Full-Text PDF

Article
Article
An Optimised
Optimised Approach
Approach of
of Protecting
Protecting and
and Sustaining
Sustaining
An
Large Vehicle
Vehicle System
System
Large
Adil Saeed *, Zulfiqar A. Khan and Main H. Nazir
Adil Saeed *, Zulfiqar A. Khan and Main H. Nazir
Received: 5 October 2015; Accepted: 7 December 2015; Published: date
Received: 5 October 2015; Accepted: 7 December 2015; Published: 11 December 2015
Academic Editor: Muge Mukaddes Darwish
Academic Editor: Muge Mukaddes Darwish
NanoCorr, Energy & Modelling Research Group, Bournemouth University, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK;
NanoCorr, Energy & Modelling Research Group, Bournemouth University, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK;
zkhan@bournemouth.ac.uk (Z.A.K.); hnazir@bournemouth.ac.uk (M.H.N.)
zkhan@bournemouth.ac.uk (Z.A.K.); hnazir@bournemouth.ac.uk (M.H.N.)
* Correspondence: asaeed@bournemouth.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-(0)-1202-965732
* Correspondence: asaeed@bournemouth.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-(0)-1202-965732
Abstract: This article is a synopsis of our research and highlights the outcomes and its impact. It
Abstract: This article is a synopsis of our research and highlights the outcomes and its impact.
was conducted for the development of a sustainable approach to protect and sustain large vehicles
It was conducted for the development of a sustainable approach to protect and sustain large vehicles
in sheltered environment for their enhanced longevity. In this research, various modes of failures
in sheltered environment for their enhanced longevity. In this research, various modes of failures
linked directly or indirectly to the structural ageing of large vehicles were identified, measured,
linked directly or indirectly to the structural ageing of large vehicles were identified, measured,
and analysed. Based upon the research conducted, a frame-work with an objective to prolong the
and analysed. Based upon the research conducted, a frame-work with an objective to prolong the
structural longevity cost effectively and to retard structural failures has been proposed.
structural longevity cost effectively and to retard structural failures has been proposed.
Keywords: sustainable; corrosion; large vehicle; paint system
Keywords: sustainable; corrosion; large vehicle; paint system
1. Introduction
1.
Introduction
In this
to military
military tanks,
tanks, one
In
this article,
article, the
the term
term large
large vehicles
vehicles refers
refers to
one such
such example
example is
is shown
shown in
in
Figure 1,
1, and
and only
only considers
considers research
research conducted
conducted on
on such
such vehicles.
vehicles. These
Figure
These large
large vehicles
vehicles are
are complex
complex
objects with
a
objects
with aa wide
wide variety
varietyof
ofinteracting
interactingcomponents,
components,materials,
materials,designs
designsand
andare
aremanufactured
manufacturedfor
for
aspecific
specificlife
lifespan.
span.However,
However,during
duringand
andbeyond
beyondtheir
theirservice
servicelife,
life, these
these vehicles
vehicles start
start to
to endure
endure
structural
ageing,
mainly
attributed
to
materials
and
component
degradation
through
corrosion
and
structural ageing, mainly attributed to materials and component degradation through corrosion
wear.
and wear.
Figure 1. Corrosion damage in Russian T 55 IMR recovery vehicle stationed outside the shelter.
Figure 1. Corrosion damage in Russian T 55 IMR recovery vehicle stationed outside the shelter.
The Tank Museum at Bovington United Kingdom owns a considerable fleet of high-value, large
The Tank
at Bovington
United Kingdom
owns
a considerable
fleet of
high-value,
vehicles.
TheseMuseum
large vehicles
were exposed
to extreme
working
and operating
conditions
in
large
vehicles.
These
large
vehicles
were
exposed
to
extreme
working
and
operating
conditions
battlegrounds during their service life and therefore display structural degradation influenced by
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page; doi:10.3390/su71215825
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464; doi:10.3390/su71215825
www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
in battlegrounds during their service life and therefore display structural degradation influenced
by corrosion and wear. The exact location and duration of their operation is not known and the
information is not documented. Corrosion has a strong impact on these high value vehicles and
the development of a framework to protect and sustain these high value vehicles against structural
degradation is needed.
This article represents the synopsis of our wider research, which was designed to understand
the prevailing failure mechanisms, measure and monitor the identified issues, establish their
cause impact, in an effort to achieve an optimised approach to sustaining and protecting large
vehicles sustainably and cost effectively beyond their original design life [1–15]. This is the first
evidence-based research carried out in this field and is directly linked to the development of a
new sustainable sheltered facility incorporating environmental and corrosion condition monitoring
systems, to produce further research and research grants.
During the overall project, a five-fold research pattern based on the concept of identifying,
measuring, analysing, monitoring and protecting against structural defects was adopted.
First, advanced scientific means were utilised for the identification of failures, this was followed
by measurement and analysis of failure in materials and paint-systems. Secondly, a framework
to monitor the environment and minimise environmental variations (i.e., temperature and relative
humidity) was implemented. Third, an in-situ corrosion condition monitoring system has been
deployed and useful data are collected. Finally, an empirical model to help design a life expectancy
programme and to model materials and paint-system failures for the vehicles stationed in the shelters
is proposed.
The five-fold research pattern approach helped to initiate restructuring of the storage, operation
and maintenance mechanisms for large vehicles considered in our research.
In this article, some examples of the corrosion damage analysis, component failures,
environmental analysis, the initiation and development of an optimised framework for vehicles
protection and the research impact are provided. Vehicles presented in this article are stationed in
Bovington, United Kingdom.
2. Research Findings
In this research, corrosion damage, un-sustainable environmental conditions, paint system
failures and component failures were identified as major structural integrity menaces in the
large vehicles.
2.1. Vehicles’ Corrosion
Risks of failures due to corrosion are high and pose significant danger to the structural integrity
of large vehicles considered in our research. The magnitude of corrosion is different in every vehicle,
which could be the result of their operating environment in different terrains and/or the current
environmental/operating conditions. The overwhelming phenomenon of corrosion is shown in
Figures 1 and 2. Figure 1 is of a Russian T55 IMR that is stationed outside the shelter and is structurally
corroding. Figure 2 shows the severity of the corrosion problem in Togg II, a vehicle stationed inside
the shelter. The mechanism of structural degradation was dictated by various modes of corrosion
working alone and/or together. In this article, damage due to surface corrosion has been reported
briefly. Results of other forms of corrosion, i.e., stress corrosion cracking and pitting, are published
elsewhere [2,4,5].
16452
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
Figure 2. Corrosion damage to Tog II vehicle stationed inside the shelter.
Figure 2. Corrosion damage to Tog II vehicle stationed inside the shelter.
Corrosion Damage Evaluation
2.1.1. Corrosion Damage Evaluation
Surface corrosion damage was evaluated through the advanced surface analysis techniques of
Surface corrosion damage was evaluated through the advanced surface analysis techniques of
ultrasonic scanning. Corrosion surface morphology, and surface contaminants were characterised
ultrasonic scanning. Corrosion surface morphology, and surface contaminants were characterised by
by using a scanning electron microscopy and an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. In the first
using a scanning electron microscopy and an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. In the first phase
phase of the research, six vehicles the, Russian BTR-60, Centaur A27L, Sherman M4A1, Tank
of the research, six vehicles the, Russian BTR-60, Centaur A27L, Sherman M4A1, Tank Destroyer M10,
Destroyer M10, Tiger 1 and King Tiger, were considered. Results from BT-R 60 are presented here
Tiger 1 and King Tiger, were considered. Results from BT-R 60 are presented here briefly.
briefly.
Ultrasonic scanning method is a novel technique for measuring the thickness of the metal
Ultrasonic scanning method is a novel technique for measuring the thickness of the metal
non-intrusively. An ultrasonic scanning system consists of a transducer, pulser receiver, receiver,
non-intrusively. An ultrasonic scanning system consists of a transducer, pulser receiver, receiver,
transmitter and a display monitor. The system utilises sound waves within the frequency range of 0.1
transmitter and a display monitor. The system utilises sound waves within the frequency range of
to 15 MHz rather than radiation. The transducer creates sound waves that travel through the metal
0.1 to 15 MHz rather than radiation. The transducer creates sound waves that travel through the
which when these waves strike against a defect or the back wall are then reflected back. The reflected
metal which when these waves strike against a defect or the back wall are then reflected back. The
sound wave signal is converted into an electrical signal to a display device. In our research, such
reflected sound wave signal is converted into an electrical signal to a display device. In our research,
information were extrapolated to measure the remaining thickness of the metal component [16,17].
such information were extrapolated to measure the remaining thickness of the metal component
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used for micro-structural characterisation of the
[16,17].
surface and sub-surface defects. To identify surface contaminates on the selected samples, Energy
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used for micro-structural characterisation of the
Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) was performed. Both SEM and EDS are advanced and
surface and sub-surface defects. To identify surface contaminates on the selected samples, Energy
established techniques utilised for the aforementioned analysis.
Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) was performed. Both SEM and EDS are advanced and
established
techniques utilised
2.1.2. Brone-Transporter
BTR 60for the aforementioned analysis.
Brone-Transporter
BTR
60
Brone-transporter 60
(BTR-60)
was manufactured by Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod in the
former
USSR during 1960–1976.
It iswas
onemanufactured
of the most widely
used personnel
carriers.Zavod
It remained
Brone-transporter
60 (BTR-60)
by Gorkovsky
Avtomobilny
in the
in
production
till
1976
[18].
This
vehicle
was
captured
during
the
First
Gulf
War.
This
vehicle
is
former USSR during 1960–1976. It is one of the most widely used personnel carriers. It remained in
parked
outside
the
shelter
currently
and
is
exposed
to
an
uncontrolled
environment.
This
vehicle
is
production till 1976 [18]. This vehicle was captured during the First Gulf War. This vehicle is parked
severelythe
corroding;
a sampleand
of the
compartment
cover was collected
for corrosion
mapping
shown
outside
shelter currently
is exposed
to an uncontrolled
environment.
This vehicle
is severely
in
Figure
3
with
the
corresponding
ultrasonic
scan.
corroding; a sample of the compartment cover was collected for corrosion mapping shown in Figure
Corrosion
mapping results
of the
five lowest and highest remaining thicknesses’ are provided
3 with
the corresponding
ultrasonic
scan.
in Table
1. A difference
1 mm of
material
was recorded
on remaining
the samplethicknesses’
selected for are
the corrosion
Corrosion
mappingofresults
the fiveloss
lowest
and highest
provided
mapping
between
the
maximum
and
minimum
remaining
thicknesses.
A
consistent
decrease
in the
in Table 1. A difference of 1 mm material loss was recorded on the sample selected for the corrosion
component
thickness
observed.
mapping
between
thewas
maximum
and minimum remaining thicknesses. A consistent decrease in the
The
purpose
behind
measuring
component thickness was observed. material loss due to corrosion in five vehicles was to obtain
a benchmark.
Results
showed
considerable
due to corrosion
in all samples
The purpose
behind
measuring
materialmaterial
loss dueloss
to corrosion
in five vehicles
was to collected
obtain a
from the vehicles.
The benchmark
of material
the remaining
help
drawcollected
an empirical
benchmark.
Results showed
considerable
loss duethicknesses
to corrosionwill
in all
samples
from
the vehicles. The benchmark of the remaining thicknesses will help draw an empirical model to
predict the life expectancy programme for the vehicles inside the shelters under specific
environmental conditions.
16453
3
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
model to predict the life expectancy programme for the vehicles inside the shelters under specific
environmental
conditions.
Sustainability 2015,
7, page–page
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
Figure 3. BTR-60 (a) sample’s image and (b) ultrasonic scan.
Figure 3. BTR-60 (a) sample’s image and (b) ultrasonic scan.
3. BTR-60
(a)scan
sample’s
and (b) ultrasonic
Table 1.Figure
BT R-60
samples’
resultsimage
for 5 highest
and lowestscan.
thicknesses.
Difference
= 1.50
mm mm
Difference
= 1.50
Table 1. BT R-60 samples’ scan results for 5 highest and lowest thicknesses.
Russian
60 and lowest thicknesses.
Table 1. BT R-60 samples’ scan
resultsBT—R
for 5 highest
Maximum Armour Thickness: 14 mm
60 5–7 mm
MinimumRussian
ArmourBT—R
Thickness:
Maximum Armour Thickness: 14 mm
Sample’s Dimension
Minimum Armour Thickness: 5–7 mm
Length: 290 mm Width: 160 mm
Sample’s Dimension
S. No Remaining Thicknesses in mm No of Occurrences
Length: 290 mm Width: 160 mm
1
5.00
16
S. No Remaining Thicknesses in mm No of Occurrences
2
5.10
46
1
5.00
16
3
5.20
123
2
5.10
46
4
5.30
322
3
5.20
123
5
5.40
420
4
5.30
322
6
6.10
17
5
5.40
420
7
6.20
5
6
6.10
17
8
6.30
3
7
6.20
5
9
6.40
4
8
6.30
3
10
6.50
3
9
6.40
4
10
6.50
3
4
4
16454
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
2.2. The Environment
Environment has a strong influence in the initiation and propagation of corrosion in metal
structures; therefore study of the environments both inside and outside the shelters where the vehicles
are stored has been conducted to relate corrosion activity within the context. It was observed
that fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity inside the building are not viable for the
structural health of the vehicles and presents a significant challenge for the vehicles’ protection
against structural deterioration sustainably.
2.2.1. Environment inside the Shelter
Inside the building, no measures are in place to control relative humidity during the year.
However, temperature is kept between 18 ˝ C to 22 ˝ C during winter. It was observed that during
the months from December–February, the relative humidity measured as high as 100%. Analysis of
the environment inside the shelter has pinpointed endless cycles of surface wetting and drying due
to temperature and relative humidity variations.
The environmental variations in the shelter and atmospheric pollutants accumulated during
operation plays a vital part in metal corrosion. Condensation happen on metal surface when
temperature surpass 0 ˝ C, at relative humidity ě80%, this result in longer time of wetness (TOW) and
ultimately cause atmospheric corrosion. In similar environmental conditions, a degree of corrosion is
expected in the vehicles stationed inside the shelter [19–24].
2.2.2. Environmental Analysis of Bovington
Bovington is on the southwestern coast of England and is around seven miles from the English
Channel. In Bovington, for 18 days of each month, considerable precipitation, fog, and rain are
reported [25]. The relative humidity averages around 80% for most of the year, however in some
months of the winter relative humidity reaches up to 100% [26]. The average high and low
temperatures for the last 30 years (1981–2010) were 14.03 ˝ C and 8.11 ˝ C, respectively, the average
temperature fluctuations observed during 1981–2010 were between 7 ˝ C to 22 ˝ C in summers and
2 ˝ C to 12 ˝ C in winters [25,27].
Vehicles stationed outside the shelters in open environment are enduring a wide variety of
environmental conditions, such as soils, rain water, condensation, temperatures fluctuations and
relative humidity deviations. All these dynamics create an atmosphere for vehicles’ corrosion.
2.3. Paint System Failures and Surface Contaminations
The most common and effective methods of protection against corrosion is the application of
paint system on metal surfaces. However, there are conditions under which the paint system starts
to degrade, although failures in the paint system do not cause structural failures, they are, however,
linked indirectly to the promotion of component failures through corrosion. When the paint system
starts to fail, it allows the permeation of moisture to the substrate, which as a result causes corrosion,
one of the major causes of structural degradation. Paint system failure was observed in many vehicles,
as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
16455
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
Figure 4. Challenger 1 failures in surface protection.
Figure 4. Challenger 1 failures in surface protection.
Figure 4. Challenger 1 failures in surface protection.
Figure 5. Centurion-stridsvagon 104 paint system following a corrosion attack.
Figure 5. Centurion-stridsvagon 104 paint system following a corrosion attack.
Figure 5. Centurion-stridsvagon 104 paint system following a corrosion attack.
It was identified that the phenomenon of corrosion was also influenced by the presence of
It was
identified and
thatsub-surface
the phenomenon
corrosion
also influenced
presence
of
surface
contaminants
defects of
such
as slags,was
sulphide
inclusions by
andthe
corrosive
pits.
It was
identified and
thatsub-surface
the phenomenon
of
corrosion
was
also influenced
by
the
presence
of
surface
contaminants
defects
such
as
slags,
sulphide
inclusions
and
corrosive
pits.
These factors alone and/or in combination were observed to be a serious issue. Sulphur, sodium,
surfacefactors
contaminants
and sub-surface
defects
such
as slags,tosulphide
inclusions
and
corrosive
pits.
These
alone and/or
combination
observed
be a serious
issue.
Sulphur,
calcium
and chlorine
wereinidentified
on were
the vehicles’
surfaces;
these are
classified
as sodium,
surface
These
factors
alone
and/or
in
combination
were
observed
to
be
a
serious
issue.
Sulphur,
sodium,
calcium
and chlorine
identifiedcorrosion,
on the vehicles’
surfaces;
these
are classified
as surface
contaminants
and resultwere
in accelerated
even at lower
relative
humidity
[2].
calcium
and
chlorine
were
identified
on
the
vehicles’
surfaces;
these
are
classified
as surface
contaminants and result in accelerated corrosion, even at lower relative humidity [2].
contaminants and result in accelerated corrosion, even at lower relative humidity [2].
2.4. Component Failures
2.4. Component Failures
2.4. Component
Failures
Component
failure is not only the cause of vehicles’ malfunction but replacement is also a huge
Component
failure
is not of
only
the causefailures
of vehicles’
but Tiger
replacement
is also a huge
financial
burden. failure
Brief results
component
frommalfunction
King Tiger and
1 are presented
Component
is not only
the cause of vehicles’
malfunction
but replacement
is also a here;
huge
financial
burden.
Brief
results
of
component
failures
from
King
Tiger
and
Tiger
1
are
presented
here;
inadequate
component
replacement
was
also
identified
in
this
research
[1].
financial burden. Brief results of component failures from King Tiger and Tiger 1 are presented here;
inadequate component replacement was also identified in this research [1].
inadequate component replacement was also identified in this research [1].
2.4.1. King Tiger
2.4.1.
2.4.1. King
King Tiger
Tiger
Sd Kfz 182 Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf B was the official German name for King Tiger and is
Sd
Panzerkampfwagen
VI
BB was
name
King
Tiger
is
also known
as Tiger
II. King Tiger was
designed/Manufactured
by Henschel
& Son
1943–
Sd Kfz
Kfz 182
182
Panzerkampfwagen
VI Ausf
Ausf
was the
the official
official German
German
name for
for
Kingduring
Tiger and
and
is
also
known
as
Tiger
II.
King
Tiger
was
designed/Manufactured
by
Henschel
&
Son
during
1943–
1945
in NaziasGermany.
Its first
place
action was Normandy in
1944. The
King
Tiger1943–1945
was one
also known
Tiger II. King
Tiger
wasofdesigned/Manufactured
byJuly
Henschel
& Son
during
1945
inmost
Nazi
Germany.
Itsplace
first
place
of action
was the
Normandy
July
The Tiger
King
Tiger
was
of
powerful
tanks
to be
during
2nd
War;1944.
together
with was
the
Panther,
it
in the
Nazi
Germany.
Its first
ofdeployed
action
was
Normandy
inWorld
Julyin1944.
The
King
one
ofone
the
of
the
most
powerful
tanks
to
be
deployed
during
the
2nd
World
War;
together
with
the
Panther,
it
formed the lead of the German offensive in Ardennes [18,28].
formed
leadBox
of the
offensive
in Ardennes
[18,28].after almost fifty years for corrosion
Thethe
Gear
ofGerman
the King
Tiger was
disassembled
The GearasBox
of the
King 6.
Tiger
disassembled
after almost
years in
formany
corrosion
investigation,
shown
in Figure
The was
gearbox
showed various
types offifty
corrosion
of its
16456
investigation, as shown in Figure 6. The gearbox showed various types of corrosion in many of its
6
6
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
most powerful tanks to be deployed during the 2nd World War; together with the Panther, it formed
the lead of the German offensive in Ardennes [18,28].
The Gear Box of the King Tiger was disassembled after almost fifty years for corrosion
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
investigation, as shown in Figure 6. The gearbox showed various types of corrosion in many of
its components.
Although
King
Tiger
does
notoperate
operateanymore,
anymore,itit is,
is, however,
however, structurally
structurally
components.
Although
the the
King
Tiger
does
not
degrading due
due to
to corrosion.
corrosion.
degrading
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
components. Although the King Tiger does not operate anymore, it is, however, structurally
degrading due to corrosion.
Figure 6. Corrosion problem in King Tiger’s Gear Box Planet Gear.
Figure 6. Corrosion problem in King Tiger’s Gear Box Planet Gear.
2.4.2. Tiger 1
Figure 6. Corrosion problem in King Tiger’s Gear Box Planet Gear.
2.4.2. Tiger 1
Tiger 1 was designed by Henschel & Son in Nazi Germany. Panzerkampfwagen Tiger Ausf. E
Tiger
1 was1 designed by Henschel & Son in Nazi Germany. Panzerkampfwagen Tiger Ausf. E
2.4.2. Tiger
was the official German designation and it is commonly known as Tiger 1. Tiger 1 participated in the
was the official German designation and it is commonly known as Tiger 1. Tiger 1 participated in
Tiger
1 was
designed
by Henschel
Son Allied
in NaziForces.
Germany.
Panzerkampfwagen
Tiger Ausf.
E
2nd World
War
against
the former
USSR&and
This
vehicle was captured
in Tunisia.
the 2nd
World
WarGerman
against designation
the formerand
USSR
and
Allied known
Forces.asThis
vehicle
was
captured in
Tunisia.
was
the
official
it
is
commonly
Tiger
1.
Tiger
1
participated
in
the
Ostensibly, it is the last operating Tiger 1 in the World and is classified as a high value vehicle [18].
Ostensibly,
it is War
the last
operating
TigerUSSR
1 in and
the World
and is classified
aswas
a high
value in
vehicle [18].
2nd Tiger
World
against
thereplacement
former
Allied
Forces.
This
vehicle
captured
The
1 original
and
engine
pistons
were
evaluated
for failures
dueTunisia.
to wear [1].
The
Tiger 1itoriginal
replacement
pistons
evaluated
for failures
due to[18].
wear [1].
Ostensibly,
is the lastand
operating
Tiger 1 engine
in the World
andwere
is classified
as a high
value vehicle
It was identified that the original pistons, which were manufactured during 2nd World War, had
It was identified
the original
pistons, engine
whichpistons
were were
manufactured
during
2nd
The Tigerthat
1 original
and replacement
evaluated for
failures
dueWorld
to wearWar,
[1]. had
enhanced wear resistant properties. The replacement pistons were used as a substitute in the Tiger 1
It waswear
identified
that the
original pistons,
which werepistons
manufactured
during
World War,
hadTiger
enhanced
resistant
properties.
The replacement
were used
as 2nd
a substitute
in the
engine,
whichwear
failed
catastrophically
during
normalpistons
operation.
This as
failure
couldinbetheattributed
enhanced
resistant
properties. The
replacement
were used
a substitute
Tiger 1 to
1 engine,
which failed
catastrophically
during
normal operation.
This failure
could be attributed
to
inadequate
composition.
engine, material
which failed
catastrophically during normal operation. This failure could be attributed to
inadequate
material
composition.
Tiger
1 operates
occasionally;
inadequate
material
composition.when it is stationary, there is the possibility of corrosion build-up
Tiger 1 operates occasionally; when it is stationary, there is the possibility of corrosion build-up
in the engine,
an example
is shown
7. Corrosive-wear
has a detrimental
on the
Tigersuch
1 operates
occasionally;
wheninitFigure
is stationary,
there is the possibility
of corrosionimpact
build-up
in the engine, such an example is shown in Figure 7. Corrosive-wear has a detrimental impact on the
in
the
engine,
such
an
example
is
shown
in
Figure
7.
Corrosive-wear
has
a
detrimental
impact
on
the
engine performance in particular and on the Tiger 1 as a whole.
engine
performance
in particular
and
whole.
engine
performance
in particular
andon
onthe
theTiger
Tiger 11 as
as aa whole.
Figure 7. Tiger 1 corrosion build-up in the cylinder liner.
Figure 7.
7. Tiger
Tiger 11 corrosion
corrosion build-up
build-up in
in the
the cylinder
cylinder liner.
liner.
Figure
3. Research Impact
3. Research
Impact
This research has led to the initiation and 16457
development of condition monitoring and protection
framework
of large
vehicles
against
structural
is the first evidence-based
research
This
research
has led
to the
initiation
and deterioration.
developmentThis
of condition
monitoring and
protection
that
has
been
performed
in
this
field
and
is
directly
linked
to
the
identification
of
prevailing
failure
framework of large vehicles against structural deterioration. This is the first evidence-based research
mechanisms, measurement and analysis of the failures, development of a new sheltered facility
that has been performed in this field and is directly linked to the identification of prevailing failure
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
3. Research Impact
This research has led to the initiation and development of condition monitoring and protection
framework of large vehicles against structural deterioration. This is the first evidence-based research
that has been
performed
Sustainability
2015, 7,
page–page in this field and is directly linked to the identification of prevailing
failure mechanisms, measurement and analysis of the failures, development of a new sheltered
facility incorporating
humidity
temperature
control,
installationofofthe
the environmental
incorporating
relativerelative
humidity
and and
temperature
control,
installation
Building upon the
monitoring system and in-situ
in-situ corrosion
corrosion condition
condition monitoring
monitoring framework.
framework. Building
theoretical advances in the development of Condition Health Monitoring Programme CHM-PM and
its success
a wide
range
of complex
failurefailure
parameters
has attracted
increasing
interests
successininmodelling
modelling
a wide
range
of complex
parameters
has attracted
increasing
from defence,
and gas,
and aerospace
industriesindustries
[8–15]. [8–15].
interests
from oil
defence,
oil automotive
and gas, automotive
and aerospace
3.1. Environmental
Environmental Monitoring
Monitoring and
and Control
Control
3.1.
Relative humidity
humidity and
and temperature
temperaturemonitoring
monitoringsensors
sensorsare
arenow
nowinstalled
installed
shelter
at
Relative
in in
thethe
shelter
at 10
10
locations,
where
the
relative
humidity
and
temperatures
are
constantly
monitored.
In
addition
locations, where the relative humidity and temperatures are constantly monitored. In addition to
to this,
based
upon
recommendations
from
research,
a new
conservation
facility
shown
this,
based
upon
thethe
recommendations
from
thisthis
research,
a new
conservation
facility
shown
in
in
Figure
8
was
recently
built
where
temperature
and
relative
humidity
variations
are
kept
Figure 8 was recently built where temperature and relative humidity variations are kept to to
a
a minimum.
minimum.
Keeping the
the occurrences
occurrences of
of sharp
sharp rises
rises and
and falls
falls in
in relative
relative humidity
humidity to
to aa minimum,
minimum, and
and ideally
ideally
Keeping
achieving an
an optimum
optimum level
level (35%–45%),
(35%–45%), is
is an
an important
important factor
factor with
with respect
respect to
to keeping
keeping the
the vehicles
vehicles
achieving
protected.
This
can
be
achieved
through
better
ventilation,
dehumidification
and
air
conditioning.
protected. This can be achieved through better ventilation, dehumidification and air conditioning.
Optimum scale
scale of
of relative
relative humidity
humidity and
and temperature
temperature will
will help
help mitigate
mitigate corrosion,
corrosion, thus
thus achieving
achieving
Optimum
extended
life
for
large
vehicles
and
effectively
retarding
environmental
assisted
damage.
extended life for large vehicles and effectively retarding environmental assisted damage.
Figure
8. Collection
of large
that are
now
stored
controlled
environment
in a new facility.
Figure
8. Collection
of vehicles
large vehicles
that
are
now within
stored awithin
a controlled
environment
in a
new facility.
3.2. In-Situ Corrosion Condition Monitoring
3.2. In-Situ
CorrosionofCondition
Monitoring
A framework
in-situ condition
corrosion monitoring based upon micro-linear polarisation
resistors [29,30] shown in Figure 9 is developed and installed on the vehicles. This framework is able
A framework of in-situ condition corrosion monitoring based upon micro-linear polarisation
to detect materials degradation through corrosion in large vehicles in its early stages. This is one of
resistors [29,30] shown in Figure 9 is developed and installed on the vehicles. This framework is able
the novel systems to provide the opportunity to detect material degradation through corrosion in its
to detect materials degradation through corrosion in large vehicles in its early stages. This is one of
early stages cost effectively and non-intrusively. It can be defined as condition-based maintenance
the novel systems to provide the opportunity to detect material degradation through corrosion in its
(CBM), rather than scheduled-based maintenance (SBM), for corrosion mitigation before it becomes
early stages cost effectively and non-intrusively. It can be defined as condition-based maintenance
an unnecessary burden [31].
(CBM), rather than scheduled-based maintenance (SBM), for corrosion mitigation before it becomes
In the initial stage, sensors are installed on two valentine vehicles. One of the valentines is
an unnecessary burden [31].
permanently stationed inside the shelter, whereas the other operates sporadically. Data are collected
regularly in order to monitor the structural degradation of these two vehicles in real time. The data
acquired enables delivery of a critical evaluation of the structural health, which is useful in terms of
predicting corrosion failures. This framework16458
provides an opportunity to protect the vehicles
sustainably [32].
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
In the initial stage, sensors are installed on two valentine vehicles. One of the valentines is
permanently stationed inside the shelter, whereas the other operates sporadically. Data are collected
regularly in order to monitor the structural degradation of these two vehicles in real time. The data
acquired enables delivery of a critical evaluation of the structural health, which is useful in terms
of predicting corrosion failures. This framework provides an opportunity to protect the vehicles
Sustainability
7, page–page
sustainably2015,
[32].
Figure 9.
9. Three
Three electrode
electrode corrosion
corrosion sensors.
sensors.
Figure
3.3. Empirical
Empirical Modelling
Modelling of
of Paint
Paint System
System Failures
3.4.
One of
of the
the main
main reasons
reasons for
for paint
paint system
system failures
failures in
in large
large military
military vehicles
vehicles is
is edge
edge delamination
delamination
One
or the
the gradual
gradual removal of paint system from the metal surface in time. This
This phenomenon
phenomenon is
is showed
showed
or
in Figure 10a. Research
Research was
was conducted
conducted to
to develop
develop aa holistic
holistic model
model [12]
[12] for
for paint
paint system
system failure
failure
in
predictions because
edge
delamination
as shown
in Figure
An 10b.
advanced
model to understand
predictions
becauseofof
edge
delamination
as shown
in 10b.
Figure
An advanced
model to
the cathodicthe
delamination
mechanism was
developed.
model contains
system
and blocks,
inside
understand
cathodic delamination
mechanism
wasThe
developed.
The model
contains
system
and
the blocks
therethe
areblocks
three interdependent
processes; parallel
Process of
Cation Transport
blocks,
inside
there are threeparallel
interdependent
processes;
Process Modelling
of Cation
(Proc. CTM),
Process(Proc.
of Delaminated
Coating
Modelling [Proc.
DCM]
and Process
Interfacial
Transport
Modelling
CTM), Process
of Delaminated
Coating
Modelling
[Proc.ofDCM]
and
Propagation
Modelling
(Proc. IPM)
as shown(Proc.
in Figure
Theseinprocesses
represent
(a) cation
Process
of Interfacial
Propagation
Modelling
IPM) 10c.
as shown
Figure 10c.
These processes
formation (a)
(b)cation
reduction
of oxygen
and (c) mechanism
of cation
transportation.
Every
process in
represent
formation
(b) reduction
of oxygen and
(c) mechanism
of cation
transportation.
the model
is aindiscrete
algorithms
with an
ability ofwith
inter-communication.
This communication
Every
process
the model
is a discrete
algorithms
an ability of inter-communication.
This
is facilitated through
duplexthrough
channels
transmitting
r2, r3, signals
r5 andr2,
r6,r3,which
represents
communication
is facilitated
duplex
channelssignals
transmitting
r5 and
r6, whicha
discrete delamination
parameter. parameter.
The interdependency
of several parallel
processes
makes themakes
study
represents
a discrete delamination
The interdependency
of several
parallel processes
andstudy
understanding
of quantitative
agreement
among delamination
parameters
easier. The
obtained
the
and understanding
of quantitative
agreement
among delamination
parameters
easier.
The
results are
in close
with the experimental
data, its interpretation
and numerical
analyses
obtained
results
areagreement
in close agreement
with the experimental
data, its interpretation
and numerical
which have
beenhave
reported
The proposed
prediction prediction
model willmodel
be a useful
analyses
which
been recently
reported[12].
recently
[12]. The delamination
proposed delamination
will
resource
forresource
future research.
be
a useful
for future research.
Blistering is another reason why paint systems degrade in large vehicle that are in continuous
operation in severe environmental conditions. An example of blistering in the paint system of a large
vehicle is shown in Figure 11a. Research has been conducted to develop, model and predict initial
paint system failure linked to blistering [8,9,14]. Both fracture mechanics classical theory approach
and diffusion concepts have been incorporated through a generalised meso-mechanics modelling
techniques to analyse blister initiation and propagation in two distinct stages. Diffusion concept have
been deployed to represent the transport of corrosive species towards the interface of paint system
and substrate, and facture mechanics concept to show blister growth in the form of circular crack
propagation. A simple criterion is identified by using a developed interfacial toughness equation,
which however does not include blister propagation on wider scale. The model has been validated
using experimental methods showing a good qualitative agreement between the two.
The previously mentioned blistering model was further modified in order to predict paint system
failures due to unstable propagation of circular blisters in the form of worm-like patterns as a result
of the development of compression and diffusion induced stress in harsh environments, as shown in
Figure 12a. Paint system de-bonds from the substrate due to sufficiently large delamination, giving
rise to blister, which consecutively induces the driving force on crack tip at interface. The crack tip
16459
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
driving force decides the interface toughness, higher driving force account for low interface toughness
and vice versa. The predictive model shown in Figure 12b presents non-axisymmetric perturbation of
blister in to branching, which eventually results in worm-like pattern. The model was validated using
detailed experimental study on a palladium-coated steel substrate, which allows the visualisation
of delamination of paint system under the influence of both compression and diffusion of species.
The investigation suggests that non-axisymmetric instabilities would develop at the crack tip during
the propagation of blister, which eventually results in worm-like patterns, the patterns often observed
in the delamination of thin paint systems.
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
Figure
10.10.(a)(a)Process
(b) Schematic
Schematicrepresentation
representationofofpaint
paintsystem
system
Figure
Processofofactual
actualpaint
paint system
system failure.
failure. (b)
failure.(c)(c)Representation
Representation of
delamination
mechanism-modelling
methodology.
failure.
ofcathodic
cathodic
delamination
mechanism-modelling
methodology.
Blistering is another reason why paint systems degrade in large vehicle that are in continuous
operation in severe environmental conditions. An example of blistering in the paint system of a large
vehicle is shown in Figure 11a. Research has been conducted to develop, model and predict initial
16460
paint system failure linked to blistering [8,9,14]. Both fracture mechanics classical theory approach
and diffusion concepts have been incorporated through a generalised meso-mechanics modelling
techniques to analyse blister initiation and propagation in two distinct stages. Diffusion concept
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page
equation,
which however does not include blister propagation on wider scale. The model has been
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
validated using experimental methods showing a good qualitative agreement between the two.
Figure 11. (a) Blisters on steel sample; and (b) modelling methodology for blistering.
The previously mentioned blistering model was further modified in order to predict paint
system failures due to unstable propagation of circular blisters in the form of worm-like patterns as a
result of the development of compression and diffusion induced stress in harsh environments, as
shown in Figure 12a. Paint system de-bonds from the substrate due to sufficiently large
delamination, giving rise to blister, which consecutively induces the driving force on crack tip at
interface. The crack tip driving force decides the interface toughness, higher driving force account
for low interface toughness and vice versa. The predictive model shown in Figure 12b presents
non-axisymmetric perturbation of blister in to branching, which eventually results in worm-like
pattern. The model was validated using detailed experimental study on a palladium-coated steel
substrate, which allows the visualisation of delamination of paint system under the influence of both
compression and diffusion of species. The investigation suggests that non-axisymmetric instabilities
Figure 11. (a) Blisters on steel sample; and (b) modelling methodology for blistering.
Figure
(a) crack
Blisterstip
on steel
sample;
(b) modelling
for eventually
blistering. results in
would develop
at11.
the
during
the and
propagation
of methodology
blister, which
worm-like
patterns, the
patterns often
observed
in the
of thininpaint
systems.
The previously
mentioned
blistering
model
wasdelamination
further modified
order
to predict paint
system failures due to unstable propagation of circular blisters in the form of worm-like patterns as a
result of the development of compression and diffusion induced stress in harsh environments, as
shown in Figure 12a. Paint system de-bonds from the substrate due to sufficiently large
delamination, giving rise to blister, which consecutively induces the driving force on crack tip at
interface. The crack tip driving force decides the interface toughness, higher driving force account
for low interface toughness and vice versa. The predictive model shown in Figure 12b presents
non-axisymmetric perturbation of blister in to branching, which eventually results in worm-like
pattern. The model was validated using detailed experimental study on a palladium-coated steel
substrate, which allows the visualisation of delamination of paint system under the influence of both
compression and diffusion of species. The investigation suggests that non-axisymmetric instabilities
would develop at the crack tip during the propagation of blister, which eventually results in
worm-like patterns, the patterns often observed in the delamination of thin paint systems.
Figure 12.
12. (a)
Figure
(a) Sample
Sample showing
showing the
the propagation
propagation of
of blister
blister in
in to
to worm
worm like
like pattern
pattern under
under increasing
increasing
resultant
coupling
stress
(residual
stress
coupled
with
diffusion
induced
stress).
Modelling
resultant coupling stress (residual stress coupled with diffusion induced stress). (b)
(b) Modelling
methodology for
for unstable
unstable blister
blister propagation.
propagation.
methodology
3.5. Public
3.4.
Public Engagement
Engagement
Results
fromthis
this
research
aims
to extend
life of
these
high
valuethrough
vehicles
through
Results from
research
aims
to extend
the lifethe
of these
high
value
vehicles
sustainable
sustainable conservation
methods.
This that
could
thatpublic
the general
public
and future
generations
conservation
methods. This
could mean
themean
general
and future
generations
will
be able to
will
be
able
to
enjoy
British
and
other
engineering
legacies
for
a
longer
time.
enjoy British and other engineering legacies for a longer time.
Public interaction includes a large YouTube following (over one million) about the Tiger Tank
(2nd World War, German made, restored in Bovington) with concerns relating to durability and public
11
value of experiencing high value vehicles in operation.
Tiger 1 is the last working example and
demonstrated during displays at Bovington.
Figure 12. (a) Sample showing the propagation of blister in to worm like pattern under increasing
resultantResearch
coupling
(residual stress coupled with diffusion induced stress). (b) Modelling
3.5. Further
andstress
Grants
methodology for unstable blister propagation.
This project has attracted immense attention from academia and industry within the United
Kingdom
across Europe. The research also has been perceived by the general public as a high
3.5.
Public and
Engagement
quality collaborative study, which has been focusing on the protection of high value vehicles with
Resultscultural
from and
this historic
researchbiographies
aims to extend
life and
of these
value vehicles through
significant
in Greatthe
Britain
acrosshigh
the World.
sustainable
conservation
methods.
This
could
mean
that
the
general
public
and future
Large vehicles that are currently used by industries, defence and the public
sector generations
display the
will
be
able
to
enjoy
British
and
other
engineering
legacies
for
a
longer
time.
same modes of failures over a specific time. Through an understanding of this research, there
will be an opportunity to phase-out degradation problems that may not be predictable through
conventional methods.
11
16461
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
Findings from this research helped to secure further grants including £2,560,600 for new
conservation facility at Bovington, £20,000 for research into flow assisted corrosion failures, £23,000
for in-situ corrosion condition monitoring and £24,000 for corrosion health monitoring using wireless
sensor technologies.
4. Conclusions
The outcomes from this research indicate wide ranging contributions in-terms of identifying
failure mechanisms, finding solutions to the increasing problems in large vehicles, and implementing
an optimised approach of protecting and sustaining large vehicles. Although the past working
environment and operating duration of the vehicles is very complex to track, the damaged caused
due to corrosion has been recorded. Figure 1 displays the magnitude of corrosion and the possible
consequences if preventative measures are not taken.
During this research, factors linked directly or indirectly to structural failures such as
environment, component and paint-system failures were analysed. It was revealed that environments
outside and inside shelters were not sustainable for the longevity of the vehicles. Variations in
environmental parameters play a pivotal role in material degradation.
Paint-system failures were found to be linked to structural damage and a major concern for
vehicles’ durability. Vehicles are exposed to the outside environment from time to time, which may
result in the accumulation of surface contaminants. In the likelihood of an inadequate paint-system,
atmospheric corrosion could occur, even when vehicles are stationed inside the shelters.
Close proximity of Bovington to the English Channel results in rain, wind, temperature,
relative humidity variations and airborne salts contents. For vehicles parked outside the shelters,
it is important that adequate paints system is in place on the surfaces for protection against
such conditions.
The development of the framework to monitor temperature and relative humidity in shelters as
a result of this research provides an opportunity to keep the environmental variation to a minimum
when needed. Through better environmental control systems and condition monitoring techniques,
the durability and longevity of the large vehicles can be enhanced.
The research helped to identify component failures attributed to corrosion, inadequate material
composition and design.
Data obtained as a result of in-situ corrosion condition monitoring technique are important in the
context of monitoring structural reliability in real time. This is a condition-based approach rather than
a scheduled-based approach. This framework also provides the opportunity to look into materials
behaviour under certain environmental conditions.
The proposed empirical model provides a foundation for continued research within
paint-systems failures.
Through a five-fold research pattern of identifying, measuring, analysing, monitoring and
protecting large vehicles against structural failures, a framework of an optimised approach to protect
and sustain large vehicles against structural failures is initiated.
Apart from contributing to research community and museums, this research has shown its
impact on various sections of society, like the automotive industry. This research provides a model to
protect and sustain large historic vehicles as valuable assets for the current and future generations.
Acknowledgments: NanoCorr, Energy & Modelling Research Group at Bournemouth University acknowledges
in kind support provided by Advanced Technology Centre BAE systems UK, The Tank Museum at Bovington
UK and Analatom USA. The authors also acknowledge financial support through match funding by the Defence
Science and Technology Laboratory UK and Bournemouth University.
Author Contributions: Adil Saeed started the initial research in large vehicles. In this article, Adil Saeed has
contributed to research in the corrosion damage evaluation, component failures identification, paint-system
failures and environmental analysis. Main H. Nazir is currently contributing to research in paint system failures
and condition monitoring techniques. In this article, he has contributed towards research in the in-situ condition
monitoring and the development of the empirical model for paint-system failures. Zulfiqar A Khan (Associate
16462
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
Professor) has led the successful completion of a recent project in corrosion of large vehicles as lead supervisor.
He is currently leading a substantive research portfolio in corrosion, which is funded by major industrial partners
and international higher education institutions (HEIs). He has made key contributions to the ideas of scientific
approach and development of methodologies in corrosion.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Saeed, A.; Khan, A.Z.; Hadfield, M.; Davies, S. Material characterization and real-time wear evaluation of
pistons and cylinder liners of the tiger 131 military tank. Tribol. Trans. 2013, 56, 637–644. [CrossRef]
Saeed, A.; Khan, Z.; Montgomery, E. Corrosion Damage Analysis and material Characterization of Sherman
and Centaur—The Historic Military Tanks. Mater. Perform. Charact. 2013, 2, 30–44. [CrossRef]
Wilton-Smith, K.; Khan, Z.; Saeed, A.; Hadfield, M. Accelerated corrosion tests of waste-gated
turbocharger’s adjustable and fixed end links. In Proceedings to the International Conference on High
Performance and Optimum Design of Structures and Materials, Ostend, Belgium, 9–11 June 2014.
Saeed, A.; Khan, Z.; Garland, N.; Smith, R. Material characterisation to understand various modes
of corrosion failures in large military vehicles of historical importance. In Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on Computational Methods and Experiments in Materials Characterisation, Kos,
Greece, 13–15 June 2011.
Saeed, A.; Khan, Z.; Clark, M.; Nel, M.; Smith, R. Non-destructive material characterisation and material
loss evaluation in large historic military vehicles. Insight Non-Destr. Test. Cond. Monit. 2011, 53, 382–386.
[CrossRef]
Khan, A.Z.; Grover, M.; Nazir, H.M. The Implications of Wet and Dry Turning on the Surface Quality of
EN8 Steel. Trans. Eng. Technol. 2015. [CrossRef]
Khan, A.Z.; Pashaei, P.; Bajwa, S.R.; Nazir, H.M.; Camak, M. Fabrication and characterisation of
electrodeposited and magnetron sputtered thin films. Int. J. Comput. Methods Exp. Meas. 2015. in press.
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. A unified mathematical modelling and simulation for cathodic
blistering mechanism incorporating diffusion and fracture mechanics concepts. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 2015,
29, 1200–1228. [CrossRef]
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. Optimisation of interface roughness and coating thickness to maximise
coating–substrate adhesion–a failure prediction and reliability assessment modelling. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol.
2015, 29, 1415–1445. [CrossRef]
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. Modelling of metal-coating delamination incorporating variable
environmental parameters. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 2014, 29, 392–423. [CrossRef]
Nazir, H.K.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. Maximising the interfacial toughness of thin coatings and substrate
through optimisation of defined parameters. Int. J. Comput. Methods Exp. Meas. 2015. in press.
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. A holistic mathematical modelling and simulation for cathodic
delamination mechanism—A novel and an efficient approach. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 2015, 29, 2475–2513.
[CrossRef]
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Saeed, A.; Stokes, K. Modelling the Effect of Residual and Diffusion induced
Stresses on Corrosion at the Interface of Coating and Substrate. Corrosion 2015. in press. [CrossRef]
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Saeed, A.; Stokes, K. A model for cathodic blister growth in coating degradation
using mesomechanics approach. Mater. Corros. 2015. [CrossRef]
Nazir, H.M.; Khan, A.Z.; Stokes, K. The propagation and axisymmetric stability of circular, defect driven
coating delamination under the influence of compression and diffusion induced stress. Intl. J. Eng.
Fract. Mech. 2015. submitted.
Drury, C.J. Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians, 3rd ed.; Silverwing Ltd.: Swansea, UK, 2004.
Drinkwater, W.B.; Wilcox, D.P. Ultrasonic Arrays for Non-Destructive Evaluation: A Review. NDT E Int.
2006, 39, 525–541. [CrossRef]
Jackson, R. Tanks and Armoured Fighting Vehicles; Parragon: Bath, UK, 2007.
Cai, P.J.; Lyon, B.S. A mechanistic study of initial atmospheric corrosion kinetics using electrical resistance
sensors. Corros. Sci. 2005, 47, 2956–2973. [CrossRef]
Schweitzer, A.P. Fundamentals of Corrosion: Mechanisms, Causes, and Preventative Method; CRC: Boca Raton,
FL, USA, 2010.
16463
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16451–16464
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
ISO Standards. Corrosion of Metals and Alloys—Corrosivity of Atmospheres—Classification, Determination and
Estimation; International Organization for Standards: Geneve, Switzerland, 1992; p. 15.
Lyon, B.S. Corrosion of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, Shreir’s Corrosion; Tony, J.A.R., Ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, UK,
2010; pp. 1693–1736.
Landolfo, R.; Cascini, L.; Portioli, F. Modeling of metal structure corrosion damage: A state of the art report.
Sustainability 2010, 2, 2163–2175. [CrossRef]
Montgomery, L.E.; Calle, M.L.; Curran, C.J.; Kolody, R.M. Timescale correlation between marine
atmospheric exposure and accelerated corrosion testing. In Proceedings of the NAC—International
Corrosion Conference, Houston, TX, USA, 13–17 March 2011.
Wunderground. Available online: http://www.wunderground.com/weatherstation/WXDailyHistory.asp?
ID=IDORSETB5 (accessed on 21 November 2011).
Metoffice.
Available online:
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/stationdata/hurndata.txt
(accessed on 21 November 2011).
Dorsetforyou.com.
Climate data for Weymouth, England (1981–2010).
Available online:
http://webapps-wpbc.dorsetforyou.com/apps/weather/annualreport.asp (accessed on 10 January
2012).
The Tank Museum.
King Tiger–Sd Kfz 182 Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf B. Available online:
http://www.tankmuseum.org/ixbin/indexplus?_IXSS_=_IXMENU_%3d%26ALL%3dking%2btiger%26_
IXACTION_%3dsummary%26%252asform%3d%252fsearch_form (accessed on 27 July 2012).
Brown, D.; Darr, D.; Morse, J.; Laskowski, B. Real-Time Corrosion Monitoring of Aircraft Structures
with Prognostic Applications. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Prognostics and Health
Management Society, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 23–27 Septmber 2012.
Brown, D.; Darr, D.; Morse, J.; Laskowski, B. Theoretical and Experimental Evaluation of a Real-Time
Corrosion Monitoring System for Measuring Pitting in Aircraft Structures. In Proceedings of the First
European Conference of the Prognostics and Health Management Society, Dresden, Germany, 3–5 June
2012; Volume 3, pp. 1–9.
Brown, D.; Darr, D.; Morse, J.; Betti, R.; Laskowski, B. Advanced Sensing, Degradation Detection,
Diagnostic and Prognostic Capabilities for Structural Health Management. In Proceedings of the
Conference on Nondestructive Characterization for Composite Materials, Aerospace Engineering, Civil
Infrastructure and Homeland Security, San Diego, CA, USA, 26 April 2012.
Liu, H.Z.; Lee, Y.J. A Method for Development of Ecomuseums in Taiwan. Sustainability 2015, 7,
13249–13269. [CrossRef]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open
access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by
Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
16464