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Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations: A Thousand Acres and King Lear ANNA LINDHÉ T h e last d e c a d e s o f the 2 0 * century s a w p l e n t y o f p o s t m o d e r n reflective rewritings o f c a n o n i c a l w o r k s . W r i t e r s have always self- derived inspiration f r o m p r e v i o u s narratives; b u t in his s t u d y Rewriting: Postmodern Narrative and Cultural Critique in the Age of Cloning ( 2 0 0 1 ) , C h r i s t i a n M o r a r u argues that c o n t e m p o r a r y rewritings express a m o r e p o t e n t n e e d to revise, u n d e r m i n e , a n d radically criticize t h e representation o f f o u n d a t i o n a l stories o f western culture. M o r a r u d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t w o rewriting practices: rewriting as s u p p o r t , i.e. ' u n d e r w r i t i n g ' a n d rewriting as d i s r u p t i o n , i.e. ' c o u n t e r w r i t i n g ' : According to [the neoclassical philosophy] rewriting is underwriting, support and reduplication of the already-written. [By contrasr, the postmodern rewriting practices] set up a counterwriting distance, a "rupture" between themselves and what they redo - the literary past - as well as between themselves and various hegemonic forces active at the moment and in the milieu of "redoing". (Motaru 2 0 0 1 : 9) Women writers' 'counterwriting' of Shakespeare has increased c o n s i d e r a b l y in recent years. A l l o w i n g s c o p e for investigations i n t o race a n d ethnicity, The Tempest h a s b e e n a particular target for p o s t - c o l o n i a l rewritings, whereas King Lear h a s c o m e in for a g o o d deal o f a t t e n t i o n f r o m feminist writers. J a n e S m i l e y ' s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, A Thousand Acres ( 1 9 9 1 ) , is a n o p e n r e s p o n s e to King Lear. A c c o r d i n g to t h e writer herself, ' [ t ] h e o b v i o u s internal s y s t e m o f A Thousand Acres is King Lear (Smiley 2 0 0 1 : 1 6 0 ) . In D a v i d C o w a r t ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , King Lear figures as a 'host-text' for A Thousand Acres, p r o v i d i n g the 'guest-text' w i t h plot, characters, a n d f o r m ( C o w a r t 1 9 9 3 : 4 ) . C o w a r t describes s u c h an intertextual relation as s y m b i o t i c . B y a t t a c h i n g itself to King Lear, A Thousand Acres c o n t r i b u t e s 55 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations to t h e survival o f King Lear. King Lear, o n its part, figures as 'host' for A Thousand Acres, p r o v i d i n g t h e 'guest' w i t h plot, characters, a n d structure. T h e King Lear-plot is, however, transposed to the A m e r i c a n M i d w e s t in the late 1 9 7 0 s , a n d t h e narrative 'perspective' is c h a n g e d to a w o m a n ' s . T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n a n d re-positioning o f plot, characters, a n d themes into a 2 0 ' h century setting incorporates a (counterwriting) distance between past a n d present which invites a critique o f both. S m i l e y thus engages in what C o w a r t calls a n epistemic d i a l o g u e with the past', o n e which 'forces readers into a recognition o f the historical or diachronic difference between the voice o f o n e literary age a n d that o f another' ( C o w a r t 1 9 9 3 : 1). Importantly, S m i l e y ' s critique is a i m e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a d i n g o f King Lear: 'I h a d an intention in A Thousand Acres that grew o u t o f s o m e t h i n g less rational, a r e s p o n s e t o t h e play. I w a n t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e ways in w h i c h I f o u n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l reading o f King Lear frustrating a n d w r o n g ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 9 : 1 6 0 ) . U p until recently, t h e p r e d o m i n a n t critical r e a d i n g o f G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n c o u l d b e s u m m a r i z e d in H a r o l d B l o o m ' s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e t w o as ' u n n a t u r a l h a g s ' a n d ' m o n s t e r s o f t h e d e e p ' ( B l o o m 1 9 9 4 : 6 4 ) . It is true that previous critical a t t e m p t s have been m a d e t o challenge these i m a g e s , n o t a b l y b y S t e p h e n R e i d in 1 9 7 0 , b u t it is o n l y in recent years that a c h a n g e s e e m s to have o c c u r r e d , p o s s i b l y in t h e w a k e o f A Thousand Acres. 2 1 Jane Smiley approaches King Lear from a feminist perspective creating a s p a c e f r o m w h i c h G i n n y / G o n e r i l s p e a k s , c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e patriarchal i m a g e s o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s w o m e n a n d g r a n t i n g silenced f e m a l e character a voice. I n contexts c o n c e r n i n g o p p o s i t i o n or resistance t o m a l e normativity, voice has c o m e to denote 'power o f expression' (Gilligan 1 See Srephen Reid. 'In Defence of Goneril and Regan'. The American Imago 27, no. 3 (1970): 226-244. 2 See, for example, Cristina León Alfar. 'King Lear's "Immoral" Daughters and the Politics of Kingship'. Exemplaria 8, no. 2 (1996): 375-400. In this article she rejects the notion of Goneril and Regan as innately evil arguing that their actions are 'symptomatic of the patrilineal structure of power relations in which they live and to which they must accommodate themselves', 375. See also Cristina León Alfar. 'Looking for Goneril and Regan' in Privacy, Domesticity, and Women in Early Modern England ed. Corinne S. Abate. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003, and Cristina León Alfar. Fantasies of Female Evil The Dynamics of Gender and Power in Shakespearean Tragedy. Newark and London: University of Delaware Press, 2003. In Making Trifles of Terrors: Redistributing Complicities in Shakespeare. Stanford: Sranford University Press, 1997, Harry Berger Jr. suggests that Lear might be seen as provoking Goneril's behaviour. 56 Anna Lindhé 1993: xvi). For Nancy A. Walker, A Thousand Acres counts ' d i s o b e d i e n t ' narrative in that it 'expose[s] a n d q u e s t i o n [ s ] as a patriarchal p a t t e r n s that S h a k e s p e a r e a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t o o k for g r a n t e d ' b y g i v i n g 'narrative a u t h o r i t y to the female characters' ( W a l k e r 1 9 9 5 : 7 - 8 ) . B u t , as I will try to illustrate b e l o w , female v o i c e or 'narrative authority' c a n n o t a l o n e effect c h a n g e s to n a r r o w i m a g e s o f G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n . T h i s essay a t t e m p t s to s h o w h o w these i m a g e s c a n b e altered b y the p o s i t i o n i n g o f G i n n y a n d R o s e in a c o m p l i c a t e d p a t t e r n o f interpersonal relations, o n e w h i c h is d i s t u r b e d b y the d i s r u p t i o n s that c o m e with t h e transfer o f p o w e r a n d p r o p e r t y f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n to another. I n t r i g u e d b y this p a t t e r n in King Lear, A Thousand Acres t h u s e x a m i n e s h o w this d i s t u r b a n c e affects social a n d interpersonal relationships. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two texts renders p o s s i b l e an oscillation b e t w e e n different w o r l d s , between p a s t a n d present, b e t w e e n c o n d i t i o n s o f a n d p o s s i b l e m e a n s o f existence, w h i c h h a s different important c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e reader's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b o t h texts. I m p o r t a n d y , t h e m e e t i n g o f a n d t h e oscillation b e t w e e n t h e two texts rule o u t a n y s i m p l e 'takeover' o n the p a r t o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y novel. F o r a different Thousand Acres w o u l d require the Lear a n d is therefore n o t an a t t e m p t to preferential truth. O n e text is n o t relinquished at t h e e x p e n s e o f the other, q u i t e the reverse; t h e reader is a b l e to c o n t a i n t w o texts w i t h i n his/her v i s i o n or m e n t a l picture. picture o f Goneril to e m e r g e , A c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n c e o f King King Lear is a play that deals with patriarchal rule and the relationship b e t w e e n father a n d d a u g h t e r s , a n d these factors are often c o n s i d e r e d to b e t h e m a i n reasons w h y this p l a y h o l d s special fascination for w o m e n authors ( S a n d e r s 2 0 0 1 : 5 ) . E v e n s o , King Lear harbours s o m e t h i n g that attracts a n d intrigues m a n y f e m a l e writers a p a r t f r o m t h e father-daughter relation. M o r e t h a n a n y other S h a k e s p e a r e play, it offers a b r o a d r a n g e o f interpersonal relationships between p a r e n t a n d child b u t also between k i n g a n d subject, between h u s b a n d a n d wife, a n d b e t w e e n siblings o f b o t h sexes. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d w i e l d i n g o f p o w e r generates tragic c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e family; it leads to clashes b e t w e e n g e n e r a t i o n s , discord between fathers a n d daughters a n d fathers a n d sons, rivalry b e t w e e n siblings friction between h u s b a n d a n d wife, a n d e n m i t y b e t w e e n k i n g a n d subject. P r e s u m e d values o f loyalty, o b e d i e n c e , a n d d u t y are u p s e t , q u e s t i o n e d , a n d b r o u g h t u n d e r careful scrutiny, n o t o n l y in the k i n g d o m b u t in t h e family as well. King Lear is a p l a y a b o u t ' p o w e r , p r o p e r t y a n d inheritance', as J o n a t h a n D o l l i m o r e p o i n t s o u t ( D o l l i m o r e 57 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations 2 0 0 4 : 1 9 7 ) — or, p e r h a p s even m o r e , a p l a y a b o u t the dislocation o f power, p r o p e r t y , a n d inheritance, a n d the e n s u i n g effects a n d disturbances. Set in I o w a in the M i d w e s t in the late 1 9 7 0 s , A Thousand Acres tells t h e story o f a father, Larry (Lear), a n d the effects o f his s h a r i n g his farm w i t h his three d a u g h t e r s , G i n n y ( G o n e r i l ) , R o s e ( R e g a n ) , a n d C a r o l i n e ( C o r d e l i a ) , a n d their respective h u s b a n d s , T y ( A l b a n y ) , Pete ( C o r n w a l l ) , a n d F r a n k ( F r a n c e ) , as seen t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f G i n n y ( G o n e r i l ) . T h e y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , C a r o l i n e , hesitates as to the a d v a n t a g e s o f transferring t h e f a r m , w h i c h results in her father's e x c l u d i n g her f r o m the p r o j e c t . T h e transfer o f p r o p e r t y a n d C a r o l i n e ' s reluctance to accept Larry's decision trigger a n d fuel e n m i t y between d a u g h t e r s a n d fathers, between s p o u s e s , as well as between siblings; b u t they also h a v e an effect o n the G l o u c e s t e r s u b p l o t that finds its w a y into A Thousand Acres t h r o u g h H a r o l d C l a r k a n d his two sons, J e s s ( E d m u n d ) a n d L o r e n ( E d g a r ) , w h o live o n a n e i g h b o u r i n g farm. T h e d i s p u t e over the C o o k farm a w a k e n s repressed m e m o r i e s , a n d the u n r e m i t t i n g p h r a s e 'there's m o r e to that t h a n m e e t s the eye' acquires p o i g n a n c y as w e find o u t that G i n n y a n d R o s e were i n c e s t u o u s l y assaulted b y their father ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 3 4 ) . A Thousand Acres alerts the reader to h o w the transfer o f p r o p e r t y a n d p o w e r penetrates a n d encroaches u p o n the firmest family relationships a n d t h e m o s t solid loyalties. T h e transfer o f p r o p e r t y upsets m a r r i a g e s , as well as e x p o s i n g the tacit a n d already existing rivalry between siblings. T h e g r o w t h o f sibling rivalry a n d the c o m p l e x relation between s p o u s e s in A Thousand Acres heighten the reader's awareness o f G o n e r i l ' s p o s i t i o n in a c o m p l i c a t e d structure o f relations, o n e in w h i c h she is n o t o n l y a d a u g h t e r , b u t also a sister, a n d a wife. A c c o r d i n g l y , this essay will b e g i n b y t a k i n g a closer l o o k at the reader's role as a significant factor in t h e d y n a m i c s b e t w e e n the texts. W h e n J a m e s S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t that G o n e r i l ' s a n d R e g a n ' s voices are heard and that the rewriting provides 'a motivation for and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the two older d a u g h t e r s ' (Schiff: 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 0 ) , he fails, like s o m a n y other critics apart n o t a b l y f r o m M a r i n a Leslie 3 , to raise q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e reader's p a r t in the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the two elder d a u g h t e r s . Peter C o n r a d p o i n t s o u t that J a n e S m i l e y takes G o n e r i l ' s a n d R e g a n ' s 'side' b y m a k i n g G i n n y 'her narrator' ( C o n r a d 1 9 9 5 : 1 3 3 ) . M o r e 3 See Marina Leslie. 'Incest, Incorporation and King Lear in Jane Smiley's A Acres'. College English 60, no. 1 (1998): 31-50. 58 Thousand Anna Lindhé i m p o r t a n d y , d o e s S m i l e y ' s p o s i t i o n also result in the reader's s y m p a t h e t i c r e s p o n s e to G o n e r i l ? S y m p a t h y for G o n e r i l ( a n d R e g a n ) is difficult to establish w i t h o u t p r e s u m i n g t h a t t h e reader o f A Thousand Acres revisits King Lear in s o m e w a y , however brief, after finishing S m i l e y ' s novel. A s l o n g as the h e / s h e stays within t h e fictional w o r l d o f A Thousand Acres, the reader, as J a m e s A . S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t , ' u n d e r s t a n d ^ ] w h y G i n n y / G o n e r i l has j u s t c a u s e for s p e a k i n g o f her father in s u c h a m a n n e r , a n d w e are likely to cheer her o n ' ( S c h i f f 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 5 ) . It is the m o v e m e n t f r o m A Thousand Lear Acres to King that is i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s y m p a t h y for G o n e r i l . R e f o r m u l a t i n g King Lear, s o as to give w h a t W a l k e r t e r m s a u t h o r i t y ' to the female characters, calls for s o m e further 'narrative clarification (Walker 1995: 7). T h e change from a traditionally masculine perspective to a feminine o n e in A Thousand Acres m a k e s it possible for w o m e n to acquire m o r e p r o m i n e n t positions. T h e reader receives Goneril's version; her inner life a n d feelings are p u t on display as Smiley provides her with a voice a n d a history. T h i s alteration c a n n o t suddenly m a k e Goneril ' m o r e sinned against than sinning' or Lear a 'monster o f the deep'. G r a n t i n g narrative authority to the female characters does n o t m e a n that w e suddenly just side with Goneril a n d R e g a n , or that Goneril b e c o m e s the e p i t o m e o f goodness. Smiley m a k e s it quite difficult for the reader to identify G i n n y as the counterpart to Goneril as they are very different characters: o n e is the daughter o f a king, married to a d u k e , a b o u t to inherit a third o f the k i n g d o m , a n d as such in a very powerful position; the other is a farmer's daughter. S m i l e y also renders it difficult for t h e reader to s y m p a t h i z e w i t h G i n n y for several reasons. A Thousand Acres is written f r o m a first-person m o r e s u b j e c t to c r i t i q u e a n d s u s p i c i o n t h a n a third-person m o d e o f n a r r a t i o n w o u l d be. It is true that as a first-person narrator, G i n n y i n h a b i t s a very powerful p o s i t i o n ; t h e story a n d the other characters are filtered t h r o u g h her perspective. A t the s a m e t i m e , however, the first-person v o i c e o n l y c l a i m s ' t h e validity o f o n e p e r s o n ' s right to interpret her experiences', as S u s a n S n i a d e r L a n s e r p o i n t s o u t (Lanser 1 9 9 2 : 1 9 ) . A first-person narrator runs a greater risk o f b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t his/her intentions. I t m i g h t b e difficult to establish authority, as the novel actually a v o i d s t h e m a s c u l i n e p o s i t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y w h i c h is, as L a n s e r p o i n t s o u t , traditionally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n o m n i s c i e n t narrator ( L a n s e r 1 9 9 2 : 1 9 ) . perspective, w h i c h makes the s p e a k i n g v o i c e m u c h 59 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations In addition, in contrast to M a r i n a Leslie's o p i n i o n , w e d o n o t receive a very 'likeable' or agreeable picture o f G i n n y t h r o u g h o u t (Leslie 1 9 9 8 : 3 5 ) . H e r adulterous affair with J e s s a n d the meticulous preparations to p o i s o n R o s e c o m e across as rather disturbing. N e i t h e r o f these two events h a p p e n s in the s p u r o f the m o m e n t : 'I believed that I was g o i n g t o sleep with Jess C l a r k with as full a certainty' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 1 5 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , without considerations for her sisters' children — they w o u l d n o t only b e fatherless b u t also motherless — a n d with particular crude exactitude, G i n n y executes her plan: ' T h e perfection o f m y p l a n was the w a y Rose's o w n appetite w o u l d select her death' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 3 3 9 ) . T h e s e are factors that p r o b a b l y m a k e it harder for the reader to develop a benevolent attitude to her. F u r t h e r m o r e , her self-contempt - reminiscent o f Goneril's w o r d s a b o u t her 'hateful life' a n d her general c o n t e m p t for her present life contribute to m a k i n g the picture o f G i n n y at least in part unfavourable. I w o u l d s u b m i t that if t h e reader develops a m o r e b e n i g n a t t i t u d e to G o n e r i l after r e a d i n g A Thousand Acres, this is b e c a u s e w e witness G i n n y in d y n a m i c interaction with other characters. W e are a l l o w e d t o see G i n n y in contexts involving other characters, perceive her in different situations, a n d envisage her in a variety o f roles - n o t only as a d a u g h t e r , b u t also as a sister, a n d a wife. W e witness w h a t o c c u r s w h e n different roles c o n v e r g e a n d clash, as h a p p e n s , for instance to C o r d e l i a in King Lear, in act o n e scene o n e in w h i c h her role as a d a u g h t e r is set o f f against her n e w role as a future wife. S h a k e s p e a r e creates s y m p a t h y for L e a r b y p l a c i n g h i m in a c o n t e x t m a d e u p o f other characters in order for us t o f o r m another perspective o f h i m , u n t a i n t e d b y his t r e a t m e n t o f C o r d e l i a a n d K e n t , within t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e play. A s returning readers o f King Lear, w e import our heightened awareness o f interpersonal relationships into S h a k e s p e a r e ' s context. R e t u r n i n g t o King Lear, t h e n , is n o t so m u c h a m a t t e r o f t a k i n g G o n e r i l ' s side; rather, it is a m a t t e r o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w t h e relocation o f p o w e r in the f o r m o f a p r o p e r t y transfer disturbs relations b e t w e e n p e o p l e , creates s u s p i c i o n between siblings a n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in m a r r i a g e s , a n d uncovers t h e flaws within families. O n returning to King Lear, t h e reader will t h u s locate G o n e r i l in a larger structure o f interpersonal a n d social relations, h a v i n g been invited t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w characters m i g h t behave when disappointed, they are unloved misunderstood, and and let unseen down by by their their fathers, siblings or and h u s b a n d s . M a n y critics, feminists i n c l u d e d , h a v e p o s t u l a t e d that G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n are u n c o m p l i c a t e d w i t h n o d e p t h to their character; 60 but Anna Lindhé relations b e t w e e n p e o p l e are nearly always c o m p l e x in S h a k e s p e a r e . V . G . K i e r n a n h a s rightly p o i n t e d o u t that: '[Shakespeare] w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h men in combination, interacting, b e c o m i n g part o f one another' entering (Kiernan into 1964: one another's 48). T o lives, understand G o n e r i l a n d to s y m p a t h i z e w i t h her, w e h a v e to place her in a f r a m e w o r k o f interpersonal a n d social relations, a n d a p r e v i o u s r e a d i n g o f A Thousand Acres helps us d o that. R e t u r n i n g to King Lear, d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t w e perceive L e a r as evil a n d G o n e r i l as g o o d . It is precisely t h e m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n the texts that reduces the reader's n e e d or desire to perceive acts a n d b e h a v i o u r as m o r a l l y reprehensible. T h e transfer o f p o w e r a n d p r o p e r t y is central in b o t h King Lear a n d A Thousand Acres. A s a n y reader o f King Lear k n o w s , the d i v i s i o n o f the k i n g d o m will c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e original p u r p o s e o f t h e c e r e m o n y : to select a future h u s b a n d for C o r d e l i a . I n A Thousand Acres, t h e transfer o f t h e farm c o m e s to o v e r s h a d o w the w e l c o m e - h o m e party for H a r o l d C l a r k ' s s o n J e s s . W i t h o u t p r e v i o u s n o t i c e a n d w i t h o u t a n y i n t e n t i o n , it s e e m s , o f d i m i n i s h i n g his p o w e r , L a r r y a n n o u n c e s his p l a n to f o r m a c o r p o r a t i o n between his three d a u g h t e r s a n d their respective h u s b a n d s . B o t h t a k e n b y surprise, G i n n y a n d R o s e express their a d m i s s i o n . G i n n y t h i n k s '[i]t's a g o o d idea', whereas R o s e thinks 'It's a great idea' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . S i m i l a r l y to C o r d e l i a , C a r o l i n e refuses to p l a y t h e role o f t h e c o m p l y i n g d a u g h t e r . In full career as a lawyer, Larry's y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r has established a life for herself a n d her fiance o u t s i d e the p e r i m e t e r s o f the f a r m . H e r answer 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h Larry's p l a n d o e s n o t h a v e t h e s a m e t u r b u l e n t effect o n L a r r y as t h e equally e n i g m a t i c ' N o t h i n g ' h a s o n Lear, however. Larry's r e s p o n s e is terser b u t n o n e t h e less powerful. W i t h t h e assertion, ' y o u d o n ' t w a n t it m y girl, y o u ' r e o u t ' , L a r r y leaves t h e p a r t y ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) . T h e transfer o f t h e k i n g d o m / f a r m in King Lear a n d A Thousand Acres triggers a struggle between the g e n e r a t i o n s a n d stages the inherent differences between t h e m . A Thousand Acres' reiteration o f the division o f the k i n g d o m focuses o n the tension between p e o p l e a n d o n h o w the characters react to the transfer. It turns the reader's attention to w h a t h a p p e n s in-between the silences, inbetween characters. In King Lear it is very o b v i o u s w h i c h o f his d a u g h t e r s Lear prefers. C o r d e l i a is her father's j o y a n d the o n e w h o will b e g r a n t e d 'a third m o r e o p u l e n t t h a n [her] sisters' if she speaks her love for her father ( 1 . 1 . 8 6 ) . In A Thousand Acres, o n l y Larry's gaze indicates w h o m h e favours: ' H e g l a n c e d at m e , then at C a r o l i n e , a n d l o o k i n g at her all the while, he said: " W e ' r e g o i n g to f o r m this c o r p o r a t i o n ' " ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . 61 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations The transfer-scene demonstrates the different loyalties of the characters a n d their reactions to the transfer via the w a y they gaze at o n e another. C a r o l i n e , for e x a m p l e , 'swept the d a r k e n i n g h o r i z o n with her gaze' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) . N o t o n l y does she n o t a p p r o v e o f the transfer; b e i n g a w a y f r o m the farm for a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e has led to a different c o n c e p t i o n o f family loyalty. S h e d o e s n o t h a r b o u r a d i v i d e d d u t y between herself a n d her father. T h e r e is thus n o d y n a m i c t e n s i o n between her a n d the other characters. G i n n y desperately tries to m a k e c o n t a c t with her b y fixing her eyes at C a r o l i n e : 'In the s u d d e n light o f the p o r c h , there was n o w a y to signal her to s h u t u p , j u s t s h u t u p ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 1 ) . W h e n Larry a n n o u n c e s his decision to transfer his f a r m , H a r o l d is s p o t t e d b y G i n n y at a distance s t a n d i n g in the ' d a r k d o o r w a y , g r i n n i n g ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . H a r o l d s e e m s to t h i n k that the transfer o f Larry's p r o p e r t y is a b a d i d e a for Larry, b u t a g o o d idea for himself. H a r o l d a n d L a r r y are o l d rivals for l a n d a n d p r o p e r t y to increase their wealth a n d p o w e r : ' H a r o l d C l a r k a n d m y father used to a r g u e at o u r kitchen table a b o u t w h o s h o u l d g e t the E r i c s o n l a n d w h e n they finally lost their m o r t g a g e ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 4 ) . T h e transfer-scene thus also d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w the tension between the small w o r l d a n d the large w o r l d is generated. L a r r y asserts that the reason for the transfer is a g e a n d a wish to prevent h i g h inheritance taxes: 'if I d i e d t o m o r r o w , y o u ' d h a v e t o p a y [...] inheritance taxes' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . Larry's real reason, however, seems to be his desire to t o p H a r o l d Clark. T h e c o m p e t i t i v e configurations o f the outside world are seen to enter the private sphere o f the family as H a r o l d a n d Larry vie for the s a m e space. T h e c o m p e t i t i o n between the two thus reaches its p e a k at the party w h e n H a r o l d d e m o n s t r a t e s his 'twin exhibits' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 18), as G i n n y calls them, n a m e l y his s o n Jess a n d the new tractor: D a d d y said, " H e l l , I ' m too o l d for this. Y o u w o u l d n ' t catch m e b u y i n g a new tractor at m y age. [—] P e o p l e always act like they're g o i n g to live forever w h e n the price o f land is u p " - here h e threw a glance at H a r o l d ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 19). Larry's gaze or 'glance', this t i m e at H a r o l d , reveals his concerns. A q u i c k l o o k at H a r o l d indicates that the ball is n o w in H a r o l d ' s court, just as his m o m e n t a r y l o o k at C a r o l i n e suggests that he needs her approval o f the transfer. M o t i v e s are never u n a m b i g u o u s in either A Thousand Acres or King Lear. Nevertheless, H a r o l d ' s investment encroaches u p o n Larry's m i n d a n d c o m p e l s h i m to m a k e the rash decision to surpass H a r o l d b y transferring his property to his three daughters, leading to tragic consequences for his family, as his conflict 62 Anna Lindhé w i t h H a r o l d is m a d e to i m p i n g e o n the d o m e s t i c sphere, leading to marital breaches a n d sibling rivalry. In A Thousand Acres, L a r r y C o o k , the ' k i n g ' o f his ' u n m o r t g a g e d ' t h o u s a n d acres o f well-cultivated l a n d , is the e p i t o m e o f p o w e r in the f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y . Larry is n o t j u s t a n y farmer; h e is also a p u b l i c figure. A s o n e o f the m o s t p r o s p e r o u s farmers, h e is o n e o f the m o s t revered m e n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . After all, he is, as G i n n y remarks, ' o n e o f the b i g g e s t l a n d o w n e r s ' in Z e b u l o n C o u n t y ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 4 1 ) . A s k i n g , L e a r is also a p u b l i c figure. In a d d i t i o n , as k i n g , h e is also the b i g g e s t l a n d o w n e r in t h e country. I n J a c o b e a n E n g l a n d , t h e political t h e o r y o f k i n g s h i p w a s d e f i n e d 'as the p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m a n d o f t h e subjects w h o i n h a b i t it' ( B r a y t o n 2 0 0 3 : 4 0 2 ) . Lear's status as k i n g is c o n t i n g e n t o n the l a n d , 'the c h a m p a i g n s riched' a n d the 'wide-skirted m e a d s ' as his property, as well as o n the o b e d i e n c e o f t h o s e w h o i n h a b i t this l a n d , i n c l u d i n g his family ( 1 . 1 . 6 4 - 6 5 ) . D e s p i t e his d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t s to retain 'the n a m e ' a n d 'all t h ' a d d i t i o n to a k i n g ' ; l o s i n g p o s s e s s i o n o f the k i n g d o m m e a n s l o s i n g his identity as k i n g ( 1 . 1 . 1 3 7 ) . T h e experience o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s - the loss o f c o n t r o l over his subjects a n d his d a u g h t e r s - that c o m e s w i t h the loss o f p r o p e r t y is thus destructive to the f a m i l y as well. L e a r ' s role as a father is affected a n d directed b y his k i n g s h i p a n d the anxieties that c o m e w i t h this p u b l i c role, or, p e r h a p s even m o r e , the anxieties that d e v e l o p f r o m t h e l a c k o f this role. It is L e a r ' s political d e c i s i o n to d i v i d e the k i n g d o m that i m p i n g e s u p o n t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e a n d leads to marital breaches between G o n e r i l a n d A l b a n y a n d t h e d e a d l y a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n . It is in s u c h a c o n t e x t that G o n e r i l h a s to b e regarded. In King Lear, Goneril's mellifluous speech guides the r e a d e r ' s / a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e to her, as well as Lear's. T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t she e m b r a c e s Lear's d e c i s i o n . C r i t i c s o f King Lear often perceive her a t t i t u d e to the division a n d her flattering s p e e c h as signs o f her h u n g e r for p o w e r . In contrast, the reader o f A Thousand Acres realizes that G i n n y ' s a t t i t u d e to t h e transfer is an a m b i v a l e n t o n e : 'In spite o f that inner clang, I t r i e d to s o u n d agreeable' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 ) . D e s p i t e the inner c a u t i o n , G i n n y s e e m s to s u p p o r t her father's p r o p o s a l u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y . C o g n i z a n t o f her inner t h o u g h t s , however, the reader u n d e r s t a n d s that o t h e r factors are b e h i n d G i n n y ' s affirmative reply to Larry's d e c i s i o n . L a r r y has b e e n a s s i g n e d a n a l m o s t G o d - l i k e p r e s e n c e . I n G i n n y ' s c h i l d h o o d , her father is the p r o v i d e r o f a centre, the p r o t e c t o r a g a i n s t all 63 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations evil o u t s i d e . Reflections o f his G o d - l i k e status in G i n n y ' s eyes p e r m e a t e her m e m o r i e s o f Larry: When I wenr to first grade and the other children said that their fathets were farmers, I simply didn'r believe rhem. I agreed in order to be polite, but in my heart I knew that those men were imposters, as farmers and as fathers, too. In my youthful estimation, Laurence C o o k defined both categories. T o really believe that others even existed in either category was to break the First Commandment. (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 19) T h e allusion to the First C o m m a n d m e n t indicates Larry's standing, in the eyes o f G i n n y , as a divine authority. T h i s i m a g e o f the father keeps the daughters s u b d u e d , which in its turn invests h i m with additional privilege in t h e c o m m u n i t y . A w e o f h i m is instilled in the daughters b y his preservation as mysterious, transcendence. omniscient, and majestic almost Larry is used to b e i n g c o n f i r m e d point of a n d revered b y to the his daughters as well as b y the other farmers, even b y the minister in the C h u r c h : 'our minister, gave his yearly s e r m o n a b o u t all worldly riches having their source in the tilling o f the soil, which was guaranteed to appeal b o t h to farmers' self-regard a n d to their sense o f injury at the h a n d s o f the rest o f society' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 5 ) . T h r o u g h G i n n y ' s descriptions, the reader is m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d that Larry's status in the c o m m u n i t y a n d in the family has always been m a r k e d by authority a n d power. W i t h o u t influence a n d p o w e r over other people's m i n d s a n d behaviour, Larry loses control. D u r i n g the transfer-scene, it b e c o m e s clear that G i n n y does n o t act o u t o f selfish reasons b u t o u t o f d r e a d for her father, a sense o f d a u g h t e r l y d u t y , as well as a c c o r d i n g to different d e m a n d s o f loyalty. G i n n y s u p p o r t s Larry's d e c i s i o n n o t o n l y b e c a u s e she feels c o m p e l l e d to b a c k u p her father, b u t also b e c a u s e T y , her h u s b a n d , w a n t s her to. S h e thinks T y deserves to 'realize s o m e o f his wishes' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 2 5 ) . I n d e e d , with h i m g a z i n g at her, G i n n y realizes w h a t s h e has to d o : ' T y was l o o k i n g at m e , a n d I c o u l d see in his gaze a veiled tightly c o n t a i n e d delight - h e h a d b e e n w a n t i n g to increase the h o g o p e r a t i o n for years' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 19). T h e g a z e , a s s o c i a t e d with power, runs t h r o u g h A Thousand Acres. The reader is thus invited t o a t t e n d to the w a y p e o p l e l o o k at each other a n d u n d e r s t a n d a n d read the silences, for e x a m p l e A l b a n y ' s in King Lear, and as r e t u r n i n g readers o f King Lear w e h a v e b e c o m e alerted to the fact that there c o u l d b e m o r e than o n e reason for G o n e r i l ' s willingness to take over a third o f the k i n g d o m . A Thousand 64 Acres helps us realize that G o n e r i l is Anna Lindhé a c t i n g in relation to other p e o p l e besides her father; she is n o t o n l y a d a u g h t e r b u t also a wife. T h e w a y s in w h i c h m o n e y , the transfer o f p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e u n e v e n d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r c a n affect interpersonal relationships is illustrated symbolically in A Thousand Acres the m o n o p o l y - g a m e that G i n n y , T y , R o s e , Pete, a n d J e s s gather a r o u n d in the evenings. through The m o n o p o l y g a m e — emblematic o f capitalism and greed — foments not only rivalry between siblings a n d between s p o u s e s , b u t also between Pete ( C o r n w a l l ) a n d J e s s ( E d m u n d ) . P e t e a n d J e s s are a b s o l u t e o p p o n e n t s in t h e g a m e , a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e it creates presses in u p o n their private relationship, p r o m p t i n g a n d s t i m u l a t i n g rivalry between t h e t w o . T r y i n g to surpass each o t h e r in t h e c o m p a n y o f the others, they relate their respective a d v e n t u r o u s experiences, o n e tale w o r s e t h a n t h e other. T h i s is t h u s illustrative o f the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e large w o r l d a n d the small o n e w h e n power, p r o p e r t y , a n d inheritance enter the d o m e s t i c w o r l d . P l a y i n g m o n o p o l y , they all c o m p e t e for the s a m e thing: m o r e p r o p e r t y , more money, a n d more power. The between game also married demonstrates couples when symbolically money and what property could eat happen into their relationship. W h e n R o s e w a n t s G i n n y to sell p r o p e r t y to her, her h u s b a n d P e t e exclaims: ' D o n ' t sell t h e m to her' with 'the e d g e in his v o i c e ' , as G i n n y notices, ' n o t q u i t e playful' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 8 ) . Still, R o s e a n d P e t e are m o r e s u p p o r t i v e o f each other t h a n G i n n y a n d T y . Pete's a n d R o s e ' s feelings a b o u t the f a r m a n d their a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s Larry's q u i r k s are m u c h t h e s a m e . In r e s p o n s e to Larry's spendthrift w a y s a n d irrational b e h a v i o u r , J e s s backs u p his wife: 'Pete w a s a n g r y t o o , a n d h e e n c o u r a g e d [Rose] to dwell o n it [...] R o s e said, " A T h o u s a n d dollars! R i g h t o u t the w i n d o w ' " (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 87). G i n n y ' s a n d T y ' s differing reactions to the transfer a n d towards Larry's increasing m a d n e s s separate t h e m f r o m each other a n d alienate t h e m . T h e property-transfer enters i n t o the m o s t steadfast r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d the strongest loyalties, the loyalties t h a t s h o u l d exist between h u s b a n d a n d wife. After t h e transfer, the relationship between G i n n y a n d T y enters a n e w p h a s e , as their m a r r i a g e has been t r a n s f o r m e d to i n c o r p o r a t e a n e w sense o f p a r t n e r s h i p . T h r o u g h their share o f the f a r m - w h i c h m e a n s a s h a r i n g o f wealth a n d l a n d - b o t h o f t h e m a c q u i r e m o r e p o w e r , a n d t h e y h a v e different w a y s o f u s i n g that p o w e r . T y ' s interest is o n l y in fulfilling his d r e a m s a b o u t the farm: to increase the h o g - o p e r a t i o n . A s d a u g h t e r s , however, G i n n y a n d R o s e h a v e never b e e n i n c l u d e d in the ' g r a n d history' 65 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations o f the farm ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 7 1 ) T h e transfer thus entails a c h a n g e o f p o s i t i o n a n d perspective f r o m o u t s i d e r to insider, f r o m b e i n g an observer o f history ( m e n ' s history) to b e i n g p a r t o f that history (however critically). B y G i n n y ' s e n t r a n c e into this previously closed s p a c e — a space formerly c o n t r o l l e d b y L a r r y - p o w e r relations inevitably c h a n g e . B e i n g b r o u g h t u p in a s y s t e m that c o n n e c t s material wealth w i t h p o w e r a n d authority, G i n n y uses her n e w p o s i t i o n to challenge T y b u t also to q u e s t i o n Larry's increasing u n p r e d i c t a b l e behaviour. After a car a c c i d e n t , w h e n Larry is the m o s t a s h a m e d o f himself, she avails herself o f the o p p o r t u n i t y to a s s u m e a position o f power: It was exhilarating, talking to my farher as if he were my child, more than exhilarating to see him as my child. This laying down the law was a marvellous way of ralking. It created a whole orderly future within me, a vita of manageable days clicking past, myself in the foreground, large and purposeful. (Smiley 1991: 159) S c h i f f p o i n t s o u t that this scene ' m a r k s a b r e a k t h r o u g h ' for G i n n y a n d t h a t s h e c o m e s to resemble G o n e r i l at this stage (Schiff 1 9 9 8 : 3 7 5 ) . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , w e are m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d the m e c h a n i s m b e h i n d , a n d the a l l u r e m e n t of, p o w e r . G i n n y is a w o m a n w h o s e p o w e r over her life a n d even over her o w n b o d y is severely i m p a i r e d , b y her father's sexual a b u s e , b y T y ' s reluctance to let her b e c o m e p r e g n a n t , a n d b y the farmers' p o i s o n i n g o f the well-water, which o b s t r u c t s her r e p r o d u c t i v e capacities. It is the sudden change from a position o f powerlessness to one of c o m p a r a t i v e p o w e r , a n d the effects this has o n a p e r s o n , that are i m p o r t a n t t o b r i n g to o u r r e a d i n g o f G o n e r i l . A Thousand Acres does n o t a s k w h e t h e r certain actions or b e h a v i o u r are m o r a l l y reprehensible or not. T h e novel offers a c o n t e x t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y a n d h o w a person can b e c o m e blinded by power. T h e b e d a n d b e d - c h a m b e r represent c o n j u g a l duties a n d loyalties, b u t it is precisely here that the 'small' battle between G i n n y a n d T y is played o u t . T h e h o m e or the b e d - r o o m is n o longer a retreat f r o m the o u t e r w o r l d or f r o m external a n d p u b l i c conflicts. A s larger q u e s t i o n s - a b o u t f a r m m a n a g e m e n t , b u t also a b o u t h o w to h a n d l e Larry's peculiarities a n d g r o w i n g m a d n e s s — invade the d o m e s t i c sphere, the t e n s i o n between G i n n y a n d T y is seen to g r o w . T h e d i s a g r e e m e n t over h o w to h a n d l e L a r r y is significant: 'At b e d t i m e , T y said, " Y o u w o m e n d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y o u r father at all" [—] I said, " T h e n w e have s o m e t h i n g in c o m m o n with h i m , b e c a u s e he clearly d o e s n ' t u n d e r s t a n d h i m s e l f . " H e understands h i m s e l f fine. H e ' s j u s t secretive, is all" " A n d w h a t are his secrets?'" ( S m i l e y 66 Anna Lindhé 1 9 9 1 : 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 ) . G i n n y h a s never o p e n l y d i s a g r e e d w i t h T y before, b u t t h e c h a n g e d s i t u a t i o n creates n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d it b e c o m e s clear that t h e transfer o f t h e f a r m p u t s loyalties a n d duties b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d w i f e to t h e test. T h e different g o a l s a n d experiences o f G i n n y a n d T y , a n d t h e misunderstandings b e t w e e n t h e m , is s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e reader o f A Thousand Acres b r i n g s t o t h e m a r r i a g e relation b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d A l b a n y in King Lear. H a v i n g b e e n alerted t o t h e w a y s in w h i c h breaches in a m a r i t a l relation m a y arise, s u c h a reader senses h o w fragile t w o s p o u s e s ' relationship is w h e n e x p o s e d t o external influence a n d conflicts. I n King Lear, Lear's love test b e c o m e s a test o f loyalty a n d d u t y n o t o n l y between father a n d d a u g h t e r s , b u t also, in extension, b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d wife. T h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d A l b a n y is seen to b e set in m o t i o n w h e n G o n e r i l h a s h a d e n o u g h o f Lear's disorderly k n i g h t s . W h e n politics enter t h e d o m e s t i c s p h e r e , a rift o p e n s between h u s b a n d a n d wife. Private issues e n t e r i n g t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e c a u s e a b r e a k d o w n o f t h e k i n g d o m , as w e see in a c t o n e scene o n e ; p u b l i c issues i n v a d i n g t h e d o m e s t i c sphere s e e m t o e n d in marital fissures. G o n e r i l ' s reaction to Lear's r o w d y e n t o u r a g e is n o t s u p p o r t e d b y A l b a n y , w h o a d v o c a t e s p a t i e n c e . W h e n L e a r curses G o n e r i l as his d a u g h t e r , s h e b e g s A l b a n y n o t t o : afflict yourself ro know more of it, But let his disposition have that scope As dotage gives it. (1.4.283-285)" W h e n G o n e r i l asks A l b a n y for s u p p o r t o n a political level b y t u r n i n g to his a u t h o r i t y in c o n n e c t i o n with Lear's threat t o ' r e s u m e t h e s h a p e ' as k i n g , A l b a n y reveals his a m b i v a l e n c e t o G o n e r i l before s h e actually acts a g a i n s t Lear. It is clear that G o n e r i l d o e s n o t h a v e her h u s b a n d ' s s u p p o r t : I cannot be so partial, Goneril, T o the great love I bear you. (1.4.304-305) D o e s A l b a n y let G o n e r i l d o w n b y n o t p r o v i n g his loyalty t o her? A s her h u s b a n d , h e owes her certain duties. G o n e r i l ' s '[a] fool u s u r p s m y b e d ' 4 The edition used is The Arden Shakespeare, Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1997. edited by R.A. Foakes. Surrey: Thomas 67 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations ( 4 . 2 . 2 8 ) takes o n m o r e t h a n sexual c o n n o t a t i o n s , r e m i n d i n g us o f other c o n j u g a l duties - b u t A l b a n y refuses to c h o o s e between L e a r a n d G o n e r i l . A l b a n y ' s loyalties are not, p a c e P a u l W . K h a n , ' d i v i d e d between d a u g h t e r a n d father' ( K h a n 2 0 0 0 : 4 2 ) , b u t between wife a n d king. T y proves his disloyalty to his wife o n several o c c a s i o n s . D u r i n g the s t o r m - s c e n e in w h i c h Larry rages a n d curses G i n n y , T y stands literally ' b e h i n d [Larry]' ' u n m o v i n g , h a n d s in p o c k e t s ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 ) . T y ' s solidarity with Larry prevents h i m f r o m c o m i n g to G i n n y ' s a i d at the h e i g h t o f the family crisis. T y takes G i n n y ' s n e w a n d m o r e challenging a p p r o a c h to L a r r y as a n a t t a c k o n himself, as it also u n d e r m i n e s his o w n s t a t u s a n d p o w e r : ' G i n n y , y o u a n d R o s e are g o i n g a b o u t this all w r o n g ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 5 3 ) . It is in T y ' s interest to l o o k u p to a n d retain the reverence for authorities like Larry, to preserve status quo in o r d e r to preserve his o w n status a n d p o w e r in the eyes o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . A r e A l b a n y ' s m o t i v e s for s u p p o r t i n g Lear a n d b e i n g disloyal to his wife solely e m o t i o n a l or are they p e r h a p s political? It s e e m s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o a r g u e for the former since s u c h b o n d s d o n o t s e e m to exist between the t w o in King Lear. Is it p o s s i b l e for A l b a n y to s t a n d o u t s i d e the social Acres hints at the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o t b e i n g i m p l i c a t e d in society's c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , a n d p o i n t s to w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n the family is c o m p e l l e d to o p e r a t e in a n e w c o n t e x t a n d a c c o r d i n g to different n o t i o n s o f loyalty. processes o f society? A Thousand T h e relationship between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n is another d i m e n s i o n in the Shakespearean play that acquires fresh p o i g n a n c y w h e n the reader returns to King Lear after reading A Thousand Acres. In A Thousand Acres, it is n o t only G i n n y ' s role as a wife that is f o r e g r o u n d e d b u t perhaps even m o r e her role as a sister. Psychoanalysts view sibling rivalry as b e g i n n i n g in infancy a n d b e c o m i n g a n integral part o f siblings' interrelations as they g r o w u p . S m i l e y alerts the reader to h o w sibling rivalry between the daughters is created f r o m a very early age, h o w it is nourished a n d fuelled, a n d preserved t h r o u g h an inherent system o f favouritism. T h e father in A Thousand Acres creates a n d then consolidates the differences between the daughters already in their c h i l d h o o d . T h e y o u n g e s t daughter, C a r o l i n e , is singled o u t as Larry's favourite a n d this is a sore subject for G i n n y . H e r answer to J e s s ' q u e s t i o n as to w h o is Larry's favourite child is revealing: '"It's always been C a r o l i n e , I ' m sure'". T h e penetrating question causes G i n n y to wince a n d s h y away from the subject: 'I smiled the way y o u d o w h e n y o u w a n t s o m e o n e to stop p r o b i n g a subject, b u t y o u d o n ' t w a n t h i m to k n o w that. I spoke 68 idly: "Who's Harold's favourite?'" (Smiley 1991: 134). Early Anna Lindhé experiences o f favouritism help establishing C a r o l i n e as different from G i n n y a n d R o s e . T h e father's favouring o f t h e y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r has given rise to (seemingly) relendess solidarity a n d loyalty between G i n n y a n d R o s e . R o s e has been a n integral part o f G i n n y ' s life for as l o n g as she can r e m e m b e r : ' n o d a y o f m y r e m e m b e r e d life w a s w i t h o u t R o s e ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 5 ) . G i n n y thus establishes herself a n d R o s e in an e c o n o m y o f sameness a n d C a r o l i n e as different f r o m t h e m . S m i l e y lets the reader notice R o s e ' s a n d G i n n y ' s special relationship quite early, as o n e w h i c h is in m a r k e d contrast to all other relations: ' C o m p a r e d t o o u r sisterhood, every other relationship w a s m a r k e d b y s o m e sort o f absence — before C a r o l i n e , after o u r mother, before o u r h u s b a n d s , pregnancies, her children, before a n d after a n d apart f r o m friends a n d n e i g h b o u r s ' (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) . In A Thousand Acres, C a r o l i n e h a s h a d m o r e f r e e d o m t h a n G i n n y a n d R o s e ever h a d . A s s u b s t i t u t e m o t h e r s for C a r o l i n e , R o s e a n d G i n n y s u p p o r t C a r o l i n e in her every e n d e a v o u r a n d g u a r a n t e e that s h e receives a g o o d e d u c a t i o n . T h e y p a v e t h e w a y for her successful a n d i n d e p e n d e n t life. R o s e p o i n t s o u t that C a r o l i n e ' d o e s n ' t h a v e to b e careful. S h e ' s g o t a n i n c o m e . B e i n g his d a u g h t e r is all pretty abstract for her, a n d I ' m sure s h e w a n t s t o k e e p it that way. [—] S h e always d o e s w h a t s h e h a s t o d o ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 6 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g to M a r i n a Leslie, t h e incest is 'offering a c o n t e x t for [Larry's] very different t r e a t m e n t o f t h e elder d a u g h t e r s a n d t h e favourite y o u n g e s t child' (Leslie 1 9 9 8 : 3 6 ) . C a r o l i n e , presumably s a v e d f r o m Larry's sexual a b u s e t h a n k s t o G i n n y ' s a n d R o s e ' s p r o t e c t i o n , d o e s n o t r e m i n d L a r r y o f his crimes. F a v o u r i t i s m , o n a m i c r o c o s m i c level, d e v e l o p s b e t w e e n t h e siblings; as a result, G i n n y a n d R o s e h a v e t o vie for a t t e n t i o n a n d love in a w a y C a r o l i n e never h a d t o d o , a n d this forces t h e t w o elder sisters into a s y s t e m o f c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e incest finds n o literal c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in King Lear. 5 A Thousand Acres, however, a d d s d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e destructive c o n s e q u e n c e s o f favouritism for t h e family in King Lear. F a v o u r i t i s m is seen to b e the very f o u n d a t i o n for m a n y familial relationships in A Thousand Acres. Larry has always preferred T y to Pete w h o is 'never o n the right side o f D a d d y ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 3 2 ) . I n King Lear, A l b a n y has always been ' m o r e affected' t h a n t h e d u k e o f C o r n w a l l ( 1 . 1 . 1 ) . M o r e o v e r , L o r e n , w h o s t a n d s o u t as a 'nice g u y ' , m e e t s t h e news o f his brother J e s s ' h o m e - c o m i n g with a t o u c h o f bitterness, e v o k i n g biblical resonances: 'I notice h e waited till w e b u s t e d o u r b u t t s finishing u p p l a n t i n g before staging his resurrection' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 6 ) . 5 Critics have, however, exposed Lear's figurative incestuous desire for Cordelia. 69 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations I n the Gloucester s u b p l o t in King Lear favouritism, b o t h o n a socio-political (legitimacy) a n d o n a personal level, sets the tragedy in m o t i o n . Gloucester favours E d g a r , or at least the systems o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e a n d legitimacy favour E d g a r . E d m u n d thus regards his brother E d g a r as a rival for p o w e r a n d property: 'Legitimate E d g a r , I m u s t have your land' ( 1 . 2 . 1 6 ) . A s m a n y critics are well aware a n d A Thousand Acres r e m i n d s the reader, the rivalry between the sisters in S h a k e s p e a r e ' s play is noticeable already f r o m act o n e scene o n e . L e a r sets the e x a m p l e for h o w inheritance is to be allocated b y d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e rights o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e . G o n e r i l is t h e eldest o f the sisters, a n d a c c o r d i n g to the rights o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e she s h o u l d b e t h e o n e to inherit the k i n g d o m . 6 I n d e e d , K e n t a n d G l o u c e s t e r are b o t h puzzled b y the fact that c o n t r o l o f the k i n g d o m is not p u t in the h a n d s o f the D u k e o f A l b a n y , the eldest d a u g h t e r ' s h u s b a n d . D e m a n d i n g that his three daughters measure their love for him and inviting c o m p a r i s o n between their protestations, Lear u n d e r s c o r e s rivalry between t h e sisters a n d fosters j e a l o u s y between t h e m . T h e love-test i m p a i r s the loyalty between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n , as is evident in R e g a n ' s e n d e a v o u r to t o p her sister's speech a n d declaration o f love. R e g a n first states that she is m a d e o f that s a m e 'mettle' as her sister, b u t then g o e s o n to say that G o n e r i l c o m e s ' t o o short' in her expression o f love for Lear. W h e r e a s G o n e r i l stays within a p a r a d i g m characterized b y ' d u e ' d i s t a n c e between father and important daughter, Regan ramifications disrupts this convention, o n the relationship between and that the two has sisters. R e g a n ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n o f a d e e p e r a n d m o r e t h o r o u g h love t h a n G o n e r i l ' s c o m e s across as an a t t e m p t to u n d e r m i n e G o n e r i l ' s privileges as the firstb o r n . R e g a n has h e n c e o v e r s t e p p e d her 'rights' b o t h o n a political a n d o n a personal level. R e g a n ' s speech m a k e s it m o r e difficult for G o n e r i l to assert her authority as the elder sibling. T h i s upsets the established p o w e r balance between the two sisters. Hence, an already existent schism materializes between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n d u r i n g their speeches o f love at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f act o n e scene o n e , w h i c h w e are m a d e aware o f t h r o u g h S m i l e y ' s w a y o f establishing vital differences b e t w e e n t h e sisters and e x p l a i n i n g h o w a n d w h y rivalry emerges. 6 In Shakespeare's Festive Tragedy: The Ritual Foundation of Genre. London and New York: Routledge, 1995, Naomi Conn Liebler writes that 'Lear violates his royal obligation to protect the realm, and also the custom of primogeniture in promising the "third more opulent" portion of the land to his youngest, not his eldest, daughter' (199). 70 Anna Lindhé M u t u a l trust is already s u b v e r t e d as a result o f L e a r ' s favouritism, a n d m u t u a l d i s t r u s t will b e reinforced b y L e a r ' s efforts t o trigger a d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o sisters. Lear's threat t o leave G o n e r i l ' s a b o d e to g o t o live w i t h R e g a n further u n d e r m i n e s the loyalty between t h e sisters. T a k i n g u p t h e a b o d e w i t h R e g a n w o u l d b e a threat t o G o n e r i l , n o t o n l y political: Lear. Degenerate bastard, I'll not trouble thee: Yet have I left a daughter. Goneril: You strike my people, and your disordered rabble Make servants o f their betters. (1.4. 2 4 5 - 4 8 ) 7 It is p e r h a p s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g that critics h a v e a r g u e d that after t h e b a n i s h m e n t o f C o r d e l i a a n d K e n t , t h e sisters are seen t o p l o t t o g e t h e r a g a i n s t their father. 8 T h i s is, however, G o n e r i l ' s w a y o f asserting her a u t h o r i t y over R e g a n . G o n e r i l is trying to recover her p o w e r over her sister a n d find o u t w h e r e R e g a n really stands. D i s c u s s i n g this s c e n e in relation t o s i b l i n g rivalry c o u l d also explain w h y the sisters never actually i m p l e m e n t their p l a n 'i'the heat'. C r i t i c s h a v e f o u n d it p u z z l i n g that n o t h i n g c o m e s o f their m e e t i n g . Clearly, t h e n , t h e relationship b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n is o n e o f t h e aspects o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s t r a g e d y that take o n n e w m e a n i n g w h e n t h e reader returns to King Lear after a r e a d i n g oiA Thousand Acres. T h e c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d w e r e seen t o m o t i v a t e Larry's d e c i s i o n to h a n d over his f a r m t o his d a u g h t e r s , a n d this m a k e - u p o f s o c i e t y influences t h e relationship b e t w e e n G i n n y a n d R o s e . T h e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n farmers a n d t h e r e p e a t e d c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n Larry's f a r m a n d other a d j a c e n t f a r m s create a s y s t e m o f rivalry o n a larger scale w i t h selfishness, g r e e d , rights o f p o s s e s s i o n , a n d desire t o o w n as t h e 7 In 'The Image of the Family in King Lear. In On King Lear, edited by Lawrence Danson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981, Thomas McFarland has pointed out that in this scene Lear 'manipula[tes][...] the dynamics of family favoritism' (97). 8 In James A. SchifPs 'Contemporary Retellings: A Thousand Acres as the Latest Lear'. Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction 39, no. 4 (1998): 367-81, we read the following: '[Goneril] responds to her father's gift of land not with delight or gratitude, but with malice and paranoia, remarking to Regan that they must conspire together to "do something" to Lear so as to disempower him in his increasing madness' (7). But Goneril and Regan are not trying to conspire. They are anxious about their father's banishment of Kent and Cordelia, understandably enough, and Goneril wants to find out which side Regan is on as well as assert her power. 71 Interpersonal Complications and Interrextual Relations o u t c o m e . A s a child, G i n n y w a s ' i n d o c t r i n a t e d ' w i t h s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d as the 'right o r d e r o f things': I recognized the justice o f Harold Clark's opinion that the Ericson land was on his side of the road, but even so, I thought it should be us. For one thing, Dinah Ericson's bedroom had a window seat in the closet that I coveted. For anorher, I thought it appropriate and desirable that the great circle of the flar earrh spreading out from the T intersecrion of County Road 686 and Cabot Street Road be ours. (Smiley 1991:4) T h i s system o f rivalry is h e n c e established in t h e m i n d s o f G i n n y a n d R o s e very early o n , a n d it is s t i m u l a t e d t h r o u g h o u t their a d u l t life. F r o m early childhood, they h a v e been u s e d to c o m p e t i n g for t h e s a m e object, influenced b y t h e c o m p e t i t i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f society. A n y external e l e m e n t that c o m e s into G i n n y ' s a n d R o s e ' s w o r l d h e n c e feeds the fire a n d sustains t h e rivalry. G i n n y sees R o s e as a rival for R o s e ' s o w n children. O w i n g to nitrates (used b y t h e farmer t o fertilize the l a n d ) , that p o i s o n e d t h e well-water, G i n n y c a n n o t b e c o m e p r e g n a n t , a n d t h e sight o f R o s e a n d her t w o d a u g h t e r s affects her 'like p o i s o n ' . A g a i n , rivalry is p r o m p t e d a n d G i n n y ' s desire to o w n t h e children takes over: 'they were nearly m y o w n d a u g h t e r s ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) . G i n n y tries to c o n v i n c e t h e reader that t h e j e a l o u s y s h e o n c e felt t o w a r d s R o s e is set a s i d e : 'the sight o f t h o s e t w o b a b i e s , w h o m I h a d loved a n d cared for with real interest a n d satisfaction, affected m e like p o i s o n [...] I w a s s o j e a l o u s , a n d s o freshly j e a l o u s every t i m e I saw t h e m , that I c o u l d h a r d l y s p e a k ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 8 ) . A rhetoric o f rivalry p e r m e a t e s G i n n y ' s w a y o f s p e a k i n g in her efforts to c o n v i n c e herself that she h a s g o t over her jealousy. T h e rivalry over J e s s s h o u l d thus b e discussed with reference t o c o m p e t i t i o n in t h e larger world. E v e n if J e s s triggers the 'outbreak o f rivalry' between G i n n y a n d R o s e ; 9 it is t h e transfer o f p r o p e r t y exposes ( a n d activates) t h e tacit a n d already existing rivalry that between siblings in b o t h A Thousand Acres a n d King Lear. W h e n J e s s in A Thousand Acres c o m e s into t h e p i c t u r e there is thus m o r e at stake t h a n merely sexual jealousy. T h e y are u n c o n s c i o u s l y c o m p e t i n g for t h e s a m e object. H a n d s o m e , charismatic, a n d attractive, G i n n y a n d R o s e n o t i c e J e s s at t h e s a m e t i m e , b u t i m p o r t a n t l y , G i n n y also notices that R o s e h a s 5 In 'Goneril's Version: A Thousand Acres and King Lear'. South Dakota Review 33, no. 2 (1995): 105-15, Tim Keppel suggests that 'Jess is the catalyst for Ginny's awakening, both physical and psychological' (113). 72 Anna Lindhé detected him. Ginny imitates R o s e ' s desire in a typically Girardian fashion: ' R o s e n o t i c e d h i m [Jess], t o o , right w h e n I d i d ' ( S m i l e y 1 9 9 1 : 1 0 ) . R e n e G i r a r d h a s p r e s e n t e d a m o d e l b a s e d o n triangular desire that is interesting in this context. H e suggests that w e b a s e o u r desire o n a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s desire, a p e r s o n w h o m w e a d m i r e . G i n n y d o e s n o t c h o o s e the o b j e c t o f her desire herself; it is a 'third p e r s o n ' , i.e. R o s e , that 'indicates to t h e narrator t h e o b j e c t [she] will b e g i n d e s i r i n g passionately' ( G i r a r d 1 9 6 5 : 3 0 ) . H o w e v e r , J e s s d o e s a w a k e n G i n n y to sexual awareness, a n d her s u b s e q u e n t k n o w l e d g e that R o s e has a n affair w i t h h i m s e e m s n o t s o m u c h t o l e a d to sexual j e a l o u s y as foster an awareness o n G i n n y ' s p a r t t h a t s h e is in fact a different p e r s o n f r o m R o s e : M y deepesr-held habit was assuming that differences between Rose and me were just on the surface [...] that somehow we were each other's real selves [...] But after all, she wasn't me: Her body wasn't mine. (Smiley 1 9 9 1 : 332) W h e n J e s s s w a p s G i n n y for R o s e , G i n n y ' s sole p u r p o s e in life will f r o m t h e n o n w a r d s b e t o r e m o v e R o s e b y whatever m e a n s . U l t i m a t e l y it b e c o m e s an e n d in itself, q u i t e apart f r o m a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t Jess. G i n n y c a n n o t c o n t r o l t h e story a n y m o r e ; t h e desire to p o i s o n R o s e takes over. B e i n g b r o u g h t u p in a s y s t e m t h a t feeds a n d sustains c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e , they are forced into rivalry over s o m e t h i n g they t h i n k rightfully b e l o n g s to b o t h o f t h e m , n a m e l y J e s s (as p r o p e r t y ) . T h e y o n l y r e c o g n i z e the justice o f their o w n n e e d s a n d their o w n rights. T h e d e a d l y a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e t w o sisters actually m a k e s G i n n y ' s attempted p o i s o n i n g o f R o s e , to w h i c h s o m e critics h a v e o b j e c t e d , s e e m believable. T h u s S m i l e y rewrites a n d e m p h a s i z e s the d i s t i n c t i o n between G i n n y a n d R o s e , w h i c h also has a b e a r i n g o n o u r r e a d i n g o f King Lear. Many critics explain the rivalry b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n w i t h reference to sexual j e a l o u s y over E d m u n d , a l t h o u g h feminists have p r e s e n t e d a m o r e n u a n c e d p i c t u r e o f the t w o sisters. 1 0 G o n e r i l ' s a n d R e g a n ' s 'lust' for E d m u n d is n o t exclusively sexual; it is also b a s e d o n a s y s t e m o f rivalry m a d e p a l p a b l e t h r o u g h L e a r ' s love-test. It m i g h t b e E d m u n d t h a t triggers 10 In 'Horns of Dilemma: Jealousy, Gender, and Spectatorship in English Renaissance Drama', Katharine Eisaman Maus points out that '[e]ven Goneril and Regan, whose competition over a man reaches a murderous pitch, seem driven more by sibling rivalry, noticeable even in the first scene, as they strive to outdo one another in praise of their father - man by specifically sexual jealousy as the heroes experience it' (Maus 1987:564). Goneril, however, does not try to outdo Regan. 73 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations t h e rivalry b e t w e e n G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n , b u t rivalry has certainly been lurking b e n e a t h the surface all a l o n g . T h e t w o sisters h a v e to c o m p e t e for love, a t t e n t i o n , l a n d , a n d power, b e i n g forced to vie for the s a m e space, politically as well as personally - s o m e t h i n g C o r d e l i a never h a d to d o o n t h e p e r s o n a l level, a n d a r g u a b l y refuses to d o o n a political level w h e n she says ' n o t h i n g ' . W h e r e a s G i n n y d o e s not s u c c e e d in p o i s o n i n g her sister a n d actually survives herself, G o n e r i l succeeds in e x t e r m i n a t i n g b o t h herself a n d her sister. W h a t was o n c e s o i m p o r t a n t to G o n e r i l in King Lear, the battle between the k i n g d o m s o f E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e , yields to her desire to avoid experiencing, at a n y cost, her sister's alliance - sexual as well as political with E d m u n d : I had rather lose the battle than that sister Should loosen him and me. (5.1.18-19) T h e deadly rivalry between G o n e r i l a n d R e g a n is n o longer over E d m u n d . T h e c o m p e t i t i v e configurations o f the political w o r l d h a v e so deeply infringed o n the relation between the siblings that n o t h i n g stands in their w a y w h e n they w i s h to destroy each other. T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f King Lear, E d m u n d h i m s e l f is n o longer i m p o r t a n t to G o n e r i l ; it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o her that R e g a n d o e s n o t get h i m — j u s t as p o s s e s s i n g J e s s h a d c e a s e d to m a t t e r t o G i n n y in A Thousand Acres o n c e she d e c i d e d to try to kill R o s e . W h e n w e r e a d King Lear a g a i n s t A Thousand Acres, t h e play's as well as the novel's d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h relations between women, particularly the dynamics between Goneril/Ginny and R e g a n / R o s e , is f o r e g r o u n d e d . S o is the c o m p l e x i t y o f m a r r i a g e seen in the relationships b e t w e e n G o n e r i l / G i n n y a n d A l b a n y / T y . A Thousand Acres alerts the reader to other characters' influence o n G o n e r i l ' s , b u t also R e g a n ' s , b e h a v i o u r a n d actions, h e l p i n g us see h o w that influence affects t h e relationship between the sisters. T h e reader c o m e s to realize that Goneril and Regan are p a r t o f a larger n e t w o r k o f interpersonal Thousand Acres thus s h o w s the reader h o w w o m e n ' s p o s i t i o n in patriarchy is i n f o r m e d b y constraints r o o t e d in their roles as m o t h e r s , d a u g h t e r s , siblings, a n d wives. W h e n w e return to King Lear, it is w i t h a s h a r p e n e d awareness o f the c o m p l e x i t y o f family relationships. relationships. A T h e p i c t u r e o f the family as a site o f d y n a m i c interaction in King Lear is c o n s e q u e n d y intensified a n d b r o u g h t to the fore t h r o u g h the interaction 74 Anna Lindhé b e t w e e n the t w o texts. T h e novel also draws a t t e n t i o n to the t e n s i o n between the d o m e s t i c a n d the p u b l i c . T h e stress o n family relationships a n d the ways in w h i c h t h o s e relationships are seen to b e i n f o r m e d b y the c o m p e t i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f the o u t s i d e w o r l d e m p h a s i z e the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n the m i c r o c o s m i c a n d the m a c r o c o s m i c in King Lund Lear. University 75 Interpersonal Complications and Intertextual Relations References Bloom, Harold. 1994. The Western Canon: The Books and Schools of the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace. Brauner, David. 2 0 0 1 . "'Speak Again": T h e Politics o f Rewriting in A Thousand Acres'. Modern Language Review 96,3: 654-66. Brayton, Dan. 2 0 0 3 . 'Angling in the Lake of Darkness: Possession, Dispossession, and the Politics of Discovery in King Lear'. ELH. 7 0 , 2 : 3 9 9 - 4 2 6 . Conrad, Peter. 1995. To be Continued: Four Stories and Their Survival. 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