Pallet of Possiblities

Transcription

ENERGY VALLEY 2036
PALLET OF POSSIBILITIES
Spatial Team, Grounds for Change
Edited by Rob Roggema, Andy van den Dobbelsteen
& Kees Stegenga
May 2006
Contact: r.roggema@provinciegroningen.nl
1
2
“I am not one
of those who is
pessimistic about the
future of the world,
assuming we get
off our butts and do
something about
climate change in a
timely fashion”
Bill Clinton, former
president of the
United States of
America, May 2006
3
4
INTRODUCTION
scale. Finding sustainable solutions for the future energy supply
An attractive, longing perspective for Northern Netherlands. That
tial quality of the region could very well be established by making
is what we want to present. The future is hard to predict and to
use of this sustainable energy system of the future. The characteris-
present a blueprint of the future would not fit with the present era.
tics and qualities of the region were a catalyst for designs, energy-
We chose not to make one Grand Design, but to develop a Pallet
proposals and spatial concepts. Off course we did not have an
of Possibilities. A pallet, which shows different opportunities at the
isolated view on the Space-Energy theme. We were influenced by
same time. Different solutions and different approaches. All of
many major trends and developments, relevant for the region. The
them focus on an appealing spatial future for the Northern Nether-
increase of elderly people, climate change, globalisation of the
lands, based on a sustainable energy system. A future which lays
world economics, developments in care and the future of agricul-
30 years, or even more, ahead of us.
ture were important issues.
The spatial team in the Grounds for Change project presents a
We went off the beaten track, were exploring different time hori-
story about Energy Valley. In this story the spatial possibilities and
zons and we stepped outside the problems and subjects of daily
qualities that might emerge in the Energetic region are of special
life. We hope that the greater parts of our thoughts stimulate the
interest. The story reflects on current development and policies, but
imagination and count on enthusiasm.
system and their possible implications on the landscape was our
starting point. During the design we found out that the future spa-
anticipates also on trends and future developments, even if they
are uncertain. In the design process, we used the back casting
On behalf of the Spatial team Grounds for Change
and backtracking principles more than once: we were inspired
Rob Roggema & Andy van den Dobbelsteen
by successes from the past and transformed them into a desirable
future.
Within the spatial team different design-disciplines worked together:
•
Martine de Jong, Regional planner
•
Kees Stegenga, Urban designer
•
Steven Slabbers, Landscape architect
•
Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Civil engineer & environmental
designer
•
Rob Roggema, Landscape Architect and coordinator
Thanks to the differences in design approaches, good teamwork
and a joyful atmosphere during the process we were able to
deliver our final report.
A considerable contribution to this report is made by 20 students
Landscape Architecture of the Wageningen University. Their design
studio resulted in worthwhile designs on different levels of scale.
The focal point of the Grounds for Change project is the relation
between the Energy and Spatial systems, mainly on a regional
5
6
CONTENT
Introduction
5
Prelude
ENERGY VALLEY, AN OFFER YOU CAN’T REFUSE
Chapter 1
MEGATRENDS
13
9
Chapter 2
NNL-NOW?
21
Chapter 3
AMBITIONS
25
3.1
Energy ambitions
25
3.2
Climate change ambitions
26
3.3
Spatial ambitions
26
3.4
Design principles
26
3.5
Design strategies
29
Chapter 4
A SPATIAL ENERGY-TYPOLOGY
31
4.1
Combined exergy and spatial planning
31
4.2
Approach
31
4.3
Analysis of demand and supply
32
4.4
Energy potentials of the Northern Netherlands
35
4.5
Energy-landscapes
40
Chapter 5
LANDSCAPE TYPOLOGY
43
Chapter 6
ATLAS OF IDEAS
49
6.1
REGIONAL DESIGN
49
6.2
AUTARKADIA
49
Autarkadia A
Regional design for Autarkadia, Berta Sanz Peña
50
Autarkadia B
Autarkadian Grolloo in 2040, Szu-Ling Tao
55
Autarkadia C
From the autarkic network to the eco-village, Berta Sanz Peña
58
6.3
BIOMASS COUNTY
63
Biomass county A Regional design for biomass county, Yi Ding, Francis Vos, Paula Espinosa
64
Biomass county B Dog Ridge & Peat Colonies: Monumental bio-energy, spatial team
71
Biomass county C Live and Enjoy, Francis Vos
72
Biomass county D Independent State Emmen, Yi Ding
75
Biomass county E Emmen - Glass & City at the edge of a National Park, spatial team
79
7
6.4
FRYSIAN WATERWORLD
82
Waterworld A
Water comes, people stay, Erin Upton
83
Waterworld B
Wetterwrâld, Fryslân, spatial team
85
Waterworld C
Living with the flow, Roland Schmidt
97
Waterworld D
Lauwers-lake: Seaside octopus in a tidal landscape, spatial team
91
6.5
CASCADE CITIES
95
Cascade cities A Eemshaven-Delfzijl: North-Port, spatial team
Cascade cities B
8
Regional design for Cascade cities, Martina Sattler
96
100
Cascade cities C Cascading Hoggezand, Erik Smits
102
Cascade cities D Cascade city of Winschoten, Martina Sattler
105
6.6.
WINDY RIDGES
107
Windy Ridges A
Energetic North, Gerwin de Vries
107
Windy Ridges B
Sand, sea and salt, Gerwin de Vries
111
& More
136
Chapter 7
PROMISE
115
Appendix 1
TIME-HORIZONS
123
Appendix 2
SUSTAINABILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
129
Appendix 3
CLIMATE CHANGE AND MORE (in Dutch)
137
Appendix 4
YIELDS PER HECTARE OF ENERGY RESOURCES (in Dutch)
144
PRELUDE
ENERGY VALLEY 2036:
AN OFFER YOU CAN’T
REFUSE
MISSION for the FUTURE
would have come up with a small amount of renewables. In the
end a small part of the measures would have been implemented.
We thought to turn it around. Not a policy plan but a pallet of possibilities. A visual showcase of all kind of proposals that will help to
create a beautiful region based on sustainable energy. A regional
energy system, which is based on the potentials of the region itself.
New living areas and industrial developments put in the landscape
like a cascade of energy. New and more water and nature which
will encourage the recreational potentials. And a transformation
The Bridging to the Future project is collaboration between four re-
towards the use of renewable energy sources efficiently produced
gions in the world: Shanghai, Vancouver, Goa and Energy Valley.
and fulfilling the demands of the future generation (which is likely
Aim of the project is to research the possibilities of a sustainable
to use more energy instead of less). So, in Energy Valley you may
energy-system at a regional level and use that as the central focal
use the energy you need as long as it is produced in a sustainable
point for spatial developments. The local possibilities and poten-
way and in the region itself. No punishment if you use a lot, but
tials to provide the region with sustainably produced energy are
a sustainable provision. This requires a little stubbornness and a
leading in the regional and local spatial designs. The question how
heroic attitude to go your own way from the local and regional
this sustainable energy system can contribute to economic deve-
governments. Be responsible for the quality of the lives of people in
lopment, the security and the beauty of the region is a central one
the region on the long term. Loosen the tight cadres of the global
and needs to be answered to cope with future developments of
and national (pretended) regulations and common habits. We are
all kinds and to give a region a prosperous perspective. Lots of glo-
not completely dependent on our national government or the Eu-
bal and local trends are linked with the energy and spatial issue.
ropean. We are not obliged to use energy provided by Russia. It is
The contribution of (fossil) energy use to the changes in our climate
possible to create our own sustainable resources and there is no li-
is evident. Reducing the use of fossil energy might help slightly to
mit in the amount of it. It requires decisions made by our politicians
cope with this problem. The scarcity of energy resources like oil
to do things differently. People with leadership who can make it
and gas in the near future leads to a growing dependency on the
happen: a region which is independent in its energy supply, which
owners of these resources: security of supply becomes a major
provides cheaper energy for its inhabitants and which will be an
issue. In the same way the scarcity of clean water is increasing.
attractive region. The well-known existing qualities of landscape,
Regions which can provide themselves with clean water will have
nature and peacefulness and with a couple of vibrant cities, the
a clear advantage in the future.
possibilities are endless. If we add a regional energy supply to it
and we take also into account that the upcoming climate change
What we could have done in this project is to present a policy plan
will lead to a pleasant environment in the next centuries, Energy
for the future of Energy Valley. It would have contained important
Valley has all the opportunities of an emerging region in the world.
goals and necessary measures. The problem we were facing
It has better chances than all the mega-cities around the world
would be described as an energy usage problem and our solutions
and the crowded Randstad as competitors.
would have been that, like the trias energetica tells us, the energy
demand of users should be decreased. We would have presented
A little fantasy about the chances of climate change: In Northern
measures like increasing isolation of houses, smart technical solu-
Netherlands you can have it all. We are going to use the climate
tions which lead to a more efficient production of energy and we
that is coming to us. In about 300 years from now our region will be
9
a (temporary) Côte d’Ollard: A Mediterranean Coast along the
and live next to. Beautiful, because urban functions are brought
North Sea. So, to arrange it a bit nicely for the coming 300 years:
together in intensified and vibrant urban centres and, because of
that would be great! From now on 300 years of climatic security:
that the landscape is kept silent, clear and dark. One can feel the
No Worries! Climate Change isn’t a threat, but a warm and friendly
changes in weather. In our region you are close to a water and
delight! This pleasant future makes our region one of the most at-
weather experience.
tractive of Europe: to celebrate your holiday, to live and to make
money. And in case the Warm Gulf stream turns its back at us1 (see
Why it is clean and clear: The air is pure and fresh. Life is healthier
also the expose on climate change in Chapter 1 and appendix 3)
than elsewhere and life expectancy is higher compared with other
we can welcome some real historic winters. And this is also nice. To
regions. Care is also better, thanks to scientific research and the
cope with these uncertainties the design for the region needs to
friendly people in the Northern Netherlands. Due to slowly climbing
be robust and flexible. So robust that it can handle both scenarios.
temperatures fitness and outdoor sports become popular quickly.
And it cannot be a fixed image of the future but has to be an
It is not strange that inhabitants of the North are healthy and fit.
adaptive pallet of possibilities.
The result is a decrease in the costs of health care! The water is also
clean. Not only in streams, canals and lakes, but also in drinking
The Northern Netherlands can be the wealthiest place, the most
water reserves. Nature, swimming- and drinking water profit from
beautiful, the cleanest and the safest spot in Europe.
it. We do not burn any fossil sources. Clean energy is supplied from
water, sun, wind and the earth.
Why it becomes wealthy: In the future the region can be wealthy
thanks to a prosperous economic development. The region will
And why it is safe: We are protected against higher sea water
be successful as a result of our location between the Randstad
levels by an ingenious system of protecting dikes, instead of one
and the fast growing economies in North Eastern Europe. Our
big one. At the same time sea water will re-enter the land in a
innovative entrepreneurship will give way to a huge growth of the
controlled way. We are relatively independent from other coun-
creative economy. The level of wealth is growing faster than in
tries because of the production and control of our own resources
surrounding regions, due to extremely low prices of energy, water
and products. The agriculture produces clean food we can trust,
and food for consumers as well as for companies. An added value
primarily for our own inhabitants.
is found in the new developments in the touristy sector as a result
of a slowly rising temperature. Last but not least: Energy Valley
A radical shift is not needed
is the spider in the World Wide Web of energy trade. The Energy
And the best part of giving ourselves 300 years to reach this
Exchange, where energy is virtually traded and the Energy Nations
perspective is that it does not require radical changes. A rigorous
(EN) - Safety Council, where energy conflicts are solved found their
change of policy is not necessary. It only demands consistency
home up North.
in all decision-making that forms our future, in a way it all works
together in the same direction: towards this sunny valley with a laid
10
And why beautiful: If we will stop fighting the water new pos-
back atmosphere.
sibilities for an enriched landscape and nature will rise. We move
Even better, it demands some form of laziness: our nice climate
along with the rising water and reintroduce the seawater at the
is coming at us by itself and it is not possible to accelerate by all
land. Living areas at the edge of and on the sea are introduced.
kinds of policy programmes. The quintessence is that we can cope
We encourage a controlled stop of all the pumping in the polder
with a lot of future developments by designing flexible solutions.
areas and create larger water bodies to recreate, enjoy nature
Unexpected changes, for instance in climate or economics are
then not a threat. Regular policy plans should adjust themselves
to the over-all mission. Upcoming zoning plans, political programmes and environmental plans can be put together with only a
slight change in direction: give way to creativity and inspiration,
experiment with tourism and living on and along water, realise the
largest building programs in always dry areas and increase the
connections with surrounding regions.
1) Warme golfstroom zwakt af, Volkskrant, 1 december 2005
11
12
CHAPTER 1
MEGATRENDS
1.1 Future developments
years. The Netherlands is still a transport country and functions as
a port for European markets. The Dutch economy has been open
and outside-oriented.
2. Bakas3 describes it as follows: In the world there will emerge six
superpowers (now only one: USA). Beside the United States these
A couple of developments will play a major role in the upcoming
are: Japan, China, India, Russia and Brazil. Beside the superpowers
decennia.
he defines Tigers, Sleeping Countries, Resource Countries, Poor
1. The economic focus will move (back) to (new superpowers like
Countries and Multinational Tribes. The Netherlands belong to the
China and India. The influence of the Western countries decreases,
Sleeping Countries: relatively old inhabitants, reasonable stable,
although the role of the Netherlands at a global level has not fluc-
not innovative and perform on an average level. The people in
tuated much since the Golden Century (International Economic
these countries are not very ambitious.
2.
World Order, IEWO) International trade and investments in combination with technological developments (navigation, shipyards,
3. An economic re-orientation is ahead of us: in the same way
and maps) played a central role in the Dutch strategy over the
as the transformation of the agricultural society into in an indu-
fig.1 National share of global output
13
strialised one in the nineteenth century, the society of the (near)
6. Within 30 years from now the existing gas and oil reserve in the
future transform from the industrial society into one, which can
Northern Netherlands will be depleted. No other fossil resources
be characterised by new added values: innovation, creativity
are available in the region. If we do not change the supply of our
and unicity. An increasing part of the working population, 30 to
energy demands into renewable resources, we will have to import
50 % in the Natherlands has a job in the so-called creative sector
fossil resources.
nowadays. Together they earn around two-third of all wages in
the country. These percentages will increase over time4. Creating
The Task Force Energy-transition8 puts it like this: “The lack of sustai-
a spot in this new economy demands distinctive qualities from the
nability in the global energy system is a threat for the world. The
future working people: by specialising on away-from-the-average
speed of CO2-emission in the atmosphere results in unpredictable
capabilities one becomes more attractive for companies in the
changes in the climate and threatens the stability of ecosystems
5.
all over the world. The level of dependency on global power-
creative sector
politics for the provision of oil and gas leads to unpredictable
4. A sustainable knowledge economy will appear6. In different
changes in availability and the price of oil and gas. This is a threat
sectors, among which the creative sector, the Netherlands can
for our welfare and wellness. Due to the dominance of develo-
become exporter of sustainable solutions. Our international trade
ped countries in the use of fossil resources and the needs of the
orientation gives the Netherlands an important advantage. In tra-
poorest countries, tensions on a global level are increasing. This is
ditionally strong sectors, (energy, food, water, chemical industries,
a threat for peace and safety in the world. To have enough clean
high-tech and the creative industry), the Dutch shall be excellent
and affordable energy on the long term, we should decrease our
in developing and selling new sustainable products and solutions.
dependency on fossil resources at every moment and everywhere
Fast grower in the Netherlands will be the personal care for elderly
we can by using every available technology.”
and children. The Netherlands can play a key role in the international knowledge network or become the node for the share and
7. The scarcity of clean (drinking) water will also increase. Usage
trade of knowledge.
of the clean sources, often for low quality purposes, is depleting the existing water
5. In coming decades,
resource which results in
scarcity of fossil resources
drying out of the soil and
will increase. Dependency
a decreased quality. The
on owners and transpor-
enormous speed of ex-
ters of these resources,
tractions can impossibly
like the Ukraine, will grow.
be supplied with external
And these countries will
water.
more and more take
8. Bakas9 expects that
advantage of this power
7.
14
position In the future,
the struggle between
security and uncertainty
Christianity and Islam will
of supply, will play a major
lead to a new European
role in geopolitics.
balance: Eurabia (Wesfig. 2 Historic changes in temparature
tern-Europe, Northern-
instead of intense ties with the Randstad might give us a change
to stay away from possible conflicts.
9. We will have to say good-bye to the united and bordered Nation States. Instead of these independent regions and multinational tribes (Jews, Chinese, Muslim, youth and elderly), spread over
the World, will play an increasing role10 ). These regions and tribes
will take care of their own connections. Within Europe, regions
are going to play a more important role : The Eems-Delta could
become the hub between the Randstad and the Baltic Nations
and Scandinavia.
10. The key elements of Dutch society will be a sustainable environment, tolerance and diversity, active people and attention
for each other: a human knowledge society12 . The Netherlands
become a showroom for our own sustainable export products. The
people live mainly in urban areas and the buildings are adjusted
at the natural surroundings. Attention and care for each other play
fig.3 Moving costas
a major role. Space to do things together and feel happy about
that is more important than making money: a European Dream
Africa and Turkey) and a New Europe (the historical Donau-monar-
instead of the American. The flight of health and care will be enor-
chy) emerge. A battle between China and Christianity at the one
mous: more participation in active sports will lead to more healthy
hand side and the Islam at the other side will appear in Europe. An
people, who will be active longer. Finally, the Dutch, no matter
Islamic North-Western Europe (England, France, Belgium and the
what their ethnical background is, will be proud of openness and
Randstad might be the epicentre of this battle. Connection of the
tolerance. A strong bond between globalisation and attention for
Northern Netherlands with Scandinavia and North Eastern Europe
your neighbours.
15
2006
2036
2106
16
fig.5 Changes in the Wadden Sea due to sea level rise
11. Climate zones started a walk across earth. The average tem-
already for centuries. That we will be totally under water again
perature will rise everywhere. A city like Madrid suddenly finds itself
within 2.5 million years or that the glaciers will have approached us
amidst a Sahara-like desert, crossing the Mediterranean, without
to several hundreds of metres within 10,000 years is hardly imagi-
notifying. Next question: what will happen to the Costa del Sol, the
nable, but puts our thinking in the right perspective. If we try to
Costa Blanca and the Côte d’Azur?
contemplate on the developments and events in the following 300
or 30 years, climate change, the global economic development
In the year 2100 the temperature in the Northern Netherlands shall
or the availability of resources will at once become relevant.
have risen 2 degrees (central prediction)13, a climate that Paris
is familiar with nowadays. The level of the sea is also rising. How
With the present knowledge a few scenarios for the climate may
much exactly is subject of debate, not the fact as such14. Most
be considered. Those are summarised below. Per scenario the
predictions show an average rise of 60 centimetres by the end of
following will be discussed: general effects, effects for The Northern
this century.15
Netherlands, and actions to undertake. With all scenarios we
should acknowledge that the Northern Netherlands lie on the
Discussion is possible about the extent to which human beings
edge of the Eurasiatic plateau, which already declines due to
contribute to this rise, but this is not relevant here.
geological processes anyway.
For a more elaborate explanation of climate change Appendix 3
If we project the rise of the sea level to our region, a substantial
will give a scientific background.
part of the marsh lands and sandbanks of the Wadden Sea will
THE MOST PROBABLE SCENARIO, WITHOUT OCEAN CURRENT INVER-
have disappeared in 2100. The sedimentation of mud and sand
SION
will not keep up with the rapid rise of the sea level. In a period of
16.
40 years more or less half of the sand plates will have been gone
This scenario is based on the widely supported findings and expec-
The maps give an indication of the different parts of the Wad-
tations of the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change).
den Sea that will stay under water for ever. The valuable nature
that comes with these temporarily dry sandbanks will therefore
disappear mostly
17.
The complexity of growing and disappearing
General
The earth heats up considerably (a few degrees within this cen-
sandbanks by flooding and sedimentation make a prediction of
tury). Eternal snow, glaciers and icecaps will melt. Just as by the
the exact locations of these banks very difficult.
expansion of the warmer sea water, the sea levels will rise due to
1.2 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND OF CLIMATE
CHANGE
this increased run-off of water on the land. This will lead to more
and fiercer storms (remember the forerunners of the Caribean).
There will be more clouding. There will evolve a greater difference
between wet and arid areas.
A FEW SIMPLE SCENARIOS
May we predict the future for you? So easy it is to forecast the
The Northern Netherlands
future over 10,000 and 2.5 million years, so difficult it is for the
For the Northern Netherlands this means that the temperature will
following centuries. The future of the following decades is even
rise a few degrees as well. This seems futile, but plant and animal
almost impossible to predict, certainly not makeable and only limi-
species will disappear because of it, and others will come instead.
tedly directable. International developments and chronological
It will also be wetter here. This mainly concerns summers, with more
developments define the future more than we do. And this applies
frequent short and heavy showers; in winter it will be wetter in
17
general and warmer on average, but icy cold winters can still oc-
THE SCENARIO WITH OCEAN CURRENT INVERSION
cur, only less frequent. The most important effect for the Northern
Netherlands is the rise of the sea, most probably around 60 cm
General
within this century. This means, by the way, that in cases of storm
The same effects, but locally (locally in terms of the global scale)
and spring tide the level might be three to four times higher, and
the ocean current in our regions will invert, and we will get the cold
this implies a greater risk. This sea level rise adds to the increased
polar current flowing along the East-American coast instead of the
run-off of water from the mainland, building up the pressure from
warm Caribean current.
fresh and salt water on the lower areas, especially those below sea
level.
The Northern Netherlands
A large part of the Wadden Sea will never run dry again, dimi-
For the Northern Netherlands this means that the temprature will
nishing the habitat of seals and fouraging birds. The sand banks
drop by a few degrees, in spite of the up-warming global climate.
that have come to lie below sea level make higher waves possi-
As a result of this, the summers and winters will become colder.
ble, which can influence navigation and the potential for sporting
This makes the occurrence of long periods of frost in wintertime,
(surfing).
and thus the famous Elfstedentocht (‘eleven cities tour’), more
Furthermore, the chances for the Northern Netherlands as a touris-
probable.
tic-recreative region will improve, because of the temperature rise.
With regard to the sea level rise and the peril of water pressure,
Wind certainty (sailing) will only increase.
this scenario is no different from the previous one. However, the
probability of storms and extreme weather is smaller in the case of
Action
a lower temperature, reducing the risk of extreme situations.
The growing danger from the sea (including the increased probability of heavy storms) should be averted, or one should react to it
Action
actively. This can be established by even higher sea dikes, but the
The measures of precaution against the danger of water are
salty seepage will not be reduced by this, and the draining of pol-
similar to the other scenario. The economic perspective for tourism
ders will only agrivate this seepage. This apart from the increased
however will be different. Compare the region with Newfound-
demand for energy for draining pumps. Another strategy is a more
land, also touristically interesting yet different and for less people.
layered defence partly moving with the natural developments:
The Elfstedentocht and winter sports in general may become a
extra defensive banks at sea, flooding areas behind the present
catalyst for the touristic-recreative economic development. The
dikes, using the deepest diepste polders permanently for water
cold, in combination with more precipitation will make the region
retention, etcetera.
more suited for snow-related sports.
Furthermore, the Northern Netherlands can profit from climate
ANY MORE SCENARIOS?
change by touristic-recreative developments. Due to the rise of
Above, only the most probable scenarios were discussed. These
temperature a comparison with the present climate on the French
are already scenarios with a certain margin of possibilities (tem-
Atlantic coast (Britany, possibly more south) is realistic. Because of
perature rise, sea level rise, precipitation increase or decrease).
the temperature rise less energy will be necessary for heating and
Of course there are more scenarios, which will be discussed briefly
hot water (heat), and more for cooling (electricity).
because in general they are considered less probable by climatologists.
18
•
A more extreme scenario: the temperature rises even more,
•
and the sea level rises a couple of metres. Crucial for this
leads to more algae in the ocean and abundant growth of
seems to be the land ice of Antarctica melting or breaking
plants that bind CO2 and thereby help cool the earth, or it can
off (this already occurred a few years ago) and then melting
happen because of cloud forming (causing a general cooling-
in warmer water after all. The impact will be even extremer to
down) or by a natural disaster (especially huge burts of vol-
the Northern Netherlands, and in that case fighting the sea by
canoes and comet bolts caused a cooling effect in the past).
constructing even higher dikes seems a ridiculous measure.
In combination with an ocean current inversion, the Northern
An even more extreme scenario: as a result of the melting of
Netherlands can foresee a subpolar climate, comparable to
olar icecaps the water mass on earth will distribute differently
Lapland.
otherwise than at present, causing an inbalance, which will
The safest policy seems to design a robust plan that can withstand
lead to a toppling of the earth. In this scenario, the Northern
different scenarios…
Netherlands may become a new polar region, or a tropical
•
region along the Equator, both with dramatic impacts to man
And Human beings?
and environment.
Man will be able too adjust to changing circumstances. His basic
A moderate scenario: the temperature rise of the last deca-
drivers stay the same and he always wants to take care of his ba-
des turns out to be a result of other phenomena, of which the
sic needs. A safe, conveniently arranged and familiar environment
influence decreases, causing to reduce the temperature and
is one of this major needs and exactly this is what a lot of people
sea level (apart from the bottom level dropping by the turning
believe is becoming more and more uncertain19. These basic
over of the Eurasiatic shelf). In this case nothing needs to be
needs are:
done in the Northern Netherlands, at least because of climate
•
conditions of their own choice.
the probable decline of industrial activities related to natural
gas).
•
Humans are social animals: they live in groups, want to have
contacts with others, but more and more at moments and on
change (but surely because of the depletion of fossil fuel and
•
He is primarily a pictural being: triggered by the things he can
A reversed climate scenario: in this case, the earth becomes
see, more than noise or smell. It is of big importance what his
colder. This could happen as a result of an exaggerated
surroundings look like and the image culture will play a major
natural reaction mechanism of the earth (for example: heating
role in society.
BOX 1 OR A WINTER?
Generally spoken one assumes that the global climate change leads to higher temperatures and a sea level rise. For the Netherlands the expected rise in temperature will be approximately 2 degrees Celsius in 2100. This is based on the Warm Gulf stream which
provides our regions with a temperate climate and this shall not change in the future. But, recent measurements showed us that the
water circulation has dropped with 30% in the last 50 years18. The theory behind this is that the circulation, influenced by the density
differences between salt and fresh water, could slow down, stop or even reverse if a lot of fresh water, melted from the poles, flows
into the sea. Then, the Warm Gulf stream could disappear or change into a Cold Gulf stream. This affects the average temperatures in North-Western Europe: If the Warm Gulf stream changes into a cold one, the average temperature could drop between 2
and 4 degrees Celsius. The corresponding climate is the one we know from New Foundland today: old-fashioned historic winters!
The 11-City-tour can be organised regularly, the dikes will have to deal with drifting ice and an increase in snowfall might lead to
several white Christmases. In this (uncertain) scenario the rise of the sea level will also be approximately 60 centimetres.
19
•
People also need a sense of security, a safe place and a roof
to live under. His satisfaction depends on the comfort and safety of
his house.
•
Enough food is condition of life. People get easily chagrined or
worse if there is a lack of food.
•
Humans have ambitions, want to develop themselves and
explore new directions. They want to adept new knowledge or
cross physical boundaries.
•
People want to have trust in the future: to be certain of the
future of their children.
The way a region can fulfil these basic needs is and will be a key
success factor, in comparison with other regions.
20
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
Aromar Revi, Long range strategic sustainability concerns for the Groningen-Friesland-Drente region, Design Charette, Groningen, Oktober 2005
Adjiedj Bakas, Megatrends Nederland, 2005
Richard Florida, The flight of the creative class, 2005
Kjell Nordström en Jonas Ridderstråle, Karaoke Capitalism, 2005
NL2027, Het toekomstbeeld van het innovatieplatform, December 2005
Gaskraan Oekraïne even ‘dicht’, Volkskrant, 24 December 2005 & Moskou sluit Oekraïne af van gas, Volkskrant, 2 Januari 2006
Meer met energie, Kansen voor Nederland, Task Force Energitransitie, mei 2006
Strategische agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005 (ontbreekt intekst)
Derde IPCC-rapport & Opgewarmd Nederland, 2004
Munasinghe, IPCC, Energy Convention, Oktober 2005
Derde IPCC-rapport & Opgewarmd Nederland, 2004
Prof. Marcel Stive, TU Delft, in NRC Handelsblad, 20 Maart 2005
Kaartserie Waddenzee bij verschillende zeespiegelstijging
Warme golfstroom zwakt af, Volkskrant, 1 December 2005, obv onderzoek National Oceanography Centre in Nature, 1 December 2005
Nieuwjaarstoespraak Hans Alders, provincie Groningen, 2 Januari 2006
CHAPTER 2
NNL-NOW?
Kuwait, Arabia and Iraq rule our world.
•
Large parts of the Netherlands are below sea level. In (partly
other) parts of Northern Netherlands the soil-surface is dropping
a couple of decimetres in the next decades. At the same time
What are the perspectives of the Northern-Netherlands? Still very
the sea water level is rising up to 60 centimetres above N.A.P.
good, but taking the future as it comes leads to a couple of poten-
(current Dutch Water Level). If we do nothing, the chance at
tial dangers. Developments that will transform our wealthy and rich
Europe into an Argentina-like status20: used to be wealthy, now a
bit poor. Which are the dangers who threat our Northern future?
•
There is a reasonable chance that within 40 years half of the
sandbanks in the Wadden Sea do not exist anymore22. If we
Nowadays we are part of the wealthy part of the World. This,
do not take any action, for instance by creating new islands at
despite the fact that we do have a subordinate position in the
smart locations in the North Sea, which will capture sand and
Dutch Spatial Economic structure21, lets us profit from the gene-
mud and supply the existing Wadden Sea with it, most of the
ral high level of wealth in the ‘Western World’. If we do nothing
the economic balance is going to shift eastward and we could
•
flooding increases, with possibly large effects.
•
current and valuable ecology will disappear.
• Together with Zeeland the Northern Netherlands is the only
become an economic peripheral region.
region in the Netherlands where it is possible to enjoy a clear
Our ‘own’ natural gas is depleted. Without alternative resour-
sky at night, where it is still quiet at night and where the air is
ces we will end up as a dependent country. Ukraine, Russia,
not polluted. But if we do not take any action we end up as
fig.6 A disaster: in case the dikes break through
21
2106
2106
2036
2036
2006
2006
fig.7 Possible changes in the Wadden Sea due to sea level rise
the Lelystad or Zwolle North of the Randstad, due to a chaotic
22
•
A relatively small percentage of the people living in the
push-out-process23, connected by squid-arms of bright lighted
Northern Netherlands are of ethnic minority. The integration
highways, illustrating the boundaries of the Randstad urban
problems the Randstad is facing do not exist in the Northern
development.
Netherlands.
Are there any uncertainties or fear, prejudices perhaps?
Thus, in 30 years from now…..
In the image of the Northern Netherlands judgements are appa-
….. We will be dependent on those countries with fossil resources
rent, some of them right, others untrue and persistent. For example:
available
•
The North loses the smartest part of its people over and over
•
Growth of the elderly people is higher in the North
….. We will be dependent on the strength and height of our dikes
•
On average we are less rich in the North24
….. The average temperature will have risen 1 degree Celsius an
•
The North has a backdrop in education
•
In the North agriculture will probably disappear
….. half of the sandbanks are under water for ever26
•
Unemployment rate is high
….. Are we dependent on ‘old money?’
•
People in the North are stubborn and stiff
….. Are we the battle field of a war of religions?
again to the Randstad or international mega-cities.
….. We possibly will be dependent on countries which can produce clean drinking water (one of them can be the Netherlands)
the Dutch Water Level will be 20 centimetres higher
The other side!
Or do we turn it into an opportunity?
Nevertheless, there is also another side to it. There are many ad-
Can we define opportunities and challenges out of the mega-
vantages of Northern Netherlands. Regularly unknown: like a well
trends, problems and developments in a Northern specific man-
kept secret.
ner?
•
In the North a relatively large amount of artists, writers and
intellectuals are living, some of them part-time.
•
Life is cheaper in the North. This can be illustrated by the map
of the price of land in the Netherlands: the huge difference
between the North and the rest is perfectly clear25
•
The North is safer
•
The people in the North are sturdy, but they also have manners: people really call you back, a zebra is a safe place to
cross the street
and in the bus a seat is offered if you’re pregnant or old.
•
Almost no segregated schools are apparent in the North
•
People know what ‘taking care’ means.
•
Landscapes are sound in the North and it is just beautiful.
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)
De economische hittekaart van Nederland, Bureau Louter, december 2002
Prof. Marcel Stive, TU Delft, in NRC Handelsblad, 20 maart 2005
Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November 2005
De Armoedemonitor, SCP, 2005
Grondprijs per hectare, Dirk Sijmons, Startconferentie Klimaat voor Ruimte, februari 2005
Prof. Marcel Stive, TU Delft, in NRC Handelsblad, 20 maart 2005
23
24
CHAPTER 3
AMBITIONS
Assumptions
1. Climate change is taking place
2. Sea level is rising. We assume that by the end of the century
the sea level is 60 centimetres higher than it is now. This is
Our ambition is to create a future for the Northern Netherlands
undoubtedly not exactly going to happen, but it gives us the
which gives people living in the area a great environment to live
chance to think through the consequences and meaning of
in. In this environment people can be sure of a beautiful landscape, which is clean and pure, where people are relaxed and
climate change, even if the rise will be less or more.
3. The energy demand stays at least at the same level as it is
now.
laid back. An environment also where one can be sure of the
provision of energy and water. And finally, where climate change
4. The Northern Netherlands is so beautiful.
is dealt with and the risks are reasonable and will never lead to
big disasters. A couple of driving forces and assumptions helped
Approach
us to define our ambitions on energy, climate change and spatial
1. The method we use is backtracking and back-casting.
quality. These ambitions were translated in design principles and
2. We look at a desired situation, let’s say 2100 and formulate the
strategies.
first steps towards it, with a focus on 2036.
3. The story 2100 is based on the assumed climate change. This
Our driving forces
makes it possible to define images and ideas about what
1. We see climate change not as a threat, but as an opportunity.
Energy Valley might look like in the future, not as a fixed image,
Our approach is not defensive but offensive: adapt and lead
but as a utopia or fantasy. We can use this fantasy to make
developments instead of neglecting and regulating them. Use
designs for 2036.
energy knowledge to give identity to the landscape and the
4. We design strategies and principles, not a fixed blueprint-design.
region.
2. We see the North as a transparent clean machine. Which
5. In the end we show attractive images, the designs become
means that we do not strive to become a satellite of the Randstad. We make use of the unique qualities of the North: the
space, relaxation and the crispy atmosphere. Energy charac-
imaginable.
3.1 Energy-ambition
teristics can be used to profit from the unique qualities of the
North.
In the next 30 years:
3. Connect through images. An intimate connection between
energy and space offers chances to develop an attractive
•
We produce energy for our own demand within the region.
region, in which the basic needs of the people are fulfilled to
•
Maximum of 20 % of our energy use comes from fossil resources.
the max. Inspiring and creative images, appealing for people,
politicians and companies shall play a major role.
4. Regional approach: security of energy, food and water supply.
Independent from import or external influences.
5. The power of energy: the LowExergy principle, a multi energy
strategy and 3D-approach.
•
The CO2 emissions in the region are cut down by 70%. This ambition is a lot higher than the Task Force Energy transition describes27: 50%. To reach this goal, almost all transition pathways,
described in the report of the Task Force, should be followed.
The choices we make in our Pallet of Possibilities are those
pathways that are spatially relevant (biomass, cascading,
25
renewables, energy storage and smart systems). Our proposal
•
therefore shows an overlap with the chosen pathways of the
and design those, smaller, living areas and houses in a way
that they will survive floods.
Task Force. It is perfectly clear that we need to focus on a lot
of different pathways at the same time.
At the same time we make living on and in the water possible
•
To slow down the effect of heavy storms and floods we
•
There is no import of biomass or fossil resources.
propose a multi layered defence system, with new islands in
•
We make use of different energy sources at the same time
the North Sea, the existing Wadden Islands, the existing dikes
(multi-energy strategy).
and the old sea-dikes inland. We propose an offensive land
The new production space of energy is the trigger for land-
protection and multilayer defence.
•
scape and urban designs.
•
•
•
kept safe or even enhanced in the future, sand and mud has
regional level.
to be collected in the Wadden area. New structures in the
Energy is used efficiently: the LowExergy principle guides
North Sea can provide the existing Wadden with enough sand
energy cascades in the region.
•
To ensure that the existing nature values of the Wadden are
The regional energy potentials steer the functional zoning at a
The demand of the people in the region is leading (with no
to keep up with the rapid changes due to the sea level rise.
•
limits beforehand). Renewable energy supplies what is asked
for. The reduction of demand is secondarily (NB. the trias
energetica is redefined as follows: 1. supply energy-demand
We aim at a substantial contribution to the reduction of global
warming.
3.3 Spatial ambition
with renewable resources, 2. use energy efficiently and 3. try to
minimize the overall demand).
•
•
We make use of several newly introduced techniques as soon
as possible (osmosis, tidal energy, geothermal energy).
3.2 Climate Change ambition
duction and the climate that lies ahead of us.
•
Differences in landscape lead to specific functional typologies.
•
The existing spatial qualities are enhanced and less qualitative
locations should be improved.
•
•
We do not just see climate change as a threat, but mostly
The existing landscape structure and different typologies are
the base on which designs are created.
as an oppotunity. If it is possible to adapt the landscape,
•
The spatial characteristics and differences are strengthened.
the functional zoning and human beings to the upcoming
•
The historical basics, often based on the natural driving forces,
changes, it might be better possible to handle these changes.
are used as an inspiration to find the most sustainable direc-
Instead of protection of the existing situation, often at high
•
We aim at creating new living areas inspired by energy pro-
tion.
costs and bigger risks (for example: higher dikes), our ambition
•
We want to create attractive landscapes and urban areas.
is to use the changes as inspiration for the design.
•
Available energy potentials steer directly and indirectly the
If we only heighten the dikes, the future sea level rising will
became a huge risk at a. Creating a more flexible and multilayered defence system, giving the sea more influence inland,
order of functions.
3.4 Design principles
causes fewer risks.
•
26
We encourage projecting the largest living areas at the safest
We made use of a couple of design principles, which steered our
spots. Which means the higher grounds, where it is safe even if
design process: backtracking, multi energy strategy and LowExer-
a flood occurs.
gy.
Principle 1: Backtracking
Backtracking aims to find a moment in history when social-economic developments of the region were in balance with the natural
system. For the Northern Netherlands this moment lies in a period
when sea-influence was normal and formed the landscape of the
northern region (see also appendix 1, Time Horizons). This landscape that we are so proud of has terps and wierden, an open
landscape with historical dikes and a rich agricultural system. The
use of the landscape did not deplete the natural resources. After
that period we occupied the landscape more intensively. Roads
and highways were built, new industries and urban areas were
planned. Temporarily flooded areas were endiked and became
polders. We took, bit by bit, land from the sea. Compared to the
fig.8 Multi energy strategy
rest of the Netherlands our region still lives in a reasonable balance
BOX 2 ENERGY RESOURCES
1. Biomass: large parts of Drenthe and the ‘Veenkoloniën’ (peat colonies) can be used for the production of biomass. Also existing
biomass from the region can be added to the industrially produced quantity through an intelligent collection system, and converted to high-quality energy in power plants.
2. Wind: Alongside the Northern coast there is a lot of space for large-scale and beautifully designed wind parks. Partly in the old
Wadden Sea and partly on the remnants of the islands they would pay a valuable contribution to the generation of electricity.
Beside the known techniques we could think also about the deployment of enormous kites (developed by Prof. Wubbo Ockels),
which would capture the great wind speeds at the altitude of 10 kilometres and convert this to power.
3. Water, tidal: Between the remnants of the islands and in places where sea water can flow to the hinterland in a controlled way,
there is an opportunity to develop tidal plants.
Water, osmosis: At the spots where salt and fresh water meet, electricity can be generated by the process of osmosis through
membranes. The interaction between highly-concentrated salty water and fresh water leads to the most efficient process. The
salt water can originate from the Wadden Sea or North Sea, but also be produced by solving rock salt form the bottom and
extracting this up to the surface.
4. Sun: In large parts of Frisia and Groningen solar energy can be made useful by active and passive systems. Well-integrated designs of solar energy parks of the roofs of buildings would make an energy plant of unused space.
5. Geothermal: There are several aquifers at different depths in most parts of the Northern Netherlands. Below 900 metres the temperature of this water exceeds 60 degrees Celsius. This implies that it is a very appropriate heat source for heating and hot water
in domestic use. The mechanism to extract the hot water is simple: drill a hole and pump it up. A second drill-hole should be used
to replenish the deep wells with cooled water. In the North there already are numerous drill-holes for the extraction of natural gas.
These could be used soon for the extraction of geothermal heat.
6. Natural gas: Using the available natural gas will remain necessary in the following decades, as a regular fuel or as a transition fuel
towards the use of sustainable energy.
27
with its surroundings, though we cannot call it really sustainable:
we use more resources, water and energy than we (can) produce.
Proposing a back to nature approach, where a historic situation
is copied, is not realistic and not desirable. But to make use of the
driving forces that formed the landscape in history and transform
them into future forces that guide us towards a new future and
designs that are modern is a powerful approach. Making use
of the newest technologies and ideas and show a ‘fit’ with the
drivers of the past. And continue the natural logic of the place.
The back-casting principle gives us the ingredients to form an ideal
image for the far future. Out of this future, we can define designs,
projects and concrete steps to take to reach this ideal. This sets the
agenda for the next decades.
Principle 2: The Multi-energy strategy
An energy strategy based on just one, fossil, fuel will prove very
vulnerable in the future. This is in particular the case when this resource – in the Northern Netherlands this is natural gas – is finite. In
time, the region (and thereby other parts of the country) will become dependent on the costly and unsure supply of fossil fuels from
other countries. In order to tackle this a strategy based on various
energy resources is desirable. For Northern Netherlands it would
be useful to focus on biomass, geothermal energy, solar energy,
wind energy, tidal energy and energy from osmosis. An ideal mix
of energy resources would supply the region with sufficient energy,
thereby assuring the availability of energy and avoiding the need
to become dependent on other regions and countries.
Principle 3: LowExergy
Nowadays, energy of a high caloric value, such as heat of a high
temperature (1200 degrees Celsius, produced by the combustion of natural gas), is applied in low-grade applications, such as
heating of dwellings, for which a temperature of approximately 20
degrees would suffice. Because of this a great deal of the original
exergetic value is lost. The high-quality energy could be used in higher-grade functions first. The Low-Ex principle is based on optimal
matching of supply and demand of energy qualities.
28
fig.9 Low exergy
Design strategy 4: Gas for change
In high density areas and in areas with an intensive gas network,
bio-gas or H2 can be implemented.
Design strategy 5: Waste for use
In areas where the largest amounts of waste are produced and
where waste out of green spaces (parks, forests) can be collected,
an intelligent transport system can be implemented to transport
waste to biomass plants.
Design strategy 6: Support-less landscape
In areas where nowadays a lot of energy is used, this energy-use
can be decreased. For instance, stop certain pumps which keep
fig.10 Cascade of exergy
3.5 Design strategies
the polders dry and the ingredients for a whole new landscape
are found.
Design strategy 7: Tension fields
Where tension can be build up by bringing together salt and fresh
Based on the principles we defined several design strategies. These
water, tension fields can be introduced. This is possible at the ed-
strategies can be used in appropriate areas. Specific local situati-
ges of land and sea, at locations where the sea re-enters the land
ons usually ask for a specific strategies.
and wherever salt layers in the deep soil are available and can be
brought to the surface. Use the osmosis technology.
Design strategy 1: Stand alone/autarky
Where no direct grid is available or not enough natural potential
Design strategy 8: Time tidal
in the landscape is available to supply the demand, these areas
Where certain differences in tide are available tidal plants can be
should find autarkic solutions for their energy supply. Biomass, solar
introduced. Smaller tidal plants can be located at locations where
and wind-energy and geothermal energy are possibilities.
wind turbines are placed and used to pump water up (in the night
times, when the wind energy is not used). During the day the water
Design strategy 2: New potentials
moves out through the tidal plant and produces energy.
New technologies, some of which are still in a research phase,
should be added where specific circumstances are present. Suitable locations can be used to experiment with new techniques,
e.g. the high speed wind kite.
Design strategy 3: Generatives
Where energy is for free and the potentials for wind and solar are
high, these generative energy sources should be developed, possibly at the largest possible scale.
27) Meer met energie, Kansen voor Nederland, Task Force Energitransitie, mei 2006
29
30
CHAPTER 4
A SPATIAL ENERGY-TYPOLOGY
4.1 Combined exergy and spatial planning
Thanks to the wide application of the Low-exergy
principle28,
sing utilities, or – to speak with Arjan van Timmeren31 – autonomy or
heteronomy.
in which supply and demand of energy qualities are matched,
hardly any exergy is lost. The functions that have been matched
Centralisation on one level can be decentralisation on another
lie in the landscape as a cascade: high-caloric waste heat is
one (the ‘paradox of scale’ by De Jong). We don not want
supplied to the next energy demander in the chain, who in turn
centralisation on a global scale: thereby the region of the Northern
supplies waste heat to the next, lower-grade function. For the
Netherlands (as well as the Netherlands and even Europe) would
Northern Netherlands an analysis took place in which parts of the
become much too vulnerable. Centralisation on a national scale
landscape which types of energy can be yielded. For instance,
(i.e. decentralisation on the global scale…) could be an option for
‘potential maps’ have been made with the suitability of wind
the region, but this in fact comes down to the current approach:
energy, the potential extraction of geothermal heat, the possibi-
energy is organised nationally. Centralisation on the regional scale
lities for the produce of crops for biomass, etcetera. The combi-
(decentralisation on the national scale; now we’re talking) is an
nation of these maps produces an image of how different areas,
option but would imply a regional grid for power and gas for the
depending on the climatic, geo-morphological and functional
entire Northern Netherlands. This is possible, but our approach so
features, can contribute to the production of energy. On the basis
far has been that it is perhaps wiser that remote areas would not
of this, matching, most appropriate functions could be defined. By
have to be connected to such a central network. In contrast, it
connecting these functions in such a way that cascades of energy
seems logical that urban hearts with a good energy infrastructure
evolve – in which the one function uses the waste energy of the
be provided centrally with energy (in which case connected ele-
other – a very energy-effective and sustainable energy system can
ments could feed the grid also). Whether such an up- and down-
be designed29. Different areas originate from this, each with its own
load grid be suitable for the entire region is a subject for debate.
characteristics, spatial and energetic: the energy landscapes (see
Box 4).
Locally decentralised spots can be rural areas, villages or secluded
In the series of cascades the Eems delta takes a very important
buildings, depending on the local potentials. From the doctoral
position, as it is the place where the highest-grade energy is pro-
research by Arjan van Timmeren32 [2006] it turns that, for the
duced and used. Through a system of transport urban domestic
robustness of energy networks, autarkic elements be better con-
waste can be brought to this area, incinerated and directly used
nected to a grid.
for the industry and horticulture. As electricity and heat it conse-
The moral of this story: not either central or decentral, however
quently returns to the urban network of Winschoten-Groningen-
central as well as decentral.
Assen, where it is used in hotel and catering industry, offices, and
housing30.
4.2 Approach
GLOBALISATION OR PROTECTIONISM
It is dicey to proclaim or predict global political and economic
developments and their influence on the energy market in the Nor-
CENTRALISATION OR DECENTRALISATION
thern Netherlands. We think that the development of Energy Valley
Discussion about energy often concerns centralising of decentrali-
should assure independence with regards to global insecurities. To
31
clarify: this does not mean independence from the world, however
industrial processes
robustness, or flexibility, to respond to any global development.
•
incineration of oil, gas, biomass and waste: 600-18000
This robustness demands for an at least partly (not necessarily fully)
•
steam: 100-3000
independent energy system based on local resources and potenti-
•
exhaust cooling water: 30-1000
als (and hence, on exergetic principles).
•
liquid nitrogen: -1960
•
solid nitrogen: -2100
4.3 Analysis of demand and supply
agricultural processes
TEMPERATURES REQUIRED ON THE DEMAND SIDE
•
exhaust air from greenhouses: 25-400
Below are the temperatures required for certain processes, divided
•
exhaust air from stables: 25-400
into specific functions in which they appear (apart from the fact
that industries also contain restaurants).
industrial processes
33:
300-18000
domestic processes
•
exhaust air from the oven: 100-2000
•
exhaust air from cooking plates: 30-900
•
power plant
•
waste water from (dish) washing machines: 20-700
•
metal production or recycling34: 223-15360
•
waste water from bath & shower: 20-400
•
stone bakery: 12000
•
exhaust air from living spaces: 24-300
•
chemical reactor: 6000
•
waste water from toilets: 20-300
•
production and processing of synthetics: 95-2400
natural storage systems
domestic processes
•
geothermal heat from deep layers (>900 m): 60-900
•
kitchen oven: 2500
•
geothermal heat from shallow layers (< 900 m,): 10-600
•
cooking of food and water: 1000
•
surface water: 0-250
•
(dish) washing machine: 900
•
soil and ground water (approx. 1 m below surface): 110
•
heat storage: 600 (minimum temperature for heat supply to
•
ice (solid water): 00
dwellings)
•
shower/bath/sauna: 400
•
indoor air heating: 200
•
cooling: 200
artificial storage systems
•
fridge: 50
•
freezer: -200
WASTE HEAT SUPPLIED TO THE DEMAND SIDE
Below are the temperatures that certain processes in specific
functions can produce.
32
ENERGY SUPPLIED AND DEMANDED BY FUNCTION
primary resource for the other, in multiple steps. In our redesign of
As a next step we can couple the temperatures from the proces-
the Northern Netherlands this implies that the spatial planning is
ses mentioned above to function types of the built environment.
tuned to the order most logical in terms of exergy. In doing so, one
The table below gives an overview.
can cling to some anker-points: the Eems power plant (highest
exergetic value), existing, difficultly replaceable functions such as
industries and horticulture, and gas drillings, which are suitable for
the extraction of relatively cool (shallow) of hot (deep) water.
CONSEQUENCES FOR SPATIAL FUNCTIONS
•
Power plants are – in sofar as non-sustainable – fed with fuels.
These can be fossil resources, but they are depleting, and biogas, biomass and non-recyclable domestic waste. Therefore,
they can be best situated close to the production of biomass
and households, or - better and more liveable – be connected
to infrastructure that can supply these resources. Power plants
themselves provide electricity, steam and heat, which are useful to industry and greenhouses. The power plant can provide
hydrogen as well.
•
Industries usually require – of course depending on the type of
industry – the highest form of energy and temperatures, and
therefore should be located close to power plants and other
forms of industry. Industries themselves provide heated cooling
water that can be appropriate for dwellings and offices, and
possibly for greenhouses as wel.
•
Greenhouses for horticulture could use steam and heated
cooling water from power plants and industries and need to
be situated close to these, because of possible transport losses.
Another solution is that greenhouses will be designed in such
a way that they can take care of their own heat supply (no
problem on a sunny day but during the night and in wintertime
traditional greenhouses radiate and transmit too much heat).
Exergetically seen, the use of lighting for heating is inefficient.
Greenhouses can supply low-caloric waste heat that is appropriate for dwellings and offices.
MATCHING SUPPLY AND DEMAND
•
Commercial accommodation such as in offices should be able
The principle of exergy is the tuning of supply and demand of
to cool as well as heat. These functions therefore prosper from
energy qualities. This implies that energy flows should be put in
a location close to drilling holes that can provide them with
cascades, where waste energy of the one process forms the
hot and cold water. Besides, offices can also use waste heat
33
•
from industries, greenhouses and their own exhaust air. Cooling
depicts when a certain area is supposed to be close to another
is the most important problem, due to which use of the ground,
one.
ground water or flowing open water seems most appropriate.
According to the regional area types designed during the 2005
Because of the limited demand for heat, waste heat from
charette in Groningen, a schedule could look as the table below.
offices can be used also in dwellings. Mixing with living areas
In order to develop a new typology for the Northern Netherlands,
therefore is, also because of travel distances, desirable.
this schedule should be tuned to the previous table.
With a good design, dwellings only require heating for thermal
comfort. Heat from exhaust air and water from the dwelling
itself could suffice, or exhaust heat from offices could be additional, as well as heat from greenhouses. Apart from this, dwellings need hot water of at least 60 degrees Celsius (to avoid
the Legionair’s Disease). Therefore, houses can be located
best close to drilling points for geothermal heat, but heat can
also be yielded from solar collectors.
SPATIAL AREA TYPES AND THEIR ENERGY
Depending on the natural and topographical site of an area, a
principal selection can be made of suitable energy resources and
techniques, systems of storage, and produced output (in terms of
energy). In the table below we assumed a sustainable situation,
and therefore fossil resources are not mentioned. The table also
PROBLEMS OF FINE-TUNING
There are some problems concerning the tuning of residual energy
flows: the supply and demand need to be matched in a spatial
and temporary sense. For instance, the demand for heat is seasondepending, whereas industrial production of heat is continuous or
asynchronic. This is a challenge in this project, and for the future
in general. From an exergetic point of view, nature but also the
very first settlements of human beings were much better organised
than nowadays, and this also applies to some industrial complexes.
Today’s habits need to be tackled again in another, creative approach that better resembles natural effectiveness.
Perhaps an optimal tuning of supply and demand is not tech34
nically possible yet, but in this case Grounds for Change should
make clear which technological developments are desirable. This
gen and, in terms of energy, hydrogen is not a resource but a
mainly regards discrepancies in the temporary sense (for Grounds
medium of storage, which still needs to be produced through
for Change provides the spatial solutions), requiring tuning of func-
electricity. If this electricity is produced from fossil fuels, no
tions, which can feed one another at different times, and storage
emission improvement will be achieved with regard to today.
systems for low- and high-caloric heat and power. For an optimal
If we want to talk of an efficient production of electricity we
spatial integration, existing and new functions should be matched
really will have to think about sustainable resources, which can
in terms of energy supply and demand, for example by means of
only be preceded or filled up by fossil resources in a stage of
time schedules (annual, seasonal, daily).
transition. Moreover, reckoning with the decreasing demand
for heat (amplified by the most probable climate change!),
COMBINING INDUSTRY, HORTICULTURE AND HOUSING
Exergy cascading within and around industrial development
areas (connections to plans of horticulture and housing) should be
electricity whose generation produces a lot of heat should be
avoided, and this again points towards sustainable energy.
2. Combined heat and power (CHP) can be put into service in
based on short distances for transportation of heat: 5 kilometres at
the case of a simultaneous demand for electricity and heat or
the maximum. This starting-point would lead to compact, casca-
hot water, common for all living areas. However, CHP nowa-
ded areas and an exergy-driven return of mixing of energy pro-
days is mainly powered by gas and petrol, and we consider
duction and other (urban) functions, something abolished widely
this non-available by 2035. Therefore, it is useful to develop
in the Western world after World War II. Residential areas (yet ac-
CHP fueled by other sources (waste, biomass, … - in fact an
commodation for working and catering industries) efficiently provi-
advanced furnace), thereby still offering perspectives after
ded with energy will be situated close to greenhouses and (clean)
2035. By the way, CHP produces too much heat when elec-
industries. In order to avoid a deterioration of spatial quality a
tricity defines the demand. So, we should couple CHP utilities
new design language will be the solution, as well as the persistent
to functions that demand a lot of heat, such as greenhouses
development of clean manufacturing. In short, multi-functionality
– another reason to combine horticulture with housing…
and optimised functional matching in optimal shape…
3. The heat pump can be a universally applicable technique
That current spatial policy plans restrict the mixing of functions
for exchange of heat and cold between two environments.
should be no reason to ignore solutions that are energetically
But it requires that the electricity powering it be supplied from
better. Initially, the essence of Grounds for Change was to improve
sustainable resources and not conventional (from fossil fuels).
spatial policy any way.
This may be established decentrally (per house, block, district,
village or rural area) or centrally (via the regional grid).
OTHER REMARKS
1. There is a trend for increased electricity en decreased heat
demand. Although the greater part of energy demand is still
4.4 Energy potentials of the Northern
Netherlands
related to heat, a system still based on (waste) heat may be
questioned. The present energy industry propose to focus on a
INTRODUCTION
more efficient power supply, mentioning natural gas and fuel
In this section a method is elaborated on that laid the foundations
cells. Regarding the depletion of local gas reserves by 2035
for the regional vision for the Northern Netherlands in which energy
this can be possible only when import of gas from e.g. Russia
functioned as a directive element for spatial developments.
will be secured (and accepting that delivery will be prolonged
In the following subsections the region is studied on it climatic
with a few decades only). Fuel cells are powered by hydro-
and geophysical properties in order to determine the potentials
35
of different energy resources step by step. Per resource of energy
tion: built and forested areas.
consequently the natural or technical/cultural availability, the
Solar energy can be used through passive systems (heat) and
potentials already present, and the potentials that will be possible
active systems for power (solar panels, or photovoltaic cells), hot
in time but that still require research. Moreover, an energy value
water (solar collectors), or both (PTV panels). It can be collected
per hectare is given for every energy resource.
best in the built environment, because of the short distances of
The resources discussed are worked out orderly in potential maps,
transportation of hot water and low-voltage power.
ultimately culminating in a map of energy blends, visualising which
energy forms have a great potential in the various areas of the
Potentials in time (to be studied)
region of the Northern Netherlands.
The techniques exist already but systems will become cheaper
and/or perform better in the near future. New developments at
THE SUN
the moment are studies directed at total low-voltage buildings,
which would make the conversion of low-voltage AC power from
Natural availability
PV panels superfluous, further improving the overall performance.
The Northern Netherlands receives sufficient energy from the sun,
on average approximately 100 Watt per per square metre. This
Costs of solar techniques
energy is suited for passive and active applications.
Without subsidies, the investments into solar collectors has a rate of
return of exactly the term for writing off the installation (around 15
years). Hence, no reason to ignore this solar technique. The price
of PV cells, per generated Watt, has been reduced by a factor
of 14 since 1975, however, solar electricity cannot compete with
power from fossiel fuels yet: the price is still more expensive by a
factor of five. The so-called amorphous silicium cells can become
cheaper by a factor of eight, but these perform worse (yield
around 6%). Nevertheless, this development can lead to competetiveness with fossil fuel eventually. This moment will be sooner if the
costs of fossil energy further increase, or if environmental costs are
accounted in the price of energy. These developments may be
expected within 30 years.
fig.11 Potentials for solar energy
Power per hectare35
•
heat from solar energy: 350-500 kW/ha (incl. storage)
•
power from solar energy: 60-100 kW/ha (accu-watersofopslag)
Potentials already present
Solar energy can be yielded everywhere, if there are no obstacles
WIND
that reduce the reception of solar radiation in buildings, on panels
36
or collectors. Therefore, all open areas have a potential for solar
energy (the so-called ‘yes’ areas), but apart from these, there are
The Northern Netherlands have enough potential for yield of wind
‘yes if’ areas, where the suitability depends on the specific situa-
energy: excellent around the Wadden Sea, high along the coast,
reasonable behind that and sufficient close to the German border.
Power per hectare36
Electricity can be generated from wind.
•
power from wind energy, large turbines: 450 kW/ha
•
power from wind energy, small turbines: 70 kW/ha built area
BIOMASS AND WASTE
Natural and cultural/technical availability
In comparison with the rest of the Netherlands, the North still has
large-scale agriculture, in the Veenkoloniën (Peat Colonies) and
the Groningen and Frisian ‘highland’. These areas of agriculture
yields biomass directly or indirectly (as waste product after a
primary function), or biofuels can be produced from crop. Biomass
is present also in forests (predominantly in Drenthe) and in the reed
fig.12 Historic windmills
stretches along the banks of mainly the Frisian lakes and canals.
The Eemshaven is suitable for import of energy resources from
outside the Northern Netherlands, such as biomass from the Baltic
and other Eastern European states.
Not only biomass, yet also domestic waste can be seen as a
source of energy.
Apart from the old-fashioned incineration of biomass for heating,
electricity and heat is also produced from biomass by power
plants. Biofuels can already be used for transport means. Transportation of waste (and biomass!) should be limited, supporting our
fig.13 Potentials for windenergy
There are resistance-driven and lift-driven wind engines. The latter
ideas to develop a network with short distances for transport.
fig.14 Potentials for biomass
– among which modern windmills and small turbines such as the
Turby and Darraeus – have a greater yield. The tall wind turbines,
known from windmill parks, have up to 5 MW of power. The smaller
types are suited for built environments.
Wubbo Ockels designed a windkite with a vane wheel reaching
up until an altitude of 10 km. Because of the high wind velocities at
this altitude this windmill can generate more than regular turbines.
37
Within a reasonably short term the first small CHPs on biomass
(bioCHPs) can be expected, enabling generation of power and
heat on a smaller scale than the large power plants are serving. A
next step is the development of clean furnaces for incineration of
various fuels (such as domestic waste).
It may be useful to investigate whether every urban and village
heart should have a small waste plant (similar to the CHP on biomass and waste previously mentioned) to deploy waste optimally
into the energy chain. Additional research would with no doubt
mainly focus on (hazardous) emissions, notwithstanding that this
development would be a catalyst for a more conscientious ap-
fig.15 Potetials water as energy source (tidal, osmosis, seepage)
proach to waste (back to waste separation?) and clean processing technology. Other research could be directed at energy-ef-
ficient systems for transportation of waste and biomass (tubes,
In time a tidal plant can be constructed near the Lauwers Lake, at
boats, trains…).
the site of the present sluices. Osmosis plants will be possible along
the Afsluitdijk, in the Lauwers Lake (opened again to the sea) and
Power per hectare37
near Delfzijl. In certain places at sea energy can be generated
•
power from biomass: 5 kW/ha
from waves. Another investigation-worthy topic is the small-scale
•
power from domestic waste: 1,0 kW/ha built area
generation of energy from water around the Hondsrug, because
of the height differences there, by means of free fall, water steps
WATER
or new springs.
Power per hectare
The Northern Netherlands have the disposal of various water types
•
power from tides: 6,9 kW/ha enclosed sea
and a pallet of opportunities with them: there are relatively great
•
power from gulf energy: 3000 kW/ha
(3 m) water height differences between high tide and ebb; fresh
water from the IJssel Lakemeer is spouted to the Wadden Sea;
SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND
there are wave movements at sea; there are long borderlines
between fresh, brackish and salt water (facilitating electricity from
Natural and cultural/technical availability
osmosis).
The land has a natural and technical/cultural surface (including
In reverse there are relatively large areas below sea level (in the
roof surfaces), open water, groundwater and underground, which
polders) that need to be drained.
can be made useful to the energy system. There is geothermal
energy in different layers of the underground, for which the tem-
38
perature depends on the depth: until 1 m the temperature varies
A hydraulic spout plant is foreseen already on the Afsluitdijk (‘lock-
with the air temperature above the ground and the reception of
up dike’) near Harlingen. Drainage pumps can be switched off
solar radiation (but also heat radiation from buildings); from 1 m
already, not generating energy yet reducing the demand for it.
down the temperature is fairly constant around the average year
temperature (10 degrees Celsius in the Northern Netherlands); and
going deeper, the underground becomes warmer because of the
Heat and cold can be extracted from open water, ground water
proximity of the earth core.
and the ground by means of heat exchangers and heat pumps.
A separate category are the gas and oil fields. In time these will
The potentials of shallow layers mainly lie in passive cooling (10
deplete entirely but they can also be utilised in other ways.
degrees is always cooler than the desired indoor temperature)
and storage of heat and cold by means of aquifers, heat pumps,
hollow foundation poles or storage tanks. From around 900 m and
deeper the temperature stays above 60 degrees and thus is safe
for domestic use (Legionella are not possible above 60 degrees).
Imported natural gas can be temporarily stored in empty gas
fields.
At the surface heat or cold can be extracted from asphalt roads
and bituminous roofs (also in a coller climate) by means of heat
pumps (or heat exchangers).
Traditional plants that cannot comply with the serious CO2 reductions required will be able to store carbon dioxide in empty gas
fields.
The potentials of deeper geological layers are the extraction of
hot water for domestic use (do not forget that the Dutch climate
can coll down because of an ocean current inversion). Extraction
fig.16 Potentials for storage in the underground
from these deeper layers can be established via old drill holes and
gas pipes. Hot bedrocks can also be used for power generation in
certain areas of the North.
WASTE HEAT
Technical/cultural availability
We produce heat by our human processes in various ways:
exhaust air, waste water of showers, kitchen and toilet, heat radiation, etcetera.
Waste heat from human and domestic processes can be made
fig.17 Potentials for geothermal drillings (existing gas or oil drillings)
useful through heat pumps and heat exchangers.
39
RESUMING POWER PLANTS
4.5 Energy landscapes
In the previous part different power plants have been discussed
already. They primarily generate electricity but often also produce
OVERLAP MAP OF ENERGY POTENTIAL MIXES
(waste) heat:
If all potential maps are laid over one another, a pallet of op-
the Eems plant: suited for a multi-fuel approach: natural gas,
portunities arises for suitable energy resources in every area in the
biomass, waste as fuel
Northern Netherlands. This does not mean that every area should
•
the VAM plant: a power plant fueled by biomass and waste
use every potential, but the opportunity is there.
•
micro-CHPs: for the semi-decentral traditional (gas, petrol, die-
•
sel) combined generation of power and heat
This map of energy mixes was translated into a master plan for
•
bio-CHPs: CHPs fueled by biomass or biofuels
the whole region, also taking into account other qualities: the
•
all-incineration CHPs: clean CHPs fueled by various sources,
landscape, historic-cultural values, economic and demographic
including domestic waste
developments, etcetera.
•
tidal plant: in the Lauwers Lake
Based on local-regional features, in May 2005, analysis and po-
•
spout plant: on the Afsluitdijk
tential maps38 were developed for the Northern Netherlands, and
•
osmosis plant: along the Afsluitdijk, in the Lauwers Lake and/or
making use of the low-exergy principle nine energy landscapes39
near Delfzijl
evolved (Box 3), which are connected to one another by the
wave plants: at open sea
energy grids.
•
The areas described in Box 4 were elaborated on after the Charette of May 2005, of which the results will be discussed further on.
fig.18 Possible power-plants
fig.19 The regional mix of energy-potentials
40
fig.21 Energy landscapes
28)
29)
30)
31)
32)
33)
34)
35)
36)
37)
38)
39)
Grounds for Change, Design Charette, Scanning the Futures, Mei 2005
Grounds for Change, Ruimteteam, Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Oktober 2005
Grounds for Change, Ruimteteam, December 2005
Van Timmeren, Autonomy & heteronomy, dissertation, TU Delft, june 2006
Van Timmeren, Autonomy & heteronomy, dissertation, TU Delft, june 2006
piston engine: 1800o, gas engine: 1300o, steam engine: 300o, Starling engine:
300o
tin: 223o, lead: 327o, zinc 420o, aluminium: 660o, copper 1036o, iron: 1536o
See appendix 5
See appendix 5
See appendix 5
Grounds for Change, Ruimteteam, Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Oktober 2005
Design Charette, Grounds for Change, regionaal Ontwerpteam, Groningen, Mei
2005
fig.20 Integrated energy landscapes
41
BOX 3 - ENERGY LANDSCAPES
1.
Windy Dikes & Reefs: The Wadden islands and present sea dikes are very suitable for wind energy. The wind is abundant and
strong. Existing techniques such as wind turbines provide the ‘Connected Hinterland’ with most of the electricity needed. Also new
techniques such as Wubbo Ockels’ windkite can be localised in this area.
2.
Connected Hinterland: The northern parts of Groningen and Frisia can be largely provided with energy by wind energy. The heat
demand from larger urban areas such as Sneek, Leeuwarden, Dokkum and Leek but also the existing knoll villages, can be supplied by geothermal resources, for which drillings to deeper layers of the earth are established. For cases of possible shortage (for
instances in cases of windcalm) a backup connected with the Industrial Development area is foreseen.
3.
Water World: The southern and eastern part of Frisia will become more and more flooded. Because of the opportunities to connect fresh and salt water an osmosis plant can be projected and a tidal plant near Lauwersoog. These provisions will mainly supply
electricity to the power grid. For the remaining energy provision Water World uses active solar energy, wind energy (small turbines)
and heat pumps. People live in low densities near, next to, on or in the water.
4.
Autarkadia: The higher plateau of Drenthe (and a part of Frisia) remains relatively empty and dark. It is the area where rain water
should infiltrate into the soil to keep the ground water at level. One can provide oneself with energy by (small-scale) use of sun
and wind. Here, most significant energy resources are biomass, heat and cold from the underground by heat pumps, and geothermal heat. The thought was that people from this area do not apply for facilities in the neighbourhood but provide themselves
with food, energy and water as much as possible. Public artificial lighting is rare in this area. For the necessary extras the autarkadic dwellers can move over unpaved and non-maintained roads with their Sustainable 4WD to the closest supermarket.
5.
Biomass County: eastern Groningen changes into a biomass producing landscape. Large-scale, modernly produced biomass is
transported efficiently to a biomass plant in the area of Industrial Development (Eemshaven-Delfzijl).
6.
Industrial Development: In the zone between Eemshaven and Delfzijl large industrial developments can be expected, because in
this place energy is produced for high-grade functions. The biomass plant, which not only converts industrial biomass into electricity yet also waste from the entire northern region, supplies power to the industry and the Urban Corridor.
7.
Urban Corridor: Connected to eachother through high-quality urban transport over the A28 motorway all cores of Meppel to
Groningen become part of the Urban Corridor, an urban network that connects the northern region to the rest of the Netherlands.
Here are the greatest dynamics, with everything a modern lifestyle demands for. The electricity in this Corridor is supplied through
the power plant in the Industrial Development. For heat the area is connected to a series of geothermal drillings, which extract hot
water for heating and hot water.
8.
Dog Ridge Estate: The Hondsrug (translated: dog ridge), from Groningen to Emmen, is suitable for the addition of new estates,
which use heat pumps for there energy.
9.
The Green Community: At the end of the Hondsrug lies Emmen, that transforms to a Green Community, where an ecological
lifestyle floorishes. For the energie one is depending mainly on biomass and geothermal heat.
42
CHAPTER 5
LANDSCAPE TYPOLOGY
The landscapes of the Northern Netherlands are varied. A lot of dif-
MARINE-CLAY AREA
ferent typologies can be defined. Each of them has its own spatial
The marine-clay area is the most northern part of the region. Most
characteristics, history, occupation and functional order.
of this landscape was gained on the sea.
ALTITUDES
The differences in altitude in the region steer the historic developments in the area and result in different landscape typologies.
For instance, the altitude mainly arranges where dry and wet
landscapes exist.
fig.23 Marine clay area
fig.22 Altitudes
fig.24 Reclaimed land
In history this landscape was influenced by the sea and therefore
the people lived on little hills: the terps and wierden. In the sea-
43
clay area a couple of special places are visible: the old salt water
THE LIME PLATEAU
inlets. The Middel Sea in Friesland is still visible in the landscape pat-
Almost all of Drente belongs to the lime plateau. The plateau
tern on the topographical map, but there is neither sea nor water
contains the highest areas of the region. The highest point can be
left in this old inlet. Nowadays, the landscape of the Middel Sea is
found here as part of the Hondsrug (Dog Ridge). The northwest-
on a higher level than its direct surroundings. The Lauwers-lake is
southeast oriented ridge is very characteristic and the shift to the
an old inlet as well. This area was cut of from the sea and became
open peat colony landscape is dramatic.
fresh water in recent years. A combination of open water and reet
land can be found here. Finally, the Dollard is a combination of
fig.27 The plateau
gained land on the sea (now large polders) and open water, used
as a transportation route.
fig.25 Special places
fig.28 Ridges
fig.26 Terps and wierden
44
Most of the plateau is covered with forests and open fields. At
At certain spots in the Northern Netherlands other lime hills exist.
some places smaller lakes and little rivers exist. The water is kept on
Most of them are covered with forest and are seen as a special
the plateau because in the underground there is a thick layer of
landscape because they are a strange hilly element in a flat and
lime, which makes deeper infiltration impossible. Most of the water
open surrounding. The Gaasterland area is a well known example.
is transported to the sides of the plateau, where it is captured and
combined with strong seepage it leads to wet circumstances in
fig.31 Lime hills
the peat areas (for instance the Hunzelaagte).
fig.29 River valleys
PEAT AREAS
A large area in the region used to be covered with peat. In the
nineteenth century most of these landscapes were excavated.
fig.30 Woods and forests
The peat was used as a fossil energy-source, mainly to heat houses. The Frysian peat area nowadays looks very different from the
Groningen-Drente one. In Friesland the peat area was transformed
into a rich lake-area, especially suitable for water recreation. The
Groningen-Drente peat colonies were used as production space
for potatoes and straw. The landscape over here is monumental
and contains a lot of industrial artefacts. The south-eastern part of
Drente is the only location where original moor-peat still exists.
45
fig.32 Peat areas
fig.33 Lakes
fig.34 Moor-peat
fig.35 Peat colonies
SAND AREAS
Spread over the region there are several types of landscapes
finding their origin in sandy soils. They are mostly small areas made
of sand that was blown to this region in the Holocene era. For
instance, the Westerwolde area and south Friesland emerged
this way. A special area is the Frysian Woods, where a small scale
landscape is visible, with woods, small agricultural companies and
a fine maze water structure.
46
fig.36 Sand areas
fig.37 River valley Westerwolde
fig.38 Forest, estates in the Frysian Woods
The third landscape is that of the high north. Here the former Wadden Sea has its influence. Old inlets are visible and the pattern of
terps and wierden is clear. Close to the existing dike the higher
coastal grounds are found.
The fourth one is the Frysian peat and lake area. This area was formed by the excavation of the peat and the existence of the lakes.
The Gaasterland lime hill has a special position.
Fifth is the Drente plateau, where forest and heather fields, little
river valleys and parts of moor-peat exists.
Finally the sixth landscape is the Groningen-Drente peat area. This
area consists of three different sub-landscapes. Firstly the Hunzelow, a wet and low natural landscape where the Hunze meanders
through the landscape. Secondly the peat colony, where the large scale of the landscape is combined with openness. The strong
monumentalism of rigid lanes and rectangular shapes is dominant
LANDSCAPE STRUCTURES, TYPOLOGY
over here. And finally the Westerwolde area at the edge of the
When all the different landscape types are put on one map, the
peat area. The Westerwolde Aa meanders through the landscape
result is a landscape structure map. Six landscapes can be de-
here, accompanied by little woods and forests.
fined, each of them with a couple of sub-landscapes.
The first two landscapes are the Wadden Islands and the Wadden
Each landscape has its own magnificent qualities. Respecting the
Sea. The islands are the constant factor in a sea of tidal changes,
cultural and historical identity and using the energy typology to
where twice a day the incoming sea water is followed by leaving
create new landscapes, we can ensure a sustainable future for
sea water. And every day new forms of land and water are
the Northern Netherlands by reinforcing these qualities.
shaped.
47
fig.39 Landscape structure map
48
CHAPTER 6
ATLAS of IDEAS
happens when you make designs from a sustainable energy point
of view? They can be used as inspiration, to copy and use at other
locations and in other situations.
In the Atlas of Ideas all designs, produced since the summer of
6.1 Regional design
2005 are brought together. In this chapter you can find ideas on
If we combine the energy typology map and the landscape
the regional level, but most of the designs are done on a sub-re-
structure map with each other a regional vision on the Northern
gional and local level. The designs were made by the spatial team
Netherlands can be projected. Where ambitions as defined in
and by Master students Landscape Architecture (Wageningen
chapter 3 are picked up and are combined with the mega-trends
University). The designs are not meant to be realized right away
in chapter 2. It cadres the think-pathways and focuses on future
(though this would be nice), but have to be seen as explorations
possibilities and chances in the North: a promise for the future!
of possibilities for future energy-landscapes. They visualize what
49
6.2 AUTARKADIA
sible. To avoid losses, Autarkadian houses could be based on
low-voltage systems.
•
ENERGY PRINCIPLES AUTARKADIA
This area in the Northern Netherlands has the best potential for au-
exhaust air and waste water.
•
tarky: energy-independence at the level of separate buildings or
Solar energy: passive and active (PV, collector) where pos-
Biomass and waste: biomass predominantly from pruning and
cutting, plus domestic waste; both can be used in new meso-
settlements (village/town/linear or grouped stretches of built area):
•
Heat pumps: systems coupled to the underground and/or
level (settlement) power plants (bio-CHP).
•
Geothermal energy: possible yet bound to new drillings.
fig.41 The autarkadia
area
50
AUTARKADIA A
AUTARKIC CONCEPT
REGIONAL DESIGN
FOR AUTARKADIA
Berta Sanz Peña, España
ABSTRACT
The higher plateau of Drente and the eastern part of Friesland
have an unfavourable geophysical position for an efficient connection to the energy network. In order to find out the solution
to this problem, Autarkadia Group ¬¬-- Helena Mally, Monique
Sperling, Szu-Ting Liao and Berta Sanz Peña -- developed a self-sufficient strategy to provide a sustainable way of living in this area.
fig.42 Autarkadia concept
The team work consisted basically in making a complete analysis
of the Autarkadia Region, creating the autarkic concept, planning
Autarkadia Group used the autarkic concept as basis for the re-
the system of autarkic networks, developing the autarkic principles
gional design. The main goal was to reach an Autarkadia Region:
according to the characteristics of the landscape and designing
a self-sufficient area where local agricultural products, freshwater
an autarkic Regional Master Plan.
and renewable energy sources could supply the demand of the
PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
At present, some of the main problems in the Autarkadia Region
are: the isolation from the surrounding areas due to the existence
of fewer infrastructures than in other parts of the Netherlands, a
less efficient agricultural system, a decrease in population, who
mostly do not want to change their behaviour. Contrary, the opportunities of this region are: a lot of seepage to get fresh water
from the underground, the agricultural and farm tradition in the
area to supply the population with local products, the presence
of renewable energy sources (geothermal energy, biomass, solar
and wind energy) as a new alternative to no-renewable ones, the
landscape diversity (national parks, wetlands, forests, meadows,
farms,…), which could enhance recreational uses.
fig.43 Analyses
51
population. Moreover, the intention was to decrease the present
Autarkadia Group studied how each of these networks would
energy demand making people more conscious of the environ-
work: how the demand, supply and transport of food, water and
mental problems and, on the other hand, to improve the living
energy would be inside these networks.
conditions and recreational uses in order to increase the number
of people living there.
REGIONAL DESIGN
After making the analysis of the area and creating a basic concept, the Autarkadia Group started the regional design. Some
preconditions were to take the existing identities of the region into
account, to keep and make them more clearly and, also, to consider the characteristic of surrounding areas, like Biomass County
and Water World.
Since the region is quite large, we decided to make subdivisions
creating, on one hand, different energy sub-regions where the different renewable energy sources were predominant and, on the
other hand, planning different autarkic networks inside the region.
fig.45 Water system
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Considering the landscape typology, different design principles
were set for each kind of renewable energy source. This way, we
got the first impressions of how windmill farms, solar panel fields,
biomass crops or geothermal areas would look like in different
parts of the region.
fig.44 Food system
Each autarkic network consists in a group of contiguous towns
and villages sharing the same food and fresh water systems, the
52
renewable energy sources and the corresponding energy plants.
fig.48 Detail biomass
fig.46 Landscape typology
fig.49 Wind energy design principles
fig.47 Biomass design principles
53
fig.50 Detail wind energy
fig.52 Geothermal energy system
fig.51 Solar energy, design principles
Taking into account the different energy regions with all the autarkic networks, the food and fresh water systems and all the design
principles, the Regional Master Plan was developed. Autarkadia
Group planned the project execution to be developed in 35-years
period, divided in four different phases, starting in 2006 and reaching the Autarkadia Region in 2040.
54
fig.53 Geothermal energy, design principles
fig.54 Autarkadia, master plan
55
AUTARKADIA B
AUTARKADIAN
GROLLOO IN 2040
Szu-Ting Liao, Taiwan
CONCEPT
What is “Autarkadia”? In this assignment, for the village of Grolloo
surrounded by forest, Autarkadia means people who live here
try to be food independent, energy independent and they use
water in an efficient way. The food, energy, and water supplies try
to be independent in different scales: regional scale, village scale,
fig.55 Food demand
sub-village scale, and maybe household scale. It is independent,
but not isolated. They share and co-operate! Besides, the change
of landscape and lifestyle is continuous. Therefore, time scale is
also considered. In 2040 the story happens.
Grolloo is in the Province of Drente, not far from Assen. According
our last group work, Grolloo belongs to a network which includes
Balloo, Rolde, Nooitgedacht, Ekehaar, Amen; Rolde is the biggest
city in this network. Land use, wind speed, sun hour, altitude, population and rainfall were analyzed.
FOOD
People need food to support their lives, potatoes, grains, meats,
fruits, vegetables, dairy products, etc. To produce the demand
of 1000 people in Grolloo, it only needs arable 12 ha and meadow 110 ha. The rest arable and meadow can produce food for
ENERGY
exporting. I suggest farmers feed cows for cheese in the meadow
In Grolloo, at least two renewable energy-sources can be used:
and grow fruits in the arable which they do not need much water
wind and solar energy. One of the bottlenecks of wind and solar
per hectare and farmers can earn higher returns. However, there
energy is instability. The weather changes, the supply changes,
is not much rain in this area, even if they use water in a very ef-
during the day, different seasons…
ficient way. The rest of the arable would be transformed in solar
fields. Because the agriculture is not efficient here and the general
demand of renewable energy will increase.
56
fig.56 Food production
fig.57 Instability of wind and solar energy
Therefore, the storage and distribution concepts are very important. Every household could have its own small wind turbine and
fig.59 Grolloo electricity system
solar panel for electricity. The surplus electricity can be stored in
WATER
the battery in its basement. All the batteries are connected to dis-
Fresh water is scarce. Rain is one of the main sources of fresh
tribution substation. While the battery is full, the electricity transport
water. Who need water? Creatures, arable, meadow, etc. all
to the distribution substation by which the household in sub-village
need water. The main idea of treating rain water is “you need
scale share their electricity. All the distribution substations connect
water, you collect water by yourself”. Therefore, there should be
to each other as a network, and also connect to other cities.
storage barrels for rain water collected from roofs and then the
water can be used for washing cars or irrigate gardens. Also, the
rain garden allow some water slowly filter into the ground to re-
fig.58 Storage and distribution
fig.60 Integrated sustainable water system
57
fig.61 Water system Grolloo
fig.63 Master plan Grolloo-Autarkadia
plenish the groundwater. The rain dropping on other places, such
as road, flows to wetland through the drain system. The wetlands
can storage the water and clean it. Canals connect the wetlands
and provide arable and meadow water to produce food. Then
agricultural waste water goes into canals and wetlands in which
the fertilizer or other materials can be cleaned up.
fig.64 Reference image
MASTERPLAN
Integrating the demand and supply of food, energy and water
with spatial quality, comes up with an energy landscape plan for
Grolloo, an Autarkadia in 2040.
58
fig.62 Integrated systems of energy, water and food
AUTARKADIA C
FROM THE AUTARKIC
NETWORK TO THE ECOVILLAGE
Berta Sanz Peña, España
inside the network.
In the network the continent and the islands can be distinguished.
The continent consists of the two largest towns: Oosterwolde and
Appelscha and the islands consist of the contiguous villages: Weper, Fochteloo, Langedijke, Elsloo, Tronde, Makkinga and the new
Eco-village (to be designed).
The continent is the area with largest population and, therefore,
with largest energy demand and energy supply. It is also the
area with better connections, which means that migration of
In the individual work, one of the autarkic networks inside the
energy would be continuous. On the other hand, the islands have
region was chosen in order to study deeply how it could work: the
much less population, demand and supply of energy is much less
number of population, the total energy demand and therefore
important than inside the continent and connections between
the energy supply, the food and the fresh water necessities, the
continent and islands are more difficult and less efficient. There-
green structures and recreational areas. After this study the basis
fore, migration between continent and islands would be intermit-
to develop the Network Planning was set. Moreover, a location
tent, only when islands would need extra energy supply from the
inside this network was chosen to introduce and design a new
continent.
Eco-village, in which I desired to apply the autarkic principles on a
smaller scale.
‘CONTINENT-ISLAND’ CONCEPT
I created a new concept to apply to the autarkic network already
chosen, a concept which would be later the basis of the plan and
With this concept I wanted to clarify the existing differences, inside
the autarkic network, between town (continent) versus village
(island) conditions, connection versus isolation and dependence
versus independence.
design. I was inspired by the ‘Continent-Island’ model written by
AUTARKIC NETWORK PLANNING
the genetician Sewall Wright. The ‘continent-island’ concept can
After making an exhaustive analysis of the network and taking into
explain how the migration of energy, food, water, and people is
account the ‘continent-island’ concept, the Autarkic Network
Planning was developed. The best locations for geothermal and
fig.66
Energy
fig.65 The continent-island model
demand
59
biomass plants, wind and solar technologies, waste treatment
plants, markets of local agricultural products, fresh-water pump
stations, green corridors and recreational areas were defined.
fig.69 Solar energy
fig.67 Geothermal network
fig.70 Wind energy
fig.68 Biomass (big and small treatment plants)
60
fig.71 Seepage and pump stations
ECO-VILLAGE PRINCIPLES
Finally, I chose a location inside the Autarkic Network, in the entrance of the Natural Park Drents-Friese Wold, close to Appelscha,
to design more in detail a new Eco-village ( a new ‘island’). The
main goal was to apply in a smaller scale all the knowledge acquired after designing in the bigger scale the Autarkadia Region
and the Autarkic Network and, moreover, introduce new ideas
and impressions about the way of living in an eco-community.
fig.72 Super- and open markets
fig.74 Energy demand
fig.73 Network planv
61
fig.78 Wind energy supply
fig.75 Solar energy supply: individual dwellings
fig.76 Solar energy supply: public buildings
fig.79 Energy from waste
fig.77 Solar energy supply: public spaces
62
fig.80 Water demand
fig.81 Food demand and agriculture
63
6.3 BIOMASS COUNTY
ENERGY-PRINCIPLES BIOMASS COUNTY
Biomass County has many opportunities related to agriculture but
is close to the city of Groningen as well and thus can be connected to the urban network around this city:
•
Biomass and waste: biomass is predominantly from agriculture;
biomass and domestic waste can be used as fuel for microlevel (local) CHP plants or for the new macro-level multi-fuel
plant near Delfzijl.
•
Heat pumps: systems coupled to open water, ground and/or
exhaust air (N.B. also from small CHP installations) and waste
water.
•
Solar energy: passive and active (PV, collector) where possible. The remark about low-voltage systems applies here too.
•
Geothermal energy: possibly by means of existing gas and oil
drillings (in the northernmost or southernmost parts of Biomass
County), else by new drill-holes; heat is useful for domestic use
and possibly greenhouses as well (around Emmen).
fig.82 The Biomass county area
64
BIOMASS COUNTY A
REGIONAL DESIGN FOR
BIOMASS COUNTY
Yi Ding, China; Francis Vos, Nederland; Paula Espinosa, Argentina
LOCATION
Biomass County is located in the north-east part of the Netherlands, south of Groningen and east of Drente. Its boundaries
are the Eems River on the north, the German border on the east
and south, and the ridge that extends between Groningen and
fig.83 The biomass chain
Emmen on the west. The area’s surface is 221,000 hectares and
WHY IN BIOMASS COUNTY?
140,000 of them can be used as energy production landscapes.
There is a strong past and present tradition of agriculture in the
area. The global benefits are that it would help with the mitigation
PROBLEM
of the climate change, lowering the green gas emissions since it is
There are local and global dilemmas in this area. The global are
a cleaner technology. The local benefits are that it would provide
general problems that the Netherlands as a whole is dealing
an economical boost to the agricultural industry, it would bring
with; large amounts of C0 emissions due to the use of fossil fuels
more jobs opportunities to the area, it would allow the preservation
provoking global warming and sea level rising; and exhaustion of
of natural areas, and it would promote tourism to the site.
2
fossil fuels (oil and gas) in the near future. The local problems are
specific for the area of Biomass County. The main economic force
SHAPING BIOMASS COUNTY
here is agriculture, and it’s decreasing due to the weak market for
We started analyzing the topography, the soil types, the land-
the present cultivated crops. This is causing unemployment and
scape types and the possible sea water level changes. There are
diminishing the population. There is not a very diverse landscape
3 main soil and landscape types in the area: the peat area with its
since most of the fields are planted with the same types of crops.
linear canals, the sandy area with its meandering rivers and forest,
There is a lost sense of identity in the area.
and the more open clay area with its fertile soils. Also we looked
WHY BIOMASS?
at the spatial and cultural characteristics: natural areas like the
protected peat areas and the valley next to the ridge; historical
Biomass consists in all organic matter of vegetable an animal
areas like the Hunnebedden routes, the defence cities on the west
origin. The raw material for bio-energy comes from three main
and the Esdorpen landscape; and a unique urban structure of the
sources: waste, dedicated energy plantations, and wood.
peat colonies along the canals.
Biomass has many environmental and economical benefits; it is
a carbon neutral power source; it protects soils and watersheds
MAIN STRUCTURES
since crops use almost no fertilizers and the soils need less tillage; it
There are strong existing structures in the site. The repeating, long
creates or maintains biodiversity; it provides employment where is
lines of the peat canals are clear in the landscape. These canals
most needed, in the rural areas; it offers a new income for farmers
with their orthogonal structure were developed for the former peat
strengthening job security.
production landscape. Contradictive to that are the structures of
65
the forest and the rivers. These organic shaped lines and planes
give the site a more natural feeling. The historical routes fit into
these natural structures; along the forest and river we find the
historical cities and Hunnebedden. In Emmen, at the south of
Biomass County, all the structures are presented in the landscape;
therefore this part could be seen as an independent state.
CONCEPT
Taking into account the earlier mentioned structures and pro-
fig.85 Biomass yards
blems; the Biomass County can be divided in four parts. The ‘live
and work’ area is the part with the strong peat canal structures,
which are re-used for the distribution of the biomass. The two parts
with the natural elements and historical routes have ‘live and enjoy’
potentials; since are more diverse
areas, they will attract more tourists and recreation. Emmen is the
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
‘live and all’ area because it has
all. In the north of Biomass County,
water retention is proposed for the
lower parts of the area. When the
water level is rising in the future,
the retention areas will protect the
rest of Biomass County. This part
is the ‘live and relax’ area, where
people can relax in, next to and
on the water.
BIOMASS LOGISTICS
Fig.transporta84 Concept
We propose the use of the existing canals as the main
tion system for the biomass. Treatment plants, power plants, fuel
plants and gas plants are necessary for producing energy from
biomass. These energy-plants are situated next to the canals. To
complete the canal system an extension of the main canal (Mussel
canal) is proposed to connect the major power plants in Delfzijl
and Eemshaven.
66
fig.86 Biomass plazas
fig.87 Bio-electricity
fig.88 Bio-fuel and biogas
The distribution of the bio-energy is through the existing networks,
ENERGY CROPS
which are the electricity grids, the gas pipes and the roads and
According to the weather conditions and soil types in north Net-
canals.
herlands, we proposed three types of biomass, which are annual,
perennial and short rotation coppice to be planted in Biomass
County. Referring to the specific species, we choose those ten
species as biomass resource:
rapeseed, sunflower, common
wheat; miscanthus, switch grass,
reed canary grass, common reed
and sugar beet; willow and poplar. Those ten species are used
in different types of soil.
In Biomass I, which is the peat
area, we use perennial and short
rotation coppices. For Biomass II,
the sand area, annuals, miscanthus and short rotation coppices
can be used. In Biomass III which
is clay, we proposed annuals,
some perennials like reed canary
grass and common reed and
short rotation coppices.
fig.89 Energy crops
67
the future for Biomass County could be
balanced with of economic, ecologic
and socio-cultural benefits. The north
of the Netherlands had the tradition of
being an energy landscape, and it could
become one again in the future. The
difference this time is that the energy
produced will be renewable and it won’t
destroy the needs of future generations.
It will become a sustainable future.
fig.90 Soil types
DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Biomass County could produce electricity, biofuel and biogas as
bio-energy which can cover the demand of the whole biomass
county.
ONLY BIOMASS?
Apart from the bio-energy produced in Biomass County, there are
potentials for other uses as well. We can get spring water from the
underground, treat it, bottle it, and sell it. We can also develop
water transportation not only to transport biomass, but also use
it for tourist’s movement. And promote tourism, for people to visit
tourist spots like the historical cities and the Hunnebedden, while
discovering the new production landscapes.
CONCLUSION
The biomass production will be introduced to this area gradually, taking approximately 30 years to be fully implemented. The
characteristics of the biomass industry are a good fit for the needs
of the region. As mentioned before agriculture has been part of
this area for many years, so it wouldn’t be a drastic change for the
local inhabitants. They could adapt its productions from food to
energy. The benefits are not only for the good of the environment,
68
but also for the development of the local economy. In this way
fig.91 Biomass areas
fig.92 Demand
and supply
fig. 93 Water production
fig.94 Biomass county master plan
69
70
fig.95 Design Dog Ridge and Peat colonies
BIOMASS COUNTY B
DOG RIDGE & PEAT
COLONIES: MONUMENTAL BIO-ENERGY
Spatial Team
BACKGROUND
The area of the peat colony and dog ridge shows very large con-
Bio-yeasting
On the plateau neighbourhoods and settlements will arise, for
instance on the flanks of the existing ‘es’ complexes (Zuidvelde,
Westervelde, Bunne, Donderen) and in the transition zone to the
brook valley. These settlements are suited for an autarkic energy
provision. A biomass plant can be fuelled by 170 cows and supply
more than enough energy to a community of 300 persons. Furthermore, every household has a woodstove to provide additional heating in bleak times. This woodstove burns wood resuming from the
maintenance of the small landscape elements such as woodwalls
in the brook valleys and the shrubs around the es complexes.
trasts. The Drente plateau has small scaled sandy soils, where small
rivers flow through. At the other side the Peat colony is a large
Heat storage in water
scale and well ordered landscape. Between the two different
In order to combat the desiccation of the Drenthe plateau, the
landscapes the Dog Ridge and Hunze-low with its peat edges
extraction of ground water on the plateau is switched to extrac-
mark the border. The difference in altitude of sometimes 14 metres
tion of open water in the Hunze low. Making use of the extreme
that we find at the steep slopes of the Dog Ridge is an uncom-
seepage pressure of water flowing from the Hondsrug, the Hunze
mon sight in the Netherlands. The plateau is drying out, while the
low will be wetter than at present. Here, an area will evolve with
seepage pressure in the Hunze-low is very high.
gradual transitions from land to water. In this watery area heat can
ENERGY
be stored.
Energy from seepage pressure
Wind energy
The height difference between plateau and Hunze low is evident.
Wind energy is an option in windy and vast open landscapes. In
Near Drauwenerzand there is a steep edge of 14 meter. Due to
particular the Peat Colonies are suited for large-scale application
this height difference, the steep edge contains a considerable
of wind energy.
difference in seepage pressure. The seepage flows can be made
Biomass
useful for the activation of simple hydro-electric turbines.
The size and scale of companies, coupled to a relatively low land
price, make the Peat Colonies appropriate for large-scale agricul-
DESIGN
ture, focussing on bulk production. Additional to food crop, the
Three different landscapes meet at this location: The monumental
agriculture can produce resources, also for energy gerenation. On
Peat Colony, the Hunze-low and the Drente Plateau.
the Drenthe plateau, around new estates, energy plantations can
evolve. These consist of avenue structures, energy forests, chip-
Peat Colony
wood complexes and tufts for pruning. These plantations will arise
At the bottom of the Dog Ridge there is a monumental land-
especially where space is available and the price of land relatively
scape, which can be compared with the Grain-republic. The Peat
low: the locations recent heath cultivation.
Colony can be characterised by the large scale and open-ness.
To prevent the humus top-soil from blowing away, forest singles are
planted. By doing so, the landscape is broken into smaller spatial
71
pieces, spattial rooms, that can be understood by the human
the traditional gradient between high-dry and low-wet: the edges
eye. Within these rooms large scale agriculture takes place. A
of the little rivers. These houses supply themselves with energy in in-
patchwork of crops evolves. The companies are large, about 200
dividual house-energy-plants by using biomass, which is produced
hectares. The farms are spread over the area and are located far
by maintaining little landscape elements.
from each other, like islands in space. They are highly self-sufficient,
using bio-combined heat & power installations.
The Hunze-low
The Hunze-low is wetted, fed by seepage of high quality. Within the
In the Peat Colony the agriculture got an impulse, because of the
area the differences in altitude are extreme. The Hunze-low itself
growing demand for bio-fuels. Beside potatoes, sugar beats and
has very divers soils and a strong micro-relief. A special and varied
grain, fast growing energy crops are grown, like willow, rape seed,
nature reserve emerges because the water level is raised a bit.
elephant grass, flax and poppy. Henna is used as a new crop in
Subtle gradients of land and water evolve with large water and
the rotation cycle to create multifunctional usage. Starch, sugar
reed areas, swamp and wet meadows as a result. Because of the
beets and flax are flexible resources for the production of food, as
excellent water quality, this area is like heaven on earth for crane-
building materials, for textile purposes or chemicals. By-products
birds, beavers and otters.
are used to produce energy in biomass-plants and bio-fuel.
New estates are developed at the edge of the plateau and the
Adjusted to the large scale of the landscape big wind-
Hunze-low. By creating new sprinkles (like the ones in Arnhem) the
farms are proposed in the Peat Colony: they increase the monu-
seepage flow is directed to the surface and stimulated. The land-
mentality of this productivity-landscape.
scape is an expression of the underlying geomorphology.
In the landscape there are a lot of canals, used as routes to
transport the peat to little villages at the edge of the Dog Ridge.
Villages like Haren, Onnen and Noordlaren all had a harbour,
where the shift from boat to land-transport took place. From here
the peat was transported to the cities. This system of canals and
harbours can be used again to transport people and goods: like
modern ‘transferia of the North’.
The Drente Plateau
On the plateau newly introduced energy plantations are spatially
and functionally combined with older estates. These plantations
are developed at locations where there is still space and the
price of the land is low enough: the younger heather excavation.
Series of land-houses, surrounded by forests, lanes, and willow
woods are proposed. The living areas can be found in the larger
villages like Vries, Zuidlaren and Eelde and in the necklace of
smaller villages at the edge of the Dog Ridge (Onnen, Noordlaren,
Midlaren, and Tynaarlo).
72
More individually spread out over the plateau housing will occur at
BIOMASS COUNTY C
Live and Enjoy
Francis Vos, Nederland
AGRICULTURAL LAYER
For the economical/agricultural layer, the sandy soils are good
soils for producing nice looking annual energy crops. Perennials
are productive in the occasional appearing peat soils. Bio-energy
still fits the agricultural background and is also a new necessary
Biomass County is located in the south-east of the Groningen
energy source in the future. Therefore the economy and agricul-
province. This agricultural area is the biggest of the four areas in
ture industry will increase. It contains the intensive biomass energy
the Northern Netherlands with opportunities for producing biomass
production.
energy crops. A part in the south-east of Biomass County is introduced as the Live and Enjoy area, mainly because of the natural
elements where people can live and enjoy themselves.
THREE LAYERS
The visible qualities of the Live and Enjoy area are the forest, the
historical cities and the river. The following actual problems can be
described: economical /agricultural decrease, lack of diversity,
desiccation and pollution of natural areas, no positive image.
The agricultural layer, water layer and an introduced health layer
in this region give solutions for the problems in the qualities and
analyse of the landscape.
fig.97 The biomass chain for live and enjoy
THE WATER LAYER
As for the water layer, the existing natural elements could be more
explored to provide besides energy also more diversity and to take
care of the dry out and pollution of the natural areas. Re-meandering of the canalised pieces of the river, the use of chemical free
biomass agriculture, infiltration in the extended forest and peat
fig.96 Three layers
fig.98 The water system
73
parts close to the river and stop withdrawing drinking water are
CONCEPT & DESIGN
solutions which contribute to the diversity and the water problem.
The Live and Enjoy region concept is rendered by the intensive
Extensive biomass energy production is taken place.
biomass energy and extensive biomass energy. The plan contains
the three main layers. The agricultural layer is enjoyable because
THE HEALTH LAYER
of the interaction and seasoning of the flowery new crops. As
The introduced health layer contents the power of nature, which
biomass is proposed to be transported over existing canals, people
gives a new image to the Live and Enjoy landscape. The energy
can join the boats and enjoy the landscape from water and
crops used for the enjoyable area can namely be used for
reversed from land. The water layer improves enjoyment because
medication, health, cosmetics and practising sports. In this way
it substitutes for new small swamps herbs, births and shows small
the landscape gives energy for body and mind of the living and
scale meandering. Close to the river, people can enjoy the new
visiting people. Energy crops are included in the extensive biomass
energy forest with water loving willows and poplars. The health
energy production.
layer fulfils the enjoying of the energetic water flow and the natural
atmosphere and peacefulness. In the sunflower fields wonderful
lines and planes of colourful and life stimulating sunflowers can be
enjoyed.
fig.100 Concept
fig.101 Devsign
fig.102 A positive chain
fig.99 Health in live and enjoy
fig. 100 Concept
74
POSITIVE CHAIN
fig. 101. Design
Biomass has a positive influence in this area on the economics, the
water, the nature and health, which will attract more recreants
and people who are searching for a new living. A positive chain.
fig.102 A positive chain
75
BIOMASS COUNTY D
INDEPENDENT STATE
EMMEN
Yi Ding, China
SITUATION
Emmen is a prosperous city. It has 1 urban centre and 13 smaller
villages, each with their own characteristics. Its total area is about
35,000 ha and has the population is around 108.000 people. There
are spacious areas for recreation, like a zoo, forests, water recreation centres and wetlands. The proposal theme is to make a much
nicer future of Emmen by using biomass.
fig. 104 Autarkic living
Emmen is one of the largest cities within the three Northern provinces. It is located at the national boundary between Germany
and the Netherlands and is the largest city of the Drente province.
Compared to other problematic areas in north Netherlands,
fig. 105 Cascade chain
76
fig.103 Emmen analysis
fig.106 Electricity and methane flowchartvv
FUTURE VISION
DESIGN IDEAS
The future vision for Emmen contains three aspects: autarkic living,
The ideas for proposing a nice future of Emmen contains the follo-
cascade energy chain and tourist city. Autarkic living means using
wing aspects. Proposing more area for greenhouse and residential
the biomass which yields in Emmen to produce bio-energy, to be
house will bring more job opportunities and people into Emmen.
consumed by the people living in Emmen. The cascade energy
Building biomass power plants near the traffic ways and the
chain is a way of improving the efficiency of energy consumption
greenhouses is convenient for transportation of biomass and will
as well as saving energy. Because there is large area of greenhou-
efficiently follow the cascade principle. Transforming the content
ses in Emmen, the cascade principle could be applied effecti-
of the agricultural fields into the energy crop fields is a way for
vely. The last aspect – a tourist city is about the combination of
revitalization the agricultural situation and gaining a big economic
landscape with energy. Since Emmen is already an attractive city
profit.
for tourists, the future meaning of Emmen could be even richer. In
Making different types of landscape between northern and sou-
other words, it means making an energy landscape which has its
thern Emmen is not only following the existing landscape but also
own identity.
providing a diverse view of landscape. As I proposed in Emmen,
the north and central part of Emmen will mainly about biomass
fields while the south part is meadow and forest.
77
fig. 108. Heat flowchart
fig.109 Master pla
fig.107 Heat distribution
The last idea of design is to create a unique energy landscape
that gives people the feeling that energy surrounds them all the
time. Take the greenhouse for instance. I proposed a big area for
greenhouse in northern Emmen for the reason of providing another
recreation place for people. The character of the greenhouse is
both for production, education and tourism. When people walk
into that greenhouse corridor, they will feel the productive atmosphere surrounding them. And they will be attracted by the things
happen inside. So they go into it, see it, feel it and have fun with it.
Additionally, we can use the existing infrastructures to emphasize
the function of landscape. We can use canals for transporting
78
biomass and for tourism as well.
an
fig.110 Recreational and tourist routes
79
BIOMASS COUNTY E
Emmen - Glass &
City at the edge of a
National Park
the most monumental farms are located and inside the valley two
‘boo-s’ exist, the place where the cowboy lived in summer months
to look after the cattle.
Fast connection with Germany
Could not be closer.
Spatial Team
ENERGY
BACKGROUND
Use of excess heat
In the southernmost area of the Peat Colonies, on the changeover
Fragmented monumentality
to the living high peat of the Amsterdamse Veld, industry as well as
The landscape around Emmen is an a-typical part of the Peat
horticulture will develop. The presence of management of central
Colony. In many ways this is the Ultimate Colony: it is the end of the
utilities (Emtec) in this area is a starting-point for the coupling of
peat area, ending at the left-over’s of the high-peat of New-Am-
industry to horticulture for use of excess heat.
sterdam and almost all infrastructure finds its end in this area. The
landscape lacks of the characteristic monumentality, that the rest
Bio-cascade
of the Peat colony is known of. An ‘iron’ structure, with long lines
In Emmen a bio-cascade industry will evolve, in which multi-func-
and large sizes, does not exist in this area. Especially near Emmen
tional crop grown in the Peat Colonies (e.g. hemp) are turned
a subtle and complex change of directions can be seen.
into high-grade products. Waste flows from the production are
Spread around are new glasshouse areas, industrial complexes
converted to electricity and heat through bio-CHP, supplying an
and working areas. But these developments nowhere adjust to the
important part of the heat and CO2 to the complex of green-
scale and size of the landscape. This results in further fragmenta-
houses. For that matter, the heat supplied to the complex will be
tion. Here, where the long lines were not too clear to begin with,
limited, because new developments will be constructed in an
the chance on an anonymous area with no identity is real: The
energy-neutral way.
‘Back-side of the Netherlands’.
Large wind turbines are a re-enforcing factor to the large-scale
peat landscape (in the direction of e.g. Ter Apel).
Living moor-peat
For housing, innovative solar energy systems will be applied: a
The Amsterdam Field is one of two existing living moor-peat areas
residential area developed as a solar plant, with every house
in the Netherlands (the other one is the Fochteloerveen near As-
carrying a parabola reflecting the sunlight to a solar tower, which
sen). Around this peat-area a circle of little satellite-peat-areas are
produces stoom for power generation. In addition, the dwellings
located. These satellites are too small and too isolated to exca-
will be extremely energy-efficient: solar heat in combination with
vate economically.
seasonal storage and super-insulation will avoid the necessity of a
connection to the natural gas grid.
Schoonebeeker Diep
South of the Amsterdamse Field the River of the Schoonebeeker
Diep flows. Here, the last examples of upland cultures exist: agri80
cultural fields above the high peat. At the edge of the river valley
fig. 111 Design Glass & City
DESIGN
The new glasshouse area is projected in a strip of 10 kilometres
Emmen is at the edge of plateau and peat area and at the edge
length alongside the national borderline. Within this strip a long
of one of the oldest landscapes and one of the youngest land-
brink (central, communal space) is shaped, where live and work
scapes in the Netherlands.
dwellings are projected.
Three developments take place in the area. First, extensions of
1000 ha of glasshouses requires a lot of water storage. This water
industry and working spaces are at hand. Secondly extension of
is led to the wetted River valley of the Runde. At the edges of the
the glasshouse area with approximately 1000 ha (50 companies
valley new living areas are proposed. The houses get their heat
of 20 ha) is foreseen. Thirdly, a modest extension of living areas,
from the glasshouses (as a part of the LowEx-cascade).
which can be connected to glasshouses for their heat demand, is
A second living area is developed between the working spaces
planned.
and the extended estate-forest area, east of Emmen. Inside the
In this area we propose to make more use of the real long lines in
industry and working spaces a huge lake is realised to store water.
the landscape, the strengthening of the living moor-peat area and
Alongside the edges of the water boulevards are projected,
add an attractive living area.
where companies can locate their buildings. Near the glasshouse
81
area the water storage is combined with possibilities for living on
the water.
The Amsterdam Field, together with its surrounding circle of peat
areas is developed into one connected peat area. Together with
the River valley of the Schoonebeeker Diep the National Park
‘Peat and Diep’ emerges. Regeneration of the peat is encouraged by hydrological isolation and rise of the water level. In the
Schoonebeeker Diep the two boo-s (Helpman-bo, Wester-bo) are
restored and the upland cultures are sustained.
82
6.4 FRYSIAN
WATERWORLD
lings, around which new areas for living (and leisure) can be
developed; use of existing gas drillings is possible in the area of
Bergum, which from an exergetic point of view may be a new
concentration area for living and working, to keep transportation distances of heat short.
fig.112 The Frysian Wetterwrâld area
ENERGY-PRINCIPLES WATERWORLD
The main principle for this area in the middle of the Frisian lake
district is ‘connected (energy and water) autarky’ at the level of
settlements (village/town/linear or grouped stretches of built area)
•
Solar energy: passive and active (PV, collector).
•
Wind energy: grouped park of large turbines and/or small
turbines per building.
•
Heat pumps: systems coupled mainly to open water, and/or
•
Biomass and waste: biomass comes mainly from water plants
(reed); together with domestic waste this can be used as fuel
for meso-level CHP plants.
•
Geothermal energy: possible but then by means of new dril-
83
WATERWORLD A
WATER COMES,
PEOPLE STAY
new opportunities for living and working in the region. A key to this
proposal is that all water is introduced in a controlled way and that
the local character of the region is maintained. This includes small
scale infrastructure and independent, yet interconnected living.
Implementation of such a project would take place in incremental
Erin Upton, United States
stages over decades.
Much of the province of Friesland is located below sea level, and
The first step was to carefully consider the spatial layout of Friesland
a system of dikes protects the land and its inhabitants from the
in regards to its cultural, environmental and economic factors. The
waters of the sea. Ground water is drained and pumped away in
province was then divided into nine regions. Industry is concen-
order to create arable land for farming. Historically the inhabitants
trated along two existing major transportation lines. Allowing more
lived with the rise and retreat of the sea water. They built their vil-
water into the region can result in the reduction of energy used for
lages on raised terps or wierden, and used the sea as a source of
powering the water pumps. With the reintroduction of more water
living with fishing.
to the landscape, this region has the potential to gain energy from
the movement of the water. It is necessary for Friesland to implement other types of sustainable energy production in addition to
energy produced from water. These can include wind, solar, heat
exchange and storage, and geothermal energy.
fig.113 Water depths in water world
One of the challenges in the future for the region is sea level rising
as a result of global warming. This means the groundwater will be
higher and there will be a risk of flooding will increase. This project
aims to reduce pumping of groundwater in the area and reintroduce more natural water processes in the region. This solution helps
84
deal with environmental and safety concerns, while also creating
fig.114 Waterworld Masterplan
1. The first region is the Lake District. It has high value for recreation and living. Energy can be gained through wave turbines
in the transport canals. Sailing, kayaking, swimming, fishing,
and bird-watching are all activities that can take place in this
region. New areas for living on the water, and at the water’s
edge, are explored.
2. The second region is in the west of the province and borders
the lake region and the agriculture region. This area will be
transformed to a production region for aquaculture. New plant
and animal species will be introduced for production and
harvest. This area will also have the potential to produce modest amounts of biomass and alternative types of recreation
(primarily bicycling and kayaking through the regions water
fields).
3. To the west of this area and in the north are the estuary regions. In these unique regions, tides are reintroduced, allowing
for exploration of alternative forms of energy production, such
as osmosis energy and tidal energy. This also presents new
research opportunities in these fields.
4. More water is introduced in the south of the province, creating
the wetland region. This region has high ecological value and
is part of a larger network of habitat corridors. The wetlands
are the transition between the larger Lake District and the
newer polders that are predominantly used for agriculture to
the south of the province.
5. In the eastern part of the province is the river sub region. In
this location the water will be permitted to flow more freely
(although the borders of the area are controlled), allowing for
more storage capacity, higher ecological value and unique
living situations.
6. Three areas remain largely dry in the province due to topography or high agricultural value. These areas are the eastern
upland region, the southern ridge and the northern agricultural
area. Important components of the design include connectivity
within the province and to surrounding areas by road, water and
rail.
85
WATERWORLD B
WETTERWRÂLD,
FRYSLÂN
Spatial Team
BACKGROUND
Peat meadows everywhere, the stereotype image of Friesland.
ENERGY
Biomass
This elaboration is featured by a lot of water and reed in the lower
peat-meadow areas, and woodwalls on the higher sandcover
ridges of South-West Frisia.
Through the management of pools, reedlands and the small-scale
landscape of woodwalls and woodchannels of South-West Frisia a
considerable amount of biomass is produced. This biomass will be
the fuel for the energy plant near Oudehaske.
Lakes like mirrors are spread over the countryside. Green and fertile grasslands, black tailed godwits all over the place, while black
Heat exchange
and white cows are quietly re-chewing. In the background the
The ample open water makes this area suited for heat exchange
wind blows in the sails of big and small yachts. It is just an image.
with water.
There is more to it than meadows and lakes. The sandy ridges of
South-Western Friesland, with their estates and country-seats, are
Heat cascade
also part of the Frysian landscape. In Friesland water storage and
Near Joure, Heerenveen and Sneek heat cascades will be
water quality deserve special attention.
developed, in which the industry supplies its excess heat to newly
Added problem is the dropping of the soil, due to the shrinking
developed residential areas. Here an energetic quality of living is
of the peat layer. The rising sea level is, in this perspective, not an
developed, in which is strived for zero-energy dwellings.
advantage and results in an increasing use of energy to pump the
land dry.
Wind and sun
This area is suitable for the use of wind energy. On can think of
large-scale windparks on the IJssel Lake. Nevertheless, wind energy
does not necessarily be large-scale: consider small turbine techniques such as the ‘turby’. In the old land these small-scale forms of
fig.115 Frysian lakes
86
fig. 116 Design Waterworld
wind and wolar energy will be deployed for a sustainable energy
living areas, agricultural edges, recreational edges and nature at
system.
the edge.
In the area of sand ridges the purpose is to strengthen the small
DESIGN
scale of the landscape and give space to develop small estates
and country-seats.
By stop pumping parts of the area, the landscape is wetted. The
water goes where the altitude lines steer it to. This results in a differentiated landscape, where wet and dry areas emerge next to
each other and lead to subtle gradients between land and water.
Deep water exists next to shallow, lakes as well as reed lands
and swamps are spread around the area. The water is used for
innovative solutions, connected to the spatial and cultural identity
of the area. There is space for experimental living in, at and next to
the water: on islands, on little hills in the water, connected to piers
and alongside the edges of the lakes. The edges differ in function:
87
WATERWORLD C
LIVING WITH THE
FLOW
Creating powers of water
Roland Schmidt, Österreich
The edge of the project area arises from the analysis and consideration of four factors: the existing dikes, the existing dwellings, the
existing water system and the 1m elevation line (which takes into
account a future sea level rise of 1m).
Where possible, the edge goes along with the 1m elevation line,
where dwellings or the connection to the existing infrastructure
would be negatively influenced. The edge is adapted to the
certain situation and moves away
from the 1m elevation line.
The different topographical
characteristics within the area
give the chance to create two
regions with different models of
free flowing water. On the one
hand the “network region”, where
water flows and forms a network,
on the other hand the “collecting
fig.117 Location
region”, where water is collected and rises and falls depending on the amount of water which
enters the region.
The aim of the project is to make use of the existing topography
and structures of the landscape and certain characteristics of
water to create energy and form an extraordinary landscape for living and recreation. In a defined area, water is given the freedom
to flow where it wants to flow and shapes how it wants to. Water is
seen not just as an element but as an active design player.
fig.118 Water characteristics: flow & network
88
fig.119 Two different areas: network and collection
The regions are separated through existing dike structures but
connected through a spot where energy is created by using the
flowing power of water when the water of the network region enters the collecting region. At the spot where the collecting region
empties in the Princess Margrethe channel energy is been created
a second time.
fig.120 Energy-power of water
89
fig.121 Water as a generator of energy
In both regions the forming power of water designs an extraordinary and very dynamic landscape.
fig.122 Changing landscapes influenced by natural water
90
fig.123 Living with the flow
While incorporating the new structures in the existing structures the
accessibility of the project area is maximized. New living areas within the project area are implemented on the existing dike system,
which is been newly interpreted. These living areas are designed
in such a way which allows living with the flow of the water and
the therefore ever changing circumstances of this extraordinary
landscape.
fig.124 Master plan
91
WATERWORLD D
LAUWERS-LAKE:
SEASIDE OCTOPUS IN
A TIDAL LANDSCAPE
Spatial Team
ENERGY-PRINCIPLES LAUWERS-LAKE
old days transformed in a bit ‘boring’ landscape.
ENERGY
Osmosis
The Lauwers Lake area will be the paragon of adaptive policy:
space is offered to the rising sea by letting in salt water in the
Lauwers Lake area.
The concept for an osmosis plant as developed by KEMA will be
applied in this area. The joining of fresh and salt water arouses a
The Lauwers Lake area can become the connected supplier of
electricity of the Middle-North, although smaller disconnected
autarkic units (farms mainly) will also be possible:
•
Solar energy: passive and active (PV, collector).
•
Wind energy: large turbine parks yet also smaller turbines near
buildings.
•
Tidal plant: on the site of the present sea sluices.
•
Osmosis plant: on the borderline between salt and fresh water,
behind the tidal plant. Because of the low-voltage power
generated here, residential areas or touristic leisure areas can
be located best close to the osmosis plant.
•
•
Geothermal energy: possibly by means of old or new drill-holes
in the area; heat is useful for domestic use, and for short transportation distances, buildings should be concentrated around
the drillings.
•
Biomass and waste: mainly from agriculture and domestic
waste; can be used in the Eems power plant, the new multifuel plant near Delfzijl, or in smaller local CHP units.
BACKGROUND
In history Northern Netherlands contained three salt inlets: EemsDollard, Lauwers-lake and Middel Sea. Lauwers-lake can be best
recognised, because Eems-Dollard was made a polder and became industrialised and the Middel Sea became a regular part of
the Frysian landscape. But the threat of the sea and the dynamics
92
of the tides are also tamed in the Lauwers-lake. The tension of the
fig.125 Design Lauwers-lake
chemical reaction comparable to that in a battery. The develop-
DESIGN
ment of cheap membranes will make the osmosi plan to a compe-
The Lauwers-lake can become a tidal landscape with an extrava-
titive alternative for power plants fuelled by fossil energy.
gant dynamic. Apart from the Wadden Sea, this is the best place
in the Northern Netherlands to experience the influence of sea
Tidal plant
and tides. The omnipresent salt-spray is very healthy, especially
Furthermore, a tidal plant will be integrated in the primary dam of
in combination with clean air. Because of this wellness and living
this area.
become dominant over here. The recovery-centres of the 21st
century will be developed over here. Patients recover, while their
Agriculture
families recreate and vitalise. Living areas and recreation centres
The agriculture in this area will become the producer of food and
are located at the head of the osmosis fields.
resources, for instance for energy.
The large scale marine clay areas are reshaped into a production
landscape, where large amounts of agricultural crops are produced. Beside the traditional products energy-crops are introduced:
poppy, flax and rape seed. They turn the landscape into a large
Mondrian painting in spring.
In salted areas the sea-raspberry is a popular ingredient in the
European cuisine: this new fruit was developed in the Northerly
agri-knowledge centre.
fig.126 Reference image Lauwers-lake
93
BOX 4 BLUE ENERGY: A NEW NORTH NETHERLANDS WADDEN-LINE
The design of a new Northern Wadden-line is based on the availability of sources, which are necessary to apply the ‘Blue Energy’-concept (Energy-gaining through osmosis). Most important driver here is that the difference in salt-concentration between salt and sweet
water should be as large as possible. Other inspiration was found in the aim to arrange an ‘energy-secure region’. Dependency on
other parties or countries to fulfil the energy demand is minimized. The urge to combine different energy-sources seems necessary: a
‘multi-energy-strategy’.
Analysis
a. To enhance a good functioning osmosis a maximum possible difference in salt-concentration between salt and sweet water is
best.
b. Osmosis is easier with warmer water.
c. Large amounts of water are needed (the more water, the more energy).
d. In the deeper layers of the North Netherlands underground large salt packages are available, partly excavated in the past (for
instance in the Pekela’s).
e. In the Northern Netherlands old gas-drillings exist, ‘crossing’ the salt-layers.
f.
Deep in the underground the temperature is high (minus 1000 metres approximately 75 degrees Celsius).
g. In the landscape old sea-dikes exist. They lost their defence-function after respective land-gaining.
Design
In the design the salt-layers in the underground and the old gas-drillings, useless as soon as the gas source is finished, are used. Water
is pumped downwards into the drillings, where it dissolves the salt. This warm salt water, highly concentrated, is pushed upwards to
the surface. There it emerges, after Pekel-A, Pekel-B until Pekel-Z. The warm salty water is first used in houses and offices for heating.
Afterwards it is led to series of membranes, where osmosis and the energy production take place, by the mix with sweet water. This
water is taken out of the polders next door, filled by stopping the pumps. The stopping of the pumps will only happen in polders that
are needed for the energy production (i.e. where salt is available in the underground and membranes fit in the landscape. The sweet
water is an endless source, because it is taken from the IJssel-lake. The output of the osmosis-process is brackish water. This water can
be used to pump it into the salt layers over and over again, where it is uploaded in salt concentration. After this it can be used again in
the osmosis machinery. The overflow of brackish water is retained in a large landscape zone, where a slow sweet-salt gradient can be
developed. A new valuable salting-landscape emerges.
The design consists of 10 osmosis machines, each of which heating 5000 houses and providing electricity for 3000 houses. Even if a
larger number of houses are programmed, more osmosis machines can be developed. The machines can be placed in series, as an
enlarged Afsluitdijk with a total length of about 300 kilometres, if necessary: the new North Netherlands Wadden-line! In this long dike
the old sea dikes are connected. The osmosis machines are incorporated inside the dike. And more: the dike plays an important role
as the last layer of defence against heavy storms and floods, which will occur periodically as a result of climate change and sea level
rise. A Wadden-line from Afsluitdijk till Dollard tou.
94
Whereever an osmosis machine exists a fortification evolves. Around it new village scan be projected, directly provided with (cheap)
heat and electricity. A beautiful location to live, close to a very attractive recreation lake district, where existing lakes and newly
introduced ones are connected with each other. And also close to a new and large brackish nature reserve. Well connected with the
exterior world over the beautiful and fast route over the dike.
Advantages:
•
Natural processes like sea level rise are adapted to. This is less risky and less costly than to keep heightening the dikes (one breakthrough of a high dike leads to an enormous disaster, as New Orleans illustrates);
•
The osmosis machine can be part of a long ‘Afsluit-ribbon’;
•
By using the salt of the soil the heated water can also be used to heat houses;
•
The extra length of the dike can ultimately provide electricity and heat for a large amount of houses (10 machines = 30.000 houses
electricity and 50.000 heated houses). And the introduction of more machines is possible;
•
Between the existing sea-dike and the ‘Afsluit-ribbon’ a large nature reserve emerges. This nature ultimately can be compared
with the quality of the existing Wadden Sea and is approximately as large;
•
Introduction of the New Northern Wadden-line can apply for the World Heritage List;
•
Enormous recreational possibilities emerge by introduction of more surface water;
•
This surface water can, treated, also function as drinking water reservoir;
•
A real estate development is at hand, which the North is not familiar with. An increase of the value of existing and new real estate
can be estimated;
•
A chance for employment, if the specialised membranes can be produced in factories in the North.
One disadvantage
Extracting salt from the soil might lead to dropping of the surface. This can be discouraged by filling the empty ‘holes’ with brackish
water again.
40) Suburban Ark, 2de Internationale Architectuur Biënnale Rotterdam, Juni 2005
95
6.5 CASCADE CITIES
•
Solar energy: passive and active (PV, collector) where possible. Local power generation from PV panels may be coupled
to low-voltage systems in buildings.
•
•
Geothermal energy: possible by means of existing gas drillings
(which are abundant); heat is suited for greenhouses and
domestic usage. Because of the many drill-holes for natural
gas, there are many opportunities to extract heat from deeper
layers and – hence – to develop large areas for living. However, waste heat is also abundant here from the industry.
•
Osmosis plant: on the borderline of salt and fresh water, possibly instead of a tidal plant. Because of the low-voltage power
generated here, residential areas would be located best close
to the osmosis plant.
•
Tidal plant: near the Eems firth, possible instead of an osmosis
plant.
The industrial zone around Eemshaven may function on its own:
industrial ovens (on biomass/waste) serve the industry, and waste
fig.127 The Cascade Cities area
heat is re-used or left to greenhouses, which in its turn leave waste
heat to new residential areas for labourers. CO2 from the industry
may be stored in empty gas fields.
ENERY-PRINCIPLES CASCADE CITIES
The cascade cities area has many opportunities for energy mixing
and the highest energy quality available, hence the greatest
potential to establish an exergy cascade:
•
Power plant: at macro-level near Delfzijl, fuelled by biomass
and waste, leaving waste heat to greenhouses, which in its
turn leave waste heat to residential areas (including other
urban functions)..
•
Biomass and waste: biomass is predominantly from agriculture; biomass and domestic waste can be used as fuel for the
multi-fuel plant near Delfzijl. Additional to the excellent position
between the agriculture of the Peat Colonies and the industry
of Eemshaven-Delfzijl a location near Delfzijl is appropriate
because of the availability of infrastructure for transportation:
roads, railways and old canals from the former peat areas.
96
•
Wind energy: large and small turbines.
CASCADE CITIES A
Wind
EEMSHAVEN-DELFZIJL:
NORTH-PORT
The area is especially suitable for wind energy, as a part of the
windy ridges of the North.
ENERGY
Multi-fuel plant
Spatial Team
Our energy provision should be guaranteed at all times. From this
BACKGROUND
perspective, for the backbone of the electricity provision, the use
Harbour
of ‘safe’ fossil fuels is defendable in the transition period towards
Eemshaven is an important harbour for the Netherlands, where
a fully sustainable energy provision. The transition period however
large ships can enter. The Eemshaven is the Rotterdam of the
should to an increasing extent involve other, sustainable fuels in
North. In history the Eemsmond area was always important. In the
traditional power plants, such as biomass.
atlas for industry en work (1856) is shown that Eemsmond was as
A multi-fuel plant for the gasification of coal and combustion of
important as the Rijnmond (Rotterdam) and IJmond (Amsterdam)
biomass and if necessary natural gas offers advantages. With a
area. Where the latter increased their economic activities after-
mix of fuels, a power plant on the basis of gas, coal and biomass
wards, Eemsmond area decreased its importance. The harbour
can react optimally to price variations of these resources. This will
offers specific potentials for the import, storage and distribution of
also enable the cost-effective use of biomass. In the transition pe-
energy-sources and CO2.
riod toward 2035 biomass and, to a decreasing extent, coal can
be imported via the harbour of Eemshaven.
CO2 Storage
The availability of former gas fields offers a unique chance to store
Ethanol
CO2. The empty fields are the cellars of the North and some of
Another important track for biomass is the production of fuels for
them offer space to store CO . After filling up the fields with CO
2
2
transportation, which is stimulated by European policy to become
an enhanced recovery of the existing gas is possible, which can
less dependent on fossil fuels. The Dutch policy for biofuels emp-
not be get out of the fields economically.
hasises on innovation towards a second generation of biofuels,
such as ethanol from straw (residual product from the Northern
Cascading
agriculture) and wood pallets (from Scandinavia).
The surroundings of the Eemshaven and the area around Delfzijl
can be transformed according to the LowEx-principles. Smart
Agriculture
combinations of functions can be projected here using the rest-
This district has an exquisite location. Here, the large-scale land-
heat and other energy of each other.
scape of the Peat Colonies almost touches the large-scale and
fertile seaclay polders.
Former drillings
Both areas are appropriate for large-scale agriculture, which is
A couple of old drillings, up to a depth of 3 kilometres, exist in
directed at the production of food and resources from biomass.
the area. These drillings offer potentials for the use of geothermal
Residual material flows can be used for the generation of energy.
energy.
After the food component has been extracted, food crop leaves
behind, waste material flow which can be made to products and
refined to fuels. After refinery, the fuel can be combusted in the
97
multi-fuel plant. In addition, some biofuels can be destilled directly
of industries in the Eemshaven/Delfzijl area will be stored here.
from crop.
This will be a plus for the settlement of energy-intensive industries,
An important element is the development of crops with a high
which cannot comply with stringent performance demands for
yield. The Northern Netherlands can use knowledge of crop cross-
CO2 emissions elsewhere but need some time to develop cleaner
breeding in combination with their own produce in the peat area
processes.
to develop new crops for the world.
Thermo-knolls
Wind energy
In this area some old drill-holes for the extraction of natural gas can
Features of this area are:
be found. These are suitable for the exploitation of geothermal
•
Extremely windy
heat. Via existing drill-pipes high-caloric heat can be extracted
•
Large-scale
from the deeper layers of the earth crust. This heat will be used to
•
Industrial character
provide a ‘thermo-village’ (on a knoll to avoid flooding, hence a
The use of wind energy is very feasible here. Wind is abundant,
thermo-knoll) with energy. Heat can rather not be transported over
and wind turbines in great quantities fit the scale and nature of the
long distances. This is why concentrated development around the
landscape.
drillings is necessary.
A thermo-knoll can be a residential area as well as a health resort
Heat cascade
Close to the multi-fuel plant an enlarged industrial area will be
developed. Also near Delfzijl/
Heveskes there is a considerable industrial area. Both will
be transformed toward clean
industrial areas. Both produce a
considerable quantity of excess
heat, which will be used to
supply low-caloric heat to other
industries.
Clean industry on the Eems-Dollard balcony will be combined
with a highly valued quality of
living on the Cote d’Ollard.
CO2 storage
Some empty gas fields will
temporarily become the ‘CO2
cellars of Europe’. In the transition
period towards zero-emission
98
industry by 2035, CO2 emissions
with geothermal baths, the gaysers of the Netherlands.
fig.128 Design of the North-Port
DESIGN
High-quality industrial complexes offer many jobs. People find new
The Eemshaven-Delfzijl area becomes the ‘Balcony in the Dollard’,
homes alongside the Côte d’Ollard and the Damsterdiep-Eems-
as one of the lobes of the urban network. Energy is produced, sto-
canal zone. A broad boulevard, with watery and high quality living
red and transported from here. If sustainable, efficient and neces-
areas around it, connects Delfzijl with Eemshaven. Because the
sary, energy resources can be imported. The area becomes the
coastline has been moved, the living areas become urban islands
energy-warehouse of Europe. In the Golden Age the Western part
in the sea. You can live here next to the water and it is also pos-
of the Netherlands became rich because of the trade with the
sible to take your boat and sail away to the Frysian lakes, Terschel-
Far East. Imported goods were stored in warehouses in Zaandam,
ling or Esbjerg.
Edam and Amsterdam. From here the goods were distributed
A second living area is projected between the Damsterdiep and
throughout Europe. A lot of money was earned with this storage
the Eems-canal. Living here has a cultural-historical dimension,
and distribution: the warehouse of Europe. The North Port can play
alongside the Damsterdiep, with its old stone factories and estates
a similar role with energy as the driver: an energy-warehouse. The
like Ekenstein and Rusthove. Other locations are next to the
Balcony in the Dollard will be the intense centre of live and work
powerful Eems-canal, where enormous ships pass, the Schildmeer,
of the Northern Netherlands. Its image can be compared with the
where children can practice their sailing skills or the lovely small
Rotterdam harbour area. Megalomane, high-tech bio-refineries
town of Appingedam. The Eems-canal is the quickest and shortest
stand side-by-side with sustainable energy-knowledge centres.
connection to Groningen. Vaparettos transport the people to the
centre of Groningen, without any traffic jam.
fig.129 Design Delfzijl
99
BOX 7 DELFZIJL
Could anyone predict at the beginning of the century that Delfzijl could ever become the most wanted living area in the Groningen
province? No one could. But somehow it happened. The unique combination of experimental living areas and living alongside the
boulevard, on the dike and in the sea, firstly attracted alternative artist and other creatives, we used to know from Ruigoord. But after
a couple of years the growth of the creative industry became so successful that the speed of new housing could not catch up with
the demand. The growth of jobs first took place within the creative sector41). The Dutch Design Academy Delfzijl can compare itself
easily with the design schools of Eindhoven and Amsterdam. And rapidly after this the growth in the harbour and more old-fashioned
economic sectors also shows a huge increase. Especially after the settlement of the Energy Exchange Index (EEX), the United Energy
Nations Safety Board and the European Panel on Energy Technology in a Sustainable World, business flourished. EEX trades virtually gas
on the World market, which causes a well developed ICT-business and a rapid growth of hotels, restaurants and cafes. Even Gasunie is
thinking of moving its headquarter to a location alongside the Eems.
100
41 NL2027, Het toekomstbeeld van het innovatieplatform, December 2005
CASCADE CITIES B
Regional design for
Cascade Cities
and this is linked trough the greenhouses, the industry until the
Power Plant to fulfil the Cascade.
Martina Sattler, Österreich
Starting with the topic of Cascade City was for all the group members (Bojan, Erik, Martina) new and technical.
One difficulty was to understand the Exergy principle. It is the idea
of using waste heat. The first link in the chain of Exergy is the power
plant. The waste heat of the power plant heats industrial processes. The waste heat out of the industry can further on heat the
greenhouses. The last step in this system is the link to the offices,
restaurants and dwellings. Those buildings are provided with the
waste heat of the greenhouses. The distance between all those
links should not exceed the distance limit of 8 kilometres.
fig.130 Top-down or bottom-up
We decided to focus on the existing living areas: the bottom-up
approach. The aim was to find the best existing infrastructures
for each part of the Cascade City. A good spot, focusing on the
existing living areas, was the canal of the Winschoterdiep: the
development line. The choice to use this infrastructural availability
(highway, canal, and rail) as a basis was made because it is a
sustainable way to transfer goods of the industry and biomass to
the power plant. It would be best if the parts of Cascade City fit in
between the infra-lines, but is there space enough?
The question how big each part should be to fulfil the LowEx-system was studied, but there could be found hardly any numbers.
Questions, questions. What the temperature is of the waste heat
out of each link and how big can the area of each link be to be
heated? How much space for greenhouses is needed to get a
fig.130 Cascading within a maximum distance of 8 kilometres
certain amount of dwellings heated? While working and putting
lots of energy in this question it was possible to assume the num-
The next step was the definition of two approaches: top-down and
bers for greenhouses. The Cascade Team found that one hectare
a bottom-up. The first one starts the Cascade City from an existing
of greenhouses supports two hectares of dwellings (restaurants
Power Plant (top) and links it till the dwellings (in most cases a new
and offices included). The things the group took into account to
living area). The second approach starts at an existing living area
get to this assumption were the seasons, the differences in heating
101
during day and night and the possibility to store the heat during
So a conclusion of the team work was to use the LowEx-principle,
summer. But for the other parts it was almost impossible to guess
and design Cascade Cities is difficult but possible. Using this princi-
how big and how much heat. For example, which amount of
ple form the beginning of a design for new areas makes it easier to
heat the industry provides for greenhouses depends largely upon
combine each part of the Cascade City.
the type of industry? This part was solved by the Cascade team
by introducing industry which demands and supplies most heat,
like metal industry. But still, the question of how large the industry
should be is not solved yet.
fig.131 Cascade cities, Master plan
The next step was to look if there is enough space in the Winschoterdiep area and the space directly around it. We found for every
Cascade City along the cannel space for every part of the LowExsystem, but found also out that after implementing these functions
almost no space was left over for the natural landscape. How to fit
the Cascades into the area required a lot of thinking and was one
of the most interesting parts of the work. Everyone had his or her
own reason, why to plan it there and why not. For the Cascade
team the landscape behind was very important, and to fit Cascade City into an existing living area was not an easy challenge.
102
The 8 kilometre boundary made things not easier.
CASCADE CITIES C
Cascading
Hoogezand
Erik Smits, Nederland
fig.132 Energy use in the Netherlands
fig.133 Six Cascade Cities in Groningen
In the Netherlands every year a
lot of energy is used. A lot of this
energy is used to produce heat
for making electricity, industry
and heating our homes and
offices. The way we have been
using this energy had been very inefficient. Waste heat from industrial processes is being dumped into the air or in the river while we
are still burning a lot of gas to keep our houses warm. Till now our
main source of energy has been fossil fuels. In 30 year it is predicted that we will have run out of fossil fuel or that they at least will
be to expensive to just be burnt.
We have to find new ways of producing energy and new ways
of using and saving energy. One way to save energy is through
exergy. Exergy is the base idea of Cascade City. In this Cascade
City heat that was used to produce electricity is being used again
in industrial processes, then to heat greenhouses and finally to heat
houses. There are some examples of parts of Cascade city, but till
now no full Cascade City has been made. With this plan I want to
give an example of what a Cascade City can look like.
fig.134 Cascade models of current and future situation
103
In a previous phase we found that in the Northern Netherlands it is
not possible to make one big Cascade City. The maximum range
between a power plant and the dwellings is 8 kilometres. Because
of this the Cascade City of the Northern Netherlands has to consist
of several smaller cascades. One of these cascades can be between Hoogezand-Sappemeer and Groningen.
In this area there will in several years be 2800 hectares of living and
office area. To heat this living area 700 hectares of greenhouses,
35 hectares of heat using industry and a power plant is needed
(assuming a proportion of 1 ha of dwelling to 0,25 ha of greenhouses to 0,0125 ha of industry). To make it as effective as possible all
of this has to be as close to each other as possible. The biomass for
the power plant will be brought in by boat. This is why the power
plant has to be close to the Winschoterdiep. It is placed in such a
fig.136 Master plan Cascading Hoogezand
way that it covers all of Hoogezand-Sappemeer and a large part
The power plant is integrated in a strip of industry which is in
of the city of Groningen.
between the Winschoterdiep and the railroad between Groningen and Hoogezand. To show what happens here the area is not
hidden from its surroundings. The buildings dominate this area and
because of this attention should be paid to the design of these
buildings.
From the industry big pipes go over the Winschoterdiep to the
fig.135 Cascade model and landscape structure
104
greenhouses on the other side. This area is based on the original
structure, which is still clearly visible. The base is formed by the old
greenhouses, dwelling or a combination of both. The greenhouses
excavation lines where people are living. This line is strengthened
are mainly in the west of the area. The most western part is only
by the trees along the roads and the gardens of the houses. These
greenhouses; the area more to the lake is a combination of dwel-
will make it green lines through a glass landscape.
ling and greenhouses.
The part east of the lake is mainly used for dwelling with a park
Perpendicular to these lines there are the greenhouses. These are
strip going through the area. The build areas are not completely
narrow and long following the structure of the original landscape.
filled with houses, but each area in between the ditches should
In between the greenhouses there are open spaces for water
be recognizable as one whole. In the middle of the area there is a
and reed. These can be used to store the rainwater that comes
centre where recreation, shopping, greenhouses and dwelling are
from the roofs of the greenhouses. Sometimes a greenhouse is left
combined. This centre makes the link between the eastern and the
out to keep the long views possible. These areas can be used for
western part of the area.
agricultural purposes. Other areas are left open to make ecological and recreational connections between the landscape to the
north and the south.
fig.138 Design living area
fig.137 Design industry and glasshouses
To the south of Hoogezand a new living area will be developed.
Here living and horticulture are. The structure of this area is also
based on the structure of the original landscape. As with the previous area the base of this landscape consists of living ribbons with
perpendicular on them the parcellation. The difference with this
landscape is that the parcellation is parallel to each other, dividing
the area in even parts.
This parcellation is the base for the design. It is shown in the form
of ditches. These all come together in a lake that will be used
for water retention. The area in between the ditches is used by
105
CASCADE CITIES D
Cascade city of
Winschoten
Martina Sattler, Österreich
As a member of the group Cascade City I worked further on one
Cascade City: the Winschoten area. In the area a new living area
“De Blauwe Stad” is realised. The largest city is Winschoten, which
is south of the new living area.
fig.140 Scheme Cascade City
fig.139 Cascade cities along the Winschoterdiep
There are some existing functions which might be helpful in
designing a cascade. East and west of Winschoten two existing industrial areas exist. The cascade is starting at these two points with
the projection of two new power plants, which are as big as the
electricity demand of the future inhabitants. These power plants
are surrounded by industry.
The next step was to find out how the greenhouses are arranged
to get them as close as possible to the living areas. At this point the
design should be subtle, because greenhouses too close to houses
might disturb people living there. Either it can be the work during
the day or even more the lights during the night. Here a certain
fig.141 Master plan
distance between the two parts of the Cascade City is required or
106
there has to be a grove in between, preventing the light to have a
The next step was design the transportation of the heat. I proposed
negative impact.
to have pipelines with heated water either above or underneath
the ground. Above the ground you see the pipelines, connecting
Combining greenhouses with other things can have a lot of dif-
the power plant, the industry and the greenhouses, while you
ferent looks. Combinations of recreation and greenhouses are
pass through the area. At certain points pipelines are shown at
for me the most interesting. It is possible to combine any sports
the surface to show how the LowEx-principle functions. To enter
you can think of with greenhouses. In between two greenhouses
the houses you need a lot of pipelines, because the distribution
you can make space for example a climbing hall, a rink to do ice
of the heat to each house. These connections are planned under
sport, a skate park, a swimming pool, a leisure park, etc. Those halls
the surface, to prevent too much disturbance or chaos. Pipelines
are in between the greenhouses and can use the light out of the
above surface can also be used as an artwork. Maybe there will
greenhouses during the night; they also have the closest connec-
be some parks where those lines can be the benches or skaters
tion to get heated with the waste heat of the greenhouses.
can use them for tricks.
Dealing with the distance of each part leads to an idea of combining functions. First there can be a combination of greenhouses
and offices. Nowadays, office buildings are mostly covered with
glass facades. Greenhouses do naturally have a lot of glass. Why
not combine them? The offices can be on one side of the big
greenhouses. On the side where they get the attention of people
who drive past, the companies can be seen well. If there is a staff
canteen, it can use the products out of the greenhouse directly.
fig.143 Multifunctional use of glasshouses, Winschoten
There will be less transportation of goods. A further idea is a floating
greenhouse on the “Blauwe Meer” with a big terrace. Boats can
My individual work brought me to the conclusion like in the group
dock on to it; people get pleasure from the sun and enjoy the
work that the “Cascade City Principle” can be used everywhere. It
food out of the greenhouse.
is easier to think about the Exergy system to fit in a design in advance then to fit it in an existing area. No attendance is put nowadays
on the appearance of the existing industries, but in the future this
can change. The combination of functions can be a solution for
the efficiency of the heat transportation, because the closer the
parts are, the better the efficiency is. The better Cascade City, the
better the LowEx-principle functions.
fig.142 Reference image glasshouse-recreation, Blauwe Stad
107
6.6 WINDY RIDGES
built and the Dutch people controlled the sea. This continuous
change of the coast was a game of sand and water, which was
a dynamic process which shaped the landscape of the north. This
landscape is an inspiration for the energetic north.
In the future the northern Netherlands has to deal with certain
changes. On of this is the rise of the sea level (we assume 0,5m
in 50 years) and the shift to sustainable energy sources. Our plan
proposes a concentration of new sustainable energy sources, to
fig.144 The windy ridges area
WINDY RIDGES A
ENERGETIC NORTH,
Landscapes that give and supply energy
Gerwin de Vries, Nederland
create an energy landscape.
fig.146 Altitude lines
Since the Stone Age the shape of the coast has changed by
influence of the sea. This influence was lost since the dikes were
We choose a more adaptive strategy towards the rise of the sea
fig.145 Changing coastline during the ages
108
level, by creating wetlands on the lowest places. With this the
wet scapes, sandy sedimentations, living on terps and the energy
majority of the pumping stations can be removed and a lot of
islands. Energy landscapes and at the same time energetic land-
energy is saved. In the future the dikes will have to be higher and
scapes. We introduce three different energetic landscapes which
higher because of sea level rise. This costs energy. We re-introduce
are based on its history:
the influence of the sea and let the sea come into the land. This
is saving energy by no longer fighting against the sea. This also
creates possibilities for a tidal plant and an osmosis plant.
fig.147 Energy production
fig.149 Energy islands
fig.148 60% is supplied sustainable
The northern of Netherlands has always been important for gaining
At the energy islands we use the rati-
energy. With its gas bubble under the ground, turf landscapes and
onal polder landscape to suit in large impressive fields of windmills
oil recourses. In the future sustainable energy will be a new face
and precisely organized patchworks of biomass with sight lines
of the north; new energy landscapes. When you visit the northern
over the open polders. The existing knowledge of taking land from
part of The Netherlands it is a rough, windy, muddy, salt-smelling
the sea is used to win biomass-land. On energy islands 60% of the
and empty landscape. We want to use these characteristics in
energy need of the north is supplied.
the concept of the energetic north. When you visit them, they will
give you energy. The energetic north will be a landscape of large
109
PHASING
The area in The Northern Netherlands is mostly agricultural, polderlandscape near to the sea and old terp-landscape more to the
south. Leeuwarden is the biggest city.
2010 - The polders are used for different types of sustainable
energy. Some pumping stations are taken away and lower places
will become wet. Houses are put within dikes or on a terp.
2020 - There is a direct connection with the Wadden Sea, the
water will be salt. The first farmers will shift to brackish agriculture.
On Energy Island, land is taken from the sea.
fig.150 Terp wet scape
2030 - Terps are built and the number of people will increase. The
In the terp wet scape we restore the
sedimentation. In the most northern part farmers will have the pos-
idea of living on a terp. Old terps are
sibility to run big lands with cattle.
re-inhabited and new terps are built. Seepage will find its way to
2050 - The energetic north in its final form. Adventurous ways of
lower places because of the sea level rise. In the current situation
living in wet scapes, astonishing energy landscapes and an every-
terps are visible, but inactive. They don’t have a function. Living
day changing salt landscape.
on terps as a high, dry and save place in a landscape of wet
gradients. It will be an ultimate way of living in the nature.
fig.151 Salty inlets
With the salty inlets we let the sea
come inlands at the lower places.
The unique character of the Wadden Sea with its tidal changes
and sedimentation is enlarged to the inland. Between the sweet
110
salty inlet is developing to a small Wadden Sea inland, with sand
terp wet scape and the salty inlet there can be brackish agriculture.
111
WINDY RIDGES B
SAND, SEA AND SALT
interaction between nature and people. Energetic north, where
the speed of the landscape is the speed of life. You live in the
landscape, feel real emptiness, discover new places, make long
New urban living possibilities for Leeuwarden
distance walks, get stuck in the mud or feel a strong sea wind. It
Gerwin de Vries, Nederland
gives you energy.
The process of salt water coming inland from the Wadden Sea:
water will cut sharp edges where it flows fast and sand will sedimentate where water flows slowly. The wind will blow sand away
and dune areas are created. The result of the landscape process
is a complete new landscape. Sand islands, daily tidal changes,
sand sedimentation, salt and sweet water gradients and a mangrove-forest. This concept studies the potential of living in this new
landscape. A new urban area of 1000 ha with 3000 houses on the
north side of Leeuwarden, which use the new landscape of the
fig.152 Coastlines of all ages
salty inlet as a basis.
The shape of the Northern coast has always been changing in
time, it shows an interesting dynamic. In the current situation there
is a clear distinction between land and sea, a static moment within
this dynamics. In the future the sea level will rise. In the concept
energetic north I want to use the sea level rise to reintroduce the
dynamics. In the Energetic North the game of sand and water is the structuring process in the landscape. There is a strong
fig.154 Three urban typologies
URBAN ISLANDS
The urban islands will have a fast urban atmosphere. There is a
high density of houses, with an open landscape and long views
as a context. The stony islands contrast with the sand and water
landscape. People work in Leeuwarden and live here, they are
well connected to the city but still have the contact with the
112
fig.153 Salty inlet and new houses near Leeuwarden
landscape. The tidal influences give rhythm to de day. During low
fig.155 Design urban island
fig.156 Design Mangrove Forest
fig.157 Design Autarkic living
wills sedimentate sand. The water is salt, so the gardens will have a
water the public space will be sandy. People can use it to make
salty and sandy environment with all new kind of plant species. The
long walks into the landscape. During high water the urban islands
islands get most of their energy from the main network in the city.
stand in the water. There are bridges to move between the islands.
Besides this every island has its own tidal plant, and extra energy is
Some houses have a small garden on the seaside. Here the sea
won from solar energy on the roofs of houses.
113
MANGROVEN FOREST
connection it is possible to get in contact with the world, without
We are dealing with the end point of the salty inlet. This means that
physically moving. These extreme living conditions will be very po-
a lot of sand is brought here because of tidal changes every day.
pular in the future, when pressure on space becomes larger, and
Slowly the water will disappear again, and the inlet fills itself with
the need for spontaneity in landscape will increase.
sand. On the far end of the inlet, sand can be kept on its place by
mangrove trees. The trees have large roots and grow well on these
specific conditions. They can become up to 25 meters. Where
sand is dried out, dunes come into existence. First small young
dunes will emerge, later whole dune areas. This landscape offers
a chance for a unique living environment. Within the mangrove
forest villas, with two or three houses, are build. The enclosure of
the forest and the dune areas near makes it a new way of living in
the landscape. The landscape does not stop till the door of your
house. The forests are connected by sandy roads to Leeuwarden.
The forest will be growing, as more sand gets sedimentated. The
building of houses will follow after, so that there is already forest.
The urbanization follows the process of the landscape. Near the
water small trees are growing. At certain times they get flooded
and die out. The wood that is left is used as biomass. This is a continuous interaction between people and the landscape.
AUTARKIC LIVING
This way of living is the most free and isolated one you can find
within the Netherlands. The relation with the landscape is very
strong and the density of houses very low. Only sometimes you
meet your neighbours. Some houses are mobile houses, which
can float over water. In this way people have the freedom to find
their own living space. Not always they can decide for themselves,
they might be forced to leave because of change in landscape
conditions. There are also temporary houses, which can quickly be
build and taken down. People will move about once a year. The
houses are completely autarkic, self-sufficient. At some places in
the salty inlet windmills are placed, the houses can log on to these
windmills to get their energy. On a smaller scale energy is won from
fast growing crops, like mangrove, from small windmills and solar
panels on the roof of the house. Most of the food is harvested near
the house. Crops could be sugar beet, mangold or marsh samp114
hire. Also freshly caught fish will be on the menu. With an internet
BOX 6 LEEUWARDEN
& MORE
It should be no surprise that water plays an important role in
ties. Imagine:
A couple of new key-projects42 can add to the pallet of possibili-
Friesland. But it is a little miracle that the Institute on knowledge
about water maintenance, coastal protection, water purifica-
1. The energy-cascade North Netherlands: a montage of the
tion and energy production from water came to Leeuwarden:
energy network on the scale of Northern Netherlands. One
the Wadden Academy. The existing Wadden Academy, the
comprehensive Cascade.
technical water laboratory, the RIZA and RIKZ, even the water
part of the ministry of Traffic and Water policy found their home
in the centre of Friesland. Wetsus, TNO and other research centres connected to the technical universities, brought together
their knowledge in the Philips-campus of the North: off course
located in the middle of the lake district. Beside the growth of
2. New island in the North Sea. Dutch dredgers are working in front
off the Dutch coast.
3. A tourist bond between Wadden Sea and East Sea: experiment
with new recreative concepts.
4. Cultural connections with Hamburg, Copenhagen and Malmo,
the Baltic axe and Berlin.
jobs this also encouraged the cultural development of Leeu-
5. Wadden ferry-boats cruise the Wadden area like the Greek
warden. It turned one of the most criminal cities of the Net-
islands.
herlands into a balanced city, where highly educated people
6. Hyper net, so fast, a bit never was before.
enjoy art and culture, restaurants and cafés, sports and nicely
7. Flow to Tallinn. The Maglev all the way to the Baltic States.
designed living areas. As one of the most vibrant inner-cities
8. World Exhibition 2014, showcase of sustainable solutions, techno-
Leewarden became a huge competitor of Groningen.
logies, ideas and products.
BOX 7 ASSEN
The largest building programme found its place on the Drente
plateau. At first close to Assen, later on making use of historical
excavation lines. A lot of experiments were done on sustainable
solutions in living and building. Complete autarkic dwellings
and modern Domoticas in the forests were realized. Assen is the
centre of the World Exhibition with Sustainable living as a central theme. The Dutch Dream of sustainable (export) products43)
is located as a showroom on the plateau.
42) Nieuwe nationale sleutelprojecten hard nodig, Riek Bakker, www.nieuwsbank.nl, 22 November 2005
43) NL2027, Het toekomstbeeld van het innovatieplatform, December 2005
115
CHAPTER 7
The economy of the future focuses on the themes health, tourism
PROMISE
and creativity46, the economic sectors, which become specifically
important in the next decades47 and those sectors where the
IN ENERGY VALLEY, YOU CAN HAVE IT ALL
region traditionally has a strong position48:
•
On several functional themes the promise of the project Grounds
for Change will be described here. What are the promises for
culture, history and art. Painters, writers, filmers and designers
energy valley?
find themselves a surrounding with a relaxed laid back atmosphere and a dynamic experience city. Tourists with a passion
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
for cultural heritage and modern design are attracted by the
The Golden Age of the North is coming: the 21st century. At one
hand costs for energy, food and water decrease and, because of
North Netherlands proposition;
•
Fun and tourism: the Northern Netherlands is seen as an at-
our healthy environment, the costs of health care are dropping.
tractive cultural region. Wealthy and vital elderly with a lot of
On the other hand we earn money, thanks to the booming deve-
spare time form a good focus group. Beside them the number
lopment in tourism and recreation. This economic development
of Chinese and other Asian tourists will increase (in 2003 60.000
is made possible by the rise in temperature, which makes beach
Chinese visited our country and in 2008 500.000 are expected);
life and solar tourism more common. Even if temperatures drop in
•
Transport, the Netherlands as an international Trade and Invest-
the next decades the new qualities of the North winter-sports, like
ment Company: like a new VOC, the Netherlands becomes
skating on natural ice and other winter-fun become dominant and
a real distribution country. We own harbours in other countries
make of our region an attractive one. Both scenarios show a fast
and are organising transport and logistics all over the World.
grow of the creative industry.
The production does not necessarily take place inside the Ne-
Northern Netherlands is connected, both physical and virtual,
therlands, but more and more in foreign countries. In 10 years
with the rest of the World. The city of Groningen is the hub to and
from now 20% of all products are produced in China and the
from economic centres like the Randstad, Hamburg, and Copen-
Netherlands takes care of the logistics. Like this the Netherlands
hagen-Malmo and, further away, Shanghai, Mumbai, New York
becomes, just like back in the 18th century an ‘investment-
and Moscow. Especially in a peripheral region, with an attractive
company’ with a network all over the World. The Northern
Netherlands also benefits from this;
landscape like the North, with a strong and dynamic centre-town
and an innovative climate for entrepreneurs a strong creative
44:
a Nokia
Valley45.
•
Energy and energy business;
Energy Valley is a region
•
Marketing and Communication;
with an unspoilt, quiet and beautiful surrounding to live in, contains
•
Bio- and Life Sciences/Nanotechnology;
technical amenities of high quality, has excellent connections with
•
Bio based Chemicals49;
the rest of the World and invests in creative people. The healthy
•
High-Tech & ICT (among with Domotica, personal care, secu-
•
Innovation-, knowledge- and educational centre50. An
economy can emerge
rity);
and well ordered metropolitan area pulls people from all over
the World to choose their living base in Northern Netherlands. The
116
Creative economy: growth of employment in the ‘creative
jobs’. The Northern Netherlands becomes the place to be for
condensation of talents leads to a climate of creative entre-
international well known knowledge centre (Edrec, EDI, Wad-
preneurship. Many people can find themselves an inspiring and
den Academy). Ideas about the World exhibition ‘foot-loose
challenging job. This attracts people like writers, artists, filmers and
building and living with a minimal footprint’ in 2014 function as
musicians.
a stepping stone;
fig.158 References of living on, in and around the Sea
•
•
Water (water alliance) and Maritime industry51 and Nature;
52
Agri-business and a changing agriculture. Shift from quantity
Northern Netherlands First. In the Urban Network Groningen-As-
to quality. Bio-based products form input for the pharmaceu-
sen new, centrally located business nodes are being developed,
tical industry, which opens new markets (elderly). And a new
integrated neighbourhood-offices are realized and the ‘club-of-
market can be found in the desire for speciality food from next
fice-building’ is introduced55.
door, that can be trusted;
•
•
•
New Intelligent Working will probably be developed in the
Wellness and care53: The older population of the future leads
PLACES TO LIVE
to an increasing demand for care. If the percentage of older
Living in the Northern Netherlands is easy and comfortable in a
people grows in the Northern Netherlands this is an opportu-
healthy and clean environment56. The clean air, the mild climate
nity. Elderly people invest in well-being. New technologies are
and the best possible health care offers people the chance to live
necessary to cope with or compensate becoming older. ICT
longer. People really know what care means and you notice it,
gives older people the chance to visit the rest of the World
especially when you become older. The (biomedical) technology
without travelling;
is developed over here, the most up-to-date treatment methods
54
A place to establish international institutes (research, techno-
are at hand.
logy and international service): The Northern Netherlands can
Living is also beautiful. Outside the urban areas, Northerly people
host the European Panel on Energy Technology in a Sustai-
live in an oasic landscape, where the earth is at your feet, right in
nable World or an institute like the Copenhagen Consensus
front of your doorstep. The Northern skies are famous, clear and
(www.copenhagenconsensus.com, Björn Lomborg).
crispy. The landscape57 contains meaning, is sound, open and full
New living trends: Elder people and youngsters will choose a
of nature. Through the internet you are connected with anyone
spot to live for only a short time.
you like, the quiet environment, clean air and silence surrounding
you. There is space enough: 211.000 new dwellings are easily reali-
117
fig.159 Floating piers
zed before 2030. The professional and no-nonsense development
58:
strategies help to do that rapidly
Living in the space and with the
water, in different styles and densities as a part of the North-West59.
location: Behind the flood-line of 1717, the largest flood in the
Northern Netherlands since 300 years: on the Drente plateau in the
forests, (almost) autarkic or intensively concentrated in the urban
network of Groningen-Assen. Here, urban densities are realized69,
European Lake District
On the North Sea people live on new islands, dredged by Dutch
60.
dredgers, who shift their activities from Dubai
The islands flood
several times a year, that’s why the houses are floating61. The view
62.
like a confident, dynamic, modern and historic conurbation. Large
scale functions concentrated in the urban centres, creating the
basis for public transport and the pressure on the surrounding
landscape is kept low (shape and contra-shape idea)70. The
can be compared with the best ones in the World
urban network develops into a mega-city of human scale, a
In the Wadden Sea is limited space to live. This can only be
hyper-city71. Architects and politicians can prove again how well
sustained under the condition that the ecological qualities of area
urban planning can be done72. Banlieues, where everyone feels
are strengthened. Living areas are moving up and down with the
at home and people are connected with each other. Groningen-
tides on spider-shaped floating piers63.
Assen is the skip in the triple jump (hop-skip-jump), from Randstad
towards Baltica, a well ordered and controlled enlargement of the
Polders and other lower parts of the landscape may be under
Randstad73.
water once in a while. New lakes are developed and are used to
Living and staying in the urban network is even better: nice people
store water64. It is possible to live there quite well, but once every
around you, a challenging and creative job, culture, festivals, the
20 years a flood possibly enters your house, like it is happening
beach, art and music around the corner. Still, connected through
nowadays to people in the big-river area of the Netherlands. New
speedy internet and the airport with mega-cities where you only
65:
shapes and techniques are used to live above the water
on
want to be for a short while: the Randstad, Berlin, New York, Mum-
piles66 or on top of dikes67. Beautiful spots in the wet landscape of
68.
118
bai, Shanghai, Tokyo, Moscow, Sao Paulo and Sydney. You live in
the North can also be used to create these new forms of living
‘Groninga magna’, the confident mini-mega, where globalisation
The largest amount of new houses finds its place at a proven safe
and the attention for your neighbours come together74!
Development Axe77, but the connection with the North-East has a
more meaningful dimension.
It dissolves the peripheral location of Northern Netherlands78.
Important in itself, but it is also connecting the North Sea basin
with the East Sea basin. This is not only very important economically (Randstad is connected with other high-income high-growth
regions, like Copenhagen, Malmö and Helsinki79), but is also
connecting the touristy structures of North Europe. The local and
regional transport is intensive and unhindered: light rail or subway
is not only for the urban area ideal, but can be extended throufig.160 The Urban Network Groningen-Assen
ACCESSABILITY
ghout the region connecting the larger urban centres with each
other and with touristy attractions and beaches. A fast ferry-boat
system connects the islands within the Wadden area from Esbjerg
up to Den Helder, the same as in Bangkok, where the Chao Praia is
To initiate a prosperous development for the North a nice climate
crossed permanently.
alone is a great incentive, but not enough: fast connections are
Finally, the connection with North-East Europe expresses the bond
a conditio sine qua non75. A fast Zuiderzeelijn is only a small step
with the New Europe of the Donau-monarchy. Escape from the
for our future, but a giant step for mankind. The missing link in the
Islamite development of Western Europe; prevent ourselves from a
North-East European network76 is compensated with the Northern
religious war happening in our front-yard.
TOURISM AND RECREATION
The Northern Netherlands becomes very attractive for the recreating people of the future. In 30 years from now climate change
gives the Côte d’Ollard the perfect climate: nicely warm summers
and mild winters. It offers a rapid tourist development80, in which
beaches, resorts, culture and history can play a dominant role.
The competition with the Côtes of the Mediterranean Sea is an
easy triumph: over there it is just too hot, the quality of the surface
water is too low and the risk at forest fires too high. The Wadden
Sea can become a subtropical diving paradise81, in the North Sea
a real Surfers Paradise evolves, because of the new sand plates in
front of the coast82. A necklace of exclusive resorts83 and beaches
host kite surf events84, which are only a frontrunner of other windy
hypes85 .
And the North has more to offer than sun and sand: culture, art,
fig.161 Connections with North East Europe
media, film and high tech86. The unique combination of history
119
EDUCATION
The educational strategy aims at educating the true top-talents.
The Americans are used to ‘buy’ not only the best athletes, but
also the best scientists and turn them into American citizens as
quick as possible. The North attracts Chinese and Indian top-talents, because of the well developed creative industry and the
booming beach-life. They come over to study and stay to work in
science and research (Zevensprong88). Our cultural heritage leads
to an attractive living environment, where talented people from
abroad like to live89. Education and institutes like EdreC, the Wadden academy and EDI, profit from that: high-quality top-courses,
oriented on the future important sectors: tourism, health, culture
and creativity.
fig.162 Possible beach life?
A PROTECTED REGION
Floods: Our region also has to deal with a more extreme climate.
Longer dry periods, followed by heavier storms. Gamble to heighten the dikes again is risky. Because our surface continues to drop
over the years, the disaster is even bigger in case of a flood. If we
apply another approach we can start to live with the water. We
can welcome the sea from time to time in a controlled way. The
lower areas may flood sometimes90: a substantial contribution to
modern culture and climate attracts the new rich to the Côte
the North-West European Lake District91. To protect us better on the
d’Ollard: Chinese, Japanese, people from India, Americans and
long term, we introduce a multi layer protection system, instead of
Russians own second, floating, houses in the region within 30 years.
one dike, that is supposed to be strong enough. Smart locations
The touristy main structure contains the edges of the North Sea
of new islands in the North Sea, the existing Wadden islands, the
and East Sea basins
87:
Esbjerg to Hull and from Aarhus until Tallinn.
existing dike, the former sea-dikes inland and the higher plateaus
The Wadden parcel plays a central role, because of its perfect
protect us against different varieties of heavy sea and storms. An
accessibility.
extreme situation is brought back to reasonable proportions step
In the alternative scenario, of dropping temperatures and real
by step. With each phase of the system a specific living environ-
winters, specific qualities can be explored: the same recreative
ment can be developed:
amenities are used for winter-holidays. A winter base for skating-,
•
Floating houses on the new islands. They flood more than once
•
In the Wadden Sea and on the existing islands the houses are
every year.
langlauf- and walking tours and sports like ice sailing and ice-kiting
will dominate the image of the North and transform the region into
a touristy attractive area. Beside the ski-jump-tower in Grunostrand
sources of ecology and play a role as a nature reserve. Every
new jump-towers are added and if the edges of the dog ridge
few years they can flood.
are used as ski-tracks in the North real winter sport village scan be
120
developed. People enjoy the clear and crispy fresh air.
•
In the lower parts behind the existing dike houses are build on
newly developed terps. And new technologies are applied: on
•
piles, floating or tidal dwellings or adaptive (to water) furnished
and the innovative power of everyone, high or low educated,
houses. Every now and then the water is at your doorstep.
whatever background, religion or sexe. Facilitate a tolerant
The higher grounds are occupied by the largest amount of
new houses: always dry and build the way we are familiar with.
environment, connected to our pleasant cultural genes;
•
regional and international;
By moving with the changes in climate and nature problems and
threats can be transformed into a safe location with lots of chan-
New transport-concepts, which will connect people, locally,
•
New concepts for living on the water, floating homes, tempo-
•
New island in the North Sea, to live on or as a Surfers sand
rary flooded dwellings and more;
ces and new possibilities.
Attacks: The question is in which part of Europe exactly the Islamic
plate;
threat will occur. If we assume that it’ll take place where the
•
New technology in health care;
largest concentrations of Muslims live, countries like France, Bel-
•
The new working: the optimum of work-live combinations in the
gium, the Ruhrgebiet, Madrid and London, but also the Randstad,
are the prior tension areas. The peripheral regions do have the
city.
(relative) advantage that these developments stay behind, and
LIVE CHEAPER AND EARN MORE!
will not exist in the future. The Northern Netherlands has something
Life will be cheaper in the North. The advantage on the real estate
to choose for. A choice for a strong bond with the Randstad the
market and the prices of the ground will continue to be lower.
North will be seen as a part of the Randstad and a higher risk at
Added to that are the price advantages of cheaper (locally
riots might be the case. If the North finds its connection with North-
produced) energy, water and food. The prices of energy turn sky
East and Middle Europe, the religious war might pass by. Ties with
high internationally; in the North we become independent from
Hamburg, Scandinavia, the Baltic nations and Poland, but also
this. We do not have to worry about the loss of jobs, due to (too)
Eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, Switzerland and Austria
high energy-process82. If the price of water follows the same route
might offer Northern Netherlands protection against terrorist at-
as the energy prices, the Northern consumer still profits from the
tacks. And we can continue to cherish our peace and silence.
almost free water: there is enough and it is close by. Our food also
INNOVATION
becomes cheaper than we know. Even without the European
subsidies we succeed to produce cheaper products, mainly be-
The North is very good at creating an innovative climate. Innova-
cause there is almost no transport necessary and we import slightly
tion programmes are directed towards those Points that will form
nothing.
the future:
•
•
•
•
•
thermal energy and high speed wind kites;
SUSTAINED RESOURCES OF ENERGY, WATER
AND FOOD
New ways of water management and coastal protection:
Water: In Northern Netherlands we produce our own clean drinking
precision management;
water. By letting the water in temporarily into a couple of pol-
New fun and tourism concepts. Exclusive, expensive and eco-
ders and treat it at the site. And also by digging out zones at the
logical;
bottom edge of the Drente plateau which encourages the natural
New ways of speciality agriculture. Exclusive products, focused
flow of pure and clean groundwater to the surface. Because this
on the local market;
water is our own, we can decide about it and price it.
Stimulating the creativity of every person. Not the focus on buil-
The filling of canals, lakes and polders is done by computers to
ding another cultural quarter, but investments in the originality
steer exactly where in the fine-maze network which water has
New energy-technologies like tidal and osmosis plants, geo-
121
which level. Off course: an innovation by the Northern ICT-engi-
The chances for agri-
neers.
business are also good.
Technological and biolo-
Food: Uncertainty about food from abroad (bird flue, Kreuzfeld-
gical innovations94 turn the
Jacob) is abandoned in Energy Valley by producing the majority
existing agriculture into a
of our food in our own region. Food quality and food security are
producer of speciality food
93.
major competitive advantages for entrepreneurs
Finally you
know again what you eat.
and bio-based (pharmaceutical) products.
The fertile soils provide agriculture with a new future as a producer
of climate adjusted crops: grain and sugar beets, but also grapes
(our own wine!) or oranges. The increasing influence of salt water
fig.163 Sustainable living, the
in agricultural soils encourages the introduction of salt-loving crops
new luxury95
like marsh samphire.
122
A broad pallet of mostly luxurious and speciality products are
Energy: In the Northern Netherlands we provide the energy
grown in the region. This also enriches the local cuisine, which, so
demand by producing most of the energy in our own region.
far, was not well known as the most tasteful in Europe: a treat for
Therefore we make use of different available sources in the region
inhabitants and visitors and development chances for the local
(multi energy strategy), make efficient use of energy (LowEx-princi-
restaurants.
ple) and become independent for the larger part.
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
Richard Florida, The flight of the creative class, 2005 & Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November 2005
Nokia profiel, Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn 1.1, Mei 2003
2.0 Ontwikkelingsperspectieven Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn, December 2004
Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November 2005 & Speerpunten economisch beleid
Speerpunten economisch beleid, Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005 & 2.0 Ontwikkelingsperspectieven Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn,
December 2004
Speerpunten economisch beleid, provincie Groningen, 2005
Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005 & Speerpuntennotitie
Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005
Andy van den Dobbelsteen, the Sustainable Office, Dissertatie, TU Delft, 2004
Trend ++/GroeiPlus, Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November 2005
Hollandse Hoogte, Dubai, in: the Flood, Catalogue 2nd International Architecture Biënnale, Rotterdam, Juni 2005
Pompen alleen is te weinig, interview met Chris Zevenbergen, Dura Vermeer, Volkskrant, 28 december 2005
Referenties uit the Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary Architecture, 2005
Tide City, AvB Rotterdam, in: the Flood, Catalogue 2nd International Architecture Biënnale, Rotterdam, Juni 2005
Plan voor de Blauwe Stad, Provincie Groningen et al.
Referenties uit the Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary Architecture, 2005
Naar zee! Ontwerpen aan de kust; Rotterdam 2003, in: Nova Terra, december 2004
Flood resistant houses, Water Works, TU Delft, in: Nova Terra, Oktober 2005
Ommelanderzeedijk, Westpolder, Landschapsontwikkelingsplan Noord-Groningen, Bosch Slabbers, September 2005
Appartementengebouw, Madrid, MVRDV, Volkskrant, 17 november 2005
Kompas voor de Toekomst, SNN, Januari 1998, Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005 en Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November
2005
City Scape NL, Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn 1.1, Mei2003
Aaron Betsky, De menselijke maat, Volkskrant, 22 december 2005
Zuiderzeelijn - de kansen in kaart, November 2005 en The North-East European Agenda for Noord -Nederland, BAW, Mei 2005
Kompas voor de Toekomst, SNN, Januari 1998 en Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005
The North-East European Agenda for Noord -Nederland, BAW, Mei 2005
Strategische Agenda voor Noord-Nederland 2007-2013, SNN, 26 Januari 2005 & 2.0 Ontwikkelingsperspectieven Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn, December 2004
Lonely Planet, Australië, Januari 2004
Lonely Planet, Australië, Januari 2004
Bora Bora Beach Resort, QAS Holidays, Brochure Australië, Nieuw-Zeeland en de Pacific, 2004-2005
Rob Roggema, St Kitts, Melbourne, Januari 2005
Costa Iberica, MVRDV, 1998
Plan Oostwand Grote Markt, gemeente Groningen
Atlas van Kooper, Carte de la Mer d’Allemagne, 1693 + De Grote Bosatlas, 49ste druk, 1981
Grounds for Change, Design Charette, Regionaal Ontwerpteam, Mei 2005
Lake District NW-EU, Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn 1.1, Mei 2003
4000 banen in het Noorden op de tocht door hoge energieprijzen, Groninger Internet Courant, 1 december 2005
Agro-Inno-Bio-Tech, Masterplan Zuiderzeelijn 1.1, Mei 2003
Time, May 2006
123
124
Appendix 1
TIME-HORIZONS
In 2036 our children will be 32, 34, 33, 34 and 35 years old. All of
them will be almost as old as we are now. They will look at our former prime ministers like Wim Kok, Ruud Lubbers and Dries van Agt,
the way we look back at Drees, De Quay and Biesheuvel: old men
from a former time. Like we got used to the television and the (mobile) telephone, they cannot understand a world without i-pod.
The way Reinier Paping, heroic winner of the Eleven Town Skating
Race in 1963, became mythical in our memories, in the same
way they will look back at historic pictures of Henk Angenent, the
last winner of the race. Did we hear our fathers talk about Bob
Beamon and Martin Luther King, they will listen to us telling stories
about Pieter van den Hoogenband and Pim Fortuyn.
Or let’s take another random family. Amalia and Alexia, the two
daughters of crown prince Willem Alexander and princess Maxima
will be 32 and 31 years in the year 2036. They will experience the
fig.1 Map of 1665
world in the same way our children will. In 2036, an entirely new
1665: The map of 1665100 mainly shows the enormous deltas of Lau-
generation, yet unspoilt, will be young adults.
wers and Dollard. The flow of water off the Drente plateau is also
The Northern Netherlands our children were brought up in will have
beautiful. The soil and water system determined the landscape.
changed in 2036. Large parts of the Wadden Sea disappear if the
Far inland the influence of the sea could still be experienced.
sea level rises with 60 centimetres96. In any case, it wont be the
Wadden Sea we know now. Dry marsh lands and sand plates will
1717: Around the year 1700 the land-gaining in the Dollard started.
have shrinked and are enlarged at different locations, because
The so-called News-map from 1717101 shows us which parts of the
of the sedimentation of mud and sand. How much dry plates will
land were flooded during the Christmas-flood of that year. Large
remain is unpredictable, because the circumstances in the Wad-
parts of Groningen and Friesland, but also Northern-Germany and
den Sea will be very dynamic for ever. The high value ecology will
the western parts of Denmark were flooded. The heaviest flood in
change with these changes and will be replaced by another type,
the last 300 years.
maybe as valuable. It seems plausible that the living space of
the seal might shrink, the same way this happens in Canada with
habitat of the polar bear97 or the Inuit98. The strange thing is that in
1660 en 1781: If we put together the maps of 1660102 and 1781103,
the PKB (National Planning Decision) Wadden Sea climate change
the huge development of the Peat Colony can be seen: the exca-
99.
is not really an issue
BACK, FURTHER BACK, ALL THE WAY BACK
Let’s go back in history for a couple of hundreds of years.
vation of the peat changed the landscape fundamentally within
100 years. A peat-landscape changed into a peat-colony.
125
fig.2 News-map of 1717
fig.3 The maps of 1660 and 1781
1857 en 1962: (In 1959 the gas reserves of Slochteren are discovered) On the map of 1857104 small parts of the Dollard are reclaimed.
A complex system of polders, kept dry with windmills (the Mill-colonies) gave the Northern Netherlands new land bit by bit. Later on
the reclaiming went on in a more rapid way: the Lauwers-lake105
and parts of the Wadden coast.
What happened in the North also took place in the rest of the
country. In the last 150 years the Beemster, Wieringermeer, Haarlemmermeer, the Noord-Oostpolder and Flevoland were reclaimed. The Markerwaard and the rest of the IJssel-lake were also
planned to become polders and even the Wadden Sea should
become land at a time. Now, IJburg is realized and plans to develop the Randstad in the North Sea are being made.
What can we learn from the series of maps?
1. We do not have to go back in time very far, only several hundreds of years, to find out what the North looked like in a fragile
and dynamic balance with the elements. It offers us an insight
in the natural driving forces in the region. No more, no less. It
126
does not show us an ideal historic desirable image. We can
fig.4 Maps of the North in 800 AC
see how far inland the largest flood reached: obviously until it
the maps of 800 and 1665, it is visible that the landscape has not
met a strong natural barrier. Behind this barrier, the land was
changed that much.
kept dry by a natural force.
2. Mid 18th century the people started large scale interventions,
FURTHER BACK: A POLAR DESERT
which changed the landscape and the natural balance. Peat
Go back in time a little further and our image of the region chan-
was excavated, gas and land were gained. Parts of the North
ges dramatically. As the Holocene started (10.000 years ago) the
ended up below sea level.
sea level was 35 metres lower than nowadays. The coast line was
3. In only 300 years (between 1736 and 2036) the North uses all
far away from the current coast111. And then: spring starts. The ice
its fossil resources (peat, gas and oil), especially if the produc-
which covers Scandinavia is melting away quickly and the sea
tion is increased106. These resources were formed in millions of
level starts to rise very rapidly. More and more dry land is flooded
years
107.
permanently. The seals, which were living for 10.000 years in front
4. Approximately 80% of the North is a polder, one way or
110,
another
is kept dry by pumps and most of the area is below
sea level.
BACK: TERP AND WIERD109
of the Portuguese coast, migrated back to the Wadden Sea. The
polar desert that dominated Europe for a long time112 disappears
and is replaced by the first pines and beeches. Now, in 2006, it is
summertime on earth. Despite the fact that the climate has been
stable for centuries now and the sea level only rises with centime-
In the year 800 AC the Northern Netherlands looked completely
tres, we are concerned about a few degrees and some deci-
different110. The Middel Sea, the Lauwers and the Eems intruded
metres more. And the geological autumn approaches us: within
the land deeply and flooded the land regularly. People lived on
10.000 years it will be autumn and our climate will have changed
wierden and terps, on just dried marsh land and subtly spread out
into a climate that we know from Lapland. Scandinavia will be
in the landscape. The higher, Pleistocene, grounds, like the Dog
covered with glaciers again, the sea level will have dropped and
Ridge, were surrounded by large peat areas. When we compare
the seals will be playing near of Portugal113.
127
fig.5 A polar desert
fig.6 Under water
ALL THE WAY BACK: UNDER WATER
AND IN 10.000 YEARS?
And if we go back in time one step more? As the Pleistocene starts
(2.5 million years ago), the Netherlands were covered with water
114.
and were just a piece North Sea
This could be the case again
2.5 million years from now.
It will be rather cold out here and we are migrating to warmer
areas on earth: somewhere along the Indian Ocean coast. Northern Netherlands is a ski resort, where downhill races take place
from the Dog Ridge and the Emmen peak.
THE FUTURE: IN 300 YEARS …
In 2306 our descendants look back, just the way we do now
towards 1717. The next 300 years people in the North still live safe
and withstand a lot of disasters. People experienced economic
prosperity, because the Côte d’Ollard proved to be successful.
People can provide themselves with their own energy, water and
food. Beside technological development a flourishing development of highly rewarded creative people took place. The North is
connected with other hotspots in the World: Shanghai, Mumbai,
Sao Paulo, Sydney and others. We live longer. We live without
ecological footprint in Sea and on terps again. The mini-mega-city
Groninga magna is copied all over the World and a very successful City-typology.
128
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
Kaartenserie Waddenzee bij verschillende scenario’s zeespiegelstijging, provincie Groningen Januari 2006
Hans Alders, Keynote speech on climate change, 7 October 2005, Ottawa, Canada
De snelweg van de Inuit smelt, NRC Handelsblad, 7 December 2005
Concept aangepast deel 3 pkb Derde Nota Waddenzee, kabinetsstandpunt, 20 december 2005
Atlas Maior van 1665, Joan Blaeu, Taschen 2005, III/22 Rhenus FluviorumEuropæ Celeberrimus, cum Mosa, Mosella, et reliquis, in illum se exonerantibus, fluminibus
Atlas van Kooper, 2003, Geographische Vorstellung der jämerlichen Wasserflut in Nieder-Deutschland, Johann Baptist Homann
Atlas van Kooper, 2003, Tabulae Dominii Groningea, A.F. de Wit, ca. 1660
Atlas van Kooper, 2003, Beckeringhkaart, 1781
Atlas van Kooper, 2003, Molenkoloniën in de Vier Karspelen en Bellingwolder Zijlvestenijen, de Oostwolder- en Stadspolders, 1857
Kleine schoolatlas der gehele aarde, P.R. Bos - C.L. van Balen, 1962, plan tot afsluiting van de Lauwerszee
Gaskraan in Slochteren verder open, Volkskrant, 23 December 2005
Jan Terlouw, Zonne-energie kan veel problemen oplossen, Volkskrant, 23 December 2005
Polders!, Adriaan Geuze en Fred Feddes, 2de Architectuur Biënnale, Rotterdam, 2005
Words used in the Northern Netherlands (Terp is the Frysian, Weird is the Groningen) to indicate historical little hills in the landscape on which people lived, safe and dry
Professor van Giffen en het geheim van de wierden, 2005
Geologie, Teleac, 1978
De Grote Bosatlas, 50ste Editie, 1988
Salomon Kroonenberg, hoogleraar technische aardwetenschappen, De menselijke maat - de aarde over 10.000 jaar, voorpublicatie, Delta, 15 December 2005
Geologie, Teleac, 1978
129
130
Appendix 2
SUSTAINABILITY &
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
1 The urge of sustainable development
president George W. Bush the United States, known to be the
greatest contributor to environmental problems, withdrew from the
Kyoto protocol.
By the year 2000 surveys indicated that the emission of carbon dioxide had not decreased. Recent publications in Nature [Liu et al.,
2003] and Biological Conservation [McKee et al., 2003] describe
the threat to biodiversity of human population growth, smaller
households and the increasing use of space by humans. Especi-
Problems ahead
ally deforestation in developing countries with a recognised rich
A healthy environment is a basic condition for the existence of
biodiversity forms a serious threat to one-fifth of the world’s plant
plants, animals and also human beings. Without sensible proces-
and animal species [Brook et al., 2003]. Correction seems more
sing of natural resources, irreplaceable materials will deplete, the
necessary than ever.
natural resistance and purifying capacity of the earth will not be
able to handle pollution anymore, and ecosystems will be deterio-
The concept of sustainability
rated, eventually victimising human beings themselves. This stands
The World Commission on Environment and Development [Brundt-
apart from the direct health impact that the use of resources
land et al., 1987] proposed a pro-active global approach to tackle
causes to human beings themselves.
environmental problems. The concept of sustainable development
was introduced, relating environmental protection to a prosperity
The world population is growing and demanding economic
more equally divided across the world, concisely formulated as:
growth and more luxury, whereas the natural capacities of the
“a development that meets the needs of the present without
planet are limited. In the 1970s, the Club of Rome warned against
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
the dangers of uninhibited growth [Meadows et al., 1972]. The
needs”. However, this definition does not clearly express the
congregation of scientists stated that large problems would arise if
balance between economy and ecology, and the diminishment
we continued living the way we have been. This is difficult to ima-
of differences between rich and poor countries. The commission
gine, living in a prosperous country, with no lack of resources and
emphasised this in their report: “a process of change in which ex-
food. The problems, however, are not ‘here and now’, but ‘there
ploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation
and later’ [Duijvestein, 2001]. With respect to climate change and
of technological developments and institutional change are all
expected resource depletion, ‘there’ presumably equals develo-
in harmony and enhance current and future potential to meet
ping countries, and ‘later’ has already started in many places…
human needs and aspirations”. In western countries, sustainabi-
Many research projects on the state of the Earth [e.g. Meadows
lity is therefore often interpreted in its environmental meaning,
et al., 1992; WHO, 1997; RIVM, 2001a] demonstrate that the natural
forgetting its promise to developing countries. In spite of this, many
equilibrium between human intervention and ecological resilience
governments have taken up the responsibility to put sustainability
has been disturbed. The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
on the political agenda, translating it into policy and coupling it
was a first attempt to globally tune policy on environmental issues.
into targets.
In 1996, this was followed by the summit in Kyoto, where most
countries committed themselves to measures against emissions of
In a broader sense, sustainable development is sometimes divided
ozone-deteriorating compounds and greenhouse gases. Under
into four main aspects: environmental sustainability, economic
131
sustainability, cultural sustainability, and social sustainability115
As formula A01c indicates, the environmental impact by unit of
[e.g. Bächtold, 1998], in which sustainability is specifically related
prosperity, or metabolism needs to be reduced by factor 20, or
to ecological, economical, cultural and social developments.
95%. Five Dutch ministries [Jansen & Vergragt, 1992] and different
In the research presented, I mainly focussed on environmental
departments of the Delft University of Technology [Heel & Jansen,
sustainability, directed at improvements to the ecological side of
1993] made this factor 20 a goal for sustainability. It is a global
sustainability, yet also contributing to the other aspects mentioned.
target that needs to be complied with in all aspects of life. It there-
Sustainable building refers to sustainability in regard to building
fore also affects the building industry, as well as office use.
and construction.
There are not many countries outside the Netherlands that picked
The factor 20
this factor 20 as a target for policy on sustainability. Better known
Commoner [1971] related environmental problems to the world
and more widely supported are the factor 4 and factor 10. These
population, its prosperity and the environmental impact by prospe-
less ambitious factors of improvement however do not ensure the
rity. In order to make the objectives of the Brundtland Commission
dual objectives of the Brundtland Commission, which I chose to
quantifiable, Ehrlich & Ehrlich [1990] and Speth [1990] re-introdu-
take as an underlying basis for my research: improving the health
ced this relationship, as in formula A01a, in which the pressure on
of the environment on the one hand and establishing a better
the environment (EP) equals the magnitude of the world popula-
spread of wealth over the world. Of course it is arguable if these
tion (P) times the average rate of prosperity or wealth (W) times
two goals are even separately realistic in an economy-driven
the environmental impact related to this wealth (E):
world, let alone if they can be simultaneously achieved, but I saw
the factor 20 as the summit to be checked before the findings
EP =
P
x
W
x
E
<A01a>
would perhaps prove that this is unattainable. Nevertheless, it
remains more of an image of the immense improvement needed
1990 was taken as the reference year, indexing all factors 1:
1991
=
1x
1
x
1
<A01b>
rather than an exact goal.
2 Environmental problems
Around 1990, the Brundtland Commission, like many other institutions, considered the pressure on the environment too high,
Environmental effects can be attributed to the three main environ-
intending to halve it within 50 years. Another target was a more
mental problems (table).
equally divided wealth, meaning that - if western countries do not
give up their prosperity - the average rate of prosperity will need to
grow immensely. Estimates of the increase required are factor 4 to
8; however, factor 5 was chosen. Meanwhile, as recent estimates
confirm, the world population was expected to double within 50
years. Therefore, with two factors in formula A01a as a global goal,
and another considered inevitable, the manageable factor left is
E:
132
2040
½
=
2
x
5
x
1/20
<A01c>
Table: Environmental effects and problems
In this section, these three problems will be discussed briefly.
Depletion is caused by the following simultaneous developments:
•
The world population grows, increasing the demand for resour-
•
The demand for resources per person increases, mainly be-
Depletion of resources
From an environmental point of view, depletion can be seen as
ces.
the running short of a certain resource116. This may concern finite a-
cause of growth in welfare.
biotic resources (minerals, such as metals and stony material), ho-
•
The availability of finite resources decreases.
wever, biotic resources (organic materials and fossil energy) may
•
The growth of renewable resources is insufficient.
also be finite when their extraction exceeds their growth. Organic
The first phenomenon is a problem or fact that designing engineers
fossil resources like mineral oil and natural gas have evolved during
can hardly solve. The third is also a natural condition. The fourth
millions of years. However, over the last 200 years they have been
emphasises the importance of the exploitation of renewable
consumed at a phenomenal rate (see figure A01).
resources.
The second phenomenon however results from the human need
to improve welfare: more personal space, with more possessions
and luxury; nobody wants to reduce their comfort level. Without
frustrating this need, something needs to be done about the personal demand for resources by avoiding waste of resources or the
application of renewable or reuseable products.
Deterioration of ecosystems
An ecosystem is “all the plants and living creatures in a particular
area considered together with their physical environment” [Hornby
et al., 1998]. Ecosystems are ‘deteriorated’ when the coherence
and interaction between plant and animal communities and their
physical environmental is disturbed. This does not mean that an
ecosystem should be static; it is dynamic by nature and its contents and size fluctuate in time. The issue is the natural balance: a
healthy ecosystem is able to restore the numbers of species, and
relations between species, after a disturbance.
Deterioration of ecosystems can be divided into two parts:
Figure: Estimated lower and upper limits of oil and gas reserves and
•
Deterioration of biodiversity (abundance of species)
consumption lines, indicating the moment of depletion [Scheer,
•
Number reduced per plant or animal species (species size)
1999]
Both influence the balance of an ecological system.
Depletion can also concern space, oxygen and water. The
Biodiversity represents the very foundation of human existence. It
capacity of the earth to replenish possible losses in a natural way
is the natural biological asset of the Earth. The diversity of species
is essential. As long as growth exceeds consumption, there is no
and genes affects the ability of ecological communities to resist or
matter of depletion.
recover from disturbances and environmental change, including
long-term climatic change. Recent estimates of the number of
133
The decisive factor for permanent deterioration by climate
species vary between 7 and 20 million, of which only 1.75 mil-
•
lion are scientifically described [Watson et al., 1995]. The global
change is the adaptability or mobility of plants and animals [Jong,
population growth [McKee et al., 2003] and its growing personal
1997]. Some animals can move into urbanised areas and survive
use of space [Liu et al., 2003] put a severe pressure on natural
perfectly. There are also plants that can move by 100 meters in 10
habitats, thereby threatening the biodiversity. Small-scale studies
years. Rapid climate change is fatal for these. Whether it is a direct
of biodiversity indicate that up to one-fifth of the original species
consequence of global climate change or due to local interven-
could vanish within 100 years [Brook et al., 2003]. Global estimates
tions, local or even regional extinction of species is particularly
are 7 species per day [McKee et al., 2003]. In some areas, fragile
accelerated by desiccation.
animal and plant families might even be reduced by 90% within
the present century.
Deterioration of human health
In the case of a natural disaster the consequences will be more
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines the term health as
dramatic if nature is less varied. Consciously or unconsciously, man
follows [1983]: “a state of complete physical, mental and social
is dependent on a considerable part of these species. Austra-
well-being, and not just the absence of disease or infirmity”. The as-
lian Aboriginals say that every time an animal species becomes
sociation of the condition of body and mind is therefore acknow-
extinct, man comes a step closer to his own extinction [Morgan,
ledged117.
1996]. Jong et al. [1992] call biodiversity the risk insurance of life,
Health may be considered “the ability to adapt oneself to con-
the natural resistance against catastrophes, and therefore consi-
stant change in the environment”. A human being has natural me-
der it the most important aspect of sustainability. Nevertheless, the
chanisms to defend himself against illness. Resistance, for instance,
size of species is also an important indicator.
is in the skin, stomach, intestines and mucous membranes, and
also in the form of the immune system (‘anti-bodies’ neutralising
Deterioration of ecosystems can take different forms.
•
Most evident is the direct visible deterioration of tropical forest
‘anti-genes’). The excessive reaction of this defence system causes
allergies, one of the greatest health problems of recent times.
as a result of wood-cutting and deterioration of the landscape by
extraction of superficially located minerals (like most metal ores,
Health effects can manifest physically (“through the body”) and
marl, clay and other minerals). Through this extraction biotopes
psychologically (“through the mind”). These are referred to as
disappear. Secondary effects like erosion, desiccation and deserti-
physiological functioning (“the mechanism on the body”) and
fication cause similar effects.
psychological functioning (“the mechanism on the mind”).
•
134
Another form of deterioration is evolving more gradually. It
Based on the health definition of WHO, health problems can be
concerns the change of life conditions: climate change, radiation
defined as “problems caused by lack of physical, mental or social
effects, desiccation or pollution spread. Global climate change
well-being”. The seriousness of health problems can differ greatly.
is generally considered the most persisting and devastating
In decreasing seriousness these can be divided into [Dongen &
environmental problem. Many discussions have taken place about
Steenbekkers, 1997]:
the human influence on climate change. However, since the
1. Death
International Panel on Climate Change [IPCC, 2001a] published
2. Non-recoverable clinical effects
their findings and expectations (discussed in subsection 03.01.04),
3. Recoverable clinical effects
the idea that man has a more than marginal influence is broadly
4. Sub-clinical effects (vague physical trouble)
supported, implying that international action will be necessary if
5. Nuisance reactions and disorder (see frame text)
we want to mitigate the effects that are already developing.
6. Degeneration of feeling comfortable and aesthetics.
Different mechanisms can lead to the six categories of health
years, concentrations of CO2 and CH4 have however never been
trouble. A direct transfer occurs when somebody is exposed to
as high as they are presently (see figure A02).
118.
a certain agent
Human transport mechanisms as well as the
extraction, transport, fabrication and use of building materials,
energy and water have an important influence.
The mechanism of indirect transfer is less transparent. Deterioration
of ecosystems sometimes leads to deterioration of human health,
though often via a longer route, because man forms the highest
level in the food chain.
When the definition of ‘sustainable development’ is applied, the
deterioration of human health is an important environmental problem because future generations have to fulfil their needs, good
health being the first condition of life.
3 Problems most recognised
The following environmental problems are considered most important to the future of mankind and nature:
•
Global climate change and its expected consequences.
•
Depletion of (fossil) energy - and its consumption as a possible
cause for climate change.
•
Availability of clean fresh water in large areas of the earth
•
Deterioration of tropical forests.
Deterioration of the ozone layer used to be a major issue; however, since the world-wide prohibition of CFCs, the main cause of
this problem has been almost completely removed.
Figure: Greenhouse gases and temperature over the last 160.000
Climate change
years, derived from arctic ice samples [Houghton & Woodwell,
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon enabling life on
1989].
earth: it limits the loss of reflected solar heat. Over the last two centuries an increase in gases that form the basis for the greenhouse
In the year 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
effect (carbon-dioxide and methane) and a rise in the average
[IPCC, 2001a] produced a series of four reports concluding that
temperature on earth have been detected. The growing emission
human activities had a indisputable influence on climate change.
of greenhouse gases by human activities is largely attributable to
The judgement of the IPCC is generally used as the basis for inter-
the use of fossil energy.
national environmental policy.
Scientific discussion has been going on about the extent to which
human beings can be held responsible for this climate change. A
The first IPCC workgroup [2001b] described the expectations for
natural fluctuation in the contents of the atmosphere and hence
climate change.
the temperature has already been proven by Arctic ice samples
•
analysis [Houghton & Woodwell, 1989]. Looking back 160.000
by 3.5 degrees in the 21st century. Based on new insight into the
In the year 1995 scientists expected a maximum increase
135
expectations for SO2 and CH4, the temperature on earth is now
this rise therefore is a kind of barometer for it.
expected to rise by 0.6 to 5.8 degrees. In North America, North and
Central Asia the temperature will rise 40% more than the average.
In spite of the expected dramatic impact of climate change, the
The margin for the expected temperature increase is rather large,
IPCC workgroup III [2001d] states that the increased greenhouse
indicating uncertainty. Wigley & Raper [2001] however calculated
effect can be stopped with existing technology and for reaso-
the most probable event: the chance that the extra temperature
nably low costs. The workgroup suggested energy conservation,
increase is less than 1.7 C is negligible. As a probable upper level
electric cars, electric fuel cells and storage of CO2 in the ground.
Wigley & Raper chose 4,9 C, with 90% certainty that in the first 30
Nevertheless, when considering electric solutions, electricity
years the increase will be between 0.3 and 1.0 C.
will need to be sustainably produced. Underground storage of
•
carbon dioxide can be considered a tail-end solution, applicable
0
0
0
The northern hemisphere and Antarctica will encounter more
precipitation. In other places arid and humid areas will alternate.
•
Ocean and sea levels will rise 9 to 88 cm, again a great band-
to the unavoidable localised production of CO2, as by electricity
plants. Sustainable energy remains a key factor in the fight against
width indicating uncertainties in the calculations and including
humanly influenced climate change, particularly in regards to
local differences.
transport and building.
•
There are no indications of increasing extreme weather (heavy
storms) trends.
Biodiversity
In scientific fields of ecology and nature conservation, biodiversity
The second report of the IPCC workgroup II [2001c] presented the
is generally recognised as an essential condition for life. As its main
expected impact of these climate changes to man and nature:
long-term problem is related to climate change, as stated on
•
Glaciers will shrink and permafrost on tundra will defrost.
the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992, policy is merely directed
•
Ironically, countries that produced most greenhouse gases will
towards reduction of energy consumption and use of sustainable
suffer least. Therefore, the gap between the rich and poor parts of
energy. A more direct problem is growth of the population and the
the world will increase.
resulting claim on land, in particular tropical forest areas with a rich
•
In temperate regions breeding seasons will commence earlier
and agricultural seasons will last longer, leading to greater yields,
basis of mid-range climate scenarios, 15% to 37% of all species are
lower heating costs and less deaths.
committed to extinction.
•
In South-Eastern Asia the temperature rise will lead to more
precipitation, annihilating water shortages.
•
For Africa, vast parts of Asia and, to a lesser extent, Southern
In the year 1995, the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
presented their Global biodiversity Assessment [Watson et al.,
1995], in which the necessity of conservation and sustainable use
America, there will be intense heat and draught. In contrast to this,
of biodiversity was expounded. As the main solutions for these,
due to a rising sea level, heavy storms and floods are expected.
Watson et al. suggested:
As with all expectations and assumptions, we should allow for pos-
•
An equitable sharing of income and assets
sible surprises, because certain parameters might become critical,
•
Enhanced research, inventory, and monitoring of biodiversity
fundamentally altering the chemical processes in the atmosphere.
for policy-making and management
Alverson & Pedersen [2001] observed more indications of a non-
•
gradual climate change. Santer et al. [2003] found that the rising
through committed and skilled people.
top of the Earth’s troposphere is a result of transport and industrial
136
biodiversity (see further on). Thomas et al. [2004] found that, on the
emissions closely associated with the greenhouse effect and that
Successful maintenance and sustainable use of biodiversity
Deterioration by deforestation
cipitation. Lower ground water levels have great consequences
As a direct consequence of deforestation, anywhere in the world,
for nature and the environment. Beside aridity, in coastal areas,
the landscape is affected. Biotopes disappear, leading to possible
a shift in the salt-water borderline is likely, causing problems for
deterioration or even vanishing of complete ecosystems. If nature
ecosystems and waterworks.
can restore itself in deforested areas, loss of ecologic quality
will only be temporary. However, in many cases deforestation
Beside global scale climate change, one of the causes of desic-
causes erosion: the disappearance of trees or plants holding the
cation is the human extraction of ground water. Water works
soil together causes the upper, fertile layers to wash away. This
and agricultural companies pump water up and thereby lower
problem applies mainly to tropical forests. Erosion often precedes
the ground water level, necessitating irrigation in drier periods for
desertification. Once turned into a desert, little can be done about
agriculture. A consequence of the enlargement of urban area
an area anymore.
means an increase of macadamised and drained land area,
An indirect consequence of deforestation is desiccation (see be-
causing accelerated discharge of rainwater to open water as well
low). In the ground plants retain fluid and vaporise water. Through
as decreased infiltration of rain water into the ground. Extraction of
evaporation warmth is drawn from the environment, causing a
resources (for instance brown and black coal, and marl), changes
difference between cool vegetated areas and warm bare plains
resulting from drainage through polder and land reorganisation,
or cities. Due to vegetal evaporation it rains more often in forested
regulation of open water levels, and - as already presented - defo-
areas than elsewhere. When a forest disappears, precipitation re-
restation, also influence desiccation.
duces, the air becomes warmer, and the soil dehydrates, leading
to less precipitation. This ultimately also leads to desertification, as
References
in the case of eroded forest areas. This vicious circle can only be
The text of this appendix was generally based on Dobbelsteen A.
broken by timely reforestation.
van den & Alberts K.; Milieueffecten van bouwmaterialen; Weka
Freshwater supply
•
Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2001. Detailed references are:
In the Johannesburg Earth Summit of 2000 fresh water was made a
key issue for sustainability. As a result of the combination of climate
change and increased demand for water, some areas in the world
will run out of fresh water. Ironically yet logically, these countries
often already belong to the poorest. They therefore lack the financial means to treat seawater for drinking purposes. Nevertheless,
even rich countries in temperate areas can sense the impact of
excessive water consumption and climate change.
•
•
•
•
•
Water conservation and direct use of precipitation water, anyw-
•
here in the world, should therefore be institutionalised.
•
Desiccation
•
•
All consequences of lowering ground water levels share the name
of ‘desiccation’: lack of water, accelerated mineralisation, peat
•
soil sagging, changes in the supply of ground water flow and pre-
•
Alverson K.D. & Pedersen Th.; ‘Environmental Variability and Climate Change’,
in: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Main Serials QC903, I32 no. 6;
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Sweden, 2001
Ambroggi R.P.; ‘Water’, in: Scientific American, Sept., 1980 (103)
Bächtold H.-G.; ‘Nachhaltigkeit’, in: Schweizische Ingenieur & Architekt, No. 13,
1998 (pp.194-197)
Bos R.P.; ‘Milieu en kankerverwekkende stoffen’ (in Dutch), in: Copius Peereboom
J.W. (ed.), Basisboek milieu en gezondheid (pp. 229-232); Boom, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 1994
Brook B.W., Sodhi N.S. & Ng P.K.L.; ‘Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation
in Singapore’, in: Nature 424 (420-423); Nature AOP, published online 24 July, 2003
Brundtland G.H. (ed.) et al. (World Commission on Environment and Development); Our Common Future; Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK / New York, USA,
1987
Commoner B.; The closing circle: nature, man and technology; Random House,
USA, 1971
Copius Peereboom J.W. (ed.); Basisboek milieu en gezondheid (in Dutch); Boom,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1994
Davis G.R.; ‘Energy for Planet Earth’, in: Scientific American, Sept., 1990 (55-62)
Dongen J.E.F. van & Steenbekkers J.H.M.; Gezondheidsproblemen en het binnenmilieu in woningen (in Dutch); Nederlands Instituut voor Preventieve Gezondheidszorg TNO, Netherlands, 1993
Duijvestein K.; Lecture on sustainable building, at: Milieudiscussiedag; Delft
University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Netherlands, 2001
Ehrlich P. & Ehrlich A.; The population explosion; Hutchinson, London, UK, 1990
137
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
138
Geerts G. & Heestermans H. et al.; Van Dale Groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal (twaalfde druk in de nieuwe spelling) (in Dutch); Van Dale Lexicografie,
Utrecht, Netherlands / Antwerp, Belgium, 1992
Gerritse C. (Deerns raadgevende ingenieurs & Werkgroep PARAP); Energiegebruik in EER hersteld - Kantelpuntonderzoek energiegebruik rijksgebouwen deel
2; de invloed van structuureffecten (in Dutch); Rijksgebouwendienst, The Hague,
Netherlands, 2002
Glass J. & Pocklington D.N.; ‘Delivering Sustainability throughout the Building
Process: a Study of the UK Cement and Concrete Sector’, in: Anson M., Ko J.M. &
Lam E.S.S. (eds.), Advances in Building Technology, Volume I (1457-1465); Elsevier
Science Ltd., Oxford, UK, 2002
Heel H.P. van & Jansen J.L.A.; Met zoeken en leren duurzaam op weg (Diesrede
1993) (in Dutch); Delft University of Technology, Netherlands, 1993
Hornby A.S. & Crowther J., Kavanagh K. & Ashby M. (eds.); Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (Fifth edition); Oxford University Press,
Oxford, UK, 1998
Houghton R.A. & Woodwell G.M.; ‘Global climate change’, in: Scientific American, April, 1989 (40)
IPCC; Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC:
www.ipcc.ch, 2001a
IPCC Working Group I; Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis (Summary for
Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001b
IPCC Working Group II; Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001c
IPCC Working Group III; Climate Change 2001: Mitigation (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001d
ISO; Environmental management systems - Specification with guidance for use
(ISO 14001); ISO, 1996
Jansen J.L.A. & Vergragt Ph.J.; Sustainable Technological Development (accepted proposal 1992); Ministries of VROM, EZ, O&W and LNV, Leidschendam,
Netherlands, 1992
Jong T.M. de; Inleiding Technische Ecologie en Milieuplanning (in Dutch); Publikatieburo Bouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands, 1997
Jong T.M. de, Leeuwen C.G. van & Vermeulen C.; Technische Ecologie en Milieuplanning (in Dutch); Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Delft,
Netherlands, 1992
Kristinsson J.; Vitale architectuur - Integraal ontwerpen (in Dutch); KristinssonReitsema, Deventer, Netherlands, 2002
Leijten J.L.; ‘Binnenmilieu, productiviteit en ziekteverzuim (in Dutch)’, in: Praktijkhandboek Gezonde Gebouwen (cahier A3); ISSO/SBR, Rotterdam, Netherlands,
2002
Liu J., Daily G.C., Ehrlich P.R. & Luck G.W.; ‘Effects of household dynamics on
resource consumption and biodiversity’, in: Nature 421 (530-533); Nature AOP,
published online 12 January, 2003
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lomborg B.; The Skeptical Environmentalist - Measuring the Real State of the
World; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK / New York, USA, 2001
McKee J.K., Sciulli P.W., Fooce C.D. & Waite T.A.; ‘Forecasting global biodiversity
threats associated with human population growth’, in: Biological Conservation;
published online 8 April, 2003
Meadows D.H., Meadows D.L., Randers J., Behrens III W.W.; The limits to growth;
Universe Books, New York, USA, 1972
Meadows D.H., Meadows D.L. & Randers J.; Beyond the limits - Global collapse or
a sustainable future; Earthscan Publications Limited, London, UK, 1992
Morgan M.; Australië op blote voeten (in Dutch); Uitgeverij A.W. Bruna, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1996
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Nationale Milieuverkenning 5, 2000-2030 (in Dutch); Samson bv, Alphen aan den Rijn, 2001a
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Milieubalans 2000
- Het Nederlands milieu verklaard (in Dutch); Samson bv, Alphen aan den Rijn,
2001b
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Zorgen voor morgen
- Nationale Milieuverkenning 1985-2011 (in Dutch); Samson Tjeenk Willink, Alphen
aan den Rijn, Netherlands, 1988
Santer B.D. et al.; ‘Contributions of anthropogenic and natural forcing to recent
tropopause height changes’, in: Science 301, 2003 (479-483)
Scheer H.; Solare Weltwirtschaft - Strategie für die ökologische Moderne (in
German); Verlag Antje Kunstmann, München, Germany, 1999
Speth J.G.; ‘Can the world be saved?’, in: Ecological economics vol. 1 (pp. 289304); 1989
State of the World, 1995
Thomas C.D., Cameron A., Green R.E., Bakkenes M., Beaumont L.J., Collingham
Y.C., Erasmus B.F.N., Ferreira de Siquieira M., Grainger A., Hannah L., Hughes L.,
Huntley B., Jaarsveld A.S. van, Midgley G.F., Miles L., Ortega-Huerta M.A., Townsend Peterson A., Phillips O.L. & Williams S.E.; ‘Extinction risk from climate change’,
in: Nature, Vol. 427, No. 6970, 8 January, 2003 (145-148)
UN (United Nations); Energy Statistics Yearbook 1982-1990; U.N., New York, USA,
1982-1990
US Bureau of Mines; Minerals Yearbook 1906-1990; Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, USA, 1906-1990
Vroon P.; Psychologische aspecten van ziekmakende gebouwen (in Dutch);
Ministerie van VROM, The Hague, Netherlands, 1990
Watson R.T. (ch.), Heywood V.H. (ed.), Baste I., Dias B., Gámez R., Janetos T.,
Reid W. & Ruark G.; Global Biodiversity Assessment - Summary for Policy-Makers;
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK / New York, USA, 1995
WHO (World Health Organisation); Health aspects related to indoor air quality
(EURO Reports and Studies 21); WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen,
1983
Wigley T.M.L. & Raper S.C.B.; ‘Interpretation of high projections for global-mean
warming’, in: Science, No. 293 (pp. 451-455); 2001
115 Definitions of these and most other terms (printed italic) are given in the terminology list at the end of this thesis.
116 According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English [Hornby et al., 1998], the verb ‘to deplete’ means: “to reduce greatly the quantity, size, power or
value of something”. The Dutch Van Dale dictionary [Geerts & Heestermans, 1992] describes it as “to tap a layer (of oil) completely empty”, “to consume by repeatedly
taking something away” or “to deprive of its strengths”. ‘Depletion’ is “the process of depleting” or the “condition in which one is at the end of ones strengths”.
117 This awareness can be found in the old Roman saying “mens sana in corpore sano” (a healthy mind is in a healthy body).
118 An agent is “a force or a substance that produces an effect or change” [Hornby et al., 1998] or “a particle that causes a chemical effect or an illness condition” [Geerts &
Heesterman, 1992].
Appendix 3
CLIMATE CHANGE
and MORE
Fluctuaties in het klimaat
In de loop der tijd heeft de hoeveelheid CO2 in de atmosfeer
gefluctueerd, waar¬mee ook de temperatuur heeft gewisseld.
Geologische seizoenen
Geologisch gezien is er een cyclus van warmere en koudere pe-
Het natuurlijke broeikaseffect
rioden; de geologische vier seizoenen duren elk ongeveer 10.000
Het klimaat op aarde wordt bepaald door complex samenhan-
jaar. We zitten nu ongeveer in de geologische zomer, 20.000
gende chemische processen. Zonnestraling is daarbij de univer-
jaar na de laatste ijstijd. Wat dat betreft is het natuurlijk dat er de
sele, voorlopig niet aflatende energiebron. De zon zendt voort-
temperaturen stijgen. Echter, voor seizoenen die 10.000 jaar duren
durend straling met een korte golflengte (ultraviolet licht) uit. Dit
is de temperatuurstijging van de laatste 150 jaar veel te snel ge-
UV-licht bereikt de atmosfeer en wordt grotendeels doorgelaten.
gaan. Die periode is begonnen met de Industriële Revolutie, sinds
Geabsorbeerd door wolken, stofjes en het aardoppervlak wordt
welke het gebruik van fossiele bronnen exponentieel toenam.
de kortgolvige UV-straling omgezet en uitgezonden in langgolvige infrarroodstraling. Deze warmtestraling wordt grotendeels
De zonnecyclus
tegengehouden in de stratosfeer, door gassen zoals kooldioxide
Deense onderzoekers hebben bewezen dat de temperatuur op
(CO ), methaan (CH4) en
aarde gelijkloopt aan de
koolwaterstoffen (CFK’s).
‘zonnevlekkencyclus’. De
In de atmosfeer fungeren
zon heeft een variërend
deze gassen dus als een
aantal zonnevlekken,
translucent isolatiema-
wat onder andere
teriaal: lichtdoorlatend,
een sterker of zwakker
maar warmtewerend.
magneetveld aangeeft
Zonder dit natuurlijke
(hoe meer zonnevlekken,
broeikaseffect was er
hoe groter de activiteit
geen leven mogelijk
van de zon). Dit leidt tot
op aarde, omdat de
uitstoot van minder of
temperatuur dan te laag
meer kosmische straling.
zou zijn.
Als de kosmische straling
2
afneemt, neemt ook de
bewolkingsgraad af, wat
leidt tot een temperaFiguur 01: Effecten op
tuurstijging. De afgelo-
zonne¬straling in de
pen honderd jaar is door
atmo¬s¬feer [Crutzen
korte zonnecycli de kos-
& Graedel, 1996, naar
mische straling afgeno-
Schneider & Londer,
men en de temperatuur
1989]
navenant gestegen. De
139
temperatuur steeg opvallend gelijk mee met de kortere perioden
meen en de gevolgen van de temperatuurstijging, mede door
van zonnevlekken. De zonnevlekkencyclus duurt ongeveer 11 jaar,
ver¬schil¬lende theorieën over neven¬effecten bij de toename
en kan dus weliswaar tijdelijke opwarming verklaren, maar niet een
van CO2.
gemiddeld doorstijgende temperatuur. Er is dus een onderliggen-
Bij de verbranding van fossiele energiebronnen komen onder
de stijging die de fluctuaties van elke 11 jaar niet kunnen verklaren.
andere CO2 (kooldioxide), NOx (stikstof¬oxide), onverbrande
koolwaterstoffen en in het geval van olie en kolen ook SO2 (zwaGolfstromen en onze kans op kou
veldioxide) vrij; bij onvol¬ledige verbranding tevens roet en CO
Sterke invloed op het lokale klimaat hebben ook de golfstromen.
(koolmonoxide). Door verbranding van fossiele energie worden
De grote oceaanstroombanen zijn de grote transporteurs van
daarom de voornaamste broeikasgassen uitgestoten, die het
warmte (of koude) en bepalen daarom weliswaar niet fluctuaties
broeikaseffect kunnen versterken. Los van de natuurlijke geologi-
in het mondiale klimaat, maar wel verschillen in lokale omstandig-
sche cyclus van warmere en koudere perioden (de geologische
heden. Een bekende golfstroom is die in de Grote Oceaan, ter
vier seizoenen duren elk ongeveer 10.000 jaar) is het aannemelijk
hoogte van de evenaar. Deze west-oostgerichte stroom kan het
dat het broeikaseffect op dit moment wordt versterkt onder men-
klimaat in Midden- en Zuid-Amerika sterk beïnvloeden. Is de stroom
selijke invloed.
relatief warm, dan wordt hij El Niño genoemd en brengt hij heftiger
Deze invloed is tweeledig:
stormen, neerslag en grotere windsnelheden. Is de stroom relatief
•
Directe opwarming door de productie van warmte bij verbran-
•
Indirecte opwarming door het versterkte broeikaseffect, door
dingsprocessen
koud, dan heet hij La Niña, en krijgt het gebied een relatief koude
periode te verwerken.
emissie van CO2, NOx (bij verbranding van fossiele energie-
In onze streek (West-Europa) ondervinden we de relatief matige in-
bronnen), CFK’s en CH4 (door vervlieging van gassen).
vloed van de warme golfstroom die vanuit het Caribische gebied
via de Noordzee naar de Noordpool stroomt en daar omkeert en
via de Amerikaanse oostkust terugstroomt naar de Caraïben. De
Klimaatverandering: de feiten
motor voor deze stroming li•gt bij de Noordpool, een meer dan
Al sinds een jaar of 15 wordt er veel gediscus¬sieerd over de
3000 m diepe trog die als een pomp voor de golfstroom fungeert.
gevaren van het broeikas¬effect. Volgens de meeste klimaatex-
Het is de verwachting van veel wetenschappers dat de golfstroom
perts wijzen metingen en computermodellen op een onmisken-
door allerlei klimatologische invloeden (waaronder opwarming
bare invloed van de mens (en dan met name zijn fossiele-ener-
van de Caribische Zee en opwarming van het poolgebied en
gieverbruik) op het klimaat; volgens een minderheid wordt die
smelting van landijs aldaar) tot stand gebracht kan worden en kan
invloed overdreven. In 2001 kwam het Inter¬governmental Panel
omkeren. In dat geval zal onze streek relatief kouder worden, en
on Climate Change (IPCC), een grote groep vooraanstaande
het oosten van Amerika warmer. Globaal heeft dit geen duidelijk
wetenschappers op het gebied van klimatologie, met een drietal
effect, maar lokaal maakt het nogal uit dat wij bijvoorbeeld het
rapporten waaruit de invloed van de mens op het klimaat waar-
klimaat van Newfoundland (zelfde breedtegraad!) krijgen, en New
schijnlijk lijkt.
York ineens mediterraan wordt…
Allereerst een opsomming van gemeten feiten, uit het eerste rap-
140
Het versterkte broeikaseffect
port van het IPCC uit 2001 [IPCC, 2001a].
Een toename van CO2 in de atmosfeer leidt tot
•
De afgelopen halve eeuw is de mondiale temperatuur gemid-
temperatuur¬verhoging. Dat is iets dat algemeen wordt erkend.
deld met 0,6 0C gestegen. Op zich is de temperatuur op aarde
Minder zeker zijn de invloed van de mens op dit natuurlijke feno-
nooit constant, maar de snelheid waarmee deze de laatste
Figuur 02: Temperatuurstijging van 1880 tot 1985 [Boden et al.,
1990]; de laatste 15 jaar heeft de stijging doorgezet
Figuur 04: Concentraties van broeikasgassen in de afgelopen
eeuwen [World Meteorological Organisation, 1990]
tweehonderd jaar is toegenomen is sneller dan wat op basis
van poolijsmetingen ooit kan worden berekend.
•
De hoeveelheid kooldioxide in de atmosfeer is sinds 1750 met
30% toegenomen. De hoeveelheid methaan is zelfs verdrievoudigd. De afgelopen 400.000 jaar zijn beide broeikasgassen
niet in zulke grote hoeveelheden voorgekomen.
•
Op het noordelijk halfrond groeide de afgelopen decennia
de hoeveelheid neerslag met 5%. Het landoppervlak dat met
sneeuw is bedekt is met 10% afgenomen. Het ijs op de Noordpool is tussen 1979 en 2003 met 40% afgenomen [NASA, 2004]
(zie figuur 05). De zeespiegel is 10 tot 20 cm gestegen.
Verwachtingen van het IPCC
Op basis van geavanceerde klimaatmodellen en de verwachte
groei in uitstoot van broeikas¬gassen, worden de volgende voorspellingen gedaan [IPCC, 2001a].
•
Figuur 03: Broeikasgassen in de afgelopen 160.000 jaar [Houghton
& Woodwell, 1989]
In de loop van de 21e eeuw stijgt de temperatuur op aarde
met nog eens 0,6 tot 5,8 graden. In 1995 werd nog uitgegaan
van een maximale stijging van 3,5 graden. In de recentste
141
Figuur 05: IJskappen op de Noordpool, in 1979 (links) en 2003 (rechts) [NASA, 2004]
•
voorspelling zijn de verwachtingen voor SO2 en CH4 en gewij-
Gevolgen
zigde inzichten in de effecten van de ozonlaag verwerkt. In
In het tweede rapport van het IPCC [IPCC, 2001b] worden de
Noord-Amerika, Noord- en Centraal-Azië zal de temperatuur
gevolgen van de klimaatverandering voor mens en natuur gepre-
40% harder stijgen dan gemiddeld.
senteerd.
Op het noordelijk halfrond en op de zuidpool valt meer neer-
•
slag. Elders wisselen droge en natte gebieden op aarde elkaar
af. De zeespiegel stijgt 9 tot 88 cm.
•
Gletschers krimpen en permafrost (de permanent bevroren
aardbodem in noordelijke streken) ontdooit.
•
Landen die de afgelopen decennia de meeste broeikasgas-
Voor een trendmatige toename van extreem weer (zware
sen produceerden hebben wrang genoeg het minste last van
stormen en ander noodweer) ontbreken aanwijzingen.
de gevolgen daarvan. De kloof tussen rijk en arm zal hierdoor
worden vergroot.
Waarschijnlijkheid
•
duren de landbouwseizoenen langer, wat tot grotere land-
vrij ruim. Wetenschappers Wigley en Raper [2001] hebben echter
bouwopbrengsten, lagere stookkosten en minder sterfgevallen
berekend wat de meest waarschijnlijke gebeurtenissen zijn. Zij
zal leiden.
komen tot de conclusie dat de kans dat de extra temperatuurtoe-
•
name minder is dan 1,7 0C te verwaar¬lozen is. Als waarschijnlijke
bovengrens is door Wigley en Raper 4,9 C aangehouden. Het
0
In Zuidoost-Azië leidt de temperatuurstijging tot meer neerslag,
wat watertekorten opheft.
•
Voor Afrika, grote delen van Azië en in mindere mate Zuid-
verwachte gemiddelde tempo van opwarming is daarmee in
Amerika wordt enerzijds intense hitte en droogte verwacht en
deze eeuw vijf keer zo hoog als van vroeger.
anderzijds, door de stijgende zeespiegel, zware stormen en
De komende 30 jaar zal de toename met 90% zekerheid tussen 0,3
overstromingen.
en 1,0 C liggen. Daarmee is de stijging per 10 jaar gemiddeld 0,2
0
oC, een stijging die gelijkstaat aan de stijging in de afgelopen 25
jaar.
142
In gematigde streken beginnen broedseizoenen eerder en
De marge voor de temperatuurstijgingvoorspelling in deze eeuw is
Figuur 06: Verdeling van droogte en vochtigheid over de aarde in de afgelopen en lopende eeuw [Rind / NASA]
In het derde rapport van het IPCC [IPCC, 2001c] wordt ondanks
Bij alle verwachtingen moet rekening worden gehouden met
de verwachte impact gesteld dat het met bestaande technieken
mogelijke verrassingen in het klimaat, bijvoorbeeld omdat be-
en tegen betrekkelijk geringe kosten het verergerde broeikaseffect
paalde parameters over een kritische grens gaan en de werking
kan worden gestopt. Daarbij wordt gedacht aan energiebespa-
van de atmosfeer (basis van de klimaatmodellen) fundamenteel
ring, elektrische auto’s, elektrische brandstofcellen en opslag van
veran¬dert. Volgens Alverson & Pedersen [2001] zijn er steeds meer
CO2 in de bodem.
aanwijzingen dat het klimaat niet geleidelijk zal wijzigen. Santer et
143
al. [2003] ontdekten dat door emissies uit het transport en de industrie de bovenlaag van de troposfeer kan dalen en stijgen. Een
stijgende bovenlaag – zoals momenteel plaatsvindt – betekent
een toename van het broeikaseffect, en dus versterkte klimaatverandering.
144
References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Alverson K.D. & Pedersen Th.; ‘Environmental Variability and Climate Change’,
in: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Main Serials QC903, I32 no. 6;
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Sweden, 2001
Ambroggi R.P.; ‘Water’, in: Scientific American, Sept., 1980 (103)
Bächtold H.-G.; ‘Nachhaltigkeit’, in: Schweizische Ingenieur & Architekt, No. 13,
1998 (pp.194-197)
Bos R.P.; ‘Milieu en kankerverwekkende stoffen’ (in Dutch), in: Copius Peereboom
J.W. (ed.), Basisboek milieu en gezondheid (pp. 229-232); Boom, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 1994
Brook B.W., Sodhi N.S. & Ng P.K.L.; ‘Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation
in Singapore’, in: Nature 424 (420-423); Nature AOP, published online 24 July, 2003
Brundtland G.H. (ed.) et al. (World Commission on Environment and Development); Our Common Future; Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK / New York, USA,
1987
Commoner B.; The closing circle: nature, man and technology; Random House,
USA, 1971
Copius Peereboom J.W. (ed.); Basisboek milieu en gezondheid (in Dutch); Boom,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1994
Davis G.R.; ‘Energy for Planet Earth’, in: Scientific American, Sept., 1990 (55-62)
Dongen J.E.F. van & Steenbekkers J.H.M.; Gezondheidsproblemen en het binnenmilieu in woningen (in Dutch); Nederlands Instituut voor Preventieve Gezondheidszorg TNO, Netherlands, 1993
Duijvestein K.; Lecture on sustainable building, at: Milieudiscussiedag; Delft
University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Netherlands, 2001
Ehrlich P. & Ehrlich A.; The population explosion; Hutchinson, London, UK, 1990
Geerts G. & Heestermans H. et al.; Van Dale Groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal (twaalfde druk in de nieuwe spelling) (in Dutch); Van Dale Lexicografie,
Utrecht, Netherlands / Antwerp, Belgium, 1992
Gerritse C. (Deerns raadgevende ingenieurs & Werkgroep PARAP); Energiegebruik in EER hersteld - Kantelpuntonderzoek energiegebruik rijksgebouwen deel
2; de invloed van structuureffecten (in Dutch); Rijksgebouwendienst, The Hague,
Netherlands, 2002
Glass J. & Pocklington D.N.; ‘Delivering Sustainability throughout the Building
Process: a Study of the UK Cement and Concrete Sector’, in: Anson M., Ko J.M. &
Lam E.S.S. (eds.), Advances in Building Technology, Volume I (1457-1465); Elsevier
Science Ltd., Oxford, UK, 2002
Heel H.P. van & Jansen J.L.A.; Met zoeken en leren duurzaam op weg (Diesrede
1993) (in Dutch); Delft University of Technology, Netherlands, 1993
Hornby A.S. & Crowther J., Kavanagh K. & Ashby M. (eds.); Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (Fifth edition); Oxford University Press,
Oxford, UK, 1998
Houghton R.A. & Woodwell G.M.; ‘Global climate change’, in: Scientific American, April, 1989 (40)
IPCC; Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC:
www.ipcc.ch, 2001a
IPCC Working Group I; Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis (Summary for
Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001b
IPCC Working Group II; Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001c
IPCC Working Group III; Climate Change 2001: Mitigation (Summary for Policymakers); IPCC: www.ipcc.ch, 2001d
ISO; Environmental management systems - Specification with guidance for use
(ISO 14001); ISO, 1996
Jansen J.L.A. & Vergragt Ph.J.; Sustainable Technological Development (accepted proposal 1992); Ministries of VROM, EZ, O&W and LNV, Leidschendam,
Netherlands, 1992
Jong T.M. de; Inleiding Technische Ecologie en Milieuplanning (in Dutch); Publikatieburo Bouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands, 1997
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Jong T.M. de, Leeuwen C.G. van & Vermeulen C.; Technische Ecologie en Milieuplanning (in Dutch); Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Delft,
Netherlands, 1992
Kristinsson J.; Vitale architectuur - Integraal ontwerpen (in Dutch); KristinssonReitsema, Deventer, Netherlands, 2002
Leijten J.L.; ‘Binnenmilieu, productiviteit en ziekteverzuim (in Dutch)’, in: Praktijkhandboek Gezonde Gebouwen (cahier A3); ISSO/SBR, Rotterdam, Netherlands,
2002
Liu J., Daily G.C., Ehrlich P.R. & Luck G.W.; ‘Effects of household dynamics on
resource consumption and biodiversity’, in: Nature 421 (530-533); Nature AOP,
published online 12 January, 2003
Lomborg B.; The Skeptical Environmentalist - Measuring the Real State of the
World; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK / New York, USA, 2001
McKee J.K., Sciulli P.W., Fooce C.D. & Waite T.A.; ‘Forecasting global biodiversity
threats associated with human population growth’, in: Biological Conservation;
published online 8 April, 2003
Meadows D.H., Meadows D.L., Randers J., Behrens III W.W.; The limits to growth;
Universe Books, New York, USA, 1972
Meadows D.H., Meadows D.L. & Randers J.; Beyond the limits - Global collapse or
a sustainable future; Earthscan Publications Limited, London, UK, 1992
Morgan M.; Australië op blote voeten (in Dutch); Uitgeverij A.W. Bruna, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1996
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Nationale Milieuverkenning 5, 2000-2030 (in Dutch); Samson bv, Alphen aan den Rijn, 2001a
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Milieubalans 2000
- Het Nederlands milieu verklaard (in Dutch); Samson bv, Alphen aan den Rijn,
2001b
RIVM (Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiëne); Zorgen voor morgen
- Nationale Milieuverkenning 1985-2011 (in Dutch); Samson Tjeenk Willink, Alphen
aan den Rijn, Netherlands, 1988
Santer B.D. et al.; ‘Contributions of anthropogenic and natural forcing to recent
tropopause height changes’, in: Science 301, 2003 (479-483)
Scheer H.; Solare Weltwirtschaft - Strategie für die ökologische Moderne (in
German); Verlag Antje Kunstmann, München, Germany, 1999
Speth J.G.; ‘Can the world be saved?’, in: Ecological economics vol. 1 (pp. 289304); 1989
State of the World, 1995
Thomas C.D., Cameron A., Green R.E., Bakkenes M., Beaumont L.J., Collingham
Y.C., Erasmus B.F.N., Ferreira de Siquieira M., Grainger A., Hannah L., Hughes L.,
Huntley B., Jaarsveld A.S. van, Midgley G.F., Miles L., Ortega-Huerta M.A., Townsend Peterson A., Phillips O.L. & Williams S.E.; ‘Extinction risk from climate change’,
in: Nature, Vol. 427, No. 6970, 8 January, 2003 (145-148)
UN (United Nations); Energy Statistics Yearbook 1982-1990; U.N., New York, USA,
1982-1990
US Bureau of Mines; Minerals Yearbook 1906-1990; Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, USA, 1906-1990
Vroon P.; Psychologische aspecten van ziekmakende gebouwen (in Dutch);
Ministerie van VROM, The Hague, Netherlands, 1990
Watson R.T. (ch.), Heywood V.H. (ed.), Baste I., Dias B., Gámez R., Janetos T.,
Reid W. & Ruark G.; Global Biodiversity Assessment - Summary for Policy-Makers;
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK / New York, USA, 1995
WHO (World Health Organisation); Health aspects related to indoor air quality
(EURO Reports and Studies 21); WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen,
1983
Wigley T.M.L. & Raper S.C.B.; ‘Interpretation of high projections for global-mean
warming’, in: Science, No. 293 (pp. 451-455); 2001
145
Appendix 4
boiler vermindert dit met 50%, dus de totale opbrengst is 35 W/m2,
YIELDS PER HECTARE OF
ENERGY RESOURCES
oftewel 350 kW per hectare. Mocht men een groot veld vol zetten
Energie van de zon
transportsysteem in een woonwijk bedraagt 90-80%.
met zonnecollectoren, zoals in Denemarken is gebeurd, dan zou
waarschijnlijk gebruik worden gemaakt van opslag in de ondergrond – in een waterhoudende laag. Opslagrendement daarvan
is 70-80%. Transportefficiency voor een standaard 90/70°C warmte-
Algemeen
Fotovoltaïsche cellen of PV-cellen (zonnepanelen) hebben een
De atmosfeer laat ongeveer de helft van de zonne-energie
maximaal gerealiseerd vermogen van 15 W/m2, uitgaande van
door op het aardop¬per¬vlak, de rest wordt gereflecteerd,
de straling die op een horizontaal vlak valt. Het rendement is iets
terugge¬straald of geabsor¬beerd.
te verhogen door de panelen onder een hoek naar de zon te zet-
Op elke vierkante meter aardoppervlak in Nederland valt (met
ten, maar dan moeten ze toch op een grotere afstand van elkaar
pieken tot 1.000 Watt) gemiddeld ca. 100 Watt zonlicht. Voor het
staan, om geen schaduw te werpen. Kortom, te rekenen valt
Nederlandse economisch benutbare landen wateropper¬vlak
met 15 W/m2, of 150 kW/ha. Deze energie zal echter op gezette
(inclu¬sief het Nederlandse deel van het continentaal plat) is
tijden moeten worden opgeslagen. Gebeurt dat in waterstof,
dat over het jaar gemid¬deld 8.000 GW (8*109 Watt). Deze ruwe
dan blijft het vermogen bij het theoretische rendement van 100%
waarde is dus 100 keer de energiebehoefte van heel Nederland,
gelijk, maar in de praktijk is nog niet meer dan 60% rendement
en Nederland en zijn continentaal plat ontvangt bijna net zoveel
gehaald. Wordt stroom opgeslagen in een traditionele accu (wat
zonne-energie als de gehele wereldeconomie nodig heeft [Jong,
goedkoper is), dan gaat de helft van de potentie verloren. Waar
1995].
vervolgens nog meer verliezen optreden is bij de conversie van
12-Volts gelijkspanning naar 220-Volts wisselspanning. Schatting
Potentie van zonne-energietechnieken
verliezen: 20%, dus dan blijft 120 kW/ha over bij waterstofopslag,
Er bestaat een aantal kunst¬mati¬ge technieken (fotovoltaïsche
en 60 kW/ha bij accuopslag.
cellen, waterstofcellen, spiegels, collectoren) voor de omzetting
en opslag van zonnestraling naar nuttige energie. Deze kunnen
Energie van de wind
met de ontwikkeling van de techno¬lo¬gie een steeds hoger
Algemeen
rendement behalen (zie tabel 01).
Een kwalitatief hoogwaardige energievorm is de ‘mechanische
energie’, onder te verdelen in bewe¬gings¬¬energie en potentiële
energie. De bewegingsenergie is in de natuur voorhanden in de
vorm van wind- en waterbewe¬gingen.
Ongeveer 2% van de buiten de atmosfeer opvallende
zonnestra¬ling (28 W/m2 van de 1400 W/m2, loodrecht op de
zonnestraling, dat wil zeggen ca. 7 W per m2 aardop¬pervlak)
Tabel 01: Rendement energieproductie uit stralingsenergie van de
wordt omgezet in lucht¬bewegingen. Daarvan is slechts een klein
zon [schattingen Lysen et al., 1982]
gedeelte win¬baar. Deze bewegingsenergie is ongelijk over het
aardoppervlak ver¬deeld. Neder¬land is relatief goed bedeeld,
146
Uit tabel 01 valt af te leiden dat de opbrengst van zonnecollecto-
maar kan alleen met de nieuwste technologie en bij optimale,
ren voor warmwater 70 W per vierkante meter is; de opslag in een
onrealistische ruimtelijke ordening net in zijn eigen elektriciteitsbe-
hoefte voorzien. Dit wordt hieronder uitgerekend.
•
‘Planologische reductiereductie’ is te onderscheiden in een
Potentie van windenergietechnieken
reduc¬tie van het verti¬caal beschikbare oppervlak in de
Deze potentieberekening is gebaseerd op Jong & Dobbelsteen
vorm van maximale bouwhoog¬ten of minimale bouwhoogten
[1999].
van windmolens (i.v.m. nabijge¬legen ruwheids¬elementen)
Indien over 300 km van de Neder¬landse kust een windmolen-
en een reductie van het horizontaal beschikbare oppervlak
linie van 100 m hoogte zou worden opgesteld dat door een
in de vorm van een plaatselijke belemme¬ringen (fysiek of
nieuwe technologie het vermogen van de wind uit alle richtingen
politiek). Een reductie van de bouwhoogte vermin¬dert de
voor 100% zou kunnen winnen, en daar¬achter telkens op 2 km
energieopbrengst meer dan evenredig, omdat de windsnel-
opnieuw een dergelijk scherm tot aan de Duitse grens, dan zou
heid (en dus de energieop¬brengst) tot 100 meter kwadratisch
daarmee, reke¬ning houdend met een afnemen¬de windsnelheid
met de hoogte toeneemt.
in de richting van het binnenland, een jaarge¬middeld vermo-
•
Daar staat echter tegen¬over, dat bij geringere bouw¬hoogte
gen van 520 GW (ongeveer zesmaal het huidige Neder¬landse
tussen de schermen kleinere afstanden kunnen worden aan-
energiever¬bruik) kunnen worden gedekt. Dit gebaseerd op
gehouden. In Nederland geldt in het algemeen een maximale
windturbines van 2 MW per stuk.
bouwhoogte van 40 m voor windturbines. Aangezien beneden
•
Het rendement kan echter niet 100% zijn, omdat dan de
de 10 m de windvang in het algemeen niet rendabel is, wordt
wind¬snel¬heid achter het scherm tot 0 zou moeten worden
daarmee de potentiële opbrengst nog eens met tenminste
gereduceerd. In dat geval waait de wind over het scherm
30% gereduceerd. Deze reduc¬tie in bouwhoogte betekent
heen, zodat in het geheel geen wind kan worden geoogst.
echter tegelijker¬tijd, dat de afstand tussen de schermen met
Het maximale theoretische rendement van een windturbine
ca. 40% kan worden verkleind, waardoor de op¬brengst ruim
is daardoor funda¬menteel beperkt tot ca. 60%, terwijl in de
verdubbelt.
praktijk ca. 40% rendement wordt gehaald.
•
•
Een reductie van het beschikbare horizontale oppervlak
Het denkbeeldige scherm beslaat een oppervlak van 15.000
om plano¬logische redenen vermindert de opbrengst meer
km lengte x 100 m hoogte. Vult men dit vlak in dichtste
dan evenre¬dig in het windrijke westen en noorden van het
pakking met rotors, dan blijft toch ca. 20% onbedekt. De
land, en minder dan evenredig in het zuiden en oosten. Deze
‘vullingsre¬ductie’ bedraagt dus 80%. Tussen de turbines bin-
‘horizontale planologi¬sche reductie’ wordt geheel door de
nen het scherm dient voorts ter voorkoming van onderlinge
ontwerpers van Nederland bepaald.
beïnvloeding een afstand van 3 x de diameter te worden
opengelaten. Dit betekent nog eens een reductie tot 25%. De
Samenvattend moet het theoretische potentieel van 520 GW
onderlinge afstand tussen de schermen van 20 x de hoogte
windenergie boven Nederland achtereenvolgens verminderen
reduceert de opbrengst van het achterliggende scherm tot
met de waarden van tabel 01.02. Door deze reducties wordt het
ca. 85%.
theoretisch potentieel van 520 GW gereduceerd tot 26,4 GW,
R1 technisch rendement
0.40
R5 verticaal planologisch
0.30
R2 vullingsreductie
0.80
R6 horizontale compensatie
2.50
R3 afstand intern
0.25
R7 horizontaal planologisch
P.M.
R4 afstandsreductie
0.85
PRODUCT TOTAAL
0,051
Tabel 02: Reducties op het theoretisch windpotentieel [Jong & Dobbelsteen, 1999]
147
maximaal en in de ideale situatie haalbaar. Dat is ongeveer de
een alternatief met een hoger rendement kunnen zijn voor het ge-
helft van het benodigd elektriciteitsvermogen. Let wel, dit is een
matigde klimaat. Nog niet duidelijk is of er mogelijkheden zijn om
theoretische benadering van het absoluut maximale vermogen
gewassen met voldoende hoge opbrengsten als meerjarig gewas,
aan windenergie, maar zonder medeneming van windturbines in
continuteelt of gecombineerd in één rotatiecyclus te verbouwen,
zee.
waardoor een continue hoge opbrengst per hectare kan worden
verkregen.
Op kleinere schaal is de maximale potentie wel te realiseren door-
Niet volledig vallend onder de noemer biomassa, is huishoudelijk
dat een hoop algemene belemmeringen niet gelden voor een
afval, dat ook kan worden ingezet als energiebron voor elektrici-
met zorg uitgekozen locatie voor windturbines. Met de grofweg
teitsopwekking
40.000 ha land in Nederland is het potentiële vermogen globaal
600 kW/ha. Daar moeten echter inefficiëntieverliezen vanaf
Potentie van elektriciteit uit biomassa
worden getrokken voor de windkrachtdrempel vanaf welke de
Bij de beschouwing van biomassa wordt alleen uitgegaan van de
turbine pas draait, plus voor uitval. Aanname: 25% verlies van de
inzet daarvan in de elektriciteitsvoorziening (dus niet puur de ver-
potentie.
branding voor de opwekking van warmte, want die komt ook bij
Naast de grote turbines bestaan ook de kleinere, niet weerstand-
de elektriciteitsopwekking vrij als reststroom). Hier wordt gedacht
gedreven maar liftgedreven turbines, zoals de Turby. Deze hebben
aan de inzet in biomassacentrales, multifuelcentrales of bio-WKK’s.
door het liftprincipe een relatief grotere opbrengst per door-
De eerder genoemde maximale conversie van 1,2% komt neer op
stroomoppervlak, maar doordat het doorstroomoppervlak klein is,
maximaal 1,2 W/m2, of 12 kW/ha. Wordt deze biomassa verbrand
is de absolute opbrengst natuurlijk kleiner dan bij de grote turbines.
of vergast om elektriciteit op te wekken, gaat daar nog het
Waarden die voor gebouwen – de geschikte plekken voor kleinere
rendement van de krachtcentrale overheen, van 30 tot 50%. In de
turbines – worden genoemd door windtechniekdeskundigen is
toekomst is een hoger rendement realistisch wanneer synthesegas
maximaal zo’n 8 kW, maar dan gaat het om grote gebouwen. Een
kan worden ingezet in SOCP brandstofcel–gasturbinecombinaties.
gemiddelde waarde van 2 kW per gebouw lijkt realistischer, en
Laten we vooralsnog uitgaan van een turbine met 40% rende-
met 35 woningen per hectare (Vinexdichtheid) is dan de potenti-
ment, dan is het vermogen: 5 kW/ha. Hierbij is de benodigde
ele opbrengst 70 kW/ha.
energie voor transport – dat zeker een rol speelt bij de import van
Energie van biomassa
148
biomassa – nog niet meegenomen.
Algemeen
Potentie van elektriciteit uit huishoudelijk afval
De opbrengst van biomassa is een verre afgeleide van zonne-
Hier moeten we een aantal aannamen doen. Jaarlijks wordt
energie. De zonne-energiestroom bereikt het aardoppervlak
ongeveer 15 miljoen ton aan huishoudelijk afval geproduceerd.
voorname¬lijk als stra¬ling, en verlaat het aardoppervlak weer
Dat geldt voor 16 miljoen mensen, dus laten we voor het gemak
door reflectie (ca. 10%), stra¬lings¬uitwisse¬ling met de atmosfeer
zeggen: 1 ton per persoon per jaar. Een gemiddelde stedelijke
(ca. 30%), warmteoverdracht (ca. 35%) en verdamping (ca. 25%)
dichtheid is 50 personen per hectare, dus een hectare kan 50 ton
[Jong et al., 1992]. Slechts ca. 0,5% wordt chemisch opgeslagen in
afval opleveren. Daarvan is niet alles droge massa, laten we zeg-
planten. De opbrengst hangt af van gewas en klimaatzone. Suiker-
gen 50%, oftewel 25 ton. Voor het vermogen kunnen we voor het
riet in subtropische en tropische regio’s haalt zo’n 1,2% rendement.
gemak stellen dat een hectare gewas 10 ton biomassa oplevert,
In Nederland bedraagt dit bij de huidige bosbouw ca. 0,3 %, maar
2,5 keer minder dan nuttig afval. De verbrandingswaarde van
bij zeer inten¬sieve teelt zou dit ca. 1,2% kunnen worden. Maïs zou
afval ligt lager, zeg de helft van de biomassa met een hoog ren-
dement. Dat betekent dat aan afval per hectare stedelijk gebied
het zoute water moet kunnen worden afgevoerd, een dergelijke
een vermogen van 1,5 kW wordt geleverd, ruim een derde ten
toepassing voor de hand ligt.
opzichte van de intensieve bioteelt. In dichte stedelijke gebieden
kan dat getal worden verdubbeld, maar in het noorden is de
Potenties van energie uit getijde
dichtheid in steden en dorpen lager, dus een waarde van rond
Het gemiddelde getijverschil varieert in Nederland van 3 me-
de 1,0 kW lijkt realistischer. Hierbij is de benodigde energie voor
ter (Zeeland en Groningen) tot 1 meter (Noord-Holland). Elke
transport van afval nog niet meegenomen.
kubieke meter water die tweemaal per etmaal 1 meter wordt
omhoogge¬bracht, beschikt gemiddeld bij hoog water over een
Energie van water
potentieel vermogen van 0,23 W. Uit elke km2 zee die kan worden
De berekeningen hieronder zijn weer gebaseerd op Jong & Dob-
afgesloten kan derhalve in theorie ter hoogte van Noord Holland
belsteen [1999], op basis van studies door het ESC [1982], en later
0,23 MW, ter hoogte van Zuid-Zeeland en Oost-Groningen 0,69 MW
PLEM en NEOM.
worden gewonnen. Dit komt overeen met 6,9 kW/ha.
Potenties van energie uit rivierstromen
Potenties van energie uit golven
Lokaal (met name turbines en waterraderen aan de monding van
Het vermogen dat door de wind aan het water wordt toege-
zijrivieren) kan waterkracht, ook wel eens ‘witte steenkool’ ge-
voegd in de vorm van watergolven is verras¬send hoog. De
noemd, een belangrijke rol spelen bij het verschaffen van energie
betrokken m3 water wordt immers niet tweemaal per etmaal,
voor de winning en verwerking van grondstoffen.
maar misschien wel 25.000 maal per etmaal (7 keer per minuut)
Het debiet van Maas en Rijn bedraagt ca. 2.500 m /s over het
ca. 1 meter omhooggebracht, hetgeen overeenkomt met ca. 3
jaar gemid¬deld; het verval bedraagt over het jaar gemiddeld
kW (3.000 Watt) per m2 golvend water. Cirkel¬vormige golfener-
14 m; het totaal daarin vervatte vermogen bedraagt derhalve
gie-eenheden op zee van ca. 0,5 hectare kunnen op deze wijze
ca. 0,35 GW. Verschillende technische reducties (rendementen)
theoretisch 10 à 20 MW (3 kW/m2 x 5.000 m2) opwekken, en per
en planologi¬sche reducties (scheepvaartverdragen voor Rijn
hectare is dat grosso modo dus gemiddeld 30 MW. De verschil-
en Waal) vermin¬deren het winbare vermogen tot ca. 0,125 GW
lende technische reducties beslaan hier echter kennelijk circa
3
elektrisch vermogen, te winnen uit Maas en IJssel. Dit is niet van
10%, zodat er 3 MW/ha overblijft, nog steeds een fikse waarde.
toepassing op The Northern Netherlands, waar de kleine stromen
Theoretisch zou een ketting van 1.000 van dergelijke eenheden
te weinig vermogen van betekenis hebben.
over een lengte van 400 km voor de Neder¬landse kust 10 tot 20
GW, en daarmee geheel in de huidige jaarge¬middelde elek-
Potenties van energie uit osmose
triciteitsbehoefte kunnen voorzien. Daarbij wordt echter geen
Het theoretisch jaargemiddeld potentieel van ‘osmotische ener-
rekening gehouden met planologische onmogelijkheden langs de
gieconversie’ (OEC) bedraagt ca. 5,6 GW. Welke techni¬sche en
kust. Maar toch: iets nieuws om serieus mee te nemen?
planolo¬gische reducties hier gelden moet echter nog worden
vastge¬steld, omdat met deze vorm van energieproduc¬tie
References
nog geen ervaring is opge¬daan. Het principe berust op het
The text of this appendix was generally based on Jong T.M. de &
drukverschil tussen zoet en zout water aan weerskanten van een
Dobbelsteen A. van den; Milieueffecten van het energiegebruik;
osmotisch membraan. Dit biedt uiteraard grote problemen bij
Publicatiebureau Bouwkunde, Delft, Netherlands, 1999. For additio-
de scheepvaart, zodat alleen in rivieren bij stuwen, sluizen en
nal data en some corrections to this original source, thanks to Frans
dammen waarbij het overtollige zoete water na menging met
Rooijers of CE in Delft.
149
Colofon
Title: Pallet of Possibillities
Edited by: R. Roggema, A. van den Dobbelsteen, K. Stegenga
Published: 2007, Province of Groningen
Contributors:
R. Roggema, Province of Groningen
A. van den Dobbelsteen, University of Delft
K. Stegenga, Werkplaats voor Stedenbouw
M. de Jong, University of Groningen
S. Slabbers, Bosch-Slabbers Landscape architects
S. van Lieshout, Province of Friesland
Masteratelier Landscape architecture, University of Wageningen
Participants:
Berta Sanz Peña
Szu-Ling Tao
Yi Ding
Francis Vos
Paula Espinosa Aguilar
Erin Upton
Roland Schmidt
Martina Sattler
Erik Smits
Gerwin de Vries
Bojan Balen
Marloes Holleman
Eveline de Kock
Maarten Looise
Helena Mally
Arjen Meeuwsen
Monique Sparling
Sarah Tang
Rocio Torres Mendes
Matej Zuljan
Tutoring:
R. van Etteger
S. Stremke
prof. J. Koh
R. Roggema
Graphic Design & Production:
Grafisch Centrum Provincie Groningen,
150
ISBN/EAN: 978-90-72410-17-7

Pallet of Possiblities

Transcription

Similar documents

presentatie - Conferentie Gebouw Automatisering

RIS3 enabling the Transition Towards a Circular Economy

1 Zolang we het niet lokaal

Renkumse buitenplaatsen in een nieuw

CURRICULUM VITAE CURRICULUM VITAE

Be not of this World for a Moment

Presentation

INHOUD - Bouwkunde

the juwel anemone corynactis viridis , a new order for the

INSide Information