“Australia - a country between Asia, American and its European roots”

Transcription

Freiherr vom Stein-Schule
Fach:
Englisch
Hessisch Lichtenau
Lehrer:
Herr Wieders
Verfasser: Ellen Singer
List of contents
1.
Preface – Why I chose the topic ''Australia''
p. 1
2.
Australia’s history
2.1
The excellent idea of the existence of the fifth continent
p. 2
2.2
The “discovery” of the fifth continent
p. 3 - 5
2.3
Aims and problems during the period of the British settlement
p. 6 - 10
3.
Australia’s culture
3.1
Australia - a former country of convicts
p. 11
3.2
Different cultures and their contrasts/similarities
p. 12 - 14
4.
Australia’s problems
4.1
The white policy
p. 15 - 16
4.2
An attempt to integrate Aborigines into the white society
p. 17 - 19
4.3
Different proprietors of Australia
p. 20 - 21
4.4
The compensations for Aborigines
p. 22 - 23
5.
Australia’s international role
5.1
Australia between Asia, America and Europe
p. 24 - 25
5.2
Further away from Europe and America – closer to Asia
p. 26 - 27
6.
Epilog
p. 28
7.
Annotations
7.1
Quotations
p. 29 - 33
7.2
References
p. 33
8.
Appendix
8.1.
Lists and overall view
8.1.1 Webpages
p. 34 - 38
8.1.2 Maps
p. 39 - 41
8.1.3 Unused pictures
p. 42 - 44
9.
Declaration
10.
Documentation of the working process
1. Preface – Why I chose the topic “Australia”
Australia is a big continent and a huge isle. Many different cultures, peoples and interests can
be observed there. Its origin goes back to several roots - Europe, Asia, and America. The main
root which still remains is “Aborigines” - the oldest tribe in the world that is still alive.
The indigenous people 1
I found this aspect extraordinary and for several times I was fascinated and at the same time
frustrated after watching some reports on Aborigines on TV. That is why I want to get more
knowledge about the tribe, its living conditions and problems with the white society. So, on
the one hand I would like to inform you about the social, cultural, historical and political
background of Aborigines and how they developed up to date.
Australia itself was always a continent full of secrets - just before Christ’s birth they could
imagine that there could already exist a continent like Australia - an unknown land,
nevertheless it lasted centuries until Australia was first seen by whites. Just all the names
given to Australia have their own history and message, so I can imagine how fascinating its
history, culture and problems “down under” are like. So on the other hand my topic also deals
with Australia and its general advantages and disadvantages in its historical, political and
international surroundings.
-11
http://www.lacher.li/australien/Aborigines/Grafiken/Aborigines1.gif
2. Australia’s history
2.1 The excellent idea of the existence of the fifth continent
100 million years ago Gondwanaland separated into Australia, Africa and South America.
Still in the sixth century before Christ’s birth philosopher Pythagoras of Samos spoke about a
round earth that included five continents: “Two cold zones in the North and South, one hot
zone in the middle and two tempered ones” (1) , they could only live in the last ones. The
southern one of the two zones was “terra australis nondum cognita” - “noch nicht entdecktes
Südland” (2) and was named “Australis” (3) (“southern” in Latin).
Although in the Middle Ages they claimed, “Was nicht in der Bibel steht, existiert nicht”, (4)
the amount of people who strived for research grew. In the 15th century the Azores, the
Canaries, the Caribbean were seen by a European, Columbus, for the first time. In 1500
Vespucci entered a mainland – coast - the “New World”. (5) Since such new discoveries for
the Europeans, the people believed in the existence of the fifth continent again.
When in 1520 Magellan passed through the “Magellan – Sea route”, he saw in the South of
the route the “Southern land”. “In 1596 de Bry drew the “Australis” of a large size - “Terra
Australis Magallanica”!” (6) In 1616 Schouten and Le Maire sailed around Kap Hoorn - the
southern peak of South America - and announced the real, actual size of Australia.
Terra australis 2
Nevertheless there were competitions between Portuguese and Spaniards, later between Dutch
and British. “No one could stop speculating about a large Southern land any more.” (7)
-22
Longman; Dictionary of Contemporary English; Langenscheidt
2.
Australia’s history
2.2 The “discovery” of the fifth continent
With the contract of Tordesillas that was made in 1494 by a pope, the world in its whole was
divided between Portugal and Spain. In the 16th century they - both were big competitors strived for power over the world. In 1521 Magellan - a Spaniard - landed on the Philippines.
A half – century later the city Manila was founded there. In spite of the strongest Spanish
Armada, in 1512/15 the Portuguese arrived on the isle Timor - a part of Indonesia. The
Portuguese are reported to have sailed around from the east – coast to the south – coast. A
ship – wreck that was found between Warrnambool and Port Fairy in 1836, is according to the
scientists the “Mahagony Ship” from 1522 and belonged to the Portuguese. Consequently the
Portuguese are said to have been the first Europeans who sighted and explored Australia.
In 1529 the agreement of Zaragoza was made in which Spain and Portugal decided about the
boundary along the eastern 133rd degree of longitude in the Asiatic area. According to this
contract Australia belonged to the Spain. Ever since, the Portuguese have kept their
expeditions secret. So, in 1605 Pedro Fernando – a Spaniard – arrived on the Hebrides and
was assured to have “discovered” the “southern land”. He named the nine isles “La Australia
del Espirito Santo”. (8)
Not until the 17th century Australia was officially found by the Dutch and Spaniards and still
they did not settle there.
When the Spanish Armada was defeated, the British and the Dutch came to power.
The Dutch reached Java. In 1616 a Dutch named Brouwer used the west wind drift to arrive at
the East – Indian Isles, but on his voyage he sailed too far to the east and reached only by
chance the Australian west – coast. This area was named “New Holland”; “Zeeland” and
“Landt van d’Eendracht” (the ship from 1616). (9) On a voyage 1721/23 a Dutch - Roggeveen
- found out that Antarctica and New Holland were two independent continents and in 1820
Roggeveen’s guess was proved by the Russian Antarctica expedition.
In 1600 the British founded the “British East India Company”. (10) In 1688 the Brit William
pursued piracy and reached the north – west of Australia. In 1699 he arrived on the Shark Bay
and later on the Roebuck Bay. There he observed “sand, flies, several traces of animals and
some wild indigenous people with thick lips and “bottle noses”.” (11)
-3-
In 1769 Captain Cook and his friend called Joseph Banks sailed along the New Zealand and
found out that New Zealand was not a part of the “southern land”. In April 1770 they sighted
the southern peak of Australia – the Point Hicks and ten days later they reached the “Botany
Bay”. (12) “On Cape York Cook took possession of the whole eastern coast by the name of
New South Wales”. (13)
At his first encounter with Aborigines, the captain described them as “a people which is far
happier than we Europeans. They live in a tranquility which is not disturbed by inequality of
conditions. The earth and sea of their own accord furnish them with all things necessary for
life”. (14)
A traditional dance of Aborigines 3
“Botany Bay” was established by the First Fleet in 1788. On January 26th, 1788 Sydney Cove
was founded by Captain Phillip at the Paramatta – river, ever since it has been annually
celebrated as the “Australia Day”. The roof design of the Opera House, opened in 1973, is a
new landmark of Sydney - it symbolizes the sails of the First Fleet.
The Opera House 4
-43
4
Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S. 26
Geographie der Erde; neue Enzyklopädie; Serges Medien, S 168
Since 1788 the continent has been settled by “whites”. In the same year New South Wales
was founded. Another five colonies followed from 1803 to 1859 including Tasmania, Western
Australia, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland.
Australia 5
Since 1901 they all form the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1911 Northern Territory and the
Australian Capital Territory were added.
-55
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Australia_map.svg/650px-Australia_map.svg.png
2. Australia’s history
2.3 Aims and problems during the period of the British settlement
The British were convinced to be able to develop Australia and to civilize the continent.
As the French ships “Le Naturaliste” and “Le Géographe” explored “Van Diemen’s Land”
and the “Bass – Straße” - France was a big competitor of Great Britain - the British feared of
loosing their possessive claims on Australia and occupied the southern as well as the northern
coast, in 1804.
“In 1801/03 Captain Mathew Flinders sailed around the continent. Thus the British admiralty
wanted to prove that “New Holland” and New South Wales shared a common continent.
Great Britain laid claim to the whole Australia.” (15)
After the British had climbed over the Blue Mountains - the Appalachians were an obstacle to
the settlers in the North America, too - the settlements expanded fast, so that in 1825 the
concept of “19 counties” was introduced. In these counties it was forbidden to settle - similar
to the Proclamation Line in the USA in 1763 - otherwise, the illegal settlers there were called
Squatters. In 1850 the government tried to isolate Squatters by denser settlements and more
intensive agriculture. It was called the “denser settlement policy”, which led to worse armed
conflicts between the Squatters, who were stockbreeders, and the coming farmers.
In the same year the “Australian Colonies Government Act” was introduced. According to
this act each colony could have its own constitution - to become a “responsible government” if the British Parliament consented.
In spite of a wide independence of Australia, there were still enough internal problems like
different criteria of the right to vote: In New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania – was property
one of the criteria - the poor were not allowed to vote; on the contrary in South Australia the
sentence “one man - one vote” (16) became famous – in this colony freedom of religion was
effective. Since 1908 all men as well as women have been allowed to vote.
In 1870s the trade unions strived for federation – to found a welfare state and to nationalize
the resources. According to the report of the “Bulletin”, from 1880, “Nationalism began to
expand through Australia.” (17)
After the economic depression from 1890/94 the enterprises also decided to work in a closer
cooperation.
-6-
Another big problem that lasts until today remains between Western Australia and Tasmania
despite the TFES (Tasmania Freight Equalization Scheme) - a subvention program, which
neutralizes transport coasts from the isle to the continent. Some failure occurred in this
system, so that Tasmania sometimes wants to separate; Western Australia also feels isolated
from the Australian core.
A considerable discussion deals with the Northern Territory, where the biggest subventions
were spent. In 1863 South Australia administered the colony, but the Northern Territory
turned out to be a “losing deal”.
Since 1911 the Northern Territory has belonged to the Commonwealth of Australia and has
owned an autonomous status since 1978. In order to found Canberra New South Wales was
forced to give up a part of its territory to the ACT (Australian Capital Territory).
The policy structure in its whole is also dubious, the federation enjoys more regulation rights
than its individual states and owns an income tax monopoly. In addition the federation
Australia imposes 80% of all the taxes.
The individual states have regulation rights only about 60% of all public expenses. And since
1933, the “Commonwealth Grant Commission” has made decisions in which way and amount
the individual states get the federal taxes. The intention is to cause equal living standards
nationwide.
A lot of people aimed at moving to Australia. Although the government did not want to accept
any refugees (Displaced Persons), Poles, Hungarians and “Displaced Persons” from the east –
European and the south – European countries were allowed to immigrate.
“For instance, in 1956 because of the “Ungarnaufstand” 14000 “Displaced Persons” were
accepted and in 1968, during the “Prager Frühling” 5500 “Displaced Persons” could
immigrate.” (18)
On the one hand the increase in immigration was needed, especially from 1950 to 1983, when
the birth rates as well as the death rates declined rapidly.
But on the other hand immigration is still not welcome by everyone because the illegal
immigration increases. Only across the “Torres – Straße” narcotics and arms are transported.
The worst problem during the period of the British settlement was the Aboriginal people.
-7-
The holy Aboriginal snake 6
Aborigines namely believed that Australia was crossed by a tremendous amount of spiritual
paths, so a white population was not allowed to settle on the continent. Consequently there
were fights between the indigenous people and the “whites”.
“Nowadays 25% of Aborigines live in big cities in “ghettos”. It is true that their houses are
built by the government, but they all have to live in hope to reach the subsistence level.
Traditional infant homicides and abortions decimate the 50000 “full Aborigines” even more.
Nowadays only a few hundreds Aborigines live in the traditional way.” (19)
Animals as well as insects, which were brought in by the British, created problems, too - for
instance as “The Great Drought” (20) (1898 - 1902) lasted for four years. During that period
millions of sheep had to be slaughtered and an uncountable amount of rabbit – carcasses
contaminated water places. To decline rabbit numbers, “Kaninchenzaun” (21) in Western
Australia was built. Against the “Myxomatose – Virus” (22) they became resistant; since
1996 the “RHD – Virus” (23) has been tested.
Earlier than 10000 years ago “Dingo” (24), which likes to kill sheep, was brought in by the
Aborigines. As fence from South Australia to Queensland did not help to decrease the amount
of dogs, the “doggers” (25) from the “Agricultural Protection Board” (26) shot these animals
down.
-86
Because of extreme weather conditions like strong rain or drought a crop failure often
occurred. In addition swarms of locusts, which were brought in by the Europeans, led to crop
damage.
The Australian desert 7
Anyway, the agriculture was the poorest factor to help the economy flourishing, because
thousands of years ago, on Australia there were hardly volcanoes and glaciers, so it is hard to
find any fertile ground. Nevertheless, in hinterland of Brisbane, there is lots of fertile land.
Later the Germans settled there - in the Darling Downs - and pursued agriculture.
Queensland was a rich colony, too. There the fertile ground could also be used for agriculture
and its “Mount – Isa – Becken” (27) was full of “Greenstones” (28) - gold, silver, lead, zinc,
uranium and many other raw materials. No wonder that Queensland always strived for
secession. Its disadvantage was that especially in this colony the settlers often had to fight
against natural disasters like flooding or bush fire, too - for example there was “a flooding in
Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, in 1990.” (29)
-9-
7
“Der Australische Schild” (30) and the “Great Barrier Reef” (31) also had important sources
of raw materials like gold, silver, lime, phosphate and oil. Since 1975 the “Great Barrier
Reef” cannot be used in any economic way any more - because of fishing, chemicals and
tourism the “Crown of thorns starfish” (32) multiplies and endangers it.
The Great Barrier Reef 8
In many aspects the British managed their plans: They founded colonies, introduced a
structured policy and economy - the British industrialized the country, and finally they even
tried to integrate the Aborigines as Australia’s indigenous people into the British culture.
Unfortunately, in their euphoria to save Australia, the British did not pay enough attention to
the problems during and the consequences because of their settlement.
-108
Geographie der Erde; neue Enzyklopädie; Serges Medien, S 169
3. Australia’s culture
3.1 Australia - a former country of convicts
During the Industrial Revolution, when agriculture was replaced by industry, the
unemployment rates increased fast. That is why families stole food and clothes to survive.
Consequently the legislation was made stricter so that lots of people were condemned for
several years in prison.
In 1776 the USA made the “Declaration of Independence” so that prisoners could not be sent
there any more. As the prisons in Great Britain became overcrowded with convicts, Australia
suddenly began to play an important role for its “mother country”.
On January 26th, 1788 the First Fleet with 775 convicts arrived at the Australian coast. 24
convicts of them died on the voyage, which lasted six months. In the following 80 years more
convicts were transported to the continent. Sentences like “Australia’s population was picked
up by the judges” (33) or like “Sträflingskolonien sind Urheber der australischen
Bevölkerung” (34) were often used.
Nevertheless Australia was no country of convicts. Right from the beginning of the settlement
convict and penal settlements existed. The second ones were settlements where only convicts
settled, for example Norfolk or Port Arthur. In the convict settlements also lived settlers who
were free of penalty. For instance “in 1820 39% of people who were free of penalty and 23%
of released convicts got plots of land for free in Sydney.” (35)
Nowadays the children of the former convicts have even founded the “First Fleeter Club”
because they are proud that their parents built up their continent: the convicts built public
buildings, bridges, they made road constructions and helped to facilitate agriculture. The
penal settlements were especially founded near the coal mines and the convicts were treated
as if they were slaves. Thanks to “Wakefield’s theory of colonization” (36) according to
which the Crown should sell plots of Australia to prosperous people who were allowed to
choose their workforce themselves, in 1850 Great Britain stopped transporting the convicts to
the eastern colonies.
In the past Australians were embarrassed of their convict past. After a period of time they
recognized that Australia was a colony of settlements and not a colony of convicts. This
changed attitude of Australians proves that Australia redefined itself.
-11-
3. Australia’s culture
3.2 Different cultures and their contrasts/similarities
Apart from convicts and settlers who were free of penalty there were also indigenous people
that emigrated from the Islands of Indonesia (just a theory with no prove) to Australia at least
about 60,000 years ago: “Das älteste Skelett in Australien wurde am Lake Mungo (New South
Wales) gefunden. Die Universität von Canberra geht davon aus, dass es sich dabei um die
älteste DNS eines Menschen handelt - ca. 60.000 Jahre alt. Sie enthalten Spuren von
aufgetragenen Ockerfarben, die höchstwahrscheinlich für Zeremonien genutzt wurden. Sicher
nachweisbar ist eine vollständige Besiedlung des Kontinents seit 32.000 Jahren.” (37)
Right from the first encounter of “whites” and Aborigines conflicts occurred because their
cultures are very different. The Aborigines consider themselves a part of nature. Durable
settlements and economy do not play such an important role in Aboriginal life as in the
European one. The white settlers need land property to survive and so do the Aborigines, but
rather because they believe to be a natural part of Australia and are able to walk on spiritual
paths that cross the continent, so that the “whites” were not allowed to settle there.
The spiritual world 9
-129
Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, Rückseite des Buchumschlages
Because of these claims several regions were declared holy places (for example Uluru –
Ayers Rock in English), in some of them dead Aborigines are buried.
Uluru 10
However when the Aborigines did not want to adapt to innovations made by the “whites”
because of their traditions, the white settlers did not make any more compromises. As the
“whites” were used to fix dates and always to keep to them they could not understand the
Aboriginal culture. They called Aborigines “strangers”, but did not try to get more knowledge
about their traditions which led to a wrong treatment of the indigenous people.
“When in the1850s gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria and more than
40,000 Chinese immigrated to the country as golddiggers, they were likewise regarded with
suspicion by the white settlers. Although the ethnic culture is different from the Aboriginal
one, the “whites” feared either: In both cases they used violence.
In addition the Chinese endangered the Australian employment market, so that in 1885 a
legislation was introduced that “made impossible for them to enter Australia”.” (38)
Pacific islanders who were kidnapped and brought to Australia served “as cheap labour in the
sugar cane fields of Queensland”. (39)
Every non - European that lived in Australia that entered this country or that was brought in
there by force lived in conflicts with the British settlers and remained underprivileged only
because the white settlers did not want to try to understand their culture.
-13-
10
Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, Vorderseite des Buchumschlages
Even the European settlers were not always welcomed. In the middle of the 1860s a ban on
immigration for Germans was introduced. The official reason was an economic crisis, but the
real reason was the British immigration which was always privileged towards the other
nationalities. In spite of the Irish immigration since 1840 and despite the overwhelming
Chinese and German immigration since 1901, the British one dominated until the Second
World War. “Afterwards immigration agreements were made with Malta (1948), with Italy
and Netherlands (1951), with Austria, Belgium and Greece (1952) and with Germany and
Spain (1953). Since 1970 the Australians have stopped the ban to the Asian immigration. So
in 1996/97 there were 15.2 % of immigrants from New Zeeland, only 11.3 % from the Great
Britain and 73.5 % from Asia.” (40)
Nowadays Australia is a multicultural country. An indicator for Australian changes is for
instance Bondi beach. It is overwhelmed with shops, restaurants and tourists of Lebanese,
Italian and Greek immigrants; Japanese students abandon their studies to surf in the sea and
women sit on their chairs ready to save a life. In spite of easy going style and despite more
free time there are still tensions between the racist British people and the other cultures. (41)
Another example is the Lidcombe Primary school: “600 pupils from more than 37 different
language backgrounds” (42) learn at this school and tolerate other cultures and religions:
There are hardly violent incidents between different nations at school. Translators were even
organized for parent meetings.
After all, the Australians learned the definition of tolerance by heart. Their motto is “A fair go
for everyone!” (43)
-14-
4. Australia’s problems
4.1 The white policy
Already before 1900 the immigration for non – Europeans was full of complications.
Shortly after the foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the Immigration
Restriction Act was introduced by the government. Its motto was “Two wongs don’t make a
white” (44).
Chinese 11
A dictation test in which a European language was demanded from potential immigrants was
introduced to isolate the overwhelming ethnic groups with their bothering cultures. “Hat man
einst die Menschen zwangsweise hineingeschickt, so hat man sie später zwangsweise
ferngehalten” (45), commented Jessen in 1948.
Not till after the Second World War the Immigration Policy changed. The Australian
government feared that the Japanese could continue to attack the continent with bombs; it also
did not like the raising population rates in Asian countries. By way of contrast the birth rates
as well as death rates in Australia declined, so their labor market needed a lot of work force so
that industrialization of the country did not stop. Consequently the slogan of the Immigration
Policy was transformed to “populate or perish” and the numbers of immigrants as well as the
compensation after their nationalities were changed. Although according to the issue from the
year 1981 there were “58.2% of immigrants who were not British” (46), the Asians remained
isolated. The South – Europeans like Italians, Greeks and Yugoslavs dominated the
immigration during the period from 1953 to 1970.
-1511
Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S 136
In 1966 the “famous” dictation test, the hardest barrier for Asian immigrants, had been
abolished. The abolishment of the “White Australia Policy” followed in 1973. Immediately
amounts of peoples flocked from Asia to Australia. Only 18 years later 49% of all immigrants
who entered Australia were Asian, whereas the immigration from Europe declined within ten
years (1981 - 1991) from 50.1% to 25.9%. (47)
The Immigration Policy improved. For instance because of questions about immigration the
Ethnic Affairs Commissions were founded in Australia. Nevertheless a restriction on
admissions of immigrants is still annually discussed. A problem is that with illegal
immigration drugs as well as arms were brought in. Besides, too low population rates and a
hardly raising economic growth were also a discussion point. Consequently more women
were invited to immigrate to keep to status quo and Asians were also welcomed to stabilize
the economic growth by creating international connections. In fact in the 1990s the population
rates as well as the employment ones increased, but on the other hand the unemployment rates
rose, too.
Since July 1999 the Immigration Policy has changed again: The government pays attention
rather to skilled workers with a good knowledge of English and of the foreign languages. The
prosperity of the country seems yet to be more important to Australians than an immigration
freedom - “Welcome to the White Australia Policy again!”
-16-
4.2 An attempt to integrate Aborigines into the white society
About 60,000 years ago Aborigines entered Australia. They had their own culture, traditions
and their own style of life … until the First Fleet, their worst competitor, arrived. The
Europeans did not tolerate any other cultures because they were convinced that only their way
of life was the right one. Like Indians in America the Aborigines were treated awfully by the
white settlers: “Shooting parties were given in which Aborigines were hunted down like
animals.” (48) And according to the Observer, “Twenty years ago, it was hoped that the
Aborigines would melt away: that they would die out or somehow become integrated.” (49)
Integration of Aborigines 12
If the White Australia Policy had been in force for the Aborigines, they would have been
isolated forever. As it was impossible to get rid of the Aborigines in this way and the
Aborigines did not want to get used to the European culture, the government founded
missions:
-1712
From 1860 to 1940 Aborigines were captured and locked up in reservations. There missions
tried to force their culture on them. When this way of reeducation showed hardly a success,
the whites did not want to give up.
In the 1890s the government introduced a brutal program according to which young
Aborigines (half – caste children) should be taken away from their parents and trials should be
made to teach them the white style of living. These trials based on the theory which said that
“half – caste Aborigines could be more easily assimilated into white society than Aborigines
of full descent.” (50) They strived for extermination of the Aboriginal race.
A 68 – year – old contemporary named Mr. Kruger told his story from the time when he was a
small boy: Half – castle children were wound up in “the government – run Khalin
Compound.” (51) He compares it to “a concentration camp, surrounded by a wire fence.
There were just blankets on the floor and because there was not enough to eat the children
were forced to steal food and clothes. But when they were caught attendants flogged them.”
(52)
Only a few of these children could see their mother again.
“Altogether about 100,000 young Aborigines were dislocated by such policies up until the
1960s – in the name of “assimilation”.” (53)
Still a cruel attempt to “save” the indigenous people took place in 1953. The Aborigines that
lived in South Australia were taken to Yalata because in their colony Great Britain carried out
nuclear tests up to 1957. Hans Gaden, a missionary worker, commented, “Although we did
not blow them [the Aborigines] up, we ruined them.” (54) But “Yalata was a settlement where
the Aborigines were corrupted by alcohol and other trappings of white society.” (55)
The “famous” crime – ridden Redfern (a part of Sydney) is similar to a ghetto: “Many homes
there are burned – out or vandalized and the drone of sirens is always heard.” (56)
In this government – supported district the Aborigines traffic with drugs and alcohol; “lots of
girls have damaged their brains with drugs and alcohol, and can’t look after their children.
Actually indigenous women have one of the worst life expectancies in the world, with high
rates of death from diabetes and cervical cancer” (57) which had been brought in by the
European settlers.
Altogether the number of the indigenous people was between 300,000 and 1,000000 when the
first European settlers arrived in Australia. The more aboriginal people lived on the continent
from the beginning of the settlement the worse are the negative effects on the indigenous
population.
-18-
Nowadays there live about 380,000 Aborigines in Australia which is only a tiny minority
among 18 million Australians.
Although the Australian government recognized the historic injustice and “investigated 98%
of recent deaths in prisons and police lock – ups” (58) of aboriginal people, natural resources,
fine climate and the most important thing - health - are not returnable.
-19-
4.3 Different proprietors of Australia
With the arrival of the First Fleet not only the culture of the indigenous people was
endangered, but also their property. “When the first colony was founded at Sydney Cove, the
land the British inhabited was terra nullius. The Aborigines resisted to the invasion and were
killed indiscriminately.” (59) As the indigenous people had done nothing to develop the place,
they were not accepted as the first nation in Australia - never! “Even in 1999 a preface of the
Constitution that included the acceptance of the Aborigines as the first Australian nation was
refused.” (60) Not until the 1960s their “status improved, although poverty and
unemployment remain.” (61) Freedom Rides, influenced by the American civil rights
movement, took place: “Charles Pekins, an Aborigine, hired a bus and traveled together with
white students through some of the most racist towns in the country.” (62)
With protests the Aborigines began to fight for their rights.
Aborigines struggle for their rights 13
“In 1961 the right to vote was given to the Aborigines and in 1967 the Aboriginal Affairs
Commissions were founded, where embezzlements of the financial means that are in the true
sense of the word to be spent on Aborigines, still occur.” (63)
In 1971 the climax was reached: Mr. Justice Blackburn declared, “On the foundation of New
South Wales… and of South Australia, every square inch of territory in the colony became the
property of the Crown.” (64) Mr. Henry Reynolds examined this statement to see if Mr.
Blackburn was right. He found out that “the British Government in the first half of the
nineteenth century recognised that the Aborigines owned the land.” (65) Consequently the
colonists as well as the courts behaved unconstitutional.
-2013
http://www.planet-wissen.de/pics/IEPics/intro_outback_aborig_g.jpg
In 1993 the theory of terra nullius was dropped and “native titles” which were given in 1998
were limited again: the Aborigines can only reclaim “unoccupied outback and woodland” (66)
whereas “miners and farmers won the validation of all leases” (67).
On the other hand the government builds houses where Aborigines can live, but they use the
houses just as storerooms and they themselves live outside. Many of them return to their tribe
because they do not want to give up their culture. Such well – meant attempts to integrate the
Aborigines drive the indigenous people to consumption of drugs, depressions and to apathy.
Although the government agrees that the Aborigines were uprooted, they are still not ready to
return them their land again.
-21-
4.4 The compensations for Aborigines
At the time when Mr. Henry Reynolds found out that the Australian land belonged to the
Aborigines and that it had been recognized by the Crown itself, he demanded compensations
for the indigenous people because of their “prior ownership”. He intended to prompt the High
Court to such a decision to change the attitudes of the white settlers concerning money that
was spent on the Aborigines.
With “native titles” only a part of Reynolds demand was realized and nevertheless discussions
about compensations for Aborigines remain: for instance in 1996 “Ms Hanson, a member of
the Liberal Party, attacked Aborigines and Asians in her election campaign and called for an
end of immigration”. (68) Mr. Howard, the leader of the Liberal Party, had ditched her. But
she spoke for the National Party. Among other things she claimed, “Along with millions of
Australians, I am fed up to the back teeth with the inequalities that are being promoted by the
government and paid for by the taxpayer under the assumption that Aboriginals are the most
disadvantaged people in Australia” (69) and was supported by 48% of respondents, opposed
by 38%. As a result the Aborigines as well as immigrants were frightened of “racial abuse”.
In the same year Peter Costello, the finance minister, announced that among other things the
financial means of “11 per cent of Australia’s poor minority and Aboriginals should be cut to
balance the budget by 1999” (70).
The British Government also refuses to pay the full compensation for their atom bomb trials
in the period from 1953 to 1957. It claims that in Australia it was cleaned up in 1967,
although the scientists found out a 100 – fold increase of contamination with plutonium.
About 300 sq km of land had to be isolated which again violates the Aboriginal “native titles”,
as “it takes 240,000 years for plutonium’s radioactivity to decay”. (71)
The Outback - Aborigines’ property 14
-2214
With regard to the Olympic Games in 2000 the government wanted to relocate the Aborigines
and then to demolish and to redevelop the “black ghetto” in Redfern. But the indigenous
people resisted it which shows that they do not trust the government. They believe to be an
embarrassment for the Australians and still fear that the government wants to wipe out the
Aboriginal culture.
-23-
5. Australia’s international role
5.1 Australia between Asia, America and Europe
At the beginning of the settlement Australia was influenced by Great Britain. In the Australian
history and politics Great Britain is irreplaceable. Still today Queen Elizabeth is head of the
federal Australia.
The Australian Flag 15
Nevertheless the British former colony has changed. In military and cultural aspects the
Australians were rather influenced by the USA whereas “geographically, Australia sits on the
fringes of Asia”. (72) These facts show that Australia suffered from self – deprecation,
although the continent is far away from other parts of the world. And yet Australia got over its
dependence especially on Great Britain - its mother country: Australians began shooting their
own films which were spoken in English dialects; they exported Aboriginal music and art.
Such exportations revealed that Australia had created its self – definition. Communication and
transportation increased, tourists became interested in the native culture and with the help of
good economic connections that resulted Australia became internationally involved.
During both World Wars Australia fought in the interests of Great Britain. But as in the
Second World War it was endangered by the Japanese and the British did not help, Australia
depended on protection of the USA. As a result in 1951 the “ANZUS – Pakt” between New
Zeeland, Australia and the USA was signed in order to protect the Pacific area. In 1954 Great
Britain, France, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand joined the “ANZUS – Pakt” that was
later renamed “SEATO”.
-2415
http://www.familienarchiv-papsdorf.de/images/australia.jpg
In 1965 Australia changed from the British currency to the American one – the Australian
dollar. Already a year later Australia supported the USA in the Vietnam conflict and still in
the same year, after the dictation test had been abolished, Australia strived for a multicultural
community as it is found in the USA.
Similar to the American Dream in the USA Asians were able to rise from the lowest point of
poverty to fame and fortune. For instance Joseph Assaf came from Lebanon to Australia. He
spoke Arabic and French, and no English at all. In addition he was an unskilled, poor man;
but after working hard Mr. Assaf “set up marketing, public relations and research agency,
Ethnic Communications”. (73) As Australia is mainly dependent on commodity exports, it
sounds quite logical that such Asian immigrants like Mr. Assaf are welcome in the country
because of their roots and contacts.
Slowly but surely Australia drifted away from Great Britain, but towards Asia!
-25-
5. Australia’s international role
5.2 Further away from Europe and America - closer to Asia
With the Commonwealth of Australia Great Britain gave a large degree of independence as a
present to Australia. The British queen lost her full sovereignty - separation of powers was
introduced. Thus absolutism has been replaced by the constitutional monarchy that still
remains, although more and more people vote for a republic and want to separate from Great
Britain. For instance Marcus Lee – Steere, a campaign spokesman said, “Monarchy is totally
inappropriate for us. It is undemocratic, sexist and unrepresentative of a multi – cultural
society.” (74)
Especially in 1973 the British power over Australia was over. A multicultural society of
Aborigines, Asians, British and Europeans has been created. Asian immigrants and about
160,000 convicts founded the modern nation of Australia, which after all redefined itself.
Although the USA protected Australia when in the Second World War Great Britain turned its
back on Australia and turned to Europe (it joined the EC in 1973), the military and politic
connections did not last long. When the USA began to sanction Japan and interfered with
human rights in China, on the one hand Australia was worried about the American policy in
Asia and on the other hand the country feared that Japan might open up its markets to
American exports. These incidents made the USA one of Australia’s competitors rather than a
friend so that Australia all the more made an effort to improve connections towards Asia. For
example school systems have been introduced that encourage pupils “to learn Asian
languages to help promote business, cultural and diplomatic ties in the region”. (75) “Unlike
the “guest workers” in European countries, immigrants are given full rights.” (76) And Prime
Minister Keating (1991 – 1996) even founded a department for Pacific affairs.
Nowadays the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) - similar to the EC and NAFTA strives for a large free trade Asian – Pacific area: “Japan is Australia’s largest trading partner,
taking $15.6 billion worth of exports in 1993, followed by the countries of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations and China. Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
estimates that eight of the country’s top 12 export markets between now and 2012 will be in
East Asia.” (77)
-26-
Australia also supports central offices of companies that offer the Europeans as well as the
Americans to engage in the Asian markets. In addition the eastern and the south – eastern
Asian markets have been reorganized since the economic depression in 1997 which shows
that Asia is the most important partner of Australia.
But where does Australia belong – is it a European country because of its mother country or is
it rather an Asian one because of its multicultural population and trade connections? An
inaugural summit of Asian and European leaders that was held in Thailand could not be
joined by Australia because Malaysia was against participation of Australia and New Zealand
- the countries were neither Asian nor European ones. This way Australia became isolated.
“The Asian ministers eventually agreed to Australia and New Zealand joining the second Asia
– Europe summit in 1997.” (78) And still which hemisphere do the countries represent? So
much is certain - the East Asian Hemisphere was already completed.
-27-
6. Epilog
On the one hand Australia has been a continent full of problems right from the beginning. But
on the other hand it is noteworthy that despite the White Australian Policy and cruel
treatments of Aborigines a multicultural country has replaced British absolutism. It is also
important that Australians recognized that its mother country only wanted to exploit Australia
as a colony: for example “160,000 convicts were transported during 80 years to Australia”
(79); “the British carried out bomb trials between 1953 and 1957 in New South Wales” (80);
Australia fought “on Great Britain’s side in two world wars” (81) and the British Government
profited from “commodity exports” (82) from Australia. Australia drifted towards Asia
especially because of economy, but was it ever accepted as an Asian country?
For the first time I read historical sources with pleasure, since, as I already expected, Australia
is a very suspense – packed theme. I got by far more knowledge about this fascinating
continent than I could write down, as information about Australia seems to be unlimited. No
wonder that there were sometimes problems to shorten my treatise by less important facts.
I recommend the theme Australia to others since there will be no lack of information,
guaranteed!
I consider this treatise as a preparatory work for university and I am glad to have already
practiced.
Fascinating Australia16
-2816
Australia
7. Annotations
7.2 References
-
Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag
GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001
-
http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007
-
Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers & Schünemann
Verlag, 2004
-
Bilder auf dem Deckblatt und auf der Rückseite der Jahresarbeit aus Hofmeister,
Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH &
Co. KG; Dortmund 2001, S. 277, Vorderseite des Umschlages
7. Annotations
7.1 Quotations
Quotation Source
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg
Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,
Das Südland von der Antike bis Magellan, p. 28 - 29
Portugiesen und Spanier, p. 29
(9)
Di Niederländer, p. 29
(10)
(11)
Britische Aktivitäten, p. 29 - 30
(12)
Cooks erste Weltreise, p. 30
(13)
(14)
(15)
Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers &
Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 2
Erste Umseglung des Kontinents, p. 30
(16)
Gewährung von Wahlrechten, p. 47
(17)
Vorbereitung auf die Föderation, p. 48
(18)
Displaced Persons und Assisted Arrivals, p. 41
(19)
Bevölkerungsentwicklung und Verbreitung, p. 24
(20)
Buschbrände und Dürren, p. 10
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
Eingeschleppte Tiere, p. 19
Bodenschätze, p. 21
(29)
Die Variabilität der Niederschläge, p. 12
(30)
Der Australische Schild, p. 20
(31)
(32)
Das Grosse Barriereriff, p. 19
(33)
(34)
(35)
Die Sträflingsfrage, p. 32
Convict und Penal Settlements, p. 33
(36)
Veränderte Siedlungspolitik, p. 37
(37)
http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,
Aborigines
(38)
compare with Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers
& Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 3
(39)
Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 3
(40)
compare with Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien &
Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,
Veränderte Einwanderungspolitik nach 1945, p. 41
(41)
compare the whole passage with Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a
new identity; Eilers & Schünemann Verlag; The New York Times 13.2.1988,
p. 24, p.25
(42)
Schünemann Verlag; The Weekend Australian 22.4.1995, p. 33
(43)
Gesetzgebung und Multikulturalismus, p. 42
(44)
(45)
Die White Australia Policy, p. 39
Die White Australia Policy, p. 40
(46)
Veränderte Einwanderungspolitik nach 1945, p. 41
(47)
compare with Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien &
Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,
Öffnung nach Asien hin, p. 41
(48)
Schünemann Verlag; 2004, p. 3
(49)
Schünemann Verlag; The Observer 7.2.1988, p. 39
(50)
(51)
Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 13.4.1995, p. 43
(52)
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
Schünemann Verlag; The Guardian 6.3.1997, p. 47
(58)
(59)
(60)
http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,
Aborigines
(61)
(62)
(63)
compare with http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,
Aborigines
(64)
(65)
(66)
(67)
(68)
(69)
(70)
Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 21.8.1996, p. 44, p. 45
(71)
(72)
(73)
Schünemann Verlag; The Weekend Australian 8.4.1995, p. 29
(74)
(75)
Schünemann Verlag; Newsweek 4.4.1994, p. 20
(76)
Schünemann Verlag; The Christian Science Monitor 5.6.1992, p. 35
(77)
Schünemann Verlag; Newsweek 4.4.1994, p. 19
(78)
(79)
& Schünemann Verlag; The New York Times 13.2.1988, p. 6
(80)
& Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 3.12.1994, p. 42
(81)
Schünemann Verlag; The Independent Leader 25.1.1988, p. 7
(82)
Schünemann Verlag; The Christian Science Monitor 3.1.1988, p. 4
p. 29 - 33
8.
Appendix
8.1. Lists and overall view
8.1.1 Webpages
Queen
Generalgouverneur
Australien ist eine unabhängige Nation mit Königin Elisabeth II. als
Staatsoberhaupt. Die Königin ernennt auf Vorschlag der gewählten
australischen Regierung einen Generalgouverneur für Australien.
Der Generalgouverneur ist seit der Schaffung der Föderation vor
hundert Jahren der Vertreter des eigentlichen Staatsoberhaupts, der
Krone von England. Im Lande selbst gilt der Generalgouverneur als das
faktische Staatsoberhaupt.
Seit 22. Juni 2003 ist Major General Michael Jeffery im Amt.
Die konstitutionelle Monarchie ist (noch) nicht Republik
Der Streit hatte tiefere Gründe. Er hat gezeigt, dass es um die Frage der Identität des Kontinents ging.
Es schien ein schöner Traum zu sein: Australien sollte sich nach innen und nach aussen als
eigenständige Gesellschaft präsentieren, als eine liberale, als eine offene, multikulturelle Gesellschaft,
ja, als ein Modell für die Zukunft der Menschheit. Ausdruck dieser Eigenständigkeit wäre ein
selbstständig gewähltes Staatsoberhaupt gewesen. Man hätte sich von den britischen Rockzipfeln
gelöst. Nun ist Australien zwar multikulturell - Nachkommen fast aller europäischen Völker leben hier
zusammen -, aber zwei Grundprobleme sind nach wie vor nicht geläst:
Welche Rechte billigt der Staat den Ureinwohnern, den Aboriginal People, zu?
Wie gestaltet man das Verhältnis zu den asiatischen Nachbarn?
Die USA haben ihre Identität im Befreiungskampf gegen die britische Monarchie gewonnen. Der
"Independent Day" ist Nationalfeiertag. Australien aber gewann seine Bedeutung für die britische
Krone erst, als sich die USA von Großbritannien lösten. Da konnte man die Strafgefangenen nicht
mehr nach Amerika schicken. Man verschiffte sie nach Australien. Als 1901 in einer Erklärung der
Bundesstaat ausgerufen wurde, war dies alles andere als eine kühne Unabhängigkeitserklärung. John
Pilger, der Korrespondent der liberalen britischen Zeitung "The Guardian", schrieb, die australische
Führungsschicht sei immer mit einem verhüllten kolonialen Status glücklich gewesen. Die Erklärung
von 1901 bezeichnet Pilger "als verzweifelten Schrei an Mutter England zu bleiben und ihre am
weitesten entfernte Kolonie gegen die ,asiatischen Horden' zu verteidigen."
Heute wird diese Urangst nicht mehr offen ausgesprochen. Aber natürlich ging es bei der Abstimmung
im Kern darüber, ob Australien eine neue Identität als Nachbar asiatischer Staaten findet, ob es
womöglich selbst ein asiatischer Staat wird oder ob es ein "weißer Vorposten" der transatlantischen
Welt bleibt. Australien hat sich dafür entschieden, britisch zu bleiben, sich scharf von den Nachbarn
abzugrenzen. Die chaotischen Vorgänge in Indonesien haben im Sommer und Herbst 1999 auf viele
Australier abschreckend gewirkt.
-34-
aborogones
Rund um dieses Thema existieren zahlreiche Mythen, die häufig publiziert werden, aber deswegen
noch lange nicht korrekt sein müssen. Die Kulturen von weißen und "schwarzen" Australiern
unterscheiden sich in vielen Punkten. Die Ureinwohner sehen sich als integrierten Bestandteil der
Natur. Materielle Güterwirtschaft und Sesshaftigkeit haben in der Gesellschaft der Ureinwohner nicht
den gleichen Stellenwert wie in der europäisch geprägten Einwanderer-Gesellschaft. Ein
vorprogrammierter Konflikt: Die weißen Siedler brauchten für Ihr Verständnis von Existenz Landbesitz
- gleichzeitig die Basis der eingeborenen Gesellschaft. Ein Konflikt, der bis heute andauert.
Nicht vollkommen geklärt.
Die meisten
wissenschaftlichen
Ansätze gehen von einem
Siedlungsbeginn vor
40.000 bis 60.000 Jahren
aus. Einzelne Studien
sprechen sogar von
120.000 Jahren. Sicher
nachweisbar ist eine
vollständige Besiedlung
des Kontinentes seit
32.000 Jahren. Dabei
wurden Felszeichungen im
Kakadu NP datiert.
Das älteste Skelett in Australien
wurde am Lake Mungo (New South
Wales) gefunden. Die Universität
von Canberra geht davon aus, dass
es sich dabei umdie älteste DNS
eines Menschen handelt - ca.
60.000 Jahre alt. Sie enthalten
Spuren von aufgetragenen
Ockerfarben, die
höchstwahrscheinlich für
Zeremonien genutzt wurden.
Abstammung
Es wird vermutet, dass die Besiedlung von Indonesien begonnen hat. Die
Landmasse Australiens und der indonesischen Inseln hatte zu dieser Zeit durch
einen niedrigeren Meeresspiegel eine grössere Ausdehnung. Die schmalste
Meeresenge hatte eine Breite von 90 km. Ein ansteigender Meeresspiegel
trennte Australien später wieder weiter von der asiatischen Inseln.
Landbesitz
Unklar ist, ob die heutigen australischen Ureinwohner bei ihrer
Einwanderung ausreichende Kenntnis in Navigation hatten oder
entsprechend taugliche Schiffe oder Flöße.
Bei Ankunft der Europäer (Tausende von Jahren später) konnten dafür
keine Anzeichen festgestellt werden.
Im Gegensatz zu anderen Völkern bewirtschafteten die Aboriginal People das
Land nicht, sondern lebten vom kontrolliertem Verbrennen des Landes, das
sogenannte fire-stick farming. Diese Form wird mittlerweile als Urform der
Landwirtschaft angesehen. Sie haben keinen Sinn für Landeigentum entwickelt,
auch wenn die Kinder der Ureinwohner frühzeitig lernen, daß die Menschen
dem Land gehören und die Gruppengrenzen respektieren zu haben. Die
Gruppen kehrten zu bestimmten Stätten zurück, um Tote zu begraben. Einige
Gebiete wurden aufgrund ihrer Verbindung mit der Traumzeit zu heiligen Stätten
erklärt.
-35-
Bevölkerung
Über die Bevölkerungszahl zur Zeit der Ankunft der weißen europäischen - Siedler gehen die Schätzungen auseinander. Sie liegen
zwischen 300.000 und 1.000.000.
Heute leben noch etwa 380.000 Aboriginal People in Australien.
Insgesamt leben zur Zeit 18 Millionen Menschen in Australien.
Bei genauerer Betrachtung zählen nur rund 50.000 zu den "full blood
Aboriginal People". Aufgrund von rassistischen Vorurteilen
bezeichneten sich viele Mischlinge in vergangenen Volksumfragen als
Weiße, wodurch eine hohe Dunkelziffer entstand. Diese Tendenz ist in
den letzen Jahren rückläufig, was zu einem statistischen Anstieg der
aboriginalen Bevölkerung führt. Dem Spektrum der unterschiedlichen
Zugehörigkeit zur aboriginalen Bevölkerung (von full blood bis zu
Mischlingen mit zB. "nur" aboriginalen Großeltern) trägt das Substantiv
"Aboriginal" Rechnung, während "Aborigine" alle in eine Schublade
steckt.
Selbstverständnis
Rechtlosigkeit
Vetreibung
Nach ihrem Glauben sehen sich Aboriginal People als integrierten Teil ihrer
natürlichen Umgebung. Sie befolg(t)en strikte Verhaltensregeln im
Umgang mit der Natur. Diese Haltung ist Neuerungen gegenüber sehr
zurückhaltend. Termine zu vereinbaren und einzuhalten ist dabei
ebenfalls unwichtig - aufgrund völlig anderer kultureller Grundlagen und
Notwendigkeiten.
Die ersten Europäer empfanden folglich die Kultur als archaisch und
fremd - vergleichbar mit den steinzeitlich lebenden Papua auf
Neuguinea. Aus diesen Eindrücken resultierte die Behandlung
aboriginaler Gruppen in der Folgezeit des Erstkontaktes. Sie entstand
aus einer Mischung von völliger Unkenntnis der Kultur, falschen
Interpretationen und der fehlenden Bereitschaft, sich dem Unbekannten
zu öffnen.
Bei der Besiedlung wurde Australien als Terra Nullius (Niemandsland)
gesehen. 1836 wurde den nomadisierenden Aboriginal People die Fähigkeit
zur organisierten Landnutzung (und die Tatsache, dass sie das Land wirklich
genutzt haben) abgesprochen und die Landrechte der Ureinwohner für nichtig
erklärt.
Aboriginal People wurden als zum Aussterben verurteilte Rasse primitiver
Nomaden gesehen, deklariert und so behandelt. Die Ureinwohner wurden aus
ihren Siedlungsgebieten vertrieben. Die Europäer gingen teilweise mit
äußerster Härte vor. Aboriginal People wurden gejagt, vergiftet und
erschossen.
Krankheiten &
Seuchen
Besonders drastisch ist das Schicksal der Ureinwohner Tasmaniens:
4.000 von ihnen setzten sich zur Wehr und wurden binnen 70 Jahren
vollständig vernichtet.
Noch in den Zwanzigerjahren wurden Aboriginal People auf
sonntäglichen Treibjagden von Viehtreibern erschossen und «ihre
Köpfe auf der Veranda zum Trocknen aufgestellt». Illegal – aber
durchaus entsprechend dem Zeitgeist.
Masern und Syphilis dezimierten die Anzahl der Aboriginal People weiter.
1789, 1829-32, 1865-70 wüteten Pockenepidemien, von denen die weißen
Siedler verschont blieben, da sie gegen die von ihnen eingeschleppten
Erreger weitgehend resistent waren. Übergewicht und Diabetes sind heute
weit verbreitet.
-36-
Depression & Apathie Aus Sicht der Ureinwohner wurde und wird ihre Welt nach und nach zerstört.
Drogen
Missionen
Viele sind physisch und geistig entwurzelt. Parallel dazu sinkt ihr
Selbstrespekt sowie der Lebenswille. Dies führt oft zur Flucht in Apathie,
Depression und Drogen. So entstand ihr Ruf faul und "unnütz" zu sein. Im
Gegensatz zu den Schwarzen Südafrikas, die während der Apartheid-Politik
mit Terror und Aufständen die Weltöffentlichkeit auf sich aufmerksam
machten, blieben die australischen Ureinwohner eher lethargisch.
Alkohol ist heute die größte Geisel der Aboriginal People: Vielen trinken sich
mit billigem, gepanschten Fusel um den Verstand - bis in den Tod. Junge
Aboriginal People schnüffeln sich mit Benzin in den Wahnsinn. Unter diesen
Drogen-Problemen leidet die ganze Familie - und damit das Herzstück der
Ureinwohnergesellschaften.
Die Kolonialverwaltung versuchte nach eigener Definition dem Zerfall der
Kulturen durch Errichtung von Reservaten und Entsendung von Missionaren
gegenzuwirken. Der Erfolg war ausgesprochen mäßig: Von 1860 bis 1940
dauerte der Versuch eingefangene Aboriginal People in Reservaten zu halten
und ihnen die weiße Lebensweise mit staatlicher Versorgung aufzuzwingen.
Hinter dem scheinbar hehren Ziel der Mission steckte ein handfestes
politisches Interesse. Viele Geschichtsforscher sehen heute das Kernziel der
Mission in der Zerstörung der Ureinwohnerkulturen: Die Menschen sollten als
billige Arbeitskräfte dienstbar gemacht werden. Viele Missionen bzw.
staatliche Einrichtungen (selbst Privatleute wie zB. Daisy Bates) sahen ihre
Aufgabe im "smoothing of the pillow on the black man’s death bed", also darin,
das Aussterben der Schwarzen in Australien wenn nicht zu beschleunigen, so
zumindest "angenehm" zu machen.
Erfolgreiche und gescheiterte Schritte zur Eingliederung
Kinderraub
Rechtslage
Ein besonders brutaler Versuch der Assimilierung wird erst seit Ende der
90er Jahre von der autralischen Gesellschaft aufgearbeitet: Bis ca. 1970
trennten Regierung und Kirche Tausende von Kindern von ihren Eltern.
Diese «gestohlene Generation» wurde bei Pflegefamilien und in
Missionsstationen untergebracht.
Die weißen Australier taten sich schwer mit der Erteilung voller
Bürgerrechte für die Ureinwohner.
1961 Aboriginal People erhalten Wahlrecht
1967 Gründung des Referates für Aboriginal-Angelegenheiten:
Die Effizienz der Institution ist ein Dauerstreitpunkt australischer
Innenpolitik. Milliarden wurden u.a. in die medizinische
Versorgung gesteckt um z.B. die dramatische
Säuglingssterblichkeit (war 10-fach im Vgl. zu Weissen) zu
reduzieren.
Unterschlagungen und mangelhafte Buchführung sind häufige
Probleme bei der Verteilung finanzieller Mittel bei AboriginalProjekten.
1980 Die Rassentrennung an Schulen und in manchen Stadtbezirken
ff.
wird nach und nach aufgehoben.
1993 Mabo-Gesetz beendet Rechtslage von "Terra Nullius":
Aboriginal People haben Recht auf "native titles" - Rückforderung
von ureigenem Land. Voraussetzung: Nachweis einer
jahrhundertelangen, konstant andauernden, Beziehung zu einem
Land.
Ureinwohnerstämme meldeten Ansprüche auf fast 40 Prozent der
Fläche an. Dabei sollen die bisherigen Nutzer nicht vertrieben
werden, aber Rechte zur Durchführung religiöser Handlungen und
zur Jagd auf Wildtiere sowie Wegerechte eingeräumt werden.
-37-
1998 Wik-Gesetz schränkt Forderungen der Ureinwohner ein:
Landrechts-Ansprüche auf Gebiete, die vom Staat an Bauern oder
Bergbaugesellschaften verpachtet sind, können nicht erhoben
werden. Lediglich finanzielle Entschädigung kann verlangt
werden. Finanziert werden solen sie aus Steuermitteln. Es wird
mit Kosten in Milliarden-Höhe gerechnet.
1999 Verfassungs-Präambel abgelehnt:
Ein Vorwort zur Verfassung, dass u. a. die Aboriginal People als
erstes Volk Australien anerkennen sollte, wurde abgelehnt.
2000 Mehrere Protestmärsche mit bis zu einer halben Million
Teilnehmern für die Rechte der Aboriginal People spiegeln das
geänderte Rechtsbewusstsein des weissen Australiens.
2004 Nach dem Tod eines 17-jährigen gibt es im Februar Krawalle in
der Ureinwohnersiedlung in Sydneys Stadtteil Redfern.
Status Quo
Entwurzelung
Es gibt nur noch wenige Gebiete, wo Aboriginal People traditionell leben
bzw. leben wollen. Sie leben mit einem Kompromiss zwischen den
beiden Lebensstilen und sind meist weder hier noch dort zu Hause. Etwa
die Hälfte wohnt in und um ländliche Kleinstädte, ca. ein Viertel in den
Grossstädten.
Soziale Situation
Arbeitslosigkeit
ca. 38%
Gefängnis-Insassen 14% aller Insassen sind Aboriginal People.
Versöhnung
Für ihre Rolle bei den Zwangs-Adoptionen haben sich u.a. offiziell
entschuldigt: Die Kirchen und der Generalgouverneur als Vertreter des
australischen Staatsoberhauptes - der Königin Elizabeth II..
Während die städtische Bevölkerung eher für Versöhnungsmassnahmen
plädiert, gibt es auf dem Land oft Stimmen zur Beibehaltung eines
ausgrenzenden Kurses.
Unumstritten sind insbesondere die Milliarden schweren Projekte zur
Unterstützung der Aborigines. Eine Schlüsselfunktion nimmt hier die
staatlich finanzierte Aborigines-Selbstverwaltungs-Organisation Atsic ein.
Radikalisten
UreinwohnerSiedlungen
Die Partei "One Nation" vom rechten Rand des
Parteienspektrums versucht seit Mitte der 90er Jahre Profit aus
einem latenten Rassismus zu ziehen.
Nicht nur auf weißer Seite gibt es radikale Positionen. Auch
manche Aboriginal-Aktivisten bringen die Sache der Ureinwohner
in Misskredit.
In Sydneys Stadtteil Redfern ist die grösste Ureinwohnersiedlung
Australiens. Sie gilt seit Jahren als Ghetto der Ureinwohner der
Olympiastadt und bietet wahrscheinlich das negativste Beispiel fьr eine
Siedlung urbanisierter Aboriginal Pepole. Da sie nur wenige Kilometer
von der Oper entfernt liegt, werden immer wieder populistische Rufe nach
der Abrissbirne laut, so im Februar 2004 nach den Krawallen auch vom
Oppositionsführer. In Redfern ist Drogenmissbrauch, Arbeitslosigkeit,
Jugendkriminalitдt und Gewalt zuhause - häufig gepaart mit einer zutiefst
empfundenen Entwurzlung und Perspektivlosigkeit. Konflikte zwischen
der Polizei und den Aboriginal People sind in Redfern nahezu Alltag.
Immer wieder werden Beamte von den Bewohnern des Rassismus
beschuldigt.
http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007
-38-
8.
Appendix
8.1.2 Maps
http://physiker.ch/media/img/australia/australia.png
-39-
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Australia_map.svg/650pxAustralia_map.svg.png
-40-
Longman; Dictionary of Contemporary English; Langenschiedt
-41-
8.
Appendix
8.1.3 Unused pictures
http://www.sydney2006.com/media/gallery/Wallpaper%20Pack%2001/australia%20wallpape
r%2013.jpg
-42-
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/de/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Australian_Aborigines.sv
g/800px-Flag_of_the_Australian_Aborigines.svg.png
http://www.ingrids-welt.de/reise/aus/bilder2/kukabo0b.jpg
-43-
http://www.arizonas-world.de/Australien/assets/images/Aborigine.jpg
http://www.museumonline.at/1999/schools/classic/grg21/Images/abor-familie.jpg
-44-
9. Declaration
Ich versichere hiermit, dass ich diese Facharbeit selbstständig verfasst, keine anderen als die
angegebenen Hilfsmittel verwendet habe und dass sämtliche Stellen, die benutzten Werken im
Wortlaut oder dem Sinne nach entnommen worden sind, mit Quellenangaben kenntlich
gemacht wurden. Diese Versicherung gilt auch für Zeichnungen, Skizzen und bildliche
Darstellungen.
Heli, den 16.04.2007
Ellen Singer

“Australia - a country between Asia, American and its European roots”

Transcription

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