Learning Objectives - Aarhus Universitetsforlag

Issue 61 . October 2015
Learning
Objectives
‘If learning has to do with active
involvement in meaningful activities,
the main task of the teacher must
be to arouse curiosity that can become
subjective goals, and that hopefully
can be linked to the objectives of
the school.’
Elina Maslo
aarhus universitetsforlag
sprogforum
journal of language
and culture pedagogy
sprogforum 61 . 2015 1
Issue 61 . October 2015
bodil due
Feature article: A spoke in the wheel for
foreign languages 7
lilian rohde and birgit henriksen
sprogforum
journal of language
and culture pedagogy
Changing the National Curriculum – why and how? 8
dorte maria buhl sandahl and lene laursen
Language subjects in the Folkeskole:
Simplified common goals 9
bergthóra kristjánsdóttir
The stony road to ambitious goals for
Mother tongue teaching 10
bedriye sener
Danish as a second language, level A at
upper secondary level for young adults (HF) 11
dorte fristrup
Teaching objectives between competence
and general education– challenges for foreign
language subjects at upper secondary level 12
jette von holst-petersen
Chunks – a way to communicative competence
in German teaching 13
kristine kabel and lone krogsgaard svarstad
Teacher perspectives on goal-setting in the
subjects Danish and English 15
elina maslo
Subjective goals as a motivating force for language
and learning 16
interview with leni dam
Students’ learning – teachers’ responsibility:
Developing learner autonomy 17
stephanie kim löbl
Open pages: The effect of targeted teaching
in French 18
All articles are published in full text in Danish
sprogforum 61 . 2015 2
Foreword
Well now, Grethe, we must make a target plan for you. Grethe,
93 years old, has just arrived at a convalescent home after having
fallen and broken her hip. A professional careworker is responsible
for filling in a target plan together with the new patient. When
Grethe looks at the careworker with blank incomprehension, the
latter turns to Grethe’s son and asks him if Grethe is deaf. No, the
son answers, it’s just that she doesn’t understand what you mean by
a target plan. Everywhere in the public sector, from cradle to grave,
there seems to be a focus on targets – and a target plan is then included as part of welfare technology. In this number of Sprogforum,
Learning Objectives, we take a look at what learning objective can
signify in educational programmes.
As far back as the middle of the previous century, an educational
researcher advanced four rationales which he felt would always
apply, no matter the kind of programme involved: aims, content,
organisation and evaluation (Tyler 1949). Even today, people refer to
Tyler’s rationales concerning the four fundamental cornerstones
for education. In the reforms of educational programmes that have
taken place in recent years, one can confirm that the aims rationale
fills considerably more than it formerly did. There have probably
always existed descriptions of aims for educational programmes, but
it is a more recent phenomenon to formulate precise subgoals on the
path to general objectives, as for example can be seen in Kabel and
Svarstad’s article in this number. That curricular control documents
are historical and political in nature can be seen by the fact that
changing governments emphasise different educational initiatives.
With reference to Tyler’s rationales, one can note for example that in
the latest reform of the Folkeskole Act a shift of paradigm has taken
place from a focus on content to a focus on objectives, which are to
be understood as competence objectives. The same tendency can be
observed in Fristrup’s article on the upper secondary reform from
2005, and at the universities competence objectives for the various
programmes have been formulated now for many years.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 3
In connection with the Folkeskole reform, the Ministry of Education published “Learning-objective controlled teaching in the
Folkeskole” (2014). To demonstrate the focus on learning objectives,
one can note how objective (mål) is referred to in this publication.
There are the following finds: objectives - Common Objectives –
Simplified Common Objectives – clear objectives (and not: Clear
Objectives) – learning objectives – learning-goal-controlled – pro­
ficiency objectives – knowledge objectives – competence objectives
– learning-objective categories – stage objectives – final objectives
– objective-determined – phase objective – objective attainment –
objective fulfilment. An attempt is made to capture the complexity
of the objective concepts by the umbrella term Simplified Common
Objectives. This can be read about in Rohde and Henriksen’s as well
as Sandahl and Laursen’s articles. In this number we uncover what
the focus on objectives can entail in relation to promoting linguistic
and cultural diversity in the Folkeskole and other types of education.
It is possible to note, at any rate, that the focus on objectives is central in the Folkeskole reform of 2014. A closer analysis can cause one
to wonder, now that the focus on objectives is described in such
detail, why concepts for objectives one would expect to find there
are absent. This could be, for example, such concepts as measurable
and measurability. Could it be because the primary focus is on proficiency objectives that can be measured and weighed – by testing
and examining? The interview with Leni Dam can also lead one to
wonder about the absence of the concept that is so central to her
understanding of learning, i.e. student-controlled objectives. This
simply does not occur in the Ministry of Education published “Learning-objective controlled teaching in the Folkeskole”. Can it perhaps
be because bottom-up control of objectives and the inclusion of the
learners in the process have slipped into the background in favour
of top-down control of objectives?
Sandahl and Laursen present us with a didactic model that has
four dimensions, intended for all subjects at school. One of the learning objectives for the language subjects is cultural understanding
(formulated in various ways: cultural meetings, intercultural understanding, intercultural contact, intercultural competence). How can
one organise teaching that aims at achieving these objectives and
at the same time strengthens oral and written communication?
The paths to achieving this are, of course, many (see, for example,
Gregersen 2015), and here we will give just one example from English (class 8 or 9) where the emphasis is on developing the students’
sprogforum 61 . 2015 4
intercultural understanding, including expanding their knowledge
of the world and giving them an opportunity to develop their critical awareness.
The class could work, for instance, with the subject of Scotland
(Risager 2014). In connection with the work on intercultural understanding, the teacher – perhaps in cooperation with the students –
could compile a series of images, videos, interviews, quotations, etc.
about Scottish national symbols and ‘Scottishness’ to make the class
become aware of the great range of various conceptions about
Scottish identity – not only in Scotland but also in Denmark. One
could examine how various groups of Scots regard ‘the English’, and
how various groups of English people regard ‘the Scots’. Or examine
how various groups of Scots regard Denmark and Scandinavia.
But it is also important for the students to acquire good background knowledge about Scotland to be able to understand facets of
Scottish identity. In connection with the work on Scotland and Scottish identity, an obvious thing to do is for the students themselves to
access background information on the Internet about geography,
landscape, towns, population, languages (English, Lowland Scots
and Scots Gaelic, as well as immigrant languages), fishing, the oil
industry, flags, Scottish dishes, bagpipes, kilts, etc. The Internet is
particularly suitable for searching for more factual information
about all sorts of things, and it is reasonably accessible for the students themselves (and they are naturally to learn to treat their source
material critically). Knowledge about Scotland will not only deal
with relations within Scottish borders but also with Scotland in a
larger perspective: relation to the rest of Great Britain, position in
the North Atlantic, historical and present-day relations to the Scandinavian countries, etc. Critical awareness is also an important
aspect of cultural understanding, and Scotland is a topical example
as it brings up the issue of power relations between countries, peoples and nations in the world: Denmark is an independent country
(this opens up the whole EU discussion of course) whereas Scotland
is not. Why are things like this, and can or should they be changed?
It is interesting in this connection – also when comparing with
Denmark – that Scottish nationalism and the movement for independence is not ethnic but political: It is not primarily a question of
ethnic Scots having better opportunities to cultivate their own
special ethnic identity (language, etc.), but of everyone in Scotland,
immigrants included, obtaining political freedom. For that reason
there are even groups such as ‘Scots Asians for Yes’ and ‘Africans for
sprogforum 61 . 2015 5
an Independent Scotland’. There will be ongoing work in the process
on the two dimensions called signs of learning and forms of evaluation (see Sandahl and Laursen’s article).
The Folkeskole reform of 2014, among both professionals and laymen, has given rise to many discussions as to whether teachers are
legally obliged to implement learning-objective controlled teaching.
Folkeskolen.dk quotes a mail from the ministry where, in answer to
the question, it states that learning-objective controlled teaching
is not obligatory, cf. “Learning-objective controlled teaching is not
obligatory. It is up to the individual teacher to decide how he/she
wishes to organise teaching on the basis of the Common Objectives,
so that it accords with the students’ prior qualifications in the best
possible way,” adding, “The Ministry of Education does not regulate
teaching methods.” So the ministry states firmly that the new objectives of knowledge and proficiency are obligatory, but that the path
to them is subject to the teachers’ freedom of method. The questions
are still legion, e.g. if simplified objectives in actual fact are complexity-reducing learning objectives, and thereby pioneer innovative
thinking for pedagogical practice in the educational programmes.
Have an enjoyable read!
The editors
References
Fokeskolen.dk. Læringsmålstyret
undervisning er ikke obligatorisk.
Accessed 18.8. 2015. http://www.
folkeskolen.dk/568071/ministerietlaeringsmaalstyret-undervisning-erikke-obligatorisk.
Gregersen, A.S. (2015). Den kulturelle
dimension i sprogfagene - kultur­
undervisning i et transnationalt
perspektiv. in: A.S. Gregersen (ed.).
Sprogfag i forandring - pædagogik og praksis. 2nd edition (pp. 55-85). Frederiksberg: Samfundslitteratur.
Risager, K (2014). Kulturforståelse.
Sproglæreren 4, pp. 4-6.
Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction. London:
The University of Chicago Press.
Undervisningsministeriet (2014).
Læringsmålstyret undervisning.
Accessed 6.7. 2015. http://uvm.dk/~/
media/UVM/Filer/Om%20os/PDF15/
Mar/150327%20Bilag%206%20-%20
Laeringsmaalstyret%20undervisning%20i%20folkeskolen.pdf
sprogforum 61 . 2015 6
bodil due
A spoke in the wheel for
foreign languages
[Benspænd for fremmedsprog]
Abstract
In my article I stress the importance of competences in foreign
languages in today’s global world and warn against some poten­tially dangerous tendencies in the Danish education system. One
is a tendency to understand the goal of education very narrowly as
a means to secure employment, another is a tendency to initiate
successive rather than coordinated reforms, resulting in lack of
coherence between the different levels in the education system. The
primary school reform of 2013 will no doubt have a positive effect in
the foreign languages area, seeing that all pupils now have English
from the very start and their second foreign language much earlier
than before. But in secondary schools and in higher education the
situation is alarming. Fewer pupils and students choose a language
programme and at the universities many language studies are being
closed down. To secure Danish interests and international influence,
a national strategy for education in foreign languages is needed.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 7
lilian rohde and birgit henriksen
Changing the National
Curriculum – why and how?
[Forenkling af de faglige mål – hvorfor og hvordan?]
Abstract
This article presents and discusses the 2014 revision of the Danish
national curriculum for primary and lower secondary levels with
regard to foreign languages (English, German, French, Spanish).
The article focuses on the pros and cons of the shift towards broadly defined competence goals and output-based education in contrast
to the former skills- and content-based curriculum. Making use
of Killen, the article presents four essential principles which will
support the teacher’s planning and teaching in an output-based paradigm. All national goals for foreign languages imply a communicative, functional view of language, a cognitive view of learning, a dynamic view of culture and an activity-based and learning-centred
methodological approach. Expectations for pupil outcomes have
increased with the introduction of English in grade 1 and German
or French in grade 5 and connections between learning different
foreign languages are now emphasised. The authors participated
in the writing group for English which, like all writing groups,
encompassed a broad knowledge base of researchers, teacher
trainers, ministry consultants and teachers.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 8
dorte maria buhl sandahl and lene laursen
Language subjects in
the Folkeskole:
Simplified common goals
[Folkeskolens sprogfag: Forenklede Fælles Mål]
Abstract
This article deals with the Folkeskole reform of 2014, in which a
change of emphasis has taken place in language subjects from a
focus on the teachers’ teaching to a focus on the students’ learning.
Teaching is to be controlled by learning objectives and not activities.
The article provides an overview of the structure in the various
levels of objectives in the Folkeskole reform – from competence
objectives via proficiency and knowledge objectives to learning
objectives, and an account is given of the so-called relation model,
which is a didactic model shared by all school subjects. This model
places four dimensions in relation to each other: learning objectives,
teaching activities, signs of learning and evaluation.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 9
bergthóra kristjánsdóttir
The stony road to
ambitious goals for Mother
tongue teaching
[Stenet vej til ambitiøse mål for faget Modersmålsundervisning]
Abstract
The subject Mother tongue teaching differs from all other subjects
at school, since it represents a battlefield in which target groups,
economy, objectives, organisation and content are involved – as well
as the question of what societies the subject is to provide education
and personal development for. The section of the Act and the appurtenant official order regarding teaching in the subject limits to
a great extent the possibility of promoting the potential linguistic
and cultural competence of bilingual students via teaching in the
Folkeskole. There is a disparity between ambitious descriptions
of objectives in the new Simplified Common Objectives of 2014
and the actual regulatory framework. The linguistic and cultural
complexity in present-day societies is denied in the section of the Act
and the appurtenant official order, which continue to hold onto
a conception of a monolingual and monocultural Denmark.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 10
bedriye sener
Danish as a second language,
level A at upper secondary
level for young adults (HF)
[Dansk som andetsprog niveau A på HF]
Abstract
In the first part of the article, I present the ‘new’ Danish subject, in
which I criticise the fact that subject identity, objectives and content
in the curricula for Danish and Danish as a second language at HF
are identical. Subsequently, I include the subject goals for Finnish as
a second language in youth education programmes that emphasise
multicultural identity. Finally, on the basis of inspiration from
the curricuulm for Finnish as a second language, I make a number
of recommendations for the curriculum for Danish as a second language and ask for Danish as a second language to be recognised as a
second-language subject. The article’s points of view and analyses
are further developed in my MA dissertation in didactics in relation
to Danish.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 11
dorte fristrup
Teaching objectives between
competence and general
education – challenges for
foreign language subjects
at upper secondary level
[Læringsmål mellem kompetence og dannelse
– udfordringer for sprogfagene i gymnasiet]
Abstract
This article deals with the upper secondary reform of 2005 and
points to certain actual challenges for language subjects. The reform
marked a final break with the concept of syllabus in favour of thinking in terms of competence and general education in language
subject programmes at upper secondary level. The general competence and education objectives are now to be achieved via a number
of subject-related objectives that comprise both receptive and
productive skills, including the ability to give a coherent oral exposition of a subject-related topic. The article argues that this calls for
a balancing of expectations between the various parties involved:
students, parents and teachers, particularly when dealing with
other foreign languages than English. It is also argued that there is
a need to adjust learning objectives for language subjects in the
direction of a clear use orientation, which involves greater emphasis
on digitalisation and medialisation, intercultural competence and
innovation.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 12
jette von holst-petersen
Chunks – a way to
communicative competence
in German teaching
[Chunks – en vej til kommunikativ kompetence
i tyskundervisningen]
Abstract
This article deals with the “chunks” phenomenon and its importance
for developing communicative competence in the subject of German
in the Danish Folkeskole. Language consists to a great extent of
lexicalised, automated phrases that make it possible to communicate swiftly and smoothly. If this knowledge of chucks is transferred
to German teaching in the Folkeskole, it means that students can
more successfully learn German by automating prefabricated
chunks. The various chunks function as “crutches” for communi­
cation, and the students soon experience that they are capable of
communicating in German, which has a highly motivating effect
on them. At a later stage in the teaching it is important to draw students’ linguistic attention to the regular features in the acquired
chunks, which will enable the students to discover for themselves
the grammatical rules and develop their linguistic knowledge.
By using chunks it is emphasised that the development of com­
municative competence is the key aspect of German teaching – that
work on the grammar thus plays a subordinate role and serves to
develop communication proficiency.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 13
Abstract
Dieser Artikel beschäftigt sich mit dem Phänomen ”Chunks”
und seiner Bedeutung für die Entwicklung der kommunikativen
Kompetenz im Fach Deutsch in der dänischen Grundschule. Sprache besteht in großem Umfang aus lexikalisierten, automatisierten
Phrasen, die uns erlauben, schnell und problemlos zu kommuni­
zieren. Überträgt man dieses Wissen von Chunks auf Deutsch im
Fremdsprachenunterricht, bedeutet es, dass die Schüler durch
Automatisierung von präfabrizierten Chunks Deutsch lernen
sollten. Die Chunks dienen als ”Krücken” für die Kommunikation,
und die Schüler erleben eine schnelle Entwicklung ihrer Kommunikationsfähigkeit, was eine stark motivierende Wirkung hat. Im
weiteren Verlauf des Erwerbsprozesses wird die sprachliche Aufmerksamkeit der Schüler auf die Regelmäßigkeiten in den gelernten Chunks gelenkt, und die Schüler können dadurch selber die
grammatischen Regeln entdecken und ihr Sprachwissen entwickeln.
Durch die Verwendung von Chunks wird unterstrichen, dass
die Entwicklung der kommunikativen Kompetenz der Kern des
Deutschunterrichts ist, während die Arbeit mit der Grammatik
eine der Kommunikation untergeordnete Rolle spielt.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 14
kristine kabel and lone krogsgaard svarstad
Teacher Perspectives on
Goal-setting in the Subjects
Danish and English
[Lærerperspektiver på faglig målsætning i dansk og engelsk]
Abstract
The article is based on conclusions from the report “Faglig mål­
sætning i skolen – et narrativt review med dansk og engelsk som
case (Goal-setting in schools – a narrative review with study cases in
Danish and English) (2014). The report is the result of collaboration
between University College UCC, Metropolitan University College
and Aarhus University. Much international research pays attention
to the effect of goal-setting in schools in relation to student learning
outcome, but fewer studies examine teacher perspectives on goalsetting as a part of a multi-faceted everyday school praxis. This
report examines what potentials and challenges teachers experience
with goal-setting in the subjects Danish and English. Data consist of
observations of feedback sessions and semi-structured interviews
with 10 teachers in a suburban Copenhagen school. The purpose of
the report is to outline professional development initiatives as well
as school-based initiatives that target teachers and goal-setting in
the classroom.
Kabel, K., Svarstad, L. K., & Stovgaard, M. (2014). Faglig målsætning i skolen
– et narrativt review med dansk og engelsk som case. Læringsløft 2020, følge­
forskning (pp. 62). København: Århus Universitet, Professionshøjskolen
Metropol og Professionshøjskolen UCC.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 15
elina maslo
Subjective goals as
a motivating force for language
and learning
[Subjektive mål som drivkraft for sprog og læring]
Abstract
In this article I present a project on the subjective and emotional dimensions of language learning. I have had a number of conversations with multilingual migrants from different countries about
what experiences, interests and dreams made them start learning
specific languages. These learning histories offer new perspectives
on learning and language learning by providing insight into individuals’ unique, practical, emotional and symbolic lives in concrete
historical contexts. It is also argued that if learning is about active
engagement in meaningful activities, the task of the teacher is to
arouse curiosity which can become a subjective goal, and which,
hopefully, can also be linked to the overall objective of the school.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 16
interview with leni dam
Students’ learning – teachers’
responsibility: Developing
learner autonomy
[Elevernes læring. Lærernes ansvar: Udvikling af elevautonomi]
Abstract
In the interview, Leni Dam explains how – throughout her working
life – she has been concerned with getting learners involved in their
own learning. The learners’ engagement is to be seen as a prerequisite for developing learner autonomy. The teacher has to focus on the
learners’ learning rather than on her own teaching. Dam stresses that
it is the teacher’s responsibility to create a learning environment in
which the learners’ motivational power, i.e. intrinsic motivation, can
unfold. At a time where evidence-based approaches are called for,
it is crucial to ask how the students’ learning can be documented.
It is here that the value of logbooks and portfolios comes into play.
As regards the possibilities for goal-setting, Leni Dam says that it
works extremely well within learner autonomy, provided it happens
in close cooperation between learners and the teacher.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 17
stephanie kim löbl
Open pages: The effect of
targeted teaching in French
[Effekten af målrettet undervisning i fransk]
Abstract
Future tense and aspect in French are two verbal categories that
can cause Danish learners problems, since their distribution differs
between the two languages. In French, one is in both cases presented with a choice that does not exist in Danish. This article on the
acquisition of aspect and future tense in French is based on my MA
dissertation containing an efficacy study that examines if students
of French acquire the analytical forms prior to the synthetic within
aspect and future tense respectively. It also investigates why acquisition takes place as it does, what factors are involved. The analysis
of the results from my efficacy study show that both groups use the
analytical forms as a standard form. Subsequently, an improvement
takes place in the test group as opposed to the control group during
the text period in the acquisition of the synthetic verbal forms.
The text group, which receives targeted instruction in both subjects,
improves considerably more than the control group, which does not
receive any instruction. There are a number of factors that influence
the students’ acquisition, such as the frequency of the linguistic
elements, interference from the mother tongue and the obviousness
of the form/function relation of the elements. The study further
shows that the students improve most in the acquisition of the
synthetic forms in those cases where there is a time adverbial in the
sentence and its meaning is clear. It also helps to include and underline the importance of time adverbials in grammar teaching in identifying and using forms of the past tense and future tense. It is also
useful to include teaching in the nature of an action in teaching
aspect, since these categories interact closely and can provide the
students with tools for choosing and using the correct aspect
depending on context.
sprogforum 61 . 2015 18