Introductory brochure - World Atlas of Desertification
Transcription
Introductory brochure - World Atlas of Desertification
WORLD ATLAS OF DESERTIFICATION Third Edition Mapping Land Degradation and Sustainable Land Management Opportunities Introductory brochure JRC97776 Introduction Exponential increase in human population and changes in consumption patterns have created unprecedented pressure on the Earth’s natural resources. These natural resources (land, water, air, etc.), and the ecosystem goods and services derived from them, support the livelihoods of all humans. It is the responsibility of all to manage these resources so that the present generation can fulfil their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. In a rapidly changing world this is an enormous challenge because a multitude of global drivers - including demographic pressures, globalised economies, intensified agriculture, overharvesting of natural products, and climate change - are interacting simultaneously. When this leads to land degradation it poses serious threats to nutrition and food security, water resources, clean air, cultural values, and economic development. To properly address the complicated challenge of land degradation, decision makers, environmental managers and all interested stakeholders need reliable and understandable information. The third edition of the World Atlas of Desertification (WAD) builds on state-of-the-art scientific concepts on land degradation. Given the complexity underlying land degradation, it is not amenable to single global maps that can satisfy all views or needs. Rather, this WAD presents a number of global datasets to identify important, ongoing biophysical and socio-economic processes that, on their own or combined, can lead to unsustainable land use and land degradation. This brochure provides a short overview of these issues. It also provides some examples that reflect global patterns of land degradation to highlight and extract practical principles and methods for developing solutions. Authors: WHEN RESOURCES ARE DEGRADED, WE START COMPETING FOR THEM. [...] SO ONE WAY TO PROMOTE PEACE IS TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES. WANGARI MAATHAI Michael Cherlet James Reynolds Chuck Hutchinson Joachim Hill Graham von Maltitz Stefan Sommer Ajai Rasmus Fensholt Stephanie Horion Gemma Shepherd Melanie Weynants Hrvoje Kutnjak Marek Smid WAD Coordinator, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy Duke University, USA; Lanzhou University, China University of Arizona, USA Trier University, Germany Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy Space Applications Centre, India University of Copenhagen, Denmark University of Copenhagen, Denmark UNEP, Kenya European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy Other principal WAD contributing authors: Elena María Abraham Hedi Hamrouni Eva Ivits Patrik Klintenberg Alejandro Leon Jose Roberto de Lima Hanspeter Liniger Christopher Martius Cheikh Mbow Uriel Safriel Mary Seely Richard Thomas Jürgen Vogt Erian Wadid Wang Guosheng Wang Tao Pandi Zdruli Claudio Zucca IADIZA, Argentina Ministry of Agriculture, Tunisia European Environment Agency, Denmark Mälardalen University, Sweden University of Chile, Chile Céara, Brazil WOCAT, Switzerland University of Bonn, Germany World Agroforestry Centre, Kenya Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel DRFM, Namibia ICARDA, Jordan European Commission Joint Research Centre, Italy ACSAD, Jordan Academy of Forest Inventory and Planning, China Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy ICARDA, Jordan and University of Sassari, Italy Pier Lorenzo Marasco Front cover design In collaboration with: World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 1 Human Dominance HUMANS DRIVE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE. More than 75% of the land is used by humans (excluding Greenland and Antarctica) [10] . High Nighttime lights increase between 2000 and 2010 (NASA) Low High Gridded population of the world in 2010 (CIESIN) Observing patterns and trends in nightlight densities from space [8] is a simple, yet powerful, way of showing trends in human population density [9] . Although this under-represents rural poor - people who do not have lights - it illustrates that the human footprint on the globe is ubiquitous. Humans dominate the planet and their influence extends to every part of the world. Global population has reached seven billion people and is projected to reach 8.3 billion by 2030 [1] . This is expected to create unprecedented pressure on the Earth’’s natural resources [2] . The term anthropocene has been introduced to describe the current era in which human actions have become the main driver of global environmental change [3] . Acknowledging this, new approaches such as “anthropogenic biome” mapping depict global patterns of land use based on sustained, direct human interactions with ecosystems [4] . 2 There is enormous pressure on global land resources due to rising food demand, a global shift in dietary habits, biofuel production and urbanisation [2,5] . Landfills, mining and other extraction activities also contribute to the pressure on land resources. Hence, productive land is becoming scarce. The rural poor often are forced to overexploit available land via lowinput and low yield agriculture, deforestation, and overgrazing, all of which contribute to land degradation [6] . The consequences of degraded land are disproportionately borne by the poor, are a principal factor contributing to poverty, and remain a barrier to be tackled for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations [7] . This WAD examines and illustrates examples of: 1. human-environment interactions globally, but with a focus on drylands; 2. underlying causes and consequences of land degradation; and 3. potentials and limitations of efforts to combat desertification. 2007 was the first year in human history when most people on Earth live in cities. [11, 12] Total POPULATION (billions) Low 7.5 Urban 5.0 Rural 2.5 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 year World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 3 Feeding a growing global population 4 times more land and 10 times more water is needed to produce 1 kg of protein from beef than from pulses [21,22] Over the last 20 years the extent of land area harvested has increased by 16%, the area under irrigation has doubled, and agricultural production has grown nearly three-fold [7] . Yet, close to one billion people remain undernourished [13] . EXPANSION AND INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE INCREASE PRESSURES ON LAND. In large parts of Africa, South America and Asia, agricultural yields are well below their maximum potential. The difference between actual agricultural productivity and its potential productivity is called the “yield gap.” Yield gaps can be mapped at global scales [14] and highlight those areas where agriculture production has reached its maximum (intensive agriculture in industrialised countries) and where it is low (rural areas on marginal lands where there is limited access to seed, fertiliser and technology). Over large parts of Africa, fields are expanded into rangeland to compensate for low productivity and poor management practices. Closing yield gaps usually entails inputs of nutrients and water, both of which have serious environmental consequences. Introducing improved management practices including contouring, terracing and techniques for soil management can improve yields without the negative impacts. 100% High 1% Agriculture consumes 70% of water withdrawals [18] and this could double by 2050 [19] ; Between 1961 and 2006, area under irrigation more than doubled, with 37% of it relying on groundwater [7] . Low Fraction of total cropland used for growing food. 62% of total crop production is allocated to human food, 35% for animal feed [2] . Trends in the last 20 years: +16.1 % As the world’s economy grows – however unevenly – there is a corresponding increase in the demand for animal protein, especially in developing countries. Expansion of livestock production is a key factor in deforestation. In recent years, global livestock production is shifting, mainly from rural to urban areas, to get closer to consumers, sources of feedstuff and transport and trade hubs [15] . Although this intensification of the livestock sector to feedlots is predicted to meet the demand for meat and dairy products for developing countries by 2030 [16] , more agriculture land is used intensively to indirectly produce food. The WAD documents these global trends in agricultural land use and maps where some of them occur and coincide with other drivers to potentially increase land degradation. +42.1 % HARVESTED CROPLAND AREA +19.1 % +12.4 % POULTRY SHEEP AND GOATS Excess CATTLE AND BUFFALOES 1993 2003 year 2013 As the income of the global population rises, meat consumption increases. The demand for fodder drives expansion or intensification of agriculture [17] . 4 World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure Deficit Nitrogen balance: in 24% of the world cropland area, 60% of applied nitrogen is in excess, which can provoke water pollution [20] . World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 5 Aridity and drought patterns cause increasing pressure on land and water resources. Limits to sustainability QUANTIFYING GLOBAL LAND RESOURCE EXPLOITATION. Unsustainable human activities put land at risk. In Europe alone, inappropriate land management practices account for an estimated 970 million tons of soil loss due to erosion each year [23] . Worldwide, the annual loss of soil is estimated at 24 billion tonnes [24] . If we wish to arrest or reverse the decline of our natural resource base, we must first understand and monitor the land status as well as understand the various processes of land degradation so as to know the extent of the problem and prospects for remediation. Satellite observations suggest that globally between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres of forest were lost, while only 0.8 million kilometres were reforested [25] . Loss of forest affects biodiversity, nutrient, carbon and water cycles and climate. Whilst some forest is converted into sustainable cropland, much of the cleared forest remains in a degraded state. This will allow us to establish “planetary boundaries” the limits of the biophysical envelope that sustains life on Earth [26] . By understanding the thresholds within which human actions can be maintained we can avoid severe or catastrophic disruption in the future. ARIDITY AND DROUGHT. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in regions with absolute water scarcity [27] . More than half the world’s people already live in countries where aquifers are being depleted [28,29] . Globally, arid areas increased between 1951–1980 and 1981–2010, many of them coinciding with land degradation problems [30] . Drought is one of the most relevant natural disasters and can aggravate the land degradation processes. Between 1951 and 2010 a small increase in global drought frequency, duration, and severity has been observed, especially over Africa, but drought frequency decreased in the Northern Hemisphere [31] . Wetter Drier Tree cover Changes in Aridity Index: NE Brazil, S Argentina, the Sahel, Zambia and Zimbabwe, the Mediterranean area, NE China and Sub-Himalayan India have been identified as areas with a significant increase of dryland extent, while on average these decreased in the Americas [30] . Forest Loss + Gain >80% 0% New possibilities for detailed systematic mapping at global scale of forest cover depict a globally consistent and locally relevant record of forest change. A clear trend can be observed in the tropics with forest loss increasing by 2101 square kilometres per year [25] . Genetic diversity Biosphere integrity Functional diversity ? Climate change Novel entities ? Stratospheric ozone depletion Land-system change ? Atmospheric aerosol loading Freshwater use Phosphorus Biochemical flows 6 Nitrogen Ocean acidification Beyond zone of uncertainty (high risk) Below boundary (safe) In zone of uncertainty (increasing risk) Boundary not yet quantified World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure Planetary boundaries quantify the risk that human perturbations will destabilise the Earth System at planetary scale [26] . More Less Trend of frequency of drought events during 1951-2010 [31] . World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 7 Converging evidence A growing global population has led to an increase in the demand for food, fibre and fuel. This has a significant impact on limited land resources, which often leads to land degradation. However, at any given place on Earth, complex human-environment interactions are at play, which include differing rates and magnitudes of drivers (e.g., overgrazing, climate change, agricultural LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE EXPANSION. HIGH POPULATION DENSITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES LIMITS TO SUSTAINABILITY. practices) and consequences (e.g., soil erosion, changes in productivity, loss of biodiversity) [32,33] ; hence, land degradation is not a phenomenon that can be modelled at a global scale. To acknowledge and accommodate these complex local interactions and dynamics, the new World Atlas of Desertification relies on a “convergence of evidence” in global datasets. MORE LAND AND MORE INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE TO ADDRESS DEMAND FOR FODDER, FUEL AND FIBRE. Decreasing Increasing DRIER CONDITIONS PREVAILING IN THE LAST 30 YEARS. UNSUSTAINABLE WATER USE FOR AGRICULTURE EXPANSION AND INTENSIFICATION. EXPANSION OF AGRICULTURE TO THE DETRIMENT OF FOREST. HIGH POPULATION PRESSURE IN LOW RESILIENCE AREAS. 8 World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure YIELD GAPS AND RESOURCE EXHAUSTION DUE TO NUTRIENT DEFICIT. Land productivity is an essential concept for monitoring land degradation. Various approaches to map land productivity provide consistent and repeatable views regarding what areas of concern or improvement to highlight. The map shown here is based on 15 years of satellite observations at ten-day intervals [34,35] . While not an absolute measure of land productivity, it depicts long-term seasonal dynamics and departures that may relate to productivity change. The “convergence of evidence” in regional productivity trends illustrated here as well as in other global data sets - provides insights for further examination of more local data to understand the underlying causes and consequences of observed trends [36] . World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 9 FI ANDORRA IRELAND UNSUSTAINABLE WATER USE FOR AGRICULTURE EXPANSION AND INTENSIFICATION. CZECH REP. SLOVAKIA AUSTRIA LIECH. SWITZERLAND VE SLO NI SAN MARINO MONACO VATICAN CITY S PA I N BULGARIA 15° N GEORGIA MACEDONIA ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN (F.Y.R.O.M) BELIZE SYRIA CYPRUS LEBANON I R A N IRAQ ISRAEL 0° R SIERRA LEONE 30° GUYANA CÔTE D'IVOIRE GHANA LIBERIA COLOMBIA SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE 1987 BAHRAIN EGYPT SAUDI ARABIA MAURITANIA MYANMAR (BURMA) OMAN CAPE VERDE MALI NIGER SENEGAL THE GAMBIA GUINEABISSAU CHAD GHANA LIBERIA CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC MALDIVES CAMEROON GABON UGANDA CO NG O SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE EQUATORIAL GUINEA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO SOMALIA 23°30' Tropic of Capricorn K ENYA BRUNEI M A L A Y S I A TANZANIA 30° SEYCHELLES COMOROS From 1980 onward, the privatisation ofI Nfarmland D O N E S I A coupled with the introduction of state incentives has increased productivity, largely driven by groundwater irrigation and POLITICAL POLITICAL fertiliser use. Together with the legal implementation of access regulations and restrictions, the expansion of cropland into environmentally sensitive rangelands A U Swere TRALIA was slowed, and moving dunes and sand sheets partially stabilised. These positive actions, however, were accompanied by a rapid depletion of groundwater resources and today most of the lakes and wetlands have disappeared. 800 km SRI LANKA M A L A Y S I A SOMALIA K E N YA RWANDA I N BURUNDI 2013 SEYCHELLES COMOROS ZAMBIA ANGOLA MALAWI MADAGASCAR MOZAMBIQUE ZIMBABWE NAMIBIA PARAGUAY MAURITIUS BOTSWANA SWAZILAND KIRIBATI Equator 0° LESOTHO NAURU SOUTH AFRICA URUGUAY ARGENTINA TUVALU PAPUA NEW GUINEA CHILE SOLOMON ISLANDS 400 0 0º 0 200 400 miles 15º MADAGASCAR 15° S ALAND 800 km NEW ZE 75º 0 0 200 Toronto Cit y İstanbul Mumbai Birmingham İstanbul Vigo over 20m International boundary 10-20m 5-10m over 20m 1-5m State boundary 45° Tropic of Capricorn 23°30' Major railway State boundary Disputed/Undefined boundary Highest peak in continent Major railway Highest peak in country Other peak Highest peak in continent 7599m * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) National capitals are shown in CAPS. by or belonging to ( ) 30° Depth figure Highest peak in country International Other peak Date Line (U.S.A.) Administered 7599m * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) Depth figure International Date Line © 1996. Revised 2015 • Maps International February 1998: situation before SLM measures. (Landsat imagery, USGS) Maps International product distributed in: Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com Maps International product in: Europe by Craenen BVBA,distributed Belgium – www.craenen.be Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com Europe by Craenen BVBA, Belgium – www.craenen.be North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com © 1996. Revised 2015 •by Maps International Designed and produced Lovell Johns Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom. A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Designed anddata produced by by Lovell Oxford, Data UnitedCentre. Kingdom. Bathymetry supplied The Johns BritishLimited, Oceanographic A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Bathymetry data supplied by The British Oceanographic Data Centre. Governmental decisions have thus triggered trade-offs between essential ecosystem services, primarily by optimising crop production at the cost of groundwater recharge capacities. Using high resolution satellite imagery the dynamics in trade-offs can be quantified [38,39] and this information used for better decision making. 2013 FIJI Disputed/Undefined boundary International boundary 10-20m 250,000 - 1,000,000 Toronto 5-10m - 250,000 Cork 100,000 Birmingham 1-5m Tromsø Less than 100,000 Vigo 250,000 - 1,000,000 National in CAPS. Corkcapitals are shown 100,000 - 250,000 (U.S.A.) Administered by or Less belonging to ( ) Tromsø than 100,000 LESOTHO 400 miles MODIFIED VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION Mumbai SWAZILAND VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION 400 Cit y BOTSWANA 60º St at at e e Ca or D Ca or D pit ep pit ep al . C al . C ap ap ita In In ital l ha ha bit bit an an ts ts MAURITIUS 40º St ZIMBABWE SOUTH AFRICA VANUATU 30º February 2013: situation after SLM measures; expansion of agriculture is visible as green areas. (Landsat imagery, USGS) NEW ZEALAN D cle ic Cir Antarct 165° E 60° 180° 165° E 165° W 150° 180° 165° W rctic 30° 15° W 0° 0° 15° E 15° E 30° 30° 45° 45° 60° 60° 75° 75° 135° 120° 90° 90° 105° 105° 120° Circle 120° 135° 135° Pr 1 Forest Production 0.8 ng 0.6 0.4 0.2 Carbon Sequestration Habitat and Biodiversity Preservation 0 Rangeland Production Dune Fixation Groundwater Recharge Sup 10 World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure on i g isi Regul at i n ov Climate and Air Regulation ti por ng 90° rctic 45° 60° 45° 60° 75° 30° 45° 15° W 30° 0° 15° E 30° 45° 60° Evidence of new surface water bodies, many by small dam construction, in support of agriculture expansion. Black: water bodies; green: new water bodies (water occurrence, JRC/GEE). 15° W 0° 15° E In many parts of India, sustainable land management practices have been implemented as part of watershed development programs to combat land degradation, desertification and drought. Such practices aim to conserve and improve land and water resources for agriculture expansion. About 60% of the land area of India is used for agriculture, of which 35% is under irrigation [40] . Responding to the need of water and increased food production, soil and water conservation measures have been successfully implemented in the Jhabua and Dhar districts of Madhya Pradesh (central India) during the last two decades. From 1998 to 2013, cropped area has increased by 15%. Such agriculture expansion has been made maintainable by construction of rainwater harvesting structures, such as check dams and small stop dams (nala bunds), in addition to soil conservation practices. The number of surface water bodies increased by 23%, from 210 in 1998 to 270 in 2013. These water bodies support the increased use of water for irrigation and domestic purposes as well as recharging of groundwater. 165° W 180° 180° GAMBIA, THE Agricultural Production 75° 30° 45° 60° 75° 75° 90° 90° 105° 105° 120° Circle 120° 135° 135° 60° 165° E 150° 105° 165° E 150° 90° 1985 2005 165° W WM005 45° 15° W 150° Anta 105° WM002 WM401 WM001 WM005 30° 120° Land use change between 1987 and 2013. Water bodies in dark blue give way to agriculture in red (Landsat imagery (USGS) processed by Hill J. et al.). Smallholder irrigation systems are increasingly replaced by large-scale pivot irrigation schemes for producing fodder. This tends to lower the water table and to reduce the area accessible for grazing. The sustainability of the current land use concepts should therefore be questioned. Anta 45° 135° BRUN SINGAPORE TANZANIA BRAZIL EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 20 30 000 000 MOZAMBIQUE NAMIBIA VIETNAM THAILAND EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 33 125 000 MALAWI ZAMBIA LAOS I N D I A YEMEN MALDIVES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO BOLIVIA FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA EAST TIMOR ANGOLA MYANMAR (BURMA) OMAN PALAU HE E W WO OR R LL D D TT H BURUNDI GABON 15° N SINGAPORE RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES ETHIOPIA UGANDA 23°30' SRI LANKA FIJI EQUATORIAL GUINEA MARSHALL ISLANDS CAMBODIA TONGA ETHIOPIA SOUTH SUDAN PERU PHILIPPINES BANGLADESH QATAR CAMBODIA SOUTH SUDAN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 1998 LAOS THAILAND 15° S BENIN TOG O CÔTE D'IVOIRE SAMOA DJIBOUTI NIGERIA Introducing agriculture in marginal lands that have I N D I A traditionally been used for grazing sheep and cattle has caused erodable soil surfaces that easily become mobilised by wind, a process known as “Sandification“ in large areas of Northern China [37] . VIETNAM YEMEN ERITREA SUDAN BURKINA FASO GUINEA SIERRA LEONE KIRIBATI UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Tropic of Cancer BANGLADESH QATAR NEPAL BHUTAN SAUDI ARABIA CAMEROON BHUTAN L I BYA ALGERIA A DJIBOUTI NIGERIA SURINAME ECUADOR PAKISTAN ERITREA SUDAN Rainwater harvesting in Central India. PANAMA NEPAL CHAD BURKINA FASO GUINEA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO VENEZUELA PAKISTAN Equator THE GAMBIA GUINEABISSAU ST VINCENT & THE GRENADA GRENADINES NICARAGUA COSTA RICA NIGER SENEGAL ST LUCIA BARBADOS A N I DO LVA EL SA SOUT H KORE A MALI DOMINICA LA AFGHANISTAN JORDAN KUWAIT H C MALTA TUNISIA A N I H C TAJIKISTAN GUATEMA EGYPT N A BAHRAIN CAPE VERDE ST KITTS & NEVIS ANTIGUA & BARBUDA JAMAICA HONDURAS BENIN TOG O Land use change in Northern China. JAPAN NORT H KORE A L I BYA N I AFGHANISTAN KUWAIT MAURITANIA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC HAITI KYRGYZSTAN UZBEKISTAN TURKMENISTAN TURKEY GREECE MOROCCO CUBA SERBIA ALBANIA PORTUGAL N ROMANIA MONT. KOS. ITALY ANDORRA KAZAKHSTA MOLDOVA HUNGARY CROATIA BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA H I H C TAJIKISTAN JORDAN ALGERIA THE BAHAMAS MEXICO MONGOLIA UKRAINE A FRANCE LUX. Tropic of Cancer I R A N IRAQ ISRAEL LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE EXPANSION. BELARUS 23°30' SYRIA CYPRUS LEBANON 45° GERMANY BELGIUM TURKMENISTAN C TUNISIA MOROCCO RUSSIA POLAND STAN ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TURKEY 30° L AT V I A LITHUANIA NETHERLANDS MACEDONIA (F.Y.R.O.M) GREECE CO NG O DENMARK S PA I N MALTA ESTONIA UNITED KINGDOM VATICAN CITY ALBANIA PORTUGAL SWEDEN Combination of high-resolution imagery, spanning a 30-year period, with high computing capability now allows for detailed and regular surface water monitoring at global scale. World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 11 KIRIBATI U N I T E D S TAT E S TANZANIA S PA I N VATICAN CITY EAST TIMOR GEORGIA PAPUA ARMENIA NEW GUINEA (F.Y.R.O.M) TURKMENISTAN SYRIA CYPRUS LEBANON I R A N 23°30' TONGA VANUATU ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS MEXICO NAMIBIA PARAGUAY BOTSWANA SWAZILAND EL OR VAD SAL LESOTHO HE E W WO OR R LL D D TT H POLITICAL Example of the Dry Chaco: change POLITICAL in land use and land cover driven by globalisation [41] . ARGENTINA 30° URUGUAY 0° CHILE 0 0º 0 200 15º 400 200 Mumbai Birmingham İstanbul Vigo International boundary 10-20m 5-10m over 20m 1-5m State boundary National capitals are shown in CAPS. by or belonging to ( ) (U.S.A.) Administered * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) © 1996. Revised 2015 • Maps International © 1996. Revised 2015 •by Maps International Designed and produced Lovell Johns Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom. A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Designed anddata produced by by Lovell Oxford, Data UnitedCentre. Kingdom. Bathymetry supplied The Johns BritishLimited, Oceanographic A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Bathymetry data supplied by The British Oceanographic Data Centre. 165° E 180° 165° W 150° 60° 165° E 180° 165° W 150° ANGOLA NAMIBIA MAURITIUS BOTSWANA D POLITICAL 400 0º 0 200 400 miles 40º LAND 800 km NEW ZEA International Other peak Date Line 60º VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION 75º 0 0 400 200 400 miles MODIFIED VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION Depth figure Mumbai İstanbul over 20m International boundary 10-20m 5-10m over 20m Birmingham 1-5m İstanbul 10-20m Vigo 250,000 - 1,000,000 Toronto 5-10m - 250,000 Cork 100,000 Birmingham 1-5m Tromsø Less than 100,000 Vigo 250,000 - 1,000,000 National in CAPS. Corkcapitals are shown 100,000 - 250,000 (U.S.A.) Administered by or Less belonging to ( ) Tromsø than 100,000 International Date Line Monitoring is essential to identify biophysical, social, political and economic drivers of changes and to develop land use planning and management policies to mitigate or reverse them. 0 30º Toronto Mumbai Maps International product distributed in: Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com Maps International product in: Europe by Craenen BVBA,distributed Belgium – www.craenen.be Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com Europe by Craenen BVBA, Belgium – www.craenen.be North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com 45° State boundary Disputed/Undefined boundary International boundary Major railway State boundary Disputed/Undefined boundary Highest peak in continent Major railway Highest peak in country Other peak Highest peak in continent 7599m * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) National capitals are shown in CAPS. by or belonging to ( ) Depth figure Highest peak in country International Other peak Date Line (U.S.A.) Administered 7599m * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) Depth figure International Date Line © 1996. Revised 2015 • Maps International Maps International product distributed in: Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com Maps International product in: Europe by Craenen BVBA,distributed Belgium – www.craenen.be Australasia by Hema Maps – www.hemamaps.com North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com Europe by Craenen BVBA, Belgium – www.craenen.be North America by Round World Products – www.roundworldproducts.com © 1996. Revised 2015 •by Maps International Designed and produced Lovell Johns Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom. A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Designed anddata produced by by Lovell Oxford, Data UnitedCentre. Kingdom. Bathymetry supplied The Johns BritishLimited, Oceanographic A full range of world and continental wallmaps are also available. Bathymetry data supplied by The British Oceanographic Data Centre. cle ic Cir Antarct NEW ZEALAN URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE 15º Depth figure Highest peak in country 120° 135° MADAGASCAR MOZAMBIQUE ZIMBABWE BRAZIL EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 20 30 000 000 Large-scale conversion of Dry Chaco forests to annual crops and pasture affects climate changes, alters regional ecosystem functioning, and may lead to unanticipated social problems and increased degradation of the land resource [43] . 135° SEYCHELLES COMOROS MALAWI ZAMBIA EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 33 125 000 800 km Other peak Highest peak in continent 7599m BURUNDI SOUTH AFRICA HE E W WO OR R LL D D TT H POLITICAL 30° Major railway Highest peak in country 7599m SOMALIA KENYA RWANDA SWAZILAND Disputed/Undefined boundary Highest peak in continent * National capital (not recognised by the United Nations) MALDIVES UGANDA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Tropic of Capricorn Major railway State boundary The South American Dry Chaco is a vast semiarid plain spreading over Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia. However, the native vegetation, particularly dry forests, is undergoing one of the highest deforestation rates in the world. This transformation is due to rapid agricultural expansion and intensification, especially crop production (soy, maize) and cattle ranching. Opportunities created by socioeconomic globalisation, including increase in global demands for feedstuff and attractive economical returns are driving and accelerating these changes. These land transformations have resulted in significant losses of biodiversity, fragmentation of the landscape, and a reduction of essential ecosystem services [42] . GABON LESOTHO Disputed/Undefined boundary International boundary 10-20m 250,000 - 1,000,000 Toronto 5-10m - 250,000 Cork 100,000 Birmingham 1-5m Tromsø Less than 100,000 Vigo 250,000 - 1,000,000 National in CAPS. Corkcapitals are shown 100,000 - 250,000 (U.S.A.) Administered by or Less belonging to ( ) Tromsø than 100,000 45° 23°30' over 20m Cit y Cit y Toronto Cit y İstanbul St MODIFIED VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION Mumbai EQUATORIAL GUINEA PARAGUAY 400 miles ETHIOPIA SOUTH SUDAN CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC BOLIVIA Sta te te Ca or D Ca or D pit ep pit ep al . C al . C ap ap ita In In ital l ha ha bit bit an an ts ts 800 km Trop TANZANIA FIJI VAN DER GRINTEN PROJECTION I YEMEN DJIBOUTI NIGERIA SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE TONGA 60º Cit y D St at at e e Ca or D Ca or D pit ep pit ep al . C al . C ap ap ita In In ital l ha ha bit bit an an ts ts 40º UNITED ARAB EMIRATES CAMEROON COLOMBIA 15° S 30º ALAN NEW ZE GHANA SAMOA EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 20 30 000 000 75º 0 0 AUSTRALIA CÔTE D'IVOIRE LIBERIA SURINAME The Sahel: a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the tropics. 400 miles QATAR ERITREA SUDAN PERU Sta 400 GUYANA CHAD BURKINA FASO GUINEA SIERRA LEONE VENEZUELA ECUADOR Equator THE GAMBIA GUINEABISSAU TRINIDAD & TOBAGO PANAMA NIGER SENEGAL KIRIBATI EQUATORIAL SCALE 1: 33 125 000 800 km NICARAGUA COSTA RICA SAUDI ARABIA OMAN MALI DOMINICA SOUTH AFRICA EGYPT CAPE VERDE ST KITTS & NEVIS ANTIGUA & BARBUDA ST LUCIA BARBADOS ST VINCENT & THE GRENADA GRENADINES PAKISTAN BAHRAIN MAURITANIA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC HAITI JAMAICA HONDURAS LA GUATEMA Tropic of Capricorn CUBA BELIZE 15° N L I BYA ALGERIA THE BAHAMAS BENIN TOGO AGRICULTURE EXPANDS, FORESTS RETREAT. 23°30' KUWAIT HIGH POPULATION PRESSURE IN LOW RESILIENCE AREAS. BRAZIL FIJI MOZAMBIQUE Tropic of Cancer AFGHANISTAN IRAQ ISRAEL MADAGASCAR CO NG O BOLIVIA SOLOMON TAJIKISTAN ISLANDS MALTA TUNISIA MOROCCO JORDAN 15° S 105° 120° 90° 105° 60° 75° 90° 75° 45° 60° 45° Anta rctic 30° 15° W 0° 15° E 30° 165° E 45° 180° 60° 165° W 75° 150° 90° le ic Circ Antarct 135° 120° 105° 105° 90° 120° Circle 60° 75° 135° 45° 15° W 0° 15° E 165° W 180° 165° E 150° 30° 30° 45° 60° 75° 165° E 30° 15° W 0° 15° E 30° 180° 45° 165° W 60° 150° 135° 75° 120° 90° 105° 105° 90° 75° 120° 60° 45° 135° 30° 15° W 150° 0° 15° E 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 165° W 180° 165° E GAMBIA, THE Earth observation data suggest an overall increase in vegetation greenness that can be confirmed by ground observations. However, it remains unclear if the observed positive trends provide an environmental improvement with positive effects on people's livelihood [36] . Long-term assessments of biodiversity at finer scales highlight in some cases a negative trend in species diversity [45] . Between 1976 and 2012, 20% of the whole ecoregion has been transformed, with exponentially growing annual transformation rate in Paraguay. Areas coloured from red (transformed in 1976) to yellow (transformed in 2013) show the extent and rapid pace of transformation of Dry Chaco into crops or pastures. The WAD illustrates and underlines the need to monitor land dynamics by combining long-term information from Earth observation with in situ observations to improve understanding of the site specific impact of changes in land use and observed land cover trends. 1976 1986 TRANSFORMATION (year) 2000 2002 2003 2005 2006 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 12 World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure decreasing NDVI 2007 2010 0 increasing NDVI 2001 2004 100 km 90° 60° In the past 50 years, an increase of sedentary human presence and activities, together with climatic variability, has caused major environmental changes in the semi-arid Sahelian zone. As a result the degradation of arable lands has been a major concern for livelihoods and food security. Despite decades of intensive research on human-environmental systems in the Sahel, there is no overall consensus about the severity of land degradation [44] . 1996 KYRGYZSTAN UZBEKISTAN AZERBAIJAN TURKEY GREECE COMOROS ZAMBIA ANGOLA BULGARIA MACEDONIA ALBANIA MALAWI 30° SAMOA SERBIA MONT. KOS. ITALY ANDORRA PORTUGAL PERU VE CROATIA SLO BOSNIA & SAN HERZEGOVINA MARINO MONACO SEYCHELLES Recent Earth Observation studies show a positive trend in rainfall and vegetation index over the last decades for the majority of the Sahel - known as the regreening of the Sahel [46] . This has been interpreted as an increase in biomass and contradicts prevailing narratives of widespread degradation caused by human overuse and climate change. Yet, observable areas of decreasing productivity, e.g. in Niger and Sudan, indicate that the re-greening process is not uniform across the entire Sahel. World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 13 Solutions The WAD Core Features TOWARDS LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY. Maintaining or improving the productive capacity of land requires a move towards land degradation neutrality [47] . This is a matter of preserving or enhancing the ability of land resources to support ecosystem functions and services. Sustainable management of soil, water and biodiversity can help close yield gaps, increase the resilience of land, and thus support the people who depend on it for their livelihoods. The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) is an example of an initiative that promotes sustainable land management (SLM) and knowledge sharing. This network of specialists facilitates the reporting, dissemination and the implementation of locally adapted SLM practices. WOCAT defines four categories of measures to prevent, mitigate and rehabilitate land degradation and restore ecosystem services which can be combined on a same site to achieve a comprehensive management. National, regional and international initiatives to recover degraded land are numerous and diverse. The Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative is an example of an international project. Its objective is to increase the resilience of human and natural systems in Sahel and Saharan areas faced with climate change. It encourages innovative solutions to manage ecosystems and to sustain natural resources. Emphasis is placed on the protection of tangible and intangible rural heritage, the development of rural production systems, and the improvement of the living conditions and livelihoods of people living in these areas. The new World Atlas of Desertification highlights options and possibilities for sustainable solutions to halt and prevent land degradation. The WAD considers land degradation and desertification to be a persistent reduction or loss of biological and economic productivity of land caused by human activities, often accelerated by natural factors like increasing aridity and climate change. Focus is on land used by people whose livelihoods depend on this productivity, yet the reduction or loss of this productivity is driven by their use. While the previous editions of the WAD started by considering primarily the bio-physical boundary conditions for land and soil degradation, the new WAD puts the Human-Environment (H-E) interaction in the centre of its analytical review of state and trends of global land degradation and desertification. The new WAD thus acknowledges that human societies and their use of land are on one hand drivers of land degradation and desertification, but also the key to sustainable solutions of this global problem. The WAD mapping does not strive for a single land degradation index but builds on a systematic framework of providing a convergence of evidence of human-environment interactions for identifying pathways of land degradation and restoration. This approach of providing spatial information on land degradation and restoration trends is consistent with the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) progress indicator framework and with the on-going debate for applying an integrated landscape approach to implementing land degradation neutrality. Considering a reference period of approximately 15 to 20 years since the last Atlas and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the WAD global mapping approach is designed to identify areas affected by persistent land degradation factors as well as land areas that are showing signs of recuperating their productive capacity. This is put in relation to mapped information on the most commonly known and documented underlying and proximate causes of land degradation [48] but also to sustainable land use practices such as agro-forestry and conservation agriculture. The basis for implementing the WAD mapping framework has been facilitated by the increased availability of current global and regional data sets of bio-physical and socio-economic information. These layers are frequently (but not exclusively) compiled from spatial information provided by Earth Observation satellites in combination with statistical and field data. Despite this progress in developing global monitoring data sets there are still substantial gaps in the thematic coverage and continuity of data collection systems. This calls for further, more coordinated efforts for establishing systematic monitoring under a specific land degradation topic of existing political framework such as GEO-GEOSS. WOCAT SLM measures: (1) agronomic measures to improve the soil (mulching, manuring, conservation tillage); (2) vegetative measures such as planting trees, shrubs or grasses; (3) structural measures that change the land (terraces, dams, ditches); and (4) management measures, including change of land use, intensity or timing. Implementing the Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel. 14 World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure | World Atlas of Desertification 15 References 1. UN DESA PD. World Population Prospects : The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advances (ESA/P/ WP.241). (2015). 2. Foley, J. a. et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478, 337–342 (2011). doi: 10.1038/ nature10452 3. Crutzen, P. J. Geology of mankind. Nature 415, 23 (2002). doi: 10.1038/415023a 4. Ellis, E. C. & Ramankutty, N. Putting people in the map: Anthropogenic biomes of the world. Front. Ecol. Environ. 6, 439–447 (2008). doi: 10.1890/070062 5. Rulli, M. C., Saviori, A. & D’Odorico, P. Global land and water grabbing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 110, 892–897 (2013). doi: 10.1073/pnas.1213163110 6. Sustainable development - Knowledge platform. at <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index. html> 7. FAO. The State of the World’s land and water resources for Food and Agriculture, Managing systems at risk. (2011). doi: 978-1-84971-326-9 8. NOAA. Version 4 DMSP-OLS Nighttime Lights Time Series. at <http://ngdc.noaa.gov/eog/dmsp/ downloadV4composites.html> 9. Columbia University - Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN). Gridded Population of the World, Version 4 (GPWv4), Preliminary Release 2 (2010). (2014). at <http:// www.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/gpw-v4> 10. SERI. LAND FOOTPRINT SCENARIOS A discussion paper including a literature review and scenario analysis on the land use related to changes in Europe’s consumption patterns Report for Friends of the Earth Europe. (eds. Giljum, S. & Kennerley, P. R.) (2013). 11. UNEP. Global Environment Outlook GEO4. (UNEP, 2007). at <http://www.unep.org/geo/GEO4/report/ GEO-4_Report_Full_en.pdf> 12. UN DESA PD. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/352). (2014). 13. FAO, IFAD & WFP. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015. Meeting the 2015 International hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. (FAO, 2015). 14. Mueller, N. D. et al. Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature 490, 254–257 (2012). doi: 10.1038/nature11420 15. Steinfeld, H. et al. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. (FAO, 2006). 16. Naylor, R. AGRICULTURE: Losing the Links Between Livestock and Land. Science (80-. ). 310, 1621– 1622 (2005). doi: 10.1126/science.1117856 17. Lambin, E. F. & Meyfroidt, P. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 3465–3472 (2011). doi: 10.1073/pnas.1100480108 18. UN Water. Water for food factsheet. (2013). 19. Earthscan & IWMI. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. (ed. Molden, D.) (London: Earthscan, and Colombo: IWMI, 2007). 20. West, P. C. et al. Leverage points for improving global food security and the environment. Science (80-. ). 345, 325–328 (2014). doi: 10.1126/ science.1246067 21. Mekonnen, M. M. & Hoekstra, A. Y. A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products. Ecosystems 15, 401–415 (2012). doi: 10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8 22. Nijdam, D., Rood, T. & Westhoek, H. The price of protein: Review of land use and carbon footprints from life cycle assessments of animal food products and their substitutes. Food Policy 37, 760– 770 (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.08.002 23. Panagos, P. et al. The new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe. Environ. Sci. Policy 54, 438–447 (2015). doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.08.012 24. UNCCD. Towards a land degradation neutral world: Land and soil in the context of a green economy for sustainable development, food security and poverty eradication. (2011). 25. Hansen, M. C. et al. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science (80-. ). 342, 850–3 (2013). doi: 10.1126/science.1244693 26. Steffen, W. et al. Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science (80-. ). 347, 1259855– (2015). doi: 10.1126/ science.1259855 27. UN Water. Water scarcity factsheet. (2013). 28. Brown, L. R. Full planet empty plates: The new geopolitics of food scarcity. (Norton & Company, Inc., 2012). 29. Famiglietti, J. S. The global groundwater crisis. Nat. Clim. Chang. 4, 945–948 (2014). doi: 10.1038/ nclimate2425 30. Spinoni, J., Vogt, J., Naumann, G., Carrao, H. & Barbosa, P. Towards identifying areas at climatological risk of desertification using the Köppen-Geiger classification and FAO aridity index. Int. J. Climatol. 35, 2210–2222 (2015). doi: 10.1002/joc.4124 31. Spinoni, J., Naumann, G., Carrao, H., Barbosa, P. & Vogt, J. World drought frequency, duration, and severity for 1951-2010. Int. J. Climatol. 34, 2792– 2804 (2014). doi: 10.1002/joc.3875 32. Geist, H. The causes and progression of desertification. (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005). 33. Global Desertification: Do Humans cause Deserts? Dahlem Workshop Report 88 (eds. Reynolds, J. F. & Stafford Smith, D. M.) (Dahlem Univ. Press, 2002). 34. Ivits, E., Cherlet, M., Mehl, W. & Sommer, S. Ecosystem functional units characterized by satellite observed phenology and productivity gradients: A case study for Europe. Ecol. Indic. 27, 17–28 (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.11.010 35. Ivits, E., Cherlet, M., Sommer, S. & Mehl, W. Addressing the complexity in non-linear evolution of vegetation phenological change with time-series of remote sensing images. Ecol. Indic. 26, 49–60 (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.10.012 36. Herrmann, S. M., Sall, I. & Sy, O. People and pixels in the Sahel: a study linking coarse-resolution remote sensing observations to land users’ perceptions of their changing environment in Senegal. Ecol. Soc. 19, art29 (2014). doi: 10.5751/ES-06710-190329 37. State Forestry Administration. Atlas of Desertified and Sandified Land in China. (2008). 38. Hill, J. et al. Integrating MODIS-EVI and gridded rainfall/temperature fields for assessing land degradation dynamics in Horqin sandy lands, Inner Mongolia (China). in 30th EARSeL Symposium: Remote Sensing for Science, Education and Culture, 31 May--3 June 2010, UNESCO, Paris, France 247–254 (2010). 39. Hill, J., Stellmes, M. & Wang, C. Land Use and Land Cover Mapping in Europe. Land Use and Land Cover Mapping in Europe (eds. Manakos, I. & Braun, M.) 18, (2014). doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-7969-3 40. World Bank. Agricultural irrigated land. at <http:// data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.IRIG.AG.ZS/ countries> 41. Vallejos, M. et al. Dynamics of the natural cover transformation in the Dry Chaco ecoregion: A plot level geo- database from 1976 to 2012. J. Arid Environ. 1–9 (2014). doi: 10.1016/j. jaridenv.2014.11.009 42. REDAF. Monitoreo de deforestación en los bosques nativos de la Región Chaqueña Argentina. Informe No1 Bosque Nativo en Salta: Ley de Bosques, análisis de deforestación y situación del Bosque chaqueño en la provincia. (2013). 43. Grau, H., Gasparri, I. & Gasparri, M. in Valoración de Servicios Ecosistémicos. Conceptos, herramientas y aplicaciones para el ordenamiento territorial (eds. Laterra, P., Jobbagy, E. & Paruelo, J.) (2011). 44. Rasmussen, K. et al. Environmental change in the Sahel: reconciling contrasting evidence and interpretations. Reg. Environ. Chang. (2015). doi: 10.1007/s10113-015-0778-1 45. Brandt, M. et al. Ground- and satellite-based evidence of the biophysical mechanisms behind the greening Sahel. Glob. Chang. Biol. 21, 1610–1620 (2015). doi: 10.1111/gcb.12807 46. Fensholt, R. et al. Assessing Land Degradation/ Recovery in the African Sahel from Long-Term Earth Observation Based Primary Productivity and Precipitation Relationships. Remote Sens. 5, 664– 686 (2013). doi: 10.3390/rs5020664 47. UNCCD. at <www.unccd.int> 48. Geist, H. J. & Lambin, E. F. Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification. Bioscience 54, 817 (2004). doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2 © European Union, 2015 Reproduction authorised for the sole purpose of teaching or scientific research, provided the source is acknowledged. Published by the Publications Office of the European Union, L-2995 Luxembourg, Luxembourg. Printed version: ISBN: 978-92-79-52207-9 doi: 10.2788/928958 Catalogue number: LB-01-15-766-EN-C WAD brochure photographs Page 1 background. Arid soils in Mauritania. Valérie Batselaere. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ oxfam/8655301546, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Page 2-3 background. Ben Dumond. https://images.unsplash. com/photo-1428365742810-112d9c5257a4?q=80&fm=jp g&s=9df7e5140820c83774cd9710cce244e7 Page 3. Ulrich Apel/GEF. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ thegef/8054458753/, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Page 4-5 background. K-Line irrigation System. Lori Iverson / USFWS. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ usfwsmtnprairie/8138741505, CC BY 2.0 Page 4. Silage Harvesting - Pickup Time - Clonard, Co. Meath Ireland - May 2012. Peter Mooney. https://www.flickr.com/ photos/peterm7/7275128182, CC BY-SA 2.0 Page 4. Agriculture in Kyrgyz Republic. Vyacheslav Oseledko/ADB. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ asiandevelopmentbank/8428409991, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Page 5. Dust man. Bryan Pearson. https://www.flickr.com/ photos/bryanpearson/2539154708/, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 16 Page 6-7 background. Sediments in Rio de la Plata in E-W view. ©NASA. eol.jsc.nasa.gov (17/03/2003) Page 10 background. Sandification in Horqin Sandy Lands, Inner Mongolia, China. © Joachim Hill Page 10. Woman and child, Horqin Sandy Lands, Inner Mongolia, China © Joachim Hill Page 11. Dam near Dai ka Mahal. Varun Shiv Kapur. https:// www.flickr.com/photos/varunshiv/3925961352. CC BY 2.0 Page 12 background. "Desmonte" entre Saenz Peña e Castelli. Valerio Pillar. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ vpillar/85080626. CC BY-SA 2.0 Page 13 background. Kite aerial photograph in Fakara region, Niger. © Bruno Gérard and Philippe Delfosse/ICRISAT Page 14 top. Landscape in the southern Xayabury (Laos) © European Commission/Pierre Girard/CIRAD. http://ec.europa. eu/europeaid/multimedia/photos/library/repository/final/ img1915.jpg Page 14 drawings. Categories of measures for sustainable land management. © Hanspeter Liniger/WOCAT World Atlas of Desertification | World Atlas of Desertification Introductory brochure Page 14 diagram photograph 1. No-till of maize – Kenthao. © Florence Tivet/European Commission. http://ec.europa. eu/europeaid/multimedia/photos/library/repository/final/ img1912.jpg Page 14 diagram photograph 2. Fighting desertification, Illapel, Chile. © European Commission Page 14 diagram photograph 3. Aerial view of the landscape around Halimun Salak National Park, West Java, Indonesia. Kate Evans/CIFOR. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ cifor/10814748485, CC BY-NC 2.0 Page 14 diagram photograph 4. Panoramic view of farmer's field under conservation agriculture in Malawi. T. Samson/CIMMYT. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ cimmyt/7290578268, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Page 14 bottom. Great Green Wall for the Sahara and Sahel Initiative. © Giulio Napolitano/FAO Page 15 Goats in the Sahel. © Stéphanie Horion Page 17. Aerial view in Madagascar. © G. Barton/European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/ photos/library/repository/final/img3508.jpg Online version: ISBN: 978-92-79-52206-2 doi:10.2788/21872 Catalogue number: LB-01-15-766-EN-N JRC registration number: JRC97776 2015 – 16 pp. – 21,0 x 29,7 cm Printed in Italy. WAD portal: http://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu