0
91.0
87.0
18.0
21.0
5
12.4
13.0
81.0
96.0
166.0
150.0
76.0
90.0
38.0
38.0
113.0
93.0
15.0
19.0
6
12.0
11.8
102.0
98.0
142.0
136.0
98.0
79.0
34.0
30.0
88.0
90.0
20.0
16.0
7
11.0
10.6
83.0
91.0
133.0
162.0
96.0
82.0
36.0
39.0
78.0
106.0
19.0
17.0
8
11.2
12.2
79.0
83.0
127.0
141.0
86.0
83.0
32.0
35.0
78.0
89.0
17.0
17.0
9
12.0
12.2
104.0
94.0
131.0
142.0
74.0
92.0
29.0
33.0
87.0
91.0
45.0
18.0
10
11.8
12.5
91.0
76.0
149.0
140.0
74.0
102.0
35.0
32.0
99.0
88.0
15.0
20.0
11
12.0
11.5
90.0
80.0
134.0
128.0
87.0
87.0
31.0
29.0
38.0
83.0
18.0
16.0
12
12.2
11.4
83.0
1.6
164.0
158.0
98.0
95.0
38.0
38.0
1.6
101.0
20.0
19.0
13
12.6
12.0
91.0
88.0
152.0
145.0
122.0
106.0
34.0
32.0
93.0
91.0
25.0
22.0
14
11.5
11.0
92.0
87.0
138.0
120.0
90.0
80.0
34.0
29.0
86.0
75.0
18.0
16.0
15
13.0
12.8
88.0
92.0
122.0
138.0
82.0
96.0
29.0
35.0
77.0
84.0
16.0
19.0
289
Appendix –XV
CALCULATED VALUES OF SOMATOTYPE COMPONENTS OF PRE TEST CONTROL,
YOGIC AND AEROBIC GROUP
S.N
1
CONTROL GROUP
Endo
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
morph
0.5
0.5
5.5
2
3
1
1.5
1.5
1.5
4.5
4.5
4
4
1.5
5
3
2
6
2.5
7
4
8
2.5
Endo
morph
2
YOGIC GROUP
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
2.5
3.5
3
2
1
0
6
6
5
3.5
2
4.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
AEROBIC GROUP
Endo
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
morph
1.5
0.5
5
3.5
3.5
6.5
1.5
7.5
0.5
1
1.5
3
1
1
3.5
2
3
2
5
2.5
2
4.5
2
3.5
1.5
3
3
1
4.5
3
6
1
3
5
4
0.5
4.5
5
2
1.5
9
4
1
3.5
3.5
2.5
2
2
1.5
3.5
10
3.5
1.5
2.5
3
0.5
4.5
1.5
1
3.5
11
2
1.5
3.5
2
1
4.5
2
0.5
4.5
12
1
1.5
6
2
2
3
2
2
2
13
3
1
5
2
1
3.5
4
2.5
1.5
14
2.5
1
3.5
4.5
2
3
2.5
2
3
15
3.5
0.5
4.5
4
1
3
2
0.5
4.5
Mean
2.6
1.3
4.4
3.3
1.4
3.3
3.2
1.9
2.9
Appendix –XVI
CALCULATED VALUES OF SOMATOTYPE COMPONENTS OF POST TEST FOR
THE CONTROLGROUP, THE YOGICGROUP AND THE AEROBIC GROUP
S.N
1
CONTROL GROUP
Endo
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
morph
0.5
0.5
5.5
Endo
morph
2
YOGIC GROUP
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
1
4.5
AEROBIC GROUP
Endo
Meso
Ecto
morph
morph
morph
0.5
0.5
6
2
1
1.5
4.5
3
0.5
4
6
3
1
3
1.5
1.5
4.5
3.5
0.5
4.5
2
1.5
2
4
4
1.5
6
5
3.5
1.5
1
1.5
3
5
2.5
2
5
2
0.5
4.5
3.5
1
2
6
2.5
2
5
3
1.5
3
2.5
0.5
5
7
4
1.5
2.5
4.5
1
3
2.5
0.5
5
8
3
0.5
5
3.5
0
5
4.5
2
2
9
4.5
1
4
2.5
2
2
2.5
0.5
4.5
10
3.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
0
4.5
2
0.5
3.5
11
2
1.5
3.5
2
0.5
4.5
2.5
0.5
5
12
1
0.5
6
3.5
1.5
3
4
2
2
13
3
0.5
5
4
1
3.5
3.5
2
2
14
2.5
1
3.5
3.5
1.5
3
5
1
3.5
15
2
0.5
5
4
1
3.5
3
0.5
4.5
Mean
2.5
1.2
1.5
3.2
1.1
3.6
2.9
1.2
3.4
290
SHEET IV
HEATH CARTER SOMATO RATING FORM
EFFECT OF SELECT YOGIC PRACTICES AND AEROBIC EXERCISES
ON SOMATOTYPE COMPONENTS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH
HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS AND BIOCHEMICAL
VARIABLES
Dissertation submitted to the Pondicherry University
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for
Award of the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Physical Education
Submitted by
H. Ravikumar
Under the guidance of
Dr. D.Sakthignanavel, M.A., M.P.Ed., M.Phil., P.G.D.Y., Ph.D
Reader in Physical Education and Sports
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
PUDUCHERRY- 605 014
July 2009
Introduction
CHAPTER - I
Review of related literature
CHAPTER II
Methodology
CHAPTER III
Result and Discussion
CHAPTER IV
Summary ,Conclusion and Recommendation
CHAPTER V
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES

effect of select yogic practices and aerobic exercises on somatotype

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