POLITICS AND THE PRESS IN KUWAIT A STUDY OF AGENDA

Transcription

POLITICS AND THE PRESS IN KUWAIT
A STUDY OF AGENDA-SETTING
BY
HASAN QAYED SAEED-SUBAIHI
A t h e s i s s ub mi t t e d f o r t he
Degree o f Doct or o f P h i l o soph y
The U n i v e r s i t y o f L e i c e s t e r
1989
UMI Number: U022017
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ABSTRACT
Thi s t h e s i s
cations
to
i n v e s t i g a t e s t he concept o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g and i t s
r esear ch on t he press
One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
exclusively
of agenda-setting
r es ear ch i n t o
r es ear ch
in
that
to
t he
thesis,
however,
certain
i ssues
s t ud y ,
by
seeks t o
which
media
examine and e x p l a i n
and not o t h e r s
therefore,
t he
appear i n
was not
media agenda and t he p u b l i c
lim ited
agenda,
t he
to
but
due t o
its e lf
has been
a^focus
was
K uwai t i
pr e s s .
Thi s
under
which
The range o f
cor r espondence
t he way i n which c e r t a i n groups and i n s t i t u t i o n s
on t he
c r ea t e d .
conditions
was a l s o
is
and gave l i t t l e
t he
t he
it
it
Anot her c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g was l i m i t e d
process
namely Kuwai t .
so f a r
by which t he media set t he agenda f o r t he p u b l i c ,
attention
this
a T h i r d World c o u n t r y ,
Western and i n p a r t i c u l a r Ameri can.
that early
process
in
appli
between t he
concerned t o
examine
influence jo u r n a lis ts
and
cons eq ue nt l y t he pr es s .
The r e v i ew o f l i t e r a t u r e
tigation
in to
t he
shows t he e x t e n t t o which most o f t he i n v e s
relationship
between t he
media and t he p u b l i c
has been
c a r r i e d out i n Ameri ca and i d e n t i f i e s t he l i m i t e d work on l i n k s between t he
media and o t h e r s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
institu tion s
breaks
in
new ground,
findin gs
Kuwai t ,
trary.
of
however,
is
agenda-setting
r es e ar c h
a
Third
t he met hodology
World
country,
and
namely
tackling
its
to
explore
as t he a t t i t u d e s
assess
of
its
of a
pr e s s ,
most s u i t a b l e f o r t he p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .
obje ctives,
and
in stitutions
o f devel opment and t he d i v e r s i t y
employed two main met ho d o l o g i e s .
well
in
of
The presence i n Kuwai t o f modern s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
i n more ways than one, made i t
devi sed
applicatio n
Where t h i s t h e s i s
The c hoi ce o f Kuwai t i n p a r t i c u l a r was n e i t h e r haphazard nor a r b i
c e r t a i n degree o f m a t u r i t y
In
its
i n t he U.K.
t he
F irst,
t he
r esear ch
reported
in
this
thesis
a q u e s t i o n n a i r e and i n t e r v i e w were
i mpor t ance
of
t he
i s sues
involved,
as
o f each member o f t he sample f rom a c o n s e r v a t i v e or
liberal
perspective.
Two groups
of
o fficia ls
and
from among government
representative
samples were e x t r a c t e d
journalists.
c o n t en t a n a l y s i s o f a random sample o f m a t e r i a l
Thi s
detailed
policy
and
cross-tabulation.
exa mi n at i on
i ssues
to
of
about
t he
more
gener al
correlations
journalists
r e p o r t i n g on t he o t h e r .
po litical
role
Thi s
and
From t h i s
o fficia ls
as
to
r esear c h i n T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s .
by
a
t he
on
a n a l y s i s o f f r equency
provides,
salience
t he
one
of
hand,
moreover,
a range
and
a
of
press
a n a l y s i s t he t h e s i s d e r i v e s c o n c l u s i o n s
and c o n t e x t
observations
analysis
between
followed
f rom newspapers.
Re sul t s were s u b j e c t e d t o a t hor ough s t a t i s t i c a l
distribution
is
of
t he
t he
press
in
ap plicability
Kuwai t ,
of
and
offers
agenda-setting
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thi s
thesis
r es e a r c h e r
Third
t he
result
of
t he
t o add new knowledge t o t he
World
gui dance
is
and t he
and
gratitude
enthusiastic
encouragement
also
to
ar e
Professor
combined d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of
t he
st udy o f mass communicat ion i n t he
supervision
highly
of
Mr.
appreciated.
James H a l l o r a n ,
t he
Pet e r
Gol di ng
There
is
Director
of
whose
a debt
t he
of
C.M.C.R.
whose d e v o t i o n f o r media r es e ar ch i n d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s and care f o r t h e i r
s t ud e n t s
helped t owards t he
s uc c e s s f ul
conclusion of t h i s
Heartman has guided me t o t he p r o pe r met hodology o f t h i s
work.
Dr.
Paul
t h e s i s and g r a t i
tude i s a l s o due t o him.
Thanks a l s o t o t he
part
of
University
my academic r e s e a r c h ,
o f Uni t ed Arab Emi r at es
particularly
to
Dr.
for
Jeehan
Rusht y,
Chairman o f t he Department o f Mass Communication a t t he U. A.E.
and Dean o f
t he
p r e s e n t t i me .
d ifficu ltie s
of
Mass Communication a t
f or mer
University,
Cai r o U n i v e r s i t y
a t t he
She has admired my work and encouraged me t o c h a l l e n g e a l l
a c ad e m i c a l l y and f i n a n c i a l l y .
Thanks
U. A.E.
Faculty
s ponsor i ng
are
also
Parliament,
due t o
t he
Mr.
f ou nde r
Taryam Omran,
of
t he
t he f or mer Speaker o f t he
prestigious
newspaper
Kha l e ej o f U.A.E.
( I am c u r r e n t l y
Arab b r o t h e r " and
as a f r i e n d i n need h i s s uppor t i s h i g h l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
It
dat a
would be i mp o s s i b l e t o
collection
in
Kuwai t .
name a l l
However,
Shaikh Sa' d AL- Abdul l ah AL-Sabah,
o f Kuwai t ,
for
r e c e i v i n g me i n
Musl im Holy month)
am i n de bt ed
Mudar i s,
t oo
1986 and f o r
to
his
t he
London o f f i c e ) .
t hose who f a c i l i t a t e d
my
gratitu de
goes
to
t he t a s k o f
His
Highness
Crown Pr i n c e and t he Prime M i n i s t e r
pa l a c e ,
Mr.
A1 -
As "an
Kaser AL- Bahr ,
i n Ramadam ( t h e
h i s a d m i r a t i o n o f t he i dea o f my s t ud y .
A 1 i - A L - F a i 1i ,
i n Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y ,
i n charge o f i t s
daily
Mohammad
A L - As f ou r ,
t o Mohammed Eisa A L - Kh a d i r i
Mr.
Badr
I
AL-
i n t he M i n i s t r y
o f For ei gn A f f a i r s
and t o Anbar Mai A l l a h ,
t he Kuwai t i
C u l t u r a l At taché in
Dubai.
Among j o u r n a l i s t s
For
exampl e,
AL-Sayasah,
A L- Naj a r ,
one
must
Yahya
Ali
i n Kuwai t some c o l l e a g u e s were o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e .
remember
Hamza
t he
Mohammad
Managing
Zein
Editor
and
of
Sameer
AL-Anba,
Yassi n
Dr.
from
Ghanim
Hashem and Mohammad Dulbah f rom AL-Watan and Mohammad Zayed
from A L - T a l i a .
Finally,
a g r e a t woman.
it
is true that
My w i f e ,
behi nd any g r e a t achievement t h e r e i s
i n my case,
has proved t he g r e a t e s t .
always
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
1
Chapter I I
THE AGENDA-SETTING OF THE MEDIA ; THEORYAND RESEARCH
8
A.
Ch ap ter I I I
THE AGENDA-SETTING FUNCTION OF THE PRESS
E a r l y Research F i n d i n g s o f Ag e n d a - Se t t i n g
S c r u t i n i z i n g t he A g e n d a - S e t t i n g Model
C o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n and O p e r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n
o f t he A g e n d a - Se t t i n g
Audience Agenda Models
I n t e r - m e d i a Agenda
Conceptual For mat i on o f A g e n d a - S e t t i n g
Rel at ed Approaches t o Ag e n d a - Se t t i n g
29
31
37
38
40
B.
BEYOND AGENDA-SETTING: THE SEARCH FOR AGNDA BUILDERS
The I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t and S t r u c t u r a l i s t Approach
The P l u r a l i s t i c Approach
Media and Pr essur e Groups
48
49
60
70
C.
APPLICATION TO,THIRD WORLD MEDIA
75
Summary
83
THE RESEARCH SETTING
The T r i b a l Foundat i on o f Kuwai t
The D i v i s i o n o f Labour i n T r i b a l Kuwai t
The Superpowers S t r u g g l e
The B r i t i s h i n Kuwai t
Kuwai t Development Between t he Two Wars
S ocio -P o litic a l Structure
A1-Sabah : The R u l i n g Fami l y
The Merchants
The Emergent Power : The N a t i o n a l i s t s
The Bedouin
Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n o f K u w a i t ' s P a t r i a r c h a l System
t o I n s t i t u t i o n a l Monarchy
The E x t er n a l F a c t or
The I n t e r n a l F a c t or
The N a t i on a l Assembly
The I n s t i t u t i o n a l and B u r e a u c r a t i c System i n Kuwai t :
"The Government O f f i c i a l s "
The Rul er o f t he S t a t e (The Ami r)
The Cabi net ( E x e c u t i v e )
Bureaucracy and Dvelopment S t r a t e g y
The J o u r n a l i s t s
9
14
23
84
86
88
93
96
100
107
109
115
122
128
130
132
134
135
145
.. 149
151
153
162
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Chapter IV
Chapter V
Chapter VI
THE KUWAITI PRESS ; STRUCTURE ANDCONTEXT
177
The Arab Press
E a r l y Foundat i on o f t he Kuwai t i Press
Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n
The D a i l y Press
The F unc t i o n o f t he Ku w a i t i Press
Government and t he Press : Quest f o r Power
The Press ver sus t he Government
A Test o f Power
Press V i c t o r y - A High P r i c e
Legal Pr o s e c u t i o n
The J u d i c i a l A u t h o r i t y and t he Press
177
180
181
195
200
203
205
208
217
222
230
THEORETICAL GENERALISATIONS, HYPOTHESES AND METHODOLOGY
235
Research Hypotheses
Ag e n d a - S e t t i n g Hypotheses
The F i r s t Hypot hes i s
The Second Hypot hesi s
The T h i r d Hypot hesi s
Beyond A g e n d a - Se t t i n g Hypot hes i s
The Four t h Hypot hesi s
The F i f t h Hypot hesi s
Methods and Research Design
The S a l i e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
Research Samples
I ssues Appear i ng i n t he Press Sample
a. I ssues Rel at ed t o Arab Un i t y
b. I ssues Rel at ed t o A r a b - I s r a e l i C o n f l i c t
c.
I ssues Rel at ed t o t he S e c u r i t y o f Kuwai t
d.
I ssues Rel at ed t o t he I r a n - I r a q War
e.
I ssues Rel at ed t o t he Cr i ses i n Oi l Pr i c e s
f.
I ssues Rel at ed t o Oi l Wealth
g . I ssues Rel at ed t o T e r r o r i s m
h. I ssues Rel at ed t o t he R e l a t i o n s h i p between
t he Government and P a r l i a me n t
i . I ssues Rel at ed t o t he Freedomo f t he Press
The I n t e r v i e w Pr ot o c o l
A d m i n i s t e r i n g t he Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o t he J o u r n a l i s t s
A d m i n i s t e r i n g t he Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o Government O f f i c i a l s
Summary
247
248
248
249
250
250
251
252
253
254
259
262
262
263
264
266
267
267
268
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
275
Sample C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
T e s t i n g t he Hypotheses
Hypot hesi s N o . l
Hypot hesi s No. 2
Hypot hesi s No. 3
Hypot hesi s No. 4
Hypot hesi s No. 5
Analysis of A t t i t u d e s
R e p o r t i ng A t t i t u d i n a l R e s u l t s
275
286
288
290
291
269
269
270
271
272
273
292
295
297
305
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Chapter VI
Chap ter V I I
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Government O f f i c i a l s : A t t i t u d i n a l Re sul t s
J o u r n a l i s t s A t t i t u d i n a l Findings
A t t i t u d i n a l F i n d i n g s o f Press Cont ent
I ssues o f I mpor t ance
A d d i t i o n a l F i n d i n g s o f Import ance
306
312
319
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
366
REFERENCES
393
328
329
APPENDICES
I.
II.
II.
III.
V.
The
The
The
The
The
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e and General Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( A r a b i c )
Ques t i onnai re
General Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
I n t e r v i e w P r ot o c o l
P i l o t Study
407
428
446
449
453
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
3.1
3. 2
3. 3
3. 4
4.1
Tabl e 4. 2
Tabl e 4. 3
Tabl e 4. 4
Tabl e 5.1
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
Tabl e
5. 2
5. 3
6.1
6. 2
6. 3
6. 4
6. 5
6. 6
6.7
Tabl e 6.8
Tabl e 6. 9
Tabl e 6.10
Tabl e 6.11
Tabl e 6.12
Tabl e 6.13
Tabl e 6. 14
Tabl e 6. 15
Tabl e 6. 16
Tabl e 6. 17
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t he P e a r l i n g Crew' s Income
A1-Sabah Li ne o f Successi on
The Cabi net Composi t i on f rom January 1962 t o March 1985
Labour Force i n t he Mass Media by N a t i o n a l i t y
Kuwai t Papers and Magazines p u b l i s h e d between 1950-1988
Chronologically lis te d
P u b l i c a t i o n s Suspended i n Kuwai t 1976-1982, i n c l u d i n g
Cause, Date and Per i od o f Suspension
Readershi p o f t he Ku w a i t i D a i l y Newspapers i n 1985
Kuwai t D a i l y Newspapers, Est i mat ed C i r c u l a t i o n and
Predomi nant O r i e n t a t i o n
The F i f t y Issues L i s t e d Ac c o r d i n g t o t he Nine Ca t e go r i es
i n t o which t hey f a l l
R o t a t i o n Method f o r S e l e c t i o n o f Newspaper Samples
Arab P o p u l a t i o n by N a t i o n a l i t y i n Kuwai t
Occupat i onal Level s Amongst O f f i c i a l s
Occupat i onal Level s Amongst J o u r n a l i s t s
Educat i on Lev el s Amongst O f f i c i a l s
Educat i on Level s Amongst J o u r n a l i s t s
Level o f Readershi p Amongst O f f i c i a l s
Level o f Readershi p Amongst J o u r n a l i s t s
O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s ' React i ons t o t he J o u r n a l i s t s
Incl us io n of t h e i r Convictions in t h e i r Writings
O f f i c i a l s Reasons and Degree o f I mpor t ance Given f o r
J o u r n a l i s t s Not I n c l u d i n g t h e i r C o n v i c t i o n s
in t h e ir Writings
Reasons and Degree o f I mpor t ance Ci t e d by J o u r n a l i s t s
f o r Not I n c l u d i n g t h e i r C o n v i c t i o n s i n t h e i r W r i t i n g s
Number and Percent age o f O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s
who Agree and Di sagr ee on t he Role o f T r a d i t i o n s
i n Modern L i f e
Number o f Responses Showing Co ns e r v at i v e or L i b e r a l
P o s i t i o n s o f O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s on t he Role
o f T r a d i t i o n s i n Modern L i f e
No. o f Responses Connot i ng Co n s e r v a t i v e or L i b e r a l
o f T r a d i t i o n s i n Modern L i f e
An o v e r a l l Press Index w i t h O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s
r a t i n g s and Spearman Rank Order C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t
based on Press Coverage S a l i e n c e o f t he I s s ues .
An o v e r a l l Press Index and Government O f f i c i a l s Rat i ngs
o f t he I ssues w i t h t he Spearman Rank Order C o r r e l a t i o n
C o e f f i c i e n t based on Press Coverage S a l i e n c e o f t he I s s ue s .
An o v e r a l l Government O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s Rat i ngs
o f t he I ssues w i t h t he Spearman Rank Order C o r r e l a t i o n
C o e f f i c i e n t based on Press Coverage S a l i e n c e o f t he I s s ue s .
An o v e r a l l Press Index and J o u r n a l i s t s Rat i ngs o f t he
I ssues w i t h t he Spearman Rank Order C o r r e l a t i o n
C o e f f i c i e n t based on Press Coverage S a l i e n c e o f t he I s s ues .
Aggregat e P r o p o r t i o n a l o f O f f i c i a l s i n Each A t t i t u d i n a l
Category on O v e r al l Issues
102
110
152
163
182
191
199
200
257
262
265
276
277
277
277
278
278
280
281
282
284
285
287
333
336
339
342
345
LIST OF TABLES ( c o n t i n u e d )
Page
Tabl e 6.18
Tabl e 6. 19
Tabl e 6. 20
Tabl e 6.21
Tabl e 6. 22
Tabl e 6. 23
Tabl e 6.24
Tabl e 6.25
Tabl e 6. 26
Aggregat e P r o p o r t i o n a l o f J o u r n a l i s t s i n Each
A t t i t u d i n a l Category on O v e r al l I ssues
Co n s e r v a t i v e O f f i c i a l s I n d i c a t i n g T h e i r A t t i t u d e s on
t he Co n s e r v a t i v e
Aspects o f t he I ssues
L i b e r a l O f f i c i a l s I n d i c a t i n g T h e i r A t t i t u d e s on t he
Liberal
Aspect s o f t he I ssues
Co n s e r v a t i v e J o u r n a l i s t s I n d i c a t i n g T h e i r A t t i t u d e s on
t he C o n s e r v a t i v e
Aspects o f t he I ssues
L i b e r a l J o u r n a l i s t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r A t t i t u d e s on t he
Liberal
Aspect s o f t he I ssues
The Press Scores I n d i c a t i n g Co n s e r v a t i v e A t t i t u d e s as
have been found i n t he Press Coverage
The Press Scores I n d i c a t i n g L i b e r a l A t t i t u d e s as have
been found i n t he Press Coverage
P o s i t i v e Pearson C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t between O f f i c i a l s
and J o u r n a l i s t s
Rat i ngs on Each Aspect o f t he I ssues
Negat i ve Pearson C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t between O f f i c i a l s
and J o u r n a l i s t s
Rat i ngs on Each Aspect o f t he I ssues
346
347
349
350
352
353
354
355
360
LIST OF FIG URES
Page
Fig.
2. 1
The Concept o f Time-Frame i n A g e n d a - S e t t i n g
31
Fig.
2. 2
The C o - O r i e n t a t i o n Measurement
35
Fi g.
2. 3
The Ag e n d a - Se t t i n g Model
36
Fig.
2. 4
Model o f Mass Communication
44
Model
LIST OF CHARTS
Page
Char t 3.1
Char t 6. 1
Re o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t he Government o f Kuwai t , as o f
January 1963
The O r g a n i s a t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e o f t he St at e o f Kuwai t ,
as o f November 1983
O f f i c i a l s A t t i t u d e s on C o n s e r v a t i v e / L i b e r a l Dichotomy
Char t 6. 2
J o u r n a l i s t s A t t i t u d e s on C o n s e r v a t i v e / L i b e r a l
Char t 3. 2
Dichotomy
156
158
301
301
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The work o f Shaw and McCombs (1972) has i n t r o d u c e d a concept i n t o mass
communicat ion r es ear c h known as t he " a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f t he p r e s s . "
Al t hough t he e f f e c t o f t he media i n changi ng p e o p l e ' s be ha v i ou r ( e s p e c i a l l y
during e l e c to r a l
at ed
by
i deas
interpersonal
and t o
lished.
influence,
influence
Shaw and
d ifferential
t he
campaigns and v o t i n g )
t he
cognitions
McCombs
was found t o be i n d i r e c t and medi
have
a b ility
of
(Klapper,
provided
t he media t o
1960)
dat a
di ss e mi n a t e
has been f i r m l y
which
indicated
estab
that
t he
emphasis gi ven by t he media t o c e r t a i n i s sues cor r esponds w i t h
differential
concern
of
t he
and emphasi zi ng
t hese
that
debates),
t he media d e f i n e f o r t he audi ence t he d i f f e r e n t i a l
Consequent l y,
certain
issues.
concl uded
t hese i s s u e s .
by exposi ng
audi ence w i t h
t he media ar e sai d
to
i s s u es
s et
t he
Hence i t
(e.g.
was
electio n
i mpor t ance o f
agenda f o r
t he
public.
" The e x p e c t a t i o n was t h a t t he debat es, t hr ough t h e i r emphasis on
some campaign i s s ues t o t he e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r s , would a f f e c t t he
s a l i e n c e r a t i o s o f t hese s e l e c t e d i ssues r e l a t i v e t o s a l i e n c e
r a t i o s o f i s sues not addressed i n t he debates"
( Ca d z i a l a and Becker, 1983, pl 22)
The work o f McCombs and Shaw has,
effects
tent
and p a r t i a l l y
as
previously
restored
believed.
thus,
t he b e l i e f
Numerous
revitalised
that
re s e a rc h on media
t he media are not as impo
studies
have
cons eq ue nt l y
been
under t aken t o uncover t he v a r i o u s di mensi ons and aspect s o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
For
example,
extent
t he
t he
media
discussion
s et
t he
came t o
agenda
include
for
such
p o litica l
questions
elites?
as:
(Gormley,
To what
1975);
What are t he d i f f e r e n c e s between v a r i o u s media i mpact s i n t erms o f agendasetting?
(Benton
and F r a z i e r ,
1976);
-
What
1 -
is
t he
difference
between t he
influence
1982);
of
national
What
are
and
t he
local
media
differences
agendas?
between
(Pal mgreen,
t he
1977;
television
and
Gandy,
newspaper
agendas? ( F e d l er and T a y l o r ,
1978);
What i s t he t i me l ag f a c t o r i n agenda-
setting
1981);
and t o what e x t e n t
(Stone
and McCombs,
one medium i n f l u e n c e t hose o f o t h e r media? ( A t w a t e r ,
One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
it
of
has been e x c l u s i v e l y
especially
tions
its
Ameri can.
Presidential
on t he
g l ob a l
characteristic
is
t he e a r l y
that
early
of
t he
been
agenda f o r
media.
gener al
satisfaction
t he p u b l i c
without
is
that
agenda-setting
was
limited
lim ita
h y p o t he s i s .
in
scope
Anot her
in
that
t he
cor r espondence between t he media agenda and
t he p u b l i c agenda a t a gi ven p o i n t
have
agenda-setting
has seemi ngl y imposed c e r t a i n
r es e ar c h
emphasis was on t he degree o f
into
a l . , 1987).
The uniqueness o f t he American system,
debat es,
r el ev a n c e
r esear ch
et
does t he agenda o f
i n t i me .
with
t he
enquiring
In o t h e r words,
notion
into
that
who set s
t h e r e seems t o
t he media
set
t he
t he agenda f o r
t he
Consequent l y, t h e r e were demands t o go beyond a g e n d a - s e t t i n g and t o
examine t he c o n d i t i o n s
under which c e r t a i n
t he media. Gandy, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
i ssues and not o t h e r s appear i n
states t h a t :
"Because McCombs and hi s c ol l e a g u e s want t o l i m i t t he agendas e t t i n g c o n s t r u c t t o m a t t e r s o f i s s u e s a l i e n c e , I suggest t h a t
one has t o go beyond a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t o det er mi ne who set s t he
media agenda, how and f o r what purpose i t i s s e t , and w i t h what
i mpact on t he d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power and val ues i n s o c i e t y " .
(Gandy, 1982, p . 7 . )
The
introduction
researchers'
or
attention
in stitutions
demands.
of
t he
" beyond
agenda-setting"
no ti on
directed
t o v i e w i n g and a n a l y s i n g t he media as o r g a n i s a t i o n s
subject to in te r n a l
constraints
and e x t e r n a l
pr es sur es and
The n a i v e t y w i t h which t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g concept was i n t r o d u c e d
viewed
t he
media as
tia lly
ûj
gener i s .
i n dependent ,
Thi s
notion
self
of
s us t a i ne d
totally
- 2 -
systems which
independent
are
media
essen
was
then
en r i c h e d by i n t r o d u c i n g an o r i e n t a t i o n which not o n l y showed t he c o r r e s p o n
dence between t he media agenda and t he p u b l i c
r o l e which c e r t a i n groups and i n s t i t u t i o n s
ists
as w e l l
vitch,
1975,
which
to
t he
1977,
1969).
1986; M i l i b a n d ,
evol ved
t he
beyond
po litica l,
operate.
In
ascertained
and
t he
thesis
(Murdock
1975,
is
and
1982;
of
within
t he
B ritish
Gol d i n g ,
Gol d i n g ,
1977;
Gol di ng
and
E llio tt,
Murdock and S c h l e s i n g e r ,
1986;
1977 and 1986 and t he Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y Media
a valuable
than one sense.
society
which t r i e s
and,
to f i n d
wo r l d c o u n t r y .
First
so f a r
of a l l ,
as t he
parallels
The g l ob a l
contribution
it
to
studies
c an d i da t e
most
o f t he
societie s,
Secondl y,
positio n
it
contribute
to
t he
in question
agenda-setting in
it
is
t he
a tra d i
on l y
st udy
a third
r ese ar c h
has
Thi s i s e s p e c i a l l y so s i n c e
been
conducted i n
Western
i n t he Un i t ed S t a t e s .
t he
gener al
no ti on
that,
by v i r t u e
s t r u c t u r e o f a d e v e l op i ng s o c i e t y ,
agenda-setting
of
t he
press
in
ways
of
different
their
groups
commensurate w i t h
i n t e r e s t s and r e l a t e d t o t he e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n c i e s .
sense,
necessarily
t he press agenda i s
set
addressing c e r t a i n
in
r el ev a n c e o f t h i s phenomenon i s enhanced when i t
entertains
i n t he s o c i a l
field
o f t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g phenomenon i n
agenda-setting
particularly
t he
knows,
is studied in d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t ie s .
this
pertinence
context
1976 and 1980).
Thi s
their
cultural
in s titu
Gol di ng and M i d d l e t o n ,
lite rature
was a c c o r d i n g l y
between t he media and t he o t h e r s o c i a l
1979;
tional
attention
has been
was
more
r eg a r d ,
( Bl u m l e r and Gure-
which f o r many year s
tions
Bl u ml er and G u r e v i t c h ,
economic
this
communicat ion r ese ar ch
exami ni ng t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
Group,
agenda-setting,
social,
showed t he
pl ay i n i n f l u e n c i n g t he j o u r n a l
t o which t hey bel ong
media
political
but a l s o
as t he o r g a n i s a t i o n s
As t h i n k i n g
directed
agenda,
exclusively
by
not s et i n a vacuum.
t he
i ss u es j o u r n a l i s t s
journalists.
Likewise,
That
is to
it
In
is
not
say,
in
may be e x p r es s i ng t he views o f o t h e r
- 3 -
groups,
such as government
o fficia ls
or
t he
rulers
t hems el v es,
and,
in a
sense, t hey advocate t h e i r cause.
Thirdly,
pl ayed
and more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
by d i f f e r e n t
groups
examines t he degree o f
prevalent
i ssues
servative.
It
officia ls
sim ilarity
and t hose o f
journalists
Hence t he t h e s i s
lim ited
who s et
set s
settin gs,
out
thesis
tries
t he agenda f o r
between t he a t t i t u d e s
relation
to
prevalent
to
corroborate
a theory,
it
It
who are g e n e r a l l y
in
by a p p l y i n g
pr e s s .
t aken by t he press on
government o f f i c i a l s
sim ilarity
t o uncover t he r o l e
t he K uwai t i
between a t t i t u d e s
a l s o examines t he
and
this
i s sues
in
hitherto
con
o f both
t he
pr es s .
devel oped
t o an i n t e r e s t e d
and r a d i c a l l y
with
state
in
different
setting.
Such an approach i s
r es e a r c h .
of agenda-setting
between t he press and t he p u b l i c
agenda.
Hence t he e x p l o r a t i o n o f some o f
t he di mensi ons o f t he agenda o f
t he
that
not s u f f i c i e n t ,
t he c u r r e n t
t o show t he o v e r a l l
is
is
line
however,
point
It
in
t he
press
agendas are set by ( i . e .
contains
offers
that
its
a most
trad ition a lly
its
active
liberal
in to
suita ble
government
more
is
than
st udy
one
agenda,
has been conducted
r ese ar c h
and t he Royal
The gener al
and
that
t hese
setting.
The most
i n Kuwai t because
obvi ous
Fami l y on whose b e h a l f
it
reason
rules
is
have a
c o n s e r v a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n which i s j u x t a p o s e d over and a g a i n s t
social
gr oups.
One o f
t hes e groups
is
t he
nationalists
whose
o r i e n t a t i o n and a g i t a t i o n s f o r change have i n f l u e n c e d modern Kuwai t
becoming a c o u n t r y
e n j o y i n g one o f t he
a most f a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t i o n a l w e a l t h .
merchant
not m o n o l i t h i c .
c o r r e l a t e w i t h t he agendas o f ) d i f f e r e n t groups.
The a p p l i e d aspect o f t he
it
press
correla tio ns
group
which
exploitation
of
building
up
t he
national
and
o il,
has
and
we al t h
of
in te rna tiona l
existed
which
f rom
has
Kuwai t
h i g h e s t per c a p i t a income and
Also,
l ong
be f o r e t he
contributed
in
i n v e s t me n t
- 4 -
t he
t he
t h e r e i s an i n f l u e n t i a l
in
form o f
total
discovery
significant
an annual
o f which
ways
income
in
and
1985
to
from
was
$13,456 m i l l i o n ,
1986.
The
whi ch,
a l t h ou gh
comparing f a v o u r a b l y w i t h o i l
relationship
privately
ernment p o s i t i o n s ,
a
generally
division
emerged
between
owned,
groups
not o n l y
is
reflected
incorporates
labour
throughout
disposition.
between
t he
t he
yea r s
It
seems
journalists
which
is
and
in
that
in
in
press
gov
even as t h i s
a
is
socio-political
government
reflected
t he
and advocates
but a l s o y i e l d s t o government i n f l u e n c e ,
conservative
of
t hese
revenue o f $9,480 m i l l i o n
o fficia ls
their
has
differential
i n f l u e n c e on t he pr es s .
The e m p i r i c a l
May,
1986.
After
dat a f o r
this
a
pilo t
st udy
pr e s s ,
a q u e s t i o n n a i r e and an i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l were
i ss ues i n t he K uwai t i
produced
and
o fficia ls.
c o n t en t
a d mi n i s t er ed
analysis.
this
t he
or
in
samples
i s s ues
manner.
that
it
tory
one.
Chapter
agenda-setting
r ev i ew ,
is
and
sever al
II
into
refle ct
points
it
limited
notion
media
to
t he
(i.e.
si mpl e
is
have
shown t h a t ,
t he media agenda)
t he
that
s et
shows
attention
that
was
as
t he
directed
t he
correlate
agenda-setting
to
its
t he
conservative
includin g
been
u n de r l ay
agenda f o r
views
this
devel oped.
Though e a r l y
of
t he
on t he whol e,
Based
in
in
a rank
order
concept
gai ned
on
t he
agenda-
was s ha l l o w and
i ssues which were p o r t r a y e d
me t h o d o l o g i c a l
- 5 -
it
introduc
i n which t he
r esear ch
which occupi ed t he t h i n k i n g and a t t e n t i o n o f t he p u b l i c .
s i on
which
a
news.
emphasised.
s e t t i n g was p l e n t i f u l ,
officia ls
s t at ement s
in e ith e r
r e v i ew o f t he l i t e r a t u r e
concepts
are
prevalent
government
50 b i - p o l a r
h y p o t he s i s
seven c ha p t er s ,
compri ses t he
related
and
respondent coul d r e a c t
government
mi ght
divided
of
The o v e r a l l
regime and gi ve more emphasis f o r i t s
Thi s t h e s i s
ascertain
journalists
c on s i s t e d
t o which t he
a way t h a t
of
to
between January and
a sample o f newspapers was a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o
was con s eq ue nt l y
press
under t aken
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e
a conservative
st udy
was
two
At t he same t i me ,
representing f i f t y
libera l
to
st udy were c o l l e c t e d
with
t he
Further,
wi d e r
and t h e o r e t i c a l
i n t he
i s s ues
discus
circulation,
di mensi ons.
At t h i s
juncture,
o f t he media,
attention
is directed
namely who set s
t he media agenda.
cus s i on shows t h a t t he B r i t i s h
cal
framework w i t h i n
how
t he
which t he
examines
media
t he
agenda
pertinence
q u e s t i o n which n a t u r a l l y
socio-political
r eg a r d,
t he d i s
s oci o- ec onomi c and p o l i t i c a l
forces
or
many i n s i g h t s
is
of
In t h i s
l i t e r a t u r e on t he s u b j e c t o f f e r s an a n a l y t i
upon t he media as c o r p o r a t i o n s
into
beyond t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n
social
institutions
established.
agenda-setting
to
offer
And,
fin a lly.
Third
World
acting
Chapter
countries
II
-
a
l eads t o t he f o l l o w i n g c h a p t er which examines t he
organisations
within
which
t he media agenda
in
Kuwai t
is
e s t a b l i shed.
Chapter
setting.
It
III
is
is
labour
spelled
out.
which was
Particular
necessitated
social
to
define
gr oups,
t he
namely t he
and t he Bedouins,
opment o f t he Kuwai t i
press
p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t he Ku w a i t i
presentation i t
a traditional
go v er n i ng
Ruling
t he
F a mi l y,
characteristics
is
also
t he r esear ch
origin s to
directed
t o t he
socio-historical
event s
structural
analysis is
t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
mer chants,
t he
among
nationalists
Thi s l a s t has been j u s t i f i e d
o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
traced,
socio-political
authority
as
extension
heavily
s o c i a l dynamics
is
especially
spect rum.
in
of
influenced
s et
bl ends w i t h
The d e v e l
relation
to
its
such as Kuwai t ,
emerging mod e r n i s t
in s titu
t he media agenda, and j o u r n a l i s t s f u n c t i o n
new s o c i a l groups
by t he
in
On t he ba s i s o f t h i s
was p o s i t e d t h a t i n a T h i r d World c o u n t r y ,
tions,
an
attention
A social
group i n Chapter I I I .
terms o f t he common s o c i a l
which
with
al ong w i t h t he j o u r n a l i s t s who were t r e a t e d f o r r es ear ch
purposes as a s o c i a l
in
r eader
by t he
which l ed t o t he emergence o f t he c o u n t r y .
pr esent ed
t he
The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t he c o u n t r y f r om i t s t r i b a l
t he p r e s en t t i me
of
to acquainting
t r a c e s t he devel opment o f modern Kuwai t and t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f i t s media.
division
devot ed
dominant
in
t r a d itio n a l society.
i deol ogy
sponsored
e l i t e s and o p e r a t i o n a l i s e d by government o f f i c i a l s
- 6 -
by t he
They
are
traditional
in pu bl ic p o li c y .
On t he ba s i s
sented
in
of
Chapter
such a n a l y s i s ,
V.
The
five
hypotheses were devi sed and p r e
expectation
was
that
c o r r e l a t i o n would be found between t he o f f i c i a l s
well
as between t he
o fficia ls
and t he
a
significant
positive
and t he press agendas, as
journalists'
agendas.
It
was a l s o
expect ed t h a t t h e r e would be a c o r r e l a t i o n between t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
press agendas.
issues,
tive
it
Sim ilarly,
i n f l u e n c e d by sample t e s t i n g o f a t t i t u d e s on t he
was expect ed t h a t
attitudes
t aken
between o f f i c i a l s
by
and t he
t h e r e would be a s i m i l a r i t y
t he
o fficia ls
and t he pr e s s .
and desi gn o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
and
t he
i n t he c o n s e r v a
journalists,
well
as
Chapter V a l s o di s c uss e s t he methodology
devel oped on t he b a si s o f
det er mi ne t he p r e v a l e n t press i s s u e s .
a pilot
st udy t o
The c h a pt er a l s o i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s
s i on o f t he r o t a t i n g s y s t e m a t i c sample o f t h r e e Ku w a i t i
a span o f f i v e months as w e l l
as
newspapers c o v e r i n g
as o f t he c o n t en t a n a l y s i s o f i s s ues appear
i n g i n t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
Chapter
analysis,
VI
t he
contains
t he
questionnaire
r es e ar c h
and
t he
findings.
interviews
Data
were
f rom
rank
t he
c o n t en t
or d e r e d ,
and
a
Spearman rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i n g c o - e f f i c i e n t was c a l c u l a t e d f o r each s et o f
d a t a.
The f i v e hypot heses were found t o be s u b s t a n t i a t e d .
Chapter VI a l s o
c o n t a i n s a p r e s e n t a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t he demographic
socio
economic dat a c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t he p a r t i c i p a n t s .
Finally,
found t h a t
t he
in
Chapter V I I ,
t he r e s u l t s
pr e s s ,
like
other
t he c on c l u s i o n s
of t h i s
media,
st udy
is
are
subject
i n f l u e n c e t he way i n which j o u r n a l i s t s
on t he
that
on
basi s
of
certain
some groups
The press i s
in
t he
findin gs
issues,
t he
in
this
journalists
society;
such
are p r e s en t e d.
consistent
to
certain
address t he
st ud y ,
are
as,
in
not
our
it
is
case,
is influenced.
- 7 -
t he
has been
notion
undercurrents
i ss ues
not
affected
shown t o be i n t e r - d e p e n d e n t w i t h o t h e r
both a f f e c t s and by which i t
with
It
at
hand.
that
which
Thus,
possible to state
by
influences
government
from
officia ls.
in stitutions
which i t
CHAPTER I I
THE AGENDA-SETTING OF THE MEDIA:
THEORY AND RESEARCH
Thi s c h a pt er
is
divided
into
three
and r es ear c h o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g w i l l
definition
of
agenda
care
setting
v a r i a b l e s and di mens i ons .
t he
including
agenda-setting
be
gi v en
of
Speci al
pr esent ed
will
function
to
approaches p a r t i c u l a r l y
In t he f i r s t
be r evi ewed,
t he
media
including
and
conceptualise
t he work o f
model.
parts.
t he
and
part,
t he
part
will
t hose o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h ,
findings.
operationalise
therefore,
some r es e a r c h e r s who tended t o
Thi s
concept ual
r es ear ch
The r e l e v a n t model s,
eventually
theory
agendawill
scrutinise
include
or r e l a t e d t o ,
be
some
t he agenda-
s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f t he media.
In t he second p a r t ,
t he concept o f agenda b u i l d e r s w i l l
u t i l i s i n g t he r e l ev a n c y o f t he B r i t i s h
trend
of
r es ear ch
t he
emphases
s oc i o- economi c and p o l i t i c a l
role
of
agenda-building.
gi ven
acting
to
t he
in vestig ation
in stitu tion s
In t h i s
of
t he
upon t he media and p l a y i n g t he
The dynamics go v er n i ng t he
t he media and o t h e r p o l i t i c a l
sectors w i l l
r esear ch t o a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
were
forces
be h i g h l i g h t e d
and o t h e r
interactions
in fluential
between
cultural
be pr esent ed as a d e p a r t u r e f rom t he concept o f p u b l i c agenda
dominated by t he myopic assumpt i on t h a t
t he media
set
t he
agenda f o r
t he
p u b l i c w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i n g t he f o r c e s which set t he agenda f o r t he media.
The d i s c u s s i o n
w ill
be dominated
by
two main
- t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t s and t he p l u r a l i s t s ,
British
school s
of
inquiry
al ong w i t h t he vocal media group i n
Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y .
The t h i r d
part w i l l
i n t i m a t e t he c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n which t he agen
d a - s e t t i n g i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s
include
some s c h o l a r l y
and methods.
s u g ge s t i on s
c oul d be f r u i t f u l l y
for
appropriate
examined.
directions
of
It
w ill
research
A.
THE AGENDA-SETTING FUNCTION OF THE PRESS
From t he most p r i m i t i v e
t o t he most complex s o c i e t i e s ,
i s c on s i d er ed t o be t he c a r r i e r o f t he s o c i a l
means
of
establishin g,
organising
and
pas si ng on val ues and meanings f rom
social
process r e l i e s
Knowledge,
communicat ion ( Pet e r s o n,
cont emporary
p a r t o f t he s o c i a l
di sseminat e
b e ha v i ou r
serve
is
pr ocess .
specific
as
it
direct
functions
i n t u r n depends,
mass
It
man's s o c i a l
communicat ion
now known
as was
in
that
once
exchange,
life
and
Thus,
t he
and t r a n s
to a large ext ent,
upon
1965, p . 18).
permeates s o c i a l
is
i s an e s s e n t i a l
one g e n e r at i o n t o a n o t he r .
Jensen and R i v e r s ,
society,
information,
not
modifying
It
p r o f o u n d l y on t he a c c u m u l at i o n ,
mi s s i on o f knowledge.
In
pr ocess.
communicat ion
has
life .
an
in tegral
Al t hough t he media
their
believed.
cont empor ar y
become
capacity
Thi s means
society.
to
change
that
t hey
For example,
in
hi s
book The E f f e c t s o f Mass Communi cat i on, Kl apper i n t r o d u c e d two c o n c l u s i o n s
r e g a r d i n g t he e f f e c t s o f mass communi cat i on.
They are as f o l l o w s :
1.
Mass communicat ion o r d i n a r i l y does not serve as a necessary and s u f f i
c i e n t cause o f audi ence e f f e c t s but r a t h e r f u n c t i o n s among and t hr ough
a nexus o f me d i a t i n g f a c t o r s and i n f l u e n c e s .
2.
These me d i a t i n g f a c t o r s are such t h a t t hey t y p i c a l l y r en de r mass
communicat ion a c o n t r i b u t o r y ag en t , but not t he sol e cause i n a p r o
cess o f r e i n f o r c i n g t he e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
( K l a p p e r , 1960, p . 8)
Al t hough t he e f f e c t s
information
and
ideas.
o f t he media are not d i r e c t ,
Thi s
point
has
been
t he media do i m p a r t
treated
in
recent
r esear c h
which examines t he assumpt i on t h a t peopl e do l e a r n f rom mass communi cat i on.
It
i s concl uded t h a t
information
about
"mass communi cat i on does not o n l y a l l o w peopl e t o gai n
public
affairs
and what
is
happening
in
t he w o r l d ,
a l s o t o l e a r n how much i mpor t ance t o a t t a c h t o an i s s ue or t o p i c
emphasis pl aced on i t
e n t l y by Cohen,
by t he mass media"
(McCombs, 1977, p . 5 ) .
" t h e mass media may not be s u c c e ss f ul
- 9 -
but
f rom t he
Put d i f f e r
i n t e l l i n g us what t o
think,
but
about"
(Cohen,
The
UNESCO.
t hey
are
s t u n n i n g l y s u c c e s s f ul
in
telling
us
what
to
thin k
1963, p . 13).
learning
function
Acc or di ng t o
of
t he
media
has
also
been
treated
by
t he UNESCO, t he e i g h t main f u n c t i o n s o f mass
c a t i o n media i n any s o c i a l
t he
communi
system may be i d e n t i f i e d as f o l l o w s :
1.
Information:
Thi s f u n c t i o n i s d e f i n e d as t he g a t h e r i n g , p r oc e s s i ng
and d i s s e m i n a t i n g o f news, or o t h e r ki nds o f messages, i n o r d e r " t o
under st and
and r e a c t
knowl edgeabl y
to personal,
environmental,
n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s , as we l l as t o be i n a p o s i t i o n
t o t ak e a p p r o p r i a t e d e c i s i o n s . "
2.
Socialisation:
Thi s i s d e f i n e d as t he p r o v i s i o n o f knowledge which
enabl es humans t o o p er a t e as e f f e c t i v e members i n t h e i r s o c i e t y .
3.
Motivation:
Thi s i s
u l t i m a t e aims o f each
and a s p i r a t i o n s ; t he
geared t o t he p u r s u i t
4.
Debate and d i s c u s s i o n :
Thi s f u n c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f t he p r o v i s i o n and
exchange o f f a c t s and i n f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e agreement or t o
c l a r i f y d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s t owar ds d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s .
5.
E du c at i o n:
Thi s i s t he t r a n s m i s s i o n o f knowledge among pe opl e.
The
main goal o f such a f u n c t i o n i s " t o f o s t e r i n t e l l e c t u a l devel opment ,
t he f o r m a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r and t he a c q u i s i t i o n o f s k i l l s and c a p a c i
t i e s a t a l l st ages o f l i f e . "
6.
C u l t u r a l pr o mot i o n:
Thi s r e f e r s t o t he exchange o f a l l t he c u l t u r a l
and a r t i s t i c p r o du c t s i n o r d e r t o keep t he p r e s e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t he
pa s t .
A l s o , i t i n c l u d e s " t h e devel opment o f c u l t u r e by wi den i n g t he
i n d i v i d u a l ' s h o r i z o n s , awakening hi s i m a g i n a t i o n and s t i m u l a t i n g hi s
a e s t h e t i c needs and c r e a t i v i t y . "
7.
Entertainment:
Thi s f u n c t i o n r e f e r s t o t he d i f f u s i o n o f a l l means o f
c o l l e c t i v e r e c r e a t i o n and enj oyment such as drama, dance, a r t , l i t e r a
t u r e , musi c, comedy, s p o r t s , games and t he l i k e .
8.
Integratio n:
Thi s i s d e f i n e d as t he p r o v i s i o n t o a l l per sons, groups
and n a t i o n s o f access t o t he v a r i e t y o f messages which t hey need i n
o r d e r t o know and under st and each o t h e r and t o a p p r e c i a t e o t he r s
l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , v i e w p o i n t s and a s p i r a t i o n s .
(MacBri de e t a l , 1980, p . 14)
d e f i n e d as t he pr omot i on o f t he immediate and
s o c i e t y , and t he s t i m u l a t i o n o f per sonal choi ces
f o s t e r i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l or community a c t i v i t i e s
o f agreed aims.
In a d d i t i o n t o t he above,
a t t e n t i o n i n r ec e n t y e a r s ,
The a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
W a l t er
Lippman.
i dea ,
In
hi s
a new f u n c t i o n o f t he media has gained wide
namely t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f t he pr es s.
however,
Public
was i n t r o d u c e d
Opi ni on
- 10 -
( 1922) ,
some s i x t y
he
year s
i ncl uded
a
ago by
c h a pt er
entitled
"The World
emphasised t he f a c t
Out si de
and t he
that
is
it
Pictures
in
our
( 1968) .
in
which
he
t he mass media which dominate t he c r e a t i o n
o f t hese shared images among members o f t he p u b l i c .
echoed by M i l l s
Heads",
Such t h i n k i n g has been
He s t a t e d t h a t :
"Most o f t he ' p i c t u r e s
i n our heads'
we have gai ned from t he
media even t o t he p o i n t where we o f t e n do not r e a l l y b e l i e v e what
we see be f o r e us u n t i l
we read about
i t i n t he paper or hear
about i t on t he r a d i o .
The media not o n l y g i v e us i n f o r m a t i o n ;
t hey gui de our ver y e x p e r i e n c e .
Our st andar ds o f r e a l i t y t end t o
be s et by t hese media r a t h e r than by our own f r a g me n t a r y e x p e r i
ence. "
( M i l l s , 1968, p . 32)
In t he
same v e i n .
White
pr es ent ed
agenda-setting
as evi dence o f
t he
enormous i n f l u e n c e t he pr ess has on t he p u b l i c mind w i t h r e s p e c t t o p o l i t i
cal
i ss ues p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t he Uni t ed S t a t e s .
He argued t h a t :
" The power o f t he press i n Ameri ca i s a p r i m o r d i a l one.
I t set s
t he agenda o f p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n ; and t h i s sweeping
political
power i s u n r e s t r a i n e d by any law.
I t det er mi nes what people t a l k
and t h i n k about , an a u t h o r i t y t h a t i n o t h e r n a t i o n s i s r eser ved
f o r t y r a n t s , p r i e s t s , p a r t i e s , and mandar i ns. "
(W hite,
This a s s e r t i o n
its
prioritie s
that
lic ly
"what
o t h e r words,
on t he
t he
by t he
i n d i c a t e s t o what l e v e l
public.
press
emphasizes
audi ence
it
is
of
t he
believed
persuasive.
truism,
i dea,
is
in
pr ess"
Thus,
mass media
He added t h a t
more
t he press f u n c t i o n s t o i mpress
succinctly,
turn
p . 327)
agenda-setting
emphasized p r i v a t e l y
(Shaw and McCombs,
1977,
t h a t mass media have t he p o t e n t i a l
t u r i n g i s s ues f o r t he p u b l i c .
agenda-setting
Put
1972,
means
and pub
p .8).
for
In
struc
a c c o r di n g t o Shaw, who e l a b o r a t e d t he
are
all
pervasive
although t h i s
st at ement
but
not
particularly
has been accept ed as a
r es e ar c h er s o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i n s i s t t h a t t he media are ver y p e r s u
a s i ve i n t h e i r uni que way.
However,
Shaw d i s t i n g u i s h e s
between t he e f f e c t
o f mass media as de s c r i b e d by t he l o n g - d i s c r e d i t e d hypoder mi c- needl e t he o r y
and t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t h e o r y .
t he
media
attitude
are
-
directly
their
likes
A cc or d i n g t o t he hypoder mi c- needl e t h e o r y ,
effective
and
in
dislikes
-
shapi ng
-
11 -
and
regarding
manipulating
p o litica l,
people's
economic
and
social
ma t t e r s
looking
in
(Shaw,
v ai n
for
1979,
t he
p p . 9 6 - 10 5) ,
way t he media
Accordingly,
changed
researchers
people's
ideas
and
were
behav
iours.
On t he o t h e r hand,
t he p o t e n t i a l
what
t he
t he f i n d i n g s o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r esear ch f ocus upon
o f t he media f o r
important
i s s u es
for
t he
structuring
t he
public
of
ar e.
i s sues
or
for
defining
theory
proposes a c a p a b i l i t y f o r mass media t o s e l e c t and emphasise c e r t a i n i ss ues
and t he r e b y
lead t hose i s su es t o be pe r c e i ve d as i m p o r t a n t by t he audi ence
- r e g a r d l e s s o f what t he audi ence t h i n k s coul d be done about t hose i s s u e s .
As Shaw put i t :
because o f newspaper, t e l e v i s i o n , and o t h e r news media,
peopl e are aware or not aware, pay a t t e n t i o n t o or n e g l e c t , pl ay
up or downgrade s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f t he p u b l i c scene.
People
tend t o i n c l u d e or exc l ude f r om t he c o g n i t i o n s what t he media
i n c l u d e or excl ude f r om t h e i r c o n t e n t .
People a l s o tend t o
as s i gn an i mpor t ance t o what t hey i n c l u d e t h a t c l o s e l y resembles
t he emphasis gi ven t o e v e n t s, i s s u e s , and persons by t he mass
med i a.
(Shaw, 1979, p p . 96-105)
Shaw and McCombs a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t
i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n shapi ng our s o c i a l
" e d i t o r s and b r o a d c a s t er s p l ay an
r e a l i t y as t hey go about t h e i r d a y - t o -
day t a s k o f choosi ng and d i s p l a y i n g n e ws . . .
Here may l i e t he most i m p o r t a n t
effects
mentally
o f mass communi cat i on,
our wo r l d f o r us"
its
a b ility
(Shaw and McCombs,
t o o r d e r and o r g an i s e
1977, p . 5) .
Ag e n d a - s e t t i n g occur s because t he press must be s e l e c t i v e i n
and r e p o r t i n g t he news.
Thus,
what t he p u b l i c
or i s sues a t any gi ven t i me i s
As
reported
agenda-setting
by
in
o f t he event s and i s sues
bers o f e ve nt s ,
The
second
six
knows about v a r i o u s a f f a i r s
l a r g e l y a p r o du c t o f m e d i a . ' g a t e k e e p i n g ' .
Littlejohn
process
choosi ng
( 1983) ,
McCombs
key v a r i a b l e s .
t o be pr e s e n t e d .
and
Shaw
The f i r s t
Si nce t h e r e
de s c r i b e d
variable
t he
consists
are c o u n t l e s s
num
some o f them must be chosen and pr esent ed t o t he audi ence.
variable
is
t he
influence
- 12 -
of
t he
media
personnel;
editors.
r e p o r t e r s and media per sonnel
tion.
The t h i r d v a r i a b l e
role
in
pers
are
more
of
power f ul
The
t he
in
fourth
setting
variable
information
Researchers have shown t h a t
t he
is
of
an i t em t o
agenda
t he
t ype
communicated.
sented and t he pl acement o f t he s t o r y
salience
bi ases which a f f e c t media pr oduc
t he t y pe o f news media which pl ay s a s p e c i f i c
t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n .
television.
na t ur e
is
have t h e i r
t he
it
has
been di scussed
audi ence
issue
interest.
t he
l ess
frequently
The f i f t h
knowledge
in
about
ut e
hi gh
Ti che no r e t a l .
degrees
of
knowledge
e d u c a t i on o f t he p u b l i c .
story
t ha n,
which
front
reported.
say,
shapes
information
is
t he
pre
page) a f f e c t t he
variable
t he media.
that
it,
o r i e n t a t i o n on t he i s s u e ( L i t t l e j o h n ,
Sim ilarly,
peopl e
is
t he
degree
of
Research f i n d i n g s
r anks an i s s u e as more i m p o r t a n t when
Evidence suggests
t he
of
( f o r example,
public.
generally
t he
The way t he
emphasis r e l a t e d t o how f r e q u e n t l y an i t em i s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t he p u b l i c
for
newspa
The s i x t h
variable
t he g r e a t e r t he
t he
h i gh e r
will
interest
be t he
is
in
t he
an
need f o r
1983, p . 282).
(1970)
found t h a t t he media coul d d i s t r i b
regardless
o f t he
social
c l a s s or
level
of
They found hi gh c o r r e l a t i o n between p u b l i c k nowl
edge on some t o p i c s and t h e i r degree o f media coverage.
S im ilarly,
Shaw
and
McCombs
argue
that
agenda-setting
audi ence t o l e a r n s a l i e n c e f r om t he news media,
per sonal
-
agenda.
especially
McCombs,
media.
rating
1977,
p . 11).
The
Such s a l i e n c e s ,
them w i t h
members
with
audi ence
however,
existing
more
t he
with
public.
their
Shaw and
assertion
that
what
is
t he
into th e ir
t he more an audi ence
-
learn"
made
(Shaw
salient
and
by t he
are outcomes o f t he press agenda i n c o r p o
traditions.
McCombs
t he
e d uc a t i on
l e a r ns
t he sum o f t he most i m p o r t a n t messages,
by
incorporating i t
"The more t he pr ess cover s a t o p i c ,
audi ence
enabl es
Ne v e r t h e l e s s ,
-
13
saliences
are
l aunched by t he press and r ec e i v e d
present
" i ncreased
t hese
this
concept
salience
of
of
agenda
a topic
or
setting
issue
in
t he
mass media
influences
among t he p u b l i c
"(Ibid,
( causes)
t he
saliences
r es ear c h o f McCombs and o t h e r s ,
t he c o n t en t
rank
orientation
directed
o f mass media,
suggest a causal
o f media agenda bei ng pr esent ed
ordering
of
of
as t o
t he
the
i mpor t ance
of
agenda-setting
cover
that
topic
or
issue
p . 12).
T her e f or e t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t h e o r y
tive
of
specific
t he media agenda versus
t he
media and t he i n d i v i d u a l
t hese
in
t he
agenda,
media agenda,
public
t he
overall
studies
has
been
t he
t he t i me
and r e c e n t l y
and t he
However,
previous
including
accumul a
r e l a t i o n s h i p between
public
issues.
most
topics,
public
to
and t he
relationship
f r ame,
t he
so
between
aggr egat e
t he new t r e n d s o f what
mi ght be hi dden beyond a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
EARLY RESEARCH FINDINGS OF AGENDA-SETTING
McCombs and Shaw made t h e i r f i r s t
f u n c t i o n o f t he press i n 1972.
that
"among t hose undecided
candi dat es,
preferred
there
Prio r
Iowa
in
t he
t he f i n d i n g s
correlation
sixty-one
showed t h a t
Gormley
to
which
to
with
than
t he
news
agenda
based
on a l l
st udy was conducted i n t he s t a t e
were
reapportion
agenda
a
news agenda based on t h e i r
1977, p . 8 ) .
V o te r s
pr ess
t he
with
in t h i r t y - e i g h t
without
.59 ( A r no l d ,
Agenda-setting
extent
t he
l e a n i n g s t owar ds one o f t he t h r e e
an e m p i r i c a l
States.
c on v e n t i on
counties
For example,
agreement
st at eme nt s
Uni t ed
between
declined to
voters with
finding,
t e s t o f t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
Thi s was s i m i l a r t o t h e i r f i n d i n g s showing
(Shaw and McCombs,
to th is
constitutional
t he
l ess
candidate's
t h r e e c a n d i da t e s "
of
was
empirical
daily
to
deci de
for
or
against
legislative
districts.
counties with
a local
and
t he
newspaper,
public
Part
daily,
agenda was
however,
t he
. 92.
a
of
t he
In
correlation
1964, p . 514) .
was a l s o
(1975)
examined
with
r e f er e n c e
to
specific
gr oups.
conducted a st udy i n North C a r o l i n a t o examine
t he media
s et
-
t he
14 -
agenda f o r
po litica l
elites.
His
findin gs
showed a c o r r e l a t i o n
senator's
agenda.
of
.75
between
a newspaper' s
agenda and a
The a u t ho r argued t h a t t he s t r on g p o s i t i v e
c oul d mean t h a t t he newspaper s et
t h a t bot h s et t he agenda f o r
t he
senator's
each o t h e r .
agenda,
or
He added t h a t ,
relationship
v i c e v er s a,
or
i n any case, t h i s
f i n d i n g i s a t l e a s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t he hy p o t h e s i s t h a t mass media " s e t t he
agenda" f o r p o l i t i c a l
a small
example,
revolving
he found
around f i v e
to tw enty-five,
an agenda i s d e f i n e d as t he r a n k i n g o f o n l y
a
.75
issues.
correlation
when
specifying
which t he agenda i s t e s t e d ,
t he
scope
of
e s p e c i a l l y when i t
t he h i g h e r t he c o r r e l a t i o n s
The a b i l i t y
his
measurements
But when he i n c r ea s ed t he
t he c o r r e l a t i o n decreased t o . 20.
necessitates
issues,
if
number o f broad i s s u e s .
For
lation
elites
(Gormley,
number o f i ssues
Such i n c o n s i s t e n t c o r r e
selecting
is
t he
pl aces and e q u a l l y
for all
by
1975, p p . 304- 308) .
l e v e l s has a l s o
He b l u n t l y s t a t e s t h a t "no-one contends
t h a t a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s an i n f l u e n c e process o p e r a t i n g a t a l l
all
i s s ues
known t h a t t he f ewer t he
o f t he pr ess t o set p e o p l e ' s agenda a t a l l
been ques t i o ne d by McCombs ( 1976) .
were
people."
McCombs (1976,
times,
p p . 1-7)
and i n
identifies
a number o f " c o n t i n g e n t c o n d i t i o n s " which have been y i e l d e d by r es ear c h and
found t o a f f e c t
orientation;
sur e;
agenda-setting.
f r equency
of
These i n c l u d e :
interpersonal
discussion;
individual's
level
need f o r
o f media expo
and v o t i n g d e c i s i o n s t a t e ( deci ded ver sus un de c i de d) .
Prior
to
t he
above c o n c l u s i o n s ,
McCombs found
t he New York Times agenda and t h a t o f t he l o c a l
to
t he
. 70;
.66.
and a c o r r e l a t i o n
Lower
1972,
appeared
p p . 176- 187) .
ences between t he agendas o f
way each medium d i f f e r e n t l y
Thi s i s
with
local
other
per cei ves
magazines
Such c o r r e l a t i o n s
and n a t i o n a l
t he
between
newspapers r a n g i ng f rom .66
between Time magazine and t e l e v i s i o n
correlations
(McCombs and Shaw,
a correlation
media.
i mpor t ance o f
at
net works o f
.51
show t he
They a l l
different
to
.54
d iffe r
show t he
issues.
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an e a r l i e r work o f McCombs who found i n 1972 t h a t ,
-
15 -
compared w i t h
mind,
television,
and t h a t
public
papers
newspapers
have t he maj or
role
more agenda
of
setting
t he
in
t he
public
agenda f o r
t he
leader s.
In o r d e r
setting
to
det er mi ne
of d i f f e r e n t
d et er mi ne
whet her
t he
media,
t he
hol d
at
two s u b - i s s u e
levels
of
information
and
television
of
agenda
at
st udy
agenda-
desi gned a st udy t o
t he
mass
media,
fairly
t he
same or
other
media.
newspapers were found t o be s e t t i n g
le vels,
and t h a t
i ss ues and di d not appear t o have much impact
sub-issue
levels
1976,
entitled
Frazier's
in
i s s u es i n one medium, a l s o
in
even
"Agenda
conclusions.
F o r d / C a r t e r debat es.
for
television-oriented
p p . 261- 274) .
Co nt r ol
c o n t en t A n a l y s i s " , was desi gned by B e c h t o l t ,
Benton
involved
audi ences a t t he s u b - i s s u e i n f o r m a t i o n
r espondent s (Benton and F r a z i e r ,
A similar
most
(1976)
i n terms o f gener al
TV d e a l t mai nl y w i t h gener al
public
i ssues
function
conclusions i n d ic a t e t h a t
t he agenda f o r a l l
t he
of
agenda-setting
established e m p ir ic a lly
The a u t h o r s '
k i nds
Benton and F r a z i e r
well
on
cultivate
These
A lis t
in
t he
1976
Debates
:
A
H i l y a r d and Bybee t o e l a b o r a t e
a u t hor s
r ecor ded
each
of
t he
o f t o p i c s di sc us s ed i n t he debates
was c o n s t r u c t e d and d i v i d e d i n t o gener al c a t e g o r i e s and s u b - c a t e g o r i e s .
Two
i ndependent coders r ecor ded t o p i c s di s cuss ed f o r each 30-second segment (as
t he u n i t o f a n a l y s i s ) ,
in itiatio n"
Their
gener al
and then t he dat a were or g an i s ed i n terms o f " t o p i c
and " t i me spent on t o p i c . "
findings
topic
show t h a t
areas
as
t he
maj or el ement i n i n i t i a t i o n
and Bybee,
c a n d i da t es
debates
in itiated
proceeded,
of sub-topics in a l l
progressively
but t h a t
reporters
debates ( B e c h t o l t ,
more
were a
Hilyard
1977, p p . 674- 681) .
A similar
argued t h a t
t he
idea
local
w h i l e t he n a t i o n a l
was
also
newspapers
studied
would
by
exert
Palmgreen and Cl ar k
more i n f l u e n c e
( 1977) ,
on l o c a l
who
issues,
TV net works would be ahead when compared w i t h newspapers
i n terms o f shapi ng t he n a t i o n a l
agenda among audi ences.
-
16 -
The au t hor s
channel s
cannot
argue
that
i nduce
t he
presence
agenda-setting
Accordingly,
Tol edo,
hypot heses
to
test
t he
stronger agenda-setting e f f e c t
i ss u es
effects
exposed t o t he i n f o r m a t i o n .
Ohio,
of
information
unl ess
Palmgreen and Cl ar k
television
exercises
t he a u t hor s conducted a st udy i n
that
newspapers
would
manifest
than would TV w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o c a l
The r e l a t i v e
consistent
found t h a t ,
a stronger
with
other
dat a
a t t he
agenda-setting
agenda-setting influe nces
f rom
national
influence
of te le v is io n
this
st udy
le vel,
than
ver sus
findings,
however,
came
involved
as
det er mi ne t he f a c t o r s
t y pe o f event s - l o c a l
coverage
of
po litical
under
political
issues.
r e l ea s e s
t he
that
to
wi de
bureaucrats.
to
media.
coverage
The
aim
of
specialised
influence
on hi gh
than smal l
local
level
newspapers.
t he
example,
less
effort
information
(Palmgreen
comparison
of
variables.
subs idi es
t he
has
s e l e c t ed
o f media
that
more
edited
news
analysis,
Gandy
main
strategy
of
shifted
f rom
mass
channel s
with
hi gh
Therefore,
o fficia ls
and p o l i c y makers are more sought a f t e r
Most news sources ver y o f t e n c o n c e n t r a t e
papers l i k e The New York Times than on an unknown
t he
1982).
role
of
different
(1980) t o suggest t h a t
get
while
coverage
suggested
a recent
became
prompted Adam and A l b i n
newspaper
of in d iv id u
and t he l e v e l
himself
to
These v a r i a b l e s
- t he a b i l i t y
in
failed
targets.
town newspaper (Gandy,
The
relative
t hey
such as t he p r e v i o u s l y
For
i n f l u e n c e media.
on w i r e s e r v i c e and e l i t e
smal l
with
because
pr obl ems,
Palmgreen
shoul d be s t u d i e d ,
handed
attack
intervening
mediating var ia bl es
audi ence
network
newspapers are
c on c er n i ng
ver sus n a t i o n a l
a l s p e r s o n a l l y t o observe l o c a l
noted
As
1977, p p . 435- 452) .
These
include:
a
issues,
issues.
s t r e n g t h s o f t he v a r i o u s media as sources o f i s sues i n f o r m a t i o n
and C l a r k ,
media
audi ence members are
and t h a t TV would m a n i f e s t s t r o n g e r a g e n d a - s e t t i n g on n a t i o n a l
predicted,
in
bei ng
-
scarcely
17 -
media
in
agenda-setting
" t h e r e are many t o p i c s t h a t
covered
by
television,"
and
that
" t h e r e are v i r t u a l l y
that
are
Thi s
means
ver sus
not
t he
i s s ues
in
e lite
newspapers"
to
conceptualise
that
studies
whole
aggr egat e
t hey deser ve.
media
agenda
agenda.
(Adam and A l b i n ,
each
have
He a l s o
Because o f
t he
t he e f f e c t s o f
of
t he
in dividual
not
media
stated
that
"all
media
r ec e i v e d
fact
that
there
are
conflicting
ranked
during
t he
Also,
an
off-election
agenda
economy
t he
ranked
year.
t he
for
local
firs t,
findin gs
and aggr egat e per sonal
tions
attention
is possible
can be grouped
1981, p . 221) .
r es ear c h
The
economy
but
were
national
year s,
show t h a t
important,
t he
government
On t he o t h e r hand, t he
po litical
i ssues
correlation
issues.
significant
on
agenda-setting
findings
most
show no s i g n i f i c a n t
agendas f o r
i ssues
other
findin gs
during non-election
probl ems second, and e n e r g y - r e l a t e d probl ems t h i r d .
third.
t he
influences
(DeGeorge,
media news on per sonal agendas
per sonal
p . 729),
medium agenda
and Larsen conducted a st udy t o examine t he t o t a l
aggr egat e
media
1980,
p a r t i c u l a r media t h a t have t he most i n f l u e n c e on t he
and t h e i r c o n t en t measured i n t he aggr egat e"
Williams
news a t t e n t i o n
In t h i s r egar d DeGeorge (1981) suggested t h a t i t
t o at tempt t o i s o l a t e
public
no t o p i c s t h a t r e c e i v e t e l e v i s i o n
and
between media
However,
(William
second
and
all
correla
Lar sen,
1977,
their
st udy
p p . 74 4 - 7 4 0 ) .
These
contradictions
entitled
"Media
Holding,"
to
argue t h a t
news i n d u s t r y
peopl e
hold
"effective"
to
happen.
Ri ch,
prompted
Media
Poor
t he
gener al
is to i d e n t i f y
on them.
Chaf f ee
;
Two
goal
t he
of
in
Diversity
reporters
in
and e d i t o r s
Agenda
in
t he
i s sues and e x p l a i n t he v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s t h a t
The f i n d i n g s
media
Wi l s o n,
studies
of
suggested
i n terms o f r o l e and f u n c t i o n s ,
F irst,
and
audi ence
t hose i s sues s t r e s s e d i n t he news.
that
t he
news media
are
t hey shoul d cause two sequences
shoul d
come
concerned
with
A g e n d a - s e t t i n g r es ear ch i n d i c a t e d
that
under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a t l e a s t t h i s
i s t he case.
be d i v e r s i t y
issues.
of perceptions of pu bl ic
-
if
18 -
to
be
Secondl y, t h e r e shoul d
Thi s shoul d m a n i f e s t
its e lf
in
t he
number and
well
as
in
t he
Thi s
was a l s o
variety
variety
t he
of
of
case,
i ss ues
that
concl usi ons
especially
peopl e
t hey
thin k
are
important,
as
have reached on t hose i s s u e s .
when t he a u t h o r ' s
findin gs
indicated
t h a t d i v e r s i t y o f agenda i s h i g h e r i n communi t i es t h a t have more newspapers
( Chaf f ee and Wi l s on,
1977, p p . 4 66- 4 76) .
Other t ypes o f agenda were suggested by Shaw i n h i s st udy "The AgendaS e t t i n g Hypot hesi s Reconsi dered
: Interpersonal
agenda-setting
modelling
intrapersonal
about
as
survey
which
and
to
what
agenda-setting
p r o v i d ed
data
condition
for
political
campaign.
It
t he
election.
The
t he
that
and more
closer
is
media (Shaw,
There
t he
1977,
was
active
about .
Carolina
t he
by
showed
He then
during
a
i mpor t ance o f
media-modelli ng
also
findings
talk
Nor t h
agendas and newspapers'
frequent
t he
peopl e
in
hypotheses
He examined t he
diffe rentiating
agendas - i n o t h e r words, what peopl e t h i n k
revealing
necessary
members'
media
and i n t e r p e r s o n a l
opposed
on
t he
Factors."
that
effect
close
conducted
political
t he
to
event
appear
a p p r ox i m a t i o n
agendas di d not occur u n t i l
of
one' s
this
st udy
also
st udy
rizes
also
more
" A g e n d a - Se t t i ng
His r es ear ch
differentiation
of
agenda-setting
of
a
panel
t he
more
net wor ks,
Funct ion
of
Mass Medi a, "
shows t h a t
directs
attention
McCombs
(1977)
to
an e a r l y
T h e r e f or e,
in
summa
implications fo r public
t he mass media have more i n f l u e n c e
t h i n k i n g where t he i s sues j u s t emerge.
s e t t i n g process and i t s
functions
For example,
bot h awareness and knowledge than on -a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o u r .
agenda-setting
during
p p . 230- 240) .
r es ear c h on a g e n d a - s e t t i n g and di scusses i t s
relations.
may be a
agenda and t h a t o f t he
a c c o r di n g t o t he medi a' s impact on t h i n k i n g and b e h a v i o u r .
his
that
inter-personal
agreement between on e ' s per sonal
campaign
ju s t p r io r to
r e v e a l ed
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
a panel
stage
in
on
He adds t h a t
t he
in dividual
knowledge o f t he agenda-
r o l e i n t he f o r m a t i o n o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n can p r o v i d e
19
public
relations
p r a c t i t i o n e r s w i t h t he lead t i me and behoves them t o deal
w i t h i s sues a t t he t i me t hey are f i r s t emerging on t he p u b l i c agenda.
McCombs
i ss u es
goes
which
on
to
say
are p e r s o n a l l y
that
t he
public
most i m p o r t a n t ;
agenda
i ss ues
involves
McCombs,
different
r esear ch
agenda and b r i e f l y
r esear ches
relations
on media agendas
o r g a n i s i n g t he p u b l i c
some
public
agenda.
Television
re-orders
indicate
or
that
there
Moreover,
that
is
them.
a
rank
t he t op
Also,
t he
three-to-five
to
firs t
in
it ems on t he
findin gs
month
between t he appearance o f an i t em on t he press agenda and i t s
t he p u b l i c agenda (McCombs,
types:
a c c o r di n g
newspapers
spotlights
re-arranges
three
Each one o f t hese t h r e e
go a l s.
reveals
of
pe r c ei ved as i m p o r t a n t
i n t he community; and i s sues di sc us s ed most o f t e n .
t ypes
is
of
t i me
l ag
appearance on
1977, p p . 8 9 - 9 5 ) .
St ud i es o f bot h p r i n t and b r o ad c as t media have shown t h a t economic and
structural
constraints
journalists.
a maj or r o l e
To see whet her t h i s
o f s t a t e government,
television
pl ay
news
mi g ht
Gormley c o l l e c t e d
storie s
in
shapi ng t he
news d e c i s i o n s
be a f a c t o r i n t he low v i s i b i l i t y
3,334 TV s c r i p t s
f rom 25 commercial
stations
in
o f s t a t e and l o c a l
10 c i t i e s .
were coded f o r s t o r i e s on s t a t e government and use o f f i l m .
eveni ng newscast r a t i n g was a l s o o b t a i n e d .
o f 10 c i t i e s ,
highest
t he s t a t i o n
r a t ed
reportin g
newscast.
cannot
be
with
Also,
blamed
would
allow
s ev e r al
economic
i n c r ea s ed
t he
entirely
coverage o f s t at ehous e a f f a i r s
added t h a t
t he most
state
media coverage
of
Each s t a t i o n s '
government coverage had t he
r ev e al ed
public
to
weak
to
coverage
government
s t at ehous e
it.
i s ex p en s i ve.
filmed
state
that
antipathy
was low because i t
alternatives
These
The f i n d i n g s show t h a t i n 7 out
st udy
on
of
Fi l med
The st udy
existed
(Gormley,
that
1977,
p p . 354- 359) .
Some r esear ch on a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
s i on
users
than o t h e r s ,
may be more l i k e l y
to
suggests t h a t
seek a d d i t i o n a l
and t h a t t hey may be more
- 20 -
like ly
to
some r a d i o
details
and t e l e v i
f rom newspapers
seek a d d i t i o n a l
details
about some t ypes o f s t o r i e s than about o t h e r s .
a st udy
in
hundred
and sevent y
rida,
1978 t o
Sentinel
Each s u b j e c t
examine
four
previous
st ud e n t s
F e d l er and T a y l o r conducted
r es ear c h
were
findin gs
gi ven
c opi es
in
this
ar ea.
o f t he Or l ando,
One
Flo
S t ar and asked t o read t he e n t i r e paper as t hey no r mal l y do.
was asked
to
circle
ever y
i t em
he or
she had l ooked a t and
then asked t o mark ever y s t o r y which had been heard on t he r a d i o or t e l e v i
sion.
Then,
basic
demographic
short questionnaire.
and
media
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s
use dat a
were
collected
via
a
st udy i n d i c a t e d t h a t young a d u l t s
spend a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e i r media t i me w i t h t e l e v i s i o n and r a d i o ,
but t hey c o n t i n u e t o u t i l i s e
mat i on and as a f o l l o w - u p
newspapers both as a pr i mar y source o f i n f o r
for
storie s
heard el sewher e
( F e d l a r and T a y l o r ,
1978, p p . 301- 305) .
Williams
tural
and Smelak t r i e d
examine t he
smal l
city
per son.
inherent
in
struc
in
Then,
Fi ve hundred and t h r e e persons were randomly chosen i n a
I nd i a n a .
A t el e ph on e
per sonal
agendas
a c c o r d i n g t o t he number o f
tant.
Following t h a t ,
newscast
(the
either
ordering
or
interview
were
maj or
structural
effect
of
bi ases
in
effects
t he
in
TV
net wor ks)
during
three
perceptions
of
t he
t he
weeks was used t o
di mensi ons were then
effects.
Re s u l t s
of
i ssues
weekday and eveni ng n e t
di mensi ons when compared t o
coverage
ordering
each
of a ll
treatment
each TV net wor k.
rank
with
p e r c e i v i n g them as t he most i m p o r
t he c o r r e l a t i o n between t he media and per sonal
t he
by
conducted
analysis
The s t r u c t u r a l
visual
was
constructed
r espondent s
a c o n t en t
three
f orm net work agendas.
of
effects
di mensi ons o f net work t e l e v i s i o n news campaign agenda as pe r c ei ved by
t h e i r audi ences.
work
to
also
1976
i s s u es
p p . 531- 540) .
21
The f i n d i n g s
categorised
r eve al ed
as
that
agenda was g r e a t e r f o r many
t he
overall
showed t h a t
campaign
inherent
produced
(Williams
agenda-setting
and
structural
no n- p u r p o s i v e
Smelak,
1978,
o t h e r s t u d i e s emphasised t he t i me l a g between t he appearance o f media
agenda
and
t he
h y p o t he s i s
formation
that
t he
of
local
public
daily
agenda.
Sohn
newspapers
are
examined
effective
t he
gener al
over
t i me
in
caus i ng t o p i c s emphasised i n t he newspapers t o be emphasised i n t he commu
nity
discussion
ar ena.
The f i n d i n g s
suggest t h a t
there
is
no sup po r t f o r
t he i dea
t h a t local
and o n l y
l i m i t e d sup po r t was found f o r t he a s s e r t i o n t h a t t he l o c a l
per
effective
is
However,
newspapers are e f f e c t i v e i n s e t t i n g t he r ea di ng agenda,
in
s e t t i n g t he
local
t h e r e was evi dence t h a t
talking
talked
agenda f o r
about t o p i c s
newspa
r espondent s .
f rom one t i me p e r i o d
i n f l u e n c e what i s read about i n a l a t e r p e r i o d , even as much as ni ne months
later
(Sohn,
1978, p p . 325- 333) .
Sim ilarly,
out
how
a u t ho r s
topic
l ong
Stone
it
argued
and McCombs,
t akes
that
m e t ho d o l o g i c a l
Charlotte
b e f or e an
knowing
t o t he p u b l i c ' s
st udy
their
issue
t he
attention
standpoint.
Vot e r
in
t i me
is
st udy
receives
required
important
in
1981,
tried
to find
public recognition.
for
mass media t o
f rom both
The
bring
a substantive
a
and
The a u t ho r s have done two p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , t he
on t he
1972 p r e s i d e n t i a l
Sophomore st udy i n October 1973.
The f i n d i n g s
two t o s i x months f o r a t o p i c t o be f i r s t
electio n
and t he
indicate that i t
Syracuse
t akes f rom
r e g i s t e r e d by t he p u b l i c .
Thus,
t he a u t ho r s suggest t h a t a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r e s e a r c h e r s shoul d under t ake a few
months o f
fieldwork
prior
to t h e ir
sur vey
for
t he
best
match between t he
media agenda and t he p u b l i c agenda (Stone and McCombs, 1981, p p . 5 1 - 5 5 ) .
In an ot he r
points
in
st udy u si ng t he p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l
t ime.
W i n t er
and Eyal
t r ie d to
dat a t aken a t numerous
examine t he
impact
of
a single
i s s u e on t he p u b l i c agenda by us i ng a combined e x t e n s i v e c o n t en t a n a l y s i s .
The p u b l i c
1954
and
agenda
1976
American people
was
which
det er mi ned
asked
f rom
about
27 Gal l up
t he
most
a t t he t i me o f t he p o l l .
o f t he number o f f r o n t
page
s t o r i e s on c i v i l
- 22 -
polls
important
Also,
conducted
issue
between
facing
t he
t he media agenda c o n s i s t ed
rights
i n t he New York Ti mes,
i n each o f t he s i x months p r i o r
da-settin g effects for c i v i l
four-to-six-week
Ey al ,
period
t o each p o l l .
rights
Re s ul t s
showed s t r on g agen
i s s u e s , t he op t i ma l
e f f e c t span was t he
i mme d i a t e l y
prior
to
t he
fieldwork
( Wi n t er
and
1981, p p . 376- 383) .
SCRUTINIZING THE AGENDA-SETTING MODEL
Accumulated r es e ar ch on a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r a i s e d many q u e s t i o n s about t he
s p e c i f i c mechanisms t hr ou gh which t he media i n f l u e n c e s p u b l i c o p i n i o n ,
t he
t ypes
raised,
of
t he
i ss ues
which
agenda-setting
scrutiny,
and doubts
research.
For example,
most
studies
t he
tion.
were
cast
t he
public.
itse lf
was
on t he
t he
t o a f f e c t t he
subjected
salience ra t in g s
studies
agenda-setting
t h a t a l t h ou gh
i n t he U.S.
not
expect ed
f o r t he
s up po r t
A c c o r d i n g l y , a st udy conducted by t hese a u t h o r s ,
t he
of previous
t he i s s u e s ,
did
were
considerable
reported
debates
of
to
findings
(1983)
1976 e l e c t i o n
dat a r e s u l t i n g f rom t hese
As such q u e s t i o n s
sweeping
Gadzi al a and Backer
d u r i n g t he 1976 e l e c t i o n ,
of
to
function
dealing with
t hose debates
part
appeal
and
most
t h i s e x p e c t a
i n u p s t at e New York
pr o v i d e d dat a a l l o w i n g f o r a more s e n s i t i v e t e s t
h y p o t he s i s
t han
t hose
already
published.
The
st udy
c on s i s t e d o f t el e ph on e i n t e r v i e w s b e f or e and a f t e r each o f t he t h r e e p r e s i
dential
total
debat es,
of
five
as
waves
well
of
as
after
interviews.
single ,
vice -preside ntia l
To det er mi ne which
i ssues
debat es,
a
shoul d
be
examined, t he au t hor s used c o n t en t anal ysed data f rom t he 1976 debates f rom
two
local
newspapers and f rom Newsweek magazi ne' s
most s t r i k i n g
f i n d i n g was t h a t
campaign cover age.
The
not much seems t o have happened d u r i n g t he
debates i n terms o f changes i n e v a l u a t i o n o f t he i mpor t ance o f t he i s s u e s .
There was, even a f t e r an i s s u e - b y - i s s u e a n a l y s i s ,
no c o n v i n c i n g evi dence o f
an a g e n d a - s e t t i n g e f f e c t f o r t he debates ( Gadzi al a & Becker 1983, p p . 122-26)
In an ot he r p a r t o f t he w o r l d ,
mass media
in
Sweden
compared
Kent Asp at t empt ed t o st udy t he r o l e o f
with
t he
- 23 -
role
of
t he
media
in
t he
Uni t ed
St at es
c on c er n i ng
variables.
seen t o
electio n
(McCombs,
that
t he v o t e r s .
than
t he
agenda-setting
p l ay
an
1977;
t he
important
Patterson,
prioritie s
of
But t he p r i o r i t i e s
news media.
part in
1980;
t he
t hose
that
of
may be i m p o r t a n t
t he
voters
w i t h t he ai d o f a
-
to
t he
are t he p a r t i e s .
bot h
level
t he
t he
Williams,
1981).
Shapi r o
t he
relationship
is
ver y
between
t he
role
of
between
and t he v o t e r s was c a l c u l a t e d
results
large d i ffe re nc e s
way
indicated
down t o
t he
that
level
exist
at
t he
o f t he v o t e r s
(Asp, 1983, p p . 333- 355) .
and
Cutbirth
argue
that
more
me d i a t i n g
such as t he c o n t en t v a r i a b l e
messages.
relative
important
t he
of
news media and
The cor r espondence
shoul d be t aken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
f r ami n g
on t he
t he
One o r g a n i s i n g
scheme i s
i mpor t ance t o t he audi ence.
an o r d e r p r o v i d e s a frame o f r e f e r e n c e f o r t he audi ence.
t he
Evidence
as agenda s e t t e r s f o r t he v o t e r s than
on t h e i r
t o o r d e r s t o r i e s based on t h e i r
of
t he mat chi ng i n d e x . The
and how t he news media o r ga n i s e t h e i r
that
t he agenda f o r
o f a st udy
prioritie s
parties.
t hr ou gh t he m e d i a t i on o f mass media
Likewise,
se t
Weaver e t a l . ,
news media,
appears t h a t
are evened out
t hey
t he mass media
process by exami ni ng one o f t he f a c
political
new measure,
It
that
t he r e s u l t s
t h a t t he news media are more power f ul
variables
other mediating
o f t he v o t e r s may be based on sources o t h e r
Asp r e p o r t e d
t he agendas o f t he p a r t i e s ,
party
and some
news media became t he p r i o r i t i e s
t he mass media i n t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
tors
process
He argued t h a t i n r e c e n t American v o t e r s t u d i e s ,
had been
indicated
t he
Such
The a u t hor s added
because audi ence members need t o know
stories
and
t he
c an d i da t es .
The
au t hor s
i n d i c a t e t h a t t he audi ence must deci de i f
i ssues are r e l e v a n t or i r r e l e v a n t
t o t he campaign.
The gener al
of t h i s
st udy o f t he
dential
is
crucial
c o n t en t
campaign
agenda-setting
that
pr oc es s .
conclusion
f raming
The
is
a u t ho r s
a
argue
that
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r es ear c h t h a t r espondent s can e i t h e r
s c i o u s l y make t hese l i n k s i s c l e a r l y not v a l i d ,
- 24 -
t he
1980 p r e s i
variable
assumpt i on
in
of
t he
past
c o n s c i o u s l y or subcon
and may e x p l a i n some o f t he
i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n p r e v i o u s r es e ar c h ( W i l l i a m s ,
Shapi r o and C u t b i r t h ,
1983,
pp.226-232).
In
a
similar
China p o l i c y
treatment.
s t ud y ,
Chang
be f o r e
and a f t e r
Cont ent
analysis
examined
taking
of
t he
office
three
press
coverage
of
Reagan' s
i n terms o f press agenda and
prestigious
newspapers:
The
Los
Angel es Ti mes, The New York Ti mes, and The Washington Post was used f o r two
t i me p e r i o d s - May 1980 t o 20t h January 1981; and 21st January 1981 t o 31st
October
1981.
president,
The
findin gs
U. S. - Chi na
studied.
However,
of
this
st udy
relations
were
gi ven
while
Reagan
was
a
show t h a t
more
when
Reagan
attention
c andi dat e,
in
coverage
became
t he
of
papers
hi s
China
p o l i c y focused on Amer i can-Tai wanese r e l a t i o n s .
Also,
policy
t he r e s u l t s o f t h i s
was more n e g a t i v e
articles
showing
this
months as p r e s i d e n t ,
ment.
st udy r eveal
during
t he
t endency.
t h a t coverage o f Reagan' s China
campaign,
On t he
with
other
Reagan' s China p o l i c y
both
hand,
attracted
news and o p i n i o n
in
hi s
firs t
more p o s i t i v e
treat
The a u t ho r argues t h a t Reagan g r a d u a l l y changed hi s tone i n d e a l i n g
w i t h t he China and Taiwan probl ems and t he newspapers f o l l o w e d s u i t
1984, p p . 4 2 9- 432) .
In t h i s
case i t
r a t h e r than led Reagan' s p o l i t i c a l
Anot her
exampl e,
News,"
line
in
their
Cu l b e r t s o n
Ohio r e s i d e n t s
that
ni ne
survey
to
were
of
r ese ar ch
st udy
and Stemple
test
their
compared
news a r t i c l e s ,
editorials
ing
ever y
i s sues
of
to
appears t h a t t he media agenda f o l l o w e d
p o s i t i o n on t h i s
i ss u e .
emphasised b a r r i e r s
"Possible
Barriers
(1984)
beliefs
t he
(Chang,
to
conducted
about
results
of
to agenda-setting.
Ag e n d a - S e t t i n g
a t el eph on e
health
c ar e .
a c o n t en t
in
For
Medical
survey
of
The r e s u l t s
analysis
of
415
of
2,137
and si gned columns about medi ci ne f rom a l t e r n a t
Ohio
daily
with
a weekday
circulation
of
at
least
100,000 i n March 1982.
The f i n d i n g s
were
weak
or
s uggest ,
non-existent.
as was hyp ot he s i se d t h a t
The
results
- 25 -
overall
agenda-setting e f f e c t s
indicated
that
a
gi ven
top ic's
amenability
potential"
be
human-interest
coverage
sensitivity
hard
of
t he
Gr ai ney,
news
(Culber tson
i s s ues
is
and
St emple,
an i m p o r t a n t
P o l l a c k and Kusmi erek
das o f t h r e e Chicago d a i l y
factor
(1984)
newspapers;
a
- even i n what may
1984,
in
"featurisation
p p . 5 3 - 60 ) .
The
agenda-setting.
For
compared t he campaign agen
The Sunday Ti mes, The Defender and
The Tr i bu ne d u r i n g t he 1983 Chicago gener al
to test
suggests
which hel ps encourage hi gh p l ay on t h a t t o p i c
basically
example,
to
election.
The st udy at t empt ed
t he way t he t h r e e papers pr esent ed t he r a c i a l
i s s u e and t he c o r r e
spondence o f t h e i r coverage t o t he p u b l i c agenda.
The f i n d i n g s
show t h a t
although
all
t he
papers
published
storie s
which c a n di dat e s i n s i s t e d t h a t race shoul d not be c on si d er ed an i s s u e ,
nevertheless
devot ed
so
issue, a l l
became an
much
space
issue
to
because
it.
of
Because
t he
of
fact
t he
that
all
sensitivity
of
t he papers s t u d i e d ma i nt ai ne d more coverage o f i t
seven campaign i s sues
unbi ased ( Gr ai n ey ,
combined,
three
t he
expect ed
studied
by Weaver i n
setting.
his
of
t he
racial
public
to
t hese
studies
issues.
in
t he
not u n r e l a t e d
Thi s
point
area o f
is
agenda-
He suggests t h a t t he key assumpt i on u n d e r l y i n g a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s
w i t h r egar d t o an i s s u e ,
between what we know and are concerned about
and what o p i n i o n s we hol d about i t .
i n hi s r e v i ew o f key s t u d i e s t h a t media emphasis on an i s s u e
r e s u l t i n i n c r ea s ed concern by peopl e over t h a t i s s u e ,
group
t he
1984, p p . 352- 363) .
r e v i ew o f r e c e n t
t h a t t h e r e i s a two-way l i n k
ranking
papers
even though t he coverage was j udged t o be
P o l l a c k and Kusmi erek,
reaction
race
than t he o t h e r
Thi s suggests t h a t t he c ho i c e o f i ss ues by t he media i s
to
in
of
a set
ranking
of
of
i s s ues
by t he
unobtrusive
(not
media
is
directly
not
He found out
is
likely
to
a l t h ou gh t he p r e c i s e
necessarily
ex p er i enc e d)
reflected
i ssues
in
(Weaver,
1984, p p . 680- 691) .
Weaver's work suggests t h a t
so p o p u l a r
among r e s e a r c h e r s
in
t he
agenda-setting
different
-
2 6
-
ar eas,
h y p o t he s i s
has become
and e s p e c i a l l y
by t hose
r es e a r c h i n g
t he
evoked c r i t i c a l
is
which
firs t,
agenda
media
effect
political
a t t e n t i o n by many.
influences
communi cat i on,
scholars
came
which?
McCombs and Shaw t r i e d ,
and t he p u b l i c ' s
to
in
In
p r es e n t
1977,
that
it
has
Among t h i s c r i t i c i s m t he most i m p o r t a n t
other
words,
t he p u b l i c ' s agenda o r t he med i a ' s agenda?
different
their
and
comes
findings.
For
example
t o examine t he c o n t en t o f t he media
views a t two or more p o i n t s
study were ambiguous a t b e s t .
agenda
In search o f t he answer,
conflicting
tried
which
in time.
The dat a f o r
But t he r e s u l t s
newspapers s uppor t ed t he
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g hyp o t h e s i s t h a t t he media set t he agenda f o r t he p u b l i c .
t he o t h e r
site
hand,
notion,
t he dat a f o r
of
On
TV news pr esent ed more s up po r t f o r t he oppo
t h a t t he p u b l i c ' s
agenda i n f l u e n c e d t he medi a' s agenda.
They
argued t h a t t he two media are p l a y i n g d i f f e r e n t r o l e s i n t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
pr oc es s,
but t h e i r dat a do not r e a l l y
p u b l i c agenda (Shaw and McCombs,
Thi s
that
assumpt i on
" peopl e
do not
was
mass media
s uppor t ed
necessarily
information
i n f l u e n c e on t he
1977).
by
t he
findings
adopt
t he
precise
t h a t may be suggested by t he media"
that
show t he t e l e v i s i o n
( Gar ber ,
provides
t he
of
Garber
attitudes
1980, p . 9 ) .
ingredients
who argued
and o p i n i o n s
I ns t ea d ,
that
she says
peopl e
use t o
" a d j u s t t h e i r e x i s t i n g a t t i t u d e s t o keep pace w i t h a changi ng w o r l d " .
Such a c o n t i nu ou s
a d j u s t me nt
den Berg who found t h a t
has a l s o
been suggested by Watt and Van
t he media have mai nl y
a s h o r t t er m e f f e c t
on t he
audi ence.
They concl uded t h a t t he media m a i n t ai n s h o r t - t e r m d i r e c t e f f e c t s
in
be h a v i o u r ,
v i ewer
agenda-setting
and
effect.
that
Fur t he r mo r e,
occur on l y d u r i n g t he e a r l y
dence t h a t
even
st ages o f
pr omi nent
t he
coverage
au t hor s
cover age,
has
indicated
and t h a t
l a t e r coverage i s r e l a t e d t o audi ence be ha v i ou r
a
short-term
that
there
is
effects
no e v i
(Watt and Berg,
1981, p p . 4 3 - 49 ) .
In an e l a b o r a t i o n o f t he n o t i o n t h a t adj u st me nt t o p r e v a i l i n g concerns
underlies agenda-setting,
Behr and I yengar (1985) menti oned t h a t t he p u b l i c
- 27 -
agenda i s i n f l u e n c e d by what t he media pr e sen t s as news about i s s ues which
concern peopl e.
They pr esent ed t he f o l l o w i n g t h r e e forms o f ad j u s t me n t s;
1.
P u b l i c concern f o r
i s s u es d i f f e r s
i n r esponse a c c o r d i ng t o t he
n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n f rom which t he i s s u e i s d e r i v e d .
For example, as
energy shor t ages worsen, more d r i v e r s spend t i me i n gas l i n e s ; as food
p r i c e s r i s e , more shoppers n o t i c e t he d e c l i n e i n t h e i r pu r c h a s i n g
power .
2.
Worsening n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s spawn coverage on t he ba s i s o f which
peopl e
form
judgements
about
national
pr obl ems.
As
in flation
i n c r ea s e s , and t e l e v i s i o n runs more news s t o r i e s on i n f l a t i o n , more
peopl e concl ude t h a t i n f l a t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t probl em.
3.
People may respond t o i n f o r m a t i o n about l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e i r
neighbourhoods or communi t i es, i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i r e d t hr ou gh i n t e r p e r
sonal communi cat i on, d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e , or l o c a l media.
Local i n f o r
mat i on may be g e n e r a l i s e d t o f orm j udgements about n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s
(Behr and I yen gar , 1985, p p . 3 8 - 57 ) .
t he
A current
st udy t o examine t he e x t e n t
agenda
newspapers
of
was
introduced
examine t he i n f l u e n c e o f p u b l i c
t he
local
St at es
on
government
agenci es
t he
and
daily
t i o n upon which j o u r n a l i s t s
agenda
and
t he
salience
of
by
Turk
( 1986) .
information o f f ic e rs
in
t he
Sunday
sup po r t t o p r e v i o u s l i t e r a t u r e ,
t o which governments
S t at e
of
newspapers.
She
sought
to
who work on b e h a l f o f
New Orl eans
Her
influence
dat a
in
the
pr esent ed
Uni t ed
further
which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t he source o f i n f o r m a
heavily r e ly ,
t hose
hel ps t o shape t he i s s ues o f t he
issues,
and t h a t
t he media a c c o r d i n g l y
shape t he s a l i e n c e o f t hose i s s u es i n t he p u b l i c minds.
Turk's
findings
pr esent ed
empirical
evi dence
that
public
relation
p r a c t i t i o n e r s and t he i n f o r m a t i o n t he y p r o v i d e t o t he j o u r n a l i s t s i n f l u e n c e
t he
agenda
storie s
of
newspapers.
ap pear i ng
journalists
subsidised
from
news
in
was
newspapers
public
it ems
It
relation
in itiated
also
was
loaded
s our ces.
by
public
were found t o be " W r i t t e n News Re l ea se, "
6 p e r c en t
"Agenci es Documents."
found
-
t he
c o n t en t
with
information
For
example,
relation
21 p e r c e n t
The j o u r n a l i s t
28
that
t he
by
444
48 pe r c en t
"Tel ephone C a l l s , "
initiated
news
ob t ai n e d
among
ag en c i es ,
of
and
p r o d u c t i o n s were
only
16 p e r c en t
im portantly,
Calls"
and 6 pe r cen t
"Agency
Document."
t hose news s t o r i e s which were s u b s i d i s e d by t he p u b l i c
mat i on o f f i c e r s
but t hey
"Tel ephone
were found
not
on l y
to
include
i t ems
of
a l s o c on t ai n ed t he judgements o f t hose p u b l i c
More
in fo r
raw i n f o r m a t i o n ,
relations
officers
and t he p o l i c i e s o f t h e i r agenci es as t o how t he p r i o r i t i e s and s a l i e n c e o f
t h e i r news shoul d be d e f i n e d .
mat i on i n d i c a t e d a p o s i t i v e
s u b s i d i s e d news i n i t i a t e d
policies,
but
only
30
For exampl e, 84 p e r c en t o f s u b s i d i s e d i n f o r
p r o - ag e n c i e s p o l i c y .
Sim ilarly,
70 p e r c en t
of
by t he r e p o r t e r s was s u p p o r t i v e o f t he a g en c i es'
p e r c en t
was
negative
or
even
mixed
( Tur k ,
1986,
p p . 13-14) .
Fur t her mor e,
Turk
believes
that
even t he
rest
of
t he news which was
not a r e f l e c t i o n o f t he p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s agenda, i s s t i l l
t he p r o d u c t i o n o f
other
sour ces.
to
media
agenda
in
"Some o f
t hose
much t he
same
sources
may have sought
p u r po s e f ul
agency p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n o f f i c e r s "
(Ibid,
subsi dy
influence
providing
ways
as
t he
t he
pp.27-28).
CONCEPTUALISATION AND OPERATIONALISATION OF THE AGENDA-SETTING
Par t
o f t he r es ear ch o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g was d i r e c t e d
alisation
and t he
di mensi ons,
agenda,
operationalisation
particularly
and
comp l e t i on
such aspect s
inter-media
d e f i n e d as " t he t o t a l
of
t he
of
agenda.
t he
agenda-setting
as t i me f r ame,
For
t o t he con c e p t u
example,
t he
variables
media agenda,
t i me
frame
and
public
has
been
p e r i o d under c o n s i d e r a t i o n f rom t he b e g i nn i ng t o t he
dat a
gathering
pr ocess"
reported
by
Gormley
(1975,
p p . 304- 308) .
To
clarify
t he
t er m
s e t t i n g was desi gned.
as:
"How l ong would i t
audi ence?"
time-frame,
a
cumulati ve
r esear ch
of
agenda-
The main f ocus was t o f i n d answers t o q u e s t i o n s such
t ak e an i s s u e t o be consumed and r ec o gn i s ed by t he
and "What t i me
span shoul d t he r e s e a r c h e r use i n media c o n t en t
a n a l y s i s?"
- 29 -
I t was r ec ogni s ed t h a t media e f f e c t s
Lang
(1981)
figures
observed
during
Shaw deci ded
that
elections
on t h e i r
t he
in
mass media
gradual
t i me
are not c o m p e l l i n g or immedi ate.
construct
periods
frame o f
three
of
i s s ues
t ime.
and
Also,
and a h a l f
p o litica l
McCombs
weeks d u r i n g
and
their
e a r l i e s t st udy o f t he media and two and a h a l f weeks f o r t he p u b l i c agenda.
They al l owed an o v e r l a p o f two and a h a l f weeks o f
si mul t aneous media and
p u b l i c agenda dat a g a t h e r i n g t o mi n i mi s e i n c o n v e n i e n t t i m e - l a g .
Ti me-f rame
concept ual
se le c t io n periods.
whereas
in
his
studies
var y
s h a r pl y
The range o f t he t i me frame i s enormous.
st udy
of
t he
Lake
Monroe
Cohen used a t i m e - f r am e o f t h r e e y e a r s ,
their
st udy o f
and f o l l o w d i f f e r e n t
Tol edo,
Ohio,
local
issue
in
t i me
For example,
Bl oomi ngt on,
I nd i a n a ,
Palmgreen and Cl ar k chose t o l i m i t
and n a t i o n a l
i ssues t o a p e r i o d o f two
weeks.
Such
wide
variations
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t empor al
agenda t i m e - f r a m e s .
from
t he
be gi nn i ng
prompted
features.
The f i r s t
to
t he
Eyal
et
al.,
(1981)
They i d e n t i f i e d
five
to
elaborate
on
characteristics
of
i s t he t i m e - f r am e which r e f e r s t o t he pe r i o d
end
of
dat a
gathering.
The
second
t i me
l ag
r e f e r s t o t he lapse o f t i me between i ndependent v a r i a b l e ,
t he media agenda,
and
shoul d
t he
however,
allow
public
that
agenda
some s t u d i e s
an average t i me
draw t he a t t e n t i o n
is
as
d e f i n e d as t he
t he
dependent
have no t i me
l ag o f
five
to
t o t he concept o f d u r a t i o n
interval
agenda has been c o l l e c t e d .
of
l ag a t
a week o f
It
a ll,
ni ne months.
in
while
be
o t he r s
Thirdly,
not ed,
tend
to
some s t u d i e s
agenda-setting.
D u r at i o n
d u r i n g which t he media measure i s c o l l e c t e d
terms o f media agenda and t o t he o v e r a l l
a period
variable.
in
t i me span d u r i n g which t he p u b l i c
Sc ho l a r s chose v a r i o u s d u r a t i o n s be g i nn i ng w i t h
media
c o n t en t
analysis,
as
Mullins
di d
in
1977,
and endi ng w i t h dat a g a t h e r i n g i n f o u r and a h a l f months, as i n t he Gormley
st udy i n 1975.
McCombs and Shaw suggest a gener al
- 30
f or mul a f o r d u r a t i o n
in
agenda-setting.
pers
will
months
be
tirme
They b e l i e v e
more
representative
period.
measurement.
It
F i n a l l y , Eyal
e t al
i s t he " . . .
an
issue"
that
The
refers
fourth
to
the
t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
if
it
is
a s pe c t
^
observed
t he
span d u r i n g t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f newspa
in
a
duration
of
process o f
i n c l u d e what t hey c a l l e d t he o pt i ma l
three
to
public
dat a
five
agenda
gathering.
e f f e c t span, which
peak a s s o c i a t i o n between media emphasis and p u b l i c emphasis o f
( Eyal
al.,
et
1981,
s e t t i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d by Eyal
p . 212) .
in Figure 2.1.
Time
Medi a
Agenda
The t i m e - f r a m e concept o f agenda-
Du r a t i o n
Frame
P u b l i c Agenda D u r at i o n
Time Lag
.20
.70
F i g . 2. 1
Source
The Concept o f Ti me-Frame i n Ag e n d a - S e t t i n g
as I l l u s t r a t e d by Eyal e t al
Mass Communication Revi ew Year Book,
;
1981, p . 213
AUDIENCE AGENDA MODELS
As menti oned
that
a
hi gh
earlier,
correlation
media and t he
perceived
t he
exists
main
h y p o t he s i s
between t o p i c s
i mpor t ance
of
in
or
such i s sues
agenda-setting
assumes
i s sues p ub l i s h e d by t he
among media
audiences.
Researchers o f mass communi cati on agreed upon some t ec h ni q ue s t o c onc e pt u
al i se and o p e r a t i o n a l i s e
is
t he method which
media agendas.
of
topics
or
is
this
wi de l y
hypot hesi s.
adapted
The c o n t e n t
amongst
analysis
researchers
procedur e
t o measure t he
To measure audi e nc e agenda r e s e a r c h e r s o f t e n p r o v i d e a l i s t
i ssues which t he r espondent
sure t he e x i s t i n g
relationship
i s asked t o rank o r d e r .
between media agendas and
31
audi ence
To mea
agendas
r esear cher s,
setting
however,
found t h r e e p r a c t i c a l models t o a s c e r t a i n t he agenda-
empirically.
They are
t he
awareness mod el ,
t he
priorities
model
and t he s a l i e n c e model.
The assumpt ion u n d e r l y i n g t he awareness model
i s t h a t p u b l i c awareness
o f c e r t a i n i ssues and t o p i c s comes t hr ou gh t he media, and t h a t con s eq ue nt l y
t he l e v e l
tion
o f awareness w i l l
and coverage
gi v en
be det er mi ned a c c o r d i ng t o t he l e v e l o f a t t e n
by t he
aggr egat e media t o
media avoi d c o v e r i n g any p a r t i c u l a r
be aware o f t h a t i s sue or ev e n t .
fore
be c o r r e l a t e d
media are
rank
with
c ons i der ed
order
t he
audi ence awareness.
agenda.
i ss u e i n t he media det er mi nes
assi gned
to
it
in
t he
that
If
t he
t he audi ence w i l l
not
p riority
content.
consume media agenda i n a c o g n i t i v e l y
In t he p r i o r i t i e s
has t he
The amount
its
media
issues.
The degree o f media coverage would t h e r e
as a power
public
i s s u e or ev e nt ,
t hese
capability
of
to
model,
t he
o r ga n i s e
and
space and t i me
gi ven t o
an
as evi denced by t he i mpor t ance
In
t he
salience
balanced pr ocess.
model,
audi ence
Under t he i n f l u
ence o f t he media t hey as si gn h i g h e r o r lower i mpor t ance t o t he i s sues i n a
way
that
fits
appropriate
scientists.
in to
of
their
t hese models
is
They have not y e t
agenda-setting
a v al ue t h a t
He concl uded,
The
DeGeorge
c hoi ce
has not y e t
agreed on which
operationalisation.
dence t o i n d i c a t e which o f
setting.
cognitivestructure.
of
noted
of
t he
been approved by
t hese models best
that
there
t hese f o u r models best e x e m p l i f i e s
is
fits
no e v i
t he agenda-
however, t h a t :
" t h e p r i o r i t i e s model w i l l work best - best d e s c r i b e r e a l i t y
-when t h e r e i s a hi gh media emphasis and p u b l i c exposure t o a set
o f t o p i c s or i s su es and hi gh
i n f l u e n c e o f some i n t e r v e n i n g
v a r i a b l e , such as i n t e r e s t or need f o r o r i e n t a t i o n .
The aware
ness model w i l l best d e s c r i b e t he s i t u a t i o n when t h e r e i s bot h
low media exposure and low i n f l u e n c e f rom t he i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i
able.
F o l l o w i n g t h i s r ea s o n i n g , t he s a l i e n c e model i s l o g i c a l
f o r use i n an envi r onment where t h e r e i s a c ombi nat i on o f
h i g h / l o w or l o w / h i g h i n f l u e n c e
between media emphasis and t he
contingent v a r i a b l e " .
(DeGeorge, 1981, p . 222)
- 32
most
Anot her model
for
t he
i s pr es ent ed by S c h e f f (1967) which pr o v i d ed a framework
conceptualisation
and st udy o f c o - o r i e n t a t i o n s
c oul d e a s i l y be adapted t o t he st udy
give
his
own r e a c t i o n s
or
consensus
o f mass communi cat i ons,
A person
can
and he
can
and o p i n i o n s t o a gi ven communi cat i on,
a l s o gi ve h i s o p i n i o n on t he views which he t h i n k s o t h e r s w i l l
with
r e f er e n c e
direct
to
that
communi cat i on.
i mpr ess i ons as w e l l
In
other
words,
as i mp r es s i o ns o f o t h e r
we
people's
that
have formed
w ill
ga t h e r
reaction
to a
gi v en i t em o f news or i n f o r m a t i o n .
Sc h e f f
not ed,
individuals
states
however,
on an i ss ue
that
co-orientation
constitutes
t he zer o
or
level
agreement
between two
of c o - o r ie n t a t io n .
He
:
".
. . w e c a l l agreement t he zero l e v e l o f c o - o r i e n t a t i o n o f
o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g s (we r ec o g n i s e t h a t t hey r e c o g n i s e i t ) as t he
f i r s t - l e v e l c o - o r i e n t a t i o n , and p e r c e p t i o n s o f o t h e r ' s pe r c ep
t i o n s (we r ec ogni s ed t h a t t hey r ec ogni s ed t h a t we r ec ogni s ed i t )
as t he second l e v e l or c o - o r i e n t a t i o n "
( S c h e f f , 1967, p p . 32-46)
In an e l a b o r a t i o n o f S c h e f f ' s c o - o r i e n t a t i o n model,
introduced
a model
communication
of
which
interpersonal
has
was based on f i v e gener al
certain
co-orientation
pertinence
postulates.
to
terms
of
directs
information
over
exchange,
The f i r s t
ac t s
independently
constructs.
attention
time.
i n c r ea s es
t he
f rom
to
t he
The t h i r d
need
The
st udy
of
mass
It
i s t h a t communication i s a
second
Thi s r e q u i r e s t he adop
is
that
for
measuri ng
per sonal
cognition.
t he
is
based on a p e r s o n ' s
orientation
to
or
issues.
r esear ch
shoul d
The f i f t h
consist
- 33 -
of
of
that
t he
t he
exchange
change o f
communi cat i on,
information
objects
is
studying
exchange o f
co-orientation
t he
u n i t s o f a n a l y s i s and r e - c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g v a r i a b l e s i n
interpersonal
information
for
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g model s.
pr ocess o f exchangi ng i n f o r m a t i o n between peopl e.
tio n of interpersonal
Chaf f ee and McLeod
of
per sonal
as a process o f
sequence
of
messages and
The f o u r t h
is
that
of
s i mul t aneous
capability
is
t he
that
t he
ba s i c
relationship
t he f r e e
dat a
of
between t he
persons i n t e r a c t i n g and t h e i r i n t e r p e r s o n a l
c o g n i t i o n s r eg a r d i n g o b j e c t s or
i s s ues pr e sen t e d, di sc us s ed or exchanged (Chaf f ee and McLeod, 1970).
In
and
an at t emp t
McLeod
(1973)
directed
to
analysis
together.
boxes
than
devel op a way o f
introduced
measuri ng
represent
rather
to
t he
t he
t he
t he
Measurement
variables
Thus,
in
ba s i c
cognitive
pe r s o n " .
their
cation.
The reason gi v en was t h a t
or
Their
t he
in
perceptual
" t he
emphasis
perceptual
pr esent ed
Fi g u r e
are
was
units
2.2,
orientation
variables
Chaf f ee
t hus
of
"the
measures,
t he
rela
not t he measurers t hemsel ves"
(1981) con s i d er ed t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g h y p o t he s i s as
s u r v i v e d amongst a l l
more
and
Model .
link
measures,
one t h a t
istics
model
co-orientation,
1973, p . 384) .
McQuail and Windahl
not w i t h a t t i t u d e
that
F ur t he r mo r e,
t i o n s h i p between t he o r i e n t a t i o n a l
( Chaf f ee and McLeod,
measuring
hypot heses about t he e f f e c t o f mass communi
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g deal s w i t h
change or d i r e c t l y
less
coincide
w i t h o p i n i o n change.
with
mass
communication
learning
and
Such c h a r a c t e r
empirical
findings
which suppor t ed t he assumpt i on t h a t t he e f f e c t o f mass communicat ion occur s
mai nl y
on t he
information
level.
theory
succeeded
c on n e c t i ng t hese f i n d i n g s w i t h t he p o s s i b l e e f f e c t on t he o p i n i o n
t he
proposition
that
t h a t t he peopl e
put
them
t he
media
have a t e a c h i n g
1earn t he i s s u e s
in
order
of
i mpor t ance
shown
in
Fi g u r e
function,
f r om t he media c o n t e n t ,
a c c o r di n g
to
level
which i s
in
by
s i mp l y
and c ons equent l y
t he e x t e n t
of t h e i r
media
coverage.
As
2.3,
some
i s s u es
receive
more
attention
in
t he
media and conseq ue nt l y p u b l i c f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t hese i s sues g r a d u a l l y grows
over
a period
of
t i me .
accordingly.
T h e r e f or e,
comparing t he
findings
Other
i ss ues
it
possible to tes t
of
is
t he
media
receive
c o n t en t
less
a t t e n t i o n and
this
analysis
hy p o t h e s i s e a s i l y
with
any
change
p u b l i c o p i n i o n u si ng a sur vey desi gned t o d i s c l o s e any such change.
- 34
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by
of
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35
The a u t h o r s ,
however,
s e t t i n g h y p o t he s i s .
pointed
The f i r s t
variable
influence.
ambiguities
in
t he
agenda
agenda may be d i r e c t o r may be m o d i f i e d
Thi s f a c t o r i s
must be accounted f o r
certain
i s t he u n c e r t a i n t y o f whet her t he e f f e c t o f
t he media agenda on t he i n d i v i d u a l
by per sonal
ou t
h i g h l y i mp o r t a n t as any i n t e r v e n i n g
i n any r esear c h d e s i g n ,
especially
i n con
t e n t a n a l y s i s as a source p r o v i d i n g i n d i c a t i o n s o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g e f f e c t s .
D ifferential
Media
A t t e n t i on
Issues
X"
Consequence P u b l i c
P e r c e p t i o n o f I ssues
////////////////////////////////////
///////////
X^
///
X^
//////////////////////////////
X^
//
X^
/////////////////////////////////////////
F i g . 2. 3
The Ag e n d a - Se t t i n g Mo d e l . M a t t e r s gi ven most
a t t e n t i o n i n t he media w i l l be pe r c e i ve d as t he most i m p o r t a n t
So u r ce
The second probl em i s
agendas.
agendas
For
for
example,
: McQuail and Wi ndahl ,
t he method
it
institu tion s,
is
used t o
anticip ated
can add t h a t i n a t r a d i t i o n a l
differentiate
that
parties
political
1981, p . 63
there
between d i f f e r e n t
ar e
different
and government
group
o fficia ls.
We
system t h e r e ar e r u l i n g f a m i l y agendas which
p l ay t h e i r r o l e a l o n g s i d e government agendas.
The t h i r d t h e o r e t i c a l
a m b i g u i t y about a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s t he degree o f
pur pos i venes s t h a t c oul d be imputed t o t he media.
In some cases t he agen
d a - s e t t i n g seems t o be a s y s t em a t i c process desi gned i n t e n t i o n a l l y
t he media
in
certain
from a f u n c t i o n a l
directions.
perspective.
In
other
cases
its
impact
is
t o l ead
anal ysed
The a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t h e o r y o f pr ess e f f e c t s
36
i s i n d e b t ed ,
introduced
and
as Shaw argued
by Bl uni l er and Katz
selective
other
when d e a l i n g
sources t o
in itiate
( 1979) ,
satisfy
( 1974)
with
t he
t o t he uses and g r a t i f i c a t i o n
r esear c h
which pe r c e i ve d audi ences as a c t i v e
media messages.
Mass media compete w i t h
needs o f t he audi ence,
and i t
must t h e r e f o r e
t he l i n k a g e s needed t o s a t i s f y t hose needs because t he c ho i ce l i e s
w i t h t he audi ence.
McQuail
cast s doubt s ,
by t he media or by p u b l i c
by
s cholar s
tional
whose
however,
need
enquiries
e l i t e who c o n t r o l
on whet her a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s
(uses and g r a t i f i c a t i o n )
went
beyond
or,
agenda-setting,
in itia te d
as was r a i s e d
by t he
access t o i m p o r t a n t news (McQuail
in stitu
& Wi ndahl ,
1981)
INTER-MEDIA AGENDA
In a very r e c e n t , st udy At wa t e r e t al
t he
inter-media
agenda-setting
The media components c o n s i s t e d
per s ,
r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n
The r e p o r t s
of
t he
used t o
results
over a 12-day t i me span.
of
t he
context
concerning stat e
t he
of
t he
St at e
news coverage by w i r e
i n a mi d- wes t c a p i t a l
news s t o r i e s
find
in
(1987) examined what t hey c a l l e d
trends
in
legislature.
services,
newspa
c i t y o f t he Uni t ed S t a t e s .
government were anal ysed and
story
in itia tio n
acr oss t he media
The o b j e c t i v e was t o st udy f o u r f a c t o r s :
1.
Which o f t he t h r e e media f e a t u r e d t he most news s t o r i e s
c on c er n i ng s t a t e government whi ch were not covered by t he o t h e r
two.
2.
What emphasis t he t h r e e media put
nated by a t l e a s t two o f them.
on
3.
Over t he p e r i o d o f t i m e , how do t he
b r o a d c a s t e r s and w i r e s e r v i c e s per sonnel
news i tems?
4.
Over t he p e r i o d o f t i m e ,
o t h e r ' s s t o r y agendas?
how do a l l
news
reports
dissemi
newspapers a f f e c t t he
i n coverage o f maj or
t h r e e media a f f e c t each
The f i n d i n g s were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p r e v i o u s r esear ch l i t e r a t u r e ,
bureaucratic
news
dominated
t he
media.
37
The a n a l y s i s
in
namely t h a t
Atwater's
st udy
showed t h a t
government
t he t h r e e media,
and p o l i t i c a l
t he newspapers,
vis i o n services.
topics
occupi ed
t he
hi gh est
rank
in
t he w i r e s e r v i c e s and t he r a d i o and t e l e
Busi ness and economic news ranked second.
Fur t her mor e,
findings
indicated
that
correlation
between
t he
wire
s e r v i c e s and t he newspapers was . 87, t he newspapers and b r o a d c a s t i n g c o r r e
lation
was
.90,
and t he
highest
s e r v i c e s and b r o a d c a s t i n g a t
correlation
of
all
.97 ( At wa t er e t a l ,
was
1987, p . 5 7 ) .
found t h a t when t he c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n s were c o n s i d e r e d ,
t he
wire
services
newspapers
and
showed t h a t
t he
agenda
then
t he
was
to
broadcasting.
newspapers'
broadcaster's
found
agenda
agenda
than
t he
change t he
The
reverse
followed
correlation,
most
of
story
agenda
whole st udy p e r i o d .
t he
three
uni que
media
storie s
tended
O v e r al l
outputs.
among o t h e r
to
follow
findin gs
that
of
t he
showed s i m i l a r
for
media.
considerable
s e t t i n g r o l e o f t he newspapers and o t h e r
t he
time.
newspapers
example,
were
influence
among t hose media occur s
on
Such
The w i r e
over
t he
disseminating
inter-media
agenda-
news o r g a n i s a t i o n s was found not
t o be dependent on o t h e r media s t o r i e s w i t h one r e s e r v a t i o n ,
t he
however,
news judgement acr oss
Newspapers,
The
by t he
influence
i n f l u e n c e was h i gh e r i n t he case o f newspapers and w i r e s e r v i c e s .
services
wire
At wa t er al so
have a g r e a t e r
for
t he
o f t he t h r e e media
most,
baseline
seemed t o
between
within
t he
which was t h a t
interpersonal
amongst j o u r n a l i s t s p r i o r t o or a f t e r news p u b l i c a t i o n s
(Ibid,
c on t ac t s
p . 60) .
CONCEPTUAL FORMATION OF AGENDA-SETTING
Al t hough t he impact o f t he media i n i n f l u e n c i n g t he c o g n i t i o n s o f t he
audi ence was w i d e l y known,
t he e m p i r i c a l
evi dence t o s up po r t t h i s
pr esent ed i n t he work o f McCombs and Shaw ( 1972) .
empirical
verification
t he mass media.
o f what t he y
called
i dea was
They p r o v i d ed t he f i r s t
t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
function
of
They s e l e c t ed a number o f undecided v o t e r s and asked them
t o i d e n t i f y t he key i ss ues o f a p o l i t i c a l
- 38 -
campaign as t hey pe r c ei ved them,
regardless
of
candi dat es.
t he
degree
of
i mpor t anc e
assi gned
to
They a l s o conducted a c o n t en t a n a l y s i s
found t h a t
t hey c o n t a i n e d
t hese
of
i ssues
by t he
s e l e c t ed media and
15 i s s u es o f maj or or mi nor i mp or t an c e.
A rank
o r d e r a n a l y s i s o f t he dat a showed a hi gh c o r r e l a t i o n between what t he media
t r e a t e d as i m p o r t a n t and t he degree o f i mpor t ance assi gned t o t hese i s s ues
by t he
media
public.
The
pr esent ed
as
important
power t o i n f l u e n c e
agenda" ( I b i d ,
significant
t he
rank
"was
as
non, on t he o t h e r hand, i t
i mpor t ance
evi dence o f
t he mass med i a ' s
t he r e by
refers
t he p u b l i c
t o t he a b i l i t y
o f t he
As a phenome
assi gned
to
event s
or
things
in
by t he p u b l i c .
t he
media
and t he
Analytically,
way
agenda s e t
w i t h i n t he domain o f c o g n i t i v e
had been f o r mu l a t e d and r e f o r m u l a t e d f o r y ea r s be f o r e t he name
attitude
change
example,
notes
and
t he
r e f e r s t o t he corr espondence between t he d i f f e r
was coi ned by McCombs and Shaw under such concepts
McCombs
setting
s t r u c t u r e o f t he audi ence.
t i n g as a concept and as a phenomenon f a l l s
It
between what
issues,
as a c oncept ,
are t h o u g h t o f c o g n i t i v e l y
theory.
correlation
p . 6) .
media t o i n f l u e n c e t he c o g n i t i v e
t hey
t aken
s a l i e n c e o f t he
T h e r e f o r e agenda s e t t i n g ,
ential
order
and c o g n i t i v e
t h a t "some
Shaw,
settin g function
K ur t
for
organization.
t en
and
y ea r s
Gladys
Lang
t he mass medi a".
" t he mass media s t r u c t u r e d
a reality
s i v e t h a t i t was d i f f i c u l t ,
if
C o n c e p t ua l l y ,
be f o r e
t he n,
t he
had
as s e l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n ,
Gandy
its
(1982,
explicit
begun
to
pp.5-6),
for
formulation
specify
an
by
agenda
The Langs advanced t he n o t i o n
that
which was so p e r v a s i v e and so o b t r u
not i m p o s s i b l e , t o escape i t s
i dea t h a t
in fluence".
t he media set s t he audi ence agenda
by s t r u c t u r i n g t h e i r c o g n i t i v e wo r l d al ong t he l i n e s pr esent ed i n t he media
was
prevalent
settin g"
phenomenon
t er m.
of
in
lite ra tu re
l ong
The i n t r o d u c t i o n
cor r espondence
b e f or e
of
between
- 39
t he
that
t he
in troduction
t er m,
however,
differential
of
t he
"agenda
demarcated
presentation
t he
of
certain
lic 's
issues
in
t he media,
cognitions.
and t he
s a l i e n c e o f t hese i ssues i n t he pub
From a t h e o r e t i c a l
t i n g i s but a hy p ot he s i s whi c h,
after its
and
under
Shaw,
theory,
has
been
examined
and cannot be.
Rather i t
therefore,
perspective,
in itia l
different
falls
agenda
identification
conditions.
set
by McCombs
It
is
not
a
as an hyp o t h e s i s w i t h i n t he bounds
o f c o g n i t i v e t he o r y s t a t e d b e f o r e .
RELATED APPROACHES TO THE AGENDA-SETTING
Three main approaches
agenda-setting
t he o r y
of
in
media s t u d i e s
overlap with
t he
pr e s s ;
knowledge
s i l e n c e and t he gat ekeeper appr oach.
(1970)
advanced
social
system,
t he
argument
members w i t h
do t hose w i t h r e l a t i v e l y
between
two
social
suggest
that
this
t he
that
as
t he
st udy
gap, t he
In t he knowledge gap,
mass media
o f t he
spiral
of
Ti che no r e t al
are
infused i n t o
h i gh e r e d u c a t i on a c q u i r e knowledge f a s t e r
lower e d u c a t i o n .
groups
t he
increases
h y p o t he s i s
is
Consequent l y,
r a t h e r than
based
a
than
t he knowledge gap
decr eases.
on t he assumpt i on
The
that
a u t hor s
t he
highly
educated peopl e are expect ed t o have :
1.
B e t t e r communicat ion s k i l l s ,
comprehensi on a b i l i t i e s .
2.
More s t or e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
3.
I ncr eased r e l e v a n t s o c i a l
4.
More a b i l i t y
such
as
hi gher
to retain information.
l i k e l y t o gai n
t he lower educated members ( T i c h e n o r ,
1970).
have r e p o r t e d
(1983)
of
and
contacts.
The h i g h e r educated members ar e more
Researchers
r ea d i ng
have t e s t e d
this
c on flictin g results.
h y p o t he s i s
under
knowledge
various
f a s t e r than
conditions
A n a l y s i n g 58 p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s ,
r e p o r t e d t h a t n e a r l y t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f t hose s t u d i e s t r e a t e d
e d u c a t i on
as
an
i ndependent
variable
40 -
and
levels
of
and
Gaziano
levels
knowledge as a
dependent v a r i a b l e .
abl es
is
She suggested t h a t c a r e f u l
essential
to
explain
t he
Among t hose t h i r d or i n t e r v e n i n g
1.
Types o f t o p i c
2.
in
knowledge
gaps.
v a r i a b l e s are :
Level s o f media p u b l i c i t y .
Soc i al
4.
Ex i s t en c e o f s o c i a l
5.
s t r u c t u r e o f t he
Individual's
Sim ilarly,
F irstly,
level
McQuail
community.
conflicts
introduced
t he gener al
r e l a t e d t o t he t o p i c s .
o f i n t e r e s t and m o t i v a t i o n t o l e a r n .
(Gazi ano,
two
levels
of
hypotheses
1983)
of
knowledge
h y p o t he s i s which deal s w i t h t he gener al
b u t i o n o f knowledge between s o c i a l
ties
decrease
vari
studied.
3.
gap.
continuing
e x a mi n at i on o f t h i r d
classes.
d is tri
In a s i t u a t i o n where i n e q u a l i
i n e d uc a t i on and income e x i s t w i t h i n a gi ven s o c i e t y , mass media al one
cannot
modi f y
cific
i ss ues
t han
others.
closing
(1975)
t hese
and
in eq ualitie s.
topics
At t h i s
that
hy p o t h e s i s
some audi ences
mi ght
l e v e l t he media coul d p l ay t he
gaps between t he
suggest
i n which
The second
t he
hi gher
media
and l e s s
act
to
dealt
be b e t t e r
role
of
i nf or med audi ence.
close
t he
with
gaps,
spe
i nf or med
openi ng
and
Donahue e t al
especially
on
t he
i s s ues o f g r e a t concern and d u r i n g c o n f l i c t s t h a t i n c r ea s e t he tendency f o r
t he
masses
sources
of
to
know and
information
learn.
for
The
printed
media,
however,
f av o ur ed
classes,
are found
as
f avour ed
t o widen t he gaps
more than t e l e v i s i o n .
The second approach t o a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s t h a t o f t he s p i r a l
of
Elisabeth
Noel l e
Neumann
( 1974).
A good
summary o f
this
of silence
approach
gi ven by Katz (1983) as f o l l o w s :
" ( 1 ) I n d i v i d u a l s have o p i n i o n s ; (2) f e a r i n g i s o l a t i o n , i n d i v i d u
a l s w i l l not express t h e i r o p i n i o n s i f t hey p e r c e i v e themsel ves
unsupport ed by o t h e r s ; (3) a ' q u a s i - s t a t i c a l sense' i s employed
by i n d i v i d u a l s t o scan t he envi r onment f o r si gns o f s u p p o r t ; (4)
mass media c o n s t i t u t e t he maj or source o f r e f er e n c e o f i n f o r m a
t i o n about t he d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o p i n i o n and t hus f o r t he c l i m a t e
o f s u p p o r t / n o n - s u p p o r t ; (5) so do o t h e r r e f er e n c e gr oups; (6) t he
media tend t o speak i n one v o i c e , al most monopol i s t i cal l y ; (7)
- 41 -
is
t he media tend t o d i s t o r t t he d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o p i n i o n i n s o c i e t y ,
bi ased as t hey are by t he [ l e f t i s t ] views o f j o u r n a l i s t s ; (8)
p e r c e i v i n g t hemsel ves uns uppor t ed, groups o f i n d i v i d u a l s - who
may, a t t i me s , even c o n s t i t u t e a m a j o r i t y - w i l l l os e c on f i de nc e
and wi t h d r a w f rom p u b l i c debat e, t hus speedi ng t he demise o f
t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t he s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g s p i r a l o f s i l e n c e .
They
may not change t h e i r minds, but t hey st op r e c r u i t m e n t o f o t h e r s
and abandon t he f i g h t ; (9) s o c i e t y i s mani pul at ed and i mpover
i shed t he r e b y .
Thus t he ' p o w e r f u l e f f e c t '
assi gned t o mass
communicat ion i s a s u b t l e one".
( Ka tz,
Neumann
introduced
t he
t er m
"spiral
phenomena because she b e l i e v e s t h a t ,
of
silence"
as McQuail
(1983)
1983,
to
p . 89)
identify
reported,
such
" t he more
t he dominant v e r s i o n o f t he o p i n i o n consensus i s d i ssemi n at ed by mass media
in
society,
t he
accelerating
1983,
more
t he
t he
media
contrary
effect,
individual
hence
a
v o i c es
'sp ira llin g '
silent,
pr ocess"
t hus
(McQuai l ,
p . 202).
Thi s
sort
twice w i t h in
of
experience,
a decade.
as
The f i r s t
Neumann
suggest s,
cellor
Erhard's
vis it
to
receptions
Germany
at
and meeti ngs
that
time.
create
government
images o f e x p e c t a t i o n
t he p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n
came as a r e p e t i t i o n
t he
(Neumann,
with
t he
Queen o f
polls
parties,
Germany
ruling
1984).
showed
England
a split
during
among
t he f o c u s i n g o f t e l e v i s i o n
a p o litica l
creat ed
that
in
o f media f o c u s i n g on Chan
Though
v o t e r s between t he two maj or p o l i t i c a l
on members o f t he
happened
oc cas i on was i n 1965 when p u b l i c sup po r t
f o r t he government suddenl y jumped as a r e s u l t
her
remain
climate
which
helped
to
p a r t y would be t he wi nne r o f
Such a s h i f t i n p u b l i c o p i n i o n
o f a s i m i l a r pr ocess observed i n
1971 d u r i n g t he West
German p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n s and i n f a v o u r o f t he same p a r t y .
The main
watch
their
hy p o t h e s i s
social
of
t he
en v i r o nmen t ,
"spiral
that
of
" t he y
silence"
are
alert
t hose about them and are aware o f changi ng t r e n d s ,
o p i n i o n s are g a i n i n g ground and which w i l l
that
to
thinking
t he
peopl e
of
t h a t t hey r e g i s t e r which
become domi nant "
i s a l s o c l ai med t h a t mass media b r i n g a g r e a t deal
42
c l a i ms
(Ibid,
of information
p . 8).
It
t o hel p
t he p u b l i c i n f i n d i n g answers which mi ght f i t
t h e i r needs be f o r e t a k i n g t he
serious decisions.
The main l e a d i n g p o i n t
together
-
as Katz
i n Neumann's t h e s i s
noticed
-
public
opinion
is that
research,
she t r i e d
to bring
mass communicat ion
r ese ar ch and p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h e o r y a f t e r t hey had been separ at ed f o r a long
t i me .
She a l s o
raised
t he c a l l
for
a r e t u r n t o more power f ul media.
sees t he media as a means o f d i s t r i b u t i n g
She
o p i n i o n and i n d i c a t o r s t o deci de
who shoul d t a l k and who shoul d remain s i l e n t .
In a paper e n t i t l e d
Spiral
of
appr oach,
Silence',
stating
' P u b l i c i t y and P l u r a l i s t i c
Elihu
that i f
r e f e r e n c e gr oups,
Katz
t he
and whet her
anal ysed
Neumann's t h e s i s
silence
introduced
t he peopl e
deci de t o be s i l e n t or not f o l l o w
by
e v i d e n t t h a t t he media l oses i t s
on t h i s p o i n t ,
a substitutefor
where then shoul d t he i n f l u e n c e o f
Neumann,
and anot he r becomes more vocal
would become more o r i e n t a t e d
a critica l
t o be regarded as
t he p u b l i c and pr es sur e groups be pl aced?
groups
with
media are
i n g t he o p i n i o n expressed by t he media,
reference
I gnor ance: Notes on t he
Anot her p o i n t
where
one
is
t he n o t i o n o f
group
as a r e f er e n c e
retreats
gr oup.
It
in to
becomes
r o l e as a r e f e r e n c e group, and i n d i v i d u a l s
to t h e ir
local
r ef e r e n c e
group.
Elaborating
Katz argued;
" I t i s bas i c t o our e n t i r e p e r c e p t i o n o f s o c i e t y whet her t he
media are u s u r p i ng and m o n o p o l i s i n g t he r o l e o f r ef e r e n c e groups.
I f r ef e r e n c e groups are a l i v e and w e l l , i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l not so
q u i c k l y f a l l s i l e n t i n t he f ace o f mass-communicated i n f o r m a t i o n
about t he o p i n i o n a t t r i b u t e d by j o u r n a l i s t s t o some vaguel y
de f i n e d m a j o r i t y , or by j o u r n a l i s t s t o t hemsel ves"
(Katz,
The
appr oach.
nicatio n
news
check
third
approach
relating
to
agenda-setting
The word gat ekeeper i s a s o c i o l o g i c a l
r esear ch
storie s
points
by K ur t
flow
al ong
t hr ou gh
t he
Lewi n i n
media
way.
1947 t o
channel s
Lewin
called
p . 97)
t he
gat ekeeper
t erm coi ned i n mass commu
describe
after
is
1983,
t he
bei ng
t hese
process
cleared
points
at
ga t es ;
by which
certain
and
t he
i n d i v i d u a l s or o r g a n i s a t i o n s who g i v e c l e a r a n c e he l a b e l l e d as gat ek eeper s .
- 43 -
In the process o f mass communi cat i on t he gat ekeeper s t ak e many f or ms;
for
ers,
exampl e,
magazine p u b l i s h e r s ,
TV news d i r e c t o r s
ga t ekee pe r s .
newspaper e d i t o r s ,
and movie producer s may a l l
radio
station
manag
be con si d er ed t o a c t as
To under st and t he f u n c t i o n o f a g a t e k e e p e r we need t o r e v i ew
t he Model o f Mass Communication (see F i g u r e 2 . 4 ) devel oped by Bruce West l ey
and Mal colm Maclean J r .
(1957)
who g r a p h i c a l l y
gat ekeeper i n t he mass communi cati on pr ocess .
and
sources
describes
of
the
information.
event .
The
illustrate
In t he model
communi cator
The g a t e k e e p e r
' C'
is
' A'
t he
is
t he
of
' X' s are event s
the
editor
concept
reporter
who
who d e l e t e s ,
de-
emphasises or adds t o t he r e p o r t o f
t he event w i t h
or w i t h o u t t he knowledge
o f the
r e a d s , watches
or l i s t e n s t o t he r e p o r t
reporter.
o f t he e v e n t s .
The audi ence
He mi ght
showing t he accur acy or
' B'
respond t o t h e e d i t o r
i mpor t ance
v i d e feedback t o t he r e p o r t e r
(fCA)
o f t he
( fBC)
or t h e r e p o r t e r
news. The e d i t o r may a l s o p r o
and so on and
so f o r t h .
fBA
XI
X2
fCA
X3
-X I
I
XII
fBC
X3
X3
X = Source o f i n f o r m a t i o n
A = Sender
X4
C = Gatekeeper
Audience
f eedback
F i g . 2. 4
Model o f Mass Communication
Bruce West l ey and Mal colm Maclean (1957)
J o u r na l i s m Q u a r t e r l y , 34, W i n t e r , p . 35
Source:
44
( fBA)
I t must be not ed,
however,
o f a wi de i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d
s ib ilitie s ,
of
mass
t h a t t he gat ekeeper s i n mass media are p a r t
system.
Within t h e i r
f or mal
gat ekeeper s ar e c on s i d er ed h i g h l y v i t a l
communi cat i ons,
at
least
Anot her main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
t he mass media.
f rom
t he
o f gat ekeeper s
media
is
r o l e s and r es p on
t o t he pr oper f u n c t i o n s
owner ' s
that
point
of
vi ew.
t hey are a c r e a t i o n
of
Historically,
"gat ekeeper s e x i s t e d i n t he press i n t he s i n g u l a r f orm o f owners
. . . Today' s gat ekeeper s are not as s o c i a l l y v i s i b l e , and r a r e l y
do t hey e x i s t i n t he f orm o f a s i n g l e per son. Gatekeepi ng i n mass
media t oday t akes pl ac e p r i m a r i l y behi nd t he scenes. I nst ead o f
individuals,
t h e r e are depar t ment s ( e . g . O f f i c e o f Br oadcast
St andar ds) s t a f f e d by p u b l i c l y f a c e l e s s but enormously power f ul
peopl e"
( H i e b e r t e t a l , 1985, p . 133)
It
i s al so r ecogni sed t h a t a l l
keepers
a n d / or
who
exercise
filte rin g
their
functions
gat e.
wo r l d
of
Because
But
t he
tremendous
of
t he
and
t he message a c c o r di n g
si s ed by t h e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n s .
t he
mass media have l a r g e numbers o f g a t e
huge
maj or
t he
by
val ues
dele ting,
modifying
and p o l i c i e s
empha
They can st op a message by r e f u s i n g t o open
gat ekeeper
news o u t p u t ,
amount
to
roles
of
in
mass media
s e l e c t i v i t y in
material
is
t he
editor.
news must
available
to
t he
In
a
be c o n s i d e r e d .
editors
and t he
l i m i t a t i o n o f t he medium t i me and space, e d i t o r s are t he peopl e who seem t o
det er mi ne which s t o r y w i l l
reach t he p u b l i c .
But a l t h ou gh t he e d i t o r
pr ocess ,
hand.
many peopl e tend t o i n f l u e n c e and sometimes f o r c e t he gat ekeeper s
These peopl e,
bener's analysis
control
i s t he most r ecogni sed gat ekeeper i n t he news
of
whose f u n c t i o n
t he
is
institutional
o f media and b u i l d c o n s t r a i n t s
similar
t o agenda b u i l d e r s i n Ger-
process o f mass media,
to halt t h e ir roles.
practise
Such powers i n
Ger bener ' s judgement ar e;
"The a u t h o r i t i e s who i s s u e l i c e n c e s and a d m i n i s t e r t he laws, t he
p a t r o ns who i n v e s t i n or s u b s i d i s e t he o p e r a t i o n s o r g a n i s a t i o n ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s and l oose a g g r e g a t i o n s o f t he p u b l i c t h a t r e q u i r e
a t t e n t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n ; (and) t he management t h a t s e t p o l i c i e s
and s up er v i se o p e r a t i o n s " .
(Gerbener, 1972, p p . 153-156)
- 45 -
t he
Power
influence
on
t he
media
has
r e s e a r c h e r s as p r a c t i s e by e x p e r t i s e ,
or p r o f e s s i o n a l s who c r e a t e ,
specific
with
ed itors
viewed
by
o f t he
t he
have
community
gates
earlier
shall
A more
in
realistic
controlled
pr es s.
These f i n d i n g s
con
of
gat ekeeper
by White who concl uded
that
i ndependence
only
to
choose
studies
however,
( Whi t e,
was
reference
relationship
in a social
and economic c o n t e x t .
journalists
and
sources
in
to
journalists
two t o t ango,
not,
and j o u r n a l i s t s
either
1964, p p . 160- 171) .
introduced
seek access t o
sources or j o u r n a l i s t s
media d e a d l i n e s ;
for
t hey
establish
ties
officia ls
news.
strong
and b u r e a u c r a t i c
T h e r e f or e,
The news
and sources
self
with
for
can l ead,
"The r e l a t i o n s h i p
sources seek access
Al t hough i t
t akes
but more o f t e n than
J o u r n a l i s t s ar e o b l i g e d
achievement and media r e q ui re men t
sour ces.
are
It
t he most
was
observed
reliable
that
sources
of
b u r e a u c r a t i c news i s t he most dominant i n f o r m a t i o n i n t he
o fficia ls'
who
1964, p . 178),
journalists
sour ces.
1979, p . 126).
institu tion s
media agenda and b u r e a u c r a t i c
nalists
Gi eber ,
contains.
He wr ot e
resembles a dance,
t o meet t h e i r
to
by
c r ea t e d by t he b u r e a u c r a t i c
between
context.
sources do t he l e a d i n g " (Gans,
need
" t he
Gans d e s c r i b e s t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p between
a social
between sources and j o u r n a l i s t s
and
news s t o r y i s not det er mi ned by t he needs
by t he frame o f
view t he
c o n t en t
t hose event s which newsmen, as r e p r e
b e l i e v e t o be t r u e "
appr oach,
media
s t r u c t u r e o f which t he communicator i s a member" ( Gi e b e r ,
Recent
In
r e p o r t e r s and e d i t o r s
o f t he audi ence or even by t he val ues o f t he symbols i t
is
technicians
capitalist
noted t h a t "The t a l e o f t he l o c a l
story
of
t he
hear as a f a c t
s e n t a t i v e s o f t he c u l t u r e ,
majority
r e o r g a n i s e and t r a n s m i t t he media c o n t e n t .
st udy
considerable
t he
such as c r e a t i v e t a l e n t s ,
cases r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t j o u r n a l i s t s ,
are o p e r a t o r s
c ur r e d
been
tend
sources ar e doi ng most o f t he work f o r j o u r
to
give
news and vi ews.
- 46
little
effort
to
assist
and examine
The dominance o f
hi gh p o s i t i o n
that
their
news i s
seek
news
sources t hey
they
are
so much a l i k e "
journalists
pat ed,
nomic
this
and
automatically
factor
i n t he
be w i t h
(Hess,
1981,
sour ces,
t o a gap between media
t hey
p . 126).
in stitu tion s
interaction
" Repo r t e r s
like
each o t h e r
because
Thi s
interaction
between
l eads ,
over
and t h e i r
between j o u r n a l i s t s
t i me
as
audi ence.
a n tici
The eco
and o f f i c i a l s
reduces
i n t e g r a t i o n r e v o l v i n g around cost s and
i n ves t men t s and r ewar ds.
Al t hough j o u r n a l i s t s
bei ng
-
news made Hess b e l i e v e
t o be p u b l i s h e d ,
however,
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t s mean s o c i a l
benefits,
on t he
transferred
prefer to
officia ls
figures
victims
show t remendous r e s i s t a n c e t o a l l
of bureaucratic
sources than o t h e r s ,
propaganda
and o f
siding
t he r ese ar ch f i n d i n g s d i s c r e d i t e d
occasi ons from such s e l f - d e f e n c e .
Si g a l ' s
im p li c a ti o n s of
more
with
some
journalists
on many
c o n t en t a n a l y s i s o f t he
storie s
ap pear i ng on page 1 o f The New York Times and The Washi ngton P o s t , y i e l d e d
s u p p o r t i n g f i g u r e s t o t he assumpt i on o f media b i a s .
50% come
were
t hr ough b u r e a u c r a t i c c ha nn el s .
a p r o du c t
of
investigative
and
Only
Out o f 1,200 s t o r i e s ,
25.8% o f
enterprise
important
journalism
stories
(Sigal,
1973,
p . 119).
I t was f ound,
attract
journalists
t ec h ni q ue s
l es s
however,
of
costly.
"Socialise
press
The
t h a t t o have t he upper hand on t he media, and t o
s our ces,
devel oped
r el ea s e s
most
Jo u r n a l i s m"
and b r i e f i n g s
cont empor ar y
in
sources and media i s shaped.
which
t he
o fficia ls
number o f
conf er ences
For
example,
is
what
new
of
relationship
form
in a special
t he
are e f f e c t i v e - and
technique
For exampl e,
f o r f i f t e e n t o t went y j o u r n a l i s t s ,
have a s i m i l a r
new t e c h n i q u e s .
Bonafede
calls
between
breakfast or dinner
p o l i t i c i a n s a n d / or businessmen one c oul d
interviews
coul d t a l k t o j o u r n a l i s t s
in
a single
shot.
On such oc c a s i o n s ,
i n a c o n t r o l l e d atmosphere where unnec
essar y q u e s t i o n s would cause embarrassment
1981, p p . 487-491 ) .
- 47 -
for
t he
journalists
(Bonaf ede,
B - BEYOND AGENDA-SETTING : THE SEARCH FOR AGENDA BUILDERS
Many
British
mass
media
scholars
and
some
of
their
c o l l e a g u e s have a n t i c i p a t e d t he c o mp l i c a t ed r e l a t i o n s h i p
and t he i n s t i t u t i o n a l
to explore,
sources o f news.
then d e f i n e ,
t he
Uni t ed
S t at es
between t he media
They devoted most o f t h e i r r es ear c h
linkage
between t he media per sonnel
b u r e a u c r a t s who possess t he news and c o n t r o l
and t he
t he d a i l y f l o o d o f news.
They
a l s o t r i e d t o d e f i n e t he dynamics which govern t he i n t e r a c t i o n s between t he
media and t he p o l i t i c a l
institu tion s,
sure groups and o t h e r i n f l u e n t i a l
Within
this
scholarly
r ese ar c h o f p o l i t i c a l
on
t he
theoretical
scholars.
(1986)
call
analysis
between
t he
c o n t en t o f t he media.
mai nl y
dependent
competition,
of
and
p o litica l
parties,
pres
sectors w i t h in s o c i e t ie s .
two main
school s
The f i r s t
dominat e
school
instrumentalist
approach
It
to
examine
within
British
is
and s t r u c t u r a l i s t
is
structure
t he
i s an approach which
t he economic power domain.
economical
t he
based
British
and st udy
society
t he
and t he
The emphasis i s on t he s t r u c t u r e o f owner shi p which
on t he
cap italist
economic
relations
and a d v e r t i s i n g
and how such owner shi p and a d v e r t i s i n g revenues may c o n s t r a i n
t he c o n t en t o f t he media.
Murdock
effort,
The main concern o f t h i s
relationship
is
cultural
communi cat i on.
Bl uml er and G u r ev i t c h
government,
Gol di ng
I n s t i g a t o r s o f t h i s approach ar e M i l i b a n d (1969) ,
( 19 77 ) ,
based on t he p l u r a l i s t i c
and
B ag di k i an
( 1983) .
The
second
school
approach which pe r c e i ve s t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
is
between
media o r g a n i s a t i o n s and o t h e r power i n s t i t u t i o n s as an engagement o p e r a t i n g
in a p o l i t i c a l
ical
context.
The media r o l e s ar e h i g h l y connected t o t he p o l i t
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t he p o l i t i c a l
t he government,
power t h a t
t he p a r l i a m e n t and p o l i t i c a l
deci des t he
relationship
i n c l u d e d i n t he media c o n t e n t .
and G u r ev i t c h
vidual
case
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t he s t a t e .
( 1975) ,
studies
also
and i n i t i a t e s
ar e l i k e l y
what
is
t o be t he
supposed t o
be
Such an assumpt ion was t he t h e s i s o f Bl u ml er
Seymour-Ure
have
parties
Nevertheless,
(1974)
f ocussed
- 48 -
and Smith
on
t he
( 1979) .
relationship
Var i ou s
in d i
between
t he
media and c e r t a i n pr e ss ur e groups
like
trade
uni o ns ,
as shown i n t he work
o f t he Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y Media Group (1976 and 1980), t he women's movement
(Tachman et a l . ,
sations
ber g,
in
1978),
gener al
1975).
t he e n v i r o nmen t a l
( P a l e t z and Entham,
lobby ( Greenberg,
1981)
In a wide r an g i ng d i s c u s s i o n
t hose approaches,
I w ill
Thi s
w ill
presentation
examine p a r t
endeavour
of
to
or r e f o r m i s t
of
t he main
t he
t he
groups
i deas
literature
cla rify
1985),
organi
(Gol den-
embodied
in
o f each approach.
different
views
of
t he
r e l a t i o n s h i p between media o r g a n i s a t i o n s and t he sources o f news which a r e ,
a t t he
same t i m e ,
t he
sources o f
strong
influence
on t he
media and which
pl ay a d e f i n i t e r o l e i n b u i l d i n g t he agenda and a f f e c t i n g t h e i r c o n t e n t .
THE INSTRUMENTALIST AND STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
An a n a l y s i s
tions
of
t he
cultural
and economic
f o r t he mass media c o n t en t and t h e i r
factors
and t h e i r
uses i n t he U.K.
implica
was i n i t i a t e d
by t he s o c i a l i s t w r i t e r Ralph M i l i b a n d (1969) i n h i s book. The St at e i n t he
C a p i t a l i s t Soci et y
mass
media
system,
with
are
that
: t he A n a l y s i s
a crucial
el ement
of
Power .
in
t he freedom o f t he press
t he p o l i t i c a l
and economic c o n t e x t
His main views were t h a t
t he l e g i t i m a t i o n
has t o
of
of
be f u n c t i o n a l
capitalist
t he
t he c a p i t a l i s t
i n accordance
societie s,
and t h a t
freedom o f ex p r e s s i on must be d i r e c t e d t o s u s t a i n i n g t he system and t o t he
mai nt enance o f
power and p r i v i l e g e
arrangements w i t h i n
it.
Miliband
believes t h a t :
"Most newspapers accept a c e r t a i n degree o f s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n
economic and s o c i a l l i f e as i n e v i t a b l e and even p r a i s e w o r t h y , and
some, g r e a t l y d a r i n g , may even s up po r t t h i s or t h a t pi ec e o f
innocuous n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n .
Even so, most organs o f
t he press
have al ways been u t t e r l y d e d i ca t ed t o t he p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t he
enl ar gement o f t he ' p u b l i c s e c t o r ' was i n i m i c a l t o t he ' n a t i o n a l
i n t e r e s t ' and t h a t t he s t r e n g t h e n i n g
o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e was
t he c o n d i t i o n o f economic p r o s p e r i t y , s o c i a l w e l f a r e , f reedom,
democracy, and so f o r t h . "
( M i l i b a n d , 1969, p . 198)
a l so
When i t
comes t o
t he media
a conservative establishment,
or
it
may
claim
it
is
conservative
pr ess .
to
criticise
its
social
responsibilities.
i s t he p r o d u c t o f t he l e f t
It
and a p p r ai s e
t he press may c l a i m autonomy and independence
fu lfillin g
ex cus abl y rough t r e a t m e n t
t he
responsibility
mi ght be n o t i c e d
that
per sonnel
Sometimes
who m o n i t o r
some p o p u l a r
newspapers
show much concern t o echo t he o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n s o f t he b u r e a u c r a t i c e s t a b
li shment s
and
t ake
a
changes and p r o g r e s s .
ism
r ep r es e n t s
radical
st and
In f a c t .
little
more
than
mous.
capitalist
For example.
an
obvi ous
is
t he
owner shi p
sector,
book
scattered
(Ibid,
and
r e f or m,
of
style,
t he
noi se
is
self
go v er n i ng
t he c o n t r i b u t i o n
on t he c o n t r o l
nor a u t ono
o f mass media t o
The f i r s t
and most
over t he m e n t a l i t y
o f t he
In a wo r l d o f media ov e r wh el mi ngl y dominated by t he
where
publishing,
in
for
p . 200).
ar e not
found t h a t
factor
that
l a r ge e x t e n t by t he power o f
zines,
urging
c l i m a t e i s a f f e c t e d by two main f a c t o r s .
manpower i n t he media.
private
i ss ues
affectation
countries
Miliband
some
M i l i b a n d suggests t h a t such " angry r a d i c a l
c o n s i d e r a b l e but t he b a t t l e i s bogus"
The media i n
on
private
private
capitalist
cinema,
owner shi p
sector
bu s i n es s ,
theatre,
have
is
radio
been
itse lf
dominated
t he media,
pr e s s ,
and t e l e v i s i o n
combined
into
to
fewer
a
maga
which were
and
larger
o r g a n i s a t i o n s as t a k e o v e r s have c o n c e n t r a t e d media owner shi p i n t o t he hands
o f a few e n t e r p r i s e s .
control
their
In M i l i b a n d ' s judgement, t hose who own t he media and
direction
have i d e o l o g i c a l
co n se rv a ti v e t o absol ut e r e a c t i o n a r i e s .
case
of
newspapers,
is
that
owners bot h i n t he e d i t o r i a l
t he
positions
that
range f rom h i g h l y
The consequence, e s p e c i a l l y i n t he
c o n t en t
is
closely
and i n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l
t he newspapers become t he v e h i c l e s o f t he per sonal
controlled
directions.
by
t hose
In s h o r t ,
views o f t he owners and
a source o f power t hey are keen t o use.
The second f a c t o r
p r e s sur e
in t h i s
on t he media e x e r c i s e d
analysis
directly
- 50 -
is
t he power o f
or
indirectly
advertisers.
by a d v e r t i s e r s
The
is
un de ni a bl e.
They are abl e t o p r a c t i s e t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t he media
and even t o d i c t a t e
t he
c o n t en t
and t he p o l i c y
are f r e q u e n t v a l u a b l e cust omer s.
t he media t o
t he
extent
that
o f t he media t o whom t hey
Some customers are o f such g r e a t v al ue t o
newspapers,
magazi nes,
radio
and t e l e v i s i o n
are f i n a n c i a l l y dependent on them.
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f owner shi p and i t s
consequent
influence
on media
c o n t en t was t he s u b j e c t o f a d i s c u s s i o n by Murdock and Gol di ng ( 1977) .
t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f t he r e l a t i o n between c a p i t a l i s m ,
communicat ion and c l a s s ,
t he a u t ho r s e l a b o r at ed not o n l y on t he phenomena o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
also
anal ysed
industry
intensively
from
what
concentration
t h e ir analysis
glomeration.
it
is
t hey
to
important to define
Gl over
as a "phenomenon i n
busi ness merge w i t h
" new mapping
conglomeration."
In a r ec e n t work,
media ownershi p
called
one a n o t he r ,
In
But ,
of
but t hey
communicat ion
b e f or e
discussing
t he terms c o n c e n t r a t i o n
and con
(1984) d e f i n e d t he c o n c e n t r a t i o n
whi ch t he
" while
firms
in
t he
in
same l i n e
t he t er m " c o n g l o m e r a t i o n i s
of
used
t o r e f e r t o f i r m s w i t h d i f f e r e n t busi ness i n t e r e s t s coming t o g e t h e r t o f orm
a new g i a n t
levels
of
co-operation"
c on g l om e r at i on .
non-media o r g a n i s a t i o n
me r c i a l
interests
Lonrho Group f o r
decline
tion
£6 m i l l i o n
atio n,
t he
gener al
Al so
t he
is
in
busi ness
for
interests
are
in
two
which
a
industrial
or com
The Observer
by t he
Such c on gl omer a t i on c oul d l ead t o a
t he media,
unlike
of
t he
o f t he
other
news o r g a n i s a
industries,
c ongl omer at e,
and
cannot be
that
t he
i n t e g r i t y when t hey are t aken f o r g r a n t ed . Anot her
one i n which
merge t o g e t h e r
I98I.
there
c on gl omer a t i on
and undermine t he c r e d i b i l i t y
media men may l ose t h e i r
c on gl ome r a t i on
is
p p . 4 9 - 50 ) .
t akes over a media i n d u s t r y
on t he assumpt i on t h a t
to
One
1984,
as i n t he case o f t he t a k e - o v e r o f
in e f f i c i e n c y
subj ugat ed
( Gl o v e r ,
with
multi-media,
companies
operating
or
in
communicat ion
t he
c ongl omer
same f i e l d .
A good
example i s t he t ak e o v e r o f The Times by Rupert Murdoch i n which he merged
51 -
it
with
other organ isa ti on s
t he W o r l d , ( I b i d ,
The
to
industry.
of
changes
number i n c r ea s ed
in
1977, p . 23) .
has
earlier
co n g l ome r a t i on
States.
i n c l u d i n g The Sun and The News o f
in
Murdock
1957
Gol di ng
and 1968.
found
t he
and
In
t o reach
next
two
this
write,
was
period
t he
68.9% f o r
t he
t aken
Britain
pl ace
in
d a i l y newspapers
industrial
was
not
as
t he As s o c i at ed
sectors.
typical
Television
media
y ea r s t o 70.9% (Murdock
Murdock and Gol di ng a l s o noted t h a t t h i s
than o t h e r
For example,
as
between
was
concentration
fiftie s,
owner shi p
media owner shi p
Thi s
and Gol d i n g,
icant
media
d r a ma t i c
concentration
h i s own,
p . 50) .
new map o f
subject
of
during
They
as
it
noted
was
in
Corporation
sig nif
t he
mi d
also
that
t he
(ATC)
Uni t ed
and t he
Thomson O r g a n i s a t i o n were t he o n l y B r i t i s h m u l t i - m e d i a congl omer at es.
in
t he
ica),
U.S.
such c o n g l ome r a t i on
CBS (Columbia
included
B r oa d c a s t i ng
RCA (Radio
Syst em) ,
C o r po r a t i o n
NBC ( Na t i o n a l
of
But
Amer
B r oa d c a s t i ng
Com
pany) , and ABC (Ameri can Br oa d c a s t i n g Company).
I t was n o t i c e d t h a t t he economic system i n c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , which
is
founded
on t he
ba s i s
which
fosters
monopoly.
found
that
t he
in
of
competition,
For
exampl e,
Uni t ed St a t e s
t he
with
in
1920 showed
that
compet i ng newspapers.
Coulson
(1986)
in
a recent
report
number o f newspapers has not changed
but t he number o f monopoly newspapers
Statistics
has l ed t o an economic s i t u a t i o n
was found t o be gr owi ng d r a m a t i c a l l y .
t h e r e were 700c i t i e s
By 1985,
i n t he Uni t ed St at es
al t h o u g h t he American
population
had
more than doubl ed, t he number o f c i t i e s w i t h compet ing d a i l i e s decreased t o
30 o n l y , w i t h
tics
force
indicate
in
t he
newspapers ar e
compl ete
m illion
670 c i t i e s d e p r i v e d o f a c o m p e t i t i v e pr es s .
that
t he
industryof
last
of
more
editions.
25 y ea r s chai n ownershi p
publishing.
owned by t hose
control
daily
in
chains.
than
It
In America
half
was
Further s t a t i s
became t he a c t u a l
1,750 d a i l i e s
and
1,150
By 1982 t h e r e were 20 chai ns w i t h
of
t he
reported
- 52 -
daily
that
in
circulation
two
yea r s
of
t he
61
(1980-1982)
t hese
chai ns
reported
a c q ui r ed
that
t hose
48 o f
chai ns
yea r o n l y f o u r chai ns
52 d a i l y
tended
to
newspapers
merge w i t h
(Coul son,
concentrations
led
bei ng
sold.
each o t h e r ,
had succeeded t o t ak e over
and so on and so f o r t h
Such
t he
six
other
It
was
where i n one
similar
chai ns
1986, p p . 35 - 42 ) .
to
conflicts
among
newspapers;
conflict
of
i n t e r e s t s and l os s o f d i v e r s i t y .
In tune w i t h e a r l y o b s e r v a t i o n by Murdock
and Gol di ng i n t he Uni t ed S t a t e s ,
Coulson concl uded t h a t t he q u a l i t y o f t he
p r o d u c t t u r n e d out by t he monopoly and chai n
i n t he l ong run than gr owi ng p u b l i c
with i t s
p r o f i t margi ns
(Ibid,
newspapers
is
l es s
important
c y n i c i s m about an i n d u s t r y pr eoccupi ed
p . 40).
For example,
E l i e Abe l ,
t he head o f
t he Communications Department a t S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , and a P u l l i t z e r p r i z e
wi nner ,
sai d i n 1984 t h a t :
more i n
editorial
deadlines"
( Abe l ,
excellence
1984,
l e s s o f any e f f o r t s
pe r s ,
"most chai n
than
p . 11) .
t he
newspapers w i l l
not a penny
minimum needed t o meet t h e i r
It
is
a l s o obser ved,
by p u b l i s h e r s
to
improve or d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r
t he absence o f t r a d i t i o n a l
smal l
American
c o n c e n t r a t e d and
in
t he
however,
daily
t ha t regard
newspa
c o m p e t i t i o n among t hose newspapers and t he
g a t h e r i n g o f t he press i n
r eader s
invest
c h a i n s , l ed
t o t he l os s o f c on f i d e n c e among
congl omerated
press
(Coul son,
1986).
Thi s
c on g l ome r a t i on
countries.
is
t he
A good example i s
second
substantial
industry
largest
interests
(Ibid,
mass media,
productions,
tionship
t he
record
has a l s o
dominated
most
West
European
case o f t he West German Ber t el man which
company
in
t he
world,
in
gener al
and s p e c i a l i s t
of
c o n c e n t r a t e d - c o n g l om e r at ed
in
addition
magazines
and
to
t he
its
film
p . 28) .
The new p a t t e r n s
of
pattern
led
between
in
addition
scholars
t he
to
to
t he
control
examine
media
and
t he
two t en den c i e s
society.
53
of
owner shi p
and c o n t r o l
m a r k e t i ng
underlying
F i r s t l y , t hey
of
media
t he
rela
anal ysed
t he
relationship
between
media i n c a p i t a l i s t
In
this
Miliband
in
t he
social
structure
andt he p r o d u c t i o n
which
Murdock
and
he con s i d er ed
Gol di ng
t he
criticised
media
as
"bot h
system o f domi n at i on and a means o f r e i n f o r c i n g i t "
are most
likely
to
be
t he
men
whose
and t h a t
isli k e ly
be immediate and d i r e c t "
tional
example
of
Marxists
They put
t he
t he
who
ideological
i n t he
function
o p p r es s i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s
( Nedznski ,
sim plification
(Althusser,
t he media
family,
e x p r e s s i on
(Miliband,
of
t he
t he mass media
soundl y
p . 481) .
ideological
views
An a d d i
relationship
system i s p o r t r a y ed i n t he a n a l y s i s o f t he
1971,
p p . 136-137;
Pou l a nt z as ,
same c a t eg o r y as t he c hur ches,
as
a
expressed i n hi s
v i e w p o i n t s are
1973,
of
of
1969, p . 22) .
i n t he case o f newspapers t he impact o f t h e i r
between t he media and t he s o c i a l
French
t he
assumpt i on
i s e v i d e n t t h a t t hose who run and c o n t r o l
conservative,
to
t he
objected to Nedznski's o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
assertion that " i t
t he mass
societie s.
r eg a r d,
They s i m i l a r l y
of
state
ideological
tools
1972,
p . 251) .
t he school s and
similar
to
such as t he army, t he p o l i c e and so f o r t h .
other
Murdock
and Gol di ng Observe t h a t t he news media are not :
a si mpl e r e l a y system f o r t he d i r e c t
transmission of a
r u l i n g i d e o l o g y t o s ub o r d i n a n t gr oups.
[ R a t h e r , t hey a r e ] i n s t i
t u t i o n s [ w h i c h ] pl ay i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n l e g i t i m i s i n g an i n e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i a l o r d e r , but t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h a t order is
complex and v a r i a b l e
and i t
i s necessary t o anal yse what
t hey
as w e l l as what t hey a r e " .
(Murdock and Gol d i n g, 1977, p . 34)
The second tendency seen by Murdock and Gol di ng i s r e l a t e d t o t he mass
media p r o d u c t .
t he a n a l y s i s
eliminate
tion.
They observed t h a t a l l
in
s t u d y i n g t he d i r e c t
any a c t i v e
in te rpre ta tion
A good example o f t h i s
where he c ons i der ed
to
t he scheme
in tentions
or
o f t he p r o du c er s ,
awareness
lim itation
is
at
t he
t he view o f
j o u r n a l i s m as a p r o d u c t o f
and where t he i n s t i t u t i o n a l
ture
p r e v i o u s assumpt i ons aim a t l i m i t i n g
"its
level
Paul
- 54 -
use
to
confront
pr o du c
Rock (1973)
organisation
i m p e r a t i v e s g i v e , as Rock b e l i e v e d ,
which t he j o u r n a l i s t s
of
so as t o
settin g"
" t he s t r u c
an ambiguous
do
w o r l d . " Rock e l a b o r a t e s ,
ries
o f t he
news
by s t a t i n g t h a t "such i m p e r a t i v e s set t he c a t e g o
sense
to
which
journalists
hand
[ an d]
t hemsel ves are unabl e t o a r t i c u l a t e t hose c a t e g o r i e s ,
it
t he y
do not f u l l y
t he
t hey
work"
thinking
actual
under st and t he
(Rock, 1973,
is
larger
p p . 6 5 - 66 ) .
an a r r o g a t i o n
in vestig ation al
whi ch
dock and Gol d i n g,
A careful
imperatives,
of
Ralph M i l i b a n d
radical
William
Domhof f ' s
"The S t at e
other
of
material
t he r u l i n g
that
such
in vestig ate
"The
and
which
wo r ki ng
news p r o d u c t i o n "
(Mur
w ill
in
s c h o l a r s under which t he
lead t o t he
"The Powers That
t he C a p i t a l i s t
id en tification
in stru m en ta lists,
Be"
Society",
levels.
c l a s s es where t he
industrial
and
cultural
and
of
as i n t he
t he
work
of
and t he view o f t he
on
positio n
identify
t he means by which t he r u l i n g
production
and
feature
o f t he s o c i a l
between t hose who own t he
t hose
among
t he
wo r k i ng
Thi s approach views mass media as an i n s t r u m e n t o f
Media,
on t h i s
level,
hel p t he s o c i a l
o r d e r t o ensure
bei ng o f t he domi nant c l a s s by c o n t r o l l i n g
Thi s group d e f i n e d t he s p e c i a l
individuals,
corporations,
groups e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l
s a t i s f y t h e i r narrow per sonal
The second
to
between c l a s s e s , "
classes.
at a l l
tried
"conflict
t he s e c u r i t y and we l l
not
of
They vi ew t he c e n t r a l
c l a s ses who own none.
i sed
argue
routines,
classes.
system as p r i m a r i l y
tion
in
s t r u c t u r a l i s t s as i n t he work o f Gol di ng and Murdock.
control
means
classified
The vi ew o f t he r a d i c a l
The i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s
class
context
and
organisational
a g r e a t deal
i s perhaps because
Gol di ng
stipulate
r ea d i ng o f t he work o f t he r a d i c a l
two p r o g r e s s i v e vi ews.
work
to
and
of
journalists
1977, p . 34) .
economic domain approach i s
analysis
Murdock
fails
e x i g e n c i e s which do indeed e x p l a i n
c on t our s
if
radical
i n t e r e s t o f t he r u l i n g
we al t h y
owners,
on t he
but
is
exemplified
in
special
needs.
approach emphasises
conflict,
and
over government d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g t o
structural
class
informa
rather
t he
work
of
- 55 -
cap italist
Murdock
and
t he
need t o
f ocus
state
itse lf.
Thi s
Golding's
thesis
in
which t hey emphasised t h e i r
belief
that
p r o d u c t i o n s needs t o examine not o n l y
t he gener al
economic c o n t e x t
and Gol d i n g ,
1977, p . 16).
s hi p or c a p i t a l i s t
"an adequate a n a l y s i s
t he c l a s s
i n which t h i s
base o f
control
is
of c u l t u r a l
control,
but a l s o
exer cised"
(Murdock
Murdock (1980) deni ed t he need f o r d i r e c t owner
i n v o l v e me n t
to
shape t he media p r o d u c t i o n s .
He argued
that :
" P r o p r i e t o r s and o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t s do not need t o i n t e r v e n e i n
newspaper p r o d u c t i o n s i n c e t he l o g i c o f p r e v a i l i n g market s t r u c
t u r e s ensures t h a t by and l a r g e t he o u t pu t endorses r a t h e r than
opposes t h e i r gener al i n t e r e s t s " .
(Murdock, 1980, p . 57)
Also,
t he r o l e
Murdock and Gol di ng
o f t he media i n
t he
found
that
production
it
of
is
i mp o s s i b l e
dominant
ideology
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f economic f a c t o r s .
They argue t h a t
logical
under st ood w i t h o u t
production
economic
context
determination
clearly
not
(Ibid,
1977,
cannot
within
be f u l l y
which
which t h i s
t he
only
p . 19).
t he economic
it
context
factor
in
poin ting
pl ace
exerts."
play,
They s t r e s s
relation,
t akes
t he
but
that
if
due
t he
of
t he
pr essur es
and
that
equally
cannot
begi n
without
an a n a l y s i s
of
it
under st and
process o f i d e o
They added
need t o
ou t
"this
and
to
"economics
be
intensive
such a n a l y s i s
is
i gno r ed"
analysis
fa ils,
it
of
does
not f o r e c a s t t he i n c r e a s i n g c o n f l i c t among s e c t o r s i n c a p i t a l i s t systems.
A s o c i a l a n a l y s i s most l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t he st udy o f agenda b u i l d i n g i s
the
extensive
analysis
M i d d l e t on ( 1982) .
social
welfare
on
In t h i s
news
is
social
welfare
firs t
is
three
broad
pr es ent ed
in
views which
c a l l e d t he " b i o g r a p h i c a l "
" m a l e v o l e n t and i g n o r a n t . "
pat hy
class.
and
under standing,
The second view i s
pr esent ed
by
Gol di ng
and
st udy t he a u t ho r s showed t h a t t he ways i n which
between t he media and t he p r e v a i l i n g
They found
news
t he
media
politica l
mi ght
reflect
t he
and economic
explain
that
relationship
in stitutions.
relationship.
approach which t akes t he j o u r n a l i s t s
The
as
The news here comes as a p r o du c t l a c k i n g sym
and
ser ves
called
as
a mouthpi ece
"the or g a n is a t io n a l"
- 56 -
of
t he
approach,
capitalist
i n which
journalists
are
more
involved
constraints
caused by t he
na t u r e
g a t h e r i n g and p r o du c i ng news,
other
pr e s sur e
tional
ways
individuals
merge
to
than
in
o f t he
p r e v i o u s approach,
what
Thirdly,
mi ght
but
j o u r n a l i s t s ' work, t he
or t he p o s s i b l e
or gr oups.
form
t he
be
in tervention
t he
na t ur e o f
from owners or
biographical
called
f ace
and o r g a n i s a
"domi nant
val ue s "
approach i n which t he news media i s formed.
The i n f l u e n c e o f p o l i t i c i a n s
d e f i n e d by John Whale ( 1977) .
all
its
branches
is
s i mp l e .
He
a principal
s i n g l e source o f i n f o r m a t i o n . "
In e x p l a i n i n g i t s
and pr ess ur e groups i n t he news
media was
was c i t e d by Gol di ng t h u s : "Government i n
theme o f
news j o u r n a l i s m and i t s
greatest
But , t he i n f l u e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not t h a t
di men s i on s,
Gol di ng concl uded t h a t :
" R e l a t i o n s between press o f f i c e r s and j o u r n a l i s t s are not w i t h o u t
frictions.
Press o f f i c e r s tend t o see many cor r e spo nde nt s as
i n e x p e r t and l a z y , t oo i n c l i n e d t o use t he press o f f i c e as a
r esear c h s e r v i c e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t hey ought t o be abl e t o uncover
t hemsel ves from s t andar d r e f e r e n c e sour ces.
For j o u r n a l i s t s i t
i s a c l i c h é o f t he t r a d e t o r e f e r t o suppress de p a r t me n t s. "
( Gol d i n g and M i d d l e t o n , 1982, p . 115)
Specialist
ideology
cor r e spo nde nt s
and power,
but r a t h e r
deal
with
o fficia ls
as i n d i v i d u a l s
not
who s a c r i f i c e
i n o r d e r t o earn more power and more i n f l u e n c e w i t h i n
establishment.
The ex p er i enc e o f
some j o u r n a l i s t s
was found t o be very a t t r a c t i v e t o j o u r n a l i s t s .
an a b s o l u t e b e l i e f t h a t p o l i c i e s
con gr u ent .
Gol di ng
and
with
t he
as
persons
their
centres
dignity
of
cited
I t drew t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o
Malcolm
Dean,
a w riter
for
Guardi an, a d m i t t i n g t h a t :
"There i s a l o t o f c o n t a c t w i t h j u n i o r m i n i s t e r s .
They are o f t e n
deni ed i n f l u e n c e and d i s c u s s i o n .
Civil
servants l i k e
these
l unches.
They see i t as a way f o r t h e i r m i n i s t e r s t o d e f l e c t
c r i t i c i s m from t he depar t ment s .
Sometimes t h e r e i s a b i t o f
kite-flying .
People g i v e so much and t h i n k maybe f o r a £32 lunch
something shoul d be g i v e n .
Depar tment al l eaks a l l o w them t o see
how i t r uns .
I t w o n ' t do any harm, and i t keeps t he r e p o r t e r i n
d e bt , and i t may j u s t r a i s e an i s s u e . "
( c i t e d by Gol di ng and M i d d l e t on , 1982, p p . 116-117)
- 57
t he
MPs and m i n i s t e r s
ar e i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e and p o l i t i c i a n s
M i d d l e t on
of
are
t he
They concluded
that,
"Despite
adm in istra tive
public re la tio n s ,
o f t he c e n t r a l
political
rity
news"
(Ibid,
security,
drama,
is
of
m inisterial
Al so t he i mpor t anc e o f t he s o c i a l
sim ila r to that
or
t he machi nery and t he d e l i b e r a t i o n s
secu
s e c u r i t y news
o f o t h e r areas o f s o c i a l
i n Gol di ng and M i d d l e t o n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n ,
life .
Soc i al
"has t o be seasoned w i t h
language and val ues o f t he e n t e r t a i n m e n t media t h a t t he modern news
s e r v i c e has become"
rity
it
common d i s t r u s t
appar at us t h a t d i c t a t e t he agenda o f s o c i a l
p . 152).
t o t he news desk i s
t he
(Ibid).
news i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y
The news pr oducer s c on s i d e r t h a t s o c i a l
boring, w h ils t p o l i t i c a l
and c r i m i n a l
secu
event s are
f or emost i n t h e i r minds.
Finally,
security
a l t h ou gh news i s
field,
ho stility
"they
to social
are
only
security
normal
in B r i t i s h journ alism"
v al ues
of
people wo r ki ng
self-help,
in dividualism ,
force
absorption
t he
filte r
that
of
t he more l i b e r a l
are
sought and campaigns waged w i t h i n t he s o c i a l
in
part
and i t s
t he
t he
field,
identified
by
t he
v al ues
In
politics,
relation
a
financial
f rom t he
in
t he
and
concede i s
work
dominant
commitments
ethic
that
culture,
"to
rein
and t h a t
field"
( Gol d i n g
and M i d d l e t o n ,
t he cont emporary press i n B r i t a i n
restrictions
(Ibid,
compar at i ve
Gol di ng
general
and compassi onate p e r c e p t i o n s o f t he w e l f a r e s t a t e
In G o l d i n g ' s t h e s i s ,
newspaper i n d u s t r y "
t he
journalists
s t r on g
and t he
t he commitment t o t he lower c l a s s es or t he poor .
caused
for
Gol di ng and M i d d l e t o n , exami ni ng t he
anti-bureaucracy
t he
explanation
claimants t h a t
(Ibid).
common among j o u r n a l i s t s
1982, p . 153).
of
and
t he
l ac ks
Such i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
"political
economy
is
of
t he
media
and
anal yse
t he
p p . 2 2 1- 222) .
st udy
E llio t
of
t he
(1979)
relationship
devel oped
between
new models
between t he b r o a d c a s t i n g i n d u s t r y and t he s t a t e .
t he
to
Al o n g s i d e Si e b-
ert,
Pet er son and Schramm's s ug g e s t i on o f t he f o u r t h e o r i e s o f t he press -
t he
authoritarian,
t he
liberta rian ,
58
t he
social
responsibility
and
t he
totalitaria n
tion
of
notion
and
theories
(Sie be rt et a l ,
Raymond W i l l i a m s
( 1974) ,
of org anisational
commercial
i n t r o d u c ed
state.
four
F irst,
J o u r na l i s m
liberal
forces
freedoms.
Its
public re s p o n s ib ility
pl ace.
in
who added more c on c r et e c r i t e r i a
controlling
of
t he c l a s s i c
ac t s
and a l on g s i d e t he g e n e r a l i s a
f or m emphasi si ng t he r o l e
accounts
here
1956),
t he
role
c o n c e p t i on
independently,
Gol di ng
of
in
journalism
E llio tt
relation
to
j o u r n a l i s m as t he f o u r t h
playing
t he
role
of
is
t he
estate.
t he watchdog f o r
independence i s guarded by t he c o n s t i t u t i o n ,
and i t s
guar ant eed by t he consumer power o f a f r e e market
government .
The t h i r d
i s j o u r n a l i s m i ndependent o f
government but r e l a t i n g i t s o b j e c t i v e s t o p o l i t i c a l
p a r t y or a c e r t a i n p h i l o s o p h y ,
jo urnalistic
ideals.
The
final
i ndependent watchdog and n e u t r a l
Based on t hese f o u r n o t i o n s ,
o f news making i n t h r e e n a t i o n s ;
found
that
t he
In
t he med i a t i on
good example o f
vity.
It
such as a p o l i t
vi ew
is
of
journalism
making
itse lf
an
ob s er v e r o f ev ent s .
Gol di ng and E l l i o t t conducted t h e i r
namely, Sweden,
I r e l a n d and N i g e r i a .
relationship
in
practice
is
st udy
They
basically
i n t e r v e n t i o n o r accommodation.
relationship,
an i n t e r m e d i a r y
t he Radionâmnden i n
body t o
ensure
Sweden p r e s en t s a
im partiality
and o b j e c t i
i s a Radio Counci l w i t h seven n o n - p o l i t i c a l members f rom t he a r t s
culture.
fought
vi ews,
denyi ng i m p a r t i a l i t y and o b j e c t i v i t y as
broadcasting-state
f ounded on m e d i a t i o n ,
and
and
The second account i s t he r o l e o f j o u r n a l i s m as a p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s
wi ng o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n
ical
o f t he r u l i n g m i n o r i t y
communi cat i on,
of
t o t he
Gol di ng
and
E llio tt
found
that
Radionâmnden
t o m a i n t ai n t he autonomy o f b r o a d c a s t er s
and t h e i r
independently
r ig h t to select
news on t he basi s o f news v a l u e , w i t h o u t government i n t e r v e n t i o n .
In
deci de
also
in
gramme,
t he
intervention
relationship
how t he b r o a d c a s t er s
t he
power o f
t he
it
is
in
t he
gover nment ' s
shoul d produce and i n t e r p r e t
government
to
ban t he
and t o demand t he b r o a d c a s t i n g o f
- 59 -
its
power t o
t he news.
broadcasting of
any
own news a t any t i m e .
It
is
pro
This
relationship
was d e f i n e d
constitutional
acts.
Ireland.
as i n t e r v e n t i o n
based on
over news i s a s er i o u s m a t t e r and
r e l a t i o n s h i p between b r o a d c a s t i n g and t he s t a t e .
as a probl em t h r e a t e n i n g t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l
t he v al ues o f news and vi ews.
ship is
and E l l i o t t
Government c o n t r o l
makes f o r a d i f f i c u l t
j o u r n a l i s t s see i t
by Gol d i n g
The
autonomy and
A good example o f t he i n t e r v e n t i o n r e l a t i o n
Thi s r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
as t he a u t hor s obser ved,
"fa ile d to find a d e f in i t i o n for j o u r n a li s t i c practice.
The
s o l u t i o n i s al ways t o l e t t he i n c i d e n t a l l y evol ved norms o f
j o u r n a l i s m , f a i r n e s s , accur acy and comprehensi veness t ak e t h e i r
usual f orm w h i l e more b r o a d l y t o f a l l back, not on news val ues
but on s o c i a l v al ues t h a t un de r pi n t he v i s i o n o f s o c i e t y shared
by b r o a d c a s t er and t he s t a t e a l i k e " .
( Gol d i n g and E l l i o t t , 1979, p . 64)
The t h i r d r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c l a s s i f i e d as accommodation l i n k a g e i n which
t he
media o r g a n i s a t i o n s
especially
i n t i mes o f c o n f l i c t
and E l l i o t
social
and s o c i a l
val ues i n t i me o f s o c i a l
"much c l o s e r
whole
range
le vel,
policies
in
local
or f o r e i g n
campaigns.
affairs,
For example,
Gol di ng
found t h a t N i g e r i a n b r o a d c a s t er s not o n l y agreed over t he s t a t e
government p o l i c i e s .
as
accommodate
of
(Ibid,
but accept ed t he val ues i n c l u d e d i n
The accommodation t y pe o f r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
agreement
between
p rioritie s."
deliberate
campaigns"
stress,
b r o a d c a s t er s
Also,
assistance
with
and t he
"government
t he
pr omot i on
government
objectives
of
under st ood
mean,
government
on t he
at
one
sponsored
1979, p . 65) .
THE PLURALISTIC APPROACH
Anot her
media
school
organisations
school.
The b e l i e f
depending
on
their
of thought
i n t he a n a l y s i s
and
powers
other
here
relation
i n s t i t u t i o n s and p o l i t i c a l
of th is
paradigm.
is
t he
society
t h a t t h e r e ar e v a r i a t i o n s
to
state
parties.
They i n t r o d u c e d
p a r a t i v e st udy o f p o l i t i c a l
in
o f t he l i n k a g e between t he
organisations,
is
t he p l u r a l i s t s '
o f t he media r o l e s
mai nl y
government
Bl u ml er and G u r ev i t c h are t he f ounder s
a concept ual
communi cat i on.
- 60 -
framework t o a l l o w a com
T h e i r i n t e n t i o n was t o f i n d t he
answer t o
what
t hey
c on s i d er ed
a highly
important
question,
namely,
"how
does t he a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a c o u n t r y ' s mass media i n s t i t u t i o n s t o i t s
p o liti
cal
institutions
c o n t en t
and
t he
impact
affect
of
audi ence members"
t he p r o c e s s i n g
such
c o n t en t
on
of
t he
t he agenda f o r t he media,
a t t he p o l i t i c a l
and
ties
strong
t he
media
relations
with
have
what
society.
Such phenomena,
tent
consideration,
into
tems.
To
special
do
this,
strong
t hey
performance
many
ings"
(Ibid,
and
t he
regimes
to
p olitics
means shape
level.
That happens
role within
t he
audi ence
i ndependent
t he c o u n t r y
and
therefore
powers w i t h i n
found
in
it
t he most
rooted
important
recently
t h a t i s t o e n qu i r e i n t o
recommend remedies
for
liberal
to
t he
national
media
in stitutions
with
nations
coul d be hy p o t h e s i s e d .
control
over mass media o r g a n i s a t i o n .
Ac c or d i n g
truth
is
where
in
to
t he
t he
political
t he p r o d u c t i o n
In c o n t r a s t ,
more freedom t o t r e a t
t he
t he
authority's
societies
up
" t h e adequacy o f
any i d e n t i f i e d
po litical
shor t com
mi nor
pr e v en t s
of
communicat ion
is
societie s,
organisations
of a u t h o r i t a r ia n
are
in
in
thesis
cr oss
different
t he degree o f s t a t e
especially
in
monopolistic,
doctrines,
t hose
po litical
and t he mass media
i n c o n c e r t w i t h t he a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e p r es e n
professional
journalists
news a c c o r di n g t o t h e i r
intervention
institutions
The main di mensi on
configuration
are expect ed t o echo such t r u t h
tations.
sys
p . 170).
r esear ch and f rom which t he p o l i t i c a l
societies
t he
s et
Bl uml er and G u r ev i t c h concei ved some di mensi ons which i n t h e i r
connect
of
i n v ol ve men t t o b r i n g t he media con
can be observed
commissions w i t h one t a s k ,
press
with
called
t he r eg i mes'
t he
systems must by a l l
as t he media share a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
because
to
1975, p . 169).
politica l
especially
communication
orientations
( Bl u ml e r and G u r e v i t c h ,
The au t hor s b e l i e v e t h a t a l l
po litical
in
lights.
controlling
altogether
- 61 -
i n t he
or
t he
liberal
camp enj oy
Here t he na t u r e o f
media
mi n i mi se s
in
state
liberal
control.
Bl u ml er
and
Gurevi tch
identify
three
areas
in
camps s t r i v e t o gai n t he media t o t h e i r s i d e ,
which
t he
rulers
in
bot h
and i n which t he media men i n
l es s c o n t r o l l e d s o c i e t i e s s t r u g g l e t o i n s u r e t h e i r independence.
They a r e :
control
funds
over
appoi nt ment s
of
new media
s u b s i d i e s o f media o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,
Co nt r ol
over
appoi nt ment
pe r s o n n e l ,
and c o n t r o l
is
control
dence
of
t he
a power f ul
means
to
to
media.
secure
Media
a
job
per sonnel
c oul d
in
t he
sector.
system.
and
agents who
becomes s t r o n g e r
a licensing
Ironically,
ernment a p p o i n t s e x e c u t i v e p o s t s ,
sensitive
to
gover nor s and t he mem
i n which t he Prime M i n i s t e r
t he persons t o occupy such p o s t s .
i n t he case o f
such
The low c o n t r o l o f t h i s
i n t he appoi nt ment o f t he B. B.C.
is authorised to se le ct
via
systems which are very
bers o f t he I ndependent B r oa d c a s t i ng A u t h o r i t y ,
tion
po litical
be r e c r u i t e d
communicat ions
t he freedom o f t he media as i n t he B r i t i s h
reflected
loyal
a power t h a t a l l o w s or deni es pe r mi s s i o n t o any
i n vol v e men t s are not uncommon even i n
t y pe i s
recruit
views w i t h o u t bei ng accused o f v i o l a t i n g t he i n depen
system under s t a t e c o n t r o l ,
person
and
over t he media c o n t e n t .
r e l i a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s who sub seq ue nt l y work as i n t e r n a l
echo t he p o l i t i c i a n s '
over
Such i n t e r v e n
some European systems where t he gov
or by s e t t i n g hi gh post s f o r p o l i t i c i a n s
t o occupy.
As t o
control
over
f unds,
Bl u ml er
maxim "he who pays t he p i p e r c a l l s
trol
t he t une"
indicates
over media f i n a n c e l eads t o s t r on g media c o n t r o l .
sations
obtaining
become d i r e c t l y
part
of t h e ir
subject
i ndependent income, i . e .
licence
f ees
licence.
f unds
and G u r e v i t c h ' s
and
as
in
The B.B.C.
rights
European c o u n t r i e s
to
to
revenues
government
from d i r e c t
control.
s till
need
t he f a c t
of
that
t he
con
Those media o r g a n i
government
s ub s i d i e s
Those o r g a n i s a t i o n s
f rom t he s al e o f a d v e r t i s i n g ,
broadcasting,
adducement
with
as i n t he p r e s s ,
government
appr oval
or
and
agai n i s a good example o f media r e c e i v i n g government
f ee
a great
collection
f r om B r i t i s h
number o f
-
62
financially
-
set
holders.
troubled
In
newspapers
other
have
been
rescued
p o s t al
by
t he
or
char ges,
degree
to
which
authorities
by d i r e c t
t hr ou gh
grants.
different
ne ws p r i n t
It
subsidies,
was suggested,
government
s ub s i d i e s
by r e d u c i ng
however,
affect
that
different
t he
media
coul d "be pl aced i n a cont i nuum a c c o r d i n g t o t he p r o x i m i t y o f t h e i r revenue
sources
legal
to
t he
hol d
government,
over
t he
degree
non- gover nmental
to
which
sources
of
authority
disposal"
1975, p . 174).
As
to
Bl uml er
c o n t en t - i t
its
and
Gurevitch's
tacit
influence
becomes
c e n s o r i ng some a r t i c l e s
a
serious
factor
of th is
i n f l u e n c e on t he work o f j o u r n a l i s t s
and
-
t he
degree
control
over
of
media
ki nd i s i m p o r t a n t as i t
be f o r e t hey s t a r t
threat
m a i n t ai n s
i n a l l o c a t i n g t he funds a t i t s
third
i s obvi ous t h a t c o n t r o l
government
revenue,
d i s c u s s i o n enjoyed by a p o l i t i c a l
( Bl u ml e r and G u r e v i t c h ,
t he
to
t he
l eaves
to w r i t e .
Such
media
system more than
o r t h r e a t e n i n g t o puni sh w r i t e r s .
Cont ent c o n t r o l
i s pr esent ed i n t he f orm o f s a n c t i o n s t o i n f l u e n c e t he beha v i ou r and a t t i
t udes o f j o u r n a l i s t s ,
output.
Here agai n,
on a cont i nuum
from
bot h p r i o r t o or d u r i n g t he p r e p a r a t i o n o f t he media
t he a u t hor s suggested t he pl acement o f c o n t en t c o n t r o l
hi gh
c o n t en t under r e g u l a t i o n ,
to
low based
on t h r e e
t he degree o f
variables:
specificity
t he
range
of
imposed by t he r e g u l a
tion,
and t he degree t o which such c o n t r o l
i s a t t ac h ed t o p o l i t i c a l
author
ities
i n persons or t o i n t e r m e d i a t e agents or communicat ion c o u n c i l s
(Ibid,
p . 175).
Acc or di ng
communicat ion
to
t he
pluralists,
arr angement s.
such.
As an a c t i v e
field
sweep
irre sistib ly
t hr ough
organisations
their
dotal"
may
po litical
or
select
attitudes
"pragmatic".
The
three
firs t
is
that attracts
channel s
teams
and
By
of
to
di mensi ons
t he
affect
evaluation
t he
of
po litical
politics
peopl e or t u r n s them o f f ,
of
p o litica l
political
their
"sacerdotal
r e l a t i n g t o such h i g h l y honour abl e s o c i a l
- 63 -
approach
news"
t he
to
po litics
communi cat i on.
cor r e spo nde nt s
who
news whet her
a u t ho r s
refer
as
Media
var y
in
" sacer
to
news
i n s t i t u t i o n s as t he Royal Fami l y ,
t he P a r l i a m e n t and t he Cabi net i n B r i t a i n .
By " p r agma t i c news" t hey r e f e r
t o news o f h a l f - w a y i n s t i t u t i o n s
l i k e Trade Uni ons, and groups or o r g a n i s a
tions
t he
standing
in oppo sition
to
central
v al ues
of
society.
Some good
examples o f such i n s t i t u t i o n s are t he w e l f a r e spongers, t he muggers and t he
I.R.A.
The main t as k s o f t hese c or r e s po nde nt s are t o e x p l a i n and i n t e r p r e t
t he news.
l e s s l y t o t he p o l i t i c a l
t he audi ence may respond p o s i t i v e l y or c a r e
affairs
r e f l e c t e d i n t he media.
To e l a b o r a t e on t he s t r u c t u r a l
institu tion s,
Bl u ml er
hypot heses.
The
hypothesis,
and
d i f f e r e n c e s between media and p o l i t i c a l
G u r ev i t c h
came up w i t h
is
s u b o rd in a ti o n -p ro m o te s -p o li t ic i sation
firs t
t he
i n which t he p o l i t i c i a n s
t ak e a s u b o r d i n a t i o n
t o ensure t he t en den c i e s o f t he p o l i t i c a l
a t t he audi ence l e v e l ,
well
p o i n t o f vi ew.
Therefore,
system,
p o litica l
intervention
t he audi ence as a s o r t o f e x t e r n a l
however, t h a t
The second hy p o t h e s i s i s
t r u s t and i t s
as
elites
media
of p o l i t i c i s a t i o n .
notion,
is
under st ood
control
In a s u b o r d i n a
by t he
on t he media.
journalists
It
and
i s under st ood,
o t h e r p o l i c i n g commitments mi ght w e l l
distance
a more s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
t hey shoul d be s e r v i n g !
second
p a r t i c u l a r side,
is
of
commitment.
rather i t
not
t hemsel ves
vi ew o f
from
t he
t he
t he
po litical
independent
( Bl u m l e r and G u r e v i t c h ,
di mensi on
degree o f i m p a r t i a l
an a t t i t u d e
A cc or d i n g t o t h i s
" I n systems t h a t are a l r e a d y marked by a hi gh degree o f s t a t e
subordination,
The
and
s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f any k i nd i s c o n s i d
ered c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e t o t he e f f o r t s
devel op
as a way
j o u r n a l i s t s r e s i s t any i n t e r v e n t i o n be f o r e messages are h i g h l y
p e r c e i ve d by t he audi ence.
t he
factor
pr ocess, a t t he c o n t en t l e v e l
t he a u t o n o m y - p r o m o t e s - p o l i t i c i s a t i o n h y p o t he s i s .
tion
exclusive
on t he b a s i s t h a t t he members o f t he audi ence become
i nf or med o f t he p o l i t i c i a n s '
professional
two m u t u a l l y
political
i nc r ea s e
elites
political
function
1975, p . 181).
power
domain
approach
is
t he
What i s meant here i s not commitment t o a
i s openness t o suppor t t he e x i s t i n g power.
po litical
and
ap at hy ,
it
- 64 -
is
t he
open-mindedness
to
Such
hear
different
ar eas.
The a s s o c i a t i o n
degree o f p a r t i s a n
linkages
between
between p a r t y t i e s
t o t he media and t he
commitment c oul d be emphasised or
l oosened by p a r a l l e l
political
example o f
non-partisanship
B.B.C.
a
B. B.C.
as
good
elites
is
example
t he
for
and
professional
B. B.C.
Bl uml er
non-partisanship
communi cat ors.
(1969)
media.
An
c onsi der ed
He
t he
assessed
t he
coverage o f t he 1966 B r i t i s h e l e c t i o n campaign as f o l l o w s :
"When t he l a s t E l e c t i o n Forum was bei ng pr epar ed, f o r example,
t he r e p o r t e r s spent much t i me l o o k i n g f o r a s u i t a b l e f i n a l ques
t i o n t o put t o Mr. Wi l s o n.
They sought one t h a t would gi ve t o
t he Labour l e a d e r t he same o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t Mr. Heath had enjoyed
on t he p r e v i o u s n i g h t t o wind up w i t h a p o s i t i v e and broad r an g
i n g summary o f h i s p a r t y ' s e l e c t i o n case.
When p r e p a r i n g an i t em
on f l o a t i n g v o t e r s f o r t he Campaign Repor t , many f i l m e d i n t e r
views were i n s p e c t e d b e f or e t he pr oducer s were s a t i s f i e d t h a t t he
reason gi ven by l a b o u r f o r s u p p o r t i n g t he Government would seem
as c o n v i n c i n g as t he m a t e r i a l t hey i n t e nd ed t o p r e s en t f rom a
pro-Conservative leader.
And d u r i n g a 24- hour debate on housi ng,
i n s t r u c t i o n s were passed on t o t he i n t e r v i e w e r t o s t e e r t he
d i s c u s s i o n i n t o an area o f presumed Labour s t r e n g t h ( r e n t and
l o c a l a u t h o r i t y housi ng) so t h a t i t would not be dominated by
c h a l l e n g e s t o o t h e r aspect s o f t he Government' s r ec o r d i n t h i s
field."
(Bl uml er ,
Co nt r ar y t o such f a i r n e s s ,
however,
is
1969, p p . 85-115)
t he coverage o f t he 1973 Par
l i a m e n t a r y E l e c t i o n i n France, where DRTF s t a f f concei ved t h a t " i t
normal
for
t he
Government
to
have
s pe c i a l
access
to
is quite
television"
(Ibid,
p,182).
The
structure
third
di mensi on
of
po litica l
domain
t he
be
III.
Unlike
other
di mensi ons,
t he
mi ght have measurable consequences f o r t he i s s ues t h a t
agenda i n a p a r t i c u l a r t i me .
It
t he
t he
agenda and whet her
professionals.
and r u l e s
It
is
it
is
"agenda-setting"
shape t he p o l i t i c a l
a l l o w s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s about t he source o f
production
assumed t h a t
encourage j o u r n a l i s t s
strongly
is
our st udy o f t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f t he press i n Kuwai t as w i l l
Chapter
Thi s di mensi on i s
approach
to
in
agenda.
power
related
ex p l a i n e d
o f t he p o l i t i c a l
t he
to
in
free
refle ct
- 65 -
of
politicians
liberal
their
systems,
convictions
or
t he
media
media
na t ur e
and views on
t he
i ssues
are
required
actual
under d i s c u s s i o n .
to
practise
In s u b o r d i n a t e systems,
self-restraint
views and c o n v i c t i o n s .
When i t
o f consensus on t he i ss ues v a r i e s
tively
autonomous system not t oo
sentation
of
news l eads
to
and
to
however,
watch
t he
journalists
politicians'
comes t o media c o n t e n t ,
f rom one system t o a n o t he r .
burdened w i t h
consensual
views
external
on t he
t he degree
In a r e l a
control,
politica l
t he p r e
agenda.
The
c o n t e n t o f t he media i s based on news val ues c r i t e r i a desi gned and s e l e c t ed
by media men.
very
h i gh .
In a s i n g l e
The s e l e c t i o n
on news v a l ue s .
bring
divergent
party
is
system,
basically
t he degree o f
t aken on p o l i t i c a l
But i n a m u l t i - p a r t y system,
views about t he
it
is
t he p u b l i c
expect ed t o echo s i m i l a r
over
i ss ues
becomes
Anot her
po litical
Bl u ml er
to
institutions
( 1977) .
In t h e i r
f r om t he
boundar i es
which
vi ew,
other.
hel p
Both
t he
result
agenda.
i n l es s con
At t he audi ence
where t he consensus among
autonomous
between
subject
and s i n g l e
party
system w i t h
of
media
institutions
and
analysis
by G u r ev i t c h
and
s p r i ng s from t he i n v ol ve men t
spokesman from one s i d e , and t he media
need t o
political
fact,
i n t he m u l t i - p a r t y
such r e l a t i o n
grounds and not
1975, p . 184).
relationship
has been t he
o f two set s o f a c t o r s ,
per sonnel
t he
t he
be t r a c e d
approach
in
national
in
becomes
i s expect ed t h a t t he media
patterns,
higher
system and lower consensus c oul d
low s t a t e c o n t r o l
it
i s s u e whi ch,
sensus, y e t t he media b r i n g a d i v e r g e n t
le vel,
consensus
agree
and media
on two
p l an s ;
to
organisations
to
s et
t he
m a i n t ai n
r e l a t i o n s between t he two, and t o cease any emerging c o n f l i c t s and d e f i n e
t he boundar i es which a l l o w t he system t o f u n c t i o n
require,
sional
pl ace,
media p e r s o n n e l .
contexts.
ings,
i n t he f i r s t
Examples
interviews,
of
while
s moot hl y.
Such p o l i c i e s
i n t e n s i v e i n t e r a c t i o n between s e l e c t ed p r o f e s
R e l a t i o n s as such happen i n f or mal
f or mal
contacts
informal
ar e press
contacts
- 66 -
are
t he
and non- f or mal
c on f er en c es,
per sonal
t he
brief
exchanges
of
views over a d r i n k ,
or t hr ou gh per sonal
relationship
and
jo u rn a li s t s .
Thi s
vitch
relationship,
and
Bl u ml e r ,
legitimacy.
operation
by
Here,
between
however,
three
usually
factors.
politicians
public
is
j o u r n a l i s t s base t h e i r
r e a l i t y or t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l
The second f a c t o r
beliefs
of
to
suade t hese masses t o
factor
They t ak e t h e i r
argued,
"suggest s
accept ed
professional
concern i s
policies
by t he
or
c o
public,
of
On t he
i s c e n t r e d upon t he
to
pr i mar y
and t h e i r
serve t he p u b l i c
goal
is
go a l s.
to
per
The t h i r d
from t he work rewards which media men
autonomy as t he r a t i o n a l e
The f i n a l
d i sc r e p a n c y
as G u r ev i t c h and Bl uml er
between
that
regulating
t ake media men as m i d d l e
situation,
analysis,
to
politica l
in stitu tio n s.
st udy
t he
t he
codes
regulate
t he
of
conduct
b e ha v i ou r
of
way
Bl u ml er
in
They
1977, p . 281) .
and G u r ev i t c h
which
mass media
introduce
(1986)
introduced
relates
two d i f f e r e n t
its e lf
to
a new
other
paradigms whi ch,
in
c h a r a c t e r i s e t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he media and t he p r o m i
nent powers i n s o c i e t y .
The f i r s t
i s c a l l e d t he c o n v e n t i o n a l
i n which media p r o f e s s i o n a l s
and i m p a r t i a l l y
any
of
on a u t h o r i t y
As i t
politicians'
spokesmen and t hose
framework
paradi gm,
base
communicators i r r e s p e c t i v e o f any h i g h e r o r d e r p r i n c i p l e s t h a t
In a r ec e n t
vi ew,
their
their
an e s s e n t i a l
mi ght be shared by bot h"
i gnor e
that
professional
pr ocess.
by p o l i t i c a l
t he
Gore-
w i t h t hese i n t e r e s t s .
In t he meantime, o f f i c i a l s
men i n t he p o l i t i c a l
is
to
l e g i t i m a c y on t h e i r f a i t h f u l n e s s t o echo
know", t he
sup po r t
t h e i r pr oper c onduct .
their
t o deal
i s t he c o n f l i c t which a r i s e s
en j o y .
factor
accept ance,
i s t he s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n .
" t he r i g h t
a c c o r d i ng
codes.
t he media per sonnel
and uphol d
firs t
legitimacy
and t he
t he methods t aken by t hose o f f i c i a l s
other side,
The
base t h e i r
interests
governed,
all
per sonal
media cover ages.
or
ideological
are r e q u i r e d t o
follow
Such a view i n s i s t s
loyalty
- 67 -
and
jo urnalistic
objectively
that jo urn alists
commitments
to
po litical
parties,
organisations
alternative
favour
of
provides
in
and
which
"an
gr oups.
t he
jo urn alistic
exp r e s s i on
'cover
up'
for
p r e v a i l i n g s t a t u s quo"
The
of
t he
called
paradigm
is
totally
professional
true
loyalties
journalists'
c a l l y r e s u l t from news v al ue c r i t e r i a ,
Thus,
is
ideology,
Bl uml er
and
t he
critica l
rejected
which
obscures
o f media p r o f e s s i o n a l s
The au t hor s found t h a t
system.
second
in
and
to
t he
1986, p . 67) .
p r e f e r e n c e s f o r news do not b a s i
r a t h e r t hey r e s u l t f rom t he dominant
Gurevitch
anal ysed
t he
relationship
between
j o u r n a l i s t s and o t h e r gr oups, and came up w i t h f i v e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s .
The f i r s t
is
based on c a t e g o r i c a l
definitions
i n which each group i n t he
f ocus o f t he media i s pr esent ed and p o r t r a y e d ac c o r d i ng t o pr agmat i c o r i e n
tation.
For
example,
t he
Royal
t r e a t m e n t f rom t he m a j o r i t y
ci sm,
in
o f t he B r i t i s h
Britain
media,
enj oy s
more s u p p o r t i v e
w i t h mi nor t a c i t
c riti
as i n t he case o f i n v a d i n g t he p r i v a c y o f i t s members, which on many
occasi ons
media.
is
Fami l y
becomes
a subject
for
self-censorship
by
other
sectors
of
t he
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n occur s i n t he case o f t he Church. The news here
pr esent ed
especially
honour i ng
when
t he
t he
source
spokesmen
sel ves i n c o n t r o v e r s i a l
for
with
mi nor
t he
church
interventions
are
discussions of a p o l i t i c a l
caught
n a t u r e.
by
t he
media
involving
them
There are a l s o
half-way i n s t i t u t i o n s
p o r t r a y e d i n t he media as p a r t o f t he l e g i t i m a t e body
o f t he
t he t r a d e
society,
t he d i s c u s s i o n
m at i c t er ms .
reportin g
t he
of p o l i t i c a l
uni on which
i s s u es and i s
Some u n f o r t u n a t e gr oups,
spect rum.
op pos it e
spongers
like
si de
entitled
pr esent ed
however,
fa ll
to
of
t he
central
(Cohen and Young,
v al ues
of
which stand on
including
et a l . ,
from t h i s
perspective,
welfare
1978),
teen
1973), and members o f t he IRA.
Anot her p e r s p e c t i v e c o n s i d e r s j o u r n a l i s m as a m u l t i - s i d e d
Viewed
in
a t t he f a r end o f t he
society,
1982), muggers ( Ha l l
participate
i n t he media i n p r a g
They are t he groups and o r g a n i s a t i o n s
( Gol d i n g and M i d d l e t o n ,
age ho o l i g a n s
is
t he media coverage r e f l e c t s
-
68
-
enterprise.
t he i n t e r a c t i o n
between two or more set s o f i n f l u e n c e s ,
and t he media coverage,
i s a balanced p o s i t i o n between t he s c al e o f s o c i a l
v al ue
of
news,
bei ng
subjects
for
pr e s s ur e
therefore,
val ues and t he momentary
from both
sides,
journalists,
o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e d by t he s a c e r d o t a l ,
r e p o r t news on t he basi s o f p r e s t i
gi ous needs,
in stitutions
a c c o r di n g
t he
to
influence
what
t hey
of
po we r f u l
thin k
t he
audi ence
and t he v al ue o f
mi ght
find
t he
media
most
news
exciting
and
accurate.
Thirdly,
some i n s t i t u t i o n s
a c c o r di n g t o t h e i r
positio n
t hey a c t u a l l y
Thi s
tion
to
pa t r o n
do.
certain
val ues
and
unav o i da bl e
on t he
(real
activities
conflicts
that
social
becomes
or
parties,
will
amid i nv ol v e men t
t he
them
trade
media
uni ons
All
na t ur e o f a c l i e n t
pa t r o n
Such
which l a c k power and i n f l u e n c e on t he media.
claim i m p a r t i a l i t y
in
presenting
indiscriminately.
with
treat
where c e r t a i n media o r i e n t a
something
supposed)
shoul d
sc al e and not a c c o r d i ng t o what
l eads t o a s i t u a t i o n
in stitutions
relationship
believe
and
r el ea s ed
beha vi ou r
ethnic
causes
minorities
t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
i n t he s a c e r d o t a l
vi ews,
however,
game.
The c o n f l i c t s
i n Western s o c i e t i e s ,
news i s formed
c on t i n u e even though not openl y di sc us s e d.
Fourthly,
t he b e l i e f here i s t h a t ,
in a t r a n s - c u l t u r a l
content.
Bl u ml er and G u r ev i t c h
found
supportive
evi
dence f o r t h i s p o i n t i n t h e i r st udy o f t he c o n t r i b u t i o n o f j o u r n a l i s t s from
ni ne Common Market c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t he coverage o f t he European P a r l i a m e n
tary
E l e c t i o n s o f 1979.
differed
slightly
or
They found t h a t t he grade o f s i m i l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s
s ha r pl y
a c c o r di n g
to
t he
different
traditions
of
European e l e c t i o n s and t he t h i n k i n g o f t he v a r i o u s European p a r l i a m e n t s .
The f i f t h
and f i n a l
factor
in
based on t he f a c t t h a t mass media,
to
t he
tions
o u t pu t
in spire
and i n p u t
their
t he mass media w i l l
pr oc es s .
members w i t h
be a n ot he r
t he Bl uml er and G u r ev i t c h framework i s
l i k e any s o c i a l
in stitution,
Thi s means t h a t
both
sacerdotal
example o f
- 69 -
if
all
social
and pr agmat i c
similar
are s u b j e c t
behaviour.
in s titu
attitudes,
Mass media
t hemsel ves are l i a b l e
s our ces.
of
They are pe r c e i ve d
expression,
"distort
but
it
is
and t r i v i a l i z e
in terests"
as r es p ec t ed
pragmatically
Garnham (1986)
f rom a d i f f e r e n t
for
their
r ecogni sed
principles
o f freedom
also
t hey
and may be harnessed t o t he
( B l u ml e r and G u r e v i t c h ,
Ni c hol as
tion
t o be c r e d i t e d and d i s c r e d i t e d by t h e i r audi ence and
that
service of p a r t i c u l a r
1986, p . 181).
approached t he
standpoint.
st udy
The q u e s t i o n
of
po litical
he poses i s :
communica
"how w e l l
badl y do t he v a r i o u s media r e f l e c t t he e x i s t i n g bal ance o f p o l i t i c a l
and t he e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l
action,
coul d
agenda,
or
forces
and what i s t h e i r e f f e c t upon p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i c u l a r l y on v o t i n g p a t t e r n s ? "
In t h i s r eg a r d ,
Garnham observed
t h a t " t he i n s t i t u t i o n s and process o f p u b l i c communication are t hemsel ves a
central
p a r t o f t he p o l i t i c a l
For example,
t hey a l s o
citizens
seek access t o t he
seek access
s t r u c t u r e and pr ocess"
to
debat es.
t he
m i s s i on from which p o l i t i c a l
i t is essential
politica l
1986, p . 37) .
vot e t o echo t h e i r p o s i t i o n ,
sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n
Therefore,
t he media as a spect rum f o r
(Garnham,
to
and p a r t i c i p a t i o n
have equal
in
access t o
d i s c u s s i o n s and as a means o f t r a n s
decisions r i g h t l y
emerge.
MEDIA AND PRESSURE GROUPS
An e x t e n s i o n o f t he p l u r a l i s t i c
is
t he
st udy
powers.
of
t he
The f ocus
such as t he
en v i r o nmen t a l
trade
relationship
is
between
t he
women's
case s t u d i e s
of
media
with
movement,
and
various
t he Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y
theorists
other
po litical
pr es sur e gr oups,
min ority
Good examples are two p a r t i c u l a r
o f P al e t z and Entham (1981) o f i n f l u e n t i a l
t he
t he
on media r e l a t i o n s h i p
u n i o ns ,
l obby.
approach and o t h e r c o n f l i c t
groups
studies,
and t he
t he
st udy
o r g a n i s a t i o n s and t he media, and
Media Group (1976 and 1980) o f
t r a d e uni ons and t he media coverage o f t h e i r news.
P al et z
groups
in
and
Entham
(1981)
di s c us sed
t he
role
shapi ng media messages and t he a b i l i t y
- 70 -
pl ayed
by
interested
o f such groups t o a f f e c t
and
media p r a c t i c e s .
They argue
that,
generally,
what
is
c on si d er ed
true
of
t he i n f l u e n c e o f t he a u t h o r i t i e s on t he media i s a l s o t r u e o f t he ma n i p u l a
tions
of
government a u t h o r i t i e s
obvi ous
that
pr e s s ur e
t he
groups,
more
media
and pr e s s ur e
coverage
t he more t hese
gi ven
put
it,
"certain
indulged.
For a f avo ur ed
what ever
Entham,
i ss ues
It
as
is
raised
by
le gitim ate
i s not ed,
pariahs,
It
and o f
however, t h a t such
are
scorned
some
few,
t he media serve as a c o n d u i t ,
As P a l e t z
i g no r ed ,
others
transmitting
l e a d e r wi shes t o p r o v i d e "
( P a l e t z and
1981, p . 124).
authority
to
Paletz's
circle,
analysis,
two
who impose d i f f e r e n t
t o some e x t e n t ,
t he l e s s
powerful,
t he b u i l d i n g
are mar gi nal
rioters,
welfare
in stitu tion ally
mothers
de p r i ve d
and
groups
emerge,
up o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
gr oups.
and
S tructurally,
f rom
m ilitants.
resources,
strikers,
Bei ng
organisation,
power l es s,
leadership,
d i s c r e d i t e d and deemed u n i m p o r t a n t by t he media as w e l l
t he
politicians.
makers,
and
nor are t h e i r
( ba c k ha nde dl y)
manifest
their
threat
to
Mar gi nal
groups
described
of
other
such a c t u a l
as
are not c o n v e n t i o n a l
news
l e a d e r s a source f o r f r o n t page e x c l u s i v e news unl ess
activities
are
viewed
at
a
particular
more e s t a b l i s h m e n t i d e n t i t i e s .
t i me ,
officia l
or
relations
system
electio n
as " i n s t a n c e s
as
a
The minimum a t t e n t i o n
gi ven by t he media t o t hese groups i s c on c er t ed w i t h t he r e p o r t e r s '
coverage
and
t he power o f t hese
t hese groups are
public
t he
The f i r s t ,
f o r example, u n o f f i c i a l
s t ud e n t
lacking
apart
l e v e l s o f pr e s s ur e on t he media and
groups i s e x h i b i t e d i n t he a c t i v i t i e s o f ,
urban
certain
media.
s h a r p l y f rom one group t o a n o t he r .
news and views t he g r o u p ' s
Ac cor d i n g
shar e,
groups
to
by t he
i s su es become s a l i e n t ,
hi gh concern t o t hose who make d e c i s i o n s .
coverage by t he media d i f f e r s
groups
( whi ch)
routine
c onduct .
Goldenberg
involved
a reporter
or c o l u m n i s t who s p e c i a l i s e d i n p r e c i s e l y t he area o f r e p o r t i n g t h a t was o f
concern t o t he group,
t he
desira bility
of
who agreed w i t h
advocacy
t he g r o u p ' s
reportin g
- 71 -
as
goals,
necessary
to
and who accept ed
correct
what
was
pe r c e i ve d
as a p e r v a s i v e
newspapers t oday"
whenever t he
( Gol denber g,
l e ader s
policy objectives,
t he
media would
t hose
imbal ance
of
are
groups
of
usually
an
Ni xon' s ai de,
ans
t ake
to
t he
are al l owed
s i de
of
t he
to
demonst r at e
their
i n t he same programmes,
and ab l e
gr oups.
Char l es Col son,
most m e t r o p o l i t a n
journalism.
more power f ul
au t ho r s was c i t e d f rom t he Vietnam War.
in
As P a l e t z and Entham n o t i c e d ,
advocacy
a g a i n s t changes r a i s e d by t he mar gi nal
gr oups,
poor
would occ as i on r e b u t t a l
be accused
objectives
t he
1975, p . 135).
mar gi nal
this
against
The opponents
to
defend
or
of
themsel ves
An example pr esent ed by t he
In t he f ace o f i n c r e a s i n g a n t i - w a r
c r ea t e d a s u p p o r t i v e group o f v e t e r
admin istration
and
to
i ncrease
t he
public
accept ance f o r t he p o l i c y o f war.
The second group compri ses busi ness i n t e r e s t s .
in c a p i t a l i s t
affairs
and
economy,
in
It
is
under st ood t h a t
busi ness peopl e have t he g r e a t e s t v o i ce i n economic
ma t t e r s
of
social,
cultural
and
p o litica l
change.
The
gover nment ' s wi sh i s t o have f l o u r i s h i n g economic s up po r t f rom t he busi ness
sector.
Also,
between
t he
it
needs
demands
of
to
ensure
wor ker s
labour
and
t he
sup po r t
and
opposition
to
of
narrow
t he
gap
to
any
businessmen
c l a i ms r a i s e d by t he uni o ns.
Here busi ness power pl ay s
dat es
who
within
t he
are
expect ed
system.
to
Second,
its
role
follow
by s u p p o r t i n g
a policy
busi ness
leading
interests
reflect
busi ness i n t e r e s t s
and i n t e r e s t s
o f bu s i n es s ,
prospectively
achi eved w i t h o u t
to
mi ni mi sed
m a i n t ai n t h e i r
e s t a b l i s h i n g mutual r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o f f i c i a l s
officia ls
Co n s e r v a t i v e
c os t
by
and making sure t h a t t hese
become l e g i t i m a t e ,
unwanted
changes
position
and uphol d t h e i r p o l i c y .
accordingly,
candi
to
The demands
and t h e i r
t hemsel ves
or
to
goal s
p o liti
c i a ns .
si on
The media coverage o f
interest
is
to
e n f or c e
basically
directed
a
which
policy
groups
maintain
p r e v en t s
t he
in
t he
media
- 72 -
P a l e t z and Entham' s c o n c l u
distribution
from
of
presenting
power
and
demands
to
for
changes.
mental
But ,
t he groups who accept e s t a b l i s h m e n t r u l e s and pursue i n c r e
goal s
discreetly
benefit
Groups whose methods v i o l a t e
nificant
alteration
activities
o f t he
distorted
or
i gnor ed or s c or n ed ! "
proposed by r a d i c a l
cal,
f rom
c o n v en t i o n s ,
structure
condemned,
(Ibid,
journalists'
p . 145).
of
whose o b j e c t i v e s
power,
their
relations,
t he
usually
radical
practices.
require
a sig
their
radical
find
analysis
In t he f ace o f a l l
systems w i t h i n
and
demands f o r changes
of
t he
Glasgow
way B r i t i s h
University
c a l l s f o r change.
television
Group
(1976)
news cover s
added
industrial
a n ot he r
group w i t h ample c o n ne c t i on s w i t h t he media - t he t r a d e u n i o ns .
that
for
some u n i o ns ,
which
t he
their
members.
during
news
it
menti oned
disputes,
pr o p o s a l s
t he e x i s t i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t must be
mai n t a i ne d and kept saf e and secure a g a i n s t a l l
st udy
and
gr oups, t he l e g i t i m a c y and t he s t r u c t u r e o f t he p o l i t i
economic and s o c i a l
In t h e i r
needs
was
ver y
their
easy
name
or
to
count
carried
With
respect
t o some
u n i o ns ,
with
respect
t o o t h e r uni ons
t he
of
They found
number o f
s t at ement s
heavy
essential
t i mes
in
in itiate d
by
coverage
similar
was
gi ven
significance
in
t he system t he coverage became lower both i n news aspect or i n i n t e r v i e w s .
The a u t ho r s noted t h a t t h e r e were c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s
coverage c o r r e s p o n d i ng t o t he
p u b l i c i t y o f each un i o n .
tortion
was such t h a t
this
t he
situation
bal ance"
white
by
and bi as i n t he media
collar
had r egar ded
it
receive
now
The l e v e l
a trade
Group,
1975,
p . 243) .
in
r ed r ess
On t he o t h e r
coverage w i t h more chances o f
of
of d i s
unio nist
"as a waste o f t i me t o at t e mp t t o
(Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y
uni ons
until
i n t he l e v e l
hand,
bei ng addressed
name. Some u n i o n i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t e f f o r t s made by i n d i v i d u a l
uni ons can
a f f e c t t he q u a l i t y o f t he coverage gi ven by t he media.
The Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y Group pr es ent ed a s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s i n 1980 i n a
book e n t i t l e d
casting
" More Bad News".
reported
economic
In a case st udy t o
affairs
in
1975,
t he
most i m p o r t a n t i s sue was t h a t o f wages, because i t
- 73 -
define
findin gs
t he way b r o ad
showed
that
t he
appeared between January
and
April
important,
addition,
t he
1975
no
was
t he
t he
industrial
words
usually
l ess
than
383
i nv es t men t
issue
au t hor s
showed
hi gh
news
appeared
in
associated
times.
with
The
which
what
news
t he
issue,
appeared
sensitivity
t he
second
over
only
t he
sought
89
For
al ways " o f f e r s "
which
"claims"
t he
or
r e a c t i o n s were
t he i n t e r v i e w s
observed
with
that
in
t he
reportin g
t he management were hel d i n
of
industrial
offices
and t he
t o p i c s r ev o l v e d around t he damages caused t o t he f i r m by such d i s p u t e s .
for
t he
or " p r o p o s a l s " .
The Glasgow Group a l s o
disputes,
in
In
example,
were
"demands", whereas t he words used t o d e s c r i b e t he empl oyer s'
ver y
times.
language
b r o a d c a s t s.
wor ker s
t hough
wo r k er s ,
t he
case
was
different;
t he
wor ker s
were
But
interviewed
o u t do o r s ,
and t he q u e s t i o n s were d i r e c t e d t owards d e s c r i b i n g t he j u s t i f i c a
tion
t he
for
dispute.
industrial
"Such i n t e r v i e w s
actions
and
pr esent ed
or
de c r e a s i n g
media
and
di sc u s s e d ,
w ill
conveyed t o t hose i s s u e s .
effect
on
public
thinking
wo r k e r s '
reasons
for
bei ng
in
never e n q u i r e about t he probl ems c r ea t e d by t he
management a g a i n s t t hose wor ker s "
increasing
t he
(Glasgow Media Group,
f ocus
on t he
obviously
1980,
news and t he
deci de
t he
degree
p . 189).
way i s sues
of
The
are
i mpor t ance
Thi s degree o f i mpor t ance i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t he
of
t he
i s sues
mi nd.
- 74
and
their
i mpact
on
t he
public
C.
APPLICATION TO THIRD WORLD MEDIA
As
is
evident
in
t he
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g as a concept
has been American i n
question ari ses
Ob v i o u s l y ,
its
as t o
material
pr esent ed
and as a r esear c h
inception
how t hese
throughout
area
and most o f i t s
hypot heses
appl y
in
this
chapter,
mass communi cat i on
devel opment t o da t e.
to
other
media
A
systems.
i t would be r e a d i l y t r a n s l a t a b l e t o t he Western media because o f
t he
sim ilarity
has
any
between t hese
universality
at
syst ems.
a ll,
its
But
if
t he
applicability
agenda-setting
to
other
concept
media
systems
e x i s t i n g i n s o c i e t i e s o t h e r t han t he West must be demonst r at ed.
Al t hough t h e r e
has not
been s u b s t a n t i a l
r es ear ch
in to
agenda-setting
o u t s i d e o f t he U. S. , t h e r e has n e v e r t h e l e s s been much d i s c u s s i o n and a n a l y
s i s o f media systems
examined
tries.
so as t o
Such
media ar e
in
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
show t he
na t u r e o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i n
an e x a mi n at i on
f as h i on ed
after
These d i s c u s s i o n s
is
based
on t he
Western media i n
uni queness o f T h i r d World s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
fact
that
w ill
be
T h i r d World coun
most
Third
World
s p i t e o f t he way i n which t he
systems a f f e c t
t he
ground
rules
under which a g e n d a - s e t t i n g op er a t e s i n t hese s o c i e t i e s .
Gol di ng
(1977) made a st udy o f media p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m and t he t r a n s f e r
o f i d e o l o g y from t he
his
thesis
on t he
social ev olu tio n
industrial
fact
that
wo r l d
to
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
mass media di d
i n t h e i r mother c o u n t r i e s .
not
He b u i l t
emerge as a p a r t
Rat her ,
of
t he
t he mass media i n t he
T hi r d World have devel oped as an e x t e n s i o n o f t he media i n t he i n d u s t r i a l
i sed
countries.
Gol di ng
based
his
observation
on
two
theoretical
structs ;
"The f i r s t i s t he n o t i o n o f t he t r a n s f e r o f t ec h n o l o g y , which
t u r n s a t t e n t i o n t o t he i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r devel opment o f e x p o r t i n g
i n d u s t r i a l t ech n o l og y f rom t he r i c h n a t i o n s t o t he T h i r d Worl d,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t he f r e q u e n t c o n f l i c t between t he need f o r a p p r o p r i
at e t ec h nol og y and t he e x p o r t i n g a m b i t i o n s o f t ec h n o l og y manufac
tures.
The second c o n s t r u c t i s " t h e probl em o f c u l t u r a l i m p e r i
a l i s m , i m p l y i n g a no r mat i ve component t o t he s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s
o f dependence between advanced and under - devel oped s o c i e t i e s " .
( G o l d i n g , 1977, p . 291)
- 75 -
con
On t he
basi s
of
professionalism.
t hese
The i d e o l o g y
wo r l d has been t r a n s f e r r e d
nol o gy.
Such
equi pment
origin.
is
de v i s e d ,
Consequent l y,
defined
has
has
di scussed
media p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m
in p a r a l l e l
hand,
became
t he
had
three
tested
other
nations
capability
of
he
s kills
to
be
to
marketed
acquire
frequent
to
use
o b t ai n e d
main channel s
been ma i n t ai n e d .
and
t hr ou gh
F irstly,
in i t s
media
t he
advanced
which
model
which
was t r a n s f e r r e d
t hose
services
to
were e s t a b l i s h e d
spread
institu tion al
t he
shifted
colonial
"media i n s t i t u t i o n a l
World grew as e x t en s i o n s
and i m i t a t i o n s
Ibid ,
and i t
i ndependence,
Gol di ng
namely
i deol ogy
t he
BBC
and t he French
In t he
be g i nn i ng
set
But l a t e r t he o b j e c t i v e s
Such p o l i c y
convi nced
forms devel oped i n t he T h i r d
o f t hose i n
industrial
societies"
i s t hr ou gh e d u c a t i o n ,
training
and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .
t he T h i r d World needed t o expand media s e r v i c e s ,
became more r e l i a n t on Western e x p e r t s who had been i n charge o f t he
colonial
media.
Western
ed ucati onal
Gol di ng t o
but
its
p p . 294- 295) .
The second channel
On g a i n i n g
equipment.
o f Western
channel ,
media model s.
Gol di ng t o concl ude t h a t ,
( Go l d i n g ,
Third
spread awareness amongst c o l o n i a l
i m p o r t a n t home news.
transpla nting
t he
nations.
French t e r r i t o r i e s .
to
( West ern)
knowledge o f
territories,
t l e r s and p r o v i d e them w i t h
into
t he
Western
t he
model which was t r a n s f e r r e d t o B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l
of
advanced
tech
t he media
professionalism,
of
of
industrial
of material
count ry
equi pment and
f rom
concept
On t he one hand,
con s ume r s
such
t he
i n t he
w i t h t he t r a n s f e r
dynamics i mpl y two p r e r e q u i s i t e s .
On t he
Wor l d
constructs,
v al ues
Fur t he r mo r e,
in stitu te s.
believe that
and
t housands o f T h i r d World s t ud ent s e n r o l l e d i n
The
results
" t hose who r e t u r n
attitudes,
and
not
least
machines t hey have l ear ned t o work w i t h "
- 76 -
of
t hese
engagements
l ed
t ak e w i t h them not o n l y s k i l l s ,
a
(Ibid,
receptivity
p . 295).
to
t he
men
and
The t h i r d
echoed
media
in
of
channel
t he
textual
t he
Third
is
v al ues
of
t he
model
oriented
French
grammes
i mpor t ed
are
model,
style
sol d
products,
context
though
service"
media.
per suasive
conveyed
and
t hr ou gh
supplied,
to,
The
already
remarks
t he
has
been
American
e i gh t e en
for
example,
commer ci al ly-
in
hours
Examples
context,
and
of
radio
pro
African
radio
sta
aware
to
of
t he
imitate
(1980)
professional
them i n
(Ibid,
style,
superiority
philosophy
of
and
t hese
format.
p . 299).
contributed
t o t he
st udy and un de r s t a n d i n g
i n emerging and d e v e l op i ng
"The media i n t hese s o c i e t i e s d i d not e vo l v e g r a d u a l l y a l o n g s i d e
other i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Rather t hey were i m p o r t a n t t e c h n o l o g i e s and p r a c t i c e s
assi gned a s p e c i f i c
f o r exampl e,
role
i n devel opment "
made t he p o i n t
about d e s i r e d s o c i a l
in stitution.
entire
into
tangib le,
entertaining
o f t he r o l e o f t he media i n mass communicat ion
dent
not
heavily
France and t he Uni t ed S t a t e s .
P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m becomes i m i t a t i o n "
nations.
is
Gol di ng found such u n r e s t r i c t e d i n f l u e n c e made t he " A f r i
become bound
McAnaney's
factor
by media p r o f e s s i o n a l s
factor,
f r om B r i t a i n ,
and o t h e r wi s e
pr o du c er s ,
Thi s
models o f media systems and i n t he bul k o f canned
p r a g m a t i c,
t i o n s every y e a r .
can
Thi s
"public
and
ideology.
transferred
Wor l d,
pr es ent ed i n t he gener al
programmes
occupational
devel opment
t hey
package,
role
of
are
c onsi der ed
although
t he
responsibility
devel opment programme by p r o v i d i n g
t i o n desi gned t o hel p s o c i a l
p . 21) .
Schramm,
bring
They are not seen as a separ at e and i n de pen
c o u n t r i e s v a r i e s from c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y .
assi gned t he pr i mar y
1980,
t h a t mass media i n d e v el op i ng c o u n t r i e s
change.
I ns t ead
(McAnaney,
as p a r t
media
and pa r cel
positio n
in
of
d e v el op i ng
In some c o u n t r i e s t he media are
for
b r i n g i n g about t he e n t i r e
needed adequate and e f f e c t i v e
informa
transformation.
" Wi t ho u t adequate and e f f e c t i v e
communi cat i on,
economic and
s o c i a l devel opment w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be r e t ar d e d and may be cou nt er
productive.
With adequate and e f f e c t i v e
communi cat i on,
t he
pathway t o change can be made e a s i e r and s h o r t e r " .
(Schramm, 1964, p . I X )
- 77 -
t he
The r o l e
mass media
p l ay
in
t he
Third
World
is
no l o n g e r
viewed
as
m e c h a n i s t i c as has been under st ood i n t he past era o f dominant assumpt i ons.
Rather i t
which
i s a con c e p t i on o f a consensual
t he
orientations
shared by t he r e s t
tion.
Attentio n
advocated
by
role;
t he
pr oducer s
o f t he popul ace or by t he
shoul d
be d i r e c t e d
to
namely,
of
consumers
finding
out
t h e i r g r e a t ent husi asm t o d i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n ,
a l a r g e degree t o
communicat ion
of
t he
are
communica
whet her t he media,
in
have si mpl y been f a r out
o f st ep and out o f t une w i t h t he r e s t o f t he popul ace, o r whet her t he y are
ab l e t o c r e a t e shared meaning and v a l ue s .
The
widely
function
viewed
technology.
e n er g i es
and
as
of
not
mass
media
in
restricted
Third
to
t he
World
d e v e l op i ng
dissemination
of
countries
information
is
and
Rather t he new r o l e o f t he media shoul d be t o m o b i l i s e s o c i a l
channel
them t owar ds
t he
creation
of
new v al ues
that
u l t i m a t e l y hel p t o commit t he peopl e t o t he programmes and p r o j e c t s
sary f o r devel opment (McAnaney,
In a s i m i l a r
vein,
be viewed as a s o c i a l
neces
1980).
Rogers advanced t he
process."
would
i dea t h a t
"devel opment
shoul d
Thi s p o s i t i o n i m p l i e s :
" . . . a q u e s t i o n i n g o f t he component approach t o communication
r es e a r c h , f r e q u e n t work, i n whi ch a source v a r i a b l e , a message
v a r i a b l e , or a channel v a r i a b l e i s i n v e s t i g a t e d t o det er mi ne how
i t i s r e l a t e d t o a communicat ion e f f e c t ( or e f f e c t s ) . "
I ns t ea d ,
Rogers emphasises t h a t :
" I f devel opment
communicat ion i s indeed c ons i der ed as a t o t a l
pr ocess, t he i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t he components must be
i n v e s t i g a t e d as w e l l as t he r e l e v a n t envi r onment i n which a
communicat ion system i s embedded."
(Rogers, 1976, p . 13)
In
overall
s t op
approach
to
t he
st udy
of
t he
we can concl ude
For example,
here t h a t
media o f mass communicat ion
segmenti ng t he communi cat i on process and t r e a t i n g
rately.
of
such a view o f mass communi cat i on,
each
segment
t he o l d way o f d e a l i n g w i t h t he i n d i v i d u a l
a n a l y s i s shoul d be abandoned a l t o g e t h e r .
- 78 -
t he
has t o
sepa
as au n i t
I t i s p e r f e c t l y a c c e p t ab l e , o f
cour se,
to
observe
individual
action
and i n d i v i d u a l
behaviour.
But ,
t he
i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i o n must be r e l a t e d t o t he a c t i o n s o f o t h e r s by emphasi si ng
t he
inter-personal
di mens i on.
Third
World
media c on t ex t s which are l ess i n d i v i d u a l i s t ,
in
terms
of
culture
setting
d e v e l op i ng
this
point
t he
and system o r i e n t a t i o n .
by n o t i n g
in terpersonal,
that
t he
monodic
based on aggr egat e ps yc h ol ogy ,
c a t i o n pr ocess.
provide
more communal, c o l l e c t i v e both
t he u n i t o f o b s e r v a t i o n may be t he i n d i v i d u a l ,
be i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l ,
countries
T h e r e f or e,
al t h o u g h
t he u n i t o f a n a l y s i s
or t he
vi ew o f
social.
shoul d
Rogers summarised
human b e h a v i o u r ,
which
is
has l ed t o t he p u l v e r i s a t i o n o f t he communi
He s t a t e s t h a t :
"The over whel mi ng f ocus on t he i n d i v i d u a l as t he u n i t o f a n a l y s i s
i n communicat ion r esear c h . . . i s o f t e n due t o t he assumpt i on t h a t
i f t he i n d i v i d u a l i s t he u n i t o f response, he must c ons equent l y
be t he u n i t o f a n a l y s i s . "
(Rogers, 1976, p . 208)
Rogers showed t he f a l l a c y
o f t h a t p o s i t i o n and r e f e r r e d t o t he e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f a n a l y s i n g t he communi cat i on process by s h i f t i n g a t t e n t i o n
i n d i v i d u a l s t o dyads, c l i q u e s ,
nicatio n
relationships
discrete
in dividuals
is
t he
can't
unit
speak)
measurement"
of
between
be
(Ibid,
t he
t he
unit
a system o f i n d i v i d u a l s ,
individuals
t hemsel ves.
response,
can
net wor k s,
rather
He noted t h a t
communi cat i on
of
analysis
than
on
or commu
s ep ar a t e ,
"even when t he i n d i v i d u a l
relationship
via
t he
f rom
some
(even
t ype
though
it
of
soci ometîc
International
Association
p . 212).
Pr o f e s s o r H a l l e r a n ,
as t he P r e s i d e n t o f t he
f o r Mass Communication Research and as t he D i r e c t o r o f t he Cent re f o r Mass
Communication Research a t t he U n i v e r s i t y
of Le icester,
gave hi s
o f devel opment r esear c h i n t he T h i r d World on two oc c a s i o n s .
in
1981,
i n a paper e n t i t l e d
Devel opi ng S o c i e t i e s " .
"Beyond Development
In
"The Need f o r
1986,
Communi cation:
International
which he pr esent ed a t a con f er en c e i n Si ngapor e.
- 79 -
The f i r s t was
Mass Communication Research i n
H a l l e r a n wr ot e h i s
The
evaluation
second paper e n t i t l e d
Research
Exper i ence"
Mass
t he
communicat ion
relationship
tional
find
researchers,
as
Halleran
between means and ends;
f orm and o r g a n i s a t i o n a l
t he answers t o
between
structure.
questions
such as
hel p i n a t t a i n i n g
t he
noted
in
social
1981,
examined
system,
in stitu
The goal s and o b j e c t i v e s were t o
"What
pr oper
suitable
to
communicat ions
plans?",
and "How coul d t he media be used p r o p e r l y
in stitutions
policies
mi g ht
be
and devel opment
and adequat el y
to
sat
i s f y t hose p o l i c i e s and needs?".
The t ype o f r es e ar ch w i t h i n
ion,
is
"critica l,
characteristics
that
it
deal s
probl em
of
this
with
and
t y pe
structure,
third,
organization,
(Halloran,
1981,
p . 164).
owner s hi p,
control,
Halloran's thesis,
as
a
social
not i n i s o l a t i o n
and w i t h i n
and
orientated
t he wi d e r
that
it
social
In t h i s
structure,
ar gues,
pr oc es s;
but as,
The
are:
second,
main
"First
that
(nationally
r es ear ch
participation
t y pe o f r e s e a r c h ,
opin
it
and t o g e t h e r w i t h ,
context
conceptualizes
professionalization,
in Halloran's
research".
research, H a llo ra n 's
communi cat i on
in stitu tio n s,
in te rna tiona lly);
policy
of
s t u d i e s t he media i n s t i t u t i o n s
other
devel opi ng s o c i e t i e s ,
in
terms
and
so
and
of
on"
t he emphasis i s not on
o r g a n i s a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p ;
t he r es ear c h must examine t he use, r e a c t i o n ,
in
e f f e c t s and
i n f l u e n c e o f t he communicat ion pr oc es s .
As t he p r e s i d e n t o f t he I n t e r n a t i o n a l
tion
Research,
available
H a l l o r a n has made i t
A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Mass Communica
h i s busi ness t o o b t a i n and examine t he
r esear c h c o v e r i n g t he d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ,
t he T h i r d Worl d.
o r what i s
known as
One o f h i s c o n v i c t i o n s i s t h a t i n r esear ch
"the c a l l s f o r
an e x p l o r a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s are bound t o be
seen as a t h r e a t and c h a l l e n g e by t hose who n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r
n a t i o n a l l y own
or c o n t r o l t he media which r e g u l a t e t he g l ob a l
f l o w o f communi cat i on, who w i l l b e n e f i t from t he mai nt enance o f
t he s t a t u s quo, and who st and t o l ose from any change".
( I b i d , p . 165)
The c o n f l i c t
tuals,
between
i ndependent
on t he one hand, and n a t i o n a l
r esear cher s,
scholars
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
80 -
and i n t e l l e c
f o r c e s on t he o t h e r .
continues
called
on t he
t he
b a si s
that
"alternative
t he
f or mer
try
to
forms o f t h i n k i n g " ,
investig ate
and t he
what
latter
Halloran
are d i s p l e a s e d
because t hey under st and t h a t t hose a l t e r n a t i v e s mi ght r e s u l t i n a l t e r n a t i v e
systems.
They know t h a t
" t he y
are
t hey s e t t he agenda and c o n t r o l
In
a
recent
entitled
"Beyond
weakness
of
analysis,
r es e a r c h e r s t o make sense o f
a most
Communi cat i on".
because
in
June
1986,
He p o i n t e d
to
a
t he
paper
gener al
Communication r esear ch and concl uded t h a t
s t u d i e s o f s o c i e t y and s o c i a l
models o f t he o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,
tionships.
They
need
positio n
(Ibid).
p r es en t e d,
need v a l i d
also
favourable
t he d i s c o u r s e "
Halloran
Development
t he Development
in
to
structure
under st and
t he
pr ocesses,
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l
social
pr oc es s ,
for
t hey
rela
mai nl y
t he
communicat ion process and i n f l u e n c e .
However,
such v a l i d models and un d e r s t a n d i n g have not y e t f e a t u r e d i n
communicat ion r e s e a r c h .
i g n o r i n g t he
operations
The
unit
important
of
of
individual
t he
t he
factors
media
analysis
while
sim plistic,
On t he whol e, t he r esear ch has been m e d i a - c e n t r e d ,
his
in stitu tio n s
has
been,
methods
concl uded,
and c h a l l e n g e "
n a r r o wl y
"has
(Halloran,
un d e r s t a n d i n g o f
" t h e r e were few,
little
if
any,
and
was
attitude
serve
industry
in
to
to
t he
of
communi cat i on.
dominant
t he
process
c a p t ur e
t he
paradigm,
was
causal
na t u r e o f
t he o v e r a l l
function
and s e r v i c e
rather
t he
and
social
of
research,
than
criticise
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r esear ch and i t s
t he
historical,
per sonal
qu est ions
reference to s t r u c t u r a l
in d u s tri e s in h i s t o r i c a l
it
t he
t he
1986, p . 6) .
require
professional
and
failing
been t o
a l t h ou gh t he t r u e
nizational,
t o t he power which i n f l u e n c e s
In s h o r t ,
However,
tions
as
di sembodi ed
processes and r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Halloran
relating
about
economic,
applica
po litica l,
factors,
Halloran
observed
power,
organisation
orga
that
and c o n t r o l ;
meaning o f t he media and t he communicat ions
and cont empor ar y c o n t e x t s "
- 81
(Ibid,
p . 11).
The main
World
is
what
research".
chosen
t he
bulk
seem t o
of
t he
communicat ion
"unbal anced or
lo gica lly
ho listic.
r es e ar ch
but
because
resear ch,
with
its
communication
in
it
is,
in
(Ibid,
areas
Which q u e s t i o n s
or
from t he
t hese
questions
and
t he
nations.
thinking
psychol ogi c
r es e ar c h
and
bad
tic
Al t hough
i n t he T h i r d
underlying
that
r a t h e r than s o c i o
social
has been,
industrialised
equally
i s " west er n
sc i e n c e .
Thi s
nations
inapplicable
where
r es ear ch
to
be
coul d
covered
and what
be asked?
Third
b e f or e
World
be launched
it
and
was o r i g i
It
is
countries
embarki ng
on
i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ?
are
t he
essential
relevant
that
t hemsel ves,
further
study?
communication p o l i c y ;
approaches?
s c h o l a r s from t he
find
t he
The . l i s t
suggested by H a l l o r a n i n c l u d e media owner shi p and c o n t r o l ;
of
of
models o f s o c i e t y and l i m i t e d n o t i o n s o f t he
and al ways
t he
Third
distribution
probl ems o f devel opment
opinion,
bad
t he
p . 9, emphasis i n o r i g i n a l ) .
need t o
west ,
is
i nadequat e
What meani ngf ul
t he
in
The p o i n t o f t h i s o b j e c t i o n i s not t h a t i t
unsatisfactory
are
uneven
industrialised
conducted
Halloran's
pr ocess,
n a l l y concei ved"
t he
r esear c h
o f mass communicat ion r es ear ch i s
west er n
cover
r es e ar ch
have been,
What
called
f r om t he
r esear c h
equally
devel opment
Halloran
by r esear ch
topics
Wor l d,
in
Thi s i s because t he q u a n t i t y
dominated
t he
concern
answers
of
to
topics
t he f o r m u l a t i o n
d e c i s i o n making i n p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n ;
jo urn alis
v a l ue s ; q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f c o n t e n t ; t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f
t he media;
t he
role
of
t he
media i n
t he f o r m u l a t i o n
of
social
conscious
ness; t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he media and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s and between
communi cat i on
international
process
and
other
social
communicat ion p a t t e r n s ,
-
82
pr ocess;
and
ma t t e r s
i n e q u a l i t i e s and i mbal ance.
c on c er n i ng
SUMMARY
In t h i s
has
been
c h a pt er t he
r evi ewed.
l i t e r a t u r e on a g e n d a - s e t t i n g and r e l a t e d
The
follow ing points
are
made
on t he
concept s
basis
of
that
r e v i ew.
First
of
a ll,
agenda-setting
t he
point
function
of
was made t h a t
t he
pr ess
al t h o u g h
were pr esent ed
1922,
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g di d
until
1972 i n t he p i on e e r work o f Shaw and McCombs.
Secondl y,
in gly
promising
concept
r es e ar c h
has been
area
in
mass
communi cat i on
plentiful,
was, on t he whol e,
in
a rank
attention
of
order
t he
i n t he media ( i . e .
f orm w i t h
public.
t he
Lippman
in
it
appeared a seem
which
attracted
e a r l y r es e a r c h ,
t he
t hough
s h a l l o w and l i m i t e d t o t he si mpl e n o t i o n t h a t
t he i s su es which are p o r t r a y e d
late
However,
of
i n mass communication
introduced,
a t t e n t i o n o f many s c h o l a r s o f mass media.
i deas
by W a l t er
not become a r esear c h area
when t he
t he
Thus,
t he
i s sues
it
t he media agenda) c o r r e
which
occupy t he
was concl uded t h a t
thinking
and
t he media set s t he
p u b l i c agenda.
Thirdly,
attention
as
t he
was d i r e c t e d
At t h i s j u n c t u r e ,
of
agenda-setting
t he media t o
lite rature
to
its
concept
gained
me t h o d o l o g i c a l
circulation,
di mensi ons.
a t t e n t i o n was d i r e c t e d beyond t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n
who set s
t he
media agenda.
In t h i s
on t he s u b j e c t o f f e r e d an a n a l y t i c a l
soci o- ec onomi c and p o l i t i c a l
or a s o c i a l
wi de r
regard,
t he
B ritish
framework w i t h i n which t he
f o r c e s a c t i n g upon t he media as a c o r p o r a t i o n
i n s t i t u t i o n o f f e r e d many i n s i g h t s as t o how t he media agenda i s
e s t a b l i shed.
Fourthly,
which t he
and f i n a l l y ,
subject
of
media
c o u n t r i e s may be f r u i t f u l l y
t he c h a p t er i n t i m a t e s t he c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n
and
agenda
setting
examined.
-
8 3
-
in
d e v el op i ng
Third
World
CHAPTER I I I
THE RESEARCH SETTING
A great
directed
result,
t he
deal
to
t he
of
mass media r es e ar ch
in
t he
st udy o f t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
last
function
t en year s
of
t he
has been
pr e s s .
As a
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g di d c on s eq ue nt l y " a c hi e v e an e s t a b l i s h e d p o s i t i o n i n
intellectual
tradition
resear cher s d i r e c t e d t h e i r
of
t he
field"
(McCombs,
1981,
p . 209) ,
as
a t t e n t i o n t o exami ni ng t he degree o f c o r r e s po n
dence between t he i mpor t ance peopl e a ss i gn t o an i s s ue and t he scope o f i t s
coverage i n t he pr ess ,
that
A r e c e n t sur vey by Rogers and Bear i ng (1988) shows
102 p u b l i c a t i o n s
within
t he
were
concept ual
conducted
context
to
defined
st udy
above.
t he
public
However,
agenda-setting
a second p a r a l l e l
r es ear ch was t he e q u i v a l e n t number o f s t u d i e s i n p o l i c y a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
As
Rogers and Bear i ng f ound, t he s c h o l a r s i n p o l i c y agenda tended t o be p o l i t
ical
scientists
does a p u b l i c
or
sociologists.
T h e i r main concern was t o
i ss ue get on t he p o l i c y
media put an agenda i t em ont he p u b l i c
p . 560) .
The
survey r e v e a l ed
find
out
"how
agenda" r a t h e r than "how do t he mass
agenda?"
(Rogers and Bea r i n g,
51 r es ear ches i n p o l i c y agenda.
1988,
Nevertheless,
t he b u l k o f t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g s t u d i e s was devoted t o t r a c k i n g t he o p i n i o n
changes
of
voters
other e le c t o r a l
r esear c h
in
Western
campaigns.
societie s
during
In c o n t r a s t ,
agenda s e t t i n g
World c o u n t r i e s .
countries
in
has
been
however, w i t h
on
lacking
and
studies,
in
Third
The main reason seems t o be t h a t t he press i n d e v e l o p i n g
was c l a s s i f i e d
t he
presid entia l
innovation
al most c o mp l e t e l y
a c c o r di n g t o t he assumpt i ons o f an a u t h o r i t a r i a n
t h e o r y o f t he pr es s, which t a l k s about t o t a l
itie s
and a f t e r
media and
t he
pr e s s .
It
control
imposed by t he a u t h o r
a l s o seems t h a t
t he
lack
of
free
e l e c t i o n s or f r e e v o t i n g i n a u t h o r i t a r i a n or t r a d i t i o n a l
societies discour
ages r e s e a r c h e r s and causes s c h o l a r s t o av oi d u n d e r t a k i n g any r e p l i c a t i o n s
of
t he
agenda-setting
include
t he
cialise
in
paucity
r ese ar ch
of
in
t hose
i n di g en ou s
media r es e a r c h ,
societie s.
intellectuals
and t he
lack
of
Additional
and r es e a r c h e r s
grants
and f unds
reasons
who spe
for
them t o
under t ak e media r es e ar c h .
It
World
i s not ewor t hy t h a t ,
countries,
i n r e c e n t year s t r a d i t i o n a l
such as t he
Gulf
r emar kabl e l e v e l s o f p o l i t i c a l
used t h e i r o i l
time.
The
structural
Qatar
al most
entirely
modern
cities,
t hese
devel opment
exp orting Third
achi eved
in
and
Bah r ai n,
on t he
for
motorways,
mo d e r n i s a t i o n
exampl e,
base,
airports,
proje cts,
year s
r a p i d devel opment i n an e x t r e me l y s h o r t
among t hose
material
recent
These s t a t e s have
countries
and
changes have v a r i e d f rom one s t a t e t o a n o t he r .
U. A. E. ,
all
of
have
and economic devel opment .
revenues t o r e a l i s e
speed
states,
oil
devel opment
t he
efforts
u tilitie s ,
however,
t hey
resulting
In Saudi A r a b i a ,
substructure,
public
t he
concentrated
such as b u i l d i n g
and h o s p i t a l s .
followed
deliberate
In
and
consci ous e f f o r t s t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s m e t i c u l o u s l y and met hodol og
i c a l l y w i t h o u t any n o t i c e a b l e change.
out t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l
t he
practice
in stitutions
of
way o f
their
with
life
Thus, what t hey wanted was t o c a r r y
but i n a modern gar b, and t o c o n t i n u e i n
long-established
mi ni mal
change,
social,
albeit
cultural
c on d u c t i ng
and
po litical
them on cont emporary
e d i f i c e s equi pped w i t h t he l a t e s t gadget r y and t e c h n o l og y .
Among t he t r a d i t i o n a l
for
her
practices
modernisation,
t han
t he
rest
Gulf s t a t e s ,
in fusing
of
t he
Kuwai t f o l l o w e d a more t o l e r a n t way
her
Gulf
in stitutions
states.
It
Kuwai t was chosen as t he s i t e
for this
research.
r eader w i t h t he
r esear c h
setting,
na t ur e o f t he
K u w a i t ' s cont emporary s o c i a l
organisation w i l l
85
-
is
with
for
more
this
de moc r a t i c
reason
that
In o r d e r t o a c q u a i n t t he
t he c o n d i t i o n s
be pr e s en t e d.
leading to
Kuwai t
is
one o f t he Arab G u l f
i n t o t he cont emporary i n t e r n a t i o n a l
economic,
po litical
and
societies
which have emerged r e c e n t l y
scene, w i t h g r e a t i n f l u e n c e i n t erms o f
strategic
factors.
The
Gulf
states,
of
Kuwai t i s a member, possess g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on t he i n d u s t r i a l
world,
because
for
t hey
partly
are
because
of
Western i n d u s t r i a l
Contemporary
theories
World
t he
main
t he
suppliers
increasing
t he
demands
Western
by
t he
Kuwai t
occ upi es
Such
a deviant
have been a p p l i e d
deviation
authority
and t he peopl e o f
o f t i me .
By usi ng t h i s
range o f
social,
and o t h e r
Gulf
positio n
results
o il,
and
for
t he
to
t he
countries
with
t he
respect
dynamics
enormous
surplus,
Third
E x p e c t at i o n s p r e v a i l
a short
among
period
Kuwai t has achi eved r a p i d growth i n a wide
states
of
capital-surplus
achieving modernisation w i t h i n
ed ucati onal
Gulf
to
from
making p o s s i b l e ver y hi gh st andar ds o f l i v i n g .
Kuwai t
needs
partly
p r o du c t s and modern t ec h n o l o g y .
o f devel opment which
societie s.
of
which
was
a sp ec t s.
summarised
by
The r a p i d
I smael .
She
growt h
noted
of
that
t hese s o c i e t i e s changed:
" f r om t r a d i t i o n a l Sheikdoms s u b j e c t s t o B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s
t r a t i o n t o independent u r b a n - c o s m o p o l i t an c e n t re s o f t he wo r l d
f i n a n c e and t r a d e w i t h i n a decade or two - and t hey exper i enced
t hese phenomenal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s under r e l a t i v e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l
s t a b i 1i t y . "
( I s m a e l , 1982, p p . 1 - 2 ) .
THE TRI BAL FOUNDATION OF KUWAIT
The name Kuwai t i s a d i m i n u t i v e o f t he a c t ua l A r ab i c Kut which means a
smal l
t owe r .
The o l d name o f Kuwai t was Grai ne t he A r ab i c word f o r
horn,
a name gi ven t o t he
island
West shore o f Kuwai t ( L o r i m e r ,
o f Qur ai n,
about
not t oo
far
from t he
1908).
The l o c a t i o n o f Kuwai t adds t o
n o r t h we s t o f
l o c a t ed
small
its
v ia b ility.
It
is
situated
t he Ar abi an G u l f ( o f t e n known i n t he West as t he
50 m i l e s t o t he n o r t h o f S h a t t - A l
- 86
Arab i n t he
s out her n
on t he
Per si an G u l f )
part of
Iraq
where t he
land d i s t a n c e
sout hwest
to
Basrah
are
138 mi l es and t he sea 100 m i l e s d i s
tant.
The
jo intly
shares t he owner shi p o f t he Ne u t r a l
L ittle
bo r de r s
is
with
was known about t he e a r l y
about t he ol d occupant s are s t i l l
many e f f o r t s
certain
Bani'utub
arrived
(Abu Hakima,
oral
was
in
1965).
traditions
tions
t he
Kuwai t
Kuwai t
and t a l e s
settlers
of
when
t hey
Ar a b i a
t he
firs t
mi g r at ed
i.e.
although
t hey ar e s t i l l
Ar abi an
f rom
not
tribe
Ce nt r al
Ar a b i a
and few o b s e r v a
p r es e n t t he on l y source o f i n f o r m a t i o n about
Kuwai t ,
The o n l y
certain
fact
is
that
t he
recent
members o f t he B a n i ' u t u b t r i b e
The B a n i ' u t u b i s a branch o f a t r i b e o f t he Ani za c o n f e d e r a t i o n .
l e a d e r o f t he new s e t t l e r s
of
o l d e r men who have kept up
f rom one g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t he r ,
town o f Kuwai t was occupi ed by t he f i r s t
1710.
Saudi
For exampl e,
respect,
when
The peopl e o f Kuwai t ,
by European t r a v e l l e r s ,
early
answers.
in t h i s
and
or
where
Zone on t he shore o f t he G u l f .
without
founded
Arabia
h i s t o r y o f Kuwai t and many q u e s t i o n s
were made by h i s t o r i a n s
when
Saudi
was o f t he f a m i l y o f AL-Sabah,
t he p r e s en t r u l i n g f a m i l y i n Kuwai t (AL-Sabah,
in
The
t he an c e s t o r s o f
1983).
When t he B a n i ' u t u b a r r i v e d i n Kuwai t t he area had no permanent s e t t l e
ments,
rather
f i s he r men
t hey
it
Among t he
and
tribes
(Ibid,
(Bani'utub)
settlement.
1986).
p . 9).
It
up
(1970)
i mp or t an ce.
groups
10-15% o f
In
seems
p o r t o f about
t r a d i n g and f i s h i n g
reported
t he
t he
that
tribes
in itia lly
t he
German
t he
by Ni ebuhr
- 87 -
Bedouin
settle d
of
down,
Kuwai t .
AL-Khalifa,
arrival
nomadic
of
to
t he
travelle r
new
sedent ar y
Kuwai t grew r a p i d l y
Carest en
in
Ni ebuhr
He noted t h a t " i t was a t h r i v i n g
10,000 peopl e which s u s t a i n s
gi ven
of
occupant s
f rom
t he town o f
and had some 800 boat s"
a descrip tion
nomadic
total
transition
wr o t e t h a t
1760
clear
passed t hr ough Kuwai t on hi s way t o I r a q .
commercial
of
besi des AL Sabah were AL-Jalaahmeh,
speeded
Lor i mer
by
When t he B a n i ' u t u b
not more than
earliest
and AL-Maawdah
we al t h
inhabited
( AL- Qui na i e,
constituted
tribe
was
(see
(1760)
itse lf
I smael ,
after
his
on p e a r l i n g ,
p . 22) .
AL-Sabah
v i s i t t o Kuwai t .
He w r i t e s :
"Kuwai t i s a sea po r t town, t h r e e days j o u r n e y from Zabeyer ( p a r t
o f Basr ah) .
The i n h a b i t a n t s l i v e by t he f i s h i n g o f p e a r l s and
fishes.
They are sai d t o employ i n t h i s speci es o f naval i n d u s
t r y more than e i g h t hundred bo at s .
In t he f a v o u r a b l e season o f
t he y ea r t h i s town i s l e f t al most d e s o l a t e , everybody goi ng out
e i t h e r t o t he f i s h i n g or upon some t r a d i n g a d v e n t u r e . "
( c i t e d by AL-Sabah, 1983, p . 42)
The whole
was b u i l t
on t he f i s h i n g
with
other
sity
to
tribes
transition
coastal
control
trip a rtite
in dustry,
and i n l a n d
t he
who s e t t l e d
f rom nomadic
tribes.
Kuwai t a t
Khazal
a sedent ar y
social
forces
in
system
f i s h i n g and on t r a d i n g
Such dependency c r ea t e d t he
sea and
l and .
t h a t t i me came t o g e t h e r i n
pact i n f a v o u r o f d i v i d i n g
members o f t hese t r i b e s .
to
namely p e a r l i n g ,
new p r o d u c t i v e
in
life
neces
Three
main
1716 t o si gn
t he main r esour ces o f
life
a
among the
(1970) d e s c r i b e s t he event as f o l l o w s :
" I n t he yea r 1129 H i j a r i (1716 AD) t he c h i e f s o f t he most i mp or
t a n t three t r i b e s
t h a t i n h a b i t e d Kuwai t ent er ed i n t o
an
alliance.
These were Sabah
B i n - J a b a r Bin Salman Bin Ahmed, K h a l i f a h Ben
Mohammed and Jabar Ben Rahmat a l i b i (The c h i e f o f t he Jal aahmeh).
The c o n d i t i o n s gave Sabah t he l e a d e r s h i p i n t he a f f a i r s o f gov
ernment, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p a r t i e s . K h a l i f a h w i l l have
l e a d e r s h i p o f t he f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s i n commerce and Jabar w i l l
c o n t r o l t he a f f a i r s o f work on t he sea.
A l l p r o f i t s were t o be
e q u a l l y d i v i d e d among t h e m . "
( Khaz al , 1970. t r a n s l a t e d by Ismael 1982, p . 23)
The
structure
t he
1716 agreements
though produced i n
separation
of
powers
nated t hemsel ves as t he
tained
pr esent ed
control
over
a tribal
among t he
le gitim ate
t he
t he
means
of
basis
for
context.
three
actors
However,
tribes,
social
t he B a n i ' u t u b
mai nl y
class
as an e f f e c t
upon o t h e r t r i b e s .
production,
f i s h i n g and t he work o f commerce ( I s m a e l ,
a nascent
of
had nomi
They a s c e r
t he
pearling,
t he
early
t he
1982).
DI VI SION OF LABOUR IN TRIBAL KUWAIT
To
mai nl y
under st and
be f o r e
t he
t he
social
British
know o f t he economic
structure
colonial
structure
of
of
Kuwai t
in tru sio n
t he
Emi r at e
in
in
1897,
and t he
it
is
st ag es,
important
economic
to
relations
between
different
Kuwait's
settlers
and
pearls,
organisations.
As was
was based on t he
together
with
its
noted
sea w i t h
maritime
before,
its
dual
outlets.
t he
production
r esour ces
But
t he
-
fishing
emergence
Kuwai t i n t he e i g h t e e n t h c e n t ur y was a t t r i b u t e d t o sever al
ge o g r a p h i c a l
political
a great
factors.
For
har bour not t oo f a r
poverty
of
living .
r es o u r c e s ,
and pear l
Kuwai t
f r om t he head o f
They began t o
fishing
until
land
exampl e,
t he
get
in
the Ar abi an Pen i n sul a i n l a n d
Because o f
went
to
m a r i t i me
They g r a d u a l l y
t hey became t he commercial
endowed w i t h
t he G u l f .
Bani'utub
involved
diving.
is
t he
t he
sea t o
trade,
in
of
and
natural
des per at e
earn
boat
earned a good t r a d e
of
their
building,
reputation,
c e n t r e between t he G u l f m a r i t i me t r a d e and
(Baz,
1981).
Abu Hakima (1965) menti oned t h r e e f a c t o r s which f a c i l i t a t e d t he growth
o f Kuwai t i n t he f i r s t
of
t he
Sheikhdom
in
Ar abi an P e n i n s u l a ,
h a l f o f t he e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
t he
Iraq,
trade
caravan
route
First,
between
and t he Me d i t er r a n e a n .
t he
t he l o c a t i o n
c ent re
of
t he
Thi s f a c t o r encouraged t he
B a n i ' u t u b t o engage i n m a r i t i me t r a d e t o t he b e n e f i t o f t h e i r Emi r a t e .
second f a c t o r
was r e l a t e d
Gulf
The Kuwai t
states.
ness,
namely o f
by i n t e r n a l
Per si an
t he
political
merchant
emerged
Per si a and O t t o m a n - I r a q .
and e x t e r n a l
nationalities
central
to
authorities
conflicts.
were
situation
in
in
t he
in
or among each o t h e r .
been
Thirdly,
happening
Kuwai t
Ar a b i a
be f o r e
tribes
in
Bani'utub
crucial
t he
a short
was
t he
guarded
arrival
r eg i o n
t i me
at
of
Bani
t he
that
t hey p r o v i d ed t he
to trade a c t i v i t i e s
by
ago
in
con t i nu ou s
what was
Khalid,
la tte r
After
with
t he
t he
It
Bani
t he d i f f e r e n t
fighting
In t he case o f
Bani'utub.
time.
with
not u n l i k e what
known as t he
dominant
tribe
was one o f t he
Kh a l i d
security
their
I r a q t he c o u n t r y
became
Gulf
War.
in
East
strongest
loyal
to
and def ence which i s
i n t he sea and on land (Abu Hakima,
- 89 -
weak
The two c o u n t r i e s were occupi ed
was engaged i n a c o n t i nu ou s f u r i o u s bo r de r war w i t h P e r s i a ,
has
n e i g h b o u r i ng
a r eg i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
In t he case o f P e r s i a ,
involved
The
1965).
In t hese c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
tionship
between
tions
a way which
in
la tte r
m a r i t i me
t he B a n i ' u t u b were abl e t o e s t a b l i s h
a ctivities
a l l owed
t he
and
f or mer
a rela
commerce.
They or gani s ed
to
t he
provide
capital
rela
and t he
t o p r o v i d e t he b a s i s f o r t he p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t he p e a r l i n g i n d u s t r y .
Based on t h i s
inter-relationship,
pearling
commerce
and
devel opment
after.
of
were
production
As Ismael
t he t e c h n i c a l
shaped
forces
and
of
and s o c i a l
p r o v i d ed
Kuwai t
in
t he
t he
organisations of
ba s i s
for
eighteenth
t he
rapid
c e n t ur y
and
not ed:
" T h i s devel opment
t ook t he f or m o f t r i b a l o r g a n i s a t i o n a r t i c u
l a t e d i n Kuwai t as nomadic,
semi nomadic and s edent ar y l a b o u r .
Whi l e t he nomadic t r i b e s s t i l l r ep r es e nt ed i ndependent pr oducer s
exchangi ng t h e i r s ur p l u s p r od u c t as autonomous
pr o du c er s . The
new a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t he semi -nomadi c and sedent ar y surmounted t he
boundar i es o f t he t r i b e as a d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . "
( I s m a e l , 1982, p . 25)
Al t hough t he t r i b a l
tions,
new f a c t o r s
s e l f organised,
of
its
of
relations
system shaped t he economic and p o l i t i c a l
helped
to
change
society
in to
a self
sufficient,
p r o d u c t i v e n a t i o n d e v e l o p i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g t he urban base
social
relations.
For
exampl e,
l ed t o t he s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
Bahrainis
built
boats
their
boats
under p r i v a t e
own
t he
organisa
for
sale,
t he
new a r t i c u l a t i o n
o f oc cupati ons.
t he
Bani'utub
owner shi p
for
t he
of
social
In t he sea, w h i l e t he
emerged as a c l a s s
purpose
of
havi ng
pearling
and
capital
and
fishing.
Commerce
labour.
t oo
was
based
on
a
To t he b e n e f i t o f Kuwai t ,
and 1779.
Dur i ng t h a t
and
shifted
Europe
period
f rom
clear
t he Per si ans occupi ed Basra between 1775
t he t r a d i n g
Basrah
d i s t i n c t i o n between
to
Kuwai t
c e n t r e between
and t he
I n d i a and Ar a b i a
Kuwaitis
were
abl e
to
produce t he l a b o u r and t he means f o r t r a d e t o pass t hr ou gh t h e i r p o r t w i t h
e f f i c i e n c y and s k i l l .
Wi l son w r ot e :
- 90 -
"The b u l k o f t he I nd i a n t r a d e o f Basra w i t h Baghdad, Al eppo,
Sumyrna and C o n s t a n t i n o p l e was d i v e r t e d t o Kuwai t .
By 1790 t he
town had begun t o share i n t he commercial p r o s p e r i t y which t he
s e i z u r e o f Bahr ai n and B a n i ' u t u b i n 1783 had br ought t o these
l a s t , by dr awi ng them i n t o t he c a r r y i n g o f t r a d e o f A r a b i a , goods
were i mpor t ed t h e r e f rom Muscat, Z ubar r a, and Q u a t i f . "
( Wi l s o n , 1954, p . 250)
Kuwai t har bour t h e r e f o r e became one o f t he b u s i e s t p o r t s i n t he G u l f ,
wo r k i n g
as
t he
transfer
statio n
between
t h r ou gh t he Gul f t o t he Ar abi an Pe n i n s u l a ,
The o r g a n i s a t i o n
do t h e i r
j ob and f o r
security
century,
But
production
perspectives
Me d i t er r a nea n,
for
of
a power f ul
That
India
t he Ottoman Empire and Europe.
is ,
for
be viewed
f rom
f is her men and d i v e r s
to
s h u t t l e between Kuwai t and Aleppo i n t he
At t he
begi nni ng,
t he Bani K h a l i d were i n c o n t r o l
century,
of a ll
early
i n t he e i g h t e e n t h
nomadic t r i b e s i n t he ar ea.
ar ea, namely
t he
Wahhabis w i t h AL-Saud i n Ce n t r a l
A r a b i a and t he B a n i ' u t u b i n t he East .
In
t he
Khalid
sixteenth
that
coming from
f o r c e o f l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y had t o be i n charge
t o be guar ant eed.
t h r ou g h o u t
caravans
and commerce needs t o
as w e l l .
caravans t o
t he
c e n t ur y
t he
new powers emerged
Bani
had t h e i r
in
he adquar t er s i n
(now p a r t o f t he East er n Pr ov i nc e o f Saudi A r a b i a ) .
summer r e s o r t f o r t h e i r
terrib le
d e f ea t
in
tribal
Shai kh.
1790 a f t e r
fierce
AL-Saud who came f rom c e n t r a l A r a b i a .
by AL-Saud
in
1795 and
AL-Hasa (Abu Hakima,
In
t hese
accordingly
They b u i l t Kuwai t as a
But t he s t r on g Bani
battles
with
AL-Hasa
t he
K h a l i d f aced a
emerging
power
Bani Kh a l i d faced t h e i r f i n a l
t hey
lo st
their
main
of
defeat
he adquar t er s
in
1965).
relationships
between t he
t he new power i n t he East
Coast and
i ndependence
later
was
t he
crowned
in
t r i b e s , t he
Bani'utub
established t h e ir
t he
mid-eighteenth
emerged
independence.
c e n t ur y
as
Such
when
t hey
agreed amongst themsel ves t o e l e c t Sabah I as t he Sheik o f Kuwai t .
Ismael
power
fishing
among
(1982) i n t r o d u c e d a c o n v i n c i n g a n a l y s i s f o r t he d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
t he
B a n i ' u t u b . She c on s i d er ed
and p e a r l i n g
i n t he
t he
structural
sea and commerce on t he
- 91 -
production
land as t he
bas i s
of
on
which
t he
bring
a
p . 28) .
"functional
social
division
equilibrium
of
power
between
Members o f t he Sabah f a m i l y ,
were o r i e n t e d
caravans
t owards
trade
t he
desert.
between t he
Gulf
has
modes
great
of
effect
which
production"
hel ps
( Ismael ,
to
1982,
f rom which t he new Shaikh was e l e c t e d ,
They
pl ayed
and Aleppo
t he
role
(AL- Rashi d,
of
s ec u r i n g
1974).
They
t he
kept
a t t a c h e d t o t he d e s e r t t r i b e s ,
camping w i t h them, and encour agi ng mar r i ages
to
l ong
women
loyalty
tribe
amongst
them,
and secure
t he
in
a
routes
of
run
strategy
trade.
Other
to
secure
members
of
remained wo r k i ng i n t he sea i n f i s h i n g and p e a r l i n g .
groups was t he
newly e l e c t e d
Shaikh whose
strength
t hese
t he
tribes'
Bani'utub
Between t he two
was used t o
influence
o t h e r t r i b e s who, by r ema i n i ng i n l a n d produced a s h e l t e r f o r t he p r o d u c t i v e
class
i n t he sea and t he l a nd .
t he t i me i n l a n d ,
tion,
( Al - Shaml an,
The s e p a r a t i o n o f power,
by
production
that
Sabah was most o f
w h i l e t he work o f t he m a j o r i t y was on t he sea w i t h n a v i g a
f i s h i n g and p e a r l i n g
menti oned
AL-Shamlan n o t i c e d
Ismael
was
led t o s i m i l a r
t he B a n i ' u t u b t r i b e ,
however,
momentary,
change i n
1959).
d i d not l a s t
because
t he
The e q u i l i b r i u m
change
t he bal ance o f
but a l s o w i t h i n
l ong.
in
power,
t he
means
of
not o n l y w i t h i n
t he members o f t he Sabah f a m i l y them
s el ves .
A f t e r h i s death i n
lishing
his
family
Fi ve Ami r s,
directly
descendi ng f rom him, r u l e d between t he day o f hi s death and 1892.
But t he
politica l
most o f
power o f
as
1762, Sabah proved t h a t he had succeeded i n e s t a b
t he
t hose
Royal
Shaikhs
Fami l y
was
t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s among t he c i t i z e n s .
of
Kuwai t .
la rgely
lim ited.
They l o s t
They were as AL-Shamlan d e s c r i b e d :
"No d i f f e r e n t from t he r e s t o f t he p o p u l a t i o n i n any way. The
Shaikhs were not r u l e r s or S u l t a n s , r a t h e r t hey were s i m i l a r t o
Shaikhs o f t r i b e s where t h e r e i s no d i s t i n c t i o n between t he
Shaikhs and o t h e r members o f t he t r i b e .
In some cases, some
n o t ab l e K u w a i t i s were more po wer f ul than t he S h a i k h s . "
( I b i d , p . 117)
- 92
I t was c l e a r
devel oped
Sabah
more
family,
present,
had
that
than
as
strongly
for
t he Por t uguese,
t he
d r a mat i c
changes,
Mubarak
system
of
t he
in
o f t he c o l o n i a l
in ternal
and maybe t he
factors
in
t he
worst,
t he r u l e r ,
controlling
country,
powers,
in
t he
devel opment .
at
The a c t u a l
and commercial
on t hese c l a s s e s ,
region
of
t he B r i t i s h ,
and
t he Germans and
including
in
t he
1896
ruler
Kuwai t .
(I smael
at
that
and h i s b r o t h e r J a r r a h .
he pr o c l a i med
himself
One
1982)
time,
factors
of
(Husayn,
t hose
when Shaikh
a s s a s s i n a t ed
A f t e r he succeeded i n
t he
new r u l e r
of
Thi s coup d ' e t a t was " t he b e g i n n i n g o f new devel opment i n K uwai t i
i t s modern h i s t o r y "
The
Gulf
had t o fade and t he e x t e r n a l
happened
half-brother
Shaikh Mohammad,
t he
Shaikhdom,
families
this
power had
support.
changes
AL-Sabah,
active
tribal
many r u l i n g
engaged
its
The Sabah f a m i l y was dependent f i n a n c i a l l y
With t he a r r i v a l
to
community w i t h
devel opment were f rom t he f i n a n c i a l
sought t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
l ed
political
happening w i t h
been
peopl e r e s p o n s i b l e
classes.
t he
is
not
t he p r o d u c t i v e
Kuwai t .
life
and
1960, p . 92) .
THE SUPERPOWERS STRUGGLE
Through
history,
t he
Ar ab i a n
Gulf
has
been
t he
highway
of
m a r i t i me
t r a d e between I n d i a and t he Far East i n t he e a s t , and t he Med i t er r a nea n and
Europe i n t he west .
Sever al
p o r t s on i t s
among them bei ng Basrah i n I r a q ,
ports
encouraged
their
naval
control
t he
forces
them and
foreign
to
fight
benefit
were q u i c k l y ac hi ev ed,
lo cals,
t he
eighteenth
or f i g h t
commercial
c e n t ur y
each o t h e r ,
profits.
to
bring
in order to
Such
ambit ions
e s p e c i a l l y by t he B r i t i s h who succeeded i n m a i n t a i n
presence t hr ou gh
w i t h d r e w.
The r i v a l r y
Empi re,
in
f r om t h e i r
ing t h e i r
Ottoman
t he f i r s t
Kuwai t i n Kuwai t and Hormuz i n Oman. These
powers
t he
coast were e s t a b l i s h e d ,
history
between
Portugal,
f rom 1600 u n t i l
t he
Holland,
-
super
France,
9 3
-
powers
1971 when t hey
began,
Russi a,
i.e.
Germany
fina lly
between t he
and
Britain.
Such r i v a l r y dominated t he G u l f f rom t he 17th Cent ury u n t i l
an end t o t he presence o f t he Ottomans,
t he B r i t i s h put
i n t he F i r s t World War.
The voyage
o f Vasco da Gama f rom Po r t u g a l
t o I n d i a s t i m u l a t e d t he Port uguese Empire t o
sail
spread
east wards
AL-Khima
(of
to
Hormuz and
p r e s en t
day
U . A. E. )
t r e s s o f Qur ai n.
With t h e i r
establish
political
their
Bahar i na,
1973, p . 17).
resistance
of
and Kuwai t
and
out
British,
of
Muscat
of
Oman,
i n which t hey b u i l t
commercial
t he
Per si ans,
P e r s i an s ,
in
influence
in
t he
succeeded
Muscat
rights
t he f o r
Gulf
(Ibid,
t he
Tur ks,
and l a t e r
in
ousting
t he
w i t h t he a s s i s
Port uguese
from
1650 t hey drove t he r e s t
p p . 143- 147) .
Their
i n t he r e g i o n t o t he B r i t i s h
Other European a d v e n t u r er s were t he Dutch,
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t he
sad
end
B ritish
in
t he
(Amin,
Hormuz,
o f t he P o r t u
came
when
1967, p . 13).
who appeared on t he
17th Cent ur y .
B ritish
shared
alliance
clashing.
t he
di d
B ritish
not
last
desire
to
oust
t he
l ong .
They g r a d u a l l y
scene
The Dutch came w i t h
b e g i n n i n g t hey e s t a b l i s h e d a company s i m i l a r t o t he B r i t i s h ;
also
t he
political
m e r c a n t i l e knowledge more s u f f i c i e n t than t h a t o f t he Por t uguese.
t hey
(AL-
t he B r i t i s h .
t he Per si ans and t he Arabs f o r c e d them t o concede t h e i r
and commercial
Ras
t he Port uguese began t o
1622 when t he B r i t i s h ,
then w i t h t he hel p o f t he Arabs i n
guese
in
They began t o p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t l o c a l
by t he Arabs,
t he
domain
s e t t l e m e n t i n Kuwai t ,
T h e i r r e s i s t a n c e began t o y i e l d
t ance
their
From t he
not on l y t h a t ,
Por t uguese.
The Dutch-
found t h e i r
interests
The B r i t i s h agai n were found t o have t he upper hand i n t he G u l f .
By t he mi ddl e o f t he e i g h t e e n t h c e n t ur y t he Dutch began t o l ose t h e i r power
and then
faded away,
t he
for
Gulf
al most
l e a v i n g t he G u l f t r a d e f o r t he power which dominated
two
and
a half
centuries
-
t he
B ritish
(Hay,
1959,
p . 11).
The French
also
made two appearances
1664 when t hey e s t a b l i s h e d t he French East
ni ng t hey were faced w i t h
a fierce
-
in
t he
Gulf;
I n d i a Company.
t he
firs t
From t he b e g i n
c h a l l e n g e f rom t he B r i t i s h .
94
-
was i n
The seven
year s war (1756-1763) between t he two powers f o r c e d t he French t o leave t he
Gulf
( Wi l s o n,
1954,
p p . 189- 190) .
t he G u l f came p r e c i s e l y
war on t he B r i t i s h ,
banned e n t i r e l y
Gulf.
from t he G u l f
Russians
The
B ritish
Moscow
and
Russians
t he
came
government
cially
to
Baghdad.
before i t s
birth.
with
V i c e r oy o f
in
1793.
Germans
f rom
were
Per si a
b o r de r s .
grant
Such
and
t he
and
however,
to
was
c h a p t er
in
t he
adventurers'
t e e n t h c e n t ur y u n t i l
drawal
B ritish
ga t es .
of
t he
With
t he
For
policy
example.
( Curzon,
Lord
a r a i l w a y f rom
by
t he
B ritish
i n t he G u l f - es p e
Curzon,
noted t h a t t he
t he
B ritish
l ands o f t he Mi ddl e
bei ng pl ayed out a game
1966, p p . 4 - 5 ) .
presence i n
riva lrie s
t hey asked t he
build
bar r ed
East " a r e t he pi ec es o f a chessboard upon which i s
t he
wat er s
frie ndship
a concessi on
and 1905,
f o r t he domi ni on o f t he w o r l d "
second
me d i a t i o n t o st op t he war o f t he l a t e
ambition,
Germany.
t he
Ottoman
As a si gn o f
them
I n d i a between 1899
of
The French d e c l a r e d
l at ecomer s t o
Fear was t he theme o f B r i t i s h
Russia
The s t o r y
in
p . 191).
t hey engaged i n a s uc c e s s f ul
to
later,
French
and f rom t he East er n seas a f t e r t h e i r
i n 1810 ( I b i d ,
1890s on t he P e r s i a - I r a q
Ottoman
y ear s
t he
but agai n t hey were f o r c e d t o leave and t he French were
d e f e a t by t he B r i t i s h
The
th irty
The second appearance o f
t he G u l f ,
from t he
however,
firs t
is
year
t he
of
t he
main
seven
t he d e c l a r a t i o n o f Har ol d Wi l son o f t he B r i t i s h w i t h
o f t h e i r f o r c e s f rom East o f Suez i n 1971.
The B r i t i s h
r o l e i n t he
G u l f was i n i t i a l l y
a c t i v a t e d t hr ou gh t he f u n c t i o n o f t he B r i t i s h East I n d i a
Company which
was
established
"Governor
Company
Indies"
and
(Lorimer,
established
its
of
1970,
firs t
i n a t ed
t he
V .I.,
factory
f a c t o r i e s were e s t a b l i s h e d
t he e a s t er n
t he
either
last
Merchants
p . 10) .
(trading
day
of
of
ye a r
London T r adi ng
Fifteen
house)
t he
y ea r s
in
later
Pe r s i a
1600
as
t he
in to
t he East
t he
company
and i n
1623 more
i n two Per s i an p o r t s - Jask and Bandar Abass on
coast o f t he G u l f
Gulf,
on t he
by
(Ismael,
emphasi si ng
- 95 -
1982).
their
The B r i t i s h
trade
g r a d u a l l y dom
superiority
compared
with
other
European
diplomatic
style
showed a hard
t he Dutch,
t o gai n
f ace
t he
merchants
who l o s t t h e i r
their
against
French,
or
by appr oachi ng l o c a l
confidence.
riva ls
in
t he Russi ans,
But ,
t he
t he
power
when t he
in
t i me
r e g i o n , o u s t i n g t he
soft
came t hey
Por t uguese,
Germans and f i n a l l y
I s l a m i c r u l e o f t he area i n
a
t he Ottomans
1918 a f t e r t he F i r s t World War.
THE BRITISH IN KUWAIT
For
more
than
170 y ea r s
following
their
arrival
in
t he
Gulf,
t he
B r i t i s h c on s i d er ed Kuwai t as i n s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i r t r a d i n g pur poses.
But
when t h e i r t r a d i n g c e n t r e i n Basra began t o shake i n 1793, t he s t a f f o f t he
B r i t i s h and East I n d i a Company l e f t
centre.
Thi s
has
commitment o f i t s
t ak e
Kuwai t
activities
never
changed.
The
Kuwai t then became t he new
s t a b i l i t y of
firs t
t he
choi ce
Gulf ( K e l l y ,
to
build
1968).
t he
their
i n expandi ng t h e i r
territories.
t he t r i b e s
of
Al t hough Kuwai t
They
I r aq
rule
south
were busy
and o t h e r
into
fighting
Ar abi an
Kuwai t
t he
tribes.
t he B r i t i s h
it
Dur i ng
caravans
this
period
t he
t r a n s f e r r e d f rom Basrah t o Kuwai t ,
hands
of
t he
Company c a r r i e d
P e r s i an s .
Thi s
f rom Bombay
in
As was noted
Kuwai t
British,
in
1793,
t he
included
India
goods
and i n
Per s i ans
in
addi ng
o f t he
to
Kuwai t
handled t h e i r
t o Baghdad
t o t he West.
it
and c o n f r o n t i n g
and
B ritish
From t h a t
p o li c y with
Aleppo
were
i n t o t he
East
India
t i me on t he
known t o t he wo r l d o u t s i d e and was
t he powers (Abu Hakima,
1967).
before,
t he
B ritish
established
their
following
t he
setting
up o f
trading
therefore,
to
trading
became a c t i v e
e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t he p o r t f e l l
i mpor t ance o f Kuwai t har bour became w e l l
w i d e l y noted by a l l
their
The independence o f
by t he manner i n which
1779.
and
t he Ottomans d i d not seem
was r e f l e c t e d
in
Emi r at e
new base f o r
m a r i t i m e and t r a d i n g busi ness mai nl y w i t h Basra,
interested
t he
Amirs t o t r a d e and t o busi ness encouraged t he B r i t i s h
as t he
in
f o r Kuwai t .
their
firs t
factory
b u s i n es s .
in
The
became o b l i g e d t o share r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s e c u r i t y
- 96 -
o f Kuwai t a g a i n s t
external
threats,
especially
t hose o f t he Ottomans,
t he
Saudi s and t he P e r s i an s .
Lo r i me r w r o t e , " F o r t he p r o t e c t i o n o f t he B r i t i s h
f a c t o r y a t Kuwai t a smal l
c r u i s e r was kept anchored i n t he bay, and a guard
of
sepoys
under a n a t i v e
Vol.l,
p . 1004).
their
d iffic u lt
officer
Lo r i mer a l s o
war
with
was s t a t i o n e d
reported
t he
British
Wahhabi es
by
political
game
on shore"
sup po r t
(Lorimer,
1970,
t o t he K u w a i t i s
suppl yi ng
them w i t h
guns
in
and
ammu n i t i o n .
The
Kuwai t
British
in
brother,
1896.
began
In
t he r u l e r ,
o ffic ia lly
their
this
year,
when Shaikh
in
t he
in ternal
affairs
Mubarak as s a s s i n a t e d
and announced h i m s e l f t he r u l e r o f Kuwai t ,
deni ed any i nv ol v e men t
i n t he
internal
affairs
of
hi s
of
half
t he B r i t i s h
Kuwai t .
The
o fficia l
memorandum o f t he l e g a l
however,
p o i n t e d t o t he i n c i d e n t i n d i c a t i n g t h a t Mubarak spent one month i n
Bush i r e w i t h
t he B r i t i s h
a d v i s e r o f t he B r i t i s h Embassy i n I s t a n b u l
Resi dent
i n t he G u l f ,
had not been deni ed by Wi l son h i m s e l f
oc c a s i o n s ,
as
to
how f a r
t he
(Bidwell,
Wi l so n,
1971).
a fact
that
As on many s i m i l a r
however, t he B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s were d i v i d e d amongst t hemsel ves
t he
British
security obligatio ns
-
F . A.
view o f
t he
shoul d
t o Kuwai t .
F or ei gn
commit
t hemsel ves w i t h
Busch (1967)
Office
which
to
their
r e p o r t e d two d i f f e r e n t
views
objected
to
r egar d
any d i r e c t
h o stility
a g a i n s t t he Ottomans r e g a r d i n g t he r i g h t s o f t he Ottomans i n Kuwai t and t he
second
vi ew which was t he
policy
o f t he Government o f
eagerness t o ac t i n f a v o u r o f Kuwai t whenever i t
I n d i a which
was p o s s i b l e .
showed
The O t t o
mans t hemsel ves seemed not t o be moved by t he coup i n Kuwai t , as was i n d i
cat ed
earlier.
sailing
it,
t owards
Even
when
Kuwai t ,
there
t he
t he Ottomans had not
was
British
uttered
not
on l y
integration
from
of
Kuwai t
commercial
rumour
d i sp a t c h e d
a word a g a i n s t
t h e i r gunboat never appeared ( I b i d ,
The
a
about
an
Ottoman
gunboat
a similar
gunboat t o
B ritish
interference
meet
and
p . 23) .
into
interests,
t he
but
- 97 -
British
also
colonial
from
a
system r e s u l t e d
po litical
factor
( Ismael ,
1982),
The
British
i n f l u e n c e which had begun t o
tury
and t o
p r e v en t
t he
were
i n c r ea s e
la tte r's
One o f t he main t as k s o f t he
sians'
ver y
anxi ous
rapid ly
extension
British
at
to
i n t he
in to
that
contain
late
t he
Russian
ni net een th
cen
t he G u l f wat er and l and.
t i me was t o cancel
t he Rus
pl ans t o f i n d a sea p o r t i n t he G u l f and t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l w a y f rom
Russia t o Pe r s i a and t he G u l f Arab S t a t e s .
On t he o t h e r hand, t he B r i t i s h
were aware o f t he new German a c t i v i t y
i n t he G u l f which began i n t he c l o s
i n g ye a rs o f t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
Robert Worckhaus,
a German b u s i n e s s
man, opened a f i r m i n t he G u l f i n 1897 and was ver y s u c c e s s f u l .
o f hi s f a s t r i s e
in p o p u la r i t y ,
t he B r i t i s h
believed t h a t
p l an t e d by t he Germans t o undermine B r i t i s h
visit
o f t he German Emperor W i l l i a m
Ottoman
Empi re,
in
1898 added
to
II
(Kumar,
1965).
ence i n t he Gul f
he was an agent
(Staley,
to Constantinople,
B ritish
suspicion
agreement w i t h t he Ottomans t o c o n s t r u c t
Baghdad
interests
a railway
Sus p i c i ou s
1933).
t he seat o f t he
because
he si gned
t he c o - o p e r a t i o n
an
f r om C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t o
Both t he Russian eagerness t o expand t h e i r
(with
The
o f t he Per si ans
in flu
and Ottomans)
and
t he gr owi ng German i n t e r e s t which t he Ottomans were w i l l i n g t o a l l o w f o r c e d
t he B r i t i s h t o si gn an agreement w i t h t he Sheikdom o f Kuwai t .
in
December
1898 t he B r i t i s h
Ambassador t o
I st anb ul
For example,
wr ot e a l e t t e r t o hi s
Prime M i n i s t e r t o recommend s i g n i n g an agreement w i t h Kuwai t .
his
government
s l a v es
woul d,
He emphasised
(Holdich,
war ni ng
in
t he
his
that
t he
j udgement,
need
to
s i gn
ac t s
ju stify
an
of
piracy
t he
and
regular
interference
agreement
with
He wr ot e t o
t he
of
traffic
t he
Shaikh
British.
of
Kuwai t
1901).
A few days a f t e r
t he
Ambassador' s
le tte r,
in
January
1899,
a secret
agreement between Shaikh Mubarak o f Kuwai t and t he B r i t i s h was s i gned.
agreement
in
bound Mubarak and h i s
fam ily,
hi s
heirs
and
successor s
meet t he r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f any o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t B r i t i s h
not
The
to
permission.
and not
to
cede and s e l l ,
l e as e ,
mortgage
w i t h o u t B r i t i s h pe r mi s s i o n ( B i d w e l l ,
Mubarak
also
in sisted
that
a u t h o r i t y and hi s p r o p e r t i e s
Col onel
Meade,
t he B r i t i s h
as
l ong as you
tions of
secret,
was not t o r eveal
However,
it
B ritish
land
or
territory
had
promised
to
protect
hi s
wr ot e t o Mubarak:
" o f t he
Government t owards you, y o u r h e i r s and succes
scrupulously
( I b i d , p . 50) .
e s p e c i a l l y on t he
any
1971, V o l . l ) .
Re s i de nt i n t he G u l f ,
...
t he sai d bond"
t he
give
(whi ch had not been menti oned i n t he T r e a t y ) .
good o f f i c e s o f t he B r i t i s h
sors
ed.
or
and f a i t h f u l l y
observe t he
condi
The agreement was desi gned t o be a
p a r t o f t he B r i t i s h ,
who i n s i s t e d t h a t t he Shaikh
w i t h o u t t h e i r p r i o r permission.
t he agreement was not welcomed by Mubarak' s
brothers.
They
r ef us e d t o si gn t he Tr eat y w i t h o u t B r i t i s h commitment t o p r o t e c t t he f a m i l y
l a n d h o l d i n g s i n Fao i n s out her n I r a q .
For t he sake o f g o o d w i l l
Office
added
approved
t he
s ug ge s t i on
M a j e s t y ' s Government w i l l
would
resisted
by
wi sh
t he
to
British
wat er s o f t he G u l f .
(Ibid,
Mubarak B r i t i s h
colonial
from a t r i b a l
society
Baz,
1983;
Birks
Kuwait-British
and
s cholar s
and
system.
to
that
"Her
in
Kuwai t ,
naval
power
but
to
this
t he
was
northern
over Kuwai t .
(Arabs
start
of
and
t he
West er ner s)
integration
regarded
of
t he
Kuwai t
into
The agreement was t o come t o b r i n g Kuwai t
1977)
influenced
l abour
[ see
other
c o - o p e r a t i o n between Kuwai t and B r i t a i n
production
b e l o w] .
nations
The
beyond
(I smael ,
effects
Kuwai t .
1982;
of
t he
The
helped t o l ay t he f o u n d a t i o n o f t he
second Saudi St at e i n t he Arab P en i n s ul a i n
a l l i a n c e w i t h Ibn AL- Rashi d,
I t was not unexpected t h a t t he
their
a new f orm o f
S inclair,
agreement
agreement
by 1902, t he Ottoman and t he European go v er n
agreement as t he
t he
dominance
who br o ug ht
Finally,
historia ns
p . 41).
show t h e i r
ments r ec o gn i s ed t he B r i t i s h c o n t r o l
Many
to
do what t hey can t o p r o t e c t t he f a m i l y e s t a t e s o f
t he Sheikh o f Koweït i n Fao"
Ottomans
and
t he F or ei gn
1902.
However t he Ottomans i n
t he r u l e r o f Najd, were g r e a t l y opposed t o t he
- 99 -
K u w a i t - B r i t i s h agreement and a s t r u g g l e f o r power began.
Kuwai t p r ov i d e d a
l i n k between t he B r i t i s h and Abd AL- Az i z AL-Saud t o hel p t he l a t t e r t o oust
Ibn AL-Rashid and r ec o v e r h i s f a m i l y ' s
territories
t ended
power
sula,
to
avoi d
but
direct
a c c o r d i ng
to
Ismael
in
( p . 52)
t hr ough Kuwai t and were deni ed t o
cat ed weapons a t
that
t i me
such
struggles
British
arms
Ibn AL- Rashi d.
as
i n Ri yadh.
B ritish
The B r i t i s h
on t he Arab Peni n
reached
Saudi
hands
The s uppl y o f s o p h i s t i
manuf act ur ed
rifle s,
was t he
main f a c t o r i n g i v i n g t he Saudi s v i c t o r y over Ibn AL-Rashid and al l owed Abd
AL- Az i z Bin Saud t o e s t a b l i s h
t he
new Saudi
Kingdom i n t he Arab Pen i n s ul a
i n what i s now c a l l e d Saudi A r a b i a .
KUWAIT DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN THE TWO WARS
The
devel opment
of
Kuwai t
between
t he
late
World War I was marked by t h r e e main f e a t u r e s .
nineteenth
of t h e ir
country.
transformation
They used B r i t i s h
f rom
state
to
f e a t u r e was t he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f K u w a i t ' s
which
Sabah
Gradually,
founded
with
t he
this
authority
assistance
of
tribal
l e a d e r t o an
authoritative
family
which
t he
The
third
became
and
integration
final
in to
t he
w i t h an u l t i m a t e goal
whenever
it
centre
ruler
was
division
of
t he
hi s
society
in
of
system.
rapid
The
second
The b a s i s on
d'état
( Khaz al ,
accumul at ed
t he
t o expand t he commercial
coup
state.
their
was
B ritish
activities
Mubarak was c r e d i t e d
for
hi s
triba l.
himself
and t he house o f Sabah t o
use
labour
a modern
B r i t i s h he changed
o f Ku w a i t i
feature
to f a c i l i t a t e
po litical
after
t he
Usi ng t h e i r
t he K u w a i t i s promoted devel opment
protection
bei ng a t r i b a l
and
The f i r s t was t he t r a n s f o r
mat i on from a nomadic t ype o f p r o d u c t i o n t o a m e r c a n t i l e one.
l o c a t i o n i n t he t r a d e r o u t e i n t he G u l f ,
c e n t ur y
f rom a
a royal
1962,
V o l . 5).
we a l t h
and
mercantile
t he
system
o f t he B a n i ' u t u b
commercial
ambi
t i o n s al t h o u g h t hese l ed on many oc cas i ons t o t he e x t o r t i o n o f t he d i v e r s '
-
100
and mer chant s'
we al th.
AL- Rushai d,
t he K uwai t i
historian,
assessed Mubarak
by s ay i ng :
"Mubarak was a t y r a n t , s t ubbor n and u n j u s t .
He was an ab s o l ut e
r u l e r who loved t he ac c u mu l at i o n o f we a l t h and was al ways seeki ng
ways t o i n c r e a s e hi s w e a l t h .
He assessed hi gh f i n e s a g a i n s t
l a w - br e a k e r s ; c o n t i n u o u s l y i n v e n t e d t axes . . . . and made h i m s e l f a
p a r t n e r i n a l l b u i l d i n g and p r o p e r t y [ t r a n s a c t i o n s ] .
As a m a t t e r
o f f a c t , he was b e t t e r o f f than a p a r t n e r .
He r ec e i v e d o n e - t h i r d
o f what was sol d or r en t e d , even i f t h i s was r epeat ed a number o f
t i mes a d a y ."
( AL- Rushai d, 1971, t r a n s l a t e d by I smael , 1981, p . 55)
Like
pre-oil
t he
mono-resource
era was
do mi n a n t l y
pearling.
Under
as Ismael
argued,
talism
.........
economic
a sea
system under B r i t i s h
industry
t he B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l
to
t hese
" t he
contradictions
accumulation/expropriation;
system r e l y i n g
system, t he Kuwai t i
framework o f
contradictions
were:
occupation,
on
fishing
of peripheral
contradiction
and-
c l a s s system l e d ,
(1) t he c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
(2) t he
t he
of
capi
of c a p it a l
independence/
dependence ( I s ma e l , p . 59) .
I s mael ' s d e s c r i p t i o n
o f c l a s s s t r u c t u r e demonst r at es t he c h a r a c t e r o f
r e l a t i o n s between t he pr oducer s and t he a c c u mul at i on o f c a p i t a l
off
t he
s ur p l u s es
of
production.
l ed t o r a p i d
growth
in
was
which
t he
in
1911,
(abundance y e a r )
industry
was
based on t he
pearls
under
i n t he
t he
The i n c r e a s i n g market demand f o r
p e ar l
Kuwaitis
local
i n d u s t r y . The h i g h e s t
called
dialect
based on two d i f f e r e n t
method meant
methods o f
t he
and t he
r emai nder
tax
of
t he
meaning t he
The p e ar l
The f i r s t was
financier
would
o f t he
t ake Khumus (a f i f t h ,
an ot he r Khumus would go t o
then t h e r e was t he de d u c t i on o f t he c os t s f o r
Shai kh,
was d i v i d e d
p . 200) .
production.
pearls
production
The whol es al e d i s t r i b u t i o n
meaning t h a t t he i n t e r e s t r a t e was 20 per c e n t ) ,
t he owner o f t he b o at ,
p e ar l
t he y e a r o f AL- Taf ha,
( AL- Qat ami , 1968,
'Khamamis' or t he f i f t h s .
this
by d r a i n i n g
which
amongst
t he
share d i s t r i b u t i o n among crew i s
based on t he e x p l o i t a t i o n
of
usually
accounted
for
crew or t he d i v e r s .
shown i n Tabl e 3 . 1 .
labour.
-
It
101 -
30 per
cent;
food
t he
An example o f t he
The whole system was
c on c e n t r a t e d t he e a r ni ngs i n t he
hands
of
t he
pr oducer s
r ec e i v e d
in
mer chant s.
t he
local
For
Bombay i n I n d i a (Vi 1 l i e r ,
Ha u l e r s '
t he
market was f o u r
by t he merchant
Tabl e 3 . 1 .
exampl e,
in
t he
price
to
six
s a l e market
of
t he
t i mes
in
Manama o f
Bah r a i n,
Capt ai n
Di vers
Haul er s
Cook
Haul er s A s s i s t a n t s
1
10
10
1
2
3
3
2
2
1
3
Total
24
i ndependence.
1976, p . 222.
3
30
20
2
2
3
60
Amended by Ismael
1981, p . 62)
for
The whole
t he
pr ocedur e
depended
on
bor r ower s
if
t he
captain
p e ar l
exploitation
structure
t he
chants,
nakoda
System o f Advance,
t he
t he
whole
They had t o
d iv e rs .
was
c o n s titu te d
f ac e
by
crew
Thi s c oul d be
not
found t he mode
as economic i n
t he whole
I t was p a r t o f i n d u s t r y i n which everybody i s
The d i v e r
to
V illie rs
t o t h e nakoda, who i s t he Capt ai n o f t he
financier,
t he
financier
to
other,
and t he b ig g e r merchants t o t he Shaikh ( V i l l i e r s ,
Therefore,
which
t he
i s based on d e bt .
i n de bt ed t o somebody.
ship,
in
and
t h e r e was a poor season and t hey d i d
earn enough t o cover t h e i r debt t o t he merchants .
of
( o r System
system t he c a p t a i n and h i s crew ma i nt ai ne d a degree
bo r r o wi ng from t he merchants a t t he b e g i n n i n g o f t he season.
disastrous
in
Shares
The second method o f f i n a n c e was t he System o f A L - S a l a f i a h
of
or
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f P e a r l i n g Crew' s Income
Shares Drawn
In t h i s
to
l ower than t he p r i c e
Number
o f Advance).
gi v en
1984).
Assistants
( A l - Q a t am i ,
pearls
burden
of
two d e v i l s
t he
Amir
-
to
t he
at
debt s
fell
on
one t i me - t he
keep
bi gger
mer
1948).
t he
Cour t
law and o r d e r
in
head
of
t he
of
Divers,
t he
fish in g
community (most judgements i n t h a t c o u r t were a g a i n s t poor d i v e r s ) ,
and t he
bot tom o f t he Gul f where t he y had t o d i v e t o a depth o f 8 t o 16 f at homs.
The B r i t i s h pr esence, and t he d i s c o v e r y o f o i l
i mpor t ance t o
c l a s s whi ch,
t he
Emi r at e
of
Kuwai t
and
l ed
by t he end o f World War I I ,
to
1981).
The Kuwai t i
bers o f one f a m i l y . "
sl ogan a t
feuds
(Ibid).
ru lin g family
t he
The
oc c u r r ed
Royal
it
emphasised
that
( Al - Naqeep,
emergence
in
of
modern
ruling
are mem
o f one f a m i l y
go v er n
and guard a g a i n s t
Kuwaiti
and
t he
rest
it
and
of
t he
t we l v e
He promised t o
under
new c o u n c i l ,
work w i t h
r e g u l a r meeti ngs ( A l - Ru s h a i d ,
directed
t he
Ami r ,
t he
however,
sub mi t t e d a memorandum t o t he
council.
was t i me t o s et up a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
choose
t o f or m
institutions,
of a c o n s ulta ti v e
him i n r u l i n g t he c o u n t r y . The
In a l e t t e r
family
political
o f merchants
assist
members
fac
homogeneous group, r e l a t e d t o one an ot he r
demanding t he c r e a t i o n
t o t he Amir t h a t
mer chant s.
conflicts
"A l l Kuwaitis
1976).
1921 when a group
Fami l y
clear
pr e ss ur e on t he
made t h a t t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he
t he
"constituted a r e l a t iv e ly
by k i n s h i p "
t i me was;
internal
a merchant
and t he merchants o f Kuwai t was as ol d as Kuwai t i t s e l f ,
government
society
that
The p o i n t was
growt h o f
execution of statep o l i c i e s
The n o t i o n was t h a t t he s p i r i t
i n g t he c o u n t r y would a l l e v i a t e
tional
t he
exerted p o l i t i c a l
r u l i n g f a m i l y t o share t he f o r m u l a t i o n and t he
(Baz,
i n t he 1930s added more
pressure,
with
Council,
but
They made
group t o
agreed
to
a Chairman f rom t he
it
failed
to
hol d
agreement o f
five
1971).
t o t he membershe pr o vi d ed an
poi nt s :
" I n t he name o f God, t he b e n e f i c e n t , t he m u n i f i c e n t : Thi s i s what
i s agreed upon between t he r u l e r o f Kuwai t , Sheikh Ahmed a l J a b i r , and hi s group [ t h e C o u n c i l ] :
F i r s t : A l l r u l i n g s among t he s u b j e c t s i n [ go v e r n m e n t al ] r e l a t i o n s
and c r i m i n a l ac t s w i l l be i n accordance w i t h t he honour abl e Shari
[ I s l a m i c ] law.
-
103 -
Second; I f
t he c o n v i c t e d c l a i m t h a t t he judgement i s c o n t r a r y t o
t he S h a r i ,
t he case o f t he p l a i n t i f f and def endant and t he r u l i n g
j udge w i l l
be w r i t t e n and w i l l be f or war ded t o I s l a m i c Ulama
[ r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s ] , and t h e i r d e c i s i o n w i l l be t he accept ed
judgement t o be impl ement ed.
T h i r d : I f t he two opposi ng p a r t i e s t o a d i s p u t e agree t o f i n d a
t h i r d person who can medi ate between them and f i n d accommodation
between them, accommodation i s b e t t e r because i t i s one o f t he
accept ed means o f S h a r i .
F o u r t h : C o n s u l t a t i o n i n t he i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t he c o u n t r y and
t he e x t e r n a l a f f a i r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e c o u n t r y and may b r i n g p r o
s p e r i t y , i n h i b i t c o r r u p t i o n and [ encour age t he devel opment o f ] a
good system.
F i f t h : Everyone who has an o p i n i o n which may b e n e f i t t he r e l i
gi ous or m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g o f t he c o u n t r y and i t s peopl e can
b r i n g i t t o t he a t t e n t i o n o f t he r u l e r who w i l l c o n s u l t w i t h hi s
group [ C o n s u l t a t i v e C o u n c i l ] .
I f t hey found i t t o be b e n e f i c i a l ,
i t w i l l be e n a c t e d ."
However,
1938.
a second
The Amir f o r
articles
t he
council
with
second t i me
legislative
appr oval
ove r t o ne s
a draft
was
formed
consisting
offiv e
pr esent ed as f o l l o w s :
"We, t he Rul er o f Kuwai t , i n accordance w i t h t he d e c i s i o n o f t he
Pe o p l e' s L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l , approve t h i s law on t he a u t h o r i t y
o f t he Counci l and We have or der ed i t s e x e c u t i o n .
A r t i c l e 1:
t he person
The peopl e are t he source
of i t s elected deputies.
A rticle
1aws :
The L e g i s l a t i v e
2:
Counci l
of a u t h o r i ty
must
legislate
r e p r e s e n t ed i n
t he f o l l o w i n g
1. TheBudget Law, which o r ga n i z e s a l l t he income o f t he c o u n t r y
and i t s
e x p e n d i t u r e and d i r e c t s i t i n a j u s t manner, w i t h t he
e x c e p t i o n o f t he p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f al - Sabah which t he Counci l
has no r i g h t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h .
2. The
Law o f J u s t i c e , t he purpose o f which i s t o e s t a b l i s h
r e l i g i o u s and t r a d i t i o n a l laws i n such a manner as t o ensure t he
pr o pe r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e among t he peopl e.
3. The
Law o f P u b l i c
mai nt enance o f s e c u r i t y
f u r t h e r borders.
4. The
Law o f Ed u c a t i o n ,
o f a law f o r e d u c a t i o n ,
advanced c o u n t r i e s .
S e c u r i t y , t he purpose o f which i s
i n s i d e t he c o u n t r y and
outside to
t he
t he
t he purpose o f which i s t he enactment
f o ll o w i n g in i t
t he
example o f t he
-
104
in
5.
The Law o f H e a l t h , t he purpose o f which i s t he enactment o f a
h e a l t h law which p r o t e c t s t he c o u n t r y and i t s peopl e from t he
dangers o f s i ck nes s and di s ea se o f what ever k i n d .
6.
The Law o f C o n s t r u c t i o n : t h i s i n c l u d e s t he pavement o f roads
o u t s i d e t he c i t y and t he b u i l d i n g o f p r i s o n s , d i g g i n g w e l l s , and
what ever may hel p i n b u i l d i n g t he c o u n t r y i n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r
nally.
However,
members
of
conflicts
t he
Counci l
aro se
between
which
l ed
to
t he
ruling
t he
family
government
and
some o f
cracking
t he
down on t he
opponents who f l e d t o I r a q .
On 19th
Amir
of
elected
August
t he
1961,
new s t a t e ,
constituent
Kuwai t
gai ned
Ab d u l l a h
assembl y.
independence
Al - Sabah,
f rom
i ssued a decree c a l l i n g
The assembly was then
directed
permanent c o n s t i t u t i o n and t o a c t as a l e g i s l a t i v e body.
election,
hel d on 30t h December t he
Britain.
same y e a r ,
to
for
draft
The f i r s t
was c on s i d er ed
The
an
a
gener al
as f r e e
as
any e l e c t i o n i n Western c o u n t r i e s .
The
French,
text
of
t he
constitution
American and Russian
and I s l a m i c Law ( D a n i e l ,
legal
1971).
t he press and communi cat i ons,
was
clearly
principles,
influenced
British,
as l o c a l
tradition
I t guar ant eed freedom o f b e l i e f ,
opinions,
immuni t y a g a i n s t
as w e l l
by
illeg al
search and s e i z u r e ,
and t he f reedom t o e s t a b l i s h a s s o c i a t i o n s and unions ( C o n s t i t u t i o n A r t i c l e s
1- 6 0 ) .
Under t h i s
t i o n o f powers,
c o n s t i t u t i o n t he p o l i t i c a l
but t he Amir was bot h r u l e r who owns t he land and gover nor
who hol ds t he a b s o l u t e power.
t he
N a t i on a l
cabinet
of
However,
system has been based on sep ar a
Assembly;
m in isters;
t he m i n i s t e r s
L e g i s l a t i v e power was vest ed i n t he Amir and
executive
and
t he
power
judicial
was
vest ed
power
was
in
t he
vest ed
Amir
in
who were not e l e c t e d were n e v er t h e l e s s
bers o f t he N a t i on a l Assembly (Baz,
t he
and
t he
courts.
v o t i n g mem
1981).
Since i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n 1962, t he N a t i on a l Assembly has been f a c i n g
pr e s sur e s
f rom w i t h i n
and
sharp
criticism
- 105
f rom n e i g h b o u r i n g
Gulf
States.
The Kuwai t i
de moc r a t i c a m b i t i o n s have been looked upon as a s e r i o u s t h r e a t
t o both i n t e r n a l
conservatives
and t o t he t r a d i t i o n a l
In a d d i t i o n t o t he merchant c l a s s ,
with
a
rising
reluctantly
mitted
tole rated
and a t
pace f o r
intellectual
t i mes
ance,
t he Na t i on a l
al ong
with
liberal
t he
it
Assembly,
a wave
However,
to
liberalism,
although
cope w i t h .
on t he whol e,
The r u l i n g
of
f a m i l y had t o contend
which
t hey
change was
per
seemed t o have proceeded a t t oo f a s t a
authorities
intellectuals
matters.
and
a poin t.
encouraged,
t he t r a d i t i o n a l
t he r u l i n g K uwai t i
e lite
up t o
regimes i n t he G u l f .
and
To m a i n t a i n
the
bal
kept t o t he l e f t o f c e n t r e and,
journalists,
mai n t a i ne d
a free
rein
in
f a m i l y and t he government kept t o t he r i g h t o f
c e n t r e and championed c o n s e r v a t i v e causes.
The f i r s t
accommodation t o t h i s
p o litica l
reality
in
Kuwai t
oc c u r r ed
i n 1980 when t he Assembly was e s t a b l i s h e d and t he c o n s t i t u t i o n was amended,
increasing
its
members
f rom
50
to
60,
one-third
of
whom are
(Ibid).
The newly e l e c t e d Assembly i n c l u d e d e l i t e s
o f Kuwai t i
als
liberals
t he
and
who were
generally
at
odds
with
o f t he r u l i n g
family,
to
resign.
once more i n J u l y 1986, when i t
five
Ministers
allegations,
to
resign
however,
under
They
t i me i n t he
who was a member
t he Assembly was d i s s o l v e d
stood f i r m l y a g a i n s t t he government f o r c i n g
a vot e
of
no c on f i d e n c e .
were t o accommodate t he
caused by t he I r a n - I r a q war,
of Jus tic e ,
Fur t he r mo r e,
in te lle ctu
government.
e x e r t e d so hi gh a pr e s sur e on t he government t h a t f o r t he f i r s t
h i s t o r y o f t he G u l f t hey f o r c e d t he M i n i s t e r
ministers
existing
The government
po litical
con flict
i n which Kuwai t became one o f t he main t a r g e t s
f o r t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s by S h i ' i t e groups backed by I r a n .
These event s show t h a t t he Amir o f Kuwai t i s
Under t he c o n s t i t u t i o n
him t o
other
areas
his
shared
Assembly ( C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
not a cer emoni al
powers range f rom t hose p e r s o n a l l y
with
t he
cabinet
A r tic le s 5-8).
-
106
or
shared
with
figure.
execut ed by
t he
In t h i s case, t r a d i t i o n a l
N a t i on a l
authority
is
j u x t a po sed on modern d e moc r a t i c
institu tion s,
i n which checks and b a l
ances are a p p l i e d t o m a i n t a i n an e q u i l i b r i u m between t he l i b e r a l s ,
i n g most j o u r n a l i s t s ,
t he
conservatives
intellectuals
includin g
t he
and t he m a j o r i t y
Ami r ,
t he
includ
o f t he Assembly,
ruling
family,
t he
social
groups
in
and
cabinet
and
t he government,
SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE
To
under st and
society,
it
is
relations
which
in
t he
t he
among
newl y- emer gi ng
interaction
assumpt i on i n cont empor ar y s o c i a l
within
countries,
of
involve
t he
dynamics
The most common
structure is
and t he p r o l e t a r i a t .
structures.
other
and
c l a s s es
The
which
'p ro le ta ria t'.
i n a n a l y s i n g t he s o c i a l
exami ni ng t he
dynamics
characteristics
societie s,
it
structures
which
production
of
entirely
with
t hese powers.
The s o c i a l
i n t he Mi ddl e East i s c a l l e d
However,
special
capitalist
social
'capita list'
p r i s e s what,
in
complex
in itia lly
polars
t he
powers,
comprised
In T h i r d World
however, t he p r o d u c t i o n o f any model r e q u i r e s acknowledgement o f
intermediate
would
taking in to
a n a l y s i s appears t o be t h a t a gi ven mode
o f p r o d u c t i o n produces a c l a s s s o c i e t y .
c l a s s es :
Kuwai t i
changes e s p e c i a l l y i n t he l a s t f o r t y year s and t he
relations
govern t he s o c i a l
o f two p o l a r
t he
i m p o r t a n t t o appl y a r e l e v a n t t y pe o f a n a l y s i s ,
account t he r a p i d s o c i a l
change
among
of
of
can be s a i d ,
t he
different
sort
Thus,
of
are
not
social
configuration
r ep r e s e n t e d
The i n t e r m e d i a t e
in
'class'
t he
com
"The Mi ddl e Cl a s s " .
s t r u c t u r e o f cont emporary Kuwai t and
powers,
p r i ma r y
account
source
of
has t o
be t aken
of
t he
we al t h
-
In
all
o il.
power r e l a t e s t o access t o w e a l t h , e s p e c i a l l y t o
underwrite
we al th.
its
total
limited
Aijaz
dynamic
-
or
monopoly
Ahmad
in
107
(1985)
t he
access
notices
countries
of
to
we a l t h
that
t he
there
Gulf
and
to
is
an
region
where t he
more,
oil
and gas revenues
such revenues are o f t e n
members o f t he Royal F ami l y .
apparently
d e p o s i t ed
accr ue
in
t he
t o t he S t a t e .
accounts
of
Further
t he
ruler
and
Ahmad concl udes t h a t :
"Perhaps f o r t he f i r s t t i me i n h i s t o r y we have a t y pe o f s t a t e
which i s f a b u l o u s l y we a l t h y but which o b t ai n s most o f i t s r e v e
nues not f rom domest i c t a x a t i o n or e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f domest i c
l a b o u r , but f rom t he e x p l o i t a t i o n
l a rg e ly of f o r ei gn labour
m i g r a t i n g t o o i l c e n t r e s and f rom t he p r o d u c t i o n and t he s al e o f
i n d u s t r i a l raw m a t e r i a l s t o t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t . "
(Ahmed, 1985, p . 50)
In t he case o f t he G u l f S t a t e s ,
t he
dominant
owner
exploiting the ir
tional
of
wealth,
s pe c i a l
o f which Kuwai t i s
with,
access t o t he
merchant c l a s s has now l o s t i t s
dominant
influence
in
however,
t he
State.
one,
traditional
o f t he
re so urces
t he St at e
ruling
state.
is
houses
The t r a d i
economic ascendency, and so a l s o i t s
The o i l - b a s e d
modern economy has gi ven
r i s e t o t he emergence o f a new b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s which i s t o be i d e n t i f i e d
as a p o l i t i c a l
drawn
from
however,
t he
are
traditional
access
group r a t h e r than an economic c l a s s , t he more so as t hey are
total
spect rum
of
excl uded
f rom t he
upper
Royal
to
House
power,
society
retains
influence
reaches
its
and
-
hol d
policy
including
of
t he
on t he
has
n o n - K u wa i t i s
system.
who,
Whilst
upper reaches
i n e v i t a b l y been
of
t he
power,
more w i d e l y
d i f f u s e d i n t he s o c i e t y .
To
anal y s e
society,
it
meanwhil e
t he
would
c o mp o s i t i on
seem a p p r o p r i a t e
highlighting
traditional
of
t he
social
to
relations
and emergent ones.
It
groups
within
t he
historical
follow
among d i f f e r e n t
is possible,
t he
social
f o r exampl e,
Kuwai t i
framewor k,
groups
bot h
t o d e f i n e t he
groups which are r e l a t e d t o t he r u l i n g f a m i l y and t o examine t h e i r r o l e i n
the dynamics o f t he
possible
fact
to
that
t he
t he merchant
and economic
p . 87).
define
soci o- ec onomi c
role
Sim ilarly,
role
of
t he merchants
class
in
Kuwai t ,
instead
this
of
purely
approach
class,
bearing
as Baz n o t i c e d , "has
economic
c oul d
devel opment .
points
be a p p l i e d
- 108 -
to
It
in
also
mind t he
both s o c i a l
o f view" (Baz,
t he
is
1981,
socio-political
positio n
of
other
gr oups,
urban communi t i es,
ogeneous
group,
namely t he
and t he l i b e r a l
de fi ned
l es s
in
Bedouin who had r e c e n t l y
nationalists.
economic
Thi s l a t t e r
and s o c i a l
settle d
in
are a h e t e r
terms and not e a s i l y
f i x e d i n a c l a s s spect rum but more i n terms o f t h e i r pl ac e i n t he p o l i t i c a l
dynamics o f t he system (see be l o w) .
t hose
social
groups
formations.
in
Moreover,
t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
terms
of
social
their
illustrations
spect rum,
historical
w ill
therefore,
backgrounds,
be gi ven
of
p r e s en t
and
their
group r o l e s
within
t o g e t h e r w i t h t he r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n each group
and cr oss group r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
of a l l
What f o l l o w s w i l l ,
Si nce t he Royal Fami l y had been a t t he cor e
dynamics i n Kuwai t ,
it
w ill
be pr esent ed f i r s t .
AL-SABAH : THE RULING FAMILY
The background
century.
of
t he
Al -Sabah
Ac c or d i n g t o Di ckson
family
( 19 56 ) ,
goes
back
to
t he
sevent eent h
a severe dr o ug ht h i t c e n t r a l
Ar a b i a
and f o r c e d many t r i b e s t o move ea s t t o t he coast s o f t he Ar abi an G u l f .
Autubs were among t hose t r i b e s
Aut ubs.
In
1756,
s ever al
The
and t he Al-Sabah f a m i l y was a member o f t he
tribes
gat her ed
around
Kuwaiti's
natural
bay.
They were u n i t e d i n one group under t he l e a d e r s h i p o f t he Sabah f a m i l y .
name gi ven t o t he Ami r a t e was ' A l - K u w a i t ' ,
Ami r ,
havi ng
been
charge o f t he
t he
tribes
Ottomans,
and
a
s e l e c t ed
security
and
fishing
of
by
t he
t he
gr oups,
w i t h Sabah a l - J a b i r as t he f i r s t
heads
Emi r a t e ,
and
of
of
of
centuries,
thirteen
Amirs
of
t he
tribes.
fostering
t he
Per si ans and n e i g h b o u r i n g t r i b e s .
half
The
external
Sabah
in
good r e l a t i o n s
relations
Si nce t he n,
t he
He was
for
family
t he
have
was
among
with
t he
last
two
ruled
in
Kuwai t , t he p r e s e n t Amir bei ng Amir J a b i r al-Ahmad (see Tabl e 3 . 2 ) .
As Baz (1981)
on two f a c t o r s .
c on c l u des ,
F irst,
t he
legitimacy
o f t he Sabah f a m i l y
h i s name as a si gn o f r o y a l t y .
in
not
since
then
based
t he f r e e e l e c t i o n o f t h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r , Sabah I ,
1756 whose successor c a r r i e d
Kuwai t
is
does
depend
-
109 -
wholly
upon
in
The r u l e r s h i p
primogeniture
as
is
T a b le 3 . 2
Al -Sabah Li ne o f Succession
Name o f Rul er
Date o f Reign
Sabah A l - J a b e r
1 7 5 6-1 7 6 2
A bd ul l ah Al-Sabah
176 2-1 8 1 2
Son
Jaber A l - A b d u l l a h
181 2-1 8 5 9
Son
Sabah A l - J a b e r
185 9-1 8 6 6
Son
A b du lla h Al-Sabah
186 6-1 8 9 2
Son
Mohammad Al-Sabah
189 2-1 8 9 6
Brother
Mubarak Al-Sabah
1 8 9 6-1915
Brother
Jaber Al -Mubarak
1 9 1 5-1917
Son
Salem Al -Mubarak
1917-1921
Brother
Ahmed A l - J a b e r
1 9 2 1-1 9 5 0
Uncle
Abd ul l ah A l-S a le m
1 9 50-1965
Cousin
Sabah Al - Sal em
1965-1977'*
Brother
Jaber Al-Ahmed
1978- t he p re s e n t
Cousin
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*The l a t e Amir Sabah A l -Salem d ie d on December 31,
often
t he
case i n
other
Gulf
a c c o r di n g t o Arab t r a d i t i o n s ,
age,
leadership,
re fle c t
local
Sabah' s
and
le v el o f ed ucati on.
fications
in th is
of
affairs,
New el ement s
a modern t y pe
t he c a p a b i l i t y
of
Kuwai t
ar e
have
leadership:
to
influence
also
e.g.
been
chosen
as c o u r
added
to
e x p er i enc e
in
social
gr oups,
and
Thus age and p r i m o g e n i t u r e were r e p l a c e d by new q u a l i
which echo t he new s t y l e
of
leadership.
r egar d had begun w i t h t he f i r s t
On h i s deat h,
The Amirs
1977
which are based on such a t t r i b u t e s
seniority.
a d o p t i on
and f o r e i g n
c o u n trie s .
1
|
j
1
1
Relationship to
t o pr edecessor
Sabah l e f t
behi nd f i v e
successor f o r Sabah I ( 1762- 1812) .
sons,
110 -
The Sabah' s t r a d i t i o n s
but a l t h o u g h
A bd ul l ah was t he
youngest among h i s b r o t h e r s ,
t he
n o t abl es
capability
of
to
Kuwai t
to
he was chosen by t he members o f t he f a m i l y and
succeed
his
father.
establishment
of
a
( Khaz al ,
1970, v o l . l ,
Constitutio n
and
occupati onal
t he
Al -Sabahs
factor.
his
Re c e n t l y , w i t h t he
po litical
system,
new
such as t he s u c c e s s o r ' s mental
intentionally
Influential
t hose o f t he I n t e r i o r ,
credited
by
t he M i l i t a r y ,
ex p e r i en c e .
their
ambition
A new breed
They accumul at e
new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and
of
secured t h e i r
and s e n s i t i v e
t he Oi l
hel d by members o f t he Sabah f a m i l y .
to
Sabahs
Si nce
independence
management.
balancing
Industry,
post s,
higher
have o b t ai n ed
such as
and I n f o r m a t i o n
The numerous members o f
attain
on an
ed u c a t i on
post s
t he
and
in
t he
are
family
po litical
diplomatic
e x p e r i en c e and knowledge t o meet t he needs o f
t he
to
are
keep
a b r ea s t
with
t he
in
1962,
many
i n t e l l e c t u a l s who
groups.
Sabahs
t ook
t he
lead
i n t he
new
Many were r e c r u i t e d i n t he government t o m a i n t a i n t he need f o r
t he
p o litica l
Sabah f a m i l y ,
s t r en g t he n
legitimacy
government
i n c r e a s i n g l y on t he ascendant among o t h e r s o c i a l
t he
of
p r e d i c a t e d upon t he appr oval o f t he N a t i on a l Assembly.
Secondl y,
field.
p . 44-45).
a democr at i c
c o n d i t i o n s were added t o t he ol d t r a d i t i o n s
are
certain
lead t he Emi r at e and hi s age d i d not h i nd e r h i s r o l e as t he
successor o f h i s f a t h e r
a b ility,
They were
t he
power.
and t he
But ,
accusations
regime and t he
family
r egar dl ess
of
of
t he
m o n o p o l i si n g
as such,
criticism
t he
oil
against
we al t h
to
t he Sabahs have been gi ven
c r e d i t f o r bei ng abl e t o c a r r y out a pe ac ef ul t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Kuwai t from
a patriarchal
system t o a d e mocr a t i c monarchy.
Throughout t he c e n t u r i e s t he Sabah f a m i l y
t i macy.
I t was,
some e x t e n t ,
di d
however,
not
has s t r i v e n
to obtain
le g i
t he o n l y one among Arab r u l i n g f a m i l i e s t h a t ,
base i t s
legitimacy
on a b s o l u t e p o l i t i c a l
d i d not pose as t he sol e a b s o l u t e power on t op o f a l l .
Until
-
It
t he l a t e 50s,
t he Amir has not a t t a c h e d hi s r u l e t o t he members o f h i s f a m i l y .
- Ill
rule.
to
I ns t ea d ,
he based hi s
c hant s.
power upon i n t e g r a t i o n
For example,
Lor imer ,
with
t he
noted t h a t
Cour t s
a n d / or
with
t he mer
a t t he b e g i n n i n g o f t he c e n t ur y
Amir Mubarak was:
"Per sonal and a b s o l u t e .
. . t he heads o f hi s depar t ment are
mo s t l y s l a v e s ; h i s near r e l a t i v e s are excl uded f rom hi s c o u n c i l s ;
even hi s sons w i e l d noe x c l u s i v e powers . . .
i n t he
town t he
s m a l l e s t d i s p u t e s , whet her c i v i l o r c r i m i n a l , are s e t t l e d by t he
Shaikh h i m s e l f . "
( L o r i m e r , 1908-15, p . 1074)
Likewise,
t he
members
of
t he
Crystal
(1986)
later
family
Amirs
from
c onc l udes,
f o l l o w e d t he same p o l i c y
t he
Ami r .
The
was b a s i c a l l y
family
o f s e p a r a t i n g t he
po litical
entity,
as
d e - c e n t r a l i s e d and f r agment ed.
On
t he one hand, t he Amir pursued hi s r u l e w i t h o u t payi ng any a t t e n t i o n t o h i s
relatives'
pat e i n
point
of
vi ew.
havi ng l o s t
d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g and s e p a r a t i n g t hemsel ves
bers o f hi s f a m i l y
le ft
t he d i s c o v e r y o f o i l
c r ea t e d
Cons equent l y ,
new
t he r u l i n g
affairs
institu tion s
which
to
pa rtici
from t he Ami r ,
t he mem
exclusively
and t he i n c r e a s e i n o i l
po litical
ambition
to
him.
But ,
revenues, t he p o l i t i c a l
l ed
to
t he
emergence
s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l , powers as t he n a t i o n a l i s t s and t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
with
system
of
such
The Amir
was f o r c e d t o devel op a new l i n e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i m s e l f and o t h e r
members o f t he f a m i l y .
Henceforward t he s e p a r a t i o n w i t h i n t he f a m i l y ended
and t he Sabah f a m i l y emerged as a r oy a l
After
Royal
independence
Fami l y
in
1962,
as, a p o l i t i c a l
t he Amir
power
revenues.
to
to
in stitu tio n a lise
t he
t hose o f t he mer chants,
He gave t o t he e l d e s t member access t o
He a l s o or der ed s a l a r i e s t o be pai d t o ever y s i n g l e Shai kh,
young and o l d .
especially
in stitution.
started
correlative
t he n a t i o n a l i s t s and o t h e r gr oups.
oil
po litical
t hose
The Shaikhs were i n v i t e d
of
a hi gh
calibre.
compete w i t h t he gr owi ng s k i l l s
knew t he i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l
t o occupy many manager i al
He encouraged
and p r o f e s s i o n s
t he f a m i l y
i n t he p u b l i c
powers and t he s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
po s t s,
members t o
sector.
of individuals
He
in
terms o f we al t h and e d u c a t i o n .
He a l s o under st ood t he i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e
of
would
intellectuals
and
how t h i s
affect
- 112 -
t he
social
po litical
system.
Thus,
t he
need t o
After
hi s
deat h.
in
1951.
match t h e i r
by t he
Royal
leadership,
changes,
i.e.
a de moc r a t i c monarchy,
t he
in
t he C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
1938 he was i n
which he showed g r e a t
showed sympathy
imperative.
to
Kuwai t
t he e l e c t e d N a t i on a l Assembly, and
A bd ul l ah had p a r t i c i p a t e d
o f t he c o u n t r y .
charge o f
t he
Dur i ng t he u p r i s i n g o f
Department
shrewdness and f l e x i b i l i t y .
t he
of
Independence, t he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Kuwai t i n t o
pr e- i ndependence a c t i v i t i e s
merchants
was
Kuwai t exper i enced t he most dynamic s o c i a l
t he r e - o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t he Royal Fami l y as w e l l .
i n t he
Fami l y
Shaikh Ab d u l l a h A l - S a l i m cl ai med t he r u l e r s h i p
With hi s
power
mer chant s'
demands,
It
of
Fi nance,
was a l l e g e d
in
that
he
and when t he t i me was r i p e
he
implemented them.
As t he Finance C h i e f ,
then as Amir i n t he f i f t i e s .
i n t e n t on p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n o i l
exploiting
Mussadeq
it.
At
rebelled
that
w e a l t h w i t h t he f o r e i g n companies which were
time,
against
in
t he
Iran
(east
British
and
of
him hi s
1952.
in dustry,
companies.
He
a declaration that
Emi r at e coul d not c o n f r o n t t he B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y power i n a t i me when i t
was
rule.
in
oil
Minister
hi s
under B r i t i s h
life
Prime
Shaikh Abd ul l ah was aware t h a t
s till
po litical
Kuwai t )
American
d e c l a r e d t he n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f t he e n t i r e o i l
c os t
Shaikh Ab d u l l a h was
He deci ded t o r e s o r t t o d i p l o m a t i c
negotiations
and peacef ul means, and i n 1951 succeeded i n s i g n i n g an agreement e n t i t l i n g
him t o
a 50-50
share i n
all
t he o i l
Such an achievement was s t r o n g l y
companies i n
Kuwai t
welcomed by K uwai t i
(Crystal,
citizens
1985).
and a f l o o d
o f new domest i c devel opment p r o j e c t s were embarked upon.
Ac c or d i n g t o Ismael
( 1982) ,
Shaikh Abd ul l ah had al ways been an a c t i v e
s u p p o r t e r o f t he r ef or m e r s t h r ou g h o u t h i s r e i g n
to
l essen
1982,
his
t he
p . 82).
reign,
evolution
"more
o p p r es s i v e
Thi s assessment
Kuwai t
in
all
is
had enj oyed
aspect s
of
aspect s
valid
of
-
-
au t o c r a c y
on t he bas i s
tremendous
life
( 1950- 1965) .
that:
Kuwai t "
firs tly ,
changes and ex per i enc ed
po litica l,
113 -
in
He at t empt ed
economic,
and
(I smael ,
during
a rapid
social.
He
stood
firm ly
modernise
drafting
behi nd
Kuwai t .
pr o gr e ss
Not abl e
o f t he f i r s t
and used a l l
examples
Kuwai t i
of
means a v a i l a b l e
Abdullah's
constitution,
Assembly and t he i n t r o d u c t i o n
of
free
t o devel op and
achievements
were:
t he
t he f o r m a t i o n o f t he N a t i o n a l
electio ns.
In December 1962,
a few
months a f t e r i ndependence, A b d u l l a h c r e a t e d t he f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t commi tt ee
t o d r a f t t he C o n s t i t u t i o n and a f t e r two months t he f i r s t
gener al
were hel d t o choose members o f t he new N a t i on a l Assembly.
d e s i g nat e d
Kuwai t as a h e r e d i t a r y
descendant s o f Mubarak.
and h i s
person
monarchy w i t h
In t he C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
inviolable.
The
Heir
elections
The C o n s t i t u t i o n
successi on
lim ited
t o t he
t he Amir was de c l a r e d immune
Appar ent
would
be
nominated
by
t he
Amir and approved by a si mpl e m a j o r i t y a t t he N a t i on a l Assembly.
He shoul d
be des i g nat e d w i t h i n one y ea r o f t he s uccessi on o f t he new Ami r .
Under t he
Amir's sup ervision,
t he Royal Fami l y was t h o r o u g h l y r e - o r g a n i s e d t o c o n s t i
t u t e a go v er n i ng power w i t h i n t he s o c i a l
structure.
Also,
t he a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n was devel oped and t he Cabi net members s e l e c t ed from w i t h i n t he e l e c t e d
members
of
t he
Na t i o n a l
Assembly.
The members
were gi ven t he r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e
f reedom t o
debate
on any
issue,
of
t he
N a t i on a l
Assembly
i n d r a f t i n g new l e g i s l a t i o n s as w e l l as
regardless
of
whet her
t hey
vot e
for
or
a g a i n s t t he government.
Secondl y,
during
r o l e and t he p o l i t i c a l
newspapers.
p olitical
we l l
strong
Agai n,
Assembly,
press
press
began t o
he
as p a r t
p l ay
a s t r on g
press was e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t he p u b l i c a t i o n o f d a i l y
intellectuals
issues.
Nati onal
t he
p a r t o f t he spectrum f o r most
The Na t i o n a l Assembly and t he p o l i t i c a l
o r d e r t o reach p u b l i c
on t he
regime
The press then became a c r u c i a l
debat es.
as t he
Abdullah's
c on s i d er ed t he press t he
opinion.
r i g h t medium t o use i n
They used t he press t o r e f l e c t t h e i r
as Abd u l l a h was behi nd t he e f f o r t s
was
of
hi s
a s s o c i a t i o n s as
partially
behi nd
ambitions.
Fat he r o f Modern K u w a i t " .
-
114 -
t he
efforts
views
t o e s t a b l i s h t he
to
establish
a
Hence he was gi v en t he name "The
Thirdly,
lished.
during
circle
parties
a
were p r o h i b i t e d ,
accommodating
Youth A s s o c i a t i o n ,
t o be v o i ce d .
its
r egi me,
Youth
Most i n t e l l e c t u a l s and men o f l e t t e r s
where p o l i t i c a l
tural
Abdullah's
political
progressive
i deas
this
and
Association
was
became members.
Association
social
and c a l l s
In Kuwai t ,
p r o v i d ed
activities.
for
estab
po litical
a cul
Inside
change
t he
began
But t he most o u t s t a n d i n g achievement o f t he A s s o c i a t i o n was
a c t i v e r o l e i n f o s t e r i n g t he modern press o f Kuwai t .
THE MERCHANTS
If,
i n terms o f
t op p o s i t i o n
in
t he
power and i n f l u e n c e ,
second p o s i t i o n ,
Si nce t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t
an i m p o r t a n t r o l e
peopl e
of
or
of
pyramid
The
t he
need
for
Ac c or d i n g t o
roots
of
Ce nt r al
t he
Ar a b i a
t he merchant c l a s s comes
until
be f o r e
Kuwai t ,
in
1765,
t he merchant c l a s s has pl ayed
Independence
power between t he Royal
merchants
have
always
tried
to
participation
and
for
f rom
Hewins
Utubs,
t he
i n t he
between
Basra
(1963)
early
16th
settlers
c e n t ur y
while
after
some o f
I r an and o t h e r Arab S t a t e s .
z ar d,
are
of
eliminate
unjust
Fami l y and t o
formation
of
a
t he merchants background goes back t o t he
earliest
especially
1775-1779,
1961.
system i n a modern s t a t e .
who moved i n
when,
Per si an
East Ar abi an t r i b e s
Well
origin.
met
in
it
had
been
When t he
Utubs
from
a
Numbers o f merchants
capt ur ed
them came t o Kuwai t ,
known names,
human waves
as menti oned el sewher e,
severe dr ought h i t t he c e n t r e o f t he Arab Pe n i n s u l a .
came
t he
in
Fami l y and t he
Amirs and members o f t he Royal
political
d e moc r a t i c p o l i t i c a l
Kuwai t ,
did
a m b i t i o n s o f some a u t o c r a t i c
stress
in
occupi es t he
so i t
i n b a l a n c i n g t he
Kuwai t .
t he Sabah's f a m i l y
by
t he
Per s i ans
over a p e r i o d
f rom
such as Bahbahani and Gabaand o t h e r
heads o f
nomadic
Kuwai t and concl uded an agreement t o e s t a b l i s h
Kuwai t , many o f them headed o f f t o t he sea f o r f i s h i n g and p e a r l i n g - d i v i n g ,
others
joined
trade
caravans
on
t he
-
trade
115 -
r ou t e s
f rom
East
Arabia
and
Aleppo on t he S yr i a n coast o f t he Me d i t er r a n e a n ,
division
of
labour
more o r g a n i s e d ,
social
class.
of o i l
in
characteristic
integrated,
of
when
two c e n t u r i e s
and economic
r o l e o f t he mer chant s,
merchants
ground and economic
merchants
such
status.
whose f a m i l y
strength.
as
t he d i s c o v e r y
Al-Saqir,
it
is
It
was f ound,
( Di ck s on,
1987).
status
It
is
status
is
Al - Ghani m,
similar
to
based
Al-Nist,
sector
that
on t h e i r
social
o f t he r ec e n t commercial
i ng t he s t r u c t u r a l
and s o c i a l
of
institutions
(Abu Hakima,
tribal
who have t he
rapid
on t he we a l t h
devel opment
revenues
in
revenues
and
chants.
It
whose we al t h
chants.
began
massi ve
added
led,
which
in
t he
projects
to
was
of
i n t he meantime,
exceeded,
The emergence
in
of
family
and
They are t he g r a n d f a t h e r s
its
i n shap
cont emporary p o l i t i c a l
1965).
accumul ated i n
early
1950s.
devel opment
t he we a l t h
back
power
The second segment compri ses t he merchants who base t h e i r
influence
others.
t he A1-Sabah r u l i n g
scene.
soci ety with
o f ol d
and
group which has p a r t i c i p a t e d e f f e c t i v e l y
f orm o f Ku w a i t i
t he
back
fam ilie s
Al -Shakean
o f merchants
e x e r c i s e i n f l u e n c e on t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
that
i n t o two d i f f e r e n t segments.
These i n c l u d e t he power f ul
this
important
however,
Al ong w i t h them come t he f a m i l i e s whose members cl ai med equal
ground and a s o c i a l
in
c l a s s i n terms o f demographic f o r m a t i o n ,
merchants o f Kuwai t c oul d be e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d
t he
until
East .
t o examine t he s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r
F irst,
sea s e c t o r
and more r e c e p t i v e t o t he dynamics o f f o r mi n g a
To anal yse t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
influence
made t he
t he merchant group became t he w e a l t h i e s t c l a s s
t he r eg i o n o f t he Mi ddl e
political
such a c t i v i t i e s
The sea work ext ended f o r
t he 30s,
The si mpl e na t ur e o f t he
of
t he
t he o i l
er a.
The tremendous
added
a great
traditional
status
and
Kuwait's
use o f
deal
segment o f
to
t he
oil
t hose
mer
t o t he c r e a t i o n o f new we al t h y merchants
many cases,
t he we al t h
new merchants
-
116 -
with
o f t he t r a d i t i o n a l
tremendous
we a l t h
did
mer
not,
however,
cal
q u a l i f y merchants w i t h weak f a m i l y
backgrounds t o pl ay a
p o liti
r o l e w i t h i n t h e i r c l a s s or i n s o c i e t y a t l a r g e commensurate t o t he s i z e
o f t h e i r w e a l t h.
Their p o l i t i c a l
i n f l u e n c e was l i m i t e d
t h a t o f merchants w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
o f cont emporary c l a s s e s ,
tribal
backgrounds,
i n comparison w i t h
or y e t w i t h members
i n c l u d i n g t he n a t i o n a l i s t s o f s t r on g t r i b a l
lines.
But , on t he whol e, t he merchants c o n s t i t u t e one o f t he main s o c i a l
pilla rs,
holding
noticed,
t he
together
efficiency
supportive
t he
of
social
structure
professionalism
factors:
t he
o il.
for
to
devel op
demographic
Secondl y,
East
by
merchants
As Baz
on which
industry
of
relied
tribal
prior
on
Kuwai t
liberal
two
st ood,
policy
and
t o t he d i s c o v e r y
of
which made Kuwai t a t r a d i n g c e n t r e
sea and
made
(1981)
merchants
showed by f o l l o w i n g
factor,
The e f f i c i e n c y
t hose
factor
maritime
t he geogr aphi c
A r ab i a .
introduced
their
Kuwai t .
among Kuwai t i
and t he c l e v e r n e s s and wisdom t hey
low t a r i f f s
of
Kuwai t
land a c t i v i t i e s
a favourable
and s e r v i c e s
location
on
t he
r o u t e f o r t he t r a d i n g caravans between t he Gul f and t he Ar abi an P e n i n s u l a ,
and between Kuwai t and Aleppo i n
to
flourish
and K uwai t i
century.
The
discovery
of o i l ,
Kuwai t i
era
we al t h
social
was f ound.
merchants
ob t ai n e d
to
f r om
t he
b a si s
accumul at e e a r l y
fishing
made t he merchants
formations.
constituted
t he Medi t er r anean and a l s o helped Kuwai t
and
capabl e o f
we a l t h
pearl-diving
participating
i n t he
la st
b e f or e
actively
t he
in
T h e i r e n t e r p r i s e s and advent ur es i n t he p r e - o i l
on whi ch
In t h i s c o n t e x t ,
t he
p o pu l ar
Kuwai t i
pearling
industry
Khoja and S a d l e r , wr o t e :
"The Kuwai t i merchant f a m i l i e s grew up as t r a d i n g d y n a s t i e s ,
c e n t r e d on Kuwai t , but w i t h an i n t r i c a t e net work o f r e l a t i o n
s h i p s , o f t e n based on k i n s h i p , whi ch spanned t he Mi ddl e East and
a g r e a t e r p a r t o f t he I nd i a n Ocean, and i t was t hese merchant
f a m i l i e s which pr o v i d e d t h a t echel on o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
l e a d e r s h i p t o t he c o u n t r y and gave i t t h a t s p e c i a l brand o f
mental a d r o i t n e s s and f i n a n c i a l a s t ut e n e s s which c h a r a c t e r i s e s i t
today."
( Khouj a and S a d l e r , 1979, p . 13)
As t hey
have c o n t r i b u t e d
t o t he
success o f t he economic devel opment ,
t he merchants pl ayed an e f f e c t i v e r o l e i n f o s t e r i n g such p u b l i c s e r v i c e s as
-
117
e d u c a t i on and t he h e a l t h c ar e .
ing
of
s c ho ol s,
tions.
hospitals,
Such a c t i v i t i e s
when t hey
p r o v i d ed
cially
in
t he
Fami l y
in
tests
main
and
t he headquar t er s
lever
1938
for
uprisin gs,
t hey
of
example,
to
pr esent ed
traditional
as
it
for
in
t he
oc c a s i o ns ,
with
t he
Ami r .
The
pal ace
espe
Royal
participation.
a serious
struggle
challenge
between
t he
gr oups.
c h a l l e n g e was not an event t o be f o r g o t t e n
was a l e r t e d ; t he members
and grouped around
t he
Amir
in
of
t he
a confrontation
Royal
with
t he
merchant!
It
Amir had made up hi s mind t o
t he merchants
and e l i m i n a t e
He s t a r t e d
secret
economic
and
political
members o f
t he
wo r k i ng
in
Kuwai t mi ght
jects.
Under t h i s
f rom t he o i l
Royal
undermine
Fami l y
role.
and
their
monopol i se
seemed f rom t he o u t s e t t h a t t he
partners
t he
by
Fam>l-y—were
who were under s u s p i c i o n by t he regi me.
social,
era
a b s o l u t e r u l e r s h i p o f t he Amirs and t he gr owi ng demands by t he
However, t he mer chant s'
called
organisa
t he p r e - o i l
l ocked
constituted
a new marathon
in
aid
politica l
merchants t o share power on b e h a l f o f o t h e r s o c i a l
t he
role
were
The s t r o n g u p r i s i n g
1938,
social
On many
at e s t a b li s h in g
Ami r ,
of
change.
power ai mi ng
t he
of
and
a i d t owar ds t he b u i l d
were consonant w i t h t h e i r
t he
1921
They gave f i n a n c i a l
a
in
contracts
t he
of
t he
war
B ritish
their
so
that
companies
devel opment
pro
s e c r e t war, t he merchants were pr event ed from b e n e f i t i n g
r evenues.
The Amir
used t he
oil
revenues
to
pay t he
money
borrowed by t he government on v a r i o u s occasi ons f rom t he merchants t h e r e b y
r ed u c i ng t h e i r
p o litica l
role.
By 1950,
government debt s t o t he merchants and i n
t he Amir was ab l e t o pay a l l
1951 he decreed t he
t he
lo wer ing
of
t he custom t a r i f f s .
Thi s
socio-political
battle
between t he Amir and t he merchants showed
t h a t t he regime had t he c o n f i d e n c e and c a p a b i l i t y
omy w i t h o u t
nues,
t he mer chant s'
t o make sure t h a t
support.
o f c o n t r o l l i n g t he econ
He t hus wanted t o use t he o i l
t he merchants under st ood t h a t
needed t o bor r ow from them.
In a p o l i t i c a l
-
118 -
reve
t he S t at e no l o n g e r
show o f power, he r ep l a c ed t he
role
t he
of
t he m u n i c i p a l i t y
administration
in
o f which
admin istration
he i n s t r u c t e d
with
that
t he
Development
Board
in
t he merchants were not t o
participate.
This measure a g a i n s t t he merchants made them aware t h a t t h e i r
power was i n
j eop ar dy and t h e i r
were
t he
new r e g u l a t i o n s desi gned
al s o t he p o l i t i c a l
In 1951,
announced w i t h p r i o r i t y
were
p u b l i c wor ks.
to
rebuild
in social
of
on c o n d i t i o n
t he Royal Fami l y .
that
damage t h e i r
threatened.
interests,
Not o n l y
but
so
services,
Kuwai t ,
di d
monopoly which t he members o f t he Royal
for
In t he same y e a r ,
t he c i t y
positio n
exampl e,
t he f i v e yea r
state
pl an was
gi ven t o t he p r o j e c t s o f t he i n f r a s t r u c t u r e .
t he p r o j e c t bei ng 15 y e a r s .
ni es
to
and commercial
Fami l y came t o e n j o y .
projects
commercial
health
and
education,
Some
municipal,
and
t he government r ev e al ed an a m b i t i o u s pl an
with
t he
es t i ma t e d
t i me
for
c omp l e t i on
of
The whole c o n t r a c t was gi ven t o B r i t i s h compa
t he companies pay t o
Johnst on noted
commission t o
t he members o f
that:
"The e n t i r e 15 y e a r devel opment pl an was ap p o r t i on e d out among
fiv e B r it is h firms.
The government d i d not c a r r y out p r e l i m i n a r y
c o s t sur v ey s, di d not c a l l f o r t en d e r and s uppl y awarded con
t r a c t s on a c o s t - p l u s b a s i s . . .
no a n t i - i n f l a t i o n a r y pr e c a u
t i o n s were t a k e n , l a b o u r and m a t e r i a l s cos t s r o c k e t e d , much o f
t he f i n i s h e d work was o f i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y , and t he r u l e r ' s rage
o v e r f l ow e d when t he t i me came t o pay t he p r i c e s . . . "
( Joh nst on , 1957, p . 54)
The t i me f a c t o r i n d i c a t e d
t he
c amel ' s
F ami l y ,
back.
When
t he
by Johnst on above was t he st r aw which broke
corruption
among
t he
members
i n charge o f t he new a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was uncover ed,
of
it
t he
Royal
r ev e al ed t he
l a c k o f competence
among members o f t he Cabi net and t he slow down i n maj or
projects
hi gh
with
t he
c os t
of co ntra ct s.
The
whole
count ry
was thrown
i n t o an economic c r i s i s and t he S t at e was sei zed i n a severe d e p r e s s i o n .
1953,
By
t he Amir and t he regime were t h r ea t en e d when " t he r i c h e s t man i n t he
wo r l d wanted t o r e s i g n "
(Crystal,
1986, p . 164).
The Amir had t o make hard
decisions,
e s p e c i a l l y as r egar ds t he suspensi on o f a l l
except f o r
t hose o f maj or
i mp o r t a n c e ,
-
such as t he
119 -
devel opment p r o j e c t s
power
plant
and h e a l t h
services.
He or der ed
t he
reorganisation
their
post s t hose w i t h
sis.
The Amir e s t a b l i s h e d
d e s i r e d r ef o r ms .
neutral
direct
of
t he
High
t he
government,
relieving
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Ex e c u t i v e
Committee
for
of
t he c r i
t o c a r r y ou t t he
The members were chosen p a r t l y from among t he capabl e and
shai khs and h i g h l y exp er i ence d K u w a i t i s w i t h economic and p o l i t i c a l
backgrounds.
mittee
Supported by t he Ami r ,
was t o
relieve
two Shaikhs
an
unexpected
move,
t he
firs t
of t h e i r
p o wer f ul Shai kh, and Fahd A1- Sal i m,
In
t he
decision
post s
t aken by t he Com
- Ab d u l l a h Mubarak,
t he
t he b r o t h e r o f t he Ami r.
Amir
made hi s
second
important
decision
when he c a l l e d t he merchants t o n e g o t i a t e a pat ch up d e a l , a l l o w i n g them t o
gai n back p a r t o f t he power t he y had l o s t .
The Amir was t hus ab l e t o have
t he new l oans which he needed t o overcome t he S t a t e ' s economic d e p r e s s i o n .
These deal s a l s o i n c l u d e d an o f f e r f rom t he Amir t o guar ant ee t he merchants
a pr oper
share o f t he o i l
revenues which had h i t h e r t o
Under t hese terms t he Amir was t o g i v e a l l
o f f e r i n g them a monopoly o f a l l
never reached them.
hi s sup po r t t o t he merchants by
maj or d e a l e r s h i p s
i n Kuwai t .
Fur t he r mo r e,
he gave them a guar ant ee t o pr e s er v e t he p r i v a t e s e c t o r f rom any government
restrictions,
n i ng ,
on f r e e e n t e r p r i s e ,
promise
nies,
p r o m i s i n g t h a t f r e e t r a d i n g which was based,
would c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t change.
and abandoned most
of
original
contracts
The Amir kept hi s
with
B ritish
compa
and p r o h i b i t e d them f rom s u b m i t t i n g any t en der s be f o r e s i x months had
el apsed on ongoi ng p r o j e c t s
mer chant s.
t hus
t he
from t he b e g i n
both
The merchants
t he Amir
and c o - o p e r a t i o n .
so as t o ease t he t i me f a c t o r on b e h a l f o f t he
found
t he A m i r ' s
pr o po s al s
of
mutual
and t he merchants began a new a l l i a n c e
Though
he had b e f or e
t he
deal
been
interest;
based on t r u s t
harsh
on t he
mer
c ha nt s, Amir A bd ul l ah was known t o t he merchants as a man o f h i s word. They
had kept
faith
de mo n s t r a t i on s
positio n
as
t he
in
him s i n c e
demanding
man
in
t he
t he
uprisin g
M ajlis.
charge
of
-
t he
120 -
At
of
1938 when t hey
that
Fi n a n c i ng
time,
went
regardless
Department ,
he
out
in
of
hi s
had
t he
courage t o p r o t e s t i n f a v o u r o f t he mer chant s'
f o l l o w i n g t he economic c r i s i s ,
social
decisions.
structure
demands.
In t he t h r e e y ear s
Amir Abd u l l a h showed wisdom i n hi s economic
Development was t hus on t r a c k once agai n and t he
had a c c o r d i n g l y
been under goi ng marked changes.
Work on
government p r o j e c t s once agai n passed i n t o t he hands o f merchants employed
by l o c a l
firms.
The merchants new deal
i n v e s t me n t i n t r a d e ,
on t he o t h e r
hand,
restricted
its
in
led t o
t he
in
trade,
huge c a p i t a l
The government,
leaving
it
The Amir opposed members o f hi s f a m i l y ,
i n g any i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t r a d e
corruption
t he Amir
c o n s t r u c t i o n and t he p u b l i c s e r v i c e s .
s i v e l y t o t he mer chants.
of
with
activities,
adm in istratio n.
and he vowed t o
Such
policy
Chamber o f Commerce and t he Co o p e r a t i v e Board,
was
and
not
exclu
prevent
st op t he r e t u r n
reflected
in
t he
one member o f
t he
Royal Fami l y was al l owed t o s i t on e i t h e r c o u n c i l .
The p o pu l ar
merchant
families,
nomic power,
and soon t hey began t o
and e x t e r n a l
affairs
o f Kuwai t .
economic and i n t e r - c l a s s
their
class,
therefore,
began t o r eg a i n t h e i r
pl ay a p o l i t i c a l
relations,
desert,
la rly,
i.e.
and
ties
t he
had dominated r e l a t i o n s
inter-marriage
merchants
was t he
used
i n t he
relationship
t ha t of p o l i t i c a l
pre-oil
era,
rent
richer
social,
parties
and modernised
Back i n h i s t o r y ,
tribal
between t he t r i b e s
o f t he
si gn
t he
old
of
traditional
Di wani ah,
r e g u l a r male g a t h e r i n g s
and
their
conciliation.
members o f Ku w a i t i
i n t he f r e e w o r l d .
unintentionally
economic
of
became meeti ngs f o r
political
life s ty le ,
issues.
t he
- 121 -
on
by i n c r e a s i n g t he number
p l ay s an i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l
between c e r t a i n
and f e a t u r e d
nent c i t i z e n s ,
accept ed
an aspect
t he Di wani ah, which s t i l l
in ternal
when t he Amir had imposed i s o l a t i o n
o f mar r i age s between members o f merchant f a m i l i e s .
conflict
i n t he
L e ar n i ng f rom t h e i r e a r l i e r ex p e r i en c e i n
t hey began t o s t r e n g t he n s o c i a l
wars and s o c i a l
role
eco
As
way o f
society
life ,
role
similar
to
e s t a b l i s h e d i n t he
i n t he
houses o f p r o m i
t he d i s c u s s i o n
Kuwai t i
Di waniah
Simi
of
cur
merchants
grew
changed f rom a stage
where merchants met t o t r a d e or
debate on c u r r e n t
affairs.
pl an f i s h i n g
Thi s
change was
or p e a r l i n g e x p e d i t i o n s t o a
r eco gn i sed
by
Farah
when
he
wr o t e :
A Di waniah t oday w i l l tend t o embrace members o f s i m i l a r s o c i a l
standing,
r e l i g i o n , even age. Thus a man cannot r e a l l y choose t o
'join' a
Di wani ah; he i s born i n t o one.
A group o f f r i e n d s from
s i m i l a r backgrounds may, a t t h e i r coming o f age, j o i n an e x i s t i n g
Di waniah o f o l d e r men or t he y may f orm t h e i r own.
One can be
i n v i t e d t o a Di wani ah, or e v e n t u a l l y become p a r t o f i t , but
s u b t l e and l ong s t an d i n g t i e s among t he members g e n e r a l l y c h a r
a c t e r i s e Di waniah . . . C e r t a i n s u b j e c t s are t aboo, w h i l e o t he r s
are approached i n p r e s c r i b e d ways.
P o l i t i c s i s not t aboo.
Above
a l l , a Di waniah i s where w e a l t h , c o n ne c t i on s or i n f l u e n c e become
t a n g i b l e or are f e l t .
. .
The members o f a Di waniah f orm a
society
which oper a t e s f o r t h e i r
c ollective benefit.
Here,
appoi nt ment s are de c i d ed, c o n t r a c t s s e t t l e d , i n t r o d u c t i o n s made,
j obs awarded . . .
(Far ah, 1979, p . 51)
Since t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t
t he
Di waniah
rai se issues.
reactions
Assembly.
to
has
i n c r ea s ed
o f t he N a t i o n a l
and i t
social
role
of
politicians
to
Both MPs and members o f t he Cabi net use t he Di waniah t o t e s t
their
points
of
vi ew
b e f or e
discussion
reaches t he
N a t i on a l
Sometimes t he r o l e o f t he Di waniah becomes even more i m p o r t a n t ,
N a t i o n a l Assembly.
r ep l a c ed
Ami r .
t he
has become a forum f o r
e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t i mes o f p o l i t i c a l
ally
Assembly,
For exampl e,
t he
Na t i o n a l
The Di waniah
t hus
crisis
such as t he d i s s o l u t i o n o f t he
between 1976 and 1981, t he Di waniah v i r t u
Assembly
became
after
a social
it
and
had
been
po litical
dissolved
platform
by t he
used
by
v ar i o u s groups t o t e s t t h e i r s t r e n g t h and t he power o f t h e i r opponent s.
THE EMERGENT POWER: THE NATIONALISTS
By
strength
t he
emergent
power
I
o u t s i d e t he p o l i t i c a l
mean
t he
t he
press
and
increasing
elite
debate i n t he N a t i on a l
bers are t he pr o du c t o f b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n ,
of
new K uwai t i
Arab
122 -
Assembly.
r a p i d economic gr owt h,
nationalism
n o n- Ku wai ti Arabs.
that
amongst
bot h
gat her ed
Its
mem
t he power
Kuwaitis
and
The power o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
f rom t h a t
of
t he
other
three
chant s and t he Bedouins.
differed
social
Hal pern
i n both s t r u c t u r e and i d e o l o g y
gr oups;
( 1970),
t he
ruling
f o r example,
family,
t he
mer
found t he n a t i o n a l
i s t s t o be a het erogeneous group w i t h members o r i g i n a t i n g f rom a v a r i e t y o f
social
and economic s t r a t a .
radical
sity
po litical
ideology,
professors,
media,
writers,
hi gh
It
p r o f e s s i o n a l s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s
school
l a wy e r s ,
teachers,
d o c t or s
c o n s t i t u t e what t he Arabs c a l l
In Kuwai t i
i n c l u d e d t he sons o f merchants who adopted
and many c i v i l
i n t he p r i v a t e l y
servants.
owned
Toget her
t hey
t he gr owi ng mi ddl e c l a s s .
socio-political
t he val ues o f t he
journalists
such as u n i v e r
t er ms , t he members o f t he Royal Fami l y hol d
sovereignty
which t hey
inherited
f rom t he
18th c e n t u r y ,
and a l o n g s i d e them t he merchants hol d t he val ues o f t r a d e and a d v en t u r e. At
t he
other
end
of
t he
social
val ues o f t he Ar abi an d e s e r t ,
spect rum,
t he
Bedouin
hol d
t he
traditional
w h i l e t he members o f t he emergent power share
t he d e s i r e t o b u i l d a new ref or med s t a t e based on a de moc r a t i c system, w i t h
f r e e e l e c t i o n s and equal
access t o o i l
wealth.
The r en ai s s ance o f Kuwai t i n t he 1950s and 1960s i n c r ea sed t he l i b e r a l
circles
of
ac hi eve
radical
r e f or ms ,
liberal
t hey
nationalists
changes.
also
who
Thus,
called
for
were
besi des
t he
acting
f rom
their
demands
formation
of
t he
b e g i nn i ng
for
po litical
political
parties,
r e c r u i t m e n t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o post s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r s o c i a l
to
t he
background
and t hey c a l l e d f o r a gui ded and pl anned economic system i n which t he o i l
revenues are e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d
rich
and poor.
Kuwaitis.
The
They a l s o
settle d
growth
in
of
demanded j u s t i c e ,
nationalists'
Sim ilar to t h e ir
among t he members o f Kuwai t i
power
began
to
equality
build
impact on t he Bedouin whose l i v e s
remote
villages,
new s o c i a l
classes,
t he
oil
one
-
of
123
revenues
which
and freedom f o r
up e a r l y
in
t he
all
1950s.
were changed when t hey
helped
was
s o c i e t y bot h
t he
to
fa cilita te
nationalists.
t he
The
growt h
of
dent s
ed u c a t i on
in
Kuwai t ,
who won s c h o l a r s h i p s
i ncrease
of
movement,
was obvi ous
that
A second
Arab
and
highly
earlier,
increasing
educated
flourished
consequent l y
citizens.
stu
t o t he
The n a t i o n a l i s t
among educated K u w a i t i s
and
t h e r e were f rom t he u n i v e r s i t i e s ,
it
t he
i n t he movement.
source
of
power
when t he government
for
t he
movement came f rom abroad
began growt h pl ans
which needed tens o f t housands o f s k i l l e d
countries,
number o f Kuwai t i
u n i v e r s i t i e s l ed
t he more gr aduat es
more p a r t i c i p a n t s
'fiftie s
to
intellectuals
as i n d i c a t e d
and t he
besi des
hundreds
of
in
services
i n t he
and u t i l i t i e s
l a b o u r er s f rom Arab and non-Arab
t housands
of
no n- s ki l i e d
labourers.
The
s k i l l e d j obs were mos t l y occupi ed by Arab mi g r a n t s t o Kuwai t w i t h educated
Kuwaitis
occupyi ng t he manager i al
good a l l i a n c e w i t h t he Ku w a i ti
post s.
The no n- Ku wai t i
nationalists.
They,
on t he o t h e r hand,
more energy i n t o t he n a t i o n a l i s t movement and f o r t h i s
socio-political
political
growth
elite
in
began
to
becoming t he c e n t r e f o r
te ris tic
in
t he
gr oups.
The
shoul d
show
nationalist
nationalists
be r u l e d .
state,
calls
main goal s were t o f i n d
t hey
t he
t he
d r am a t i c
for
is
r eason,
structure
changes,
socio-political
movement
had
social
with
of
t he
r e f o r ms .
t he d i f f e r e n c e
no s e l f - i n t e r e s t
Arabs f ounded a
or
besi des t he
t he
social
call
for
life
t hemsel ves
ambit ions
Arab
was
A main c h a r ac
f rom o t h e r
class
unity
call
scene
in
t he
based
their
unity
50s
for
mo d e r n i z a t i o n
Arab
in te gra tion in
because
it
t he p r o d u c t
and
and
social
and
unusual
in te lle ctu a lly
for
social
demands. T h e i r
t he means t o r e f o r m t he c o u n t r y and ways i n which
Their
not
Kuwai t i
nationalists
and j u s t i c e
t he f a c t t h a t t hey were t hemsel ves a p r o du c t o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n .
their
put
60s.
o f t he
modernization
It
reputation
coul d
on
-
t he
fact
be concl uded
t he
that
t hey
and
are
Arabs whose
pan-Arab
that
outstanding
Similarly,
politics
new i n t e l l e c t u a l
dominated
their
124
reflects
economy,
reflects
p o litica l
t he
nationalists
social
achi evements
which more or l e s s emphasized p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s
i n Kuwai t ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he
movement' s s e l f g a i n s.
The a v a i l a b l e
literature,
about t he p o l i t i c a l
believes
call
that
t he
for radical
d e moc r a t i c
cia lly
story
o f t he
socio-political
t he N a t i on a l
for
all
lis t
of national
in
introduces
For example,
Kazzi ha
whose demands f ocused on t he
reformation,
i s t he s t o r y o f t he p o l i t i c a l
and
its
po litica l
Kazzi ha b e l i e v e s ,
t he d e l e g a t i o n
po litical
s t r o n g evi dence
nationalists,
Kuwai t
Assembly.
1955,
t one
lim ited,
r o l e o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t movement.
achi evements
i n g t he Amir i n
though
r e f or m s .
institutions,
espe
moreover t h a t a f t e r
meet
headed by Dr. Ahmed A l - K a t i b s et t he
The d e l e g a t i o n
s ub mi t t e d
demands which were c a l l e d p e t i t i o n s .
to
t he
Amir
a
"The advocates were
t o e s t a b l i s h a de moc r a t i c s t a t e w i t h a de moc r a t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n and i n s t i t u
t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e assembl y"
at
that
Kuwai t
t i me
f rom
that
t hese
within
and
( Kaz zi ha ,
revolu tionary
not
f r om
1975, p . 34) .
groups were
without.
In
The assumpt ion was
set
other
on r e v o l u t i o n i s i n g
words,
to
keep
t he
monarchi c system and l e t t he changes g r a d u a l l y a f f e c t t he s t r u c t u r e o f t he
system t hr ou gh t he e v o l u t i o n a r y pr ocess .
Si nce t he N a t i on a l
Assembly was e s t a b l i s h e d
have never had t he m a j o r i t y
o f MPs.
Rat her ,
shared by t he merchants and t he Bedoui ns.
t he r ub be r stamp f o r t he government ,
needed
for
i g no r anc e
p o litica l
of
t he
debat es.
a l l owed t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
in itia tiv e
were out spoken w i t h
t oo k
pl ac e
and
in
by t he
mi n i mi z e d.
t he
But ,
has al ways
lack
of
debates
p o litica l
among
t he
ex p er i enc e
MPs
of
clear
views
in
Though a m i n o r i t y ,
as dangerous
t hey
-
and
t he
groups
t o t ak e t he
t he n a t i o n a l
t he debates and d i s c u s s i o n s which
Assembly.
al t h o u g h
been
though
other
(who were on t he whole i n t e l l e c t u a l s )
Nati onal
government
status
The MPs o f t h i s m a j o r i t y ,
i n d i s c u s s i o n s on many i s s u e s .
ists
viewed
of
that
t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
l acked t he dynamism and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
The
t ech n i q u e s
i n 1962,
Formally,
t he
nationalists
were
opponents who had t o be c o n f r o n t ed
were
125 -
t he
subject
of
many
political
measures,
such as d i s s o l v i n g t he Assembly,
one o c c a s i o n ,
to attack
imposi ng c e n s o r s h i p on more than
and en c our agi ng m i n o r i t i e s ,
them i n
t he Assembly,
t he
such as t he Bedouin and S h i ' i t es
government was o c c a s i o n a l l y f o r c e d t o
y i e l d t o t h e i r demands as f a r as t hese r e f l e c t e d t he demands o f t he p u b l i c
and o r d i n a r y K u w a i t i s .
The c o n s t i t u t i o n o f Kuwai t does not e x p l i c i t l y
po litica l
parties.
The government w i t h
its
tacit
f o r b i d t he f o r m a t i o n o f
means has pr event ed any
i n t e n t i o n by d i f f e r e n t groups t o e s t a b l i s h p a r t i e s ,
be or g an i zed w i t h o u t
a s t r on g
for
a b ility
example,
beliefs
tive
in
legal
decla ration.
t o o r ga n i z e t h e i r
f or mi n g
certain
and same p o l i t i c a l
po litical
campaigns t o
The n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
political
political
vi ews.
a l l o w i n g on l y groups t o
however,
activities.
groups
who
They succeeded,
shared
promote
their
i d ea s .
t o encourage them t o champion them i n p u b l i c .
t he
' mi d d l e c l a s s '
t o pr ess f o r
t he r i g h t t o form p o l i t i c a l
ment
for
economic
women,
and
for
social
parties,
more r i g h t s
policies
suppor t ed Arab u n i t y ,
t he
same
They were a l s o ab l e t o o r g a n i z e e f f e c
At
t he
same t i me ,
were abl e t o o r g a n i z e s y mpa t h et i c a l l i a n c e s w i t h o t h e r p o l i t i c a l
within
showed
(Baz,
more p o l i t i c a l
Arab workers
1981).
In
closer id e n t i f i c a t io n
groups and
They m o b i l i z e d many K u w a i t i s
libera lisation,
f o r more women's r i g h t s ,
for
t hey
and f o r
t he
for
bette r t r e a t
more e f f i c i e n t
pan-Arab
issues,
t hey
w i t h Arab s t a t e s and u n l i m i t e d
s up po r t f o r t he P a l e s t i n i a n cause.
Dur i ng t he f i r s t
in
t he
race
for
ever e l e c t i o n s i n 1962, t he n a t i o n a l i s t s p a r t i c i p a t e d
membership o f
t he Na t i o n a l
Assembly.
They wanted t o use
p a r l i a m e n t as a p l a t f o r m f r om which more K u w a i t i s coul d hear t h e i r demands
vi ews.
In
spite
o f t he
lim ited
Assembly (which had not exceeded 12 MPs),
their p o litica l
making had exceeded t h a t o f t he m a j o r i t i e s ,
exampl e,
in
1963,
an Arab Federal
number o f t h e i r
t he
nationalist
-
r ol e in decision
i n c l u d i n g t he government.
d u r i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h Egypt ,
State,
MPs i n t he
S y r i a and I r aq t o c r e a t e
MPs succeeded i n m o b i l i s i n g
126 -
For
behi nd
them t h e i r opponent MPs t o s i gn a memorandum c a l l i n g upon t he government t o
j o i n t he t h r e e Arab n a t i o n s and p a r t i c i p a t e
i n any agreement.
The go v er n
ment r e p l i e d p o s i t i v e l y by e x p r es s i n g t h e i r s uppor t f o r any Arab u n i t y ,
asked f o r enough t i me t o see t he f i n a l
(Ibid).
t he
Shortly
Syrian
arrangements among t he t h r e e s t a t e s
be f o r e t he d i s s o l u t i o n
nationalists
l ed
intervention
t he
in
Assembly
but
o f t he N a t i on a l
to
pass
Lebanon and c a l l i n g
a
Assembly i n
resolu tion
for
t he
1976,
condemning
government
to
t he
cut
off
financial
aid to Syria.
The press p r o v i d e d a s t r on g a l l y f o r t he n a t i o n a l
ists;
suppor t ed
Na t i o n a l
it
Sy r i a n
t he
aggr es s i venes s
P a l e s t i n i a n camps.
against
Assembly
t he
by
increasing
citizens
Such harsh c r i t i c i s m
of
its
Lebanon
and
criticism
of
against
t he
o f t he S y r i a ns was t he s t r aw t h a t
broke t he camel ' s back; t he government had a l r e a d y been upset by t he c r i t i
cism a g a i n s t t he Amir
and Ca b i n e t .
o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t t he S y r i a n s
disputants
i n Lebanon.
The argument
had hi nder ed i t s
In f a c t ,
it
was t h i s
was t h a t
t he Assembl y' s
a t t emp t s t o medi ate amongst
whole s o r r y a f f a i r
which
led
t o t he d i s s o l u t i o n o f t he Assembly.
I mmedi at el y
launched
a
restoration
after
t he
Assembly
strong
campaign
of
parliament.
Constitution
t he
to
force
t he
in
t he
was
press
dissolved,
and
t he
el sewher e
nationalists
calling
for
t he
They used t he power o f t he press and t he
government
to
restore
de moc r a t i c
life .
There
were numerous e d i t o r i a l s and i n t e r v i e w s , w i t h some n o t ab l e K u w a i t i s c a l l i n g
for
electio ns.
about
The i n t e r v i e w s ,
a discussion
restoring
f or mer
t he
MPs
of
t he
best
parliamentary
signed
for
example,
methods
system.
of
By t he
were
so geared
revising
a l ong memorandum and pr esent ed
Shaikh J a b i r
A1-Ahmed p r o t e s t i n g
restoration
Assembly
demanding
t he
Nati onal
Assembly.
t he
gave i n s t r u c t i o n s
Amir
After
and
t he
for
it
i mmediate
to
bring
Constitution
and
in
t he
same t o k e n ,
ent /Pr ime M i n i s t e r ,
of
t he
as
to
May
t he
1979
Heir
Appar
a g a i n s t any del ay
elections
memorandum was s ubmi t t ed
in
for
February
in
a new
1980,
a commi tt ee o f 35 members t o be s et up t o
-
127 -
revise
t he
Finally
in
Constitutio n.
August
of
Within
t he
six
same y e a r ,
months,
their
task
was
finished.
t he Amir i ssued a decree c a l l i n g
for
new e l e c t i o n s which t ook p l ace i n Febr uar y 1981.
THE BEDOUIN
The
c l a s s es
Bedouin
in
class
Kuwai t .
is
con s i d er ed
Having
been
Bedouin became t he weakest s o c i a l
Kuwai t .
The t r i b e s
o f Kuwai t ,
T h e i r cousi ns have spread a l l
that
t he
t he
all
social
group
in
however,
have r e l a t i v e s
same p o p u l a r
and
deep-ingrained
and
political
t he
customs
deterioration
Fur t he r mo r e,
t he
mass
of
of
media
pl ans t o modernise t he nomads.
de finite ly
t he
t he
have
Bedouin
cr ea t e d
v al ues and manners.
to desert
media
of
life ,
way
traditions
have
nomadic l i f e
by emerging moder ni z a
undermined t he
of
life .
and
effectively
For exampl e,
life .
owning c ar s .
in
t he
t hanks t o t he o i l
salaries
They
came t o
customs
fostered
of
t he
t he
gover nment ' s
and
The t r a d i t i o n a l
Television
accept ance
of
t he
new
and s t r on g t i e s
cheap or f r e e housi ng and mass
t o t he above f a c t o r s ,
mot ivated
new
desert.
t he t e l e v i s i o n and r a d i o have
Bedouin
In a d d i t i o n
enj oy
t he
t o l e r a n c e o f new ways and o f l i f e
r evenues,
and money,
power f ul
Socially,
Hence t he weakening o f t he t r a d i t i o n s
( S a e e d - Su b a i h i , 1979).
employment,
urban
admiration
such
spread o f ed u c a t i on among t he Bedouin
pl ayed a p a r t i n t he Bedoui ns'
radio
including
names o f t r i b e s
i n urban houses among a younger and f or wa r d l o o k i n g g e n e r a t i o n .
and
t he
Gulf s t a t e s .
h a l t ed
changes
growt h o f urban devel opment and t he
spur r ed
Arabia,
Rashadiah, Sharma, and many o t h e r s who had
In t he l a s t t wen t y y e a r s ,
Soci o- economi c
in a ll
social
over t he e a s t er n c oast o f t he G u l f so much so
o f t he Bedouin has been weakened and al most
tion.
t he
group i n most modern s o c i e t i e s ,
as Ajman, Anzah, Awazem, M u t a i r ,
i n Kuwai t .
among
firs t
one mi ght everywhere enc ou nt er t he
settle d
weakest
shopping
t he
Bedouin
habits
and
to
t he
settle
admired
norms
to
an
most l y
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he Bedouin and t he best
- 128 -
means
of
desert
transportation,
r ep l a c ed by t he c a r ,
The o i l
t he
camel,
became
weak
and
was
later
t he symbol o f c i t y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
revenues were o b v i o u s l y
government p r o j e c t s changi ng t r i b a l
t he
main source
nomadic l i f e
o f money t o
finance
t o modern s e t t l e m e n t s .
The
Ar abi an G u l f s t a t e s l aunched a l o n g - t e r m p o l i c y t o encourage t he Bedouin t o
adopt an urban way o f l i f e .
wo r k i ng cadr es,
They al l owed them t o merge w i t h
expecting t h a t
r e l a t i o n s w i t h t he urban l i f e
life .
Traditionally
work
however,
was
undermined
agreed t o t i g h t e n
such a merger would i n c r e a s e t he Bedoui ns'
and decrease t he t i e s between them and d e s e r t
t r i be s man would be damaged i f
cash,
a
di s h o n o u r
to
Bedoui ns;
all
such
traditions.
The
pl an s .
weak
status
Governments
of
a
work.
Oi l
t he
Gulf
in
documents and t o t oughen t he pr ocedur es
The bor der s were t hus t i g h t l y
nomads. Such measures seem t o have been s u c c e s s f u l
travelling,
t he
he were t o under t ake any p h y s i c a l
checks on t r a v e l
f o r depar tur e v i sa s .
t he e x i s t i n g
guarded i n t he f ac e o f
i n c u r b i n g t he Bedoui ns'
e s p e c i a l l y i n Kuwai t .
Bedouin
of
Kuwai t
The p o l i t i c a l
positio n
of
were
debates
further
gener at ed
t he government
have
promoted
in
t he
led,
beyond
N a t i on a l
as a l r e a d y
any
settlement
Assembly and t he
pointed
out,
to
a
power c o n f l i c t between t he government , t he mer chant s, and t he n a t i o n a l i s t s .
In
t he
elections
Na t i o n a l
Assembly
Bedoui ns,
in
o f 1975,
spur r ed
spite
of
t he
it
their
to
gover nment ' s c r i t i c a l
l ook
large
for
a new a l l i a n c e .
were s o c i a l l y weak and had no p o l i t i c a l
have
al ways,
head
of
all
respectful
tribes.
power o f t he t r i b e s ,
heads
of
t hose
all
tribes
to
be
loyal,
t he
society.
ob e d i e n t
They
t he
and
E a r l y i n t he c e n t u r y , t he Sabahs, a n t i c i p a t i n g t he
had pl anned t o
tribes.
r o l e i n K uwai t i
t he
unsettled
any Amir f rom t he A1-Sabah f a m i l y as
They expect ed
t o t he Ami r .
in
Meanwhile
numbers and because o f t h e i r
life ,
however, con s i d er ed
positio n
They
s t r e n g t he n t h e i r
contracted
sev er al
daught er s t o ensure new a l l i a n c e s w i t h t he t r i b e s
-
129 -
family
ties
mar r i ages
with
( Di c k son,
1972).
with
t he
Bedoui ns'
Bef or e t he e l e c t i o n
t o weaken t he p o s i t i o n
o f t he Assembly,
of i t s
in
idea
of
a politica l
alliance
t he e l e c t i o n s f o r t he Na t i o n a l
t he
government
policy
in
f a v o u r o f t he p o s i t i o n
return,
tion,
It
and s t r o n g l y
Assembly.
t he
found t he Bedouin r e c e p t i v e
d e s i r ou s
The deal
Nati onal
to p a rtic ip a te
in
was f o r them t o s uppor t
Assembly and g i v e
i t t ook on v a r i o u s i s s u e s .
to
their
vot es
in
The government woul d,
in
s t a r t s e r v i c e s and devel opment programmes a l l o w i n g them more educa
health
before.
services,
F ur t her mor e,
t o vot e by r e l a x i n g
Kuwai t i
employment
t he
laws o f
naturalization
By t hese measures,
Henc ef or t h
w i t h t he government.
structure.
t he
politica l
life ,
Bedouin
T h e i r power,
Their
d e c l a r ed t he d i s s o l u t i o n
that
t he
and
housi ng
t he
t he r e by
than
ever
Bedouin
but
also
hastened t h e i r w i t h d r a wa l
not
on l y
that
t hey
power
di d not leave any
r o l e faded a f t e r
o f t he N a t i o n a l
who f o r
won 10 seat s
became a p o l i t i c a l
however,
political
g r a n t i n g them f u l l
Bedouins,
i n t he d e s e r t h e r d i ng camels and goat s ,
electio ns.
however,
opportunitie s
t he government al l owed t he Bedouin t o c l a i m t he r i g h t
citizenship.
had l i v e d
social
t he government deci ded
opponent s, usi ng t he Bedouin as a b u f f e r zone
between t he regime and t hose opponent s.
t he
1975,
c oul d
were
not
mani pul at ed
by
in
new
alliance
when t he Amir
1976.
influence
i n t he
impact on t he
a year,
Assembly i n
centuries
It
was argued,
t he
a
social
system
and
which
f rom t he d e s e r t t o urban s e t t l e m e n t s .
TRANSFORMATION OF KUWAIT'S PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM TO INSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
A f t e r s i x t y - t w o y ear s o f B r i t i s h o c c u p a t i o n ,
dent
state
oc c a s i o n ,
t he
on 19th
June
Iraqis
t he B r i t i s h
under
But w h i l e
t he
nation
was
celebrating
t he
t he a s t o n i s h i n g news came t hr ou gh f rom t he n o r t h e r n bor der s t h a t
had
made
i n t e nd ed t o annexe.
were
1961.
Kuwai t became an i n de pen
a
to
t he
new
T h e i r evi dence was
signed t h e i r
pr e s sur e
claim
to
i ndependent
t h a t i t had been p a r t
agreement w i t h Kuwai t i n
act
sw iftly
-
130 -
state
1899.
and form a
t hey
of Iraq u n t i l
Kuwai t i
new
which
state
officia ls
with
its
constitutional
i n at ed
t he Mi ddl e East
in
institutions.
t he
need t o
1960s,
ism,
exacer bat ed t he
ture
t o a modern s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
system t o
need f o r
change was paramount,
t he
r ef or ms
regime
which
from
Kuwai t
system.
a different
Iraq
liberal
The I r a q i
in ternal
to
hasten
p o litica l
after
external
exp er i ence d
f rom
i n t he e a r l y
policy.
The
pr e s sur e e x e r t e d
in te rnal
independence
struc
c l a i m f o r c e d t he p a t
and
t he
dom
pan-Arab n a t i o n a l
so as t o ease t he e x t e r n a l
and
needed
t h r e a t which t he K u w a i t i s
including
change which
change Kuwai t f rom a t r i b a l
riarchal
upon
adopt
The wind o f
socio-political
t he
British.
days o f t h e i r
The
i n de pen
dence was not t he o n l y c h a l l e n g e t hey f ac e d.
The i n t e r n a l
regime
which
of
C a i r o,
Baghdad and Lebanese u n i v e r s i t i e s was anot he r f a c t o r c o n f r o n t i n g t he
regi me.
had
i n c r ea sed
with
t he
growt h
At t h a t t i me t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
e x p r es s i ng
their
wi sh
to
pr e s sur e on t he
nationalist
gr aduat es
of
had r a i s e d many demands t o t he Amir
participate
in
Kuwait's
internal
affairs.
The
gr aduat es t hus wi shed t o t ak e p a r t i n t he d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f t he p o l i t i c a l
system by f o s t e r i n g s o c i a l
social
life
ascertain
of
t he
pan-Arab
which was and s t i l l
peopl e
and economic devel opment , mod er n i zi n g t he e n t i r e
and
integration
by
participating
as t he
only
in
t he
pat h t o
Arab
establish
i s t he main i s s u e i n t he p o l i t i c a l
di al ogu e
Arab
and n a t i o n a l
to
unity,
circles
i n Kuwai t .
In r e a c t i o n t o a l l
ment deci ded t o f o l l o w
t hese c h a l l e n g e s ,
a rapid
f o r e i g n and do mes t i c , t he go v er n
transformation
of
t he
po litical
system i n
which t he A1-Sabah f a m i l y would keep i t s dynast y and oversee t he t r a n s i t i o n
o f t he
state.
replace i t
Thus t he d e c i s i o n was t o end t he o l d
patriarchal
rule
and
w i t h a de moc r a t i c p a r l i a m e n t a r y monarchy s i m i l a r t o t he B r i t i s h
system,
and
Ku w a i t i
Royal
other
democracies
F ami l y ,
even more p o l i t i c a l
in
especially
power.
Europe,
t he
The Ami r ,
with
sov e r ei gn
t he
or
in p a r t i c u l a r ,
131
difference
t he
Ami r ,
that
would
t he
enj oy
was e x t r e me l y eager t o
put
i mmediate
state.
political
pl ans
on
t he
move
so
as
to
establish
a modern
He was occupi ed by t he newly r i s i n g e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l
po litical
factors.
THE EXTERNAL FACTOR
The t h r e a t
f rom
Iraq
t o annexe Kuwai t came w i t h i n
d e c l a r a t i o n o f t he
i ndependence o f t he
after
recognition
t he
c l a i ms
British
by
Iraq
b e g i nn i ng
it
consulting
Kuwai t ,
put
was
t he
not
other
of
Kuwai t
legitimacy
clear
Arab
if
of
Iraq
states.
new s t a t e ,
as
t he
B ritish
of
which
s t a t e was i l l e g a l .
threat,
Arab
had
issue.
been
At
or
t he
without
suppor t ed
Kuwai t ,
detached
Qasim was c l e a r
he c l a i med ,
f rom
t he
Iraqi
was an i n t e
mai nl and
after
t he
Ac c or d i n g t o him,
I r a q t o annexe t he l and on t he basi s t h a t t he Kuwai t
( ma i nl y
Royal
a measure which p a r t l y
Air
threat,
Force)
eased t he
t he B r i t i s h d i s pa t c h ed
t o meet
Iraqi
any
m ilitary
Along
not o n l y because t hey were
concerned about t he f u t u r e o f t he independence o f Kuwai t ,
t hey had not accept ed t he I r a q i ' s
Iraqi
pr e s s ur e on Kuwai t .
many Arabs si ded w i t h Kuwai t ,
Kuwai t .
Such
o f many opponents on t he
In t he f ac e o f t he I r a q i
units
w i t h t he B r i t i s h ,
with
states
agreement w i t h Shaikh Mubarak i n 1899.
t he t i me had come f o r
some m i l i t a r y
cl ai ms
most
state.
question.
scene and among o t h e r Arab government s.
Iraq
colonial
into
seven days
between Nasser o f Egypt and Qasim o f I r a q ,
i n hi s d e c l a r a t i o n on t he Ku w a i t i
part
independent
had made i t s
whose cha l l e n g e s o f Nasser l ed t o t he r i s e
gral
or p r e c i s e l y
regime
Fortunately,
t hanks t o t he h o s t i l i t y
domest i c p o l i t i c a l
an
a few days o f t he
but a l s o because
c l a i ms and di d not wi sh them t o annexe an
o ilfie ld
like
m ilitary
u n i t s t o t he bor der s between Kuwai t and I r aq and bot h t he B r i t i s h
and t he
Arab League
against
Kuwai t .
s t anc es ,
found
The Arab League,
succeeded
Kuwai t ,
that
t he
in
on t he
generous
w i t h Nas s er ' s a i d ,
halting
other
all
hand,
s up po r t
- 132 -
Iraqi
m ilitary
reviewing
from t he
di s p a t c h e d some
t he
B ritish
preparations
whole
circum
and t he
Arabs
must not undermine K u w a i t ' s e f f o r t s
t o e s t a b l i s h a democ r at i c s t a t e .
were a c t i n g i n t he b e l i e f t h a t t he
Iraqis
future
t hey wanted
and because o f
this
belief
coul d renew t h e i r
to
They
c l a i ms
in
t he
secure an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
s t a t u r e by seeki ng r e c o g n i t i o n f rom t he Uni t ed Nat i ons and t he Arab League.
Kuwai t
therefore
applied
firs t
accept ed unani mousl y by a l l
t he Uni t ed Na t i on s ,
Soviet
year,
Union
vetoed
however,
t he
for
membership o f
Arab s t a t e s
except
t he
for
Arab League and was
Iraq.
In t he
case o f
Kuwai t was not al l owed t o enj oy membership because t he
t he
proposition
Uni t ed
Nat i ons
S t at e o f Kuwai t now enj oys
full
and
t ook
accept ed
t he
Iraqi
Kuwait's
membership i n a l l
side.
After
applicatio n
one
and
t he
o f t he o r g a n i z a t i o n s
of
t he Uni t ed Na t i on s .
The I r a q i
of
efforts
country.
by
threat
t he
t o annexe Kuwai t
government
Al-Ebraheem,
main f a c t o r
leading
to
for
rapid
p o litical
system
from
political
system
(Al -Ebraheem,
a l s o w r ot e :
"The r u l e r
of
t he
exampl e,
t he
a
and
Kuwai t i
peopl e
con s i d er ed t he
politica l
patriarchal
1975).
Kuwai t
had c o n t r i b u t e d
set
state
t o t he speeding up
to
transform
Iraqi
c h a l l e n g e as t he
transformation
to
K ijazi,
their
of
t he
Kuwai t i
a parliamentary
democ r at i c
in
t he
t he
heat
of
ev e nt ,
i n mot i on t he machi nery f o r t he con
f i r m a t i o n o f hi s p o s i t i o n and t h a t o f hi s government t hr o u g h p o p u l a r e l e c
tions,
and t h i s ,
in tu rn ,
of c o n s t it u t io n a l
The
Iraqi
set
government"
claim
was
i n mot i on t he machinery f o r t he i n t r o d u c t i o n
(Hijazy,
waived
by
1964, p . 436) .
t he
new regime
of
t he
Second
Iraqi
Republ i c o f 1963, a f t e r Qasim was murdered and hi s regime br ought t o an end
by a coup d ' e t a t .
light,
with
mutual
The K u w a i t i - I r a q i
co-operation
and
relations
f rom then on a c q ui r ed a new
friendship;
a clear
t h i s was t he s t r on g sup po r t which Kuwai t gave t o t he
l a s t i n g war w i t h I r an ( 1979- 1988) .
- 133 -
illu stra tio n
Iraqis
in t h e i r
of
l ong
THE INTERNAL FACTOR
F o l l o w i n g t he u p r i s i n g o f t he K u w a i t i merchants i n 1938, t he p o l i t i c a l
social
structure
of
Kuwai t
began
to
change was mos t l y i n t he r e l a t i o n s
p olitical
gr oups.
Such a p o l i c y
d u r i n g t he u p r i s i n g o f
Ahmed A l - J a b i r ,
his
p r e ac h i ng
change
t ak e
a
between t he d i f f e r e n t
was
consistent
with
new f or m.
social
Thi s
powers and
Abdullah's
positio n
1938, when he was s i d i n g w i t h t he merchants a g a i n s t
t he Amir a t t h a t t i m e .
in to
and
practice
t he r e b y
Now t h a t t he t i me was r i p e ,
f a v o u r i n g a wi de p o l i t i c a l
t i o n i n which t he merchants and o t h e r s o c i a l
he put
participa
groups mi ght share i n t he r u l e
o f t he s t a t e .
Along w i t h
t he
began t o devel op,
growth
of
especially
at es o f Arab u n i v e r s i t i e s
t he
mer chant s'
among s t ud ent s
i n C a i r o,
t he
their
ists
t he
sons o f
sons'
t he merchants and o t h e r
h i g h e r e d u c a t i on abroad.
began an e a r l y
need f o r
mai n t a i ne d
alliance,
more r e f or m s .
s t r on g
without p o l i t i c a l
gains.
Gulf,
changed
Kuwai t
was
welfare
state
had t he
medical
c ar e,
and even
income c i t i z e n s .
tance,
other
right
t he
not a g a i n s t
gr oups,
pr e ss ur e s
to
free
In Kuwai t t he poor
especially
regime
welfare
ed ucati on,
to
t he
which
had
were
free
finance
not
ended
distributed
state
ensure
that
condition.
every
and
among t he
low
financial
suitable
citizen
The o i l
t he
services
assis
jobs.
In
had t he
revenues were
i n Kuwai t (Kouj a and S a d l e r ,
134
'fiftie s ,
People under
health
were guar ant eed
chance t o i mprove hi s income and m a t e r i a l
-
consisting
t hen t o emphasise
in
state.
had access t o
employment
channeled t o b e n e f i t ever y c i t i z e n
This
t i me i n t he h i s t o r y o f t he Ar abi an
houses
wanted
group,
who were abl e t o
t he Ami r ,
on t he
a social
subsidized
government
school s and g r a du
nationalists
citizens
For t he f i r s t
and t hose who sought
words,
if
into
o f Kuwai t i
force
Both t he merchants and t he n a t i o n a l
The two
politica l
a new p o l i t i c a l
Baghdad, and o t h e r Arab c a p i t a l s .
f o r c e as was noted b e f or e was known as t he
of
role,
1979).
The wisdom behi nd gov er nment ' s soci o- economi c programmes was t o e s t a b
lish
a state
t h a t was pr osper ous
and s t a b l e .
The l o n g - t e r m goal s were t o
ensure t h a t t he c i t i z e n s were more dependent on t h e i r
that
would
threat.
It
e r n men t ' s
policy
hel p
to
t he
regime
against
was e v i d e n t t h a t t he outcome o f
point
wr o t e :
of
"If
treatment,
provide
that
for
vi ew,
sufficient.
a Kuwai t i
medical
point
secure
or
even
him"
(Baz,
t h a t made Moubarak not e:
d i f f u s e Kuwai t i
oil
policy
job,
t he
p . 141).
government
That
"The d e c i s i o n
deal
from
both
of
t he
parties
was abl e t o meet t h e i r
government
greatly
c i t i z e n s wanted access t o t he o i l
hand,
it
their
t hey
would
s uppor t
wealth,
demands i f
be eager
t o do so i f
f o r more r e f or ms .
t he
call
as s e s s i n g
this
hi s
is
house,
or
expect ed
to
to
t he
Fami l y t o
it
1983, p . 112).
and c i t i z e n s
On
was a p o l i t i c a l
t he
one
hand,
t he
a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t he government
was w i l l i n g
to r a l l y
t o do so.
On t he o t h e r
behi nd t he regime and t o
policies,
t hey were s a t i s f i e d
anticipating
with
that
t he government.
who u s u a l l y s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d t he government coul d
t o change t he p o l i t i c a l
Rat her ,
gov
succeeded
(Moubarak,
i n domest i c and f o r e i g n
Even t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
not c a l l
f rom t he
o f t he Sabah Royal
benefited.
t he government wanted t he c i t i z e n s
give
policy
external
we al t h t hr o u g h o u t t he s o c i e t y was a p r a g m a t i c, d e l i b e r
interests
which
build
i n a way
or
was,
Baz i n
a loan t o
at e move t o r a l l y t he peopl e behi nd t he regime"
The mutual
in ternal
example,
wants
a public
1981,
this
For
citizen
any
government
was t o
In o t h e r words, t he o p p o s i t i o n was not p l a n n i n g
system
adopt
t o t he e x t e n t o f r e p l a c i n g i t w i t h a n o t he r .
r ef or ms and t o
e f f o r t s f o r t he m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
i n c r e a s e t he
economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
The Na t i on a l
tant
to
politica l
establish
Assembly i n Kuwai t was c ons i der ed one o f t he most i m p o r
achi evements
a constituent
i n t he
history
po litica l
-
o f t he monarchy.
in stitution
135 -
began i n
The d e c i s i o n
1961 when Amir
A b d u l l a h , t he
a po litical
'Father of Kuw ai t',
commi tt ee t o d r a f t
e s t a b l i s h e d i n t he wake o f Independence,
a constitution
i n o r d e r t o emphasise l e g i s
l a t i o n a l l o w i n g t he d e s i g n a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l
assembl y.
political
in
U- t ur n because f o r
chi es o f t he G u l f ,
away t he r e by
t he f i r s t
t i me
t he
The d e c i s i o n was a
history
of
t he
monar
an Emi r at e was pr o c ee di n g t o e l e c t an assembly b r ea k i ng
from t he
subtle
tradition
of
hierarchical
systems which
had
e x i s t e d f o r c e n t u r i e s i n t he G u l f r e g i o n .
However,
actual
from
t he
begi nni ng
many
i n t e n t i o n s o f t he regi me.
political
For exampl e,
i n t he e x e c u t i v e "
and e r r o r s ,
policies
Crystal
not ed,
merchants
from
(I smael ,
1982,
body a t
"an
p . 86).
which most
on
t he
suppor t ed t he gener al
With t i m e ,
and a f t e r many t r i a l s
1986,
and
in flue ntial
The N a t i on a l
institu tion al
replacing
p . 189).
them
and i m p o r t a n t
I t set
p o litica l
Assembly was found t o be,
mechanism f o r
with
Subsequent l y
new,
t he
removi ng t he
more
contro lled
relationship
among
powers had been shaped drew on t he bas i s o f new al i g n me n t s i n s i d e
t he N a t i on a l
Assembly.
ab l e t o r e f l e c t
i n t he pr es s.
their
The opponents o f t he regime became more o r g a n i z e d ,
policy
in
t he
sessi ons o f t he Na t i o n a l
t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
be an al yz ed.
The e v o l u t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
r o l e pl ayed by t he N a t i on a l Assembly w i l l
Al so t he new dynamics c r e a t e d
illustrated
Assembly and
In t he f o l l o w i n g pages t he f o r m a t i o n and t he f u n c t i o n o f t he
N a t i o n a l Assembly w i l l
upon.
important
politics
(Crystal,
political
doubts
t he N a t i on a l Assembly proved independent and e f f e c t i v e .
legislative
allies"
Ismael
cast
s et f o r t h by t he r u l i n g c l a s s as embodied
and economic d e c i s i o n s were t a k e n .
as
had
r e a c t i o n t o t he A m i r ' s d e c i s i o n by p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t t he assembly
was "a r ubber stamp f o r
up t he
obs er v er s
inside
t he N a t i on a l
i n r e l a t i o n t o t he d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l
debates and
be e l a b o r a t ed
Assembly w i l l
be
groups.
I t was demonstr ated el sewher e t h a t w i t h independence f rom B r i t i s h r u l e
i n 1961, t he r u l i n g f a m i l y began t o demand a l a r g e r share i n p o l i t i c a l
and
t he
oil
revenues.
The
Ami r ,
however,
-
136 -
was
sim ilarly
eager
to
rule
allow
other
social
tions.
groups t o p a r t i c i p a t e
i n t he p o l i t i c a l
and economic i n s t i t u
He adopted a scheme o f t r a n s f o r m i n g hi s regime from an h i e r a r c h y t o
a p a r l i a m e n t a r y monarchy i n t he
tions.
F irst,
belief
that
he coul d
strike
by e s t a b l i s h i n g t he N a t i on a l
Assembly,
he coul d c u t t o s i z e
t he a m b i t i o n s o f some o f t he s e n i o r members o f t he Royal
c o n t r o l l i n g t he economy and mo n o p o l i s i n g t he r egi me.
was abl e t o sup po r t t he Royal
t hey
owned t he
other
abl e
t he
hand,
to
state
as o t h e r
he was c e r t a i n
encourage o t h e r
assumpt i on
that
Fami l y
groups
with
to
u n s t ab l e s ur r o u n d i n g Arab s t a t e s ,
cal
f euds and m i l i t a r y
in
In t h i s
t he
t he G u l f
Na t i on a l
participate
t he new s t a t e
Fami l y as r egar ds
way, t he Amir
w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g them t o b e l i e v e t h a t
families
that,
i n two d i r e c
would
in
region
did.
Assembly,
On t he
he would
be
politica l activities
on
enj oy p o l i t i c a l
stab ility.
The
where n a t i o n s were exhausted f rom p o l i t i
confrontatio ns,
added t o t he A m i r ' s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t
h i s s ma l l , we al t h y s t a t e was v u l n e r a b l e and must not be t hr own i n t o u n r e s t .
The accommodation o f v ar i o u s
Assembly
coul d
p r e s en t t he
po litica l
supporting
i n c l u d i n g t he vet e r a n members o f
circumstances,
speeded t he
however,
efforts
resistance to
t he
pr esent ed
political
to
Iraqi
satisfy
Fami l y who c oul d
claims.
an
all
parties,
j o i n t he p a r
auxiliary
system.
establish
The Amir needed t o m o b i l i z e t he p u b l i c and a l l
in a v i t a l
and t he N a t i on a l
Ca bi n et .
e a r l y d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f t he Kuwai t i
annexe Kuwai t
factor to
t he Royal
l i a m e n t membership as members o f t he
E x t er n a l
groups was c r u c i a l
factor
The I r a q i
cont emporary
p o litica l
for
th r e a t to
institu tion s.
groups behi nd him
Such c l a i ms sent t he K u w a i t i s
i n t o t he s t r e e t s d e mo n s t r a t i n g a g a i n s t I r aq and i n s i s t i n g on t h e i r r i g h t t o
i ndependence.
The A m i r ' s
bal ance a t i t s
highest l e v e l .
exampl e,
their
chant s'
decision,
on
t he
other
hand,
shook
t he
social
The l e a d i n g members o f t he Royal F ami l y,
for
viewed t he A m i r ' s d e c i s i o n as an i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s d e s i r e t o cur b
power.
They
under st ood
and n a t i o n a l i s t s '
side.
his
positio n
The Ami r ,
-
137 -
as
leaning
however,
t owards
was not
t he
mer
in a po s it io n
to
change
1961,
his
mind or
Independence
mer chant s,
to
to
y ea r ,
t ak e
give
in
t he
Amir
charge
of
to
any
pr es sur e what soever .
or der ed
t he
a wo r ki ng
politica l
In
team,
transition.
composed
A
Assembly hel d i t s
firs t
s e s s i on .
of
constituent
assembly o f 20 members was s e l e c t e d t o draw up t he C o n s t i t u t i o n .
f o l l o w i n g y ear t he N a t i on a l
August
Then, t he
Thi s l e f t
no
doubt t h a t t he Amir had kept h i s promi se and a new era o f de moc r a t i c p o l i t
ical
r u l e began i n Kuwai t .
At f i r s t most p o l i t i c a l
o b s er v e r s i n t he G u l f opened w i d e l y t h e i r eyes
and ears wa t ch i n g t he new born de moc r a t i c system i n Kuwai t .
ishment o f many o f them,
not match t h e i r
t he outcome o f t he N a t i on a l
expectations,
nor t o
Assembly sessi on di d
some e x t e n t t hose o f t he Ami r .
MPs seemed not t o accept t he r o l e o f a r ub be r stamp.
by
surprise
sisted
because,
it
o f educated K u w a i t i s
ties,
Tariq
Ismael
family
in
(1970)
t he
Beirut
f ounder s
t he
National
B ritish
con
one o f
lim eligh t
of
where
leader.
t he
politics
he
had
A l-Katib
Arab
Nationalist
sever al
branches
firs t
born
Ac c o r d i n g t o
Kuwaitis
Kuwai t .
met
with
movement,
were
in
s t a r o f Dr.
f rom a poor
He had s t u d i e d
Dr.
George
Habash
were
Habash,
t he
t he
earliest
in
t he
early
'fiftie s .
in
t he
early
'sixties
From
-
t he
F r o n t i n Aden, South Yemen, which l ed t he g u e r i l l a war a g a i n s t t he
i n 1963 and which a f t e r
new i ndependent
Yemen.
power which
Among them rose t he p o l i t i c a l
was
(Lebanon)
Palestinian
movement,
gr owi ng
who had gr aduat ed from v a r i o u s Arab u n i v e r s i
Al-Katib
in fluential
of
t he
The
The regime was t aken
t he l e a d e r o f t he Radi cal N a t i o n a l i s t s Group.
t o move i n t o
medi ci ne
ni an
u n d e r es t i mat e d
mai nl y Egy pt i an and I r a q i .
Ahmed A l - K a t i b ,
this
had
To t he a s t o n
state
and
is
t he B r i t i s h
s till
in
l e f t Aden i n 1967 t ook
charge
of
t he Republ i c
over t he
of
The main branch was e s t a b l i s h e d i n B e i r u t mai nl y among t he
r e f ug e e s .
Goerge
Habash
c a l l e d t he P a l e s t i n i a n F r o n t ,
has
been
leading
what r e c e n t l y
Palesti
has
a member i n t he c o a l i t i o n o f t he PLO.
-
H8
South
been
The t h i r d
Kuwai t ,
branch was t h a t
of
Dr.
A l-Katib
which
was
A l - K a t i b i s t he son o f a member o f s t a f f i n t he A m i r ' s p a l a c e.
became t he f i r s t
an i n f l u e n t i a l
K uwai t i
per sonal
medi cal
c o n s u l t a n t t o t he Ami r .
pu bl ic against
t he wi shes o f members o f
i s behi nd t he A m i r ' s t o l e r a n c e o f t he v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l
especially
t he merchants and t he
In t he f i r s t
e n t ar y
seat
and w i t h
nationalist
t he
chants.
which
colleagues
government .
K a t i b was abl e t o r e f l e c t
f orm
He
He has
alliances
t he
with
his f a m il y .
and s o c i a l
new gr owi ng n a t i o n a l i s t s
e l e c t i o n s f o r t he N a t i o n a l Assembly,
t he wrong deeds o f
to
in
p e r s o n a l i t y t o t he degree t h a t he convi nced t he Amir t o s i de
w i t h t he Kuwai t i
and
established
Throughout
positio n
other
began t o
of
hi s
been h i g h l y
parliam
po litica l
career,
Al-
hi s movement on numerous i ssues
politica l
subdued.
1976).
lead debates a g a i n s t
gr oups,
especially
t he
For example, A l - K a t i b was ab l e t o change t he mer chant s'
had so f a r
gr oups,
(Ismael,
he won hi s f i r s t
He
They found i n A l - K a t i b
pi ec e who was capabl e o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r
grievances;
this
mer
opposition
t he mouth
was o r i g i n a l l y
t he mouthpi ece o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s .
To
numerous
Kuwai t i
became a stage f o r
socio-political
debates
similar
Those who s u f f e r e d p o l i t i c a l
to
groups
Speakers'
t he
N a t i on a l
Corner i n
Assembly
Ce nt r al
pr e s sur e coul d go and express f r e e l y
not on l y
t h e i r i deas but a l s o t h e i r angui sh a g a i n s t a u t h o r i t i e s el sewher e.
found i n t he N a t i on a l
cise,
in itia te
particular,
power.
not
Rat her ,
occupi ed
some
lim it
seat s
With
politica l
groups
hel d
side,
one
their
at
t he
began
while
t he
criticism s
Assembly
include
and
heat
pola rize.
of
Na t i on a l
The
reactionarie s
- H 9 -
of
t he
power
began
who
to
source f o r t he con
Assembly
nationalists,
who r e f l e c t e d
in
executive
reactionaries
whose
as t he main l e g i t i m a t e
increasing
t he
to
campaign t o
National
Shar'ia
to
participation.
debates
t hey ext ended t h e i r
c l u s t e r around I s l a m i c
stitutio n.
Kuwaitis
Assembly an i n s t i t u t i o n which al l owed them t o c r i t i
and p r a c t i s e p o l i t i c a l
di d
London.
debat es,
t he
demanded
r ef or ms
traditional:
ideas,
hel d t he o t h e r .
The pr es s ,
t he
Both s i des used t he N a t i on a l
t hough i n f a v o u r t o some e x t e n t ,
convictions
Nati onal
of
Assembly,
both
camps.
with
its
sessi ons i n hi gh s p i r i t s .
It
o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
obvi ous
re fle cted
that
t he
had
begun
its
I t was more independent than t he a r c h i t e c t s
had
soundi ng
from t he
field.
start
loudly
was
Assembly as a b a t t l e
nationalists,
expected.
From t h i s
l i m i t e d a n a l y s i s o f t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e o f Kuwai t ,
t he t e s t o f power between t he government and t he N a t i on a l
examples o f s h i f t i n g a l l i a n c e s among d i f f e r e n t
among
t hose
ex p er i enc e
powers
and t he
were
rich
between t he government and t he
sion,
in ea rly
1962, when
social
new dynamics which
and
p o litica lly
Na t i o n a l
Assembly r e v e a l s
govern t he
mat ure.
Assembly
The
began i n
t he government sought a
such i n c l u s i o n would v i o l a t e
deni es merchants t he
sible
conflicts
of
right
to p a rtic ip a te
interest.
Thus,
b e r s h i p on t he board o f d i r e c t o r s
ticipate
131).
A rticle
while
(131)
in
relations
firs t
t he
f i r s t ses
The MPs found
t he Cabi net because o f
a Min ister
o f any company,
and t he c o n f l i c t
t e s t o f power,
was h a l t e d w i t h
however,
t he Amir
ta cit
he shoul d a l s o not p a r
(Constitutio n A r t ic le
sof t ened t he a f f a i r
concessi on
showed t h a t t he Royal
by t he
t he we al t h
not abl e t o
t he N a t i o n a l
owned
confront
t he
by t he
Shai khs and t he
emerging power o f
Assembly f u n c t i o n on t h e i r
powers among t he Kuwai t i
political
demands.
-
t he
behalf,
groups
140 -
and t he
by l o b b y i n g
MPs.
The f i r s t
Fami l y and t he merchants di d
not have t he dominant power i n t he N a t i o n a l Assembly.
despite
pos
shoul d not hol d mem
Al t hough t he debate ended i n anger when 27 MPs l e f t t he h a l l
t o t ak e t he o a t h,
The
o f t he C o n s t i t u t i o n which
i n any concessi on gr ant ed by t he government
Cabi net f a i l e d
cl a s h
vot e o f c o n f i d e n c e .
i ss u e was t he i n c l u s i o n o f we al t h y merchants i n t he Ca bi n et .
that
groups.
It
showed a l s o t h a t ,
t op mer chant s,
nationalists.
especially
contributing
to
t hey were
These
made
i n t he s h i f t i n g
their
po litical
Few h i s t o r i a n s and p o l i t i c a l
po litica l
system i n Kuwai t .
scientists
Most o f them,
have s t u d i e d t he na t ur e o f t he
however,
agree t h a t t he Kuwai t i
N a t i o n a l Assembly was not a r ub be r - s t a mp i n s t i t u t i o n as i s t he case i n many
third
wo r l d
emphasised
socially
social
parliaments.
this
fact,
responsible
Baz
( 1982) ,
a g r ee i n g
that
legislative
Ismael
t he
N a t i on a l
institu tion
i n s t r u m e n t s were d e r i v e d .
Likewise,
(1982,
and
C r y s t al
Assembly
has
(1986)
been
f rom which most economic
a
and
Hudson (1979) concl uded t h a t :
" The Na t i on a l Assembly d i d f u n c t i o n as a c o n s t an t and v o c i f e r o u s
forum f o r c r i t i c i z i n g t he government , as a v i s i t o r t o one o f i t s
meeti ngs would q u i c k l y a s c e r t a i n .
Moreover, i t had gi ven an
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d means o f e x p r es s i on and access t o t he main
s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l el ement s i n cont empor ar y Kuwai t - t he nomadic and
sedent ar y t r i b e s , t he urban merchants and businessmen, and t he
p o l i t i c i z e d , n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s . "
(Hudson, 1979, p p . 185-186)
From t he b e g i n n i n g ,
tough
issues,
exampl e,
treaty
in
with
such
K uwai t i
as
security,
t he
oil
wealth,
in
preparation
between Egypt , S y r i a and I r a q .
and, as menti oned b e f o r e ,
by a whole month,
for
Kuwai t
In 1964, t oo ,
to
join
t he
ongoi ng t r e a t y
were ab l e t o st op t he Cabi net oat h o f con f i d e n c e
demanding t he e l i m i n a t i o n o f merchants f rom t he Cabi net .
The
government on o i l
confrontation
19th and 26th January 1965.
t he agreement,
t he N a t i on a l
tive
for
Committee
between
i ssues began i n
t he agreement w i t h t he o i l
and
For
companies was a n ot he r g r e a t achievement o f t he Na t i on a l Assem
companies.
State.
devel opment .
t he MPs f o u g h t t he government
b l y and t he s t a t e o f Kuwai t owes t o i t s MPs t he f u l l
oil
and
1963 a group o f MPs pressed t he government t o end t he def ence
Britain
Fighting o il
MPs evi nced a mature u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f many
t he
s c al e owner shi p o f t he
N a t i on a l
Assembly
and
t he
1965 w i t h t he f or mer r e f u s i n g t o r a t i f y
companies.
The debate reached a peak on 12t h,
In s p i t e o f t he gover nment ' s d e s i r e t o approve
Assembly r e f e r r e d
recommendations
so as t o
it
t o t he F i n a n c i a l
secure a b e t t e r deal
Legisla
for
t he
A r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f t he agreement was s ub mi t t e d on 2nd May 1967,
only
then
was
it
ratifie d.
As
- 141
this
victory
was
credited
to
t he
Nati onal
radical
Assembly,
it
nationalists
was
also
who
were
credited
t he
to
ta cit
t he
power
emergence
which
of
a group
c r ea t e d
t he
p o s i t i o n t aken by t he MPs f o r c i n g t he government t o press t he o i l
f o r b e t t e r deal s ( S t o c k i n g ,
Assembly
agai n
proved
d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p l ay i t s
its
for
to
t he
N a t i on a l
independence
gover nment ' s
It
after
called
t he
per c e n t ,
of
companies,
i.e.
The Na t i on a l
without a price.
final
Kuwai t ,
as t he s t a t e ' s
of
of
a t t he b e g i n
10 y e a r s .
1965.
The
By May 1972,
recommendations, a s ki ng
Kuwai t .
Thus t h i s
deal,
too,
share was i n c r ea s ed t o 60
t he d e v i a t i o n was decreased t o s i x y e a r s ,
ment coul d n e g o t i a t e f o r
oil
duration
to that
f o r f u r t h e r terms and h i gh e r per cent ages f o r
favour
and
a l s o one per cent a d d i
L e g i s l a t i v e Committee had w r i t t e n i t s
was changed i n
v ita lity
revenues f o r t he s t a t e o f Kuwai t
Assembly began a new war s i m i l a r
t he F i n a n c i a l
showed
The new agreement c a l l e d ,
companies.
share
and
The
r o l e i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t he go v e r n
a 50 per cent share o f t he o i l
and 50 per cent f o r t he o i l
tion
companies
i s s ue was r epeat ed i n 1972.
socio-political
ment or any o t h e r pr e ss ur e gr oup.
n i ng ,
solid
1970, p . 373) .
Anot her c o n f r o n t a t i o n around t he o i l
N a t i on a l
of
a f t e r which t he g o v e r n
t he t ak e o v e r o f t he r ema i ni ng shares owned by t he
40 per c e n t .
Assembl y' s c h a l l e n g e t o t he government was n o t ,
It
however,
t oo k t he government f o u r t e e n year s t o pr epar e f o r t he
s t r o k e on t he N a t i on a l Assembly, when, on 29th August 1975, t he Prime
Min ister,
Shaikh J a b i r A1-Ahmed, who i s t he Amir a t p r e s e n t ,
resignation,
Cabi net
and
hi s
t he
reasons
N a t i on a l
bei ng
t he
Assembly.
absence
of
co-operation
Accordingly,
Sabah who was t he Amir t hen used hi s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
t he p a r l i a m e n t and suspend f o u r a r t i c l e s
sub mi t t e d hi s
Amir
between
hi s
Sabah A1- Sal i m A1 -
prerogative to dissolve
i n t he C o n s t i t u t i o n .
Knowing t h a t
t hese d r a mat i c changes would not pass w i t h o u t c r i t i c i s m f rom t he p r e s s , t he
Amir i ssued a decree on t he Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n r e s t r i c t i n g
t he
press
(Kuwai t
Al-Youm No.
1087,
-
30,
142 -
9,
1976).
t he freedom o f
The Amir
charged
t he
Na t i on a l
Assembly w i t h e x p l o i t i n g democracy,
us i ng t he c o n s t i t u t i o n
as a means f o r
f r e e z i n g most l e g i s l a t i o n
r e a l i z i n g per sonal
gai n ( I b i d ,
and
p . 5).
Thi s was f u r t h e r expounded upon by t he Prime M i n i s t e r who accused t he press
of
mi s u s i ng
groups
its
freedom and
in ternal
and e x t e r n a l
relationships
Sur vey,
44,
between
3,
9,
of
which
Kuwai t
1976).
becoming
l ed
and o t h e r
It
a forum
to
t he
Arab
for
deterioration
states
was un de r s t o od ,
different
( Mi d dl e
p o litica l
of
brotherly
East
Economic
however, t h a t t he main reason
f o r t he d e c i s i o n was t he harsh c r i t i c i s m f rom t he N a t i on a l Assembly and t he
press
for
external
t he
Syrian
press
kept
of
participate
democracy
pressing
frequent e d i t o r i a l s ,
to
to
send
its
troops
to
Lebanon,
pr e ss ur e t he u n f o r t u n a t e d e c i s i o n was made (Baz,
The suspensi on
t he
decision
in
for
ext ended
t he
nearly
r esumpt i on
c o n d u c t i ng i n t e r v i e w s ,
t he
discussions
when, as menti oned b e f o r e ,
on
of
five
t he
t he
during
Assembly,
democr at i c
under
1981, p . 219) .
year s
and e x h o r t i n g
and
by
which
r u n ni ng
n o t ab l e K u w a i t i s
life .
In May 1979,
t h i r t y members o f t he Assembly s u b m i t t e d , t o t he
H e i r App ar e nt / Pr i me M i n i s t e r ,
a memorandum c a l l i n g f o r t he immediate r e s t o
r a t i o n of parliamentary r u l e .
Crown P r i n c e Saad A1- Ab du l l a h was c r i t i c i z e d
f o r bei ng t he main f o r c e behi nd t he r esumpt i on o f t he N a t i on a l Assembly. He
or der ed a commi ttee t o r ev i ew t he C o n s t i t u t i o n and c a l l e d f o r e l e c t i o n s
Febr uar y 1981.
Assembly.
Islamic
started
law
as
di plomat s
in
expandi ng sup po r t f o r
a campaign
t he
women t o wear t he v e i l ,
foreign
l ed t o an imbal ance o f power i n t he Na t i on a l
The m a j o r i t y i n t he Assembly went t o t he I s l a m i c f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s
who i mme di a t e l y
Sha r i a
The e l e c t i o n s
basis
calling
of
t he
and ask i ng f o r
Kuwai t .
for
t he
results,
even det er mi ned
Fun d a me n t a l i s t
it.
group was de c i d ed.
establishment
constitution,
a ban on a l c o h o l
F u n d a me n t a l i s t
Islamic f i n a n c i a l
t he
houses,
MPs kept
In t he e l e c t i o n
The m a j o r i t y
- 143 -
exhorting
of
t he
Kuwai t i
including that for
up t he momentum by
l i k e t he I s l a m i c Funds. The
government however was p l a n n i n g a hard s t r o k e when i t
toral
in
i n f l u e n c e d t he e l e c
of
1985,
at
this
t he f a t e
of
t i me went
to
t he
nationalists
and t hose
loyal
t o t he
regi me.
These r e s u l t s which were
announced i n February 1985 showed t h a t 85 per cent o f t he
o f whom were Muslim f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s had l o s t .
new MPs, w i t h
t he
nationalists
taking
five
f or mer MPs most
The new Assembly i n c l u d e d 28
seat s and t he government mai n
t a i n i n g a g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t he Bedouin and l o y a l i s t s .
But
it
was
vulnerable
atives.
and
These
not
possible
easily
drawn
last,
to
predict
away
by
who r e p r e s e n t
that
t he
t he
such
min ority
Kuwai t i
a majority
would
be
nationalist
represent
intellectuals,
mai n t a i ne d
t he o p p o s i t i o n r o l e w i t h t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s pr eadi ng t o o t h e r MPs day by day.
It
t ook
t he
government
one y e a r and f o u r months t o
p a t i e n c e as w e l l .
For t he f i r s t
N a t i on a l
Assembly
managed
Justice,
Shaikh
Salman
to
t i me i n
force
Al-Douij,
t he
t he
short
l os e
history
resignation
a member
of
its
t he
of
and
Kuwai t ,
t he
Minister
of
of
t he
Royal
majority
F ami l y.
He was
f o r c e d t o r e s i g n f o l l o w i n g p a r l i a m e n t a r y a c c u s a t i o n s t h a t he had abused hi s
authority.
It
was
c o n s i d e r ed ,
humiliatio n
of
t he
man who had
as
t he
l ong
been
Shaikh J a b i r A1 Ahmad,
t he Amir and t he
3.7.86,
1986,
p . 2).
tio n of three
Royal
Fami l y
dissolved
t he
In J u l y
Oi l
parliament
d e s t r u c t iv e for ei gn conspiracy.
state"
t he
He s a i d ,
"a
public
and a d v i s e r
(Financial
to
Times,
Assembly demanded t he i n v e s t i g a
On 3rd
that
noted
friend
i n c l u d i n g Shaikh A l i ,
Minister.
s ay i ng
Times
a c l o se
head o f
t he N a t i o n a l
government m i n i s t e r s ,
and t he
Financial
July
t he
nation
a member o f t he
same y e a r ,
was
t he
t he Amir
target
of
a
i n a t e l e v i s e d speech -
"Democracy i s s ha ki n g, t he s i t u a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l and t he s e r i e s
o f t e r r o r i s m w i l l c o n t i n u e u n t i l everyone c o - o p e r a t es a g a i n s t t he
enemies o f t he homeland.
I t s s e c u r i t y has been exposed t o a
f i e r c e f o r e i g n c o n s p i r a c y which t h r ea t en e d l i v e s and al most
de s t r o y ed t he we a l t h o f t he homel and."
( K h a l i j Times, 4 . 7 . 8 6 , [ p . 11)
There i s
h a r dl y any doubt t h a t t he d i s s o l u t i o n
o f t he N a t i on a l Assem
b l y has more reasons behi nd i t .
In r e c e n t y e a r s , b e f or e t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f
t he
July
N a t i on a l
Assembly
on
3rd
-
1986,
144
a
terrorist
campaign
against
Kuwai t
was
bombing
under
of
t he
way,
exemplified,
Amir's
car.
It
among o t h e r
was
things,
r ev e al ed
that
in
some
t he
of
at t empt ed
t he
S h i ' i te
Ku w a i t i s o f I r a n i a n o r i g i n were behi nd most o f t he t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s .
The
Iran-Iraq
war
and t he
t he
out rages.
Iran
andsome S h i ' i t e K u w a i t i s seemed p a r t i a l l y m o b i l i z e d
t he
regi me.
The c o n f l i c t
i n c r ea s ed t he l a t t e r ' s
ction
and
w i t h t he
financial
gi ven
to
I r a q by
between t he N a t i o n a l
feelings
disillusio nm ent
" n oi s e s o f
aid
of
freedom"
Kuwai t
states
rising
and o t h e r
The d i s s a t i s f a
non-Gul f
from Kuwai t coul d
only
elected
parliament,
after
di sappear ed from t he Arab p o l i t i c a l
t he
Arab
states
have c o n t r i b u t e d
t he d e c i s i o n o f t he Amir t o d i s s o l v e t he N a t i on a l Assembly.
second
against
Assembly and t he government
o f t h r e a t and i n s e c u r i t y .
Gulf
led t o
Egy pt i an
With t h i s ,
N a t i on a l
to
t he
Assembly,
scene.
THE I NSTI TUTIONAL AND BUREAUCRATIC
SYSTEM IN KUWAIT "THE GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS"
Our f ocus t h r ou g h o u t
turning points
what
in
t he
out
to
t he
socio-political
historical
t he
early
(2)
in
to
t he
social
devel opment
structure.
eighteenth
established,
c h a p t er was i n t ended t o i d e n t i f y
historical
degree t h i s
periods
this
contributed
In
do i n g
which
structural
c e n t ur y
during
British
devel opment o f
that
shifts
which
o c c u p a t i on
Kuwai t and t o f i n d
to
t he
transformation
one
can
trace
tribal
began
division
of
labour
helped
to
crystalise
main
(1)
From
federal
Kuwai t
effectively
in
The e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t ur y t o t he end o f World War I I
t he merchants
in
three
can be obser ved.
t he
which
t he maj or
was
1899.
i n which t he o l d
power expressed
in
t he two p o pu l ar u p r i s i n g s a g a i n s t t he a u t o c r a c y o f t he Amir i n 1922 and i n
1938.
(3)
From 1948 t o t he p r e s e n t ,
dence from t he B r i t i s h
state.
Al s o ,
in
i n which Kuwai t secured i t s
June 1961 and then
as our d e c i s i o n w i l l
show, t h i s
145 -
established
t he
i n de pen
new w e l f a r e
p e r i o d saw t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f t he new p o l i t i c a l
institutions,
i n c l u d i n g t he modern s o p h i s t i c a t e d
mass
media w i t h t he press on t he t op o f a l l .
However,
because
of
t he
broad
na t u r e
of
t he
chronological
t hese t h r e e phases and because our purpose i s t o f ocus on,
structure
o f government o f f i c i a l s ,
t he b u r e a u c r a t s ,
i n c l u d i n g t he r u l e r ,
t he f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n w i l l
order
of
and anal y s e t he
t he e x e c u t i v e s and
be d e a l i n g w i t h t he l a s t
phase
and i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t he p e r i o d f r om 1961 t o t he p r e s e n t .
In
June
1961,
Kuwai t
became i ndependent
d e c l a r a t i o n o f t he new s t a t e i t
culties
noted
gener at ed
earlier
pr e s s ur e
internally
in
this
by K uwai t i
and s o v e r e i g n ,
seemed t o e n t e r a new e r a .
and e x t e r n a l l y
chapter,
t he
Nationalists
Iraqi
were t o
t he
However, d i f f i
be ex pect ed.
f rom w i t h o u t
f rom w i t h i n ,
and w i t h
and t he
As was
po litical
pr esent ed an unexpected and
sudden c h a l l e n g e f o r t he new regime mai nl y f o r t he dynast y o f A1-Sabah t he
ruling
family.
The
t h r e a t t o annexe i t
nationalists
were
Iraqi's
claim
for
sovereignty
over
Kuwai t
ver y a c t i v e
demanding s o c i a l
Kuwai t .
was a l s o menti oned b e f o r e ,
including
Dr.
A l-Katib
t o t ak e an h i s t o r i c a l
t he
decision,
that
leader
The
r ef or ms and p o l i t i c a l
c o n s t i t u t i n g f o r t he regime anot her s e r i o u s t h r e a t ,
sors,
t he
was t h o u g h t t o be a s e r i o u s t h r e a t f r om t he n o r t h .
ticipation,
It
and
t he Amir w i t h
par
f rom i n s i d e
hi s c l o s e a d v i
Movement,
t o c r e a t e a modern c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
deci ded
authority
which t ur n e d out t o be a system o f government which combined a u t o c r a c y and
democracy.
The i n c e p t i o n
devel opment
which
constitutionally
t he e x e c u t i v e .
p o litical
Par li ament
symbol i sed
popul ar
was a ver y
po litical
significant
The e l e c t i o n o f t he Mps was anot he r
Thi s
by
sudden
Al -Naqeeb (1976) i d e n t i f i e d ,
t he
and
regi me,
abrupt
allying
It
was
supervise
si gn o f accept ance o f
itse lf
transformative
with
t he
process
t hr ou gh t h r e e s p e c i f i c phases:
146 -
political
participation.
empowered t o under t ak e l e g i s l a t i v e t as k s and t o
participation
aspirations.
of
country's
went
on
as
1,
The y e a r l e a d i n g t o 1953
which wi t n ess e d t he r i s e o f commercial e n t e r
p r i s e i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t he g r e a t p o t e n t i a l
2.
The year s
modern
between
state
1953
and
system and t he
1961
during
power f ul
o f t he o i l
which
t he
financial
The manning o f both b u r ea u c r ac i e s c a l l e d
economy.
emergence
oligarchy
of
t he
t oo k p l a c e .
f o r t he l a r g e - s c a l e
importa
t i o n o f l a bo ur and t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l .
(3)
The y ea r s
f rom
stabilisation
result
of
1961
to
and t he
which
was
t he
present
stabilisation
t he
emergence
have
of
of
been
other
t he
devot ed
social
welfare
to
political
activities,
state
t he
( Al - Naqeeb,
1976, p . 137).
The p e r i o d o f s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
t he i ndependence,
st anc es .
It
citizens
t he
production
of
jumped f rom 204.9 m i l l i o n
b a r r e l s i n 1961.
with
crude
oil
barrels
in
The r e s u l t was t h a t t he o i l
a hi gh
and many o t h e r
b e g i nn i ng w i t h
was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d r a ma t i c economic and s o c i a l
Ec o n o mi ca l l y,
increase.
r e b u i l d i n g o f t he s t a t e ,
annual
social
revenues
gener at ed
c he mi c a l ,
fresh
income,
services.
capital
wat er
for
It
free
was e v i d e n t
and e l e c t r i c a l
power,
a d r a mat i c
1951 t o 633.3 m i l l i o n
revenue pr o v i d e d t he Ku w a i t i
he al th
increased
underwent
circum
car e,
that
subsidised
t he
i n c r ea s e
industrialisation
building
housi ng
materials
in
in
oil
petro
and o t h e r
v a r i e d m a n u f ac t ur i n g .
The o i l
t he s t a t e .
we al t h
Thi s l e d ,
provided
t he
regime w i t h
enormous means t o modernise
a c c o r di n g t o t he S t an f o r d Research I n s t i t u t e ,
t o t he
c r e a t i o n o f f o u r emi nent t ypes o f p r e s s u r e s .
1.
The
mere
existence
of
t he
wealth
required
i n s t e a d o f bei ng al l o we d t o accumul at e t o
ment a p pa r at us ,
with
its
attendant
that
it
no purpose.
policies
must
be
used,
A new go v e r n
and p r a c t i c e s ,
had t o
be
e s t a b l i s h e d t o di s pos e o f t he we a l t h i n accordance w i t h t he d i s t r i b u
tion
ethics
of
t he
past
and t he
need f o r
s o r t o f devel opment now p o s s i b l e .
- 147 -
new o p p o r t u n i t i e s
for
t he
2.
The new we al t h f o r c e d t he s t a t e t o cope w i t h a s e r i e s o f i n t e r n a l
external
pr es sur es
it
had
pr e s s ur e s and demands,
vigorous
foreign
created.
Kuwai t
policy
and
To
protect
itse lf
f rom
had t o gai n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
a
dynamic
population
and
t hese
"weight".
policy
A
helped
to
reduce t hese pr e ss ur e s c o n s i d e r a b l y .
3.
The growt h
labour
rate
force
patterns.
were
l a r ge
Kuwait's
required
The s i z e
i n adequat e.
revenues,
no n- Ku wai t i
With
of
t he
t he
and
As
passage
of
ab ility
of
to
to
this
of
t he
hire
foreign
freely
l abour
expansi on
its
shared
labour
on
an
force
of
labour
i ndi g en ou s
individually
devel oped
t i me
rapid
reorganise
skill
Kuwaitis
force
and t he
society
level
t he
their
labour
economy
force
population
increasingly
grew.
Thus,
"as-needed"
expanded
t he
a
basis.
into
a
l a r ge
d i s c r e e t population.
4.
The new we al t h
of
also
changed c u l t u r a l
patterns.
i n t e r - d e p e n d e n c e between i n d i v i d u a l s ,
population
gave way t o
gr owi ng economic
and
individual's
tute,
fam ilie s
of
and s e c t o r s
life -styles
of
based
t he
on t he
certain
t he n u c l e a r f a m i l y became more i m p o r t a n t ,
foreign
alien
patterns
outside
in
of
individuals.
patterns
Increasingly,
and i n t e r e s t s
devel opment
independence o f
t r e n d s were v i s i b l e :
s c ho o l i n g
t he
Traditional
t ho ugh t
economic,
Kuwai t
became
social
grew r a p i d l y
pr omi nent
and
and r e c r e a t i o n a l
(Stanford
Research
t he
affairs
In sti
1981, p p . 1 1 1 . 3 - 4 ) .
To sum up, w i t h t he o i l
functionally
we a l t h t he need f o r
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y d i s c r e e t ar ose.
t he c o n s t i t u t i o n
in
1962,
new p o l i t i c a l
structures,
With t he d e c l a r a t i o n
of
t he powers o f t he Amir and t he f u n c t i o n o f a new
c a b i n e t were made s p e c i f i c .
148
THE RULER OF THE STATE (THE AMIR)
In g e n e r al ,
teristics,
nial
p o litica l
systems i n t he Mi ddl e East have s i m i l a r c h a r ac
f or emos t among which i s t h a t t he Head o f St at e i s not a ceremo
figure,
as
is
t he
case
in
power t o d i s s o l v e any p o l i t i c a l
modern
Western
institution,
has t he power t o postpone any w r i t t e n
law,
democr aci es.
i n c l u d i n g t he p a r l i a m e n t .
including a r t ic l e s
i n t he C o n s t i t u t i o n .
The Amir i n Kuwai t w i t h t he appr oval
Assembly
Constitutio n,
and by
ministers"
t he
( A r t i c l e 55) .
can
He has t he
"exercise
hi s
He
agreed upon
powers
t hr ough h i s
Hi s power d e r i v e s f rom a wide range o f e x c l u s i o n s
f rom p o we r - s h a r i ng w i t h t he N a t i o n a l Assembly or t he Ca bi n et .
In t he Kuwai t c o n s t i t u t i o n .
of
St at e
allow
him t o
appoint
Articles
t he
defining
Prime
t he powers o f t he Head
Min ister
and
select
Cabi net M i n i s t e r s on t he recommendation o f t he Prime M i n i s t e r .
Ca bi n et ,
t he Amir a c t u a l l y
policy.
The Amir a l s o
laws.
rules
t he
has
relie ve
Through t he
c o u n t r y and remains i n charge o f i t s
has t he power t o
The c o n s t i t u t i o n
or
a specific
impose s a n c t i o n s
deadline
d a t e,
or
r e g u l a t e t he
by which t he
Amir
shoul d c o n f i r m or r e j e c t laws s u b mi t t e d t o him by t he N a t i on a l Assembly (30
days
in
fails
normal
to
cases
and seven days
answer w i t h i n
that
period,
in
cases o f emergency).
t he
law w i l l
If
be con s i d er ed
t he Amir
as
sanc
t i o n e d by t he Amir and must be r ep r omu l ga t e d ( A r t i c l e 65) .
In t he p o l i t i c a l
systems o f t he Mi ddl e East ,
t he gu ar d i an o f s e c u r i t y
Kuwai t
is
closely
t he source o f power and
has al ways been t he m i l i t a r y
connected t o t he armed f o r c e s .
forces.
The Amir o f
He i s t he Commander-in-
Ch i e f o f t he Kuwai t i armed f o r c e s w i t h power t o di smi s s o f f i c e r s or a p p o i n t
ot h e r s t o s t r en g t he n h i s own power.
m ilitary
tution,
g i ve s
Thi s was i n c l u d e d i n A r t i c l e 93.
power a l l o w s him t o d e c l a r e d e f e n s i v e war.
however,
t he
decree i s
an o f f e n s i v e
Amir t he
right
to
war
is
not
al l owed
proclaim m artial
put be f o r e t he N a t i o n a l
law,
Assembly w i t h i n
- 149 -
In t he Kuwai t i
(Article
94) .
on c o n d i t i o n
His
consti
The law
that
t he
15 days d u r i n g which MPs
shoul d
have deci ded t o approve o r
t he
N a t i on a l
Nati onal
i s No.
106.
Assembly.
But
Ac c o r d i n g
and c a l l
for
do not t ak e pl ac e w i t h i n
reconvenes
and c a r r i e s
(Article
107).
The
N a t i on a l
Assembly
f rom 1976 t o
both cases,
to
this
Article
he
s es s i on.
can
period,
on i t s
Ami r ,
t he N a t i on a l
functions
however,
In
1981.
laws t o
such as A r t i c l e
in
No.
t he
until
has
a d j o ur n
firs t
case,
If
t he
with
any
elections
is
elected
dissolution
t he d i s s o l u t i o n
The second t i me was i n
107 whi ch d e f i n e s
t empor ar y
of
lasted
t he
five
1986 and c o n t i n u e s .
relationship
suspensi on
with
not
In
s a n c t i o n s and
which impose r e s t r i c t i o n s
his
t he
Assembly a u t o m a t i c a l l y
a new Assembly
or der ed
suspend t he a r t i c l e s
c on ne c t i on
in
He a l s o has t he r i g h t
he used t he A r t i c l e s which a l l o w him t o i n i t i a t e
pr omul gat e
Assembly
d r a ma t i c A r t i c l e
new e l e c t i o n s w i t h i n two months.
that
twice.
t he most
Thi s empowers t he Amir t o convene or a d j o u r n
Assembly f o r one month d u r i n g i t s
to dissolve i t
y ear s
not.
on him,
t he
N a t i on a l
exceedi ng
two
i n t he event o f t he A m i r ' s de at h,
t he
mont hs.
To ensure a peacef ul
transition
C o n s t i t u t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t t he H e i r Appar ent be s e l e c t ed by t he Amir i n hi s
lifetim e.
ther
th irty
of
The He i r Appar ent must be a descendant o f Mubarak, t he g r a n d f a
t he
y ea r s
Royal
of
F ami l y .
age and i n
He must
good mental
a c c o r di n g t o t he C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
day t he Amir c l a i ms t he Throne.
right
to
rule
H e i r Appar ent ,
t he
state
-
t he Cabi net
t he Head o f S t a t e .
be a male,
that
health.
at
t he
The
next
must be appoi nt ed w i t h i n
In one s p e c i f i c
is
if
i mme d i a t e l y
t he Amir
t i me
he succeeds
Heir
Appar ent ,
one ye a r from t he
case t he Cabi net
d i es
assumes t he
has t he
b e f or e a p p o i n t i n g an
power and t he
dut y
of
The new Amir must be chosen w i t h i n e i g h t days ( A r t i c l e
60^
150 -
THE CABINET (EXECUTIVE)
After
in
1962,
Independence i n
1961,
and t he e l e c t i o n o f t he N a t i on a l
t he o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t he s t a t e r e q u i r e d t he f o r m a t i o n o f an execu
t i v e power t o assess t he Amir and t o a c t on hi s b e h a l f i n s o c i a l ,
and
po litical
t he p o l i c y
The
matters.
t hr ough
Cabi net
o fficio
Assembly
in
members i n
(Article
laws
t he
t he submi ssi on o f programmes t o
members
one e x c e p t i o n ,
Ac c o r d i n g t o Kuwai t i
t he
K uwai t i
t he Na t i o n a l
i.e.
po litical
Assembly.
economic,
Cabi net det er mi nes
t he N a t i on a l Assembly.
system
are
c ons i der ed
They can debate
and v ot e
ex
with
i f a m i n i s t e r i s su b j e c t e d t o avot e o f no n- c o n f i d e n c e
101).
The C o n s t i t u t i o n
allows
t he
o u t s i d e t he N a t i on a l
Assembly,
third
t he
t he
number
Cabi net
members,
sixteen
members
of
keep
m a j o r i t y on v o t i n g .
w i t h i n t he s o c i a l
shown i n
Table
t he
National
including
to
recruitment
t he
number o f m i n i s t e r s
Assembly.
t hose
without
National
The
and
not exceedi ng one-
Prime
Min ister
portfolio,
Assembly
from i n s i d e
shoul d
holding
t he
and
not
t he
exceed
power
of
t he
However, t he Prime M i n i s t e r r e c r u i t s t he M i n i s t e r f rom
e lite
3. 3
in
without
need t o c o n s u l t t he N a t i on a l
1962 t he
number o f m i n i s t e r s
Fami l y comprised 78% o f t he t o t a l
ministers
of m in isters
were e n t i r e l y
f rom w i t h i n
members o f t he Ca bi n et .
f r om t he merchant c l a s s .
Assembly.
As
t he Royal
The r e s t o f t he
With t he devel opment o f
t he s t a t e and t he i n c r ea s ed r o l e o f t he Na t i on a l Assembly an enormous s h i f t
in
f av o u r
of
members
were
members
from
Cabi net must
p r e s en t e d,
t he
technocrats
f rom t he
t he
speech must o u t l i n e
F a mi l y,
technocrats.
submit
by t he
Royal
became e v i d e n t .
its
In
5 members
Ac c or d i n g
to
t he
to
t he
Prime M i n i s t e r ,
in
a speech i n
ei gn p o l i c y o f t he government
Na t i on a l
Amir i s asked t o a t t e n d t he f i r s t
98) .
of
1971,
2
and
6
merchants
Constitutio n,
t he
Assembly.
must
front
t r e n d s and d i r e c t i o n s
(Article
Cabi net
f rom t he
programme
t he a c t u a l
t he
of
It
t he MPs.
new
be
The
o f domest i c and f o r
As head o f t he e x e c u t i v e s t he
s es s i on o f t he Assembly and make a speech
-
151 -
b r i e f i n g t he members on t he achi evements o f t he government and t he pl ans o f
t he
Cabi net
for
t he
(A rticle
fu tu re
104).
In most
annual
Prime M i n i s t e r makes t he speech on b e h a l f o f t he Ami r .
bly
accordingly
text
of
submi t
t he
to
selects
reply
t he
to
special
a
t he
National
commi tt ee
Amir's
speech.
to
t he
The N a t i on a l Assem
make
s u g ge st i on s
The government
Assembly a f i n a n c i a l
s es s i on s ,
st at eme nt
is
for
t he
to
req uired
including
t he
ec o
nomic s i t u a t i o n o f t he s t a t e a t l e a s t once ever y y ea r ( A r t i c l e 105).
Tabl e 3. 3
The Cabi net Composi t i on f rom January 1962 t o March 1985
The Sabah
C abiM ^
.
January 17,
January 28 ,
1962
1963
December 6, 1964
1 3.
January 3, 1965
1 4.
December 4, 1965
1 5.
Febr uar y 4, 1967
1 6.
Febr uar y 2, 1971
1 7.
Febr uar y 9, 1975
1 8.
September 6, 1976
1 9.
1 10. Febr uar y 16, 1978
1 11. March 4, 1981
1 11 2.
1 1^
March 3,
Source:
1985
Kama! A l - M u n u f i ,
Merchant
-
|
F lC i-ly
No.
%
No.
11
9
4
4
4
4
2
4
5
5
6
6
7&^
64.3
2 8.6
30.8
33.3
28.6
1 5 .4
26.7
27.8
2A8
37.5
40.0
3
4
7
5
4
6
5
5
6
6
3
5
17
25.4
29
o th e rs
%
No.
%
Total
2L^
2&^
5^^
3^^
3^^
4 2.8
3 8.5
3 3.3
3 3 .3
33.3
1 8 .8
3 3 .3
_
-
1
3
4
4
4
6
6
7
7
7
4
7.1
43.3
21
Al-Hukumat a l - K u w a i t i y y a
2L^
30.8
3^^
28.6
4^^
4 0.0
38.9
38.9
|
No.
%
14
14
100
100
14
100
13
12
14
13
100
100
100
43.7
16
26.7
15
100
100
100
100
100
100
3 1.3
67
100
(The K u w a iti
15
18
18
Governments)
Kuwai t , A1- Rubai ' an Company f o r P u b l i c a t i o n and D i s t r i b u t i o n ,
May 1985, Tabl e 6, p . 28 .
See a l s o A. A. S. Baz, P o l i t i c a l E l i t e and
P o l i t i c a l Development i n Kuwai t (The George Washi ngton U n i v e r s i t y .
1981),
Kuwai t
Kuwai t ,
National
t he
p . 173.
has adapted t he
C o n s titu tio n
Assembly.
Assembly does
not
can,
v ot e
however,
p arliam entary
allows
When i t
have t he
against
recruitm en t
comes t o
right
system i n
to
from
a v ot e o f
v ot e a g a i n s t
individual
152
a particular
inside
and
confidence,
t he
Cabi net members,
whole
way.
In
outside
t he
the
Nati onal
Ca b i n e t .
It
but e x c l u d i n g
t he
Prime M i n i s t e r .
unabl e t o
Ami r .
Ne ver thel ess,
co-operate with
He coul d ask t he
for
t he N a t i on a l Assembly can d e c l a r e t h a t i t
t he Prime M i n i s t e r ,
Prime M i n i s t e r
and
call
hi s
o f f i c e and a p p o i n t a new Ca b i n e t .
to
new e l e c t i o n s . He coul d a l s o
is
l e a v i n g t he d e c i s i o n t o t he
dissolve
relie ve
The second
t he
t he
Na t i on a l
Prime
Assembly
M in ister
c ho i c e seems
of
i mp r o b a b l e.
I t has been t he Na t i o n a l Assembly t h a t has been d i s s o l v e d t w i c e .
BUREAUCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
An o i l
threat,
Kuwai t
rich,
i nde pen de nt ,
constitutional
by
socio-political
pr essur ed
set
for
execut e t h i s
a
internal
policy
of
an e f f e c t i v e
rapid
monarchy s u b j e c t t o e x t e r n a l
demands,
economic
and e f f i c i e n t
and
public
t he
new s t a t e
of
changes.
To
politica l
bur eaucr acy
was e s s e n t i a l .
The p u b l i c
bur eaucr acy was t o become t he main p r o v i d e r o f j obs f o r Kuwai t i
citizens.
The economic r es o ur c e c a p a b i l i t i e s t o under t ak e devel opment were
expressed i n t he Fi v e Years Development Plans o f
firs t
1.
The
pl an put t he emphasis on f i v e main o b j e c t i v e s :
The aim i s t o ac hi eve an a c c e l e r a t i n g r a t e o f economic growth c o n s i s
tent
with
t he
in dividual
rate
shoul d
of population
have t he
Si nce
with
"inequitable
t he
disturbs
distribution
principles
t he
of
bal ance
s t r e s s e d t he p r i n c i p l e
social
of
gr owt h.
opportunity
o r d e r t o r a i s e both h i s m a t e r i a l
2.
1967-72 and 1977-81.
t he
to
At
t he same
earn
a larger
and i n t e l l e c t u a l
of national
every
income
in
standing.
income not o n l y c o n f l i c t s
justice
and s o c i a l
overall
economic
o f e n s ur i n g
time,
security,
but
also
situation",
t he
pl an
"a more e q u i t a b l e
income i n o r d e r t o achi ev e a r easonabl e degree o f
distribution
social
justice
of
and
t o secure a c o n t i n u o u s l y dynamic economy".
3.
The pl an n o t i c e d t h a t
at ed
would
with
on l y
oil
t he per
production.
impede
t he
capita
income l e v e l
To depend c o n t i n u a l l y
consolidation
-
153 -
of
t he
is
closely
upon o i l
Ku w a i t i
economy
associ
r es o ur c e s
on
firm
foundation.
The t h i r d o v e r a l l
ment
greater
of
a
Kuwaiti's
national
degree
obje ctive,
of
income,
diversification
while
at
r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t he n o n - o i l
4.
Human s k i l l s ,
both
in technica l
had been seen as t he d r i v i n g
capabilities.
indi g en ou s
bal ance
between
on
s ociety's
in
t he
time,
sources
increasing
of
t he
s e c t o r o f t he economy".
and s c i e n t i f i c
proficie ncy
f o r c e behi nd t he expansi on o f p r o d u c t i o n
was
ex p er i enc e " e s s e n t i a l
needs
" i mp o r t ed
objective
citizens
same
dexterity
and t e c h n i c a l
increasing flow of local
overall
t he
was " t h e a c h i e v e
In t h i s r e s p e c t t he pl an l i n k e d s o c i e t y ' s pr ogr es s w i t h
skills
Dependence
therefore,
and
foreign
skills,
"the
its
ba s i c
skills,
w ill
training
economic
without
prove f u t i l e " .
of
human
f o r achieving a
a
structure".
continuously
Thus t he f o u r t h
r es our ces
of
i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e t hose s p e c i a l i s e d human s k i l l s
and t ec h nol og y
that
w ill
be abl e
to
fu lfil
t he
Kuwai t i
i n sci ence
devel opment
require
ments o f t he Kuwai t i economy".
5.
Si nce economic
aims
integration
and d e s t i n y ,
ordinated with
gration
and
" t he
is
one o f
devel opment
t hose Arab s t a t e s
rapid
economic
t he
human common l i n k s
pattern
of
Kuwai t
between
shoul d
be co
wo r k i ng t owards Arab economic
devel opment "
(Five
Year
Pl an,
in te
1967,
p p . 1- 1 0 ) .
The second
objectives,
1.
Fi ve Year
Pl an,
1977-81,
has echoed t he
same
but a l s o s t a t e s them w i t h l o n g e r t erm p e r s p e c t i v e i n vi ew.
P r e s e r v a t i o n o f t he s t a t e o f Kuwai t as p a r t o f t he Arab n a t i o n and t he
preservation of i t s
2.
Development
f r e e d e moc r a t i c system.
F i n d i n g out d i v e r s i f i e d
and devel oped
productive
alternatives
to
oil
i n t he f u t u r e .
3.
Development o f human r es o ur c e s and t e c h n i c a l
cations.
-
154 -
and p r o f e s s i o n a l
q u a lifi
4,
Un de r t a k i ng
t he necessary
ties
t he Arab w o r l d ,
within
in itia tive s
with
t o deepen
economic
and
social
t he aim o f r e a l i s i n g Arab u n i t y and
s t a r t i n g Gul f economic i n t e g r a t i o n .
5.
C o n s o l i d a t i n g an i n t e g r a l
social
devel opment
for
civilised
s t r u c t u r e and r e a l i s i n g a balanced
man and s o c i e t y
( F i v e Year Development Pl an,
1976, p . 7) .
The above menti oned o b j e c t i v e s emphasised t he need f o r a P u b l i c Admin
i s t r a t i o n t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o c e s s i n g t he s o c i a l and economic d e v e l o p
ment
g o a l s.
In
admin istrative
t he f i r s t
five
responsibility
year
was
pl an
not
i t was
h i n t ed
only r e s t r i c t e d
to
concern f o r law and o r d e r and t he p r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c
need t o
be d i r e c t e d
particularly
t o cover a l l
forms o f p u b l i c
t o economic and s o c i a l
objectives
process ( F i r s t Fi ve Year Development Pl an,
The
second
five
yea r
pl an
stated
pl ans as bei ng t he human el ement .
depended
ava ilable
on
t he
capacities
material
of
r es our ces
It
t he
t he
t he
public
traditional
interests,
conduct as t h i s
it
would
relates
i n v o l v e d i n t he devel opment
1967, p . 151).
t he c r u c i a l
s t at ed t h a t
country's
i n t he
that
factor
t he
human
most p o l i t i c a l
in
devel opment
success o f t he pl an
r es our ces
and
to
utilise
economic
cost-
e f f e c t i v e ways.
There were no doubts t h a t t he t r a d i t i o n a l
cope w i t h t he demanding s o c i a l
ally
superseded
by
an e n l a r ged
and
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was unabl e t o
aspirations.
increasingly
This was g r a du
exper i enced
bur eauc r acy ,
based on cadres t r a i n e d i n t he ways o f modern a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
The ol d
Ministers
as
Supreme
chart
Counci l
3. 1
o f t he
shows.
1950s was
The M i n i s t r y
is
r ep l a c ed
by a
divided
into
Counci l
three
of
maj or
categories :
(i)
Ministries
of sovereignty,
e.g.
Defence,
Justice.
- 155 -
Interior,
For ei gn A f f a i r s ,
Char t 3.1
The R e - O r g a n i s a t i o n o f t he Government
o f Kuwai t , as o f January 1963
The Amir
N a tio n a l Assembly
Prim e M in is te r
a
t
1
®
Ex
U a
S3
g gr
O 4-»
o
to
3
4-1 T3
O C
+»
C
n
3
m
a a
o 0
Pu c
o
«H £
O A
0
P I
c
C
z
z
-P
(Q
•H
C
•H
H
Tl
C
0
n
"8, 2
"S'S
•H
a
P re s id e n t
P r iv a te S e c to r
Source: S a i f Abbas A b d u l l a , P o l i t i c s , A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and Urban Pl a n n i n g
i n a Wel f ar e S o c i e t y : Kuwait ,
In d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , Ph. D. , 1973, p . 238
156
aj
(ii)
Ministries
of
services:
most
by r e n d e r i n g
indispensable
tric ity
Water,
and
havi ng d i r e c t
services,
e.g.
Communi cations,
c o n t ac t w i t h t he p u b l i c
H e a l t h,
Housing,
Edu c at i o n,
Soc i al
Elec
Affairs
and
Labour.
(iii)
M i n i s t r i e s o f devel opment , which i n c l u d e s most o f t he s e r v i c e m i n i s
tries
in
addition
to
t he
Ministry
of
Pl a n n i n g ,
Oil,
Fi nance,
Com
merce and I n d u s t r y .
Expansi on
for
new
and
of
t he
bur eaucr acy
improved
public
was p r o m i n e n t l y
services
and
for
in
response
devel opment
to
demands
in itiative s.
However, t he form and s t r u c t u r e o f t he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and m i n i s t r i e s w i t h i n
it
had t o be adapted t o e n l a r g i n g s t a t e r o l e s .
A huge number and compl ex
i t y o f p u b l i c b u r e a u c r a t i c agenci es was i n v o l v e d as shown i n Chart 3 . 2 .
It
is
exporting
clear
f rom t he
country,
Kuwai t
diversified
A
portfolio
successful
po litical
and
above
endeavoured
to
o f modern s t a t e
ex per i enc ed
awareness
presentation
and
social
that
reinvest
services
mercantile
in
go a l s.
structure
maj or
Kuwai t
differentiated
into
c l e a r l y i n terms o f soc i o- ec onomi c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
However,
gr oups,
i s sue
of
increasing
significance.
other
revenues
with
community
to
oil
in
a
functions.
spr e ad i ng
urge
t he
as t he s o c i a l
definable
more
( n o t a b l y t h e i r access t o
and command over t he bur geoni ng w e a l t h o f t he c o u n t r y )
f i g u r a t i o n o f t he government o f f i c i a l s
oil
combined
t he
c o u n t r y t owards mod er n i st and devel opment al
of
her
any
and devel opment
class
aspiration
unlike
so t he s o c i a l
con
and t he p u b l i c s e r v i c e has become an
We s h a l l
come
also
to
see
that
this
i s sue i s r e l e v a n t t o government -media r e l a t i o n s .
Government o f f i c i a l s
and t he
members o f
t he
are t aken t o i n c l u d e t he Ami r ,
Ca b i n e t ,
or
t he
Min isters,
and
The Ru l i n g Fami l y
by e x t e n s i o n ,
most s e n i o r b u r e a u c r a t i c o f f i c i a l s who rank next below t he m i n i s t e r s .
on
this
understanding
we
w ill
proceed
157
to
introduce
our
t he
Based
discussion
in
j
o
3
o
tn
o
fO
o
&
L.
158
response
to
t he
firs t
question;
as
to
t he
social
configuration
of
this
group.
Let us examine,
in to
firs t
of a l l ,
t he phenomenon o f s o c i a l
account t he c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n
produced by B i e r s t e d t
Concomi t ant s,
Forms,
la te n t
variables
of
social
power
Those ar e:
including prestige,
including
authority
( 1967) .
o f t he t h r e e
power and t ak e
dominance and i n f l u e n c e .
(potential
power ),
force
( m a n i f e s t power)
and
( i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d power ).
Sources,
including
numer i cal
strength
(number s),
social
organisations
( or g an i s ed power) and r es o ur c e s ( p r o p e r t y and w e a l t h ) .
Each s o c i a l
(significant
r ank .
The
or
of
limited)
which
it
1976).
Prestige
we al th,
by
is
receive
a
i n t he
and
gener al
f orm
a certain
of
so
social
ranking,
is
pr ocesses by which t he
o f power (Weber,
growt h
( Da hr en do r f ,
informal
assumed t o
judgement w i l l express a p e r c e p t i o n
evaluation
The
group i s
a
evaluation
of a social
image
of
of
bur eaucr acy
Thi s
is
t akes
( p r i v a t e b u si n es s,
a process
p l ac e
parties,
in
of
of i t .
both
t he
un i o n s , e t c . )
of
a
certain
expansi on r e i n f o r c e s
tion
system i s
power,
including
of
social
power t ends
established
t he
sectors.
(public)
and
S e p a r a t e l y and
set o f f
from t he gener al
Soc i al
rank and s t a t u s ,
forms
For exampl e,
be rash t o concl ude t h a t c l a s s
to
and g r o u p - a g g r e g a t i v e .
be s t a n d a r d i s e d
stratificatio n
structural
reinforced.
f or mal
power
c o n v e r t s i n t o power by gai n o f access t o o f f i c e
The e f f e c t i s both i n d i v i d u a l
The d i s t r i b u t i o n
lines
( Al - Naqeeb,
in stitutionalising
Power c o r r e l a t e s w i t h o c c u p a t i o n .
t he possessi on o f p r e s t i g e ,
and c o n t r o l
s t r a t um and an
1958).
1968).
system.
with
c onver t ed t o sources and forms
t o g e t h e r a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o w e r - h o l d i n g o cc u r s ,
social
of
prestige
associated
t he group
con c omi t a nt
power i s
share o f
of
inequality.
Mar s hal l
has been l o s i n g
-
159 -
order,
its
t he
al ong
t he
bureaucratic
The s t r a t i f i c a
suggests t h a t
i mp or t an c e,
"It
but
would
it
may
be t r u e
that
it
has been changi ng i t s
The change i n t he c l a s s c h a r t e r ,
consists
in
a detachment
f rom
character"
he b e l i e v e s ,
social
(Marshall,
1972,
p . 632) ,
due t o t he p o l i t i c a l
factor,
stratificatio n
in
t he
"old
sense" .
Thi s argument e x p l a i n s t he c u r r e n t t r e n d s o f power concepts which cont ends
t h a t t he growth and expansi on o f t he modern bur eaucr acy i s pr o du c i ng a new
political
b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s which i s not e c o n o mi c a l l y det er mi ned.
P o litica lly,
by t r i b a l
val ues
The Amir
and t he
t he a u t h o r i t y o f t he Ami r ,
which
ruling
r e t a i n i n g t he Kuwai t i
t he c o u n t r y .
family
not
endeavour
acqui escence
to
but
m a i n t ai n
also
their
a l t h o u g h t hey encouraged gr adual
t h e r e were d e f i n i t e
changes
only
buttressed
consensus.
authority
by
t r a d i t i o n s and v a l ue s , which i n c l u d e t h e i r r e i g n over
Accordingly,
mod er ni sat i on,
economic
require
though a b s o l u t e i s
coul d
b a s i c a l l y conservative,
not
be
lim its
permitted
changes t owards
beyond which s o c i a l ,
to
go.
The
p o litica l
ruling
family
en c our agi ng o n l y t hose changes which f i t
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t he c o u n t r y .
or
are
into th e ir
They suppose t hemsel ves t o know t he i n t e r e s t s
o f t he c o u n t r y b e t t e r than anyone e l s e ,
demonstr ated i n t h e i r r e t a i n i n g key
government p o s i t i o n s ,
champi oni ng c o n s e r v a t i v e causes and u n d e r t a k i n g on l y
conservative
consistent
have r u l e d
changes
t oo
l ong which
keep
with
t he
perpetuation
them ent renched
of
as t he
t he
Kuwai t
country's
t hey
rulers.
T h e i r a u t h o r i t y i s t h e r e f o r e r e t a i n e d not by op pr e s s i on and c o n v e r s i o n ,
by a p p e a l i n g t o a s et o f t r a d i t i o n s
tribal
et hos.
and val ues ent renched
As f a r as t hey are concer ned,
but
in a continuing
Kuwai t would not be what i t
is
w i t h o u t them; a vi ew which i s not uncommon among t he m a j o r i t y o f K u w a i t i s .
Thus,
j u s t as i t
mous Emi r at e
has been f rom t he b e g i nn i ng o f Kuwai t as an au t o n o
(especially
s i n c e Mubarak),
pri me concern o f t he R u l i n g F a mi l y.
adaptability
and
success
sufficient s ta b ility
Mai nt enance
of
t he
in
h i gh e r p o l i t i c a l
Their r i g h t to ru le
maintaining
Kuwait's
ma t t e r s are t he
is
inte grity
based on t h e i r
and p r o v i d i n g
t o pursue t he c o u n t r y ' s economic growt h and w e l l b e i n g .
discreet
ruling
role
-
160 -
was even
s t r eng t hen ed
after
t he
export
of
01
1 began i n
confrontations.
1946,
t hough
not
without
frictio n
and o c c a si o nal
However, a f t e r i ndependence i n 1961, t he democ r at i c un de r
p i n n i n g s o f t he c o n s t i t u t i o n di d not much a f f e c t t he i n d i s p u t a b l e a u t h o r i t y
o f t he Amir t o govern and t o r u l e .
political
m a t t e r s , whet her e x e c u t i v e or l e g i s l a t i v e .
The
Ami r ,
t he
Ruling
mai n t a i ne d
conservative
predicated
on m a i n t a i n i n g
t he o t h e r maj or s o c i a l
their
interests.
chant s
He remained t he i n d i s p u t a b l e a r b i t e r i n
is
Fami l y
and
t he
government
st ances on maj or p u b l i c
Kuwait's
class,
integrity
t he mer chant s,
The r e l a t i o n s h i p
based on a s y mbi os i s
have
issues,
and t he
consistently
a st ance which i s
conditions
in
which
can c on t i n u e i n t he p u r s u i t o f
between t he R u l i n g Fami l y and t he mer
of
economic
interests.
The economic p r o
s p e r i t y o f t he s t a t e i s a gr owi ng source o f we al t h f o r t he R u l i n g Fami l y,
r es o ur ce
and t he
of
more numerous
distributable
and more p r o f i t a b l e
pool
which
satisfies
pursuits
c l ai ms
to
for
a
t he merchants
rightful
shares
and
purchases sup po r t f o r t he regime among t he peopl e.
As i n o t h e r modern monar chi es,
and t he Ru l i n g Fami l y i s mediated
a bureaucratic
t he
ruler
appoints
mouthpi ece
reign's
media
organisation
of
t he
and who
of
largely,
hi s
and
conservative o r i e n t a t i o n .
is
an e x t e n s i o n
of
his.
s ov e r e i gn
though not e x c l u s i v e l y ,
government
serve
government ,
t he i n f l u e n c e o f t he Kuwai t i
officia ls
p l e a s u r e.
whose upper echel ons
They
consequently,
t hr ough
usually
identify
with
become t he
t he
sove
T h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h and i n f l u e n c e on t he
Nor i s
this
influence
le ft
t o chance.
In
Kuwai t t he Crown Pr i n c e m a i n t ai n s a r e g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t he j o u r n a l
ists
and meets w i t h them o c c a s i o n a l l y
to
brief
t he government on t he i s s u es o f t he day.
tute
a formulation
o f t he
them about t he p o s i t i o n o f
These meeti ngs
news o f t he day,
not o n l y
t hey may a l s o r e s u l t
consti
in i n s t i
g a t i n g e d i t o r i a l s and debat es.
As i f
is
usually
this
mechanism i s
a member
of
t he
not enough,
Ruling
-
t he M i n i s t e r
F ami l y ,
161 -
hol ds
of
Information,
a weekl y
meeti ng
who
with
journalists
positio n
in
his
office,
not
only
on t he i s s ues o f t he day,
to
brief
them about
t he
gover nment ’ s
but a l s o t o engage them i n debates and
d i s c u s s i o n s o f t hese i s s u e s .
One
Kuwai t i
point
shoul d
government
t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
be
made
and t he
cle ar.
Ruling
As p o i n t e d ou t
We
Fami l y
shoul d
oppress
earlier,
t he
not
concl ude
t he media or
traditional
that
t he
intim idate
socio-political
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r g i ves t he R u l i n g Fami l y and t he government o f f i c i a l s
r i g h t t o lead and o b l i g a t e s
t he media t o
be not ed,
however,
pr ocess.
At t hese r e g u l a r meet i ngs
and d i s c u s s i o n .
a l ly blunt.
that
usually
in
It
shoul d
are not c o mp l e t e l y pas si v e i n t h a t
both
frank
groups b e n e f i t
and a t t i mes
on t he
f rom t he exchange
s e r i o u s and o c c a s i o n
i ss ues but o n l y up t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t .
are o b l i g e d t o p r e s e n t t he d i f f e r i n g
obliged
sel v es
is
them.
Each knows t he p o s i t i o n o f t he o t h e r w i t h i n t he un de r s t a n d i n g
t he d a i l y
also
Thi s
t hey can d i f f e r
nalists
in
t h a t t he j o u r n a l i s t s
co-operate with
t he
media w i t h
its
fare
to
t he
differing
present
t he media w i t h
o f news,
Jour
views and d i f f e r i n g
positions
views and e d i t o r i a l s .
They are
views
of
t he
openness and f a i r n e s s
government
of e d i t o r i a l
and t hem
presentation,
r e p o r t i n g and commentary.
THE JOURNALISTS
The background o f t he devel opment o f t he Kuwai t i
national
pride.
huge o i l
revenues ( $ 9 , 8 0 2 . 8 m i l l i o n
ing
owners
t he
established
i mpor t ed
quality
Rapid devel opment i n t he l a s t t went y year s as a r e s u l t o f
of
journalists
ava ila bility
t he
demand
for
i n 1976) al l owed many c i t i z e n s ,
newspapers,
Lebanon and Jordan
and
i n cr ea sed
local
modern media p l a n t s
top-notch
Palestine,
press i s a source o f
of
to
with
f rom
acquire
t he
other
(see Tabl e
e d u c a t i on
news
and
most
Arab
3.4).
produced
information,
- 162 -
tremendous
up-to-date
states,
Rapid
we al th.
They
t ec h n o l o g y ,
and
including
i mprovement
more educated
mai nl y
includ
t hr ough
Egypt ,
in
t he
peopl e
and
t he
press
Tabl e 3. 4
Labour Force i n t he Mass Media by N a t i o n a l i t y
- - Census 1975 - -
NATIONALITY
AUTHORS &
JOURNALISTS
ELECTRICAL
ELECTRONIC
& CINEMA
TECHNICIANS
PRINTERS &
RELATED
WORKERS
Kuwai t
48
^^31
389
Iraq
11
479
43
Saudi Ar abi a
1
58
4
Yemen North & South
2
108
25
Jordan & P a l e s t i n e
82
2 ,1 6 3
319
Syria
29
542
29
Lebanon
22
371
47
Egypt
47
396
87
Sudan
4
13
2
North A f r i c a
I
10
-
Other G u l f Arabs
-
62
13
Other Arabs
-
3
-
T ot al Arabs
247
5,536
958
Iran
-
804
21
P a k is ta n
6
L449
24
India
5
867
76
Other Asi ans
1
32
1
Other A f r i c a n s
-
2
1
U.K.
-
10
-
France
-
2
-
Other Europeans
1
6
-
U .S .A .
1
1
-
s i n c e t he e l e c t r o n i c media (TV and r a d i o )
Publication
permitted
out spokenness,
and government-owned.
diversity
and even
The Law o f
criticism
of
t he
government and i t s p o l i c i e s t o a wi de range o f p u b l i c a t i o n s .
The r o l e
paring
t he
example,
Allah
of
no n- Ku wai t i
lim ited
t he
role
strongly
Arab j o u r n a l i s t s
pl ayed
by t he
established
press
role
c oul d be r ec ogni s ed by com
during
of
t he
t he
press
1950s
in
t he
with, for
1960s.
Abd
(1985) p o i n t s out some reasons behi nd t he p r e s s ' s f a i l u r e a t f i r s t t o
fu lfil
its
social
tasks.
First,
in
t he
' 50s most p o l i t i c a l
devel opments and s p e c t a c u l a r event s t oo k pl ac e i n t he n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t he
Arab World i n Cai r o
(Egypt),
been t he c e n t r e f o r
Arab n a t i o n a l i s m ,
resistance to B r it is h
ern i n t e r e s t s
ony,
had
Kuwai t i
relations
or
t he Kuwai t i
journalists
linkages
t he
t ime,
with
t hems el ves ,
circulation
o f t he new
power and t he c h a l l e n g e t o West
Kuwai t ,
other
press had no d i r e c t
pl aced
Ca i r o had
which f o s t e r e d t he s p i r i t
At t h a t
t he c u r r e n t o f t he Arab p o l i t i c a l
Secondl y,
and Damascus ( S y r i a ) .
and French c o l o n i a l
i n t he Arab Worl d.
no
consequence,
Bagdad ( I r a q )
as a B r i t i s h
Arab
states.
As
access t o Arab news,
while
under B r i t i s h
col
a
nor had
occupation,
in
st r eam.
o f newspapers was
ver y
lim ited.
In
some
cases, t he number o f i ss ues coul d be counted i n hundreds and merchants f e l t
no d e s i r e
or
inclination
to
advertise
in
t hose
newspapers.
Many
papers
publishing
daily
were t hus d o u b t f u l l y v i a b l e .
Thirdly,
newspapers.
i nvest ment s
j o u r n a l i s t s who were
journalists
owners
resisted
t he
i dea o f
T h e i r p o l i c y was not t o i n d u l g e i n such c o s t l y
demanded hi gh
on
newspaper
a t t ac h ed
to
o f money and t i me .
lacking
other
in
j o bs
Besi des,
most owners r e l i e d
p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m ; t hey
which
t hey
viewed
p r o j e c t s which
were
part-tim e
as p r i m a r y ,
whereas
t h e i r press work was mer el y p a r t - t i m e .
Fourthly,
be f o r e
s i n g l e p r i n t i n g pr e s s .
independence
in
1961,
Kuwai t d i d
not
even
own
a
I t was not unusual f o r p e r i o d i c a l s and o t h e r p u b l i -
-
164 -
cations
to
Kuwai t .
be
The c os t o f
newspapers
A1-Rayed
(The
Finally,
politica l
in
Lebanon
printing,
t o cease
respectively
most l y
printed
and
and
and
A1-Eman
(The
t he merchant owners o f
or
Faith)
be sent
delays,
business;
which
by a i r
to
caused many
o f such
ceased
were
publicatio n
1985).
newspapers were on t he whole w i t h o u t
ideological
commitment.
h a l f - e d u c a t e d men who had e s t a b l i s h e d
s t i g e and s t a t u s .
to
frequent
go ou t o f
i n 1954 and i n 1955 (Abd A l l a h ,
ambit ions
there
together with
publication
Leader)
f rom
Fur t her mor e,
newspapers f o r
t hey
were
per sonal
pre
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t hose owners and t he press was
so f e e b l e t h a t t he y ,
not i n f r e q u e n t l y ,
would cease p u b l i c a t i o n a t t he l e a s t
p r o v o c a t i o n a t t he f i r s t
si gn o f p o s s i b l e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t he p o l i t i c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s or t he f i r s t
s i gn o f f i n a n c i a l
With t he independence o f Kuwai t
in
which was h i g h l y i n t e r e s t e d i n p o l i t i c a l
loss.
1961,
a new pr ess was e s t a b l i s h e d
issues.
Thus a t f i r s t ,
newspapers
such as Al -Ray Al-Am and Kuwai t Times were p o l i t i c a l l y
oriented.
t he
and because o f
majority
far-reaching
ideology
of
journalists
freedom o f
t he
f rom t he M a r x i s t
were
no n- Ku wai t i
pr e s s ,
radical
Arabs
newspapers
and
magazines
t o t he r e l i g i o u s l y
Because
differed
and p o l i t i c a l l y
t he
in
con-
servati ve.
But t he r ea l
when many n o t ab l e
Gulf s t a t e s .
story of
Arab
t he press
journalists
in
Kuwai t began i n t he m i d - s e v e n t i e s
made t h e i r
way t o
Kuwai t and t o o t h e r
T h e i r a m b i t i o n was t o j o i n t he G u l f media where h i g h e r s a l a r
i e s were gi ven and per sonal
i n t h e i r home s t a t e s .
f rom Egypt , S y r i a ,
s e c u r i t y was guar ant eed, c o n d i t i o n s l e s s l i k e l y
The j o u r n a l i s t s who i mmi gr at ed t o Kuwai t were mai nl y
I r a q w i t h some h i g h l y p r o f e s s i o n a l s f r om Lebanon.
There i s an Arab e x p r e s s i on e q u i v a l e n t t o t he E n g l i s h ,
is
anot he r man's p o i s o n " .
t he Lebanese c i v i l
consequences.
war
The e x p r es s i on was o f t e n
(1976 up t o t he p r e s e n t )
The Ar a b i c e x p r es s i on says:
-
165 -
"One man's meat
used t o
describe
how
br ought about s i g n i f i c a n t
" D i s a s t e r f o r some are gai ns f o r
others".
It
d e s c r i b e s t he
l osses t h a t
t he Lebanese s u f f e r e d
capital
on t he one hand and on t he o t h e r ,
states,
especially
in
t hose
le ft
gai ns
Lebanon
(A1 - Wat an,
that
i n t he G u l f ,
to
join
18.3.86.,
in
large
numbers t he
p . 13) .
result,
Thi s l ed i n
It
and
printers,
media mi g r a n t s were welcome.
main t a r g e t s
In
of
t he
newspapers'
editors.
As a
emi gr at ed t o London and P a r i s
went
to
t he G u l f .
new Arab
Of t hese 200 were r e c e n t
wo r k i ng
there
A1-Qabas,
staff
in
In Kuwai t
t he
i mmi gr a n t s .
lacking.
i n A1-Anba d a i l y
day
writers,
t he numbers o f
firs t
included;
Ac c o r d i n g t o t he Kuwai t
is
Kuwai t .
t he case o f many s k i l l e d
were 247.
spondents,
t he
in
in
a u t ho r s
section-directors.
newspapers
journalists
or
numbers o f
r ev e al ed t h a t
trained
1976 t o t he murder o f two c h i e f
t hey
number o f j o u r n a l i s t s
press has had a share
was c l e a r from
their
new Ar a b i c p u b l i c a t i o n s ,
reporters
and
daily
t he m a j o r i t y o f Lebanese j o u r n a l i s t s
to s ta rt
t he
The Kuwai t i
p r o f e s s i o n a l and h i g h l y
among t he Lebanese f a c t i o n s
h e a d q u a r t er s .
t he b e n e f i t s t h a t t he o t h e r Arab
gai ned.
when Lebanese
i n l i v e s and
census o f
Kuwai t i
1975,
pr ess i n
t he
1975,
More r e c e n t s t a t i s t i c s
Personal
interviews,
are more than
apart
t he
from
its
however,
80 e d i t o r s ,
have
reporters
in te rna tiona l
i n c l u d i n g t hose o f t he
of
corre
in te rna tiona l
edi
t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n London i s more than 180 j o u r n a l i s t s .
The
Kuwai t i
figures
in
Tabl e
4. 6
show,
however,
that
Arab j o u r n a l i s t s were o f P a l e s t i n i a n o r i g i n .
t he
majority
of
non-
Among 199 non- Ku wai t i
Arab j o u r n a l i s t s i n 1975, t he numbers o f P a l e s t i n i a n j o u r n a l i s t s were 82 or
45%.
Second come t he
Sy r i a ns
Iraqis
Egy p t i an s
who numbered 29 j o u r n a l i s t s ,
t he
47
journalists
or
Lebanese 22 j o u r n a l i s t s
23%,
t he
and t he
11 j o u r n a l i s t s .
Because t he j o u r n a l i s t s
i s s u e was under
tain
who numbered
s t r on g debate i n
Kuwaitization
Information
o f K uwai t i
c i t i z e n s h i p were i n a m i n o r i t y t he
1979.
The main probl em was how t o mai n
f o r media and manpower and what means t he M i n i s t r y
of
i n c o - o r d i n a t i o n w i t h t he media e s t a b l i s h m e n t s and t he Kuwai t i
- 166 -
war
University
coul d use t o persuade Ku w a i t i
intellectual
and educated you t hs
t o accept wor k i ng f o r t he pr ess .
In
a
series
some o f f i c i a l s
carried
editor-in-chief
Kuwaitis
of inte rv ie ws
ont o
out
of
A1-Anba
his
staff.
with
ed itors-in-chief,
by A1-Qabas
daily
in
November
expressed
Al - Ma r z ouk ,
his
intellectuals
1979,
desire
however,
and
Al - Mar zouk ,
to
recruit
voi ced
t he
capabl e
reservations
by
dr awi ng a t t e n t i o n t o t he f a c t t h a t Kuwai t ;
" I n gener al l a c k s t he t r a i n e d human power and i n p a r t i c u l a r i n
t he f i e l d o f t he media.
The Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t t he
E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f o f a press e s t a b l i s h m e n t must be a Kuwai t i c i t i
zen even though t hose E d i t o r s - i n - c h i e f are not f u l l - t i m e j o u r
nalists.
They have t h e i r p r i v a t e busi ness and c oul d not comply
w i t h a demanding c a r e e r such as wo r ki ng f o r t he p r e s s " .
( Al - Qabas, 28. 11. 79 )
When a n a l y s i n g t he i deas and a t t i t u d e s
s i ons on t he K u w a i t i z a t i o n
of
t he p r e s s ,
different
it
in discus
was found t h a t t h e r e were two
different
attitudes
and
Kuwaitis,
especially
t hose who r e p r e s e n t ed t he Government' s views t o g e t h e r
with
two
o f t he p a r t i c i p a n t s
some h i g h - r a n k i n g and s e n i o r
news o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,
tended
to
s u g g e s t i on s .
Ku w a i t i
For
journalists
emphasise
t he
need
in
for
assumpt i on
financial
factor
v en t ur es
The f i n a n c i a l
are
Th e r e f o r e
t he
usually
salarie s
i n t he f i r s t
training
as a p a r t
of
f rom t he
sources
suppor ter s
goal s
of
of
more
coul d
Arab j o u r n a l i s t s .
rewards t o Ku w a i t i you t hs eager t o j o i n t he pr e s s .
i mpor t ance
such
and
by i n c r e a s i n g
its
that
conservative
be achi eved
draws
here i s
t he
some
ur g en t s h o r t
l o n g - t e r m pl ans t o a l l o w K u w a i t i s t o r e p l a c e no n- Ku wai t i
The
example,
fact
that
profit
Kuwaitization
p r i v a t e work and busi ness
than
called
wo r k i ng
for
p l ac e and i n t he meantime f o r
t he
Kuwai t
University
in
t he
increasing
pr ess .
mont hl y
e s t a b l i s h i n g academic
Edu cat i o na l
programmes.
Al-
Omar, t he Un d e r - S e c r e t a r y o f t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n has r e f l e c t e d t he
need
for
urging
ed ucati onal
Kuwaitis
to
join
t he
pr e s s .
He emphasised t he
programmes i n an i n t e r v i e w p u b l i s h e d i n A1-Qabas;
167 -
need f o r
"The U n i v e r s i t y
of
Kuwai t must do i t s
best
t o meet t he need o f
t he government
and
t he whole s o c i e t y
for
educated andp r o f e s
sional Kuwaitis
in
Mass Communi cation,
The
M i n i s t r y o f I n f or ma
t i o n has sup po r t e d, f rom t he b e g i n n i n g , t he i dea o f e s t a b l i s h i n g
a mass communication depar t ment w i t h i n t he U n i v e r s i t y , because i t
under st ands t he f a c t t h a t a s t r o n g mass media needs an academic
programme and hi gh s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g .
Such programmes w i l l
hel p t o suppl y t he gover nment ' s i n f o r m a t i o n depar t ment s and t he
pr ess e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l and w e l l - t r a i n e d j o u r n a l
i s t s f rom w i t h i n Kuwai t .
(A1 Qabas, 29 . 11. 79 )
The second a t t i t u d e i s t h a t o f some pan-Arab n a t i o n a l i s t s who vi ew t he
question
of
Kuwai t i z i n g
t he
press
as a narrow-mi nded
t hose who tend t o impose s e g r eg a t i o n on no n- Ku wai t i
K uwai t i
radical
newspapers opposed t he
with
Kuwaitis,
argui ng t h a t
tity
or c i t i z e n s h i p .
gai n was mut ua l ,
in
Ku w a i t i
and
radical
i dea o f r e p l a c i n g
by
The e d i t o r s o f
Arab
jo urn alists
t he p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m i n t he media has no i d e n
just
as Arab j o u r n a l i s t s
news o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,
profits
by
view was i n t r o d u c e d
t h a t t ime.
Ar abs.
c r ea t e d
They based t h e i r argument on t he c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t he
i.e .
reputational
approach
t he
Ku w a i t i
havi ng
t hose
by A 1 - S a l i h ,
mi ght gai n f rom t h e i r work
press
scor es
journalists
t he
Ch i e f
higher
wo r k i ng
Editor
financial
there.
A
o f A1-Watan a t
He argued t h a t :
" I t i s not i d e a l , r a t h e r i m p o s s i b l e , t o b e l i e v e i n t he K u w a i t i z a t i o n o f t he press i n Kuwai t , bot h i n t he s h o r t or t he long r un.
Because o f t he na t u r e o f t he pr ess and t he s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i n
which t he Kuwai t i p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f many c i t i z e n s h i p s w i t h
n a t i o n a l K u w a i t i s as a m i n o r i t y , i t would be u n r e a l i s t i c t o t ake
such a pl an f o r g r a n t ed .
( I b i d , 1. 1 1. 79)
Si nce t h i s
debate t oo k
p l ac e
evi dence what soever o f an i n c r e a s e
organizations.
Arts
in
Kuwai t
Also,
it
in
i n t he
was not u n t i l
University
began
1979 t h e r e
not
seem t o
number o f K u w a i t i s
l a s t year,
a mass
does
be any
i n t he press
1987, t h a t t he F a c u l t y o f
communication
programme
of
four
years.
In a t r a d i t i o n a l
u r b an i sed s o c i e t y ,
e xp e r i en c e
society
in t r a n s i t
like
Kuwai t ,
it
is
di sagr eement
on t he
i ss ues
f rom a t r i b a l
system t o a modern,
not unexpected f o r s o c i a l
of
devel opment .
K u w a i t i z a t i o n o f t he press a g i t a t e d a p o l i t i c a l
168 -
s ec t o r s t o
The i s s u e
of
t he
debate which seemed t o span
sev er al
social
of
relations
t he
between
issues.
local
For exampl e,
citizens
and
it
r a i s e d t he q u e s t i o n
no n- Ku wai t i
Arabs;
it
a c t i v a t e d r e g i o n a l i s m ver sus pan-Arab n a t i o n a l i s m and c o n s i d e r a t i o n
way no n- Ku wai t i
Arabs were
i s s u e o f t he a v a i l a b i l i t y
treated
in
o f Ku w a i ti
Kuwai t .
And f i n a l l y
it
also
of
t he
raised
t he
c i t i z e n s t o r e p l a c e n o n- Ku wai t i Ar abs,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t hose i n t he media.
When
Kuwai t i
it
comes
to
presence
of
Arab
professionals
many
pan-Arab
n a t i o n a l i s t s defended t h e i r cause up h o l d i ng t h e i r r i g h t t o work and
b e n e f i t f rom t he o i l
t he a b i l i t y
other
t he
wealth.
J u s t as A 1 - S a l i h quoted above,
of Kuwaitis to f i l l
intellectuals
put
example, Fatima A l - A l i ,
t he
c a s t doubt on
t he vacancy f o r media p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , many
matter
a Kuwai t i
in
a
scholarly
perspective.
For
s c h o l a r , wr o t e :
"Now and a f t e r we agreed not t o a l l o w t he Kuwai t i press t o s h r i n k
or be reduced t o t he s i z e o f a Kuwai t i Deshdashah (Arab men's
w h i t e robe) we need t o emphasise t he f a c t t h a t our c o u n t r y i s i n
des per at e need o f Arab w r i t e r s who gi ve Kuwai t s i n c e r e l y o f t h e i r
t a l e n t s and c r e a t i v e mi nds.
Wehave t o admi t t h a t w i t h o u t t h e i r
p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m i t would not be p o s s i b l e f o r our press t o achi eve
t he p o p u l a r i t y and c on f i d e n c e i t enj oy s among o t h e r Arab pr es s.
T h e r e f or e, i t i s not j u s t t o c a l l f o r t he K u w a i t i z a t i o n o f t he
pr es s, r a t h e r i t w i l l be j u s t t o c a l l f o r A r a b i z i n g i t ,
by
encour agi ng enr ol ment o f more and more Arab j o u r n a l i s t s i n t o our
media o r g a n i s a t i o n s " .
( Al - Qabas, 31 . 12. 79)
Al-Ali
and o t h e r
nationalists,
with
her e n t h u s i a s t i c
f o r t he presence o f t he Arab j o u r n a l i s t s
t he s o c i a l
t ude
Kuwaitis
who
foreign
journalists
hate
see
to
p o p u l a r i t y o f t he media.
other
by
writers,
other,
and
t he
t he
government
sharing
t he
and
oil
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between Kuwai t i
in te lle ctuals,
on
professionals,
t he
p r ov i d e s t he b a s i s on which t he
t he s o c i a l
i n t he f ace o f an a g g r e s s i v e a t t i
Arabs
have been d e f i n e d be f o r e as s c h o l a r s ,
spectrum i n Kuwai t .
t he s e c u r i t y o f Arab j o u r n a l i s t s
tone
i n t he Kuwai t media, t hus f o s t e r e d
s t a t u s o f t hose j o u r n a l i s t s
against
supportive
one
latter
Two s o c i a l
hand,
a
few
revenues
and
teachers,
professors,
on t he
used t o p l ac e themsel ves
factors,
t he
n a t i o n a l i s t s who
in
however, c o n t r i b u t e d t o
i n t he mi d s t o f t hese c o n f l i c t i n g
169 -
jealous
social
tendencies,
i.e.
t he
pr e s s ,
p e r m i t t e d s u p p o r t i v e v o i ces
dicting
t he
government
journalists,
Kuwaitis,
and
with
and
one
of
Kuwaitis
who tended
t he
pan-Arab
attitude
in
Arabi sm"
l ed
wo r k i ng
a symposium
by Ghali
for
t he
most
popular
Editor
entitled
Shukery,
A1-Watan
occupy
in
t he
o f A1- Ar abi
a popular
Arab
part
of
socio-political
t he
in
press
none
per sonnel
Kuwai t ,
magazi ne,
of
Arab
of
t he
liberal
Democracy
writer
in
a Ph.D.
and a Kuwai t i
Press,
A 1 - A r a b i , a magazine p u b l i s h e d
f r om
Paris,
and
Egypt
Al - Rumai hi
i n Kuwai t and t he p o s i t i o n t hey a c t u
structure.
c e r t a i n el ements which r e g u l a t e t he a c t u a l
maj or
humiliate
which
scholars
"A d i s c u s s i o n
anal ysed t he r o l e o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s
ally
to
views c o n t r a
coul d deny or r e s i s t .
h o l d e r besi des bei ng t he Ch i e f
citizen,
i n f l u e n c e which
out t h e i r
other
s econdl y,
is
tremendous p o l i t i c a l
l i k e A1-Salih to spell
at least p u b l i c l y ,
Al - Rumai hi
its
His
argument was based on
dynamics o f t he press and o f t he
composed mai nl y
of
no n- Ku wai t i
Arabs.
Those el ement s a c c o r d i ng t o Al - Rumai hi ar e;
1.
That t he press i n Kuwai t are an a d d i t i o n a l
has
orchestrated
itse lf
with
t he
socio-political
N a t i on a l
Assembly,
f u n c t i o n i n g as a spur t o devel opment i n Kuwai t ,
process
ev e r ,
and gu ar d i ng
is occasionally
t he
constitutional
tribal
social
society
like
bot h
t he r e by
g u i d i n g t he democr at i c
system.
Thi s
subject to c e r t a i n c o n f l i c t s ,
o f t he f a c t t h a t a smal l
power which
relation,
how
sometimes because
Kuwai t emerging r e c e n t l y f rom a
base must be s u b j e c t t o si de e f f e c t s whi ch demand c l o s e r
c o n t r o l and sometimes because o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s among t he heads
of
each i n s t i t u t i o n .
tinually
watch
over
It
is
each
ob v i o u s ,
other,
with
bound t o gi v e advi c e t o t he press
of c r it ic i s m .
in
t he
practices
cases where i t
and p a r l i a m e n t a r y
-
170 -
N a t i on a l
that
t he two con
Assembly
case o f o v e r s t e p p i n g t he
S i m i l a r l y on t he o t h e r s i d e ,
t i o n o f t he Assembly i n
cratic
nevertheless,
lim its
t he press draws t he a t t e n
overlooks
norms.
usually
t he e x t e n t o f demo
The press was,
as al ways,
t he
watchdog
which
t he
for
social
MPs cou l d
awareness,
see t he
reporting
ver y
smal l
social
details
of
event s
t he
t hr ough
movement
of
society.
2.
At l e a s t up t o t he p r e s e n t , t he press
interests
of
part of i t s
any one p a r t y , or
p rioritie s.
if
it
The l o g i c
behi nd t h i s
sim ilar.
The d i f f e r e n c e s are i n t he s o c i a l
owners.
i n gener al
t he
pr es s,
interests,
therefore,
rather
ap plicability
for
it
is
is
t he
no i mpor t ance.
not
based
i n t he s o c i e t y .
t he
ideological
ists,
seems t o
car e and housi ng are mos t l y
based
on t he
on
puzzling
backgrounds
be
be f a i r l y
backgrounds
income i n
national
free,
Kuwai t
services,
t he f i n a n c i a l
The d i v e r s i t y
differences
ideals
c a p a c i t y o f Kuwai t t o adopt t he i d e o l o g i c a l
reason
media
because t he p e r - c a p i t a
becomes secondary and o f
Kuwai t i
of
t he economic
assumpt i on i s t h a t t he
i s e x t r e me l y hi gh and t he s o p h i s t i c a t e d
ed u c a t i on and h e a l t h
factor
owners
T h e r e f or e,
reflected
such an i t em would not
background
t hose
t he
did,
financial
of
of
has not
of
t he
in
in
t he
economic
peopl e
and
t he
c u r r e n t s and t o t e s t t h e i r
Such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s mi ght p r o v i d e t he
c o m p o s i t i on
wo r k i ng
Musl im Br ot her hood
in
of
one
journalists
newspaper,
with
where
and Arab n a t i o n a l i s t s
different
t he
Nasser-
work s i d e - b y - s i d e
i n an i n t e r e s t i n g mosaic i n one and t he same media o r g a n i s a t i o n .
3.
Maj or p o l i t i c a l
event s
have t aken
pl ace
in
t he
last
thirty
t he Mi ddl e East , and t he Arab World has had t he l i o n ' s
ic al
unrest.
attitudes
Al-Rumaihi,
among o t h e r s ,
believes
that
o f t h a t u n r e s t a c q u i r e d d i f f e r e n t magni tude.
year s
share o f p o l i t
t he
p o litica l
He p o i n t s out
that :
"Some o f t hose u p r i s i n g s tended t o d i s c r e d i t i t s c i t i z e n s
and found t he courage t o expel them out o f t h e i r home l ands.
Those Arab c i t i z e n s had found i n t he G u l f a warm welcome
then t he passi on because o f t he Ar a b i c t i e s and t he si mpl e
na t u r e o f t he G u l f c i t i z e n s , a l s o because o f t h e i r ad mi r a
t i o n and ent husi asm f o r m o d e r n i s a t i o n .
In t h i s c o n t en t t he
chance was wide open f o r t he Arab i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o e x e r c i s e
-
171 -
in
c r e a t i v i t y a l s o f o r t he manpower t o work honour abl y i n t h i s
generous l and.
In such a s o c i a l at mosphere,
liberalism
found
supportive
c i r c u ms t a nc e s
and t he
socio-political
mosaic o f
t he d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i c a l backgrounds may have,
f o r t he f i r s t
time,
exp er i enc e d i n Kuwai t , a peacef ul
devel opment i n pe ac ef ul exchange o f i deas and d i s c u s s i o n " .
Al - Rumai hi
concl udes t h a t :
" I n my judgement t he Ku w a i t i press i s pr oc eedi ng t owards
m a t u r i t y i n bot h t he e d i t o r i a l and t he t e c h n i c a l s i d e s .
Thi s coul d be d i f f e r e n t l y achi eved as l ong as t he s t a f f i n
t he press
org an isa ti o n includes pro fe ss io na ls ,
personnel
w i t h b r i g h t minds f rom w i t h i n and o u t s i d e Kuwai t .
Thanks t o
t he Arab mind which has gene r ous l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o K u w a i t ' s
i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e by means o f Arab i n t e l l e c t u a l s who work i n
Kuwai t and Arab w r i t e r s who c o n t r i b u t e t o t he media c o n t en t
f rom o t h e r Arab c o u n t r i e s .
Both groups are p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n
t he mo d e r n i s a t i o n p r o j e c t s t a k i n g pl ace i n K u w a i t . "
( A1-Watan , 1 8 . 3. 86 , p . 13)
The
location
extent
governed by
firm ly
suppor t ed
of
journalists
t he
fact
t he
t h a t t hey
social
are
on t he
structure
whole
is
to
expatria te
Arabs
literates,
They a l s o found s t r on g s up po r t from t he owners
o f t he press o r g a n i s a t i o n s .
Such sup po r t was s t r on g enough t o
s et t he tone f o r t he press c o n t en t which happens t o be c r i t i c a l
ment p o l i c i e s
a l a r ge
bysome K u w a i t i s , e s p e c i a l l y t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
r a d i c a l s and n a t i o n a l i s t s .
and e d i t o r s
in
i n many ways,
diverse
in
o f go v e r n
views and most o f t he t i me ag g r e s
s i v e i n p r e s e n t i n g t he i s s ues i n c o n t e n t i o n w i t h t he government.
Analysis
its
o f t he i n t e r n a l
pl acement
in
compl ete w i t h o u t
tion.
t he
Kuwai t ,
politica l
a c c o u n t i ng
To do t h i s
I
characteristics
for
conducted
and
social
t he
journalists'
s ev e r al
t he f i n d i n g s o f t hese w i l l
tion
o f an a c t i v e
tive,
neutral
t he p o l i c y
role
and l i b e r a l
of presenting
issues.
In
uncommon
in
gener al
t he
traditional
o f t he j o u r n a l i s t
system o f
interviews
Kuwai t
own vi ew o f
group and
would
not
their
posi
w i t h t op j o u r n a l i s t s
be di scussed i n Chapter VI .
be
in
The assump
by j o u r n a l i s t s
has been e x h i b i t e d i n t he c on s e r v a
newspapers.
The c r i t e r i o n t hey f o l l o w e d was t h a t
i ss u es
i n t he media depends on t he na t ur e o f t he
government
syst ems.
avoi ds
But ,
-
172 -
dictating
on
t he
policy.
other
hand,
Thi s
is
there
not
were
implied
lim its
tion.
to
In o t h e r
that
if
t he
t he freedom o f
words,
t he
pr ess
as one j o u r n a l i s t
government
deci des
to
t ak e
put
t he
whole
truth
and
for
t he
generalisation
political
instance,
t he
that
conservative
both
not
there
with
t he
their
t he
solid
this
to
other social
In i n t e r v i e w s
liberal
ideological
and
with
trend,
uncommon t o meet l i b e r a l
socio
parties
for
n o t ab l e j o u r n a l i s t s I
has no r e l a t i o n
press
journalists,
It
must
to
organisations
or
have
t he
e x p a t r i a t e s and s i m i l a r l y
division
whet her c o n s e r v a t i v e
short
other
po litical
journalists.
t he
fa lls
groups such as t he n a t i o n
t he l i b e r a l
of
i s sues
The reason i s t h a t
K uwai t i
background
on t he
draw a t h e o r e t i c a l
t he government.
of
publica
under st and
however,
journalists
structure
jo urn alists,
and
ideological
gener al
positio n
efforts
between
of
"journalists
are sub- gr oups among t he community o f
expatriate
that
t he
especially
mer chant s.
conservative
however,
have
frontiers
This n o t i o n ,
fit
nor even t h a t o f c e r t a i n
or
noticed
do
not
relation
groups i n Kuwai t ,
journalists
alists
does
it,
a certain
t hen j o u r n a l i s t s must f o l l o w t he l i n e " .
of
and t he
liberal,
or
be
not ed,
c on ne c t i on
in
terms
because
it
j o u r n a l i s t s or suppor ter s of n a t i o n a l i s t s
is
of
not
wor k i ng
i n c o n s e r v a t i v e newspapers and v i c e - v e r s a .
It
mi ght
be p e r t i n e n t ,
her e,
to
elaborate
on t he
journalists'
sub
gr o u p i n g among e x p a t r i a t e c o n s e r v a t i v e j o u r n a l i s t s wo r k i ng i n l a r g e numbers
in
Al - Ray
Al - Am,
managing e d i t o r
A1-Sayasah and
o f A1-Sayasah
A1-Anba
newspapers.
t he members o f
this
Ac cor d i n g t o
sub- gr oup d e f i n e
t he
their
p o s i t i o n on any i ss ue i n t erms o f d e f i n i t i o n s gi ven by t he government. They
relate
t hemsel ves p r o f e s s i o n a l l y
same managing
editor
has
put i t ,
occasi ons on which t he Kuwai t i
try
of
Information.
t he p o l i c i e s
covering
Under
local
t he
t o t he government,
their
dut y
is
assuming t h a t ,
boundby t he
as t he
semi - weekl y
government i n v i t e s j o u r n a l i s t s t o t he M i n i s
title
of
and f o r e i g n
News B r i e f
news.
Thi s
t he M i n i s t r y
relation
does not have a ne g a t i ve impact on t he f reedom o f t he pr ess .
- 173 -
in
It
dictates
his
views
is part of
t he mutual
un de r s t a n d i n g o f t he
p olitical
t he
institu tion s
national
relation
includin g
concerts.
between
all
particular
t he pr ess
He and o n l y
political
relationship
and
between d i f f e r e n t
i n which t he Amir o r c h e s t r a t e s
he i s
in a po sit io n
social
institutions
to
harmonise
t he
(Managing E d i t o r ,
A1- Sa yas a h) .
Such an approach i s s uppor t ed by many c o n s e r v a t i v e Kuwai t i
and
in
particular
For
example,
by
t he
owners
Al - Mar z ouk,
t he
and
editors
of
t he
Chief
Editor
of
press
journalists
organisations.
A1-Anba
c ons i der ed
t he
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he government and t he press as a pri me example o f t he
integration
popular
among Kuwai t i
s l ogan;
believes
that
occasionally
"All
this
in
i n f l a m m a t or y
some
reports
second
newspapers
Kuwaitis
p r e v en t s
nessmen ( Al - Mar zouk ,
The
citizens
and
ar e
t he
Western
members
press
is
l ong
of
f rom
which
t he
liberal
Ac c o r d i n g
to
a
two
maj or
Anot her
po sitio n
Kuwai t i
its
newspapers,
s t r on g
base
against
t he
nationalists
t he
The r a d i c a l
namely:
for
riates
happens
scandal s
over
who
and
and b u s i
occupy
s t r on g
jo urn alist,
radical
positions
to
some
extent
magazine which
many year s
and a d o p t i n g many r a d i c a l
t he
in
t he
A1-Qabas.
has devel oped
reflecting
Arab views
t he
in
a
views
of
addition
to
writers.
has a l r e a d y been r ecor ded t h a t t he r e l a t i o n between t he Arab e x p a t
and
t he
Kuwai t i
nationalists
d u r i n g t he awakening o f Arab
coming
on
as
He
ar e we l l - k n own t o be r a d i
same
and
Al-Talia
accommodation f o r many Arab r a d i c a l
It
t he
j o u r n a l i s t s g e n e r a l l y gat her ed i n
A1-Watan
them i s
government
thrive
in
family"
mi s t ak es
conservative
present
newspapers most o f t he t i m e .
Ku w a i t i
journalists
cal
therefore,
reflected
A1-Anba) .
most j o u r n a l i s t s
and,
one
making
Managing E d i t o r o f A1-Sayasah,
Arabists
been
t i mes t o embarrass p o l i t i c i a n s
Chief E d i to r ,
magazi nes.
has
newspapers
i n t e nd ed a t
sub- gr oup
which
from
other
Arab
had
nationalism.
states
had t he
- 174 -
been
devel oped
T h e r e f or e,
courage
to
in
t he
liberal
include
'fiftie s
journalists
much o f
their
convictions
in
t he
critica l
its
own governments w h i l e ,
of
Ku w a i t i
press.
Thi s
in
made
t he
Ku w a i t i
press
appear
fact,
t he regime was n o t .
Both
no n- Ku wai t i Arabs and K u w a i t i s devot ed most o f t h e i r w r i t i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t he pr oper bases on which a s t a t e
were
suitable
socio-political
free
elections
enemies,
especially
journalism.
Israel
institu tion s.
and t he
U. S. ,
Also,
featured
The r e l a t i o n between l i b e r a l
magazine who i s
changes which
would
allow
t he
participation
pan-Arab
policy
of
cause and s h a r i n g i n t he s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t Arab
d e f i n e d by Mohammed Al - Saad,
Al-Talia
Other i ss ues o f i mpor t ance
w e a l t h and t o enj oy p o l i t i c a l
and d e moc r a t i c
s up po r t f o r t he P a l e s t i n i a n
rely.
and economic
peopl e t o share e q u a l l y t he o i l
in
c oul d
a liberal
Palestinian
in
liberal
and r a d i c a l
j o u r n a l i s t s and t he government i s
journalist
and Managing E d i t o r o f
by o r i g i n .
In an i n t e r v i e w ,
he sai d
t h a t t he f a i l u r e o f t he press t o emphasise an o b j e c t i v e st and on t he i s s ue
i s p a r t o f t he f a c t t h a t
journalists
are s i m i l a r t o o t h e r Arab e x p a t r i a t e s
who ar e mos t l y concerned about t h e i r j o bs and how t o secure them.
ists,
therefore,
i n A l - S a a d ' s vi ew,
t hey f e a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n
Kuwai t .
have no i n t e l l e c t u a l
i n t he i n t e l l e c t u a l
They are mos t l y p a s s i v e .
It
Journal
i mpact i n Kuwai t ;
b a t t l e o f de f e n d i n g freedom i n
was hi s assessment o f t he r o l e which
j o u r n a l i s t s pl ay i n t he c o u n t r y ’ s s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
a f f a i r s t h a t f o r him c as t
a strong
t hemsel ves
doubt
f reedom o f
t he
on
their
press
via bility
against
to
mobilise
government
efforts
to
to
control
defend
it.
t he
Al-Saad
argues t h a t ;
"The e x p a t r i a t e j o u r n a l i s t i s r e q u i r e d t o be a machine or a
t y p e w r i t e r w i t h keyboards which coul d be pressed by t he newspa
p e r ' s owner t o p r o d u c t t he m a t e r i a l which t he owner wants t o
see. "
( Al - Saad, Managing E d i t o r , A l - T a l i a )
Al-Saad
in fluential
believes,
however,
t he
than any o t h e r Arab pr e s s .
between compl ete darkness
tunnel"
that
and a spot
Kuwai t i
But t h i s
of
(Ibid).
- 175 -
light
press
is
at
is
much f r e e r
and
"based on a comparison
t he
end o f
a l ong dar k
Obvi ousl y
Kuwai t i
self-confidence;
losing t h e ir
als
a
wi de r
margin
j obs or f a c i n g e x p u l s i o n f rom Kuwai t ,
have t he
authority's
have
of
freedom
and
t hey are a t l e a s t secur e a g a i n s t harsh puni shments such as
who c o n t r i b u t e
abr oad,
journalists
to
t he
press
courage t o
point
of
on
raise
vi ew.
a freelancing
sensitive
Such
a
fact
Similarly,
in te lle ctu
ba s i s
Kuwai t
and
and t o c o n t r a d i c t
t he
i ss ues
made
Ali
f rom
Al - Hashi m,
a
p o pu l ar
c o l u m n i s t i n A1-Watan t o concl ude t h a t :
"The press get s i t s news f rom o f f i c i a l s our ces, but t he j o u r n a l
i s t s s t r i v e t o produce o p i n i o n s t h a t mos t l y c o n t r a d i c t t h a t
o p i n i o n o f government o f f i c i a l s .
( But ) There are some i ss ues on
which a l l j o u r n a l i s t s , c i t i z e n s and n o n - c i t i z e n s a v o i d , wi der
d i s c u s s i o n or e l a b o r a t i o n s .
J o u r n a l i s t s do not wi sh t o undermine
t he e f f o r t s t aken by government t o keep o r d e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n
mat ters o f s e c u r i t y . "
( Al - Hashi m, A1-Watan)
In
this
c h a pt er
t he
devel opment o f
e a r l y be g i nn i ng t o t he p r e s e n t .
tio ns
which
Kuwai t
Speci al
wast r a c e d
f rom i t s
ver y
a t t e n t i o n was gi ven t o t he c o n d i
l ed t o t he emergence and f o r m a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t
social
groups
which p l ay d e f i n i t e r o l e s i n t he bal ance o f power i n cont emporary Kuwai t .
It
was
maintaining
shown
t he
nationalists.
social
t he
bal ance
It
position,
liberal
that
was
in
influence
t he
pr e s s ur e on t he government
nalists
t he
of
between
also
that
of
power
t he
shown
it
served
mai nl y
t hose
Royal
as
nationalists
role
to
t he
t he
press
t he
main
was
exerted
- which was g e n e r a l l y
related
Fami l y
Bedoui ns,
that
have a l s o pl ayed a c e n t r a l
issues,
t he
was
sustained
merchants
occupi ed
base
an
t hr ough
and
by espousi ng l i b e r a l
modernisation,
and
but
t he
important
which
translated
conservative.
by
t he
into
The j o u r
positions
reflecting
on
t he
c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t he government on o t h e r s .
Si nce t he Kuwai t i
a central
an
in stitu tio n
press and t he j o u r n a l i s t s who work i n i t
constitute
i n cont empor ar y Kuwai t ,
to provide
e l a b o r a t e a n a l y s i s o f t he r i s e
t o examine
t he
relationship
i n c l u d i n g t he government.
i t would be
and devel opment o f
between
Thi s w i l l
t he
press
and
u s e f ul
t he Kuwai t i
t he power
press and
structure,
be pr esent ed i n t he f o l l o w i n g c h a p t er .
- 176 -
CHAPTER IV
THE KUWAITI PRESS : STRUCTURE AND CONTEXT
The f i r s t
torical
part of th is
background
is
c h a p t er deal s w i t h
pr esent ed
beginning
t he K uwai t i
with
t he
pr es s.
firs t
A his
newspaper
ever
p u b l i s h e d i n t he 1920s and endi ng w i t h c u r r e n t c r i s e s which led i n 1986 t o
direct
control
f o r t he f i r s t
o f t he pr ess and p r e - p r i n t i n g
t ime.
press and o t h e r
It
illustrates
gover nment ' s
The second p a r t anal yses t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he
socio-political
examples
vi ews,
of
institu tion s,
efforts
and t he
to
measures
t he press c r i t i c i s m o f t he regi me.
to
t he
Arab
c en s o r s h i p by t he government
pr e s s ,
to
which
particularly
persuade
t aken
t he
by t he
press
Ku w a i ti
press
to
reflect
government
But t o begi n w i t h ,
t he
t he government.
is
to
t he
mi n i mi ze
a b r i e f in troduction
related,
w ill
be p r e
sent ed .
THE ARAB PRESS
The Arab press has al ways had s t r o n g c o n ne c t i on s w i t h o t h e r components
o f t he Arab c u l t u r e .
From t he b e g i n n i n g ,
wo r l d were found t o
since
t he
t he
firs t
newspapers
dissemination
storie s
(Marua,
have e s t a b l i s h e d
of
Arab
appeared
newspapers p u b l i s h e d i n t he Arab
a ver y r i c h
tradition.
in
t he
Egypt
literature,
in
poetry,
tale s
1820s,
They t ended,
to f a c i l i t a t e
rhetoric
and
social
1961).
The devel opment o f t he Arab press has been r i d d l e d w i t h probl ems from
t he ver y b e g i n n i n g .
ical
ways.
l ed
and
cultural
First,
them
to
For i n s t a n c e ,
factors
t he l i m i t e d
seek
p r i v a t e s our ces.
Rough (1979) found t h a t economic, p o l i t
influenced
financial
government
and
shaped
t he Arab media i n
three
r esour ces o f t he maj or Arab newspapers
subsidies
as
we l l
as
financial
gifts
f rom
On t he o t h e r hand, because o f t he pe r c ei ved i mpor t ance o f
-
177 -
t hose
newspapers,
Arab pr es s .
ent
partly
politica l
because
systems
It
encouraged
to
patronise
t he
emerging
of
t he
of
t he
Arab
extreme
states
ideological
and among t he
differences
p a t r o ns
of
t he
among
press
i s f ragment ed t oo because o f t he emergence o f t he press i n Arab
countries
at
circulation
tion,
were
Secondl y, t he Arab pr ess has become ver y f ragment ed i n d i f f e r
ways,
itself.
politicians
different
within
and t he
times.
For
t he c o u n t r y
eagerness
of
example,
of o r i g i n ,
governments
most
Arab
newspapers
and d i f f i c u l t i e s
to
keep t h e i r
lim it
of tr a n s p o r t a
printed
media
f rom
bei ng c o n t r o l l e d by o t h e r c o u n t r i e s l ed t o t h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
A third
f a c t o r i s t he tendency f o r newspapers t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n h i g h l y
popul at ed areas and t o be a t t a c h e d t o c e n t r e s o f p o l i t i c a l
t he
quarters
improved
and
of
news
maki ng.
e d uc a t i on
is
Al t ho ug h
more w i d e l y
c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t he c i t i e s .
It
is
transportatio n
spread,
constrain ts,
and t he
has
recently
newspapers
ar e
been
s till
r a r e t o hear about any newspaper r e g i s
t e r e d i n t he c o u n t r y s i d e o f any, Ar ab s t a t e .
economic
Arab
d i s c u s s i o n s and
lack of
F ur t her mor e,
professional
po litical
journalists
control,
constitute
t he main probl ems o f t he Arab pr e s s .
These f a c t o r s
slowed down t he d e v e l
opment o f t he Arab pr e s s ,
achi evement s,
s t un t e d i t s
lowered i t s
its
to
affecting
t he
devel opment
put t he Arab media i n t o
of
t he Arab
conventi onal
Rough n o t i c e d t h a t t he Arab press system d i d not f i t
gories
ered
used by S i e b e r t
authoritarian,
"The Arab
categories.
(Rough,
growt h and
s t a t u s among t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l media.
These f a c t o r s ,
d iffic u lt
limited
media
do
e t al
( 1956) .
libertarian,
not
fit
make i t
classifications.
Thus,
any o f t he f o u r c a t e
The Arab press c oul d not be c o n s i d
socially
neatly
pr ess ,
and
responsible
c omp l e t e l y
There are some el ement s o f a l l
into
or
totalitaria n.
any
one o f
t hose
f o u r p r e s e n t i n t he Arab w o r l d "
1979, p . 25) .
Rough added t h a t t he Arab pr ess coul d be l i s t e d under t h r e e s u b - t y p e s .
The f i r s t
t ype
is
t he
press
of
t he
-
Republ i cs
178 -
of
Egypt ,
Syria,
Algeria,
Li by a ,
Iraq,
t he Sudan and t he South Yemen.
are
n a t i o n a l i s e d and t he regimes
way
so t h a t a l l
In t hese c o u n t r i e s t he media
have m o b i l i s e d
t he media i n a s y s t e m a t i c
news t r e a t m e n t have t o be gui ded
by t he a u t h o r i t i e s and t he
c o n t en t must r e f l e c t t he government p o s i t i o n s and t he regimes go al s.
Secondly come t he presses o f Saudi A r a b i a ,
Uni t ed Arab Emi r ates and Bah r a i n.
gone
considerable
per-capita
devel opment
income
as we l l
Jordan, T u n i s i a ,
In t hese c o u n t r i e s t he press has un de r
in
structure
as e d u c a t i on
l ed
and
function.
to
a similar
number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s and t he s i z e o f c i r c u l a t i o n s .
however,
has
been
subject
to
Qat ar , t he
government
The
increase
Thi s
control
and
growt h
in
in
t he
sophistication,
censor ship;
hence
j o u r n a l i s t s are r equest ed t o f o l l o w a l i n e drawn by government.
The t h i r d
and f i n a l t yp e o f Arab pr ess
and t he Moroccan pr es s.
is
press reached a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e p u t a t i o n ,
t he
i nv es t men t
growt h
alien
of
t he
nisation
Kuwai t i
of
and
t he
style
multiplied
social
sectors
s t r o n g e s t amongst a l l
life
s ev er al
led
to
revenues i n c r ea s e d ,
t i mes
c r eat ed
of j o u r n a l i s t s
ov e r ,
increasing
Such d r a mat i c changes,
institutions,
Palestine,
Kuwai t
Ku w a i t i
e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t he independence
was
Thanks t o t he f l o o d
a better
in
and
politica l
Lebanon,
hopi ng f o r
ed u c a t i on
Arab and non- Ar ab.
pr es s .
- Egypt ,
in
t he
W i t h i n t h i s t y p e , t he Kuwai t i
Dur i ng t he i ndependence p e r i o d , o i l
economic
labour,
Lebanese,
Thi s t ype has enj oyed a hi gh degree o f d i v e r s i t y ,
freedom o f ex p r e s s i on and p r i v a t e owner shi p.
o f Kuwai t i n 1961.
the
t he
and
t he
demands
for
besi de t he moder
need
for
a
modern
from o t h e r Arab n a t i o n s
Jordan and t he Sudan, who emi gr at ed t o Kuwai t
- t he t as k o f pr o du ci ng a press o f
was made
easier,
Arab pr ess es .
- 179
to
t he
extent
that
it
hi gh q u a l i t y
became
t he
EARLY FOUNDATION OF KUWAITI PRESS
The Kuwai t i
press devel oped al ong l i n e s
slightly
g o v er n i ng t he growth o f t he Arab pr ess el sewher e,
assumed
a pan-Arab
orientation
f rom
t he
d i f f e r e n t f r om t hose
perhaps mai nl y because i t
outset.
Actually,
t he
press
of
Kuwai t began e a r l y i n t he 1920s when Sheikh Abdul Az i z A1- Rashi d, a Kuwai t i
intellectual
published
Al-Kuwait
because a t
with
gr aduat ed f rom A l - A z h e r U n i v e r s i t y
that
religious,
was s u b s i d i s e d
magazi ne.
t i me
Kuwai t
by A bd ul l ah
a rtistic,
( Shei kh A1-Rashi d)
t hey
published
Thi s
la tte r
Between
print
went
anot her
for
into
and
1946
only
mont hl y
Kuwai t
(Badr e t a l . ,
two y e a r s ,
magazine
without
and
1977, P . 103).
when t he
editor
Younis B a h r i , and
A1- K u wa i t i
death
a
ma t t e r s
o f Kuwai t a t t h a t
an I r a q i ,
t he
Egypt ,
d e a l t mai nl y
literary
however,
entitled
following
was
and
C a i r o,
It
t he Amir
pa rtn ers hi p with
ceased p u b l i c a t i o n
1937
linguistic
himself
in
fa cilitie s.
A1- Sal i m A1-Sabah,
t i m e , who was a man o f l e t t e r s
A l - Kuwai t was i n
and i n June 1928
The magazine was p r i n t e d
had no p r i n t i n g
histo rica l,
i n Ca i r o ,
of
Wa A 1 - I r a q i .
A1-Rashid
national
press
in
until
1937.
a
new
magazine was p u b l i s h e d i n Ca i r o by a group o f s t ud ent s e n r o l l e d i n Egy pt i an
s chool s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
t he f orm o f a n e w s l e t t e r ,
historical
increasing
A1- Ba at ha, was i n t r o d u c e d
and i n c l u d e d K uwai t i
r eco r ds o f t he main event s
and 1954 ( Al -Samawi ,
The
The new magazi ne,
s t ud e n t s news as w e l l as t he
t a k i n g pl ac e
in
Kuwai t between 1946
1984, p . 88) .
number
of
educated
Kuwaitis
in
t he
1940s
and
helped t o f a c i l i t a t e t he r a p i d f l o u r i s h i n g o f t he press i n Kuwai t .
t he
number
(Badr
et
of
al.,
newspapers
1979,
and
p . 33) .
magazines
with
1986,
A1- Ar abi
a mont hl y
p . 174).
published
Some enj oyed
A 1 - A r a b i , a monthl y magazine
1958.
in
publ i shed
a l a r ge
in
Kuwai t
of
By 1978
reached
circulation,
by t he M i n i s t r y
1950s
such
Information
189
as
in
i s one o f t he most w i d e l y read magazines i n t he Arab w o r l d ,
circulation
of
250,000
Thi s wi de c i r c u l a t i o n
copi es
(Kuwai t
Fact s
has been achi eved mai nl y
- 180 -
and
Figures,
because t he
magazine
varies
t ends
its
tra lity
to
av oi d
c o n t en t
bei ng
involved
t o cover a l l
and i m p a r t i a l i t y ,
in
aspect s o f
Arab
politics
and because
information with
it
a b s o l u t e neu
and w i t h o u t t a k i n g t he s i d e o f any p a r t y ,
includ
i n g t h a t o f Kuwai t .
Many
other
magazines
tended
to
reflect
sented
in
Tabl e 4 . 1 ,
Ar a b i c
and two d a i l i e s
sixty
weekly
Rumai hi ,
different
newspapers,
ideologies
there
magazines
1983).
and
were f i v e
in
English.
and
t he
which
were
privately
and v i e w p o i n t s .
maj or
daily
Besi des
rest
were
By 1979,
newspapers
t hese
as p r e
published
newspapers,
specialised
owned,
in
there
were
publications
(Al-
The Kuwai t d a i l i e s and magazines enj oy wi de c i r c u l a t i o n
in
t he G u l f St at e c o u n t r i e s and i n t he Arab wo r l d o u t s i d e t he G u l f r e g i o n .
LAW OF PUBLICATION
The government
needed,
but
its
of
Kuwai t
believes
role
stipulates
in
manipulating
that
in tervention
in
t he
pr ess
is
measures shoul d not be as harsh as t hose a p p l i e d i n o t h e r
T h i r d World or Arab c o u n t r i e s .
its
that
Thus, t he Kuwai t i
t he
"f reedom o f
press
t he
a c c o r d i ng
press,
government t ends t o l i m i t
to
printing
t he
and
constitution
publishing
which
shall
be
guarant eed i n accordance w i t h t he c o n d i t i o n s and manners s p e c i f i e d by Law."
The c o n s t i t u t i o n
s cie ntific
of
Kuwai t
r es ear ch s h a l l
also
stipulates
be guar ant eed.
that:
Every person s h a l l
t o expr ess and propagat e hi s o p i n i o n v e r b a l l y ,
accordance w i t h
tion,
t he c o n d i t i o n
and pr ocedur es
A r t i c l e 37) .
181 -
"Freedom o f
opinion
have t he r i g h t
i n w r i t i n g or o t h e r w i s e ,
specified
and
by Law"
in
(Constitu
Tabl e 4 . 1 ,
Kuwai t i Papers and Magazines p u b l i s h e d between 1950-1978
Chronologically li s te d .
(Newspapers ar e marked w i t h an a s t e r i s k ) .
Name o f Paper
1.
Al-Bath
2.
Al - Fokaha
3.
Al-Koweit
4.
Al - S i hh a h
5.
Al-Raed
6.
Al - Ya k a da
j
1
1
1
1
|
1
1
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
1
1
7.
Al-Irshad
|
1
Al - I man
|
a.
1
Mol hag Al - I man
|
9.
1
M a j a l a t Al-Mahad A l - D i n |
10.
1
A l - K o w e i t Al-Yom
|
11.
12.
Al-Raed A l - I s b u e i
13.
Al-Itihad
14.
Akhbar A l - I s b u a
|
1
|
1
|
15.
Al-Fajr
1
|
1
16.
Al - Rabe t a
|
Date o f
Publication
1
|
Editors/
E d ito ria l Responsib ility
1950
1
Hammad A l - R o j a i b and Ahmad
A1-Adwani
1950
1
Farhan Rashed Al - F ar h an
1950
1
Yakoob A b d e l - A z i z A1-Rashid
1952
1
Department o f Heal t h
1952
1
Fahd A l - D u w a i r i
1952
1
Ahmed A1-Adwani, Ab d u l l a
A l - D a s h i o t i , Zu h a i r A l K a r mi , Labi b Sha f i q
1953
1
A b d e l - A z i z Al-Mutawwa
1953
I
Ahmad A l - K h a t i b and o t h e r s
1953
1
Cultural
1954
1
Religious
1954
1
M i n i s t r y of Information
1954
1
I n s t i t u t e o f Teachers
1955
1
Kuwai t i St udent s i n Egypt
1955
1
Daud Mosa'd A1- Sal eh
Na t i o n a l Club
Institute
1955
Yagib Al - Homai di and o t h e r s
1957
Ahmad A l - D o a i j
1
17.
Re s al a t A l - N a f t
|
1957
Khaled Kh a l a f
18.
Al-Sha'b
1
1957
Khaled K h a l a f
19.
Al -Seha Al - Ma d r a s i y a
1957
Ahmad A l - K h a t i b , A b d e l Razak A l - B a s i r and Khaled
A1- Zai d
20.
Majolat Al-Irsha d
1957
I s l a m i c Guidance A s s o c i a t i o n
21.
Sawt Al-Aamel
1958
Mohammed A l i
182
Muhana
Table 4 .1
(continued)
Name o f Paper
Date o f
1
Publication
j
Editorial
Edito rs/
Responsib ility
22.
Sawt A l - K o w e i t
1958
Ku w a i t i St udent s i n Damascus
23.
A1- Ar abi
1958
Mohammed Al - Rumai hi
24.
A1- Moj t am' a
1958
M i n i s t r y o f S o c i al A f f a i r s
25.
Saut Al - Mot anabi
1959
Al - Mot anabi Secondary School
26.
Al-Iktisadi
1960
Chamber o f Commerce
27.
Homat A1-Watan
1960
M i n i s t r y o f Defence
28.
Al-Raed A1- Ar abi
1
1960
Ab d u l l a Al-Ganem and o t h e r s
29.
A1-Moadhaf
1
1960
Civil
30.
Al-Ist1klal
1
1961
Omar Summer Club
31.
A 1 - Ba s h i r
1
1961
Sadun Al - Jassem Al - Yqub
32.
A1- Jomahi r
1
1961
Sami Ahmed Al - Monai es
33.
A l - R a i Al-Aam*
1
1961
A b d e l - A z i z Al - Mosai d
34.
A l - R i sal a
1
1961
Jassem Mubarak Al -Jassem
35.
Tabi b A1- Moj t am' a
1
1961
M i n i s t r y o f P u b l i c Heal t h
36.
Al -Ko we it
1
1961
Ministry of
37.
A1- Ko we i t i
1
1961
Kuwai t O i l Company (KOC)
38.
A1- Hadaf
1
1961
Mohammed Mosa'd A1-Saleh
39.
D a i l y News*
1
1961
Yousef Al - Mo sai d
40.
Akhbar A l - K o w e i t
1
1962
Abdel-Aziz A l - F o l a i j
41.
A1 - I s l a h
1
1962
So c i al Reform S o c i e t y
42.
Adwa' A l - K o w e i t
1
1962
Khaled A1-Hamad
43.
Sawt A l - K h a l i j
1
1962
Baqer A l i
44.
Al-Tariq
1
1962
M i n i s t r y o f S o c i al A f f a i r s
45.
A li-Tali'a
1 ^
1962
Sami Ahmed Al - Monai es
46.
Nashr at F a l a s t i n
1
1
1962
Ministry of
Al-Koweiti
1
-
183 -
Ser vant s Bureau
Information
K h o r a i bu t
Information
Table 4 . 1
(continued)
Name o f Paper
Editors/
Responsib ility
1
Date o f
I Publication
1
|
1963
1
1
1
1
M inistry of I n t e r io r
1
Badr Sul ai man A l - I s s a
Editorial
47.
Adwa' A1-Madina
48.
A1 - D a k h e l i y a
1
1
1
1
49.
Hada A l - I s b o '
1
1963
50.
Kuwai t Times*
1
1963
1
A b d e l - A z i z A l - Ao l a y a n
51.
A l- I k t is a d Al-Koweiti
1
1
1964
1
1
M i n i s t r y o f Commerce
52.
Al-Itihad
53.
Ausrati
1963
1
1
1965
1
1965
1
54.
A1-Kalema
55.
56.
Badr Sul ai man A l - I s s a
Union o f Kuwai t i
1
Nat ional
1
St udent s
1
Ganima Fahd Al - Mar zook
1
1965
:
Ar abi a n Gu l f T h e a t r e
N a f t A l - Ar a b
1
1
1
1965
!
Ab du l l a A l - T o r a i k i
Al-Wai A l - I s l a m i
1
1966
M i n i s t r y o f Waqf and
Islamic A f f a i r s
1
57.
Al-Baian
1
1966
Association of Writers
58.
Nashr at Al - Ami n A o i el
1
1966
Ami n o i l
59.
A1-Rabeta
1967
Assn. o f S o c i al Workers
60.
A1-Sahel
1967
A1-Sahel Club
61.
Al-Nahda
1
1
1
1
1
1
19^
Yousef Al - Mosai d
62.
A1-Yqada
1
1
iw n
A b d u l l a Bi s ha r a t hen
Ahmed Banbahani
63.
The Jour nal o f Kuwai t
Medi cal A s s o c i a t i o n
19^
Dr. Abdel - Razak A1-Adwani
64.
A1-Burak
1
19M
Kuwai t Ai rways C o r p o r a t i o n
65.
A1-Sayasah
1
19M
Ahmed A l - J a r a l l a
66.
A1-Shohad' a
1
19M
Al - Sh oh ad' a Club
67.
Al-Balak
1
19M
Abdel-Rahman A l - W i l a y t i
68.
Sa' d
1
19M
Yousef Al - Mosai d
69.
A1-Mohami
1
19M
A s s o c i a t i o n o f Lawyers
1
1
1
Company
1
1
184
Table 4 .1
(continued)
Name o f Paper
Dat e o f
1
Publication
j
Editors/
Editorial
Responsib ility
1
70.
Al - J am' i ay
1970
1
U n i v e r s i t y o f Kuwai t
71.
Al-/raed
1970
1
A s s o c i a t i o n o f Teachers
72.
Aalam A1-Ti kr
1970
1
Ahmed A1-Adwani
73.
A l - M a j a l e s Al-Mosawara
1970
1
Hi daya S u l t a n A1-Salem
74.
A1- Moj t am' a
1970
1
S o c i al
75.
Majalat A l- I k t is a d
Wa A l - S i y y a s a
1^^
1
1
P o l i t i c s / E c o n o m i c s St udent s
Assn. ( Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y )
M a j a l a t Al-Qada
Wa Al-Kunun
1970
1
M in istry of Justice
76.
77.
Reform S o c i e t y
1
Manal at Al-Mohasaba
1970
1
Accountancy St udent s Assn.
(Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y )
1
Kuwai t Olympic A s s o c i a t i o n
1
78.
Anba Al - R i y a d a
1
1
1^1
79.
Al-Khal1j
1
1971
Ter i am Omran Ter i am and
Faj han A l - M o t a i r i
lÛ
Abkal A l - Ab k a l
1971
M i n i s t r y o f Educat i on
lÛ
Muhammad Al-Nashmi
1971
Ali
1971
Association o f Contractors
1^^
Hisam Sharabi
1972
Dept, o f A r a b i c Language
( Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y )
1972
Geology St udent s Assn.
1
80.
A1-Riyadh A1- Arabi
1
1
81.
Sawt Al-Shahab
1
1
82.
Aslam A1-Fan
1
1
83.
Meraat Al-Auma
1
Yousef Al-Rumi
1
84.
A1-Mokawel
1
1
85.
86.
J ournal
of Palestine
1
S t ud i es
1
1
Al-Thakafa Al-Arabiya
1
1
87.
A1 - J e y o l o j i
1
1
88.
Hayatona
1
1972
Dr. Seddi ka Al -Awadi
89.
Al-Qabas
1
1972
Jassem A l - N a s f
90.
M a j a l a t A l - I d a r a t Wa
A1- Moj t am' a
1
1972
Busi ness A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
St udent s A s s o c i a t i o n
1
1
-
Table 4 . 1
(continued)
Date o f
Name o f Paper
91.
1
j
Editorial
l^f2
1
1
1
F a c u l t y o f A r t s & Educat i on
Publication
M a j a l a t Al - Adab Wa
A1- T ar b i y a
E ditors/
Responsib ility
92.
A1-Muawakun
1972
1
Di sabl ed A s s o c i a t i o n
93.
Makt abat Al-Jamea
1972
1
Sulai man Kal andar
94.
A1-Sami ta
1973
1
1
St udent s
95.
T a r i k A l - Nu r
1^3
96.
A1- Ka f el a
1^3
97.
M a j a l a t Al - Aol um
A1- 1 j t i m a e i a
1973
98.
Mawaheb
99.
A1 Sambuk
N a t i on a l
Union o f Kuwai t
Social
1973
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
19^
1
Press Club
Cu lt ur e Soci et y
St udent s A f f a i r s Bureau
(Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y )
Asaad Abdel-Rahman
Ab d u l l a K h a l a f Club
100. Aalam A l - I h s a
1974
S t a t i s t i c s St udent s S o c i e t y
101. M a j a l a t Sawt A l - I t i h a d
1974
N a t i o n a l Union o f Kuwai t
St udent s
102. A1 -Watan*
1974
Jassem Al - Motawa
103. Jour nal o f t he
U n i v e r s i t y o f Kuwai t
1974
F a c u l t y o f Sci ence
104. A1-Adi b
1975
Ar ab i c St udent s S o c i e t y
105. A1 - I s l a m Wa A1 - Ha ya t
1975
Makt abat A l - R a s i i l Al - A' dam
1
1975
M i n i s t r y o f Educat i on
107. A l - J i k r a f i
1
1
1975
Geography St udent s S o c i e t y
108. A 1 - S e n a ' a t A1 Wat ani ya
1
1975
Na t i o n a l
109. A1-A' mel
1
1975
Trade Union F e d e r at i o n
110. Kimya
1
1
1975
Pe t r o c h e mi ca l s Company
106. A 1 - Ta r b i y a Fi
I sbu '
186
I n d u s t r i e s Company
Table 4 . 1
(continued)
Name o f Paper
111. M a j a l a t D i r a s a t A l K h a l i j Wa A l - J a z i r a
A1- Ar abi ya
112. Al - Motaqa
1
Date o f
j Publication
1
|
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
113. Nashr at Awapek
1975
1
1
1
1
1975
1
1
1
1
1
Editors/
Editorial
Responsib ility
Ab d u l l a Al-Gunai m
Chemi st r y St udent s S o c i e t y
1
1975
1
OAPEC
114. A l - N a f t Wa Al - Ta' wo n
A1- Ar abi
1
1975
1
Wal i d Kh a d u r i , Yousef Sagegh
115. A1-Wataniya
1
1
1
1
1
1975
1
116. Arab Oi l
1
Al-Ijt1ma'1
1
1975
1
1976
1
1
1
1
1
118. Akhbar Al-Mahad
1
Ahmad A l - J a r a l l a
1
1
117.
1
1
1
1
1976
1
1
1
1
1
S o c i o l o g y , Phi l o s opy and
Psychol ogy St udent s S o c i e t y
Kuwai t I n s t i t u t e f o r
S c i e n t i f i c Research
119.
Al - Anba *
1
1976
1
Faisal
120.
Al-Kherij
1
1976
1
Graduat e Bureau
1
1
Al - Ma r z uk
121.
Al-Forusiya
1
1976
1
H o r s e - r i d i n g Club
122.
Al -Moarekh
1
1976
1
H i s t o r y St udent s S o c i e t y
1
1
B i o l o g y St udent s S o c i e t y
!
123. Aalam A1-Hayat
1
1977
1
124.
125.
M a j a l a t Al -Hokuk
Wa A 1 - S h a r i ' a
Al - Hoda
126. A l - H i l a l
1
1977
1
1
1
Al-Ahmar
1
1977
1
1
1977
1
127. Arab Times
128. Af ak Jameiya
1
1977
1
1978
1
129.
Al-Tarwin
1
1978
1
187
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
F a c u l t y o f Law and S h a r i ' a
Bonai r d A l - K a r Mosque
Red Cr escent A s s o c i a t i o n
Mohammed Al - Rumai hi
St udent s A f f a i r s Bureau
Ministry of
I nf ormat ion
Table 4 .1
(continued)
Name o f Paper
130. T i k n o l o g i a A l - T a l i m
1
Date o f
1 Publication
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
1
j
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1978
1
131. A1-Sambuk
1
1978
1
132.
Al a A 1 - T a r i k
1
1978
1
133.
Al - Kanuni
1
1978
1
134. A l - M a j a l a A l - Z e r a ' i y a
1
1978
135. Al-Nokheda
1
1^^
1
1
136.
A l - Wa f r a
1
19^
137.
Kuwai t - Japan So c i e t y
1
1^^
138.
Al - Ma n ak j
1
1^^
1
139.
Technol ogy and
1
Development
1
140. Al - Qabas*
19^
1
Editors/
I
l&N
1
Editorial
Responsib ility
Arab E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c
and C u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n
St udent s A c t i v i t i e s Bureau
( Busi ness S t ud i e s I n s t i t u t e )
Mansur Bandar,
and o t h e r s
Riyad Khazal
Law St udent s S o c i e t y
Agricultural
Engi neer s Assn.
Busi ness S t ud i e s St udent s
S o c i e t y ( Busi ness S t ud i es
Institute)
A l - Wa f r a Oi l
Company
Kuwai t - Japan So c i e t y
Languages Cent r e
Arab Union o f F e r t i l i z e r
Producers
Mohammad A l - S a q i r
Source: Ahmed Badr,
A b d e l -Rahman Al - Shai kh, Nabi l A l - J a d d a i ,
Al - S a h a f a A l - K o w e i t i y a (The Kuwai t i Press)
The
however,
relationship
is
not
al ways
between
t he
friendly.
pr ess
There
has not cl ashed w i t h t he government a t
more than
19 cases
revi ewed
and
is
t he
h a r dl y
some s t age.
by t he c o u r t s
involved
(1979)
government
in
any Ku w a i ti
paper t h a t
In 1973,
Kuwai t i
for
Kuwai t ,
exampl e,
papers accused
by t he government o f " t r y i n g t o harm K u w a i t ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h f r i e n d l y Arab
countries"
( A1- Sayasah,
May 1973,
p.l).
188 -
Ac c or d i n g t o Baclr, A1- Shai kh and A l - J a d d a i ,
tation
between t he government and t he press
is
t he main cause o f c o n f r o n
that
t he
latter
hi gh degree o f freedom which o t h e r Arab papers do not en j o y "
1979).
In January 1961,
t he law was suspended c o m p l e t e l y ,
new law
o f t he pr es s, i ssued on 26th January 1961.
articles
which t he new
t he most i m p o r t a n t .
law c o n t a i n e d ,
Thi s a r t i c l e
mat i on t o suspend any p u b l i c a t i o n
its
p e r mi s s i o n ,
"if
whose i n t e r e s t s
case o f
clash
The r i g h t t o
and
right
Ca b i n e t .
f r om t he j u d i c i a l
net.
with
t he
paper ,
Of t he ma n y , i mp o r t a n t
35
remains
t o t he M i n i s t e r o f I n f o r
f o r a maximum o f one y e a r ,
national
in terests
"who d e a l t
suspend papers
t o appeal
In a d d i t i o n ,
g i v i n g way t o a
or t o cancel
i s found t o serve t he i n t e r e s t s o f a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y
a non-political
p . 216) .
t he
it
a
(Badr e t a l . ,
t he c o n t r o v e r s i a l A r t i c l e
gave t he r i g h t
"enjoys
against
with
of
Kuwai t"
politica l
or,
i ss u e s "
was gi ven t o t he Cabi net
suspensi on
was
also
dealt
as
with
in
t he
(Ibid,
a whole
by
t he
t he r i g h t t o cancel t he l i c e n c e o f a paper was t aken
authorities
(i.e.
A r t i c l e 35 o f t he 1961 law,
t he High Cour t )
and gi ven t o t he Ca bi
which was amended i n 1972,
a l s o gave t he
Ca bi n et a wi de range o f reasons f o r which a paper c oul d be suspended f o r a
maximum p e r i o d o f one y e a r .
1.
Criticising
These i n c l u d e d :
t he Amir or q u o t i n g him w i t h o u t p r i o r
pe r mi s s i o n f r om t he
Department o f P u b l i c a t i o n s a t t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n ( A r t i c l e 23)
2.
Criticising
heads
of
states
and o t h e r f r i e n d l y c o u n t r i e s
or
harming K u w a i t ' s
relations
with
Arab
( A r t i c l e 24) .
3.
I n s t i g a t i n g cri mes or c r e a t i n g d i v i s i o n s i n s o c i e t y
4.
Instigating
( A r t i c l e 27) .
t he o v e r t h r o w i n g o f t he regime by f o r c e o r o t h e r
illeg al
means ( A r t i c l e 30) .
5.
Encour agi ng t he spread o f communism or c r i t i c i s i n g
and economic systems o f t he c o u n t r y
6.
s e v e r el y t he s o c i a l
(Ibid).
De s pi s i ng o t h e r p e o p l e ' s r e l i g i o n s or creeds ( I b i d ) .
- 189
From t he i s s u i n g o f t he new P u b l i c a t i o n
f ound,
as pr esent ed
i n Tabl e 4 . 2 ,
that
s i on o f 48 newspapers and magazi nes.
Law i n
1976 u n t i l
1982 i t
was
t he government or der ed t he suspen
All
orders,
however,
were i ss ued by
t he M i n i s t e r o f I n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t d i r e c t i n v ol v e men t by t he Cabi net .
After
independence i n
1961,
papers w i t h st andar d s i z e .
and
two
weekl y
Kuwai t .
in
English)
and an equal
Kuwai t devel oped a l a r g e
I n 1979,
were
bei ng
number
of
news
seven d a i l y newspapers ( f i v e i n A r ab i c
published
other
in
Kuwai t .
perio dicals
Moreover,
now appear
sixteen
regularly
in
These p u b l i c a t i o n s enj oy a hi gh r e p u t a t i o n among no n- Ku wai t i Arabs
i n t he G u l f S t at es and o t h e r Arab c o u n t r i e s .
at
number o f
present,
circulating
widely
communi t i es such as London
in
t he
and P a r i s .
Kuwai t began an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
Ku w a i t i d a i l y newspapers ar e,
Western
capitals
A1-Qabas
with
large
Arab
t he most p o pu l ar i n
e d i t i o n f rom London i n 1985.
I t shoul d be noted t h a t a l t h o u g h t he government was gi ven t h e r i g h t t o
suspend any paper b e f or e t he 1972 amendment, i t
this rig ht.
all
t he
cases
Al-Tali'ah
it
The government p r e f e r r e d
heard
had t he
by t he
lion's
High
was t aken t o c o u r t 19 t i mes
It
shoul d
government
is
dispositions.
be
not ed,
rather
It
is
t he
however,
not ewor t hy
radical
le ft
suspensi on o r d e r s .
( Al -Rumai hi ,
substantial,
suspended because o f t h e i r
t o r e s o r t t o t he c o u r t s i n s t e a d .
Co ur t ,
share o f
di d not f r e q u e n t l y e x e r c i s e
that
t he
i mpact
newspapers
st and on l i b e r a l
dealt with foreign policy.
190
wi ng magazine
Between
1963-1973,
1983).
particularly
that
In
of
with
t he
r egar d
press
to
on
t he
liberal
and magazines were o f t e n
i s s ues even when t hese i s s ues
P u b l i c a t i o n s suspended i n Kuwai t 1976- 1982
i n c l u d i n g Cause, Date and Per i od o f Suspension
T ab l e 4 . 2
Name o f t he Paper
Cause o f Suspension
Date o f
Suspension
Per i od o f
Suspension
8.76.
1 month
1.
A1-Watan
W r i t i n g about demo
c r acy i n Kuwai t
31.
2.
A l-T aili'ah
c r acy i n Kuwai t
1.
9. 76
3 months
3.
A1 -Hadaf
cr ac y i n Kuwai t
2.
9.76.
3 months
4.
A1-Ri sal a
cr ac y i n Kuwai t
5.
9.76.
3 months
5.
A l -Rai d
6.
9.76.
3 months
cr ac y i n Kuwai t
6.
Al - Ra i Al-Aam
Publishing a foreign
announcement
4.11.76.
7.
Al - Sa y a sa h
Publishing a foreign
announcement
31.12.76.
8.
Al-Tali'ah
C r i t i c i s i n g t he
1 week
10 days
5.
1 .7 7.
3 months
gover n ment ' s
internal policy
9.
A l - R i sal a
go v er nment ' s
internal policy
31.
5. 76
3 months
10.
Al -Sayasah
gov er nment ' s
in ternal policy
12.
6.77.
3 days
11.
Kuwai t Times
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
28.
7.77.
1 week
12.
A l - Ra i A-Aam
C riticising
P r e s i d e n t Sadat
21.12.77.
3 days
13.
Sawt A l - K h a l i j
E g y pt i a n Regime
24.12.77.
1 week
14.
A l - Ra i Al-Aam
gov e r nme nt ' s
13.
1 week
internal
policy
-
191
1.78.
Table 4 . 2
(continued)
Name o f t he Paper
Date o f
Suspension
Per i od o f
Suspension
15. A l - Ra i Al-Aam
gov er nment ' s
in ternal policy
11.
6.78.
3 days
16. A l - Ra i Al-Aam
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
22.11.78.
3 days
17. A1-Watan
S p e c u l a t i n g about
t he new Cabi net
27.11.78.
1 week
18.
Al - B a l a g h
g over nment ' s
internal policy
18.
4.78.
1 month
19.
Al -Moj tam'a
U n i v e r s i t y t hr ou gh
an i n t e r v i e w w i t h
Abdulla A l - N a f i s i
and o t h e r s
1.
5.78.
2 months
10.
5.78.
3 months
C ritic is in g Presi
dent S a d a t ' s w i f e
21.
8.78.
2 weeks
C r it i c i s i n g Presi-
15.
6.78.
3 days
17.
6.78.
1 month
17.
6.78.
1 month
20. M i r a ' t Al-Uma
gov er n ment ' s
intern al
21.
M i r a ' t Al-Uma
22. A1-Qabas
policy
dent Sadat and
Numeiri f o r t h e i r
l i n k s w i t h t he CIA
23. A1- Hadaf
C r itic is in g Presi
dent Sadat and
Numei ri f o r t h e i r
l i n k s w i t h t he CIA
24. Al-Nahda
gov er nment ' s
internal policy
25.
Al-It1had
C r i t i c i s i n g wear i ng
Islamic v e i l
31. 8 . 7 8 .
2 months
26.
A1-Tall'ah
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
24.
3 months
192
6.79.
Tabl e 4 . 2
(continued)
Date o f
Suspension
Pe r i od o f
Suspension
12.12.79.
1 month
g ov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
24.
6.79.
1 month
gov e r nme nt ' s
16.
7.79.
1 month
C riticising Presi
dent Asad o f S y r i a
31.12.79.
2 weeks
31. A l - M o j t a m ' s
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
16.
7.79.
1 month
32.
5.
9.79.
1 month
Name o f t he Paper
27.
Al-Tali'ah
gov e r n me n t ' s
in ternal
28.
A1- Hadaf
29. A l - B a l a g h
in ternal
30.
Al - B a l a g h
Al -Moj tam'a
policy
policy
Iranian Revolution
33.
Al -Moj tam'a
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
24.12.79.
2 weeks
34.
A1-Sayasah
10.
9.79.
3 days
gov er nment ' s
internal policy
35. Al-Nahda
go v er nment ' s
internal policy
30.
9.79.
1 week
36. A1-Watan
P u b l i s h i n g an
obscene p i c t u r e
30.
9.79.
1 day
37. A l - M o j t a m ' a
s i t u a t i o n in Sy r ia
26.
3.80.
2 weeks
18.11.80.
2 weeks
I n t e r v i e w i n g t he
I r a n i a n Ambassador
28.
4.80.
2 weeks
Saudi regi me
28.
5.80.
2 weeks
( reduced
t o 1 week)
38.
Al -Moj tam' a
g ov e r nme nt ' s
internal policy
39. A l - Ra i
40.
Al-Aam
Al-Tali'ah
193 -
Table 4 . 2
(continued)
Name o f t he Paper
Date o f
Suspension
Per i od o f
Suspension
41.
Al-Tali'ah
C r i t i c i s i n g G u l f and
Nor t h Yemen regimes
23.11.80.
2 weeks
42.
A1-Sayasah
S p e c u l a t i n g about a
v i s i t by t he Amir
t o London
28.
6.80.
2 days
43. A l - M o j t a m ' a
C r i t i c i s i n g Col onel
Gaddafi o f L i by a
17.
6.81.
1 week
44. A l - M o j t a m ' a
s i t u a t io n in Syria
21.
7.81.
2 weeks
45. A l - M o j t a m ' a
gov e r nme nt ' s
internal po licy
16.11.81.
1 month
46. A l - T a l i 'ah
s i t u a t i o n i n Bahr ai n
27.
3 weeks
47.
Criticising
19.10.81.
Al-Rai
Al-Aam
6.81.
3 days
P r e s i d e n t Numeiri
o f Sudan
48. A l - M o j t a m ' a
s i tu a ti o n in Syria
2.
2 weeks
3.82.
Source: A w r i t t e n answer by t he M i n i s t e r o f I n f o r m a t i o n t o a q u e s t i o n
by Ahmed Al - Sadoon MP., A1- Sayasah, 6t h A p r i l 1982.
Int roduced
by A l - R u m a i h i ,
For exampl e,
gov er nment ' s
1970.
tive
i s we l l - k n own t h a t
decision
Ku w a i ti
liberal
to
suspend
shoul d t ake
government
to
aid
to
Kuwai t i
Jordan
papers had i n f l u e n c e d
during
t he
Civil
t he
War
of
papers and magazines s e v e r el y a t t a c k e d t he con s e r v a
p o s i t i o n o f t he regime i n
Kuwai t
t he
it
1983.
some a c t i o n .
suspend
aid
Jordan and demanded t h a t t he government o f
The pr e s s ur e by t h e l i b e r a l
to
Jor dan.
Similarly,
t he
pr ess f o r c e d
gover nment ' s
a s s i s t a n c e i n t he peace moves t h a t t ook p l ace i n t he Mi d dl e East a f t e r t he
October War o f 1973 was l a r g e l y
a reaction
as r e f l e c t e d i n t he pr ess ( A l - R u m a i h i ,
t o t he p o p u l a r d a i l y
treatment
1973, p . 368).
- 194 -
7
..j
THE DAILY PRESS
In
spite
of
t he
small
size
population
(about
1.5
million)
with
a
l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 60%, Kuwai t has t he f o l l o w i n g 5 maj or A r ab i c newspapers;
Al - Ray
Al-Aam
established
(Public
on
Opinion).
16th A p r i l
Thi s
1961,
is
a y ea r
a conservative
be f o r e
t he
paper
nation's
which
independence.
The owner i s Al-Mussaeed, a member o f p a r l i a m e n t , who has c o n s i s t e n t l y
po r t e d t he government on a l l
issues.
d a i l y t o be p u b l i s h e d i n Kuwai t ,
sent t i m e .
As J e r k h i
argued,
t he
public"
(Jerkhi,
A1-Sayasah
pu b l i s h e d
editor,
ranks l owest i n c i r c u l a t i o n a t t he p r e
"this
newspaper backed t he government r e g a r d
of
of
positions
In 1976, f o r
bureaucrats
in te rests
summer
of
after
he bought
its
editor,
some
revising
These
i ssues
a moderate
Al-Jar
it
were
on 8t h
but
it
rejected
espouses b l i n d
exampl e,
gave t o t a l
better
than
by
and
t he
i t s r ec e n t
1968.
newspaper
owner
Because
of
and
t he
t i mes t akes moderate or even
follows
loyalty
a
pr o- gover nment
t o t he A m i r ' s a u t h o r
sup po r t t o t he government measure
and unabashedl y argued t h a t
t he gover nment ' s
under
knew
t he
Amir's
t he members o f
A1-Sayasah
conservative
April
al so
i s s u e s and
it
to
Aliah,
A1-Sayasah a t
issues,
technocrats
1986,
is
June 1965.
t he p a r l i a m e n t
and
far
Thi s
si n c e
on
on o t h e r
dissolving
t he Assembly,
1984, p . 256) .
over
style
Al t hough Al - Ray Al-Aam i s t he f i r s t
agreement .
(The P o l i t i c s ) .
t ook
positio n
ity.
security
weekly
mercurial
liberal
Gul f
sup
it
i n g such i ss ues as d i s s o l v i n g
signing
was
praised
t he
authority
t he Assembly.
Amir
for
t he
public
Similarly,
i n t he
dissolving
t he
Na t i on a l
Assembly and i mposi ng government c e n s o r s h i p on t he press and c h a r a c t e r i z e d
t he members o f t he N a t i on a l
had begun t o s e l l
Al-Jar
Allah,
social
movements,
their
nation to external
no n e t h e l es s ,
and
Assembly as a bunch o f
many
has
strongly
liberal
-
Kuwaitis
who
powers ( A1- Sayasah, 1986, p . l ) .
endorsed
issues,
195 -
disloyal
modern
in stitu tio n s,
in c lu d in g admiration
of
t he
r e v o l u t i o n a r y regime i n
cratic
Republ i c
interviews
tries,
with
I r aq
and t he
of
South
Yemen
t he
heads
of
radical
(Rough,
Mi ddl e
regime o f t he Peo pl e' s
1979).
East er n
He conducted
and
other
Third
Demo
i m p r es s i v e
World
coun
and was once quoted as s ay i ng t h a t he wi shed t o i n t e r v i e w Mrs. Golda
Mei r o f I s r a e l ,
a c i r c u ms t a nc e which even t he most r a d i c a l
con t empl at e ( J e r k h i ,
A1 -Qabas
papers dare not
1984).
(The Beacon).
Thi s
is
a non-partisan
newspaper which was f ound,
i n a 1985 survey by t he Pan Arab Research Cent re (PARC), t o be, as shown i n
Tabl e
4.3,
established
t he
most
r es p ec t ed
in
1972
by
five
newspaper
of
t he
among Kuwai t i
richest
gained t he r es p e c t
o f a wi de range o f K uwai t i
o u t s i d e Kuwai t .
is
in
t he
way
it
It
deal s
r ep ut ed f o r
with
its
It
was
and
has
and Arab r eader s w i t h i n
and
families
readers.
in
Kuwai t ,
non-partisan o b j e c t i v i t y ,
news d u r i n g
crises.
Because o f
especially
its
obje ctive
p o s i t i o n on v a r i o u s i s s u e s , A1-Qabas has succeeded i n g a i n i n g t he a t t e n t i o n
of a large national
in
1985,
A1-Qabas
t he o r i g i n a l
launched
readership.
an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
pages are t r a n s m i t t e d
As was i n d i c a t e d b e f o r e ,
edition
f rom London i n
ever y eveni ng by s a t e l l i t e
which
f r om Kuwai t
t o London and p u b l i s h e d t he next mor ni ng s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h i t s e q u i v a l e n t
copy i n Kuwai t .
i s s ues
In g e n e r al , A1 Qabas emphasises t he Arab and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
more than
local
issues.
Each p o l i c y
led
to
t he
increase
of
non-
Ku w a i t i Arab r eader s i n s i d e Kuwai t and abroad.
A1-Watan (The Home Land) .
established
in
early
Thi s
on a weekly b a s i s ,
then
tion,
it
columns
Kuwai t ,
find
opened
a liberal-radical
1962 by a group o f
firs t
has
is
its
i n 1974 i t
to
many
mer chant s.
i n which t o p u b l i s h
their
- 196 -
It
was
became a d a i l y .
liberal
a p o l i c y which enabl ed many i n t e l l e c t u a l
an o u t l e t
newspaper which
i deas.
and
published
From i t s
radical
was
at
incep
writers
in
w r i t e r s and j o u r n a l i s t s t o
Thi s
newspaper
has been
well
r ec e i v e d by Arab r eader s i n t he G u l f s t a t e s ,
ral-radical
cities,
orientation,
particularly
its
circulation
t hose
who
and because o f i t s
i n c r ea s ed among Arabs i n
oppose
their
regimes
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t he c u r r e n t
p o l i c i e s o f t he Arab S t a t e s .
rejected
tendency
t he
gover nment ' s
constitution.
pe r c ei ved
doms
by
within
It
also
rejected
tor e s t r i c t
t he
Gulf
t he
newspaper as a p o l i c y
t he
Gulf
because o f i t s
States.
radical
AL-Anba
(The
News).
sever al
we al t h y
t he w e a l t h i e s t
by
agreement
has
Ku w a i t i
Thi s
is
a conservative
and c o n t r o l l e d
Kuwai t .
meaning t h a t
Soon a f t e r
gr ant ed
pr e s s .
there
campaign was t he
dissolution
opposes
t he
whi ch
was
free
many
t i mes
newspaper
which
by t he Al - Mar zouq
its
in itia l
is
no
need
for
is
family,
publicatio n
t he
owned
by
one o f
i n 1976,
it
"Every Kuwai t i
is
parliament
s i nce
every
i s aware o f h i s i n t e r e s t s and can defend h i s c o u n t r y ' s i n t e r e s t s .
Thi s
t he
dis
gener al
been suspended
p u b l i s h e d f o r a whole month a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d
a Guard",
revising
designed t o r e s t r a i n
A1-Watan
are
A1-Watan s t r o n g l y
f reedom
security
who
European
st an ce.
families
in
or
lib e
t he
to
of
t he
wide range
t he
members
A1-Anba
p r e l u d e which t he Amir needed be f o r e d e c r ee i ng
N a t i on a l
Assembly
of
freedoms
of
t he
gi ven
Nati onal
f r e q u e n t l y advocates
on
29th
August
to
t he
public,
Assembly
that
what
1976.
A1-Anba
t he
immunit y
and
t he
freedom o f
some
call
f reedom
t he
is
a
s er i o u s t h r e a t t o t he s e c u r i t y o f Kuwai t , a r g u i ng t h a t what br o ug ht Lebanon
to a twelve-year c i v i l
and
to
similar
parliament,
civil
circulation,
and
war
dat e
war was t he u n r e s t r i c t e d
cont ends
(Ibid).
of
The
that
such freedom w i l l
positio n
publication,
and
t r a t e d i n Tabl e 4 . 4 .
-
f reedom gi ven t o t he press
197 -
of
each
l ead
newspaper
pr edomi nant o r i e n t a t i o n
Kuwai t t o
in
t erms
is
a
of
illu s
In a d d i t i o n t o t hese f i v e A r a b i c newspapers p u b l i s h e d i n Kuwai t , t h e r e
are
two
E n g l i sh
Association
dailies:
si n c e
23rd
The
Sept .
Dai l y
1961,
News,
and
published
The
Arab
A1-Sayasah A s s o c i a t i o n and launched i n Febr uar y 1977.
are w i d e l y c i r c u l a t e d among E n g l i s h
manpower wo r ki ng
in
t he
oil
r eader s
industry
Ti mes,
198
Al-Rai
Al-Amm
published
by
These two newspapers
Kuwai t who are p a r t
and on devel opment
1979).
-
in
by
projects
o f t he
(Rough,
<C C L
q: X
< t LU
si
ce
3e œ
<c
199
Tabl e 4 . 4
Kuwai t D a i l y Newspapers, Es t i mat ed C i r c u l a t i o n
and Predomi nant O r i e n t a t i o n .
Est.
F irst
Circ.
Pub.
AL-Qabas
(The Beacon)
55,000
1972
Free E n t e r p r i s e
Kuwai t N a t i o n a l i s t
Pr o- Ar ab N a t i o n a l i s m
AL-Watan
43,000
1974
L ib e r a l, c r i t i c a l of
government, f r e e mouthpi ece
o f democrats and l e f t - w i n g
Name
Predominant O r i e n t a t i o n
(The Homeland)
Kuwai t i s
AL-Anba
( t h e News)
33,000
1^^
Pr o- gover nment c o n s e r v a t i v e ,
mouthpi ece f o r commercial
groups.
AL-Sayasah
(Politics)
33,000
1965
Moderate p ro -g ov e rn m e n t,
pr o - Eg y p t and o th e r
moderate Arab S t at es
AL-Ray Al-Am
2 0,000
1961
C o n s e r v a t i v e , governmental
i n sound, a n t i - l e f t and
pr o- West .
1 0 ,0 0 0
1961
Pub l i s hed f o r non-Arab
The Kuwai t i
Times
fo reig n ers.
The Arab Time
8,000
L i b e r a l , p o p u l a r focused
i n r e g i o n a l news.
l^ V
Sources : F i gu r es o b t ai n e d f rom a u t h o r i t a t i v e sources i n t he same
newspapers (May 1986).
Tabl e based on Rough (1979)
THE FUNCTION OF KUWAITI PRESS
The d i s c u s s i o n s pr es ent ed above suggest t h a t t h e K u w a i t i pr ess p l a y s a
vital
role
in
in fluencin g
domest i c
however, must be c on s i d er ed
political
structure
which
a u t h o r i t y o f t he Amir i s
his
legislative
f r om t he
policy.
foreig n
That
s t a n d p o i n t o f t he Ku w a i t i
influence,
social
can be c h a r a c t e r i s e d as q u a s i - t r a d i t i o n a l .
indisputable ,
functions
powers t o t he C a b i n e t .
and
ar e
but he i s
de l e g a t e d
Drawing mo s t l y
- 200
to
not an a b s o l u t e r u l e r ,
t he
from l i b e r a l
Assembly
el ement s,
and
and
The
as
executive
t he Assembly
has,
in
its
short
democracy whi ch,
cl ashes
with
history,
demonst r at ed a commitment t o mo d e r n i s a t i o n and
when addressed
Amir and t he government,
seriously,
authority
on t he o t h e r
power
and c o - o r d i n a t e s
conservative matters,
conservative
authority,
line
of
stab ility.
dual
role.
reluctantly
influence.
move t he
when t hey
define
guar di ans
t he
But
government
not
When i t
only
comes t o
to
liberalism
authority
c o n t i n u i t y and norma
when
t he y
push
their
can besai d t o p l ay a
in
t h i s r o l e t hey are
arguments
beyond
t he heavy armour o f
and awaken t h e i r
national
as a d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
t r a d i t i o n s and
fervour
influence
especially
and argue t h a t
unchecked would undermine Kuwai t i
in te grity
and n a t i o n a l
The
is
authority
in
commands
cials,
t he
and
that
respect
attention
above
a ll,
for
of
t he
t he
traditional
popul ace,
Ami r ,
ready
but
also
access
o p i n i o n on ma t t e r s o f c o n s e r v a t i v e n a t u r e .
t he
t he government, t he l a t t e r c o n t r o l
leaving i t
point
tradi
appease t r a d i t i o n a l
jo urn alists
t he Amir and
popul ace
of
The press i s o b l i g e d by custom t o p r e s en t
them p r o m p t l y . They do so suppor t ed by
to
The
t he pr ess y i e l d s t o t he t r a d i t i o n a l
t o l e r a b l e l i m i t s d e f i n e d by
val ues
Ca bi n et .
ac t which connects t hese
a g i t a t e f o r change and m o d e r n i s a t i o n ;
tole rated.
and
are seen as t he
From t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,
They
government
and h i s
but a l s o t o assure t he r eader s o f c u l t u r a l
tive
t he
c u l t u r e and va l ue s .
their
o f t he Amir and hi s government.
t he
t he Amir
dynamism t he press p l ay s a b a l a n c i n g
c e n t re s
tional
of
hand,
t r a d i t i o n s and t he s a v i o u r s o f Ku w a i t i
In t h i s
ant ago ni zes
to
gi v es
t he
Above a l l ,
Kuwai t
unity.
not
government
shapi ng
of
only
o ffi
public
t hey are seen as t he
guar di ans o f t he et hos o f t he c u l t u r e .
When i t
pr e s s ,
which
comes t o
t he q u e s t i o n o f who set s t he agenda
t he answer would have t o
are
seen
as
stemming
f rom or
c h a r a c t e r and m a i n t a i n i n g i t s
government .
The
pr i mar y
be:
role
it
depends
touching
upon t he
i n t he Kuwai t i
issues.
I ssues
upon p r e s e r v i n g t he
Kuwai t i
i n t e g r i t y ar e expect ed t o be advocated by t he
of
t he
Ami r ,
- ^ 1 -
t he
Ca bi n et ,
and
government
officia ls,
is
p r e s e r v i n g t he
culture
and c on s e r v i ng
it.
De c i si o ns
o t h e r i s s ues are w i d e l y expect ed t o be i n f l u e n c e d ,
even governed,
considerations.
de moc r a t i c
such
as
t he
N a t i on a l
Al t hough i t s
t i v e body,
it
s till
accept ed
cont emporary
came
about
in itia lly
as
f u n c t i o n i s d e f i n e d as a f u l l y
by t hese
in stitutions
advisory
b o di es.
fledged l e g i s l a
has t o a c t w i t h i n t he bounds p r e s c r i b e d by t he Amir who
So does t he pr ess .
shoul d
authority,
above,
Assembly
constitutional
i s t he r u l e r .
It
As menti oned
on a l l
be
noted
that
t he
fun cti on of
t he
Amir
as t he
and o f t he government as t he gu ar di an o f t he c u l t u r e ,
and
suppor t ed
journalists.
even
by t he
Only t he r a d i c a l s
question t h e i r a u t h o r i t y ,
intellectuals,
t he
ultimate
ar e w i d e l y
mer chant s,
and t he
from among f u n d a m e n t a l i s t p r o - I r a n S h i ' i t es
which i s seen by o t he r s as t he bedrock upon which
t he s t a b i l i t y o f Kuwai t r e s t s .
well
established.
t i o n which t a c i t l y
between t he
government and t he pr e s s ,
The f reedom o f t he press i s guarant eed
and e x p l i c i t l y
gi v es t he
cat e t he boundari es beyond which t h i s
Thus,
to
when i t
t ak e
t he
and i t
unabashedl y
is
by t he c o n s t i t u
government t he r i g h t
t o demar
freedom would undermine t he c u l t u r e .
comes t o c o n s e r v i ng t he c u l t u r e ,
l ead,
therefore,
does
t he government i s expect ed
so because
it
isusually
sup
po r t e d on c o n s e r v a t i v e st ands by t he popul ace.
In such a case,
mat ter s
of
t he media ar e expect ed t o y i e l d t o t he government on
a conservative
nature.
As
menti oned
above,
when
newspapers
stepped beyond t hese bounds, t hey have been p r o mpt l y suspended on c o n s t i t u
tional
grounds. Thus, when i t
c o n s e r v a t i v e c o n t en t w i l l
expect,
t he
therefore,
gover nment ' s
to
it
i s expect ed t h a t
be s et i n t he press by t he government.
find
positio n
comes t o agenda s e t t i n g ,
that
journalists
on c o n s e r v a t i v e
woul d,
on t he whol e,
pr e s en t
matters,
even when t he
govern
men t ' s views do not cor r espond w i t h t h e i r own.
out o f expedi ency or by d e f a u l t ,
We would
We would a l s o expect t h a t ,
j o u r n a l i s t s would not o n l y l e t government
- 202 -
officia ls
s et t he agenda on c o n s e r v a t i v e m a t t e r s but a l s o share
t he accept ance o f hose
w i t h them
ma t t e r s w i t h o u t a d v o c a t i ng them.
Thi s does not mean, however, t h a t t he gover nment ' s powers go unchecked.
The democ r at i c
strid es
pr ess as bas i c
in stitu tio n s.
freely
lie r,
elected
Kuwai t f i r m l y
i ng t he peopl e,
backgrounds,
on t he whol e, a l i b e r a l
t h e i r main f u n c t i o n ,
but
established
also
t he
Assembly and t he
The members o f t he N a t i on a l Assembly who are
are drawn f rom d i v e r s e
t hey r e p r e s e n t ,
constitution
in
by t he
which
emerging
c o u nt er bal ance t o t he government .
lead i n c o n s e r v a t i v e m a t t e r s ,
but,
st and.
is
Apa r t from r e p r e s e n t
le gitim ised
de mocr a t i c
Thus,
as menti oned e a r
not on l y
norms, i s
to
by t he
a c t as
a
as t he government i s expect ed t o
t he Assembly i s expect ed t o champion l i b e r a l
caus es .
In
ways,
this
setting,
to that
recruited
f rom
journalists
pl ay
o f t he Assembly members.
among
t he
level
o f awareness and e x p e r t i s e
their
rivals.
Their
and t h e i r
setting,
t hey
function
positio n
is
are expect ed
Many
is
on l i b e r a l
serve as o p i n i o n l e ad er s on l i b e r a l
i n many
ar e
highly
educated,
and
by d e m o n s t r a t i ng a
m a t t e r s andcauses t h a t match
f o r g e ahead t owar ds mo d e r n i s a t i o n and
generally
l ead
sim ilar,
j o u r n a l i s t s ar e w i d e l y
scor e make up f o r i t
is to
to
which
Li ke them,
in tellectuals.
t hose among them who l a c k on t h a t
change,
a role
in
liberal.
liberal
When i t
causes.
comes t o agenda
On t he whole t hey
m a t t e r s , even f o r government o f f i c i a l s .
GOVERNMENT AND PRESS : A QUEST FOR POWER
Li k e
political
ences
its
equivalent
in stitu tio n ,
between
its
other
discussed,
Arab
requires
politica l
wi de t h a t t he d i v e r s i t y
in
positio n
The
political
t he
Kuwai t i
certain
g i v es i t
countries.
sever al
el sewh er e ,
po litical
and
a special
Kuwai t i
st ands ,
identity
r a n g i ng
though
harmoni es;
ideological
press
- 20 3 -
press
also
f rom
a
t he
backgrounds
s t r on g
diffe r
are
so
q u i t e u n l i k e t he press
reflects,
t he
as
already
radical
liberal
position,
for it s
as i s t he case w i t h AI
radical
ideology,
l e f t i s m and i t s
and t he d a i l y
T a l i a , a weekly magazi ne,
call
newspaper.
for
A]
social
which i s
r ef or ms based on s o c i a l i s t
Wat an: a p a t r i o t i c
national
newspaper which opens Kuwai t up t o Arab p a t r i o t i c c u r r e n t s .
t he
other
hand,
in i t s
government.
The most
moderate newspaper,
however,
i s A1 Qabas whi ch, besi des t o p p i n g
t he o t h e r s
in
t he
neutral
in
highest c i r c u l a t i o n
p r e s e n t i n g t he p o l i t i c a l
government
or
t he
opposition
i s sues
t ake
government
on
t he
A1 Sayasah, on
moderate
has
of
liberal
is
popularity,
sup po r t
known
in
Kuwai t
r egar dl ess
t hose
It
o f t he p o s i t i o n
issues,
and
t he
therefore
by bot h t he
more,
t he
conservative
ity's
p o s i t i o n and has on many occ as i ons opposed and c ha l l e ng ed t he l i b e r a l
view which expresses i t s e l f
and
from
within
t he
Al - Ray
opposition.
is
is
res p ect ed
rig h tist
and t he
and abroad.
Al - Am, which
t hr ou gh t he p u l p i t s
Na t i o n a l
Assembly.
There i s ,
s up po r t s
o f t he
Finally,
t he
liberal
A1-Anba
further
author
newspapers
which
most l y
opposes t he Na t i on a l Assembly and l eans more or l es s t owar ds t he government
side.
Thi s d i v e r s i t y
t h a t t he Kuwai t i
of id eo lo g ic a l
p o s i t i o n s among t he press does not mean
press has no u n i t e d
st ands.
On t he c o n t r a r y ,
on sev er al
o c c a s i o n s , t hese newspapers have found t hemsel ves a d o p t i ng one p o s i t i o n and
fighting
against
t he
t he
restrictions
position,
and
battle
Na t i on a l
on procedur es
t he
restrictin g
t he
or
yet
t he
agai n
and l e g i t i m a t e
resorts
f reedom o f
pr e s s ,
or
against
government,
against
pursuits.
t he
But
at
else
t he
to
legitim ate
t he
press.
hi nder
it
It
often
channel s
Every now
a view
at t e mp t s t o o b s t r u c t
from p l a y i n g
its
role
of
gover nment ' s
with
i n s t i t u t i o n w i t h a g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t owards t he K uwai t i
204
others
imposition
poses t he main c ha l l e n g e t o t he pr e s s .
government
t he
sometimes
Assembly,
on t he whol e,
t he n,
b e little
same
to
and
as a s o c i a l
society.
THE PRESS VERSUS THE GOVERNMENT
It
is essential
t o keep i n mind t h a t t he Ku w a i t i
t he case i n most Arab c o u n t r i e s ,
under
t he
states),
auspi ces
nor y e t
states.
of c e r ta in
Kuwai t i
or
St at e
we al t h
multiplied,
daily
newspapers,
These
were,
in
Tr easur y
t he
t he
and
fact,
pocket s
that
commented;
If
competition
it
nor e s t a b l i s h e d
case
i n most
as was t he
Gulf
case i n
from t he per sonal
Arab
effort
produced press r el ea s e s or smal l
a few pages
t he
so many
was t he
resulted
Press A s s o c i a t i o n
newspapers!
or
Kuwai t
only
(as
parties
scores o f magazi nes,
C o u n s e l l o r i n Kuwai t ,
enjo ys,
po litica l
in
by government s,
family
c i t i z e n s who i n i t i a l l y
newspapers w i t h
t he
daily
ruling
The press
fille d
five
t he
by any r u l i n g
republican
tabloids,
of
initiate d
press was n o t , as i s
be f o r e o i l
of
of
t he
citizens.
Kuwai t
i ssued
p e r i o d i c a l s and
Dr.
Baski s
we al t h
revenues
As
t he
sev er al
oil
s t r on g
special b u l l e t i n s .
Al -Awach,
t he Amir
Diwan
" Kuwai t cannot sup po r t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n
were
created
not
by
for
t he
t he
we al t h
financial
which
t he
differences
of
state
and
t he
ideological
differences,
Kuwai t would o n l y need no more than two newspapers
with
f ewer
pages"
Shanab,
of
newspapers
flood
(Abu
produced
1987,
in
p . 130)
Shara'
Kuwai t , was t he r e s u l t o f s ev e r al
Abu
Al - S a h a f a h ,
factors,
Shanab
t he
noted
that
'Fleet Street'
t he
of
namely:
" t h e f i n a n c i a l a f f l u e n c e and w e a l t h , commercial and economical
c o m p e t i t i o n , f a m i l y gr o up i ng s and t i e s , p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l
g r o u p i n g s , t he p r o f e s s i o n a l and academic c o m p e t i t i o n ; per sonal
e f f i c i e n c i e s and i n d i v i d u a l a m b i t i o n s , t he r e l a t i v e freedom o f
t he media, t he o f f i c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t he media, a s t r on g i n f l u
ence on p u b l i c o p i n i o n , t he l a r g e number o f p r i v a t e and o f f i c i a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s and c o r p o r a t i o n s , and t he p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s s e c t i o n s
and i n f o r m a t i o n depar t ment s i n t he m i n i s t r i e s and c o r p o r a t i o n s . "
( I b i d , p . 130)
It
seems c l e a r ,
hi gh income,
circulation
therefore,
t he Kuwai t i
among t he
for
financial
for
other
s uppor t
Arab
that,
by v i r t u e
press was mai n t a i ne d
smal l
population.
from l o c a l
newspapers
which
or
- 205
spite
o f t he
low r a t e o f
There was a n e c e s s i t y
foreign
often
in
o f t he c o u n t r y e n j o y i n g a
had
sources
to
to
search
as has been t he
bal ance
their
budget
case
by
obtaining
in ternal
financial
mo s t l y
offered
by
t he
government.
Having
re sources i s an o l d i s s u e which has evoked some measure o f ex c es
sive s e n s it iv it y
of
suppor t,
i n some Ku w a i t i
A1 Sayasah newspaper,
supporter,
newspapers.
categorized
under t he t i t l e
as,
In 1971,
relatively
"St op t he Ai d I f
t he l e a d i n g a r t i c l e
speaki ng a government
You Wish" t he w r i t e r addressed
t he government i n t he f o l l o w i n g t er ms:
" R e l i an c e on t he gover nment ' s f i n a n c i a l a i d means t h a t i n one way
or an ot he r we f o l l o w t he s t a t e ' s wi shes and become a t o o l i n
o t h e r hands, t h a t we do not en j o y t he f reedom o f t he pr es s .
Hence, we do not f e e l embarrassed or a t a l o s s when we ask t he
government t o st op what i s c a l l e d f i n a n c i a l a i d , t o l i f t our
embarrassment.
As some peopl e under st and, t he ai d a l l o w s go ver n
ment i n t e r f e r e n c e i n our a f f a i r s , our c o n v i c t i o n s and w r i t i n g . We
want t o say t o t he wrongdoer ' you made a m i s t ak e ' and a l l we ask
from t he government i s t o s up po r t t he f reedom o f t he press i n a
way t h a t keeps t he pr ess a p a r t f r om t he a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i
sions."
(A1-Sayasah, 1 1 . 4. 71)
Such
articles,
by
whi ch
a
newspaper
expresses
p u b l i s h i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f gover nment ' s f i n a n c i a l
its
keen
desire
to
s u b s i d i e s t o newspapers,
is
an example r a r e l y encount er ed i n newspapers i n o t h e r Arab c o u n t r i e s .
dency on t he government
confront
t he
Arab
due t o t he
newspapers and t o
advertising
1i m i t e d .
is
trade
t he
severe f i n a n c i a l
large
annual
is
weak,
t he
r esour ces
Low c i r c u l a t i o n
rates,
t he
hi gh
l osses t hey
for
prices
d ifficu ltie s
t hese
of
annual
bei ng
t he
subsi dy
expenses.
position,
from
most
t he
A member o f
in
1987,
popular
gover nment ' s
a t op
r ev e al ed
secret
to
amounted t o 75 m i l l i o n Dirham,
As argued
t o newspapers,
early
t he
daily
b e f or e t he c a l l
t he
i.e .
in
t he
commi tt ee
a u t ho r
which
its
r e c e i v e s an
70% o f
on i t s
debt s
in
its
financial
two
y ea r s
about $20 m i l l i o n .
o f A1 Sayasah t o t he government t o st op ai d
draws more i mpor t ance f rom t he f a c t t h a t
newspapers
are
For example,
cover s
reporting
that
As
papers and t he extra-
stage when a d v e r t i s i n g was not wi despr ead as a t
i n cr eas ed
sustain.
UAE A1 T t i h a d ,
treasury
which
newspapers
expenses o f t he s t a f f add t o t he burden o f t hose newspapers.
despite
Depen
circulation
had
2 06 -
br ought t h a t
it
was
made a t an
present,
and b e f or e
in.
Co nt r ar y t o
expectations,
Sayasah.
other
t he weekly magazi ne, Saut A l - K h a l i j made an angry r e p l y t o A1
It
accused t he
newspapers.
la tte r of tryin g
A1-Hadaf
newspaper,
t o ac t
too,
as e x e c u t or on b e h a l f o f
commented
on
t he
subject,
s ay i ng "no newspaper has t he r i g h t t o comment on b e h a l f o f t he whole j o u r
nalistic
body,
and, w i t h o u t anybody' s recommendation,
t he subsi dy or a t a l l
Throwing doubts
Kuwai t i
hand,
f o r t he h a l t o f
speak f o r t hem".
on t he
intentions
t h r o w i n g a pebbl e ont o a pond' s
and w h i r l .
call
of
A1 Sayasah newspaper,
was
like
s u r f a c e w i t h t he s u r f ac e s t a r t i n g t o move
Thi s e a r l y exampl e, which d e f i n e s t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he
press and t he government o f Kuwai t ,
t he government ,
in
different
still
st ands t o d a y .
ways and methods,
tries
to
On t he one
dictate
to
newspapers r an g i ng f rom c o n f i s c a t i o n t o t he i s s u i n g o f s t r o n g laws and even
resorting
to
court.
On t he
other
hand,
t he
newspapers
firm ly
defended
t h e i r f reedom, e i t h e r by ev o k i n g t he i s s u e o f t he freedom o f t he press i n a
loud
v o i ce
public,
in
an i n t e l l i g e n t
at tempt
to
draw t he
sup po r t
of
t he
Kuwai t i
or by r e s o r t i n g t o an a l l i a n c e w i t h t he N a t i on a l Assembly and u si ng
MPs as a b u f f e r between t he press and government.
However,
in
spite
of
numerous
press and t he government
in
or document at i on on t h i s
subject.
sive
r e v i ew
of
newspaper
Kuwai t ,
examples
on t he
there
a lack of h i s t o r i c a l
is
conflict
between
t he
r ec o r ds
I have conducted a t hor ough and e x t e n
archives
which
led
to
t he
conclusion
that
t he
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he government and t he pr ess c oul d be d i v i d e d i n t o two
levels.
The f i r s t
point
o f ent angl ement was t he gover nment ' s at t empt s- t o
i ss ue c e r t a i n laws r e s t r i c t i n g t he f reedom o f t he pr es s,
criticism
of
o fficia ls;
an
illustratio n
is
Article
and p r e v e n t i n g t he
(35)
of
t he
Law o f
P u b l i c a t i o n which gi v es t he Cabi net t he r i g h t t o suspend any newspaper f o r
a period
that
does
not
dealings with a for ei gn
t he
gover nment ' s
exceed
country.
taking to court
two y e a r s ,
if
it
The second p o i n t
was
proved
that
it
had
o f ent angl ement was i n
some newspapers which had been outspoken
- 207 -
and had h a r s h l y
t he
A1-Talia
criticised
magazine
t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
and
t he
daily
The r a d i c a l
newspaper
pr es s ,
A1 Watan,
such as
besi des
some
r e l i g i o u s magazines such as A1 Muj tama were on t he t op o f t hose pr o s e c u t e d .
A fierce
1981,
over
basically
battle
between
t he
r e v i ew o f
concentrated
the
pr ess
t he
around
and t he
Law o f
government
Publications.
Article
(35).
t oo k
It
The
to
enj oyed
defend
under
t he
t he
f reedom o f
freedom o f
t he
press which
expression,
government
Kuwai t i
protected
in
May
was a b a t t l e
impose f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s on t he p r e s s , w h i l e j o u r n a l i s t s ,
wanted
pl ace
by
that
wanted
to
backed by MPs,
newspapers
t he
terms
have
of
t he
c o n s t i t u t i o n which had h i t h e r t o been emphasized i n t he Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n .
A TEST OF POWER
In
many
traditional
political
systems,
a free
source o f danger which coul d t h r e a t e n t he s t a b i l i t y
o f t he press i n a u t h o r i t a r i a n regi mes i s
pr ess
has t he
po ssib ilities,
political
power
t he
to
influence
t he
The pr ess
makes
is
seen
o f a regi me.
as
a
The f e a r
si mpl y based on t he f a c t t h a t t he
populace
by
devel opment and t he d i r e c t i o n
changes.
pr ess
itse lf
indicating
to
them t he
o f a c c e p t ab l e s o c i a l
available
to
t he
public
gu ar d i an o f p u b l i c r i g h t s i n t he f ace o f p e r s o n a l i s e d and d i c t a t o r i a l
and
as
a
whims
p r e v a l e n t i n many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
Al t hough t he r u l i n g
families
in
t he G u l f p r e s en t
typical
examples o f
t he o l d h e r e d i t a r y regimes e s t a b l i s h e d i n t he seventh c e n t ur y by t he Ca l i p h
Mu' awiyah Ben Abu Sof yan,
t he pr e s s ur e s o f t he modern age r a i s e new s o c i a l
e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t hose regimes t o meet.
The pr es s, as Sa' ud, t he f a t h e r o f
Fahd, t he p r e s en t King o f Saudi A r a b i a b e l i e v e d , must behave as p a r t o f t he
body o f t he r egi me.
o f t he f i r s t
of
t he
firs t
s en t i men t d u r i n g t he c e l e b r a t i o n s
b r o a d c a s t i n g s e r v i c e f r om Saudi Ar ab i a i n t he l a t e 1940s.
Gu l f regimes a r e,
power
Thi s was hi s
as a l r e a d y ar gued,
media,
journalists,
traditional
men
of
- 208 -
and h e r e d i t a r y ,
letters,
etc.,
as
The
w h i l e t he
a means
for
change i s a c r e a t i o n o f our age.
Hence t he f e a r o f t he a u t h o r i t i e s and t he
a t t emp t s a t c u r b i n g them.
In Kuwai t t h e r e was a c e r t a i n r ea di nes s t o a l l o w p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The Royal F a m i l y ' s accept ance o f t he p r i n c i p l e s o f democracy made Kuwai t an
ex cept ion
that
it
tional
in
is
milieu
and a u t o c r a t i c
public
rights
r egi mes.
t o t he f o r e f r o n t
and unanimous
other
tribes.
today's
The Arab
people
realized
freedom
of
po litical
choice.
t he
Wi t h
part
of
passage
t he
t he
of
agreement
authority
time,
The grandsons o f
mer chant s,
t he
p e ar l
who ar e s t i l l
between t he
passed
bringing
has l ed t o t he c r e a t i o n o f
Kuwai t ,
as
t o be r u l e d by a f a m i l y t h a t came
i n t he e i g h t e e n t h c e n t ur y t hr ough t he t r i b e s '
ap pr oval .
context,
does not a l l o w more than a w e l l - c a l c u l a t e d range
had t he good f o r t u n e
tribes,
But
structure,
c ha nt s .
Gulf.
The na t ur e o f t he G u l f p o l i t i c a l
and a l i m i t e d
a l r e a d y ment i oned,
t he
t he
an o a s i s o f democracy i n a v as t and boundl ess d e s e r t o f t r a d i
however, i n c l u d i n g Kuwai t ,
of
of
to
about
a new s o c i a l
divers
f r e e c hoi c e
Sabah f a m i l y
t he
chiefs
changes
class,
in
of
t he
and
t hose
social
namely t he mer
and f i s her men o f t he past are
keen on g e t t i n g
their
share o f
power
in
t he l e a d e r s h i p o f t he s t a t e and would not approve o f a b s o l u t e power f o r t he
Amir and t he Royal F a mi l y.
t he
executive,
as
Whi l e t he r u l i n g f a m i l y c o n t r o l l e d t he power o f
be f o r e r e s o r t e d t o ,
In t he
t he
police
resulting
free
t he
two decades,
has t he r i g h t ,
The Kuwai t i
Law o f
ex p r e s s i on w i t h o u t
lim its,
groups found t h a t
never
t hey
from m o d e r n i s a t i o n and t he e v o l u
however,
t he Kuwai t i
b a t t l e s w i t h t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n .
per s.
social
armed f o r c e s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s among which was t he pr ess .
la st
of Publication,
and t he
t he merchants and o t h e r
had new powers and i n f l u e n c e ,
t i o n of social
in
however,
within
Publication
government
t he Cour t s
press has f o u g h t
The l a t t e r ,
certain
has
lim its,
pr eser ved
censor ship.
have t he
- 209 -
legal
If
harsh
a c c o r di n g t o t he Law
t o pr o sec u t e newspa
t he
any
pr e s s '
newspaper
right
of
exceeded
power t o pass judgement on
it.
Under t he i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s
t hr ough
only
a
f l o u r i s h i n g periodof
Arab
i dea s .
information p u lp it
Arab
intellectuals
r eader s o f Ku w a i t i
partial
f reedom,
expansi on
in
t he K uwai t i
which
newspapers
where Arab i n t e l l e c t u a l s
from
newspapers.
all
over
t he
Arab
The e f f i c i e n c y
press passed
coul d
wo r l d
express
became
t he pages o f
Meanwhil e,
K uwai t i
their
frequent
of t h e i r e d i t o r i a l s ,
age and e x c l u s i v e news s t o r i e s r a i s e d t he c r e d i t o f t he Kuwai t i
Arab r e a d e r s .
became t he
cover
pr ess among
t he t a l e n t s o f Arab w r i t e r s found t h e i r way ont o
newspapers.
But t h i s
did
not l a s t
l ong w i t h o u t p r o
v oki ng o p p o s i t i o n from t he o t h e r Arab systems.
Opponents o f Arab governments
air
their
i deas
and spread
found i n t he Kuwai t i
them around.
regimes s t a r t e d e x e r t i n g e x t e r n a l
example,
meantime,
t he e d i t o r s - i n - c h i e f
Pr i n c e Salman Bin Abdul
Ar a b i a and b r o t h e r o f King Fahd,
t he
p r e s s ur e on t he Kuwai t i
i n a speech on r e c e i v i n g
pers i n Ri yadh,
In
press t he means t o
Aziz,
other
Arab
authorities.
For
o f Kuwai t i
newspa
t he Amir o f Riyadh i n Saudi
said:
"Be ki nd t o my c o u n t r y , and be k i nd t o y o u r c o u n t r y Kuwai t - b e
cause whoever reads what you w r i t e about Kuwai t w h i l e i g n o r a n t o f
t he a ct s o f t he regime t h e r e , w i l l i magi ne t h a t Kuwai t i s a
ba nkr u pt c o u n t r y and t h a t t he o f f i c i a l s are r obber s ( t h i e v e s ) ,
and t h a t s e c u r i t y t h e r e i s not s t a b l e .
In o t h e r words, a f a l l e n
c o u n t r y , w h i l e , i n f a c t , t h i s i s f a r from t he t r u t h and f a c t s .
So, have mercy on y o u r mot h e r l a n d , Kuwai t , because t he c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s o f what i s w r i t t e n i n t he newspapers i s t he g e n e r a l i z a t i o n
i n y our c r i t i c i s m o f y our m i n i s t r i e s and c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h i s i s
t he b i g g e s t mi st ake you have made a g a i n s t K u w a i t . "
( Al -Ray Al - Am, 30 . 3 . 8 6 )
From t he Saudi
was
advising
c riticizin g
t he
t he
Prince's
Kuwai t i
journalists
government.
Kuwai t from t he pr es s,
speech,
The
rather i t
it
becomes i mme di a t e l y
to
st op
intention,
was a s i g n a l
practising
however,
was
in
their
not
to
that
he
right
of
protect
o f a g i t a t i o n f o r t he go v er n
ment i n Kuwai t t o t ak e s t r o n g measures a g a i n s t j o u r n a l i s t s
o f t he pr ess .
clear
and t he f reedom
The Saudi P r i n c e under st ood t he d i f f e r e n c e between t he press
Kuwai t and t he
press
in
Ar a b i a coul d not c r i t i c i z e
hi s
own c o u n t r y ,
and t h a t
t he media o f
him and o t h e r G u l f Royal F a m i l i e s .
210 -
Saudi
The
freedom
Sal man's
yield
of
speech,
its
articles
t he
press,
as t he
pr e s s ur e
negative r e s u l t s .
t o t he Law o f
For example. A r t i c l e
and t he press
for
however,
on Kuwai t
The Ku w a i t i
Publication
article,
in
not
la st
l ong
after
from Arab o f f i c i a l s
Pr i n c e
began t o
M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n added some
restricting
t he
f reedom o f
t he
pr e s s .
( 3 5 ) , which caused much t r o u b l e between t he government
five
l ong y e a r s ,
resulted
pr e s s ur e s on t he government o f Kuwai t .
this
di d
1976,
primarily
f rom e x t e r n a l
Arab
The p e r i o d between t he a d d i t i o n o f
and t he s ug g e s t i on o f a new Law o f
Publications
in
1981, was t he t i me i n which t he government c o n t r o l l e d c o mp l e t e l y t he whole
political
of
life ,
including
parliamentary
pr ess .
tions
life
in
t he
freedom o f t he pr es s .
1981,
things
began t o
But what was t he s t o r y behi nd A r t i c l e
But w i t h
change
(35).
in
t he renewal
favour
of
t he
How d i d t he c o n f r o n t a
between t he government and t he pr ess devel op? What p o s i t i o n had t he
Na t i on a l
Assembly t aken
i n t he c o n f l i c t
ment and what were t he p o l i t i c a l
between t he press and t he go v er n
factors
which made f o r
s e t t l e m e n t o f t he
a f f a i r i n f a v o u r o f t he press?
To begi n w i t h ,
t he c o n t e n t o f A r t i c l e
(35) r eads:
"Wi t h t he C a b i n e t ' s d e c i s i o n , i t i s p e r m i t t e d t o suspend t he
newspaper f o r a p e r i o d t h a t does not exceed two y e a r s , o r cancel
i t s l i c e n c e , i f i t was proven t h a t i t i s s e r v i n g t he i n t e r e s t s o f
a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y or o r g a n i z a t i o n , or t h a t i t s p o l i c y c o n t r a d i c t s
t he n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , o r i f i t i s proven t h a t i t had any ai d or
hel p or advantages, f rom any f o r e i g n c o u n t r y or o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n
any or f o r any reason and under any c i r cums t ances or t i t l e s
w i t h o u t t he pe r mi s s i o n o f t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n . "
( A l - Wa t an , 2 7 . 5. 81 )
The upr oar which t h i s
article
caused was no l e s s t han t he one made a t
t he s ug ge s t i on o f a r e v i s e d pr ess
t he
suspensi on o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y
law i n
life
1981.
The reason i s
t he government imposed d i r e c t
s hi p on t he press which l e f t t he pr ess d e f en c e l e s s .
restored
role,
t he
and
an
elected
t he press f ound,
cancellation
of
in
parliament
t he
A rticle
began
parliament,
(35).
that
It
- 211 -
was
t i me ,
censor
But when democracy was
practising
strong
during
its
s up po r t
it
was
socio-political
for
demands f o r
fe lt,
that
t he
a r t i c l e which gave t he Cabi net t he
y ear s
or
cancel
its
right
l i c e n c e be wi t h dr a wn.
MP and Chairman o f a P a r l i a m e n t a r y
publication,
to
suspend any newspaper f o r
For example,
Committee s e l e c t ed t o
that
K h a l i d Al asmi ,
t he
new Law o f
Arab n a t i o n .
of
ments w i t h
t he
t he
contradictory
its
Uni t ed
role
reflects
a c c o r di n g t o
Arab
states
him,
However,
in
t he
Many K u w a i t i s
po litical
"part
The press
t hus
wi shes
t he
of
enj oy s a d e moc r a t i c
ap pr o v i n g
t he
is
w i t h o u t doubt t h i s makes o t h e r s e n v i o u s . "
of
t he
t he
new law,
is
reactions
from a l l
suppor t ed
t he
government,
t he
with
different
newspapers,
added
to
positio ns
t h e i r main s t o r i e s and e d i t o r i a l s
government.
and
its
same p o s i t i o n
to
function
a g a i n s t t he
press and a t t emp t t o
c a t e,
battle
with
Kuwai t
t he
to
in
ag r ee
pl ay
a
comparison
and we a l t h
and
Cabi net
s uppor t
was
emphasi si ng
its
for
t he
press
(35).
The f u r i o u s
i n c l u d i n g t hose which
grief
of
t he
ideological
against
article
n o r ma l l y
supporters.
backgrounds,
devoted
t o demonst r at e t h e i r angui sh a g a i n s t t he
government
came t o t he f reedom o f t he press
in order
to
all
newspapers t oo k
avert
t he
threat
to
t he
t he
put i t s f u t u r e i n j e o p a r dy .
and pr o s ec u t e
which
map i n
prosperity
no r e s t r i c t i o n s ,
government , on t he o t h e r
suspend
in
and
I t was obvi ous t h a t when i t
right
The
t he
p o litica l
security
t he
(Ibid).
demonst r at ed t h e i r
t he Ku w a i t i
in
now al l owed
U.S.
life ,
situation
or
t he gover nment ' s des per at e at t e mp t s t o pass t he A r t i c l e
Newspapers
law o f
i d e a l s i n which t he press
And because t he press i s
o p i n i o n s , t he government
o f t he p r e s s . "
( A l - Wa t an , 7 . 4 . 8 2 )
are bounded by t r e a t i e s
States.
against
n e i g hbo ur s ,
position.
st udy t he
MP, one o f t he we al t h y r a d i c a l s o f Kuwai t , b e l i e v e s
Publication
Kuwai t ,
which most
with
Roumni,
once s a i d :
Freedom and democracy are two connected
i s t he mind t h a t s up po r t s democracy.
t he source and t he c r e a t o r o f f r a n k
t r i e s i t s best t o r e s t r i c t t he dynamics
Dr.
Hamoud A1
two
hand,
newspapers.
government
al l owed
- 212 -
wanted
legal
It
an
free
was
pretexts to
unbalanced
elections
confis
p o litica l
f o r members o f t he
N a t i on a l Assembly w h i l e a t t he same t i me imposi ng more r e s t r i c t i o n s
pr e s s .
this
Al - Ray Al-Am became one o f t h e newspapers most f i e r c e l y
policy.
and i t s
For
Ser i ous
example,
Di mensi ons"
in
an e d i t o r i a l
article
Yousef A1 Maisaeed,
on t he
opposed t o
"The P u b l i c a t i o n s
Law
t he newspaper' s E d i t o r - i n -
C h i e f and Chairman o f t he Kuwai t Press A s s o c i a t i o n , w r o t e :
"The d r a f t Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n which t he government sub mi t t e d t o
p a r l i a m e n t , i s s t i l l a p r o j e c t under d i s c u s s i o n but i t i s an
ex h a u s t i ng p r o j e c t f o r t he press and t h r e a t t o t he democracy o f
Kuwai t .
The press r ef us e d i t ,
not because i t r e s t r i c t s t he
freedom o f e x p r e s s i o n ,
bu t because i t c o n t r a d i c t s t he democr at i c
system which p r o t e c t s
our r i g h t s . The law
means, i n s h o r t ,
s ay i ng f a r e w e l l t o t he p r e s s , democracy and t he f reedom o f
e x p r es s i o n .
We s t i l l say t h a t we, i n Kuwai t , l i v e d and l i v e
as one f a m i l y and
our t i e s are b u i l t on
compassion and s h a r i n g .
That i s why t he
menti oned d r a f t law i s a p l o t a g a i n s t t he s p i r i t o f t he one
f a m i l y concept .
I t assumes t he presence o f i ma gi n ar y enemies
w i s h i n g e v i l f o r Kuwai t , f o r i t s s e c u r i t y , and f o r i t s Arab,
I s l a m i c and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The r e s t r a i n i n g laws ar e not o f our custom or s p i r i t , and when
t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n , who i s t e n d i n g t h i s p r o j e c t , l ooks
around i n t he Arab sphere i t would see i t t h a t t he r e s t r a i n i n g
laws are o f no use i n s o l v i n g pr obl ems.
On t he c o n t r a r y , t hey
l ead t o more probl ems and c o m p l i c a t i o n s , causi ng bl ood t o f l o w
and p r i s o n s t o f i l l .
We do not want t o mourn t he o p p o s i t i o n as we s t i l l b e l i e v e i n t he
s p i r i t o f t he one f a m i l y as a measurement o f our work, and a way
o f our be h a v i o u r .
So, t h e r e i s no need t o submi t a d r a f t as t h a t
which would put b a r r i e r s between us, and h i n d e r t he s p i r i t o f
th is family.
We are p o s i t i v e t h a t t h i s s p i r i t must st ay as our
g r e a t e s t u n w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n , as i t i s t he g r e a t p r o t e c t i o n
f o r us, f o r our c o u n t r y , f o r our system and f o r our f u t u r e . Whi l e
l i v i n g our democracy, we d i d not n o t i c e any o c c u r r i n g or danger
appr oachi ng by God we were f i n e .
There i s no need f o r such an
a r t i c l e t o be put i n a law as i f t he press were an enemy o f t he
c o u n t r y and peopl e.
Could i t be t h a t i t was t he c a r i c a t u r e o f
Numeri t h a t d i d a l l t h a t and r a i s e d h e l l ? "
( Al -Ray Al - Am. 7 . 11 . 81 )
A1
Sayasah
t ook
t he
Ahmed A1 Jar A l l a h ,
same p o s i t i o n
t he
against
t he
government.
owner and E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f ,
bei ng a h i g h l y p r o f e s s i o n a l
For
example,
has t he r e p u t a t i o n
p r a c t i s i n g j o u r n a l i s t as w e l l
o f w e a l t h . Acc or d i n g t o some p r i v a t e sources i n Kuwai t ,
of
as an ac c u mul at or
he rose t o power by
t a k i n g t he si de o f t he government i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t h i s p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s
- 213 -
and
to
guar ant ee
a g ai n,
like
t he
A1 Masaeed,
gover nment ' s a t t emp t s
article,
prosperity
entitled
to
of
Ahmad A l - J a r
his
commercial
Alla
st ood,
proje cts.
personally,
But ,
here
against
t he
undermine t he freedom o f t he pr e s s .
He wr o t e an
"The Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s w i t h o u t c o n s u l t i n g i t s
people,"
s a y i ng :
" Al t h ou gh t he l o g i c i s t h a t t he government under st ands t he r o l e
o f t he pr ess , but i t seems t h a t t he government i s l e n d i n g i t s
ears t o t he j u s t i f i c a t i o n s o f o f f i c i a l s , w i t h o u t even s t u d y i n g
t hose j u s t i f i c a t i o n s .
C l e a r i n g t he atmosphere o f t he press i s
not by i s s u i n g a law t h a t k i l l s i t or t a r n i s h e s i t s b r i l l i a n c e
and a m b i t i o n .
That i s i f t he s ub mi t t e d law i s t he same r e j e c t e d
law about which we expressed our o p i n i o n .
This i s not what m a t t e r s , but i t i s a p i t y t h a t t he government i s
t h i n k i n g o f i s s u i n g a law t h a t c oul d a f f e c t t he b r i n g i n g up o f a
g e n e r at i o n o f press and i n f o r m a t i o n peopl e, as i t i s not f e a s i b l e
t h a t any person would make a ca r e e r o f a r i s k y p r o f e s s i o n whet her
t he r i s k s are a r e s u l t o f d i f f i c u l t laws or o f p r a c t i s i n g f r e e
i n f o r m a t i o n opposi ng o p i n i o n s i n a m e r c i l e s s w o r l d .
I f anyone
accept s t hose r i s k s , one w i l l f e e l upset f a c i n g t he r i s k o f laws
which are supposed t o p r o t e c t him as a j o u r n a l i s t and not t o be a
burden.
The r o l e now i s t he r o l e o f p a r l i a m e n t , as i t i s t he o n l y power
abl e t o r e f us e t he d r a f t law or amending i t .
The p a r l i a m e n t w i l l
be i n harmony w i t h i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r u l e s i f i t c o n s u l t e d t he
p r o f e s s i o n a l s and t h i s can happen by t he C u l t u r e and I n f o r m a t i o n
Commi t tee’ s i n v i t a t i o n t o newspaper owners and show them t he new
law and ask t h e i r p o i n t o f vi ew b e f or e making a d e c i s i o n .
We are co mp l e t e l y convi nced t h a t His Hi ghness, t he Ami r , and the
Crown P r i n c e are most keen t o c r e a t e a f r e e press and b r i n g i n g up
new j o u r n a l i s t i c vanguards f e a r l e s s o f it ems o f a law t h a t f o r c e s
t he c o u r t s t o g i v e u n j u s t i f i a b l e sent ences.
I f t he M i n i s t r y o f
I n f o r m a t i o n wi shes t o have a v i t a l r o l e i n managing t he pr e s s '
a f f a i r s t he way i t l i k e s ,
we say t h a t w i t h o u t t h e good i n t e n
t i o n s , every l e t t e r i n t he K uwai t i newspapers coul d be ex p l a i n e d
as bl ac k or w h i t e a t t he same t i m e .
Every word coul d be
ex p l a i n e d a c c o r d i ng t o t he good o r harm o f what t he news or t he
comment i s about .
The good i n t e n t i o n i s s t r o n g e r t han t he law
and more welcome.
We ar e one f a m i l y used t o d i s c u s s i o n and
c o n s u l t a t i o n . . . t h a t i s unl es s t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n has
other i n te n t io n s .
( A1-Sayasah, 4 . 1 1 . 81 )
A1 Jar A l l a h here accuses t he government o f s u p e r f i c i a l i t y ,
ib ility ,
their
and
true
a d o p t i ng
points
di mensi ons.
He
of
also
d e p r i v e t he press o f t he p r i v i l e g e
vi ew
without
accuses
t he
o f freedom,
- 214 -
understanding
government
of
irrespons
or
studying
seeki ng
to
w i t h o u t which Kuwai t cannot
devel op nor b r i n g
wor k i ng
tion.
in
t he
up a q u a l i f i e d
press
would o n l y
journalistic
result
in
generation,
disasters,
especially
risks
when
and i n t i m i d a
T i g h t e n i n g t he si ege around t he pr ess means, a t t he end o f t he road,
punishing i t s
peopl e s av a ge l y ,
whi ch,
in tu rn ,
would r e s u l t
in dis he ar ten
i n g many i n t e l l e c t u a l s f rom wo r k i n g i n t he pr ess.
Liberal
newspapers were even more a g g r e s s i v e ,
their
comments.
press
camp.
Kuwai t i
A1-Qabas, a moderate
In one o f
Press",
its
newspaper,
ed itorials,
t hough n a t i o n a l i s t i c
shared t he
entitled
grief
of
t he
"The disarmament
of
t he
A1 Qabas moves f u r t h e r than t he debate around A r t i c l e
t h r o w i n g doubt on t he Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s i t s e l f .
in
(35)
A1-Qabas wr o t e :
" Du r i n g i t s j o u r n a l i s t i c march, t he pr ess was keen t o move a st ep
f or wa r d every day t o occupy a d i s t i n c t pl ac e among t he Arab
Pr ess.
The f i r s t f a c t o r t h a t pushed t he l o c a l pr ess i n l a r ge
paces i n t he way o f i t s v i t a l j o u r n a l i s t i c message i s t he f r e e
press atmosphere pr o v i d e d by t he s t a t e , and which made i t move
among a l l t he p o l i t i c a l and j o u r n a l i s t i c s i d e s , l o c a l , Arab and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l , depending on p r e s e n t i n g t he compl ete news, f r a n k
o p i n i o n s and t he c l e a r n a t i o n a l i s t i c and p a t r i o t i c st ands.
Why does t he s t a t e t oday when i t has been t he one t h a t p r o t e c t e d
t he p r e s s , cared f o r i t and pr epar ed every f a c t o r o f success and
p r o g r e s s , want t o st op i t s movement and drag i t backwards i n s t e a d
o f pushi ng i t m i l e s ahead?
A r t i c l e 35 o f t he p u b l i c a t i o n s law i s a r e s t r i c t i n g bond t o t he
movement o f t he Kuwai t Pr ess, and a predomi nant sword on i t s
f r e e d o f w r i t i n g and c o v e r i n g t he s uc c ess i v e event s i n t he Arab
world.
But i t
seems t h a t t h i s a r t i c l e - i n s p i t e o f t he c r i t i c i s m
d i r e c t e d t o i t and a l l t he n e g a t i v e consequences i t caused t o t he
l o c a l press - i s more m e r c i f u l than t he new d r a f t law f o r pub
l i s h i n g and p u b l i c a t i o n s which t he Cabi net approved y e s t e r d a y and
t r a n s f e r r e d t o t he P a r l i a m e n t " .
( Al - Qabas, 3. 1 1 . 8 1 )
The
reactions
magazine and t he
demand f o r
of
daily
a de mocr a t i c
t he
newspaper ^
settlement
A1 T a l i a,
representing
the
different
social
of
point
radical
press,
Watan,
for
was
as
pr esent ed
The f reedom o f
argued was connected t o t he f reedom o f t h o u g h t ,
215 -
t he
voi c ed
nationalists,
vi ew.
such
t he
weekly
in
t he
Al-Talia
form o f
a
dilemma o f Kuwai t .
t he
matter
pr e s s ,
f r om
a
t he magazine
i n d i f f e r e n t mediums,
like
books,
was,
periodicals,
films,
p l ay s
and
lectures.
what was t he framework t hr ou gh whi ch t he
best be p r a c t i s e d .
The q u e s t i o n
freedom o f
firs t
t he
pr ess
then
c ou l d
The magazine w r ot e :
"The press does not r e f l e c t t he o p i n i o n o f i t s owner, or t h a t
shoul d be t he case, i t i s a medium t h a t r e f l e c t s t he o p i n i o n s o f
wi d e r s o c i a l gr oups, such as t he w r i t e r s , t h i n k e r s , a r t i s t s , and
t he w i d e s t l o c a l s e c t i o n s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s who p r a c t i s e t he
social t h in k in g .
Thi s r e a l i s t i c t h i n k makes us vi ew i n t he freedom o f t he pr ess an
i s s u e t h a t does concer n, not o n l y newspaper owners and
report
e r s , but a l s o t he c i t i z e n s a t l a r g e , as d e p r i v i n g a l l t hose
peopl e from g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about some i s sues i s a d e p r i v a
t i o n t h a t t ouches t he human r i g h t and c i t i z e n s h i p . "
( A l - T a l i a , 1 2 . 5. 82)
Al-Talia
wanted t o e x p l a i n
Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
t he government,
al on e ,
The i s sue was, t h e r e f o r e ,
members a t
large,
and defend t h e i r c i v i l
In t he
not on l y t he freedom o f t he press
confiscatin g
same a n a l y t i c
pattern,
issues.
resorting
The f i r s t
to
" t he Kuwai t i
been
it,
to
expr ess
A1 Watan c o n t r i b u t e d
s ev e r al
had
right
t hemsel ves
liberties.
E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f , Jassem A1 Mutawa.
which
meant t he freedom o f t he s o c i e t y
their
via i t s
(35)
new
but t o put i n j e op ar dy t he freedom o f t he
o r o f t he persons wo r k i ng i n media, but i t
and i t s
when i s s u i n g t he
d i d not wi sh t o r e s t r i c t t he movement o f t he owners o f
newspapers or j o u r n a l i s t s
whole s o c i e t y .
that
in
was t h a t
existence
not because i t
In a l e a d i n g a r t i c l e
con c e r n i n g t he a c t u a l
for
did
five
year s
not wi sh t o ,
press was an example o f
f e a r s suspensi on which t he a r t i c l e
t o t he d i s c u s s i o n
national
gu ar ant ees ,
he r a i s e d
v al ue o f a r t i c l e
without
t he
government
but because i n
commitment,
not
h i s view
because
but because o f i t s
it
w illin g
ness t o p r o t e c t t he s t a t e ' s i n t e r e s t which i s above any o t h e r p r o f i t a b l e or
per sonal
interest."
The second i s s u e concerned t he i mpor t ance o f b a l a n c i n g
policies
between v a r i o u s d e mocr a t i c
in stitutions
ernment a l l o w a door f o r democracy t o open,
a n o t he r ,
i.e.
t he
press."
If
t he
i.e.
government
- 216 -
such as "how coul d a gov
parliament,
accept ed
t he
while clo sing
principle
of
democracy
and r e v i v e d
its
body,
life
i n c o n c e i v a b l e f o r democracy t o e x i s t
t he
people's
parliament
had t o
run i n a l l
its
parts.
It
i n a c o u n t r y where f r e e e l e c t i o n s
was guar ant eed
and an u n j u s t
Law o f
is
for
Publications
a g a i n s t t he press was d r a f t e d .
The t h i r d
ciple
and
of
i ssue concerned d o u b t i n g t he p r e s s '
social
loyalty
to
responsibility,
Kuwai t ,
and
its
doubting,
that
preservation
of
commitment t o t he p r i n
is,
its
in te grity,
professional
honesty
honour.
Such
doubts were gr o un dl e s s and, as A1-Watan c l ai med;
"We must deal w i t h i t ( t he pr ess ) on a bas i s o f con f i d e n c e not a
bas i s o f s u s p i c i o n and doubt , as success t o any p r e s s ' c o r p o r a
t i o n cannot be f u l f i l l e d i f i t l a c k s t he c o n f i d e n c e , i f i t has a
bad r e p u t a t i o n and i f t h e r e i s any doubt or s u s p i c i o n around i t . "
( A l - W a t an , 2 3 . 5. 81 )
Even A1-Anba' which became known l a t e r
parliament
and t owards
under t he t i t l e
its
liberal
gr oups,
for
its
s t r o n g enmi t y t owards
contributed
"An Open L e t t e r t o t he members o f
a leading
Parliament".
article
In i t ,
it
emphasised t he na t u r e o f t he s t r o n g c o n ne ct i on s between t he press i n s t i t u
t i o n and t he l e g i s l a t i v e body;
"The new d r a f t e d law r ep r e s e n t s a sword not on l y on our f reedom,
because our f reedom i s t he freedom o f ever y c i t i z e n and ever y
member i n t h i s p a r l i a m e n t .
The b i r t h o f t he p a r l i a m e n t a r y l i f e
adhered t o t he b i r t h o f t he j o u r n a l i s t i c l i f e , and when t he f i r s t
stopped i t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t he i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t he a r t i c l e
(35).
The d r a f t o f t he Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s came as an i n v i t a t i o n
t o s t r a n g l e t he pr e s s , as i t d i c t a t e s t he i mposi ng o f suspension
sent ence on t he newspaper, even when i t i s i n n o c e n t o f t he c l a i m
i t i s charged w i t h .
The f reedom o f t he press i s i n danger.
The
p r o j e c t forms a gag over t he mouths not o n l y o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
but a l s o t he MPs t hems el v es.
The newspapers w i l l no l o ng er be
abl e t o convey spont aneous l y what goes on d u r i n g t he s e s s i o n s . "
( A l - A n b a , 9. 1 1 . 8 1 )
PRESS VICTORY - A HIGH PRICE
The pr e s s '
c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t he government t o st op A r t i c l e
not an easy b a t t l e .
The press was on a l e r t w a i t i n g on t e n t e r ho o k s f o r t he
vot e on t he new Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s t o t ak e p l ac e .
ists
and a l l
Kuwai t i
(35) was
intellectuals
were c a u t i o u s ,
- 217 -
Journalists,
living
in
national
hope t h a t
t he
government would f ace a h u m i l i a t i n g d e f e a t .
Most MPs i n t he p a r l i a m e n t o f
1981 belonged t o m i n o r i t y p a r t i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t he S h i ' i t e K u w a i t i s and t he
Bedouin
(Crystal,
t he mer chant s,
on t he
1986).
They were i n t r o d u c e d
t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
increase
with
t he
and i n t e l l e c t u a l s
expansi on
of
we a l t h i n t he hands o f t he mer chant s.
ing,
ex t r eme l y
critica l
of
leading
article
election
sup po r t t he press as a c l o s e a l l y .
and t he
The press was,
on
government
whose i n f l u e n c e
ed u c a t i on
a g a i n s t t he freedom o f t he press i n i t s
Anba' s
by t he
day
was
has been
a c c u mul at i on
of
vot
t o urge MPs t o stand
of destiny.
an
f ace
a t t he t i me o f
at t emp t s
battle
to
appeal
to
For example,
A1
Par liament
to
A1 Anba wr o t e :
"Today, w h i l e t he d r a f t Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n found i t s way t o each
member o f t h i s p a r l i a m e n t , we f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n v i t e d t o address
you f rom t he p o s i t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y which we c a r r y and w i t h
t he honour o f t he dut y and t he f l a g s we r a i s e d sky hi gh when
o t h e r f l a g s were abs ent , we say t o you gent l emen, t he f reedom of
t he press i s i n da n g e r . "
(Ibid)
Much evi dence l ed t o u n c e r t a i n t y as t o how p a r l i a m e n t would v ot e .
defeat
of
t he
press
t h a t vot es were ver y c l o s e .
over
and above
getting
t he
10 vot es
appr oval
As i s
known
poll
results
showed
The government had 14 vot es from among t he MPs
f rom i t s
of
we l l
The
Cabi net
Parliament
for
MPs,
t hus
t he d r a f t e d
losing
law,
its
chance
and A r t i c l e
of
(35)
f a i l e d t o gai n t he necessary m a j o r i t y o f 31 v o t e s , t he minimum r e q u i r e d f o r
approval.
These r e s u l t s convi nced t he government not t o submi t t he law f o r
a second r e a d i n g ,
believin g
that
t he
outcome would be worse.
But
Shaikh
Sabah A1 Ahmad, t he Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r and M i n i s t e r o f For ei gn A f f a i r s ,
who l ed
t he
gover nment ' s
gover nment ' s p o s i t i o n .
/
battle
against
Parliament,
wanted t o
defend
His comment was t h a t :
" R e s t r i c t i n g t he p r e s s ' r e l a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n a s s o c i a t i o n s i s a
n e c e s s i t y unl ess t he press shoul d become a t o o l wo r k i ng t o change
Kuwai t i n t o an ot he r Lebanon, and l e s t t he press shoul d become
what i s c a l l e d ' j o u r n a l i s t i c s t o r e s ' such as t hose spread i n
Lebanon and c o n t r i b u t i n g i n d e t e r i o r a t i n g t he p o l i t i c a l
and
s a f e t y s t andar ds t h e r e . "
- 218 -
t he
He a l s o t r i e d t o c as t doubt on t he pr e s s ,
t he i n t e g r i t y and honesty o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
when he t hr ew i n t o q u e s t i o n
He s a i d :
" I am ready t o produce evi dence o f t he abundant i n f o r m a t i o n about
t h i s mat ter t o
t he Chairman and t he Members o f t he C u l t u r e and
I n f o r m a t i o n Committee i n t he P a r l i a m e n t . "
( A1 - M u s t a k b a l , 7 , 11 . 81 )
As
t he
democracy,
decision
and
t he
to
suspend
restrictions
refusal
o f Pa r l i a m e n t t o approve t he new d r a f t
restored d i g n i t y
t he
soul
to
some
in
forces.
1976 was
t he
articles,
t o d e moc r a t i c
public
iment i n Kuwai t f l o u r i s h e d ,
all
add
on
t he
restored
to
imposed
al l owed
tory that
government
Parliament
freedom
such
of
as A r t i c l e
law i n
t he
from
e x p r e s s i on
(35),
t he
1981 came as a v i c
in stitu tio n s.
A f t e r wa r d s
a relapse
It
was a t e s t t h a t
parliamentary
exper
and t he s t r e n g t h o f t he press i n c r ea sed beyond
expectations.
The gover nment ' s d e f e a t echoed o u t s i d e Kuwai t ,
media when t he
news was r ec e i v e d
d e p r i v e d o f freedom,
t he
Arab w o r l d , t o
For example,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t he Arab
by many Arab newspapers,
r e v i v i n g t hose
i n c l u d i n g t hose newspapers which had emi gr at ed o u t s i d e
start
t he e x i l e d
publicatio n
abroad,
Lebanese magazi ne,
mai nl y i n London and P a r i s .
A 1 - Mu s t a k b a l , i ssued
in
Paris,
p u b l i s h e d t he t r i ump h o f t he press i n Kuwai t us i ng " s a r c a s t i c and g l o a t i n g "
language a g a i n s t
begi nni ng w i th
head"
t he government.
t he
old
Arabic
It
published a re po rt
e x p r e s s i on
" Ba r a k i s h
sent from Kuwai t ,
br ought
it
on i t s
own
which means t h a t t he government want i ng t o emascul at e t he press had
humiliated i t s e l f .
The r e p o r t r eads:
"At t he l a s t , t he Ku w a i t i government l o s t a b a t t l e w i t h t he
p a r l i a m e n t and w i t h t he pr ess whi ch stood up t o def end i t s f r e e
dom and i t s p o s i t i o n as one o f t he f r o n t s o f democracy r e p r e
sented i n t he P a r l i a m e n t and t he Press.
A f t e r t h i s hot sessi on
i n t he Kuwai t i P a r l i a m e n t , t h e pr ess s t a r t e d a c on c e n t r a t e d
charge a g a i n s t t he government and t he MPs who suppor t ed t he
presence o f t he i t em and i t s c o n t i n u i t y , an i t em which t he press
c on s i d er ed a sword s t r e t c h e d t o i t s head."
(Ibid)
219
I t was not an easy m a t t e r f o r t he Kuwai t i
of
authority
t he Ku w a i t i
t he
joy
and win such a b a t t l e .
political
in
e x p r es s i ng
their
t he
intellectuals
A remar kabl e c e l e b r a t i o n
scene.
Journalists
writings.
Newspapers
national
victory
over
introduced t h e i r
and p a t r i o t i c
appeared
t he
reaction
known
with
t he
l a wy er ,
freedom o f
MP and
t he
member
of
i n two ways.
pr e s s .
t he
t he t r i ump h over t he government ,
with
echoed
articles
journalists
F irstly,
with
t hey showed
i n f a v o u r o f t he d e c i s i o n and
For
Board
A1-Watan newspaper, wr o t e i n h i s d a i l y
and
spread over
leadership
loaded
government
a f e e l i n g o f g r a t i t u d e t o t he MPs who vot ed
siding
press t o c h a l l e n g e t he power
example,
of
Mohamed Al
Directors
of
t he
Salih,
a
liberal
column c o n g r a t u l a t i n g t he press f o r
sa y i ng :
"We c o n g r a t u l a t e o u r s e l v e s f o r t he f a i l u r e o f t he A r t i c l e (35) o f
t he Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s .
The a r t i c l e st ayed w i t h us a l ong t i m e ,
an unwelcome guest t o t he freedom o f o p i n i o n .
We t hank t he
t h i r t y - n i n e v o t e r s who stood by t h e f reedom o f o p i n i o n .
Thi s i s
a stand t h a t t he p u b l i c w i l l never f o r g e t when i t i s t i me t o
e v a l u a t e t h e i r membership.
I f a b a r r i e r o f t he f ences i n t he way
o f t he f reedom o f o p i n i o n i s removed by t he appr oval o f t he
m a j o r i t y o f MPs, we wi sh t h a t t h e i r government was not i n f av o u r
o f t he presence o f t h i s a r t i c l e and i t s c o n t i n u i t y , e s p e c i a l l y
when i t , i n more than t he one s i t u a t i o n , expressed i t s f a i t h i n
t he freedom o f o p i n i o n and i t c ons i der ed t he newspaper owners
members o f t he one f a m i l y .
I t s opposi ng p o s i t i o n t o cancel t he
a r t i c l e c o n t r a d i c t s i t s f a i t h and oath t o guard democracy.
At
any r a t e , t he press w i l l prove i t s honour on t he p e o p l e ' s t r u s t
by commi t t i n g i t s e l f t o t h e Kuwai t main i n t e r e s t s . The pr e s s ,
however, has shown d u r i n g t he e x i s t e n c e o f A r t i c l e (35) t h a t i t
was not f e a r o f suspensi on t h a t caused t he press t o av oi d t o p i c s
o t h e r than p a t r i o t i c commitment.
Regardl ess o f what happen ed, _
t he government w i l l d i s c o v e r t h a t t he Kuwai t i press i s ab l e t o
c a r r y t he s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and uses t he f reedom o f t he
pr e s s .
I t i s a heavy r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , we f e e l i t s we i gh t i n t he
atmosphere which was c l e a r e d by t he c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t he a r t i c l e
(35)."
( A l - Wa t an , 5 . 5 . 8 1 )
A1
insists
tious
" t he
Salih,
known
here on not
for
opposi ng
p r o m i s i n g t he
t he
policy
of
government t h a t
t he
t he press w i l l
- r a t h e r he gave t hese promises t o t he Kuwai t i
press
interests."
will
prove
to
be
trustworthy
The on l y t i me he r e f e r r e d
to
- 220 -
t hr ough
t he
government,
agai n
be cau
peopl e when he s a i d ,
commitment
to
Kuwait's
government was when he was
al most accused i t
o f bei ng s t ub b o r n ,
d i d not stand a g a i n s t t he
when i t ,
s a y i ng :
press by t he
i n more than one p o s i t i o n ,
"We wished t h a t t he government
presence o f t he a r t i c l e
expressed i t s
faith
especially
i n t he freedom o f
opinion."
Meanwhil e,
celebrations
ists,
t he c o n s e r v a t i v e p r e s s ,
when A1 Masaeed,
wr ot e i n h i s column,
its
such as Al - Ray Al-Am j o i n e d i n t he
owner and t he c h i e f o f Ku w a i t i
journal
'Good M o r n i n g ' :
"The p a r l i a m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n y e s t e r d a y t o cancel t h i s a r t i c l e was
an ad mi r ab l e stand and wor t hy o f e s t i m a t i o n .
I t deserves t hanks
f o r t hose who r e j e c t e d t he a r t i c l e and t hey are t he m a j o r i t y , and
t hose who were a g a i n s t i t s c a n c e l l a t i o n and t hey are t he m i n o r
ity .
The d e c i s i o n emphasized t he MPs un d e r s t a n d i n g o f what t he
f r e e press means i n Kuwai t and what s t r e n g t h i t r ep r es e n t s f o r
Kuwai t , among o t h e r n a t i o n s .
Our s t r e n g t h i s i n t he a b i l i t y t o
be f r e e .
Al so i n our a b i l i t y o f government and p u b l i c t o g e t h e r
t o under st and and r e a l i z e t h a t t he commitment t o f reedom r e p r e
sent s t he b r i g h t e s t c i v i l i z e d f ac e o f Kuwai t whi ch we a l l are
proud o f .
This i s t he s t r e n g t h which b u i l d s our r e p u t a t i o n and
s t a t u s i n t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l community.
The p a r l i a m e n t , i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , emphasized t he n a t i o n a l r e l a
t i o n s h i p w i t h t he Press t h a t t h e r e are two si des o f one c oi n
which i s democracy.
He a l s o emphasizes an o l d t r a d i t i o n i n an
unbr eakabl e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he two f aces o f freedom, t he
press and t he p a r l i a m e n t . "
( Al -Ray Al - Am, 5 . 5 . 8 1 )
The
attack
and
second
direction
t aken
by
t he
press
was
on t he MPs who opposed and stood a g a i n s t
freedom
of
e x p r es s i o n .
their
address
position,
to
as
a c o n c e n t r at e d
freedom o f
t he
t he
po litical
dilemma i n which t hey had found t hemsel ves.
that
c on s i d er ed
a tacit
t he
Bedoui ns,
was how was i t
press
In
waging
t he
S h i ' i tes
press
and
t he
of
t he
representative
The q u e s t i o n r a i s e d
some e l e c t e d members stood a g a i n s t t he freedom o f t he
press and agreed t o s up po r t t he gover nment ' s p o s i t i o n seeki ng t o i n t i m i d a t e
t he press under t he new Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n .
These MPs,
as A l - T a l i a
z i n e argued:
". . . were t he i n d i v i d u a l s who owe t h e i r presence i n t he p u b l i c
s e r v i c e t o t he p r a c t i s i n g o f democracy and t he freedom i t
entails.
With t h e i r c l a i m o f i g n o r a n c e , t hey seemed t o be w i l l
i n g t o h a l t t he d e moc r a t i c march.
The i r o n i c c o n t r a s t i s t h e i r
221
maga
stand a g a i n s t a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t which demands t he d i s t i n c t i o n
among a u t h o r i t i e s .
A r t i c l e (35) i s an a t t e mp t t o d e p r i v e t he
j u d i c i a l system o f t he r i g h t t o examine t he di sagr eement s between
t he i n d i v i d u a l s or between t hemsel ves and t he l e g i s l a t i v e and
executive a u t h o r i t i e s . "
( A l - T a l i a , 4 . 1 1 . 81 )
Thus w h i l e
in
t he
men t ' s
middle,
some w r i t e r s ,
wishing
s t and,
a
not
number
of
l i k e A1 Masaeed and A1 S a l i h ,
to
blame o t h e r
MPs who
editors-in-chief
and
hel d t he s t i c k
suppor t ed
n o t ab l e
t he
go v er n
Kuwai t i
writers
l aunched severe a t t a c k s and c r i t i c i s m a g a i n s t t he s u p p o r t e r s o f t he go v er n
ment.
For example,
lassem A l - N i s f ,
wr ot e i n t h i s r eg a r d,
t he f or mer E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f o f A1-Qabas
sa y i ng :
"The r e f r a i n o f a l a r g e number o f t he MPs y e s t e r d a y f rom v o t i n g
against t h i s a r t i c l e is s u r p r i s i n g .
I t r a i s e d e x c l ama t i on marks
o f how do t hose MPs agree t o t he freedom o f e l e c t i o n s which
br ought them t o t h e i r p a r l i a m e n t a r y seat s and agree t o t he sus
pensi on o f t he freedom o f t he press and i t s r i g h t t o r e s i s t
government r e s t r i c t i o n s or i n f l u e n c e .
How t hose MPs f a i l e d t o
under st and t h a t t he f reedom o f t he press and f r e e e l e c t i o n s are
two f aces o f one c oi n and bot h o f them are an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
t he p u b l i c f r eedom. "
( A1 Qabas, 28 . 11. 81)
In t he same v e i n ,
A1 Anba aimed a concer t ed a t t a c k
MPs, acc us i ng them o f i l l i t e r a c y
and t r e a s o n .
on t he o p p o s i t i o n
I t wr o t e :
"The meaning o f freedom o f t he press i s f u r t h e r a p a r t f rom t hose
who h a r d l y read and w r i t e .
Some MPs who undermine t he freedom o f
t he pr ess and s uppor t ed t he government and who a t t he same t i me
t r i e d t o pl ay on t he rapes o f bal ance, h i s t o r y w i l l brand them
with disgrace.
They d e f i n i t e l y w i l l be accused o f t r e a s o n . "
( A l - A n b a , 2. 1 1 . 8 1 )
LEGAL PROSECUTION
As t he government
lim it
with
tion.
had at t emp t e d t o use l e g i s l a t i o n
t he freedom o f t he p r e s s ,
particular
newspapers - i . e .
it
a l s o at t empt ed t o
suspensi on,
pers
without
a court
in ju n c tio n
if
t he
222
use t he
laws t o
same weapon
harsh c r i t i c i s m and p r os e c u
Thus between 1976-1980 when p a r l i a m e n t a r y l i f e
t he government i ssued A r t i c l e No. 35 g i v i n g i t
and d r a f t
i n Kuwai t was h a l t e d ,
t he r i g h t t o suspend newspa
government
found
that
what
was
published
had
s pe c i a l
relations
with
a foreign
country.
government used A r t i c l e No. 24 which f o r b i d s K uwai t i
c i z i n g any c o u n t r y f r i e n d l y
try.
It
t he
of
suspensi on
reached 48 cases.
were
examined
on
52
referring
that
cases
foreign
in
papers
Law o f
exceeded
def endant s
t he
t he
t he
lim its
so much so t h a t
five
year s
t he
newspapers
policy,
Kuwai t i
were
t he
court
accused
of
E d i t o r s - i n - C h i e f were charged
of
were
t he
Law o f
nonet hel ess
were from f i r s t
as e x - c o n v i c t s ,
of
t he
1976-1982
Publications
became per manent l y accused o f v i o l a t i n g
The a c q u i t t a l s
presence
which
Newspapers
were de s c r i b e d
frequent
t he
F ur t her mor e,
t he best
The pr ess
Publication.
t hese a c c u s a t i o n s .
in
therefore,
( A1-Sayasah, 2 7 . 3 . 8 5 ) .
t he
during
affairs.
one y e a r
t he R u l e r ,
their
and suspensi on,
i n t h a t coun
32 cases were r e l a t e d t o government i n t e r n a l
Kuwai t i
to
in junctions
t he
newspapers f rom c r i t i
or any l e a d i n g f i g u r e
a l s o tended t o use c o n f i s c a t i o n
number
rest
t o Kuwai t ,
Secondl y,
with
journalists
of
mo s t l y
degree
a past
some
acquitted
courts
r eco r d
and t he
which
newspapers
of
shows
more
than
others ( I b i d ) .
The cases which were r e l a t e d
tions
fell
into four categories:
t o t he v i o l a t i o n
o f t he
o f f e n c e s a g a i n s t t he s t a t e ,
and economic, r e l i g i o u s and v i o l a t i o n o f p r i v a t e l i f e
For
offences
newspaper was
against
state
Editor-in-Chief
summoned t o c o u r t t h r e e t i m e s .
At t he f i r s t ,
together
w i t h Dr.
A1 Rabie,
A1 Rabie
had
Nati onal
Day Democracy i s t u r n i n g i n t o
w r i t t e n an a r t i c l e
MP,
and
entitled
a popular
"In
t he
a Decoration".
and f i n a n c i a l
cases.
t he
Ahmad
t he
law o f p u b l i c a
of
A1
Watan
he was charged
w riter
i n Kuwai t .
An n i v e r s a r y o f
The a r t i c l e
t he
a c c o r d
i n g t o a l e t t e r f r om t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n sent t o t he General Pr ose
c u t o r , was p r o v o c a t i v e o f c r i me ,
t he c i t i z e n s .
birth
hatred,
and t he spread o f d i s r u p t i o n among
In t he def ence st at em e n t , as a r emi nder t o t he peopl e o f t he
o f t he new Kuwai t ,
t he
Constitutio n
and democracy,
t he c o u r t
s t at ed
t h a t t he regime i n Kuwai t was d e moc r a t i c and t he n a t i o n had a c o n s t i t u t i o n
- 223 -
whi ch
guarant eed
t he
citizens'
a l s o n o t i c e d t h a t t he a r t i c l e
important
role
sensitivity
of
situation
suppor t ed
its
and i n d i v i d u a l
in ternal
political
as Kuwai t
But
t he
l ed t o two maj or pr obl ems.
cials
didn 't
t he
was changi ng r a p i d l y
openness
stab ility.
reflected
relations
life
The f i r s t
i s s ues
in
the
The
foreign
t he
nations
which
had changed d r a m a t i c a l l y
one was t h a t government o f f i
spheres o f l i f e .
s i de o f democracy w h i l e
with
seriously,
t he a r t i c l e was t h a t government o f f i c i a l s
was
country's
d e mocr a t i c
in a l l
The Cour t
gave K u w a i t ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y a t r u e p i c t u r e o f
which
t ak e
and s ec u r i n g i t s
had e s t a b l i s h e d
position.
freedom.
emphasized t he f a c t t h a t democracy pl ayed an
i n d e v e l o p i n g t he c o u n t r y
p o l i c y o f t he c o u n t r y and i t
t he
rights
while
Kuwai t i
society
The second p o i n t i n c l u d e d i n
were so busy t r y i n g t o emphasize
t hey f o r g o t
t he
social
and economic
aspect s o f t h a t democracy.
The p r e t e nc e t h a t Kuwai t was a de moc r a t i c s t a t e
required
t he
a
close
l ook
at
social
and
economic
way
of
life .
Thi s
required a r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f w e a l t h and an a p p l i c a t i o n o f t he law w i t h o u t
interference
or
by o f f i c i a l s
t h a t t he def endant aimed,
or t h a t
had,
similar
with
power.
praisin g
The def ence
hi s a r t i c l e
he had i n mind a coup d ' e t a t .
on t he c o n t r a r y ,
articles
any
t he
regime
regime
and w i s h i n g
charge
in
hi s
that
writings.
other
too,
that
he
He wr o t e many
regimes
would
prove
( A1-Watan, 3 . 6 . 8 4 ) .
The c o u r t ' s
acquittal
r ead,
"The a r t i c l e
p r ov i d e s
some aspect s o f t he c o u n t r y hopi ng t h a t Kuwai t w i l l
freedom and a home f o r
democracy,
w ill
all
remain
social
t he
t o spread d i s r u p t i o n and hat r ed
The c o u r t r e c o g n i s e d ,
praised
t he
refuted
alive
justice.
with
it
The de f endant
mere c r i t i c i s m
al ways be an o a s i s f o r
and recommending t h a t
c on t a i n e d
called
for
of
i t ems
t he
t he
prote cting
protection
good and p u t t i n g t he r i g h t man i n t he r i g h t pl ac e .
of
of
constitution
freedom and
t he
gener al
The Cour t found t h a t he
d i d not aim t o provoke ha t r e d and d i s r u p t i o n among t he members o f s o c i e t y . "
(Ibid).
- 224 -
Al -Matawa,
lecturer
in
story th is
A l - Wat an' s
Kuwai t
Editor-in-Chief,
University,
f aced
ja r,
similar
t i me r ev o l v e d around a Ku w a i t i
e s t a t e agent and was found dead i n
who wr ot e t he a r t i c l e ,
called
and
Ghanim A1
publicatio n
c i t i z e n who,
suspicious
in
a
The
1961, was a r e a l
Dr.
f o r r e - o p e n i n g t he v i c t i m ' s
A1 N a j
story cast
As t he def ence showed t h e r e
Freedom o f o p i n i o n
s t i t u t i o n and t h e r e was no c r i m i n a l
Najjar,
char ges.
ci r c u ms t a n c e s .
i ng doubt on t he evi dence a l r e a d y put f o r wa r d.
was n o t h i n g p r o v o c a t i v e .
Dr.
is
guar ant eed under t he Con
i n t e n t i o n by t he w r i t e r .
Once more t he
Kuwai t i
law suppor t ed t he freedom o f t he press when t he j udge r e f e r r e d t o
A rticle
36 o f t he Ku w a i t i
of
scie ntific
express
his
r esear ch
opinion
a c c o r d i ng t o
t he
C o n s t i t u t i o n which reads "f r eedom o f o p i n i o n and
is
gu ar ant eed,
and b r o ad c as t
positio n
stated
it
in
and each
orally
t he
or
citizen
in
has t he
w riting,
or
right
to
otherwise,
law which ensures t he f reedom o f
t he press and t he f reedom o f e x p r es s i on t he Court found t he def endant was
not g u i l t y " .
The
positio n
( A1-Watan, 2 6 . 2. 85 )
Kuwai t i
siding
judicial
with
t he
system
law
has,
which
therefore,
protects
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he gover nment ' s wi s hes .
f a i r verdicts,
t he
adopted
an
honour abl e
freedom
of
t he
press
On many oc c a s i o n s , t he Court passed
s u p p o r t i n g freedom o f o p i n i o n and o f p u b l i c a t i o n s .
Examples abound o f t he way t he government t r i e d t o r e s t r a i n t he press
and
subject
State.
it
to
t he
Law f o r
publications
against
t he
Arab
Al -Ray Al-Am was suspended f o r t h r e e days a f t e r t he p u b l i c a t i o n o f
a caricature
in
which
Numer i ,
g i v e way t o America t o b u i l d
other
offensive
f or mer
m ilitary
President
of
t he
Sudan,
bases on Sudanese s o i l .
newspapers were su b j e c t e d t o t he
law because t hey
appears
to
Sim ilarly,
criticised
P resi
dent Sadat and h i s w i f e and t he S y r i a n P r e s i d e n t Hafez A1 Asad.
On o t h e r
oc c a s i o n s ,
newspapers and magazi nes.
t he
government
r es o r t e d
to
religion
to
chastise
Among many r e l i g i o u s cases was one about Pr ophet
Muhammad's d i s c o u r s e i n which he a d j u r e d people t o g i v e a s p e c i a l
- 225 -
car e t o
women because o f t h e i r
physical
r i b i n t he woman and i t
weakness.
is crooked."
"Commend women w e l l ,
there is a
A1 Watan was accused o f p u b l i s h i n g a
c a r i c a t u r e showing a woman w r i t h i n g i n a dance, w i t h t he c a p t i o n " c r o o k e d " .
Sal eh
A1
Shayji,
woman's r i b ,
a
columnist,
and he wr ot e
on
a n ot he r
occasi on
"Who checked her Rib?"
wondered
about
t he
The government m o d i f i e d
t he case, c l a i m i n g t h a t bot h t he c a r i c a t u r e and t h e column were mocki ng t he
Prophet's
accused
their
di scour se
f ea r e d
t he
acquittal.
dashed a l l
and
trying
to
consequences
But
b e little
and
once ag a i n,
expectations
by
f rom t he
t he
acquitting
drawn by t he Cour t was t h a t
emphasises t h a t t he Kuwai t i
t he
Kuwai t i
t he
t ea c h i n g s
be gi nn i ng
of
were
law s u r p r i s e d
d e f end an t s .
I s l am.
The
doubtful
everyone
The
stipulates
and
ju stificatio n
f reedom o f t he press must be s u s t a i n e d .
Constitutio n
of
Thi s
f o r c om m i t t i n g a cr i me
t he presence o f t he m a t e r i a l which r e q u i r e d t h a t t he a r t i c l e or t he c a r i c a
t u r e must i n c l u d e c l e a r mockery, d i s g u i s e or b e l i t t l i n g o f r e l i g i o n .
tion
t o mock must
be c l e a r l y
shown " v e r b a l l y
was not a v a i l a b l e t he Court saw t h a t
not v a l i d ;
As t he i n t e n t
"what t he accused were charged o f was
t he Court di s mi ss ed t he charge and a c q u i t t e d t hem. "
The examples o f t he f i n a n c i a l
o f t h e charge o f
t he
or w r i t t e n " .
Inten
t ycoons
of
slander
against
Kuwait's
s t oc k
1984 w i t h d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s
cases was t he a c q u i t t a l
Jassem Mohamad K h a l i d
exchange
A1 Mutawa,
'Souk A1 Manakh'
on t he Ku w a i t i
economy.
o f Al - Ray Al-Am
one of
which crashed i n
Share p r i c e s plunged
causi ng debt s o f $74 b i l l i o n .
I t was s ai d t h a t Jassem A1 Mutawa owed about
$14 b i l l i o n
The
that
hi s
of
this
newspaper
figure.
published
charge
against
news c on c e r n i n g
that
its
Editor-in-C hief
person
was
and h i s w i f e
in
which t he news c l ai med A1-Mutawa had smuggled hi s money t o Egypt d u r i n g t he
A1-Manakh
crisis,
that
t he
name was about $2 b i l l i o n
amount
and t h a t
of
t he
money
he t r a n s f e r r e d
his
wife's
news was p u b l i s h e d w i t h t he
inten
t i o n o f harming hi s honour and abusi ng h i s r e p u t a t i o n .
damages were br ought on him and h i s
family,
- 226 -
to
As a r e s u l t ,
and t he e f f e c t
grave
on t he s e t t l e -
ment
agreed
upon
Editor-in-Chief
between
him and
val ue
owners,
a
right
c l a i m i n g t hose
and c o u r t
speculation,
it
had
As
this
to
sums.
pr ocedur es
t he
case
he p u b l i s h e d
four
articles
Egypt t h a t
amounted
person
claim
was
back
Some o f
in
required
that
to
money.
The
t he
share
newspaper
s
lawyers t o i n v e s t i g a t e t he l e g a l i
them showed t h e i r
supporting
pay
t he
that
claim.
r ea di nes s t o t ak e
The Co ur t ,
after
much
saw t h a t t he newspaper di d not s l a n d e r A1 Mutawa p e r s o n a l l y as
was d e f end i n g
a large
number
t hough t he Cour t a c q u i t t e d
s uc c e s s i ve
Dur i ng
and bank d e p o s i t s
i n Egypt c on t ac t ed some Egyp t i an
of
legal
$2 b i l l i o n .
Kuwai t
office
ties
to
creditors.
o f Al - Ray Al-Am conf essed t h a t
showing A1-Mutawa owned p r o p e r t y
in
his
articles.
of
them,
The main
creditors.
As we have
shown
above,
Al - Ray Al-Am had handled t h a t s u b j e c t i n
theme was
to
encourage
officia ls
to
t ak e
note o f t he i s s ue and begi n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o p r o t e c t t he n a t i o n a l economy
on one hand,
and t he
A1 Manakh c r i s i s ,
t he
government,
smal l
d e b t or s
on t he o t h e r .
as
t he
and c r e d i t o r s
who were harmed by t he
The newspaper appealed t o t he o f f i c i a l s
authority
in
char ge,
a g a i n s t peopl e l i k e A1-Mutawa and i n t h i s
to
pursue
a
tough
in
policy
case not t o l e t some unconsci en-
t i o u s persons t o smuggle or even t r y t o smuggle t he n a t i o n a l w e a l t h.
The Court found t h a t t he newspaper was not i n v o l v e d i n any s l a n d e r on
t he d i g n i t y o f A1 Matawa and h i s f a m i l y , and no blame was due f o r news t h a t
was p u b l i s h e d
Cour t
in
judgement
o t h e r Arab newspapers as w e l l .
A]
Ray Al-Am
in itiated
t he
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r A1 Mutawa t o i s s u e a d e n i a l
t he newspaper bureau i n C a i r o.
sources i n Cai r o and a l l
insult,
it
On t he
contrary,
whole a f f a i r
in
t he
and o f f e r e d
t he
o f t h i s news, which he d i d from
The newspaper f o l l o w e d t he r e p o r t from i t s
wr o t e was o b j e c t i v e
and p l a i n ,
and c a r r i e d
or abuse t o t he person o f t he p l a i n t i f f or hi s f a m i l y .
moreover,
no
The Co ur t ,
h i g h l y p r a i s e d t he newspaper f o r good manners and good words and
t he nobl e aim which i t
followed.
Thus,
Cour t
intention
of
found
t he
true
it
t he
- 227 -
was a c q u i t t e d o f a l l
newspaper
to
be
t he
blame.
def ence
The
of
national
dence,
in te rests.
in
against
law.
it.
Hence,
The
t he
accusation
newspaper
For a l l
t hese
was
r easons,
of
t he
def endant
lacked
evi
pronounced
innocent
of
t he
charges
t he
v e r d i c t was
'not
gu ilty'
Court's
( A l - R ay Al - Am, 1 0 . 1 . 8 6 ) .
In s p i t e o f t he many cases r a i s e d a g a i n s t t he press by t he government
or by i n d i v i d u a l s ,
t he Kuwai t i
freedom o f t he press and t he
t he
social
life
of
Cour t was det er mi ned a l l
role
Kuwai t .
o f t he press
However,
al ong t o guard t he
and i t s
responsibility
in
t h e r e was one case i n which t he v e r
d i c t was i n f av o u r o f an Ar abi an l ady t o whom t he Ch i e f E d i t o r was made t o
pay
$3,000
in
damages.
Litigation
Nahda p r i n t e d t he l a d y ' s
pages
without
havi ng
- t he
Kuwai t i
lady
that
t he
secured
then
magazine
had
regarding
r ef e r e n c e
l ady
in
for
t he
lady's
t he
pe r mi s s i o n
magazine
t he
for
lady's
Law o f
t he
Publications
per sonal
Hence,
total
t he
bei ng
which
Cour t
s et
at
prior
damages.
have cont r avened A r t i c l e
such cases.
question,
t he
sued
Kuwai t i
magazine
on t he cover w i t h more p i c t u r e s
vio lated
Thi s was c onsi der ed t o
1961,
picture
began when t he
to
on i n n e r
publicatio n
The Cour t
found
freedom and d i g n i t y .
26 o f t he
is
A1 -
law No.
3,
for
c on s i d er ed t he p o i n t
endorsed f u l l
damages t o
one
K uwai t i
thousand
of
t he
dinars
( t h r e e thousand US d o l l a r s ) .
From such cases i t
like
many
pertain ing
Arab
to
legal
in
t he
concerned w i t h
p olitical
women
and
i n Arab c u l t u r e
is
Customs
called,
in
its
are
Arab
and t o
unwaveri ng
When i t
o t h e r el ement s o f
ideologies.
what
and
honour or mo r a l s .
traditions
comparison w i t h
cases
of
publicatio n
But ,
firm
matters,
t he
s i n c e t hey p e r m i t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n more than one way.
st ands
financial
d i smi s s
system,
re li
it
and
can
judicial
some e x t e n t ,
meantime,
and customs,
authorities,
po litical
gi ous cases, t o o ,
coul d be deduced t h a t t he Kuwai t i
is
are more f i r m
comes
to
cases
and more s t r i c t
such as t he r e l i g i o u s
stricter
tradition,
- 228 -
it
a m a t t e r o f v i o l a t i n g mor al s
heritage,
even
when
when
"the
t he
case
violation
of
in
and
concerns
women's
honour and per sonal
dignity".
Thi s was i l l u s t r a t e d
i n t he Court st at ement
which concl uded t h a t :
"The r e f e r e n c e when c o n s i d e r i n g something an i n s u l t t o a p e r s o n ' s
i n t e g r i t y ( p r i d e ) and on e' s per sonal freedom, i s t o t he customs
and t he c o n d i t i o n s o f s o c i a l en v i r o nmen t .
Wi t hou t a doubt , a
Muslim woman i n t he Arab East w i t h I s l a m i c and A r ab i c u p b r i n g i n g
would not a l l o w her phot o t o be p r i n t e d on t he cover o f magazines
which e n t er s ever y house and are handled by many peopl e, si n c e by
doi ng t h a t she i s not o n l y d i s o b e d i e n t t o her f a i t h but i t i s
al s o g r e a t l y i n s u l t i n g her i n t e g r i t y .
T h e r e f or e, t he accused d i d not r e f u t e t he charge w i t h an a c c e p t
abl e d e f en c e . "
( A1-Watan, 1 2 . 2. 86)
Though Arab newspapers and magazines are f u l l
fr om
various
countries,
cont ent men t .
so.
But
affairs,
if
to
her
t he
other
publishing
An i r o n i c a l
that
defined
without
Arab
to
per sonal
p e r mi s s i o n ,
t he
custom
would
social
especially
when i t
rights
her
and
comes t o a woman's
right
to
practise
be
Shaikh Fahad
no e x c e p t i o n s
to
it,
t he predominance o f t he
not
even members o f
The case was connected w i t h
wr ot e
an
article
in
1984,
Shaikh
t he
t he p u b l i c a t i o n o f t he a r t i c l e ,
to
t he
Cour t .
Fahad A1 Ahmad A1
Shaikh Sabah A1 Ahmad A1
in
A1-Watan
newspaper,
entitled,
"Brothers'
A1
Matawa,
democr acy".
After
t he Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r or der ed t he s ui ng
and t he E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f
Jassem
law,
Royal
c r i t i c i z i n g t he Kuwai t i MPs f o r t h e i r c l a i m t o d i p l o m a t i c p a s s p o r t s .
his bro ther
her
s u i t s her r o l e i n s o c i e t y .
t he b r o t h e r o f t he Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r ,
of
is
p u r s u i t by t he government was t he case o f t he Deputy Prime
Fami l y t hemsel ves.
Sabah.
a c c o r di n g
G u l f s o c i e t i e s have s t r i c t e r customs i n
societie s
and
her
Thegovernment wi shed t o emphasise
there
Sabah,
is
In g e n e r a l .
po litical
freedom as much as i t
Minister.
is
t he custom has no a u t h o r i t y t o st op her f rom choosi ng t o
s t r on g i n her def ence.
comparison
tradition
With r es p e c t o f a woman who does not see any wrong i n havi ng
her photo p r i n t e d ,
do
t he
o f t he photos o f women
o f A1-Watan l e a v i n g t he f i n a l
commented on t he
affair
In a s a r c a s t i c tone he wr o t e :
- 229 -
in
a
word
column
"Our happiness l i e s i n one b r o t h e r s u b m i t t i n g hi s b r o t h e r t o t he
gener al p r o s ec u t o r under t he power o f t he law.
The bl ood r e l a
t i o n s h i p d i d not st op him f r om s u b m i t t i n g h i s b r o t h e r t o t he
p r o s e c u t i o n l e a v i n g t he d e c i s i o n t o t he i n t e g r i t y and honesty o f
t he law.
D e f i n i t e l y , t h i s i s one p o s i t i v e s i d e o f democracy."
( A1-Watan, 8 . 1 . 8 4 )
THE JUDICIAL AUTHORITY AND THE PRESS
The independence o f t he j u d i c i a l
challenges
a u t h o r i t y i s one o f t he main c u l t u r a l
i n Arab c o u n t r i e s .
It
is
assumed t h a t t he Cour t
i s t he pl ace where c o n f l i c t s and d i f f e r e n c e s among t he s o c i a l
powers must
means t o
tion,
be f i n a l l y
draw t he
de ci ded.
Cour t c l o s e r
The government
to
its
s i de
in
in
Kuwai t
conflicts
used d i f f e r e n t
with
t he o p p o s i
t he press and o t h e r s even though such a p o s i t i o n mi ght c ont r av ene t he
law and c o n t r a d i c t t he c o n s t i t u t i o n .
The government,
brother,
i n t he example o f t he Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r sui ng hi s
both bei ng b r o t h e r s t o t he Ami r ,
i n a p p l y i n g t he law c i t i z e n s were equal
ment b u i l t
its
wanted t o assur e t he p u b l i c t h a t
- shai khs or s e r v a n t s .
image on t he same i d e a l s
i n which t h e r e was no d i s t i n c t i o n
between c i t i z e n s and t he i n t e g r i t y o f t he Court was uphel d.
independence o f t he j u d i c i a l
system,
charge o f a mere d e mocr a t i c
t he f i r s t
t he
t o break them.
same governments
u p h o l d i ng i t s
t he government at t empt ed t o deny t he
facade or t h a t t he ones who s et t he laws were
t he
law under t h e i r
t reason
during
t he
and
capital
reign
of
wi ngs,
while at
puni shment
Numei ri
tria ls
verdicts.
when h i s
regime
end,
al ways i n t he sent ence
Thi s
happened
sentenced t he
S o c i a l i s t Par t y t o death havi ng accused him o f ap ost asy.
in
t he
Pe o p l e' s
o t h e r t i mes
as a weapon w i t h which t o t h r e a t e n t he o p p o s i t i o n .
There are many examples i n which f or mal
of
Concerni ng t he
In most cases i n t he G u l f and o t h e r Arab s t a t e s ,
put
authority
The go v er n
Democrat i c
Republ i c
of
Yemen,
when t he
It
in
t he
leader
Sudan
of
t he
a l s o happened
court
passed,
in
1987, death sentences on a l a r g e number o f t he opponents who were de f eat ed
- 230 -
i n t he
civil
war o f January
Mohamniarad.
have
life
Fur t hermor e
sent ences
Defence,
1986,
i n c l u d i n g t he l a t e p r e s i d e n t A l i
Anwar A1-Sadat
used t he
Egy pt i an
passed on a number o f m i n i s t e r s ,
Information
and t he
Interior,
after
law i n
Nesser
1971 t o
among them t hose o f
t hey were charged w i t h
plot
t i n g a coup i n 1971.
Most
Arab
especially
in
officia ls
po litica l
without
consulting
replace
just
Syria
in
m ilitary
mercy.
that
law
many Arab
It
against
forces,
a number
of
t he
in
Iraq,
colleagues,
Al - Asa d.
Saddam or der ed
t he
in
in
t he
t he
vi deo
t he law and o f f a i r
their
t i o n t o meet K h a l i d ,
example,
this
happened
under t he
citizens,
The
demands
region.
Khomeini
shelter
con c er n i ng
t he
The t we l v e S h i ' i t e s
in
to
Iran,
t he
thinking
of
t he
party
Sy r i a n
a large
A1
S hi'ites
and
It
Baath,
were
Hafiz
them w i t h o u t
i n v ol v e men t
was b e l i e v e d
by t he
in
Iraqi
t he absence o f
i n t he Kingdom o f Saudi
Arabia,
a
i n 1980 t we l v e c i t i z e n s o f
S h i ' i t e Musl ims,
had formed a d e l e g a
Ar a b i a t o submi t c e r t a i n demands t o
o f t he
newI s l a m i c
i mproved
or
some v i d eo t apes show
services
were encouraged by t h e t r i u m p h
t he
t he
tria l
P r es i d e n t
number o f
distributed
improvement
that
in
government
without
ensure t h e i r r i g h t s t o p r a c t i s e some S h i ' i t e r e l i g i o u s r i t e s ,
other
tria ls
leadership of
Al - As a d.
t he r u l i n g
gu ilt.
t he k i n g o f Saudi
sent ences
show
hi gh r a n k i n g source r ev e al ed t o t he a u t ho r t h a t
t he East er n p a r t o f t he Kingdom, i . e .
law,
when Saddam Hussein di s c ov e r ed
of
S im ilarly,
t he
and
t apes were enough t o make up f o r
tria ls.
to
Death
st at ement s o f t he accused c o n f es s i n g t h e i r
t he c l ai med coup and a d m i t t i n g
that
of
hel p
execution
resort
unusual
Hafiz
1979,
embassies i n Arab c a p i t a l s
i n g t he per sonal
For
of
l ead er s
him w i t h
authority
states.
to
opponent s.
not
t housands
a coup a g a i n s t
Iraqi
however,
regime
plotting
tria l.
their
o f Hems r e b e l l e d
k illin g
happened a l s o
ent husi asm
against
are,
1986 when t he c i t y
Muslim Brot her hood
used
in
little
tria ls
t he
trials
show
Republ i c
their p o litica l
- 231 -
in
together with
t he
East er n
o f Ayat
Allah
i n I r a n br o ug ht
positio n
in
Saudi
Arabia,
t he
and formed a new source o f p r e s s ur e on t he Saudi
last
never
thing
heard
in
of
their
a g ai n.
life
and
T he r e f or e ,
v i o l a t i o n by t he e x e c u t i v e s .
fair
tria l,
is
i s t he Kuwai t i
it
is
a routine
that
was
t he
t he
last
t hey
Arab j u d i c i a l
That was
did,
t hey
system i s
were
subject to
The v i o l a t i o n o f human r i g h t s and t he l a c k o f
practice
law which found i t s
by t he governments.
shelter
The o n l y e x c e p t i o n
i n t he Kuwai t i
c on si d er ed t he most p r o g r e s s i v e law among a l l
Mi ddl e East (Baz,
system.
Constitution
for
t he Arabs i n t he whole
1981).
The Kuwai t i
law sought
prote ction
from t he
traditional
relations
to
which t he K u w a i t i s were commi tt ed t hr ou gh h i s t o r y .
I t was a l s o secured by
t he
po litical
clear
state,
separations
t he p a r l i a m e n t ,
The
of
t he
t he
jurisdictions
law and t he pr es s.
system i n Kuwai t i s
legislator
had
of
incorporated
t he
t he
An example o f t he mod er n i t y
t he i n t e g r i t y
many
system,
and honesty o f t he law.
progressive
articles
into
t he
law
r e s t r i c t i n g t he f reedom o f t he Amir and t he government over o t h e r p o l i t i c a l
institutions.
t oo
la te
t he
press
The government was whipped i n t o
t o make any
changes
seemed v u l n e r a b l e .
t he way out f o r t he p o l i t i c a l
t he
Gulf
zone,
t he
cials,
especially
threat
by
chance
had
t he
t he
come
a t t e mp t
The
'appropriate'
The government
on
upon Kuwai t i
t he
Amir's
M in ister to
submi t
to
some
suspend
hi s
Assembly and t o a b o l i s h
of
The
government.
Assembly
on
3rd
July
Amir announced
1986,
imposi ng
life
in
in
and i t
proved
chance came when
t he
Iran-Iraq
war,
i n c r ea s e o f t e n s i o n
in stitutions
in
May
Cabinet's
articles
d i s s o l v e t he N a t i on a l
t he
found
dilemma based on t he
sabotage a t t e m p t s
Prime
t hus
later.
ratifica tion
and o f f i
1985,
and
resignation.
t he
in
Constitutio n,
t he
The
to
any r e s t r i c t i o n on t he wi shes
t he d i s s o l u t i o n
pre-publicatio n
of
t he
c en s o r s h i p
N a t i on a l
on
t he
press.
A f t e r t he suspensi on o f l aw, t he Amir c o n s o l i d a t e d h i s a u t h o r i t y w h i l e
other
groups
became
vulnerable.
Hence
- 232 -
t he d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t
of
t he
Arab
peopl e
with
t he
uncertainty
K uwai t i
in p o l i t i c a l
d e mocr a t i c
relations
system.
Domestically,
a
new era
of
between t he government and o t h e r s o c i a l
groups has s t a r t e d .
Whi l e
researching
this
topic,
t he government and t he Na t i o n a l
I
have n o t i c e d
that
Assembly were a t t h e i r
t o t he o r g a n i z i n g o f t he j u d i c i a l
powers.
to
The N a t i on a l
Parliament f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n .
relations
worst,
t h a t t he d i f f e r e n c e s
had been c e n t r e d around a number o f
Amir
at
t he
r ed u c i ng
expense o f t he
Assembly l ed sev er al
t hose
jurisdictions
government repeat ed i t s
stood f i r m .
o f For ei gn A f f a i r s
which t h i s
o f t he
effort
So t he c r i s i s
hand and p a r l i a m e n t
and
on
to
power t o t he
t he MPs
approve
t he
a t a number o f s e s s i on s ,
in sisted
draft
law.
The
but t he p a r l i a m e n t
t he o t h e r . The Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r
announced i n t he
that
upon
came t o a head between t he government on t he one
and M i n i s t e r
mi d dl e o f May 1986, t he
st udy dat a was c o l l e c t e d ,
parliament,
I t was c l e a r ,
which gave more
Opposing t h i s ,
r ef us e d
discus
between MPs and t he government
articles
Co ur t .
in r e l a t i o n
The government sub mi t t e d t he law
s i ons d u r i n g t he l a s t t h r e e months p r i o r t o i t s d i s s o l u t i o n .
t hough not p u b l i c i s e d ,
between
i.e.
t he MPs must
fifty
same month i n
days be f o r e t he d i s s o l u t i o n
know t h a t
t he Amir
can d i s s o l v e
t he
p a r l i a m e n t whenever he wi shes and t h a t t he C o n s t i t u t i o n gi v es him t he r i g h t
t o i ss u e an o r d e r t o t h a t e f f e c t .
It
t he
so chanced t h a t
same month
where
Deputy
I
I
was p r e s e n t
wi t n ess e d
between
t he
Prime
Nafeesy,
an MP and a l e c t u r e r
three
a strong
M in ister
of
at
and
argument
some
political
parliamentary
MPs,
fu ll
e.g.
sci ence i n
sessi ons
of
Dr.
altercation
Ab d u l l a h
g ift
t he
Deputy
f rom anybody,
with i t . "
cautious,
it
Prime M i n i s t e r
that
bel ongs t o t he Kuwai t i
democracy
A1
Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y .
Add r ess i ng Shaikh Sabah i n one o f t he s es s i on s , A1 Nafeesy s a i d :
be known t o
in
in
Kuwai t
peopl e who ar e a l l
" I t shoul d
is
not
a
concerned
He added t h a t "When he makes hi s s t at ement s [ t h e Shai kh] must be
as h i s words about t he p o s s i b i l i t y
- 23 3 -
of d is s o lv in g
t he p a r l i a m e n t
is
e xc e ss i v e
p eopl e,
t he
nobody
else"
and
on l y
parliament
power which
( Per sonal
provocative.
someone l i k e
that
A1 Nafeesy,
who he i s and knows hi s
Dr.
A1
Prime
Nafeesy
Min ister
found
had
has t he
not es .
He answered
A1
came
May
t hr ough
right
to
1986).
Nafeesy
t he
dissolve
The
s a y i ng :
w ill
of
t he
Shaikh's
"If
himself
become t he
(Ibid).
out
of
head
F ifty
t he
of
t he
reply
more
come f rom
t hose s e s s i on s ,
arena
advisory
was
and
A1 Nafeesy knows
days a f t e r
political
K uwai t i
Assembly
wisdom would
I am sure I can do w i t h o u t i t .
lim its"
t he
and t he
commi tt ee
Deputy
which
was
appo i nt e d by t he Amir t o a c t on b e h a l f o f t he N a t i on a l Assembly besi des hi s
post as Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r and M i n i s t e r o f F or ei gn A f f a i r s .
In
t he
above d i s c u s s i o n ,
t he
history
press was pr esent ed
in elaborate
t he
was t h o r o u g h l y
this
power
structure
c h a p t er
is
i n t e nd ed
to
detail,
and devel opment
t he
The
material
analysis
of
which c o n t r i b u t e t o t he bal ance o f power i n Kuwai t .
fore,
t h i s and t he pr e cee di n g c h a p t er p r o v i d e a t o t a l
f rom which c e r t a i n g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s can be d e r i v e d .
i n t he f o l l o w i n g c h a p t er .
- 234
t he
K uwai t i
and t he p o s i t i o n o f t he press i n
examined.
compl ete
of
t he
pr esent ed
in
social
forces
Taken t o g e t h e r ,
there
vi ew o f t he s i t u a t i o n
These w i l l
be pr esent ed
CHAPTER V
THEORETICAL GENERALISATIONS, HYPOTHESES AND METHODOLOGY
In
this
p r es en t e d.
of
t he
c h a pt er
It
a discussion
dynamics
in
Kuwai t
sented i n t he l a s t two c h a p t e r s
would
and t he
in
role
of
t he
order to a r r i v e
generalisations
which
hypotheses w i l l
be advanced on t he
gui de
this
s t ud y .
basis
of
at
In
that
Ku w a i t i
press
certain
Sabah
this
c h a p t er ,
discussion
was e s t a b l i s h e d
century,
relegated control
It
trade
was
It
shown t h a t
which
pl ayed
rivalries
established
merchant
po sitio n
t he
India
and r esear c h
routes
between
poses,
Kuwai t
t he
r emai nder
at
t he
b e g i nn i ng
o f t h e i r Bani ut ub
t he c o n v e n i e n t
an a c t i v e
in
role
Iraq,
British.
class
latter
half
Britain
India
har bour
as a main
of
to
t he
c ousi ns were
of
trade
and Bandar Abbas,
Throughout
fin a lly
of
in
Kuwai t
made i t a
cent re
in
t he
Iran,
in
t he
settle d
t he
19th
t hese
rivalrie s,
a
well-
i n Kuwai t and s t r eng t hen ed
Cent ur y,
especially
as
t he
its
East
behi nd
it)
controlled
t r a d e and secured t r a d e
and t he West
via
t he
For
became a B r i t i s h
with
consensus
control
between t he Ottoman Empire and t he European c o l o n i a l
Company ( w i t h
promul gat ed
r esear ch
o f t r a d e and o f t he t h r i v i n g p e a r l i n g i n d u s t r y .
particularly
in
by
t he
competed w i t h Basra,
continuing
ists,
whereas
also
c ent re
Gulf.
pre
be h i g h l i g h t e d .
dynast y
eighteenth
be
theoretical
I t was shown i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t t he d e l e g a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
t he
w ill
i s i n t e nd ed t o draw upon t he i deas pr esent ed i n t he a n a l y s i s
social
methods w i l l
generalisation
Mubarak,
Gulf.
protectorate
all
practical
when a s e c r e t
which saf eguar ded Kuwai t f rom
any
pur
agreement
was
threats
or
a m b i t i o n s o f t he Wahabies f rom t he south or t he Ottomans from t he n o r t h .
The p o i n t was a l s o made t h a t t he f a s t emerging merchant c l a s s was soon
render ed dormant when t he t r a d e r o u t e s
shifted
- 23 5 -
t o Suez a t t he t u r n
o f t he
century.
However, Kuwai t remained i n t he B r i t i s h o r b i t
t he Ottoman Empire and t he d i s c o v e r y o f o i l
a f t e r t he demise o f
i n t he mi d- 1930s.
At t h a t t i me t he Amir endeavoured t o e s t a b l i s h hi s a u t h o r i t y
by mai n
t a i n i n g a p o s i t i o n i ndependent o f t he Royal Fami l y and an a l l i a n c e w i t h t he
B ritish
Thi s
s i nce t he l a t t e r
arrangement
w i t h on l y
responsible
to
them.
only
mer chant s.
sustain
The income o f
r eq ui r e men t
t he Ami r ,
t he
of
t he
who i s
Emi r at e
British
that
dependent upon
(that
is
to
say t he
and what ever t axes coul d be c o l l e c t e d f rom t he
There
himself
by t he
one a u t h o r i t y ,
Ami r) came from t he B r i t i s h
depressed
s u b s i d i e s and p r o t e c t e d him p o l i t i c a l l y .
was n e c e s s i t a t e d
t hey shoul d deal
and
pai d hi s
was
without
not much t o
much be i ng
go round and t he Amir
le ft
for
t he
rest of
coul d
t he Royal
Family.
It
was a l s o
ushered
in
pointed
a revival
R u l i n g F ami l y .
of
out
that
t he
t he
merchant
The p o u r i ng i n o f o i l
who r u l e d
facing
him,
from
1950 t o
1965,
mai nl y t he Royal
oil
class
an
and
World War
after
ent renchment
that
wealth.
was ab l e t o
F a mi l y,
Luckily
B ritish
exploit
and c o n t r o l .
work w e l l
who demanded t h e i r
who wanted a s t a b l e
Members o f
with
Kuwai t which
t he
Royal
t hey
Fami l y
chant s
their
specifically
recei ved
debt s
excl uded
revenues.
to
bot h
The
to
diffuse
concessi ons
his
absolute
including
received
t he
S t at e
and
lowering
from
power
and
f rom
British
p r o j e c t s and d e a l e r s h i p s ,
companies
of
tariffs,
receiving
got
income
direct
exclusive
but
oil
continue
steady
to
allow
which t he Amir
Kuwai t .
tax,
The mer
waiving
of
t hey were t o t a l l y
income
control
t he
over t o them
coul d
hol d over
abolishing
t he f o r c e s
share o f
ances and s a l a r i e s and were i n c l u d e d i n t he Supreme Counci l
c r ea t e d
t he
Shaikh A b d u l
r evenues, t he merchants who wanted t he new p r o s p e r i t y t o s p i l l
and t he
of
II
revenues i n t he 1950s put t he Amir on
the spot as t o what he was t o do w i t h
lah,
pumping o f
from
over
t he
oil
devel opment
which i n c l u d e d Royal Fami l y members as p a r t n e r s .
2 36
The e s t a b l i s h m e n t
s c h o o l s,
hospitals,
of
service
r oads,
oriented
u tilitie s
and
devel opment
t he
projects,
rebuild ing
of
t he
such
as
city
of
Kuwai t set t he stage f o r t he emergence o f new groups on t he Kuwai t i
cal
scene.
Many no n- Ku wai t i Ar abs, mo s t l y P a l e s t i n i a n s ,
These were p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,
and c i v i l
Their
such as t e a c h e r s ,
doctors,
p o liti
f l o c k e d t o Kuwai t .
l a wy e r s ,
journalists
s er v a nt s who were needed t o b u i l d a young and f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e .
contributions
and i deas
were
needed,
but
without
po litical
which was vest ed e x c l u s i v e l y i n t he Amir and t he Supreme C o u n c i l .
control
However,
many o f t he no n- Ku wai t i Arabs were a l l i e d w i t h t he emerging Kuwai t i
alists
nation
and i n t e l l e c t u a l s who r e t u r n e d t o c r e a t e a modern Kuwai t a f t e r t hey
completed t h e i r h i gh e r e d u c a t i on i n Arab and f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s .
It
was a l s o shown t h a t
modern i n s t i t u t i o n s .
I ndependence
order
nationalists
to
meet
t hese
were
forcefully
conditions,
i n 1962) and an Assembly
especially
t he st age f o r r i g o r o u s
members,
lace.
t he
demanding
Amir
intellectuals,
f undament al
cr ea t e d
( whi ch commenced i n 1963).
under
Amir A b d u l l a h ' s
political
nationalists,
In
constitution,
( whi ch were held
The ex per i ment proved
leadership,
fermentation,
and t he
but
polarization
it
also
set
among Assembly
merchants and t he r e s t
o f t he popu
The r e s u l t was t he emergence and c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n o f c e r t a i n i n s t i t u
t he
ruling
o fficia ls,
alists,
rest
upon
r e f or m s .
a modern
free elections
t i o n s and groups which now c o n s t i t u t e t he Kuwai t i
are
be p r e d i c a t e d
I r a q wanted t o annexe Kuwai t ,
c a l l i n g f o r t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a Ca b i n e t ,
successful,
had t o
But w i t h i ndependence some new c h a l l e n g e s came t o t he
s t a t e from w i t h i n and f rom w i t h o u t .
Kuwai t i
(1961)
t he
authority
then t he Royal
journalists
includin g
Fa mi l y,
and t he
o f t he media pl ayed a b a s i c
t he
Ami r ,
t he Assembly,
bedoui ns.
t he
- 237 -
structure.
Cabi net
and
t he mer chant s,
Thr oughout ,
and f undament al
o f t he i deas and views o f t hese gr oups.
social
role
t he
These
government
t he n a t i o n
press
and t he
i n t he a r t i c u l a t i o n
The amb i t i o u s pl ans o f Amir A b d u l l a h under t he new-found democracy l ed
t o s t a t e bankr upt cy i n 1964, p a r t l y due t o t he c o r r u p t i o n o f some m i n i s t e r s
o f t he Royal Famil y and some B r i t i s h
alliances
companies.
were made and new r e a l i t i e s
o f power among t he e x i s t i n g s o c i a l
gr oups.
t he
concessi ons
t he Royal
sup po r t
t he s t a t e
and deal s
companies.
and e f f i c i e n t
o fficia ls
The
were gi ven
officia ls,
civil
t hose
to
to
in
get
t he
leading p o s it io n s
carry
hi gher
echel ons,
by members o f
professionals
and
i n t he Cabi net and
st r eng t hen ed
government
of
t he Amir e s t a b l i s h e d
High l e v e l
was
l i o n ' s share
controlled
In a d d i t i o n ,
service
authority
especially
return
adm in istratio n.
educated merchants were r e c r u i t e d
municipalities.
and i n
Fami l y
He a l s o made a t a c i t deal w i t h
which were p r e v i o u s l y
Fami l y and B r i t i s h
a more s t a b l e
t he
o f some members o f t he Royal
somef rom p o s i t i o n s o f c o n t r o l .
t he merchants t o
new
were c r eat ed t o e s t a b l i s h a bal ance
The Amir i n v e s t i g a t e d t he a f f a i r s
and removed
In t h i s s t a t e o f f l u x ,
and
mandates.
became
government
Government
t he
r ecogni sed
e x e c u t i v e s o f t he Amir and t he Ca bi n et .
The Na t i on a l
po litica l
Assembly a t t r a c t e d
spectrum
Bedouin who
including
members from d i f f e r e n t
radicals,
nationalists,
ranges
royalists
of
t he
and
t he
were encouraged by t he Amir t o run f o r o f f i c e i n t he e l e c t i o n s .
The l a t t e r
were, i n
fact,
arena t o widen t he p o l i t i c a l
courted
by t he Amir and drawn t o t he p o l i t i c a l
base o f t he Assembly and c o u nt er bal ance t he
vocal and demanding n a t i o n a l i s t s and r a d i c a l s .
t he
majority
active.
of
On t he
newspapers
some o f whom came f rom t he c o n s e r v a t i v e r i g h t ,
whom were
whole
a d v o c a t i ng
t hey
le ftis ts
were
their
and
vocal
cause
in
radicals,
became
and i n f l u e n t i a l
t he
Assembly.
restle ss
by w r i t i n g
but
and
in
t he
Confrontations
and
showdowns i n t he Assembly and t he media l ed t o t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c o n s e r
v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
tenaciously
fought
p o s i t i o n s on t he i s s u e s .
for
their
cause
in
- 23 8 -
t he
The advocates o f each p o s i t i o n
Assembly
and
in
t he
media.
t he
Bedouin
t he
b a si s
t ook
of
includin g
with
t he
t he
t he
Ca b i n e t ,
conservative
traditional
Marxists,
and
p r o g r e s s i v e r ef or ms and l i b e r a l
royalists,
positio n
et ho s .
Nasserists
t he
to establish
The
nationalists
Pan-Arabs
causes.
t he
were
mer chant s,
and
modern Kuwai t
and
on
intellectuals,
vehement l y
a d v o c a t i ng
The c o n f r o n t a t i o n s between t he two
groups l ed t o t he suspensi on o f t he Na t i o n a l Assembly i n 1976, and r e s u l t e d
i n a p e r i o d o f r et r en chme nt which l a s t e d u n t i l
It
was p o i n t e d out t h a t
in
1981.
1976 t he Amir d i s s o l v e d
st r eng t hen ed t he r o l e o f government o f f i c i a l s .
t o t he Royal
Law
and
He p r o v i d ed f u r t h e r sup po r t
Fami l y by a p p o i n t i n g h i g h l y educated members i n l e a d i n g c i v i l
and governmental
t he
t he Assembly
of
po s t s.
Publication
Most i m p o r t a n t l y ,
and
suspensi on o f p u b l i c a t i o n s
The n a t i o n a l i s t s
r ep l a c e d
for
them
up t o
were c u r t a i l e d
and
he ab o l i s h e d c e r t a i n A r t i c l e s
with
others
two yea r s w i t h o u t
t he
only
r eco ur s e
which
authorised
due l e g a l
t hey
in
pr ocess.
had was t h a t
t hey get t h e i r views i n t he media , but now under d i f f i c u l t and t h r e a t e n i n g
conditions.
It
was d u r i n g t h i s
period t h a t
between t he n a t i o n a l i s t s and j o u r n a l i s t s .
an unspoken a l l i a n c e
The l a t t e r were i n a v u l n e r a b l e
p o s i t i o n mai nl y because many o f them were non- Ku wai t i
pr e s s ur e by government o f f i c i a l s ,
oc cur r ed
and under t h r e a t
nationals,
subject to
of deportation
if
t hey
exceeded t h e i r bo un da r i es.
The I r a q / I r a n war o f 1981 had a d i s c e r n i b l e i mpact on t he o r g a n i z a t i o n
of
t he
bal ance
of
power
heated and i n c e s s a n t
because
of
t he
nationalists,
tions,
civil
r e f or ms .
called
calls
allied
rights,
rapid
Kuwai t .
for
gover nment ' s
with
t he
an equal
On t he whol e,
for
in
t he y
changes
and
r ef or m,
concern
to
secure
distribution
opposed
spite
of
their
were suddenly t aken ver y s e r i o u s l y
jo urn alists,
followed
in
were
or t hodoxy
- 239 -
internal
pressing
front.
for
o f we a l t h and s o c i a l
a liberal
n e g a t i v e norm.
t he
orientation
or
in
free
The
elec
politica l
that
traditionalism
t hey
as
a
They
s up po r t
were
for
calling
for
a
secular
pan-Arab
t he PLO and t he P a l e s t i n i a n
e i g n e r s i n Kuwai t by non- Kuwai t Ar abs,
sup po r t o f
its
war e f f o r t s
for
Kuwai t i
independence from Western i n f l u e n c e ,
control
of
oil
we al t h
and
all
combat
security
in
calling
to
G.C.C.
Iraq
further
justice
t he
r e p l a c i n g o f non-Arab f o r
Iran,
t he
to
government,
against
Soci al
opposition
cause,
progressive
u tilizatio n
terrorism
of
instead
of
ar r angement s.
it
to
state
devel op
They were
for
t he
op pr e s s i on
fu ll
state.
and above
p a r l i a m e n t a r y r ef or ms and t he freedom o f t he press f e a t u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y
i n n a t i o n a l i s t demands.
i n t e l l e c t u a l s and t he j o u r n a l i s t s were viewed by t he
government as a v o l a t i l e
el ement t h a t must be c on t ai n ed a t a l l
costs.
The
Amir y i e l d e d t o t h e i r p r e s s ur e and agreed t o hold f r e e e l e c t i o n s t o appease
some and
co-opt
especially
Kuwai t i
and
of
others.
t hose who by t h e i r
progressive
t he
low
The Amir
el ement s,
income
class.
knew o f
t he
el oquence
such
They
as t he
were
scope o f
their
commanded t he
educated
i g nor ed
sympathy o f
sector,
b e f or e
t he
because t h e i r we i gh t was c o u n t er - b a l a n c e d by t he m i n o r i t i e s
and S h i ' i t e s who were drawn
ever,
due t o
t he
Iranian
into
threat
positions
of
influence,
professionals
Iran-Iraq
war
o f t he Bedouin
power and i n f l u e n c e .
t o Kuwai t and c e r t a i n
t he
How
acts o f t e r r o r i s m ,
t he Shi ' i t es were n e u t r a l i z e d and t he vacuum t hey l e f t was p a r t l y f i l l e d
by
t he n a t i o n a l i s t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
The h i s t o r y
o f t he
1981 Assembly was a r e p l a y o f t he Assembly be f o r e
1976 a l b e i t w i t h more vehemence and more c o n f r o n t a t i o n s .
and i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
i n a l l i a n c e w i t h t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
The n a t i o n a l i s t s
used t he Assembly as a
f orum i n which t o pr e s sur e t he government f o r d r a s t i c r e f or m s .
f ace t he i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o f n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
under t ook
three
settle d
them i n
l e ad er s
for
main
tasks.
Kuwai t
p o litica l
City,
F irst
of
gr a nt ed
participation
a ll,
t he Amir and t he government
t hey
gat her ed
them c i t i z e n s h i p
such t h a t t hey
- 240 -
In o r d e r t o
and
t he
bedoui ns,
groomed
constituted
their
38% o f t he
1981 Assembly.
They vot ed en bl oc
for
t he government.
Secondl y,
and t he government got
into
effort
i n f l u e n c e and l essen t he impact o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
and
to r e s t r i c t
t he
its
intellectuals.
a l ong drawn out b a t t l e w i t h
t he Amir
They
pr esent ed
t he
t he pr ess
restrictions
P u b l i c a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d i n 1981 t o t he Assembly whi ch,
if
of
in
t he
an
Law o f
passed, would have
c u r t a i l e d t he f reedom o f t he press and c o n f i n e d t he i n f l u e n c e o f t he j o u r
nalists.
For more than
between t he l i b e r a l
proposed law.
s i x months an e x t r e me l y
i n t e n s e debate t ook pl ace
and c o n s e r v a t i v e MPs and r e s u l t e d
i n t he d e f e a t o f t he
This ener v at ed t he government and gave t he j o u r n a l i s t s more
c on f i d e n c e t o pursue t he l i b e r a l
cause.
The government r ea c t e d by s t r e n g
t h e n i n g t he r o l e and a u t h o r i t y o f government o f f i c i a l s
tive
causes and t o i n t i m i d a t e t he j o u r n a l i s t s
bureaucratic,
Min ister
legal,
of
economic
Information
journalists
at
which
and
he
coul d
particularly
political
demanded t h a t
measures.
a weekly
i mpress
t o espouse c on s er v a
upon
For
meeti ng
them
by r e s o r t i n g t o
t he
example,
be hel d
t he
with
gover nment ' s
t he
line.
Many l a w s u i t s were r a i s e d a g a i n s t t he press i n
long drawn out l i t i g a t i o n s .
Journalists
of
were
government s,
accused,
by
t he
government ,
and newspapers were t h r ea t en e d
that
bei ng
agents
unl ess t hey
of
foreign
followed
t he
government l i n e t hey would l ose t h e i r s u b s i d i e s .
All
this turmoil,
al ong w i t h many o t h e r f a c t o r s which were smoul der i ng
s i n c e t he mi ddl e o f t he
July
t he
1986.
dat a
extent
( Thi s
for
of
this
control.
1976,
there
pl ay
study).
Thus,
led t o t he d i s s o l u t i o n
two months
Dur i ng
devel opment
s t r en g t he n
tight
aimed a t
occ u r r ed
economic
government
1970s,
after
this
t he
period,
and r a p i d
their
adm in istrative
after
t he
of
t he
t he
t he
roles
to
carry
out
t he
- 241
-
order
N a t i on a l
adm in istrative
gover nment ' s
in
collecting
required
in
i n c r e a s i n g t he power o f government o f f i c i a l s
f undament al
of
expandi ng
appar at us
of
t he Assembly
c omp l e t i on
urbanisation,
dissolution
was a wide r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of
scope
and
that
t he
to
attain
Assembly
in
system which
and a l l o w i n g them t o
programmes.
Their
authority
was
expanded
in
most
directions
and t hey
p u r s u i t o f government goal s and d i r e c t i v e s .
did
not
arm
of
participate
directly
t he government
in
role
in
t he
In s p i t e o f t he f a c t t h a t t hey
politics,
whose
became a c t i v e
t hey were n e v e r t he l e s s t he main
exceeded a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
ma t t e r s
and
i n c l u d e d i n f l u e n c i n g t he popul ace i n c l u d i n g t he media t o f o l l o w t he c o n s e r
vative
line
t owar ds
of
t he
government.
t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
They
t i o n s h i p w i t h t he j o u r n a l i s t s
mat i on
about
government al
and
in vited
social
their
a s t r on g
and
stick
policy
and f u n c t i o n a l
rela
based upon f e e d i n g them w i t h news and i n f o r
and
with
activities,
a free
journalist
gatherings.
pursued a c a r r o t
established
policies
Thi s s up p l i e d t he j o u r n a l i s t s
They a l s o
They
stream o f
friends
A dditionally,
domest i c
news and i n f o r m a t i o n .
to attend
t hey
and f o r e i g n .
government f u n c t i o n s
exchanged
f av o u r s
with
t he
e d i t o r s and t he owners o f t he media who were t hemsel ves merchants and coul d
use t he i n f l u e n c e o f government o f f i c i a l s
tenuous
and l ed
to
f o r t h e i r own b e n e f i t .
between t he j o u r n a l i s t s
continual
conflict.
coul d be r e j e c t e d and h u r t a t any t i m e
w i t h government o f f i c i a l s .
and government o f f i c i a l s
The j o u r n a l i s t s
if
t hey ent er ed
in to
t he
sphere
wo r l d
of
of
i d ea s ,
influence
of
a division
each
of
gr oup.
l a bo ur
and
on t he whol e,
saw t o
it
h o l d i n g press
that
open c o n f l i c t
In t h i s t u g - o f - w a r ,
oc c u r r ed
Government
to
demarcate
officia ls
themsel ves t o a c t as t he guar d i an s o f t he i n t e r e s t s
regard,
t ook
it
o f t he s t a t e .
conservative
media
by
In
journalists;
rather
serving
and
God
o fficia ls
were
t hey were a c t i n g
count ry
and
so
not
interested
on t h e i r
gu ar d i ng
- 24 2 -
granting
t he
c o n t r o l l i n g t he f l o w o f news i n t he gover nment - r un Kuwai t News Agency.
government
new r e l e a s e s ,
in
i ssues
and
role,
i s su e
appeared
upon
interviews,
this
conf er ences t o
position
t he
In t h i s
t hey f o l l o w e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e d i r e c t i o n on a l l
this
t hey
They a l s o knew t h a t t hey would be t o l e r a t e d t o
a c e r t a i n p o i n t beyond which t hey would be r e s t r i c t e d .
in
knew t h a t
was
t he
in
intim idating
convictions;
state
f r om
that
t he
t hey were
slipping
into
anarchy
or
from
bei ng
s ubv er t ed
by
a
n e i g h b o u r i ng
country.
Thus
tended t o s uppor t a f r e e economy and n o n - c e n t r a l i z e d Arab U n i t y ,
t he
police
power t o
example o f how o i l
raise
t he
maintain
peace and o r d e r
we al t h was best
s t andar d
of
livin g
to
utilized
one
of
so t h a t
t hey
augmenting
Kuwai t was a b r i g h t
t o devel op t he co u n t r y and t o
t he
hi ghest
in
t he w o r l d .
They
ex e r c i s e d t i g h t c o n t r o l s over e n t r y and e x i t v i s a s and as s e r t e d t h a t de p o r
tation
of
certain
undesirable
A f i r m and u n y i e l d i n g
national
el ement s
interests,
was necessary
for
t he
security
stand was adopted t o f i g h t
a s s e r t e d t hemsel ves t o be j u s t
or even more so,
of
terrorism.
as concerned w i t h t he
than t he N a t i on a l
Assembly,
and t h a t
they had as much r i g h t t o i n f l u e n c e p u b l i c o p i n i o n as t he N a t i on a l Assembly
and t he pr es s.
meet c e r t a i n
l ead"
what
They
insisted
st andar ds which d i d
public opinion.
it
that
was w i t h o u t
As f a r
them,
t he
not
press
impair
and o t h e r
government a u t h o r i t y
as t hey were concer ned,
a vi ew,
publications
as we have s a i d ,
or
must
"mis
Kuwai t would not be
which i s
not uncommon
among many K u w a i t i s .
So f a r ,
chosen
for
Ku w a i t i
Kuwai t
t he d i s c u s s i o n has been c o n f i n e d t o Kuwai t ,
this
s t ud y ,
b o un da r i es .
is
p o litical
as
if
This,
t he
of
uni que i n many ways,
division
of
labour
society,
institu tion al
cou r s e,
it,
which
d e v e l o p i n g T h i r d World n a t i o n s .
tional
interest
which t r a d i t i o n a l
of
this
not
no ne t h e l es s ,
is
not
st udy
t he
does
not
intention.
exceed
Al t hough
p r e s en t s a form o f s o c i o
without
Of c our s e,
i n t he T h i r d Wor l d,
u n d e r p i n n i ng s
is
of
t he r esear c h s i t e
parallel
in
many o t h e r
t he t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a t r a d i
t akes d i f f e r e n t forms depending on t he
prevailing
in stitutions.
In
societies
in
a u t h o r i t y has been over t hr own by an emergent i n s t i t u t i o n ,
u s u a l l y t he army, t he media are u s u a l l y usurped by t he regime t o serve i t s
r e v o l u t i o n a r y ends.
authority
its
But i n T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s i n which t he t r a d i t i o n a l
contributes,
transformation,
al ong
t he
with
media
other
attain
emerging
a
- 243 -
certain
social
degree
in stitu tio n s,
of
f reedom
to
and
reflect
t he p o s i t i o n s o f t r a d i t i o n a l i s m and m o d e r n i t y ,
liberalism,
social
al ong t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
organisation.
such Arab
countries
( be f o r e t he c i v i l
or c on s er v a t i sm and
lines characteristic
o f t he e x i s t i n g
Thus, what i s found i n Kuwai t may be e q u a l l y found i n
as Morocco,
war),
t he
Uni t ed Arab
Emi r a t e s ,
Egypt ,
Lebanon
as w e l l
as many o t h e r d e v el op i ng n a t i o n s which are
From t he above d i s c u s s i o n ,
t he f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s d e r i v e d f o r
s i m i l a r l y or g a n i s e d .
r ese ar ch pur poses.
a
rapid
( al most
In a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
in
one
generation)
system, which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
transformation
f rom
s o c i e t y t o a h i g h l y ur b an i s ed one, bot h t he t r a d i t i o n a l
journalists
( al ong w i t h t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s )
o f t he pr ess .
was e q u a l l y
Put d i f f e r e n t l y ,
t he march o f s o c i a l
to i t
that th e ir
as w e l l
traditional
a u t h o r i t i e s and t he
s t r o v e t o i n f l u e n c e t he c o n t en t
t he c o n t r o l
i n f l u e n c e d by t he r u l e r s
a
o f t he press i n such a s o c i e t y
t hr ou gh government o f f i c i a l s ,
change t o best serve t he i n t e r e s t s o f t he s t a t e and see
views and news were c o n t i n u o u s l y
as by t he j o u r n a l i s t s
portrayed
i n t he pr e s s ,
i n a l l i a n c e w i t h t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
s i d e r e d t hemsel ves t he avant guarde o f pr ogr es s and t h e r e f o r e
agitate
feel
for
that
t hr ou gh i t
modernization.
t hey
In
have equal
such
c l a i ms
societie s,
to
shape
influence public opinion.
bot h
t he
t hey
also
have t he
right
to
groups
c o n t en t
of
who con
continuously
are
t he
bound
pr ess
to
and
In such a s o c i e t y t he r i g h t t o i n f o r m
i s not e x c l u s i v e l y r es e r v ed f o r t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
that
who l ed
inform,
and t o
influence
feel
and shape t he
i deas o f t he popul ace.
From
this
perspective,
it
degree o f coverage o f c e r t a i n
t he
pr es s)
would
cor r espond
would
i s su es
to
t he
be
i n t he press
degree
assi gned t o them both by t he j o u r n a l i s t s
t he
and
same t ok e n,
journalists
it
would
would
also
agree
r easonabl e
of
- 244 -
(i.e.
expect
their
i mpor t ance
that
both
t hemsel ves
(i.e.
government
as t o
t he
t he
salience in
salience)
and by government o f f i c i a l s .
be expect ed t h a t
between
to
By
o fficia ls
degree
of
i mpor t ance
cinctly,
(i.e.
it
is
salience)
t hey
expect ed t h a t
between
government
issues;
(2)
o fficia ls
and
and
in
t he
o fficia ls
issues;
to
different
issues.
Put
suc
t he agenda o f t he press would be s et by both
government
a ss i gn
and
(3)
that
(1)
press
as
t h e r e would be agreement
to
journalists
t he
would
salience
of
t he
agree
to
t he
as
t h e r e would be agreement between j o u r n a l
i s t s and t he press as t o t he s a l i e n c e o f t he i s s u e s .
However,
it
is
s i nce t he two groups t ake d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s on t he i s s u e s ,
expect ed t h a t
g e n e r al ,
their
t hey woul d,
"attitudes
t hey
t ak e
matter
al t h o u g h t hey
in
that
nevertheless,
over
their
is
t hose
Thus,
of
By t h i s
p . 688).
one which i s
or
is
relating
not
only
a
liberal
suppor t ed by t he f i n d i n g s
be r e p o r t e d
Suffice
si des
it
positio n
in
position
for
o f t he
t he
moment t o
i s sue e i t h e r
in
norms"
(Ibid,
conceptually,
of a p i l o t
in
this
are c a t e g o r i z e d f o r
or a c o n s e r v a t i v e one.
" br oad- mi nded,
norms."
on an i ss u e would
vi ews,
it
p . 270) .
is
also
be
conditions,
Thi s
based
line
upon
or
of
and
st udy o f t he Kuwai t i press which w i l l
Chapter
argue t h a t
t he
"a
or marked by moder at i on or c a u t i o n ;
traditional
some d e t a i l
bei ng
o r t ho d o x y , or t r a d i t i o n a l
a conservative
defensible
view
1983, p . 624).
tradition al;
to
of
on
p o i n t o f debate
p o s i t i o n on an i s s u e would be one which i s
i.e.
differ
difference
" t e n d i n g or di sposed t o m a i n t ai n e x i s t i n g
marked by or
thinking
such
or a t t i t u d e s on t he i s s u e s ,
Conv er sel y ,
in stitu tio n s,
t i mes
i s meant t he p o i n t
issues,
e s p e c i a l l y not bound by a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ,
(Ibid,
agree and a t
two or more p a r t i e s : a
( Mer r i am- Webst er ,
purposes as e x h i b i t i n g
a liberal
t i mes
t he
between
These p o i n t s o f vi ew,
r es e ar c h
at
issues".
assessment
in dispute
or c o n t r o v e r s y . "
agree as t o s a l i e n c e o f t hose i s sues i n
and
t he
same i t em ,
pr esent ed
press
usually
in
Appendix
p r e s en t s
which may i n d i c a t e
vi ews, or i n d i f f e r e n t i t ems which are u s u a l l y p a r t i s a n .
V.
bot h/
differing
There i s a l s o t he
case o f p a r t i s a n papers which c o n s i s t e n t l y t ak e one p o s i t i o n or t he o t h e r .
- 245 -
( Co n c e p t ua l l y
there
is
also
a neutral
i g no r ed here f o r r esear c h pu r p o s e s ) .
t i o n on t he i ssues w i l l
i n t he Kuwai t i
on t he
issues,
but
More d i s c u s s i o n t o j u s t i f y
t he p o s i
that
journalists
t he
in
Kuwai t i
alliance
rulers,
with
t he
government
intellectuals,
whol e,
was shown t h a t each group wi shes t o b u i l d a modern Kuwai t
and
government
espouses c a u t i o n or
or
and economic i s s u e s .
officia ls,
mod e r a t i on ,
institutions
and
is
rather
conservative
The a t t i t u d e s
intellectuals
rather
norms.
They
They
of
t he
have done w e l l
journalists
and t he n a t i o n a l i s t s )
libera l,
norms.
t en d ,
more ready t o d e p a r t
advocate
t hese
on t he
at
in i t s
po litical
parties,
this
in
that
to rule
it
condi
from t h a t
but w i t h a t r a d i t i o n a l
i s sues
least
( al on g w i t h
on some i s s u e s ,
t he
to
be
f rom a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m or t r a d i t i o n a l
attitudes
within
t he N a t i o n a l Assembly, and, most i m p o r t a n t l y ,
of
On t he
and sup po r t s e x i s t i n g or t r a d i t i o n a l
p e r s p e c t i v e and t o devel op Kuwai t as a modern s t a t e ,
flavour.
hol d
The gover nment ' s p o s i t i o n on t he i s s u e s , which ar e advocated by
Cabi net
tions,
o ffi
coul d
positions
t he
on some s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l
t hr ough
differing
own image.
is
be pr esent ed below i n t he s e c t i o n " I ss ue s Appear i ng
earlier
and t he
it
it
P r e s s ".
We argued
cials
positio n
existing
in stitu tio n s,
i n t he pr e s s .
arrangement works we l l
to
e.g.
In t he absence
gener at e
opposition
fermentation.
The above p e r s p e c t i v e goes beyond agenda s e t t i n g and proposes c e r t a i n
r ef i n e m e n t s
in
t he
c oncept .
s a l i e n c e o f t he i ssues
of
t hese
besi des
i ssues
t he
above
scientists
r es ear c h
concept
of
population.
t he
"public
dealt
generally
with
What we propose
agenda-setting"
it
here
is
overall
salience
is
of
that
great
st udy t o go beyond t he p u b l i c a g e n d a - s e t t i n g t o r es ear ch
have d e f i n e d as t he
question
setting
i n t he press and t he c or r e s p o n d i ng o v e r a l l
among a gi ven
i mpor t ance i n t h i s
what
Agenda
for
t he
"policy
i s su e get on t he p o l i c y agenda?"
"policy
agenda-setting".
agenda-setting"
(Rogers and D a r l i n g ,
- 246 -
is
The c e n t r a l
"How does
1988, p . 560).
a public
Thus,
if
t he
c o n t en t
of
an
issue
in
t he
press
c on t ai n s
espousi ng c o n s e r v a t i v e arguments than n o n - c o n s e r v a t i v e ,
it
more
coul d be r ea s on
ab l y s ai d t h a t t h a t pi ece i s p r e s e n t i n g a c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n .
same t ok e n,
than
t he
if
t he
liberal
conservative
presenting a l i b e r a l
on l y
in
terms
of
it ems
ones,
it
in
is
gener al
In s h o r t ,
salience
a l s o i n terms o f t h e i r a t t i t u d i n a l
size
t he
t ok e n,
gi ven
liberal
it
or
t he
issue
r easonabl e t o
disposition.
their
a gi ven
(i.e.
si des
if
t hey
are
al l owed
to
If
that
that
of
t he
indicate
are more
issue
is
not
c ov e r ag e) ,
but
whet her t hey empha
issues.
By t he
same
mood o f t he i ss ues i n a
not
only
(i.e.
how i m p o r t a n t
liberal
or c o n s e r
t hey t ak e as our i n s t r u m e n t was desi gned t o a s c e r t a i n .
t he press
is
t aken as t he frame o f r e f er e n c e t o c l a s s i f y t he s a l
i ence i n terms o f c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
disposition,
and an e n q u i r y
made about t he cor r espondence between t he a t t i t u d e o f t he pr es s ,
officia ls
direct
By t he
can be c l a s s i f i e d
that is,
t hese i ssues are t o them, but a l s o t he d i s p o s i t i o n
vative)
press
t he o v e r a l l
i s p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t he a t t i t u d i n a l
population
t he
state
i s sues
directions,
conservative
in
i t ems
and
journalists
r e l a t i o n s h i p with
on
t he
issues,
it
is
r easonabl e
r egar d t o c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s
is
government
to
expect
a
on t he i s s ues
(1)
o f t he government o f f i c i a l s
and t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
(2)
o f t he government o f f i c i a l s
and t he a t t i t u d e s o f
t he press i n d i c a t e d i n t he press c o n t e n t .
r es e ar c h hypotheses w i l l
Upon t hese f i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s ,
be desi gned and t e s t e d .
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Certain
sented
Ku w a i t i
t hese
hypotheses
explaining
press
i ssues
t he
and
by
hypot heses w i l l
t he
are advanced
relationship
degree
journalists
be advanced.
of
and
on t he
basi s
between t he
i mpor t ance
government
of
t he
salience
(i.e.
discussion
of
salience)
o fficia ls.
All
i s s ues
pre
in
t he
assi gned
in
a ll,
to
five
The f i r s t t h r e e hypotheses deal w i t h s a l i e n c e
- 247 -
in
g e n e r al .
t he
They are
literature.
setting
similar
to
t he
agenda s e t t i n g
hypotheses
common i n
The r ema i n i ng two hypot heses go beyond t he common agenda
hypotheses
in that
t hey
examine t he a t t i t u d e s
o f government o f f i
c i a l s and j o u r n a l i s t s on t he i s s u e s .
AGENDA-SETTING HYPOTHESES
These
overall
hypotheses
extent
degree o f
of
are
concerned
coverage
of
t he
with
t he
i s sues
in
relationship
t he
i mpor t ance assi gned t o t hese i ss ues
press
between
and
t he
t he
overall
by t he j o u r n a l i s t s
and gov
ernment o f f i c i a l s .
THE FIRST HYPOTHESIS
In a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
a triba l-trad ition al
of
living
and
system c h a r a c t e r i s e d by r a p i d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from
level
a hi gh
t o a h i g h l y ur bani s ed l e v e l w i t h a hi gh st andar d
level
of
education,
t he
s ov e r ei gn ( K i n g , S u l t a n , Ami r , or S h e i k h ) .
government
The s o v e r ei g n ,
as t he gu ar di an o f sacred t r a d i t i o n s and v a l ue s ;
fies
them,
and
is
entrusted
s ov e r ei gn i s not a cer emoni al
final
by
all
to
figure.
i s seen
protect
them.
In
this
He r u l e s , and he gover ns.
case
t he
He i s t he
authority.
extension
highest le v e l ,
They
in turn,
t he
he embodies them, p e r s o n i
The Ca bi n et , which i s chosen by t he s o v e r ei g n ,
t he
r e p r es e n t s
enj oy
over most,
Modern
of
his
authority.
not a l l ,
social
authority
social
especially
at
t he
institutions,
and v a l ue s .
which
gi v es
such
as
t he
and
influence
pr e s s ,
do
not
dispute
t he
i n m a t t e r s which r e v o l v e around u p h o l d i ng
o f t he s ove r ei gn t o t he pr e s s ,
them power
institu tion s.
a u t h o r i t y o f government o f f i c i a l s
traditions
o fficia ls,
as
i n t u r n are c on s i d er ed t o be " t he K i n g ' s men," hi s s e r v a n t s .
a traditional
if
Government
i s c onsi der ed by a l l
not o n l y p r e s en t t he p o s i t i o n
t hey ar e a l s o sought by t he press t o i n c l u d e
- 248 -
t h e i r news and views on a r e g u l a r b a si s i n newspapers. A s u b s t a n t i a l
of
news,
views
and
commentary
government o f f i c i a l s .
is,
therefore,
and
journalists,
al ong w i t h al most everybody e l s e ,
whet her
it
mi ght
suggested
by
not
c or r espond
to
t he
le tte r's
vi ews.
But
t he
expect government o f f i c i a l s
i n s e t t i n g t he press agenda and c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t he i s s u e s ,
directly
o fficia ls
or
These views mi g ht not n e c e s s a r i l y be endorsed by t he
jo urn alists,
to p a rtic ip a te
in itia te d
amount
or
in d ire ctly.
participate
in
It
setting
is
expect ed,
t he agenda f o r
therefore,
t he
pr e s s .
government
Consequent l y,
i s hy pot hesi s ed t h a t :
Hypot hesi s 1.
There i s a p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n between
t he o v e r a l l d i f f e r e n t i a l coverage o f t he i ssues
appe ar i n g i n t he press and t he o v e r a l l degree o f
i mpor t ance assi gned t o t hese i ss ues by government
o ffic ia ls .
THE SECOND HYPOTHESIS
Sim ilarly,
t he
expectation
is
that
by government o f f i c i a l s
t o t he
i mpor t ance
journalists
assi gned
by
i s s u es
t he degree o f
usually
to
t he
i mpor t ance assi gned
cor r espond t o t he degree o f
same
issues.
In
this
case,
j o u r n a l i s t s may serve as mouthpi eces f o r t he s ove r ei gn or t hey may dwel l on
t he
same
i s s ue
albeit
in
their
own
way.
In
may
be based
gener al
on t he
t he
relationship
la tte r's
dut y
o b l i g a t i o n t o p r e s en t t he p o s i t i o n o f t he government i n t he pr es s.
re latio nship is usually refle cte d
officia ls
influence,
journalists
p r es s u r e,
as i m p o r t a n t by both gr oups.
i s s ues
becomes very
similar
in
encourage or even a c t i v a t e or prod
t he press which become j o i n t l y
Eventually,
to
Such a
i n t he d i f f e r e n t ways i n which government
suggest ,
t o emphasise i ss u es
that
of
t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
t he
officia ls.
defined
Therefore,
hypot he s i se d t h a t :
Hypot hesi s 2.
and
t he o v e r a l l degree o f i mpor t ance assi gned t o t he
i ssues ap pe ar i n g i n t he press by t he j o u r n a l i s t s
and by government o f f i c i a l s .
- 24 9 -
it
is
THE THIRD HYPOTHESIS
By v i r t u e
keep up w i t h
of t h e i r
professional
t he c o n t en t
of
position,
journalists
are o b l i g e d
to
t he news and become c o n s i s t e n t l y aware o f t he
issues t h a t comprise l e a d i n g h e a d l i n e s and occupy a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f
space.
In
most
cases,
t hey
emphasi si ng t he i s s u e s .
others,
t hese
directly
contribute
In o t h e r cases,
to
making t he
news
by r es pondi ng t o i s s ues r a i s e d by
t hey c o n t r i b u t e t o t he debate and p a r t i c i p a t e i n t he d i s c u s s i o n s o f
issues.
They
s i mpl y
cannot
afford to
ignore
t he
issues,
become
o b l i v i o u s t o them, or st ay a l o o f when i s s ues are r a i s e d and di sc u s s e d .
is,
and
therefore,
It
hyp ot he s i se d t h a t :
Hypot hesi s 3.
t he o v e r a l l d i f f e r e n t i a l coverage o f t he i ss ues
appe ar i n g i n t he pr ess and t he o v e r a l l degree o f
i mpor t ance assi gned t o t hese i ssues by t he j o u r
nal i s t s .
BEYOND AGENDA-SETTING HYPOTHESIS
In t he f o l l o w i n g ,
t he
issues,
government
but
two hypot heses are not based on o v e r a l l
rather
officia ls,
on
t he
a t t i t u d e s which
journalists
t he c o n t en t o f t he pr e s s ,
and
t he
govern
attitudinal
t he
salience of
p o s it io n s of
positions
i n r e l a t i o n t o c o n s e r v a t i v e or l i b e r a l
found
in
aspect s o f
p r e v a l e n t i ssues i n Kuwai t .
As
indicated
earlier,
t he
quest
here i s
to
find
ou t
t he
degree o f
corr espondence between t he p o s i t i o n s o f t he t h r e e v a r i a b l e s on i s s ues which
either
lean
p r ed o m i n a n t l y
t owar ds
co n s e r v a t i sm
or
liberalism,
and t o
examine t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between government o f f i c i a l s ,
journalists
and t he
pr ess i n terms o f (a) t h e i r a t t i t u d e s on t he c o n s e r v a t i v e / l i b e r a l
on p r e v a l e n t i s s u e s ,
(b) t he a t t i t u d i n a l
tendency o f o f f i c i a l s ,
di chotomy
journalists
and t he press w i t h r e l a t i o n t o t he c o n s e r v a t i v e / l i b e r a l
di chot omy,
t o de t er mi n e t he s i m i l a r i t y
based on t he degree
of t h e ir
attitudinal
or d i f f e r e n c e s among them,
positions
on t he
issues.
- 250 -
In o t h e r
words,
in order
while
t he
firs t
three
hypotheses
assi gned by o f f i c i a l s
t he pr ess c o n t e n t ,
examined
t he
and j o u r n a l i s t s ,
overall
i mpor t ance
of
t he
i s sues
and t he s a l i e n c e o f t hose i s su es
t he f o l l o w i n g two hypot heses t ak e t he a t t i t u d e s
in
o f each
group i n t o account ,
THE FOURTH HYPOTHESIS
In a t r a d i t i o n a l
such
as
Kuwai t ,
Sultan,
social
Amir
in
or
system i n f u s e d
which
t he
Shaikh),
institutions
as
modern de mocr a t i c
government
modern
such
with
r e p r es e n t s
social
t he
press
groups
do
not
t he
such
as
dispute
in stitutions,
s ove r ei gn
( Ki n g,
journalists
t he
and
authority
of
government o f f i c i a l s mai nl y i n i ss ues r e l a t i n g t o government p o l i c y and t he
undisputable t r a d i t i o n s
t he pr e s s ,
in d i f f e r e n t
same i s s u e s .
degree u s u a l l y
r egar d
The p o s i t i o n o f j o u r n a l i s t s ,
In
ways t he p o s i t i o n t aken by government o f f i c i a l s
this
case
t he
journalists
serve as a mouthpi ece f o r
t o t he c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n
r e l a t i o n s h i p between j o u r n a l i s t s
government o f f i c i a l s ,
t he
on t he
is
part
of
t he
issues.
harmony w i t h o t h e r p o l i t i c a l
t he
Cabi net
and t he
would r e p r e s e n t ,
tiv e attitudes
t hey t a k e ,
pr es s,
to
particularly
on
t he
system;
a system, t he
one s i d e , and
in
it
must
b e l i e v e t h a t t he
therefore
ac t
o fficia ls).
Thus
response t o t he a c t ua l
t he government o f f i c i a l s '
c on s er v a
conservative a t t i t u d e s
There i s a s i m i l a r i t y i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i
t i o n t aken by t he government o f f i c i a l s
and t he
c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n s taken by t he j o u r n a l i s t s on
i s sues p r e v a l e n t i n t he Kuwai t i pr ess.
- 251 -
in
journalists
r e g a r d i n g t he i s s u e s , t hu s :
Hypot hesi s 4.
on
w i t h t he r u l e r a t t he t o p , then
( government
extent,
O fficials
a
with
r e g a r d i n g t he c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n
institutions,
management
to a certain
of
t he
In such
t o g e t h e r w i t h t he pr es s,
on t he o t h e r ,
components
and
s o v e r e i gn ,
t he i ss ues may be t h a t o f dut y and o b l i g a t i o n .
press
hence o f
t aken on t he i s s ues i n t erms o f c o n s e r v a t i ve n e s s or l i b e r a l i s m ,
would r e f l e c t
on t he
and v al u e s .
THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS
F o l l o w i n g t he
positio n
cials
of
same argument
journalists
on t he
attitudinal
dency by t he press
handed
which
by
guar d.
is
at
rate
and t he
designers
fore,
on
it
is
t he
issues,
it
positions
is
press
c o n t en t w i l l
t he
conservative
t owar ds
t he
their
supposedl y
expect ed t h a t
pr ess
positio n
ma i nl y
t hey
by t he
who,
in
are
det er mi ned
journalists
and
of
t he a t t i t u d i n a l
of o f f i
predicted
that
side
of
t he
without
conservative
expect ed
to
of
t he
t hose
who s et
t he
t he
same l o g i c
agenda
for
and
to
between t he
are
t he
have a
and t he press
relationship
much a s t u t e n e s s ,
issues.
dispositions
champion
na t u r e
t he
show a s i m i l a r t e n
based on t he n o t i o n t h a t government o f f i c i a l s
J us t as expect ed,
any
press
of
with
i n t he
coverage
influence
virtue
side
found
Such an assumpt i on i s
heavy
coincides
conservative
positions
i n which t he tendency o f t he a t t i t u d i n a l
t he
c o n t en t
pr es s .
Ther e
u n d e r l y i n g t he f o u r t h
hy p ot he s i s
would a l s o gi ve d i r e c t i o n t o t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between government o f f i c i a l s
and t he pr es s.
and t he
their
press
mi ght
positions
argument t h a t
for
The assumpt i on was made a l l
t ak e
i n t he
opposite
social
t he press r o l e
change by t he
social
positions
structure.
in
al ong t h a t government o f f i c i a l s
Thi s
tional
It
some i s sues
contention
devel opi ng s o c i e t i e s
movement f o r
modernization,
many f u n c t i o n s o f t he press i n t r a d i t i o n a l
f o r changes.
on
societies
by v i r t u e
is
of
based on t he
i s t o lead t he cause
and t h a t
one o f
t he
i s t o lead t he t r e n d s
serves as a c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e a g a i n s t t he r i g i d i t y
of t r a d i
authority.
However,
in
a traditional
t he s ov e r ei gn ( Ki n g,
system i n
which
S u l t a n , Amir or S h e i k ) ,
t he
government
r ep r es e n t s
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he f a c t t h a t i t
enj oy s a g r e a t deal o f f reedom, d i v e r s i t y and s u f f i c i e n t f i n a n c i a l
i n such a system t he
relationship
erned by t he f a c t t h a t t he pr ess u s u a l l y
- 2 52 -
and t he press
sour ces,
is
gov
ser ves as t he mouthpi eces f o r t he
s ov e r ei gn p a r t i c u l a r l y
in matters r e la te d to le g it im a c y,
security,
def ence,
wealth, t h e re f o r e ;
Hypot hesi s 5,
There i s a s i m i l a r i t y i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i
t i o n t aken by t he government o f f i c i a l s and t he
p o s i t i o n t aken by t he press on i s sues p r e v a l e n t i n
t he press c o n t e n t .
METHODS AND RESEARCH DESIGN
In
order
needed.
F irst
Kuwai t i
of
test
t he
a ll,
a
over
a definite
newspapers
Secondl y,
cials
to
hypot heses,
rank
ordering
journalists
had
to
would be t o
find
sponds d i r e c t l y
officia ls,
out
t he
t he
of
t i me
prevalent
t he
in
bases
at
t he
obtained.
degree t o
to
be
in
t he
ascertained.
The
rank
ordering
which
t he
agenda o f
t he
of
t hese
The p o i n t
press
corre
purpose.
which
pr e s s .
t he
Once
c o n t en t
pages,
to
Al - Am,
analysis
May, June and J u l y ,
A1- Sayasah,
o f t he t o p i c s
column
t hese
of
would
then
newspapers
and
and t he i n t e r v i e w schedul e
st udy was t h e r e f o r e desi gned and c a r r i e d out
and t he e d i t o r i a l
topics
located,
newspapers were revi ewed f o r
d u r i n g t he months o f A p r i l ,
Al -Ray
and t he
c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l .
Ku w a i t i
A pilot
Fi ve
journalists
t he b e g i n n i n g o f t he st udy t o l o c a t e t he t y pe o f
upon
would be c o n s t r u c t e d .
listin g
appear i ng
by a sample o f government o f f i
measuri ng i n s t r u m e n t s such as t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
ac c o r di n g
had
t o d e f i n e t he a t t i t u d e s t aken by o f f i c i a l s ,
constitute
local
i s sues
were
or i n v e r s e l y w i t h t he agenda o f j o u r n a l i s t s and government
was e s s e n t i a l
A1-Anba,
measurements
i n d i c a t e t he agenda o f t he pr e s s .
press coverage on t he di chot omy,
for that
of
as i n d i c a t e d by t he r ank o r d e r i n g o f t hese i s s u e s .
Also,
i s s ues
t ypes
of
i ss ues
be
i ssues i n t he newspapers w i l l
It
span
a rank o r d e r i n g o f t hese
and
two
l e ng t h
in
1985. These were A1-Qabas,
A1-Watan.
pages o f t he
i nc h
ap pe ar i n g
and
and
a f o u r months p e r i o d
The
front
pages,
newspapers were i t em anal ysed
numbers
of
publication.
t hese pages was then c ompi l ed.
253 -
t he
All
A
in
a ll,
there
inches.
were
120 t o p i c s
in
space between
10 and 3,123
column
Topi cs occupyi ng l e s s than 100 column i nches were removed, r e s u l t
i n g i n 50 t o p i c s and f e l l
1.
Arab
in
Kuwai t ;
Unity;
i n t o t he f o l l o w i n g ni ne c a t e g o r i e s :
2. A r a b - I s r a e l i
5. D i s t r i b u t i o n
between
t he
press.
The n i n t h c a t e g o r y ,
government
p i l o t st udy as i t
The it ems
that
rangi ng
each
r e p r es e n t
of
and
wealth;
t he
Iran-Iraq
6. T e r r o r i s m ;
parliament;
and,
t he De c l i n e i n O i l
War;
4. S e c u r i t y
7. The
relationship
8. The
Prices,
freedom
of
t he
was added a f t e r t he
became a c u r r e n t i s s u e .
fa lling
topic
c o n f l i c t ; 3.
i n each t o p i c
includes
different
were f u r t h e r
presentations,
anal y sed.
discussions
and opposi ng p o s i t i o n s .
and
For example,
It
was found
debates
t he
five
which
topics
i n t he cat e gor y o f Arab u n i t y were:
1.
Arab r en ai ss anc e w i t h o u t or w i t h Arab u n i t y ;
immediate and t o t a l ;
4.
Arab u n i t y
federal
3. Arab u n i t y founded on r e l i g i o u s or s e c u l a r v a l ue s ;
f ounded on f r e e
or c o n t r o l
2. Arab u n i t y i n st ages or
or
controlled
economy;
5. Arab u n i t y w i t h
government.
The r ema i ni ng t o p i c s as shown i n Tabl e 5. 1 i n c l u d e d s i m i l a r p o l a r i z a
tions.
I t was c onsequent l y concl uded t h a t each t o p i c a c t u a l l y
an i s s u e ,
in tha t i t
more p a r t i e s ,
conclusion
is
d e a l t w i t h a m a t t e r t h a t was i n d i s p u t e between two or
a p o i n t o f debate or c o n t r o v e r s y ( Webst er,
based on t he
fact
that
each
i s s ue
c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n and a modern l i b e r a l
1983, p . 642) . Thi s
c on t ai n ed
a traditional
one.
THE SALIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE
On t he
bas i s
of
t he
i s su es
r e v e a l ed
in
t he
pilot
s t ud y ,
q u e s t i o n n a i r e was devel oped and a p r o b i n g i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d o f two s e c t i o n s
( t r a n s l a t e d in t o English,
r ese ar c h
in
in Arabic,
and i n c l u d e d i n Appendix I I ) .
agenda-setting,
i s s ues
in th is
- 254 -
a salience
was desi gned.
shown i n Appendix 1
Exceedi ng p r e v i o u s
st udy were
pr esent ed
in a
b i p o l a r f or m, r e p r e s e n t i n g l i b e r a l
i s s u e was pr esent ed
and t he
liberal
in
its
two c o n t r o v e r s i a l
dispositions.
ernment o f f i c i a l s
or c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s .
f or ms,
and j o u r n a l i s t s )
s t at eme nt s l o c a t ed a t t he r i g h t
conservative
pr esent ed t he
disposition,
liberal
t he l e f t
(gov
were asked t o r a t e t he degree o f i m p o r
s cal e f o r each p o l a r .
All
s i d e o f t he A r ab i c q u e s t i o n n a i r e pr esent ed
while
disposition.
o f t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
Respondents o f t he two sample groups
t ance o f t he si de o f each i s s u e on a f o u r - p o i n t
t he
i.e.
Thus, each
st at ement s
l o c a t ed
Conv er s el y ,
on
t he
le ft
si de
i n t he E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n
s i d e pr esent ed t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s
w h i l e t he st at ement l o c a t ed i n t he r i g h t si de pr esent ed t he l i b e r a l .
In
addition
contains
to
ni ne o t h e r
t he
sections.
o f government o f f i c i a l
degree o f
certain
their
questions
perception
i ncl uded
which
Kuwai t .
regarding
of
social
variables,
involved
such
t he
such
positio n
variables
indicated
A third
t he
issues,
For exampl e,
it
t he
questionnaire
stimulates
groups t o e v a l u a t e j o u r n a l i s t s '
honesty when t hey
demographic
factor
above- ment i oned
as
deal
with
journalists'
events.
as
age,
of
t he
sex,
maj or
and
status
section
and
factor
income.
in dividual
concerned t he
c a l l y i n terms o f t r a d i t i o n a l
Thi s
in
seniority
within
o r modern a t t i t u d e s .
also
c on t ai n s
c on f i d e n c e
i ncl uded
The
social
and
ed ucati on,
social
maj or
matrix
and
all
of
structure
of
s c al e o f v a l ue s ,
Especially
and
socio
second
t he
t he
individual's
respondent s
s i n c e r i t y and t h e i r
cred ib ility
One
occupation,
in dividu al's
factor
news.
t he
also
basi
i n t he l a s t
25 yea r s i n which Kuwai t has undergone r a p i d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and f a s t s o c i a l
change,
social
v al ue o r i e n t a t i o n s
issues.
In
have been c r u c i a l
general,
t he
r esear cher
in determining perceptions
found two v al ue
The f i r s t was t r a d i t i o n a l i s m whi c h, a l t h o u g h i t
b e l i e v e s t h a t t he answer t o s o c i a l
tion s,
The
of
orientations.
accept s Western t e c h n o l o g y ,
probl ems can o n l y be found i n o l d t r a d i
second was modernism whi ch
- 255
considers
that
traditions
are
not
on l y
an
impediment
to
cop i n g
with
modern
life ,
but
that
t hey
are
also
u n s u i t a b l e and al most usel es s as gui des t o cont emporary v a l ue s .
Finally,
it
is
an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r was r e a d e r s h i p b e h a v i o u r .
not uncommon f o r
peopl e t o
read d a i l y
l i s h e d e i t h e r weekl y, mont hl y or q u a r t e r l y ,
foreign
periodicals.
It
is
also
common
p o s i t i o n s who read many d i f f e r e n t
origin.
In some groups
newspapers and magazines pub
p l us o t h e r
to
find
newspapers,
local
many
Ar a b i c a n d / or
people
in
leading
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he c o u n t r y o f
The demographic v a r i a b l e s appeared as shown i n Appendix I I I .
co n t a i n e d
a preamble e x p l a i n i n g t o t he respondent s
t he o b j e c t o f t he st udy and g i v i n g examples o f how t o answer t he i t ems .
second s e c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f it ems 1 t o 50 o f Tabl e 5 . 1 ,
c a t e g o r i e s menti oned above.
of
i mpor t ance
of
each
e x t r e me l y i m p o r t a n t ,
a ll.
side
or
on t he
questionnaire.
disposition
eral
f orm o f
Arab u n i t y " .
tions
t he
s c al e
r a n g i ng
f rom
somewhat i m p o r t a n t t o not i m p o r t a n t a t
dependi ng
on
on t he
how t he
issue
was
pr esent ed
i ss u e o f Arab u n i t y ,
same i ss u e
read
"Arab
r en ai ss anc e i s
in
t he
"Arab r en ai ss anc e can occur be f o r e Arab u n i t y " ,
t he
lib
impossible w i t h o u t
The s c al es were pr e- coded f r om 1 t o 4, i n two o p p o s i t e d i r e c
and above each
p r e s en t e d.
them on a f o u r - p o i n t
r a t i n g on each i ss ue e i t h e r on t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
For exampl e,
read
to
ver y i m p o r t a n t ,
liberal
c on t ai n ed t he ni ne
Respondents were asked t o a s c e r t a i n t he degree
issue
They i n d i c a t e d t h e i r
The
number i n
each c e l l
t he d e f i n i t i o n
o f t he s c al e was
As an example, t he i t em o f t he i ss u e r e l a t e d t o t he system i n a
f u t u r e Arab u n i t y i s as f o l l o w s ;
When i t oc c u r s , Arab u n i t y must
f o l l o w a f e d e r a l government system
1
1
2
Some- 1
what
1 I mpor
im por-1 tant
tant
1
3
Very
i mp o r
tant
1
When i t o c cu r s , Arab u n i t y must
be based on a c o n t r o l l e d economy
4
0
Extre
mely
impor
tant
Don ' t
know
2 56
1
Some
what
i mp or
tant
2
I mpor
tant
1
3
1 Very
1 i mpor 1 tant
1
4
1
1
1
1
Extremely
I mportant
The a c t ua l
protocol
sent ed,
questionnaire
respectively,
i n Appendices I I
10.
11.
12.
13.
issues,
as t he i n t e r v i e w
(see below)
are p r e
The F i f t y Issues L i s t e d Ac c or d i n g t o
t he Nine Ca t e go r i es i n t o which t hey f a l l
Arab r en ai s s anc e w i t h or w i t h o u t Arab u n i t y .
Arab u n i t y i mmediate o r i n st ag es .
Arab u n i t y r e l i g i o u s or s e c u l a r .
Arab u n i t y w i t h f r e e o r c o n t r o l l e d economy.
Arab u n i t y w i t h f e d e r a l or c o n t r o l l e d government.
conflict:
Re s ol v i ng t he P a l e s t i n i a n probl em by t r e a t y or by c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
Peacef ul s e t t l e m e n t r e g a i n r i g h t s or s u r r e n d e r .
Re s ol v i ng t he A r a b / I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t i n stages or i mmedi ate.
P a l e s t i n i a n r i g h t s gai ned by s u p p o r t i n g moderate P a l e s t i n i a n s or
ex t r emi s t s .
PLO e f f e c t i v e under A r a f a t or under l e ad er opponent s.
E f f e c t i v e p o l i c y t o s o l ve P a l e s t i n i a n probl em i s t h a t o f
moderate or r e j e c t i o n i s t Arab s t a t e s .
Jordan/PLO agreement r e t u r n or impedes r i g h t s .
S o l u t i o n w i t h or w i t h o u t E g y p t ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o s e c u r i t y i n Kuwai t :
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
IV.
as w e l l
and IV.
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o t he A r a b / I s r a e l i
6.
7.
8.
9.
III.
s t ud y ,
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o Arab u n i t y :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
II.
t he
which was desi gned t o probe c e r t a i n
Tabl e 5, 1
I.
used i n
Non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y .
Non- Kuwai t i Arabs t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y .
Non- Kuwai t i S h i ' i t e t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y .
Open r e s i s t a n c e t o Khomeni regime t h r e a t t o s e c u r i t y .
E x i s t i n g p o l i c y a u t h o r i t y m a i n t ai n s law and o r d e r .
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o I r a n / I r a q war :
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
I r a n - I r a q war ends by n e g o t i a t i o n or d e f e a t .
Gul f s t a t e s shoul d s u b s i d i s e I r a q or st ay n e u t r a l .
Great Powers are i n v i t e d t o p a t r o l t he G u l f by I r a n or by
others.
I r a n undermines G u l f s t a t e s by c o n t i n u i n g war.
GCC m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t or not s u f f i c i e n t .
I r a n - I r a q war r e l i g i o u s or n a t i o n a l i s t i c .
257
V.
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
on t he f u t u r e o f t he G u l f r e g i o n .
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
VI.
VII.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
we al th;
Kuwai t i o i l income spent w i s e l y or u n w i s e l y .
Kuwai t a u t h o r i t y conser ve o i l revenue or waste i t .
Oi l r es e r v e i s p l e n t y need or not t o be conser ved.
A l l or l i m i t e d c l a s s es b e n e f i t from o i l revenues.
Soc i al s e r v i c e s adequate or i nadequat e because o f o i l revenues,
Kuwai t f o r e i g n i nv es t men t c o n t r i b u t e t o t he n a t i o n a l income or
waste i t .
T e r r o r i s m i n Kuwai t under mi ni ng t he government or p a r t o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l campaign.
R e j e c t i n g t e r r o r i s t s demands ends or i n c r ea s es t e r r o r i s m .
R e s t r i c t i n g v i s a e n t r y f o r Arab groups p r e v en t s or has no
i mpact on t e r r o r i s m .
S e c u r i t y arrangements s u f f i c i e n t or i n s u f f i c i e n t .
K uwai t i war on t e r r o r i s m i n d e p e n d e n t l y or i n c o - o r d i n a t i o n
w i t h Arab s t a t e s .
Kuwai t can best f i g h t t e r r o r i s m w i t h or w i t h o u t c o - o r d i n a t i o n
w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by t e r r o r i s m .
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he government and
p a r l i a m e n t i n Kuwai t :
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
IX.
impact
Issues r e l a t i n g t o t e r r o r i s m :
36.
VIII.
and i t s
OPEC caused t he d e c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s or t he West.
De c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s t empor ar y or l a s t i n g .
Lower i ng o i l p r i c e s t h r e a t e n s t a b i l i t y o f t he G u l f r e g i o n .
Lower o i l p r i c e s lead t o economic de pr e s s i on i n G u l f commerce.
Drop i n o i l we a l t h l essens or aggr avat es i n t e r - A r a b c o n f l i c t .
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o o i l
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
prices
Government does or does not f o l l o w t he recommendations o f
p a r i l ament.
The government or p a r l i a m e n t i s more capabl e o f
s a f eg u a r d i n g p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s .
P a r l i a m e n t i s secure a g a i n s t or s u b j e c t t o d i s s o l u t i o n .
Kuwai t i government does or does not sup po r t some MPs and
undermine o t h e r s .
Kuwai t i government does or does not b e l i e v e t h a t some MPs
create c o n f l i c t s in parliament.
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o t he freedom o f t he pr ess :
47.
48.
49.
50.
K uwai t i press i s f r e e or censor ed.
Press owners r e s t r i c t c r i t i c i s m t o t he government.
J o u r n a l i s t s do o r do not f e a r l o s i n g j obs i f t hey w r i t e
a g a i n s t t he government.
Kuwai t i press p a r t i a l or i m p a r t i a l .
- 258
RESEARCH SAMPLES
Three
samples
officia ls,
were
journalists
consisted
of
s e l e c t ed
for
and t he pr e s s .
45 i n d i v i d u a l s
power which t hey w i e l d e d .
in
this
The sample o f
selected
government depar tment s which v a r i e d
actual
r esear ch
s t ud y ,
f rom among
government
o fficia ls
on an a v a i l a b i l i t y
in
quot a b a s i s
s i z e and f u n c t i o n
a c c o r di n g t o t he
An a t t e mp t was made t o i n c l u d e as much a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t he c o mp o s i t i on o f t he p o p u l a t i o n as p o s s i b l e .
n a t i o n o f t he government power s t r u c t u r e r eve al ed t h a t i t
draw t he o f f i c i a l s '
Na t u r a l
Resources,
sample f rom t he M i n i s t r i e s
Labour and So c i al
t he m i n i s t r i e s which deal
each
of
t hese
det er mi ned
by dr awi ng
inclusion
Heads,
of
Affairs,
are
respectively
r espondent s
one M i n i s t e r ,
f r om
seven
was r easonabl e t o
Oi l
and
and Pl a n n i n g si nc e t hese are
12,
t he
The number o f cases from
10,
13 and
m inistries'
Undersecretaries,
e i g h t Head o f Sec t i o ns and a d v i s o r s ,
An exami
o f For ei gn A f f a i r s ,
mo s t l y w i t h t he pr es s.
m inistries
f rom
10.
staffs,
n i ne t e en
experts,
Sample was
with
t he
Department al
adm in istrative assis
t a n t s and c o n s u l t a n t s .
The
second
sample
wo r k i ng i n t he Kuwai t i
i n Shar i
was
press
A1 Sahafa ( i . e .
sponds t o
"Fleet Street"
within
each
in
f rom
i n London,
paper
t he
total
number
i n t he c i t y
Engl and) .
follows:
journalists
who are
l o c a t ed
o f Kuwai t (whi ch c o r r e
Forty-five
quot a b a s i s t o r e p r es e n t a l l
as
of
newspapers and magazi nes,
Press S t r e e t )
chosen on an a v a i l a b i l i t y
r anks
drawn
journalists
were
newspapers and a l l
10 f rom A1-Watan,
10 f rom A1-Anba,
10 f r om A1 Sayasah , 6 f rom A1-Qabas, 5 f rom Al - Rai Al - Aam, 4 f rom A l - T a l i a .
The sample was det er mi ned
by dr awi ng
respondent s
from t he
i n c l u d e one Head o f Management, two E d i t o r s - i n - C h i e f ,
15 Heads o f E d i t o r i a l
Section,
journalists
to
s i x Managing E d i t o r s ,
t en E d i t o r s and el even S en i o r Repor t er s and
Reporters.
- 259
In t he t h i r d
sample,
t he p r e s s ,
it
was i m p o r t a n t t o s p e c i f y t he pool
o f newspapers which
are most geared t o K uwai t i r eader s and which r e p r e s e n t
d i f f e r i n g points of
vi ew and p o l i t i c a l
was e v i d e n t .
dailies.
As s t a t e d
The
two
t he
non-Arab
earlier,
English
leanings.
Kuwai t
d a i l i e s had
community
has
five
to
be
wo r k i ng
in
geared
to
Ar a b i c
newspapers had t o be e x c l ud ed;
The c hoi c e o f such a pool
Arabic
excl uded
a smal l
Al t ho ug h
fraction
A1-Qabas
no n e t h e l es s ,
of
is
t he
Ku w a i t i
by
far
by r e v i e w i n g i t s
it
in
treatments.
of
daily
turned
out
to
be an
r ep r es e n t s
to
and A1-Watan,
centre,
heavily
involved
It
it
is
and l o c a l
press,
t he
t he
ones.
They
a liberal
politics.
ar e
of
and May 1986.
tained
t he
pool
regular
gi v en
to
conveni ence,
of
in te rna tiona l
basis,
t hese
covered
but
short
i ss ues
i s su es
enough
All
a conservative
three
papers
by v i r t u e
of
are
They r e p r es e n t t he spect rum o f o p i n
Kuwaiti.
A synopsi s o f each o f t hese
which
t he
pr ess.
Kuwai t i
t he i.ssues p r e v a l e n t
The t i me span, which was chosen
a five
month p e r i o d
between January
be a l a r ge enough p e r i o d which con
oc cupyi ng t he a t t e n t i o n
to
i s s ues
A1-Sayasah, a newspaper
newspaper.
newspapers
Thi s was con s i d er ed t o
wide range o f
is,
unbalanced p o l i c y
A1 -Anba,
second o r d e r o f busi ness was t o a s c e r t a i n
b a si s
it
The t h r e e r ema i ni ng newspa
authority,
i n t hese papers w i t h i n a gi v en t i me span.
on t he
t he
newspaper,
papers has been pr esent ed e a r l i e r i n t he d i s c u s s i o n o f t he Kuwai t i
chosen
of
two
second was A1-Qabas.
t ends t o f o l l o w
pool.
i on and commentary which i s t y p i c a l l y
Having
are
seems t o c a t e r o n l y
Kuwai t i
more geared t o
traditional
i n K uwai t i
(it
and t he
t he f a v o u r i t e
ideal
newspaper which
t he
t he y
one was Al -Ray Al-Am because o f i t s
public),
was found t h a t
and news than t o t he n a t i o n a l
pers
Also,
English
c o n t en t and by e s t i m u l a t i n g t he i mp r es s i o n o f
some p r o f e s s i o n a l s
terms
because
Kuwai t .
l i m i t e d c i r c u l a t i o n and extreme r i g h t wi ng p o s i t i o n
to
and two
reflect
t he
i s s u e by t he pr ess.
- 260 -
t he
amount
of
o f Kuwaitis
differential
coverage
on a
i mpor t ance
gi ven
to
each
Once t he t i me
i s sues was used.
was chosen,
made
were
Within
this
t i me
therefore
reduced
on l y t he f i r s t
However, a l t h ou gh
to
t he
t he c ho i c e
second
to
would
three,
of
t he
namely,
firs t
to
15.
fifteen
an equal
f rom each month.
March
and
Accordingly,
days o f each month
a s y s t em a t i c
15 i n
March,
and 6 t o
(as
rotation
number o f p u b l i s h e d newspaper
Consequent l y,
t he
fifteen
as
and p e r i o d
day
shown i n
Tabl e
number 3 r e f e r r e d
5,2, f i f t e e n
10 days
in
May.
S i m i l a r l y , t he
to
newspaper
i ss ues o f A1-Watan were s e l e c t ed i n c l u d i n g days 1 t o 5 i n Januar y,
to
May.
Per i od number 1 r e f e r r e d t o days 1 t o 5;
p e r i o d number 2 r e f e r r e d t o days 6 t o 10;
11
every o t h e r month
Januar y,
days) was a r b i t r a r y ,
p e r i o d was d i v i d e d i n t h r e e ways.
days
newspaper
15 days o f each month were chosen f o r sampl i ng.
fifteen
be s e l e c t ed
selecting
The months f rom which s e l e c t i o n s were
method was f o l l o w e d t o ensure t h a t
i s s ues
a method o f
span o f f i v e months,
b e g i nn i ng w i t h Januar y.
Fur t her mor e,
opposed
span had been chosen,
days 11
i s sues
chosen
f rom A1-Sayasah were days 6 t o 10 i n J anuar y, days 1 t o 5 i n March, days 11
to
15 i n
May.
From A1 - Anb a,
t he
issues
s e l e c t ed were days
J anuar y, days 6 t o 10 i n March and days 1 t o 5 i n May.
11 t o
The t o t a l
15 i n
number o f
newspapers s e l e c t ed f o r a n a l y s i s was, a c c o r di n g t o t h i s method, 45; f i f t e e n
from
each
newspaper
whole met h o d o l o g i c a l
t he
an d,
simultaneously, f i f t e e n
process was f o l l o w e d by
issues
in
storie s
appear i ng on t he f r o n t page, t he l o c a l
section
o f each o f t he 45 newspaper
dispositio ns
di c hot omy ,
or
pr ess c o n t e n t .
t he
attitudes
The c o n t e n t
of
conservative or l i b e r a l ,
i s s ues
t he
f rom
month.
Thi s
codi ng t he s a l i e n c e o f
t he 50
frame
c o n s i s t ed
was coded.
of
all
t he
news page, and t he e d i t o r i a l
chosen.
press
each
on
t he
In
t he meantime,
same
i s sues
on
t he
t he
The c odi ng method f o l l o w e d
was a c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e number o f t o p i c s found under each i s s u e as w e l l as
t he t o t a l
number o f column i nches found under t he same issue'.
261
ISSUES APPEARING IN THE PRESS SAMPLE
Stories
located
as
dealing
with
conservative,
Then t he f r equency w i t h
i nches
devot ed
to
a particular
n e u tra l,
which
or
t hey
them was t hen
i ss u e
liberal
in
all
45
a c c o r di n g
to
appeared was not ed.
calculated.
newspapers
their
content.
The t o t a l
Following
Stone
were
column
and McComb
( 19 81 ) , an i ndex f o r each i s s u e was t hen devi sed by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e number
of
t i mes
t he
including
story
p rinted
appeared
text,
by
graphs
t he
total
column
i nches
devot ed
and p h o to g r a p h s , t hen t h a t
to
it,
i ndex was r o o t
s qu ar e d.
Tabl e 5 . 2
R o t a t i o n Method f o r S e l e c t i o n o f Newspaper Samples.
Newspaper
January
A1-Watan
1*
15
A1-Sayasah
2
15
A1-Anba
3
15
Tot al
March
15
May
Tot al
15
15
45
* Number 1 r e f e r s t o newspapers i ssued i n days 1 t o 5;
Number 2 t o days 6 t o 10; and number 3 t o days 11 t o 15
The r e s u l t
o f t he c o n t en t a n a l y s i s y i e l d
thirty-six
i s s u es f a l l i n g
t he range o f t he ni ne c a t e g o r i e s pre s e n te d i n Tabl e 5 . 1 .
a discussion
for
within
The f o l l o w i n g i s
t hese i s su es based on t he way t hey were pr esent ed i n t he
pr e s s .
a.
I ssues Rel at ed t o Arab U n i t y
I ssues p e r t a i n i n g t o Arab u n i t y were t he most p r e v a l e n t .
t he
Arab
papers
indicated
“ family"
that
and pl ayed
Kuwai t
On t he whole
has al ways been an a c t i v e member i n
an im p o r t a n t
262
role
in
Pan Arab
affairs
t he
f rom t he
f i r s t day o f i t s
i ndependence i n 1961.
p o p u l a t i o n and s i z e o f
influence
l and,
Arab a f f a i r s ,
Kuwai t
e.g.
used
financial
and c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t he m i l i t a r y
or occupi ed by I s r a e l .
In s p i t e o f l i m i t a t i o n s i n terms o f
her o i l
sup po r t
revenues
to
t he
effectively
poor er Arab
to
states
e x p e n d i t u r e o f t he Arab S t a t e s t h r ea t en e d
Kuwaitis,
t he a r t i c l e s
indicated,
have al ways
had
an e x t r e me l y s u p p o r t i v e a t t i t u d e t owar ds t he i dea o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a u n i f i e d
Arab
nation.
Such
orientation,
and s o c i a l
an a t t i t u d e
and t r a n s l a t e d
is
into
reflected
tangib le
devel opment p r o j e c t s .
in
t he
s uppor t
gover nment ' s
for
p o litica l,
Pan Arab
economic
I ssues r e l a t i n g t o Arab u n i t y occupy t he
popul ace and r e v o l v e around t he methods by which u n i t y would occur whet her
imme di a t e l y
secular),
or
t he
in
s t ages,
form o f
t he
government
and t he economic s t r u c t u r e
There
has
also
basis
of
t he
(whet her
unity
(whet her
a federal
religious
or m i l i t a r y
or
syst em) ,
(whet her f r e e or c o n t r o l l e d ) .
been
preoccupation
on
t he
question
of
whet her
Arab
con flict
were
r en ai ss anc e c oul d be achi eved w i t h or w i t h o u t Arab u n i t y .
b.
Issues Related to A r a b - I s r a e l i
News,
editorials
next i n pr e v a l en c e .
tinian
probl em f o r
C o n f li c t
and commentary about t he
The Ku w a i t i
v ar i o u s
pr ess seemed t o be occupi ed by t he P a l es
reasons.
Kuwai t di d sponsor c e r t a i n
Arab-Israeli
On t he
one hand,
f a c t i o n s o f t he P a l e s t i n i a n
c on t i n u e t o s uppor t t he P a l e s t i n i a n gr i ev a n c e a g a i n s t
hand,
authorities
guerillas,
in
and t hey
I s r a e l ; on t he o t h e r
P a l e s t i n i a n i mmi gr ant s t o Kuwai t have g r a d u a l l y i n c r ea s ed d u r i n g t he
l a s t 25 y e a r s ,
t he
t he
total
t o t he e x t e n t t h a t
population
as
occupy hi gh and i m p o r t a n t
e d u c a t i on
jobs,
Tabl e
with
Most
of
more c o n c e n t r a t i o n
is
known
- 263 -
t he
in
that
journalists
Palestinians
t he media and
its
it
of
t hose
P a l e s t i n i a n s or 33.2 per cent o f t he press corps and 38. 2 per cent o f
Fur t he r mo r e,
one-third
5.3.
about 32 p e r c e n t o f
are
force.
Al most
in
now c o n s t i t u t e
Kuwai t
labour
sectors.
shown
t hey
some o f
in
t he
PLO p o l i t i c a l
l e a d e r s use Kuwai t as a t empor ar y home.
conflicts
pe ac ef ul
t he
were found t o
in itiative s
press
exhorts
f i g h t i n g against
concern
t he
achievement
or by m i l i t a n c y .
t he
various
Israel
probl em p e a c e f u l l y .
I ssues c on c er n i ng t he A r a b - I s r a e l i
Palestinian
t he
a solution,
either
by
In t he f ace o f a hopel ess s i t u a t i o n ,
factions
because o f t he l e t t e r ' s
Also,
of
qu est ion
of
to
continue
guerilla
u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o s ol ve t he
loyalty
to
Yaser A r a f a t
or to
h i s opponents was a common theme, al on g w i t h d i s c u s s i o n s about t he need f o r
a t i m e l y s o l u t i o n t o t he probl em ver sus c o n s i d e r i n g t he whole probl em t o be
insoluble
ations.
at
present,
and
leaving
it
There was a l s o d i s c u s s i o n
Arab s t a t e s would be more a b l e t o
to
be
sol ved
by t he
o f whet her t he r a d i c a l
coming
ge ne r
or t he moderate
i n f l u e n c e or t o n e g o t i a t e t he f u t u r e
t he P a l e s t i n i a n probl em as a p a r t o f endi ng t he c o n f l i c t
of
between t he Arabs
and I s r a e l .
c.
Issues Related to the S e c u rity of Kuwait
The t h i r d
relating
to
p r e v a l e n t i s s u es o f concern i n t he Kuwai t i
security
probl ems
imposed
w i t h o u t by t he I s l a m i c Republ i c
t he St at e o f Kuwai t .
and f o r t he f i r s t
effective
Iran.
within
by
The concern
terrorism
is
t he
or
f rom
stab ility
of
K u w a i t i s were r e p e a t e d l y reminded t h a t w i t h i n a y e a r ,
t i me i n i t s
assaults
of
f rom
press were t hose
in
t he
history,
heart
of
a group o f t e r r o r i s t s
t he
capital
of
Kuwai t
had l ed many
igniting
hi gh
e x p l o s i v e dev i ces which s et t he Embassies o f t he Uni t ed St a t e s and France
on
fire ,
coffee
and
shops,
t hr o w i n g
k illin g
bombs
at
civilia ns
and wounding more than
a l s o concern about t he s e c u r i t y o f t he
o f t he a t t a c k on
in
f ace
raised
about t he s e c u r i t y
c on c er n i ng
in
sevent y
traditional
peopl e.
Head o f St at e as i f
necessitating
t he
hospital
treatment.
arrangements
o f Kuwai t .
adequacy o f t he
security
- 264 -
public
There was
in a n tic ip a tio n
t he A m i r ' s car i n June 1985, which i n f l i c t e d
wounds
asked
hi s
sitting
s eve r al
deep
Deep concerns
were
Several
questions
arrangements
made
in
were
t he
Table 5 . 3
Arab P o p u l a t i o n
by N a t i o n a l i t y
i n Ku wa i t
Totals
P e rcen tag es
Census
1970
Census
Census
1975
Census
1970
Census
Census
K u w aitis
47^
47^
47^
472,088
3 4 7 ,3 9 6
2 2 0 ,0 5 9
Palestine
2^^
20^
1 6 .6
2 0 4 ,1 7 8
1 4 7 ,6 9 6
77,712
Iraq
4 .5
5.3
5.5
45,070
39,066
2 5 ,8 9 7
Saudi A r a b ia
1.3
1.5
1 .0
1 2 ,52 7
1 0 ,8 9 7
4,632
Lebanon
2.5
3.4
4.5
2 4 ,7 7 6
2 5 ,3 8 7
2 0 ,8 7 7
S yria
4 .1
3.7
3.6
40,962
2 7 ,2 1 7
1 6 ,8 4 9
Egypt
6 .1
4 .1
2 .4
6 0 ,5 3 4
3 0 ,4 2 1
11,02 1
-
-
-
127
74
NATIONALITY
Tunisia
1975
1965
1965
-
A lg eria
-
-
-
69
113
Li by a
-
-
-
46
10
-
Morocco
-
-
-
59
40
-
Sudan
0.2
O .I
0.1
1 ,5 5 3
773
418
South Yemen
1.2
1.2
0.6
1 2 ,3 3 2
8,604
2,635
No rth Yemen
0.5
0.3
-
4 ,8 3 1
2,363
144
Bahrai n
0.1
0 .1
0.2
1 ,3 5 9
966
747
-
-
-
112
117
159
U. A. E.
0.3
0.6
0.2
2,585
4,435
1 ,1 0 5
Muscat & Oman
0.7
2.0
4 .2
7 ,3 1 3
1 4 ,6 7 0
1 9 ,5 8 4
Other Arabs
0.1
-
1.3
754
Qatar
75
6,068
-
T o t a l NonK u w a iti Arabs
4^^
4^^
40.2
7 1 9 ,1 8 7
312,849
1 8 7 ,9 2 3
T o t a l Arabs
8^^
8^^
8A3
8 9 1 ,2 7 5
6 6 0 ,2 4 5
4 0 7 ,9 8 2
Source : Central S t a t i s t i c a l O f f i c e , The M in is tr y of Planning
Annual S t a t i s t i c a l A b s tr a c t, 1980, p . 28
co u n try
and the c a p a b i l i t y
country
from e x tre m is t
of
Shias
the Kuwaiti
and I r a n ,
s e c u rity
forces
e s p e c ia lly w ith
to p r o t e c t
the presence of a
larg e number of non-Kuwaiti Arabs and non-Arab fo re ig n e rs in Kuwait.
265
the
In t h i s
large
la tte r
number
of
non-Arab
t h r e a t t o Kuwai t i
also
loyalty
to
and
a b ility
role
c e n t re d
and
on q u e s t i o n s
non- Ku wai t i
There were d i s c u s s i o n s
states
of
undermined
t he
Shi as
inside
o f en cour agi ng and p l a n n i n g t e r r o r i s t
and o u t s i d e
There was a l s o
t hey be
concern
i n Kuwai t .
Di s c uss i o ns
Kuwai t
and t h e i r
The I r a n i a n r o l e
about
existing
police
arrangements
in
i n t he f ace o f gr owi ng
t a r g e t s o u t s i d e Kuwai t .
Issues Rel at ed t o t h e I r a q - I r a n War
I ssues under t h i s
two
countries,
t he
category
i n c l u d e d t he p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between
te rrito ria l
sonal
feuds between Emam Khomeini
great
deal
c l a i ms
on Shaat A l - A r a b ,
I r an
and Saddam Hussein
of
and t he p e r
of
of
space was devot ed
t o t he d e v a s t a t i n g impact o f t he
confrontatio n,
and t he pr e ss ur e s
it
States,
e s p e c i a l l y Kuwai t .
c r ea t e d on t he s m a l l ,
and sought t he e x p o r t a t i o n
an i d e o l o g i c a l
priority.
of
t hr ou gh
m ilitary
t he
Gulf
F ur t he r mo r e,
needs,
as
Gul f
oil
- 266
sup po r t
establishin g
Counci l
war i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s .
as
t h e r e were d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t he
as
industry
i n t he G u l f
t o t he n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s
decision to
well
C o - op e r at i o n
regimes and secure t h e i r
A
l engthy
vulnerable
f e v e r o f t he e x t r e m i s t s
revolu tion
consequences o f t he G u l f S t a t e s '
its
Iraq.
There was a l s o concern t hat- t he I s l a m i c r e v o l u
t i o n i n I r an had aroused t h e p o l i t i c a l
of
a
a t t a c k s i n s i d e Kuwai t was r e p e a t e d l y
t e r r o r i s m i n s i d e Kuwai t and a t t a c k s on Kuwai t i
t he
t he
constituted
security.
terms o f s u f f i c i e n c y t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r and s t a b i l i t y
d.
Arabs
whet her
as t o whet her
Kuwai t i
t o c r e a t e d i s t u r b a n c e and i n s t a b i l i t y
pr es en t e d.
of
whet her t hey shoul d be e x p e l l e d f r om t he c o u n t r y i n
other
arose on t he
issues
foreigners
security.
reduced i n number,
their
category,
(G.C.C)
against
t he
I r a q and fund a p a r t
s e c u r i t y arrangements
to
protect
possible
t he moderate
spread o f
t he
e.
I ssues Rel at ed t o t h e Cr i s e s i n O i l P r i c e s
The main f ocus
in t h i s
c a t eg o r y was t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
prices,
began i n 1981, and t he ensui ng probl ems o f b a l a n c i n g budget s,
t he f i n a n c i n g o f p r o j e c t s ,
be an e f f o r t
to
educate
or t he low p r i o r i t y programmes.
Kuwaitis
about
t he
i mpact
( whi ch reached a bot tom l e v e l
o f $7 per b a r r e l )
ical
fluctuations.
implications
unlike
Saudi
of
price
Arabia,
Kuwai t
seemed
because o f e x t e n s i v e f o r e i g n
revenues
greater
than
of
(York
ab l e
and
in
There seemed t o
t he
were
to
low o i l
prices
assurances
bal ance
i n v e s t me n t i n i n d u s t r i a l
expenditure
prioritie s
and t he economic and p o l i t
There
better
whi ch
that,
her
budget
c o u n t r i e s which
Tur ne r ,
1986).
There
kept
were
d i s c u s s i o n s o f t he c i r c u ms t a nce s s ur r o u n d i n g t he c o l l a p s e o f A1 Manakh, t he
Kuwai t i
st ock mar ket .
oil
prices,
t he
in ab ility
There were a l s o debates as t o t he causes o f f a l l i n g
and whet her i t
of
lim it
production
as t o
whet her
some o f
was due t o t he un s ucc e ss f u l p o l i c i e s o f OPEC, or
its
in order to
t he
Uni t ed
members t o
raise
St a t e s
oil
f o l l o w t he recommended p o l i c y
prices.
to
There were a l s o q u e s t i o n s
and t he Europeans c on s pi r ed
in
secret to
b r i n g about t he d o w n f a l l o f o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s and t hu s end t h e i n f l u
ence o f OPEC.
f.
I ssues Rel at ed t o O i l Weal th
The
national
Kuwaitis
are
reminded
r esour ces were p r i m i t i v e
are a l s o t o l d t h a t t h e i r o i l
lion
it
in
1964;
started
in
p . 84).
There were
invested
l a r g e sums o f
and
l o c a l economy.
t he
pl anned
substantial
in
t he
1966,
b e f or e
oil
as
to
They
(M in istry
how w e l l
enterprises
t he
- 267 -
t h a t t he
and
t he
main
They
i n 1956; $760 m i l
of
in
1976 be f o r e
Information
K uwai t i
improve t he K uwai t i
were assured
when
diving f o r pearls.
and $9, 802. 8 m i l l i o n
1980s
revenues t o
external
t i mes
f i s h i n g and t he
early
discussions
oil
t he
we a l t h reached $308 m i l l i o n
$907.6 m i l l i o n
declinin g
of
authorities
infrastructure
government
established
1986,
carefully
foreign
invest
ments a l l
over t he wo r l d which b r o ug ht
lion
dollars
U.S.
in
1985
(Ibid).
in
additional
income o f 3,456 m i l
Quest i ons were r a i s e d ,
however,
t he methods t aken and t he economic pl ans designed by t he K uwai t i
t o spend t he o i l
g.
revenues w i s e l y i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n n a t i o n a l
about
government
g o a l s.
Issues Related to Terrorism
The pr ess p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
me r c i al
centre,
attacks.
It
Nati onal
Kuwai t
c oul d
reported
Assembly,
how
hel d
as an o i l
not
pr oducer and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
tolerate
all
violent
political
intensive
attacks
institu tion s,
discussions
to
find
and
com
counter
including
pr oper
t he
measures
to
b o l s t e r s e c u r i t y and t o t h w a r t any f u t u r e t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s a g a i n s t Kuwai t .
The press showed wide response t o t e r r o r i s m by r e f l e c t i n g on and d i s c u s s i n g
t he
with
different
methods
of
co mb a t t i n g
d e v i s i n g t he most e f f e c t i v e
and goal
of t e r r o r is m
in
terrorism.
internal
Kuwai t .
attacks
violence.
in
order
Others
to
believed
undermine
was
arr angement s,
preoccupation
and o f t he o r i g i n
Some argued t h a t t e r r o r i s m i n Kuwai t i s
not or g an i s ed t o undermine t he r egi me,
national
There
and
stating that
that
it
terrorists
abolish
entirely
is a part of i n t e r
carefully
t he
pl an
K uwai t i
their
regi me.
There was a l s o wi de s up po r t f o r t he government not t o y i e l d t o any pr essur e
or demands by t he t e r r o r i s t s ,
s t anc es .
Others argued t h a t
vulnerable
to
violence
nor t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h them under any c i r c u m
it
coming
i s t he p o l i t i c a l
f r om
abroad.
system which makes Kuwai t
There
were
discussions
r e s t r i c t i n g e n t r y v i s a s t o c e r t a i n Arabs would decrease v i o l e n c e ,
i dea was opposed on t he
grounds
that
t ough
police force,
would
lead t o
c o n f l i c t s w i t h o t h e r Arab s t a t e s .
on t he heads o f t he Kuwai t s e c u r i t y
t ake
it
security
measures
f o r c e s whi ch,
against
that
but t h i s
more v i o l e n c e
and
Some put t he whole blame
in t h e i r
terrorists.
vi ew,
Other s
failed
defended
to
t he
a r g u i n g t h a t even t he g r e a t powers had f a i l e d t o defend t h e i r
c i t i z e n s against t e r r o r i s t att ac k s.
- 268 -
h.
I ssues Rel at ed t o t he R e l a t i o n s h i p between t he
Government and P ar l i a m e n t
Kuwaitis
are
remi nded
of
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t he N a t i on a l
their
Counci l
de moc r a t i c
in
1963.
achi evements
A g r e a t deal
since
t he
of discussion
r ev o l v e d around t he c o n f r o n t a t i o n s between t he government and t he N a t i on a l
Assembly, e s p e c i a l l y when t he l a t t e r was d i s s o l v e d .
occupy
much
space,
especially
Amir t o moderate p o l i t i c a l
tional
life
with
reference
when i t
to
t he
expectations
st eps out o f bounds,
of
t he
t he C o n s t i t u
A r t i c l e s which r e g u l a t e hi s power i n r e l a t i o n t o t he P a r l i a m e n t , and
t he q u e s t i o n o f d i r e c t c e n s o r s h i p o f t he pr ess .
t he
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l m at t er s
government
Nati onal
national
was
Assembly
not
obliged
because
t he
to
follow
government
There were arguments t h a t
t he
is
recommendations
more
capabl e
of
of
charting
p o l i c i e s and more aware o f p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s than p a r l i a m e n t .
were a l s o d i s c u s s i o n s
that
subject to d i s s o l u t i o n
t he
parliament
a t any t i m e .
must
be c au t i o u s
There were i n d i c a t i o n s
t he
There
because i t
is
t h a t t he gov
ernment g i v es s uppor t t o c e r t a i n groups w i t h i n t he p a r l i a m e n t t o weaken and
threaten
flic t
t he Assembly,
between
t he
and t he
government
belief
and
that
t he
certain
Par li ament .
MPs are c r e a t i n g
Finally,
there
con
were
d i s c u s s i o n s p o i n t i n g t o t he p o s s i b l e c o n s t r a i n t s between t he government and
t he p a r l i a m e n t and t he consequences f o r t he democr at i c p o l i t i c a l
system i n
Kuwai t .
i .
I ssues Rel at ed t o t h e Freedom o f t h e Press
Si nce i ndependence i n 1961, t h e gr owt h o f t he Kuwai t i
t he
growt h
Assembly.
of
other
political
institutions,
pr ess p a r a l l e l e d
particularly
As t he c o u n t r y was t r a n s f or me d from t he t r i b a l
t o a modern w e l f a r e s t a t e where c o n s i d e r a b l e l i b e r t i e s ,
t he
N a t i on a l
a u t o c r a t i c system
freedom o f speech,
freedom o f t he press and f r e e e l e c t i o n s and t he s e p a r a t i o n s o f s oc i o p o l i t
ical
authorities.
The
pr ess
enjoy,
- 269 -
under
encour agi ng
c i r c u ms t a nc e s ,
i ndependence,
were
diversity
hi nder ed
interests
on
with
some o c c a s i o n s ,
t he
Royal
Fami l y
j o u r n a l i s t s o f no n- Ku wai t i
j o bs
or
expulsion
covered
direct
in
t he
f rom
press
publicatio n
ists'
once
Such advant ages,
some owners
government
most
In
t hese
a reflection
t he
common
and once by
of
losing t h e ir
ci r c u ms t a n c e s ,
of
however,
shared
o fficia ls
i n f a v o u r o f government o f f i c i a l s ,
fear of losing t h e ir
who
who work under a t h r e a t
country.
are a t
by
and t he
origin
t he
success.
t he
owners'
i s su es
efforts
to
t owards t he j o u r n a l
j o bs or o f bei ng e x p e l l e d f r om t he c o u n t r y ,
and
t he government measures t o r e s t r i c t c r i t i c i s m and censored t he pr e s s .
For each one o f t hese i s s u e s ,
a d e c i s i o n was f i r s t
t he t one and t he c o n t e x t ar e l i b e r a l
or conservative.
a definite
i t em anal ysed
culty
c o n s i s t en c y
in
locating
within
t he
i t em
each
anal ysed
between
made as t o whet her
G e n e r a l l y , t h e r e was
and t h e r e was no d i f f i
t he
libera l-co nserva tive
dichotomy.
The t o t a l
of
it ems
anal ysed were 36.
The i n d i c e s
of a ll
i t ems were
t he p r o d u c t o f c a l c u l a t i n g t he number o f t o p i c s m u l t i p l i e d by t he number o f
column
i nches
in
each
topic
root
carried
ou t
squared.
The r e s u l t y i e l d
a range from
246 t o 4.
THE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
The
resear cher
individuals
hi gh
- hi gh r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s
ranking
o fficia ls
Under S e c r e t a r y ,
interviewed
t en
consisted
of
included
The i n t e r v i e w
firs t
with
s e l e c t ed
and ver y s e n i o r j o u r n a l i s t s .
The f i v e
two Under
and two Heads o f Department .
two E d i t o r s
in
c o l u m n i s t and an a s t u t e i n t e l l e c t u a l
its
per sonal
was desi gned
st age,, s u b j e c t s
Chief,
interviews
Secretaries,
The f i v e
one A s s i s t a n t
senior j o u r n a l i s t s
one Managing E d i t o r ,
a famous
journalist.
and c a r r i e d
were c o n t a c t e d
out
a s y s t em a t i c way.
and meeti ngs
meet i ng t he r e s e a r c h e r f o l l o w e d a s e t p r o t o c o l ,
- 270 -
in
ar r anged.
At
In
each
b e g i nn i ng w i t h g r e e t i n g t h e
subject,
until
and
putting
him a t
he was ready
t he
goal s
of
ease by t a l k i n g
for
t he
about m a t t e r s
intervie w.
interviews
were
In t he
explained,
of
common i n t e r e s t
second st age,
begi nni ng
with
s u b j e c t f o r a l l o w i n g t he i n t e r v i e w and a s s u r i n g him t h a t i t
l ong.
The i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l
t he s u b j e c t s
thanking
t he
would not t ak e
i s pr esent ed i n Appendix IV.
ADMINISTERING THE QUESTIONNAIRE TO THE JOURNALISTS
As menti oned
consisted
of
earlier,
forty-five
t he
sample
subjects
of
drawn
journalists
f rom t he
used
staff
in
this
st udy
and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f A1 - Wat an, A1-Sayasah and A1-Anba, A1-Qabas, A l - R a i Al - Aam, and A 1 - T a l i a h
which
constitute
newspapers.
a b ility
t he
newspapers
used
in
this
st udy
and
some f r om o t h e r
Su b j e c t s were chosen e q u a l l y from s i x newspapers on an a v a i l
basis,
but g r e a t
s i b l e f rom each paper .
effort
was made t o i n c l u d e as many ranks as pos
Thi s was accompl i shed by d i s t r i b u t i n g t he q u e s t i o n
n a i r e a t t he morning s t a f f meet i ng o f each paper which was at t ended by t he
entire sta ff.
Bef or e t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d i s t r i b u t e d ,
p r e s e n t a t i o n about t he o b j e c t o f t he s t ud y ,
t he r e s e a r c h e r gave a b r i e f
and s t r e s s e d t he f a c t t h a t t he
main i n t e r e s t was i n a n a l y s i n g and comparing aggr egat e d a t a.
The s u b j e c t s
were assured o f
not t o w r i t e
their
all
confidentiality
names on t he
parts
earlier,
paper s,
questionnaire.
o f t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e
only f i f t e e n
but
all
and anonymi t y,
They were a l s o
carefully
instructed
but e x p e d i t i o u s l y .
to
compl ete
As menti oned
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d i s t r i b u t e d t o each o f t he news
ranks
were r e p r e s e n t ed .
t he s e n i o r and most o f t he m i d - l e v e l
seven o f t he j u n i o r
and were t o l d
staff.
Thus,
in
each paper ,
s t a f f were i n c l u d e d ,
On t he whol e,
al most a l l
but no more than
s u b j e c t s were ver y c o - o p e r a t i v e
and eager t o hel p t he r e s e a r c h e r , whom t hey consi der ed t o be a c o l l e a g u e .
- 271 -
ADMINISTERING THE QUESTIONNAIRE TO GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS
The sample o f
government
o fficia ls
c on s i s t e d
of
forty-five
subjects
drawn f rom f o u r Ku w a i t i m i n i s t r i e s .
These were t he M i n i s t e r s o f Labour and
S o c i al
For ei gn
A ffairs,
Planning.
Oi l
t hey are known t o
especially
in
government
officia ls
t he
seniority).
ministry
highest
Industry,
A ffairs
and
t he
M in istry
of
There were t h r e e reasons f o r t he s e l e c t i o n o f t hese m i n i s t r i e s .
One was t h a t
hi gh
and
to
upper
r anks
in
contain
(it
Kuwai t
ar e
The p r o p o r t i o n
a n o t he r .
proportion,
For
and
is
t he
least
known t h a t
foreign
of
exampl e,
t he
of
of
F or ei gn
number o f
many o f
nationals
M in istry
Ministry
no n- Ku wai ti s,
a substantial
nationals,
n o n- Ku wai ti
t he
number o f
whom have
varied
Public
Affairs
f rom one
Works
has
has
t he
t he
l o wes t
p r o p o r t i o n - al most n i l .
The
second
reason
command r e l a t i v e l y
t he m i n i s t r i e s ,
for
choosi ng
t hese
h i gh e r government al
and t hey
have
more
four
m inistries
is
that
t hey
i n f l u e n c e and power than t he r e s t o f
say
in
t he
d a y - t o - da y
policy
maki ng.
These m i n i s t r i e s are a l s o o l d e r and t hus more e s t a b l i s h e d .
Group
meeti ngs
were
from each M i n i s t r y .
meeti ngs
t hey
were
or g a n i s e d
to
include
t he
These groups ranged f rom 10 t o
asked
to
compl ete
t he
representative
13 peopl e.
questionnaire.
sample
At
t hese
The r e s e a r c h e r
gave each group a s h o r t p r e s e n t a t i o n about t he goal o f t he st udy e x p l a i n i n g
that
t he
main
responses.
mity,
and
di sc us s
answers,
than
concern
not
in dividual
He a l s o assured t he r espondent s o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y
and anony
r equest ed
t he
not
was
them
questionnaire
to
one answer,
copy
to
to
compare
follow
amongst
responses
and not
to
aggr egat e
t he
written
t hemsel v es ,
f rom
p r ev i o u s
hesitate
in
c o l l e c t e d t hey were checked f o r compl et eness.
- 272
and
in s tru c tion s
not
to
sections,
giving
d i r e c t and honest r e a c t i o n t o each q u e s t i o n .
dat a
their
l ook
not
and
at
to
responses
not
to
previous
give
more
but
give
When t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were
Un l i k e t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
some government o f f i c i a l s
were bot her ed by a
few i t ems on t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e and somewhat s u s p i c i o u s o f t he r e a l
of
t he
s t ud y .
Others
questionnaire.
S till
investigative"
practice
in
wondered
t one
Kuwai t .
others
of
t he
All
if
t hey
worried
would
about
questionnaire
be pai d
what
which
for
t hey
is
c o m p l e t i ng
called
t he
c on si d er ed
t hese concerns were a l l e v i a t e d
purpose
an
seemed
to
assur e
them,
and
t hey
" semi unusual
by e x p l a i n i n g t he
na t u r e o f t he st udy and t he way i n which t he dat a would be handl ed.
explanations
t he
proceeded
to
These
compl ete
t he
q u e s t i o n n a i r e.
All
t he dat a were gat her ed i n a t i me span o f f o u r weeks,
f rom 5t h May
t o 6t h June 1985.
SUMMARY
In t h i s
c h a pt er a t h e o r e t i c a l
g e n e r a l i s a t i o n was put f or wa r d t o gui de
t he st udy and t he r esear ch hypot heses were pr e sen t e d,
desi gn and methods.
cal
Fi ve r ese ar c h hypotheses were drawn f rom t he t h e o r e t i
generalisatio n.
Each
assi gned by o f f i c i a l s
tia l
directioned
eral
positions
as were t he r esear ch
h y p o t he s i s
defines
t he
differential
and j o u r n a l i s t s t o an o v e r a l l
i mpor t ance o f t he
on t hose i s s u e s ,
i mpor t ance
i s su e and t he d i f f e r e n
same i ss ues w i t h
c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b
and t he degree t o which t hose i ssues were
emphasised i n t he press w i t h i n a t i m e - f r am e o f f i v e months, from January t o
May 1986.
The o v e r a l l
h y p o t he s i s which u n de r l ay t h i s
ernment o f f i c i a l s
set t he
not p a s s i v e ;
share s e t t i n g
officia ls,
t hey
agenda f o r
t he
pr es s,
t he agenda f o r
st udy was t h a t gov
and t h a t
journalists
are
t he press as do government
e s p e c i a l l y when t he agenda has a l i b e r a l
t one c a l l i n g f o r change
and m o d e r n i s a t i o n .
On t h i s
basis
certain
hypot heses
were
derived,
that
there
would
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n between (1) t he o v e r a l l
ential
coverage o f t he i s su es appear i ng i n t he press and t he o v e r a l l
- 273 -
be
d iffe r
degree
o f i mpor t ance assi gned by government o f f i c i a l s ,
government o f f i c i a l s ,
ity
(3) between t he press and j o u r n a l i s t s ,
i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n t aken by both o f f i c i a l s
on t he
issues,
o fficia ls
(5)
a sim ilarity
to
test
t he ba s i s o f a p i l o t
important
groups
of
t hese
security a f f a i r s
wealth,
freedom
desi gned
senior
conservative d i s p o s i t i o n
t aken by
i ss ues
were
i n Kuwai t ,
terrorism,
of
t he
out
journalists.
was devel oped
listed
under
ni ne
t he A r a b - I s r a e l i
categories.
conflict,
t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
prices,
on
Nine
They were
t he I r a n - I r a q war,
t he d i s t r i b u t i o n
of
r e l a t i o n s between t he government and t he p a r l i a m e n t ,
pr es s.
quota sample.
per sonal
a questionnaire
st udy t o de t er mi n e t he p r e v a l e n t press i s s u e s .
and d i s t r i b u t e d
availability
carried
t he
hypot heses,
i s sues r e l a t e d t o Arab u n i t y ,
and
in
(4) a s i m i l a r
and t he press on t he i s s u e s .
In order
oil
(2) between j o u r n a l i s t s and
Based
t hose
among o f f i c i a l s
issues,
with
interviews
five
were
f i ndi ng s .
- 274 -
a
questionnaire
Data were c o l l e c t e d
interviews
The
on
on t he
of
by t he r e s e a r c h e r who a l s o
hi gh r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s
mai nl y
basis
was
desi gned
to
and f i v e
s up po r t
t he
CHAPTER VI
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
Thi s c h a pt er
t he s a l i e n c e
same i ss u es
tion,
p r e s en t s
t he
findin gs
of th is
r es ear c h
o f i ss ues i n press coverage and t he
by government
officia ls
and
journalists
in
F ur t he r mo r e,
t he
Kuwai t .
In
addi
' beyond agenda s e t t i n g '
which t he p o s i t i o n s t aken on c e r t a i n i s su es by o f f i c i a l s
was p r e s en t e d.
illustrate s
i mpor t ance assi gned t o t he
t he c h a pt er i n c l u d e s f i n d i n g s r e l a t i n g t o
Kuwai t
and
cha pt er
in
and j o u r n a l i s t s i n
investigates
t he
results
o b t ai n e d f rom t e s t i n g t he ni ne hypot heses r e g a r d i n g agenda s e t t i n g and t he
beyond agenda
settin g
anal yses
which
r es e ar c h
samples w i t h
in
t he
suggest
Ku w a i t i
further
t he
pr e s s .
It
also
p r e s en t s
additional
definitions
of
t he
relations
go v er n i ng
resultant
descriptive
findin gs
arrived
at
f rom
Tabl e
6.1.
(19)
42.2%
t he i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l .
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
The c omp os i t i on
As shown i n t h i s
Heads o f
of
Tabl e,
Department s,
t he
o ffic ia ls '
t h e r e were (7)
(8)
is
pr esent ed
journalists
in
t h e r e were
Tabl e
(15)
6.2.
in Chief
and one Head o f Management.
That
table
(11)
13.3% w i t h Secondary School degr ees,
i mp r e s s i v e
that
t he e d u c a t i o n a l
(8)
17.8% h o l d i n g
level
and a M i n i s t e r who i s a
indicates
Editorial
that
Sections,
24.5% Re p o r t e r s , and
Regardi ng t he e d u c a t i on o f o f f i c i a l s .
an
in
The c omp os i t i on o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
33.3% Heads o f
(6) 13.3% Managing E d i t o r s ,
and,
pr esent ed
15.6% Under S e c r e t a r i e s ,
Ca bi n et .
Editors,
(6)
is
17.8% Heads o f S e c t i o n ,
c u r r e n t member o f t he Kuwai t i
sample
sample
among t he
(10)
22.2%
two E d i t o r s
Tabl e 6. 3 shows t h a t t h e r e were
(31) 68.9% w i t h U n i v e r s i t y degrees
Post
among o f f i c i a l s
- 275 -
Graduate
was,
degr ees.
Thi s
shows
on t he whol e, much h i gh e r
t han cou ld be a n t i c i p a t e d by any o b s e r v e r ,
mind t h a t
re c e n tly ,
Kuwai t
was
because
is
borne i n
i n Kuwai t h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n and p o s t - g r a d u a t e s t u d ie s were e s t a b
lished
e n tire ly
e s p e c i a l l y when i t
l ess
founded
Ku w a i t i
t he
than
in
23 y e a rs
1965.
nationals.
majority
of
It
shoul d
T his
t he
ago,
mai nl y
after
be noted t h a t
c h a ra c te ris tic
population
all
of
is
either
a re
t he
University
o fficia ls
great
of
were
i m portance
no n - Ku wa i t i
Arabs
or
non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s who have s e t t l e d i n K u w ait.
Tabl e 6. 1
Echelons Amongst O f f i c i a l s
O c c u p a tio n a l
Occupat i on
1 Number
Per cent
1
1
1
1
1
2.2
7
1 5 .6
Head o f Department
1
19
4 2.2
Head o f S e c t i o n
1
1
8
17.8
Other
1
10
22.2
Tot al
1
45
Mini s t e r
Under S e c r e t ar y
100
1
The e d u c a t i o n a l
re m a rk a bly
(6)
s im ila r
level
to
that
13.3% had secondary
with
e d u c a t i on
colleg e
namely,
68.9%
(31).
g r aduat e d eg re e s ,
tions.
Had i t
only
was
education.
t he
whereas
as shown i n
officia ls.
same
17.8%
as
that
of
t he
this,
t he
ed ucati onal
These f i n d i n g s ar e a l l
on t he whol e,
s till
Tabl e 6 . 4 ,
In
The p r o p o r t i o n
13.3% (6) o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s
t he p o p u l a t i o n o f Kuwai t ,
o f t he o i l
government
exactly
However,
not been f o r
In f a c t ,
of
school
would have been i d e n t i c a l .
illite ra c y .
o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
of
bot h
was
samples
of
jo urn alists
t he
officia ls,
officia ls
had
post
had s i m i l a r q u a l i f i c a
p ro file
of
bot h
groups
t he more r emar kabl e s i n c e
suffers
f r om hi gh
levels
of
t he spread o f e d u c a t i o n c o i n c i d e d w i t h t he i n c r e a s e
revenues i n t he e a r l y 1970s.
- 276
Tabl e 6 . 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Occ upat i onal
Jou rna li sts
Occupat i on
Head o f Management
Editor-in-Chief
Managing E d i t o r
Head o f Ed. S e c t i o n
Editor
Re po r t e r
Tot al
Tabl e 6 . 3
Secondary
Degrees hel d
|
Numbers
1
Per cent
|
1
|
1
6
1
13.3
1
Post Graduate
j
1
1
Tot^
1
1
1
University
level
1
1
31
1
Tabl e 6 . 4
1
1
1 Number 1 Per cent
|
........................ 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.2
1
1
1
1
1
4. 4
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
13.3
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
3^3
1
1
15
1
1
1
2^2
1
1
10
1
1
1
1
2^.5
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
45
1
100
1
1 _
1
1
Educat i on Lev el s Amongst O f f i c i a l s
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Echelons Amongst
1
|
1
1
68. 9
1
1
1
8
1
17.8
1
45
1
1
100
1
1
Edu c at i o n Le v el s Amongst J o u r n a l i s t s
Degrees hel d
|
Numbers
1
Per cent
|
Secondary
|
1
1
|
1
|
1
|
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
13.3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
University
level
Post Graduate
M i s s i ng
T ^^
1
1
- 277
31
6
2
45
1
1
68. 9
13.3
4.4
100
1
1
Table 6 . 5
Level
1
Number o f newspapers
|
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
Read one newspaper
|
Read two newspapers
a day.
Per cent
|
1
1
1
1
1
8^1
1
15.6
1
20. 0
1
1
5^^
1
1
1
2^!
1
45
1
100
1
4
7
|
Read t h r e e newspapers
|
9
Mi s s i ng
1
|
1
j
Total
1
Read f o u r newspapers
24
Number o f newspapers
|
Read one newspaper
|
4
Read two newspapers
|
8
Read f o u r newspapers
1
j
1
Tot al
1
t he
daily
Tabl e 6 . 5
a day,
(9)
Those o f f i c i a l s
media
Number
1
1
45
readership
show t h a t
(24)
20% read
three
of readership.
newspapers.
Thus,
|
1
1
1
1
8^1
1
17.8
1
73. 3
1
100
1
1
among o f f i c i a l s ,
53.3% o f them r e p o r t e d
newspapers
readi ng f o u r
As
job.
read more p u b l i c a t i o n s
seems t h a t t he demands o f t h e i r
f r e q u e n t and wi de r evi ews o f
was found t h a t
read f o u r newspapers per day,
Tabl e 6. 6 i n d i c a t e s h i g h e r
journalists
It
( 7)
findin gs
who read one newspaper per day were (4) 8.9%.
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y
and
the
two
re q u ire d
it
Per cent
15.6% read
since t h i s i s par t of t h e i r d a i l y
day t o day w r i t i n g
|
1
t o t he d a i l y media r e a d e r s h i p among j o u r n a l i s t s .
ra tio s
1
1
Level o f Readership Amongst J o u r n a l i sts
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Regardi ng
newspapers
|
1
Tabl e 6. 6
in
Number
1
1
re co rd ed
o f R e a d e r s h i p Amongst O f f i c i a l s
(8)
(33)
l o c a l and f o r e i g n
73.3% o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s
sampled
17.8% read two newspapers per day and ( 4 )
8.9% read o n l y one newspaper per day.
The hi gh l e v e l o f r ea d e r s h i p amongst
- 278 -
bot h o f f i c i a l s
and j o u r n a l i s t s may a l s o r e f l e c t t he hi gh l e v e l
o f e d uc a t i on
whi ch t he two groups e n j o y .
Concerni ng
journalists
t he
diffe re ntia l
and t he
la tte r's
perceptions
self
ratin gs
of
t he
of t h e i r
integrity
ness t o i n c l u d e t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s ,
i n Tabl e 6 . 7 ,
n o t ab l e
that
journalists
whereas
convictions
so.
Thi s
total
in
in
their
most
13.3% o f
t he
of
as o f f i c i a l s
w riting.
t he
and w i l l i n g
was f ound, as shown
their
4.4% o f
f ewer
By t he
that
with
convictions
sai d
t hey
than
(or
35.6%)
in
their
i ncl uded
t he o f f i c i a l s
o fficia ls
t he
la tte r
correspondi ng
al most
include
writings.
all
believe
their
to
in
be
t he
t h r e e t i mes as many j o u r
twice
of
their
convictions
as many o f f i c i a l s
as
their
in
few o f
per cent ages
believed
believed t h i s
journalists
Conv er s el y ,
same t ok e n ,
Thi s i n d i c a t e s t h a t ,
to
third
b e l i e v e t h a t t he f or mer i n c l u d e a l l
believe
as more w i l l i n g
one
journalists
writings,
that
gr oups,
o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
writings,
tively.
bot h
i ncl uded
indicates
journalists
their
Amongst
their
inte grity
nalists
it
and
t h a t t he views o f t he two groups are r a t h e r s i m i l a r but w i t h
exceptions.
However,
officia ls
convictions
15.6% and 8.9% r e s p e c
on t he whol e, j o u r n a l i s t s p e r c e i v e t hemsel ves
include t h e ir
convictions
in t h e i r
w r i t i n g s t han o f f i
c i a l s are w i l l i n g t o c r e d i t them w i t h .
The reasons gi ven by o f f i c i a l s
f o r t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
unwillingness,
in
t h e i r o p i n i o n , t o i n c l u d e t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s i n t h e i r w r i t i n g are c l a s s i f i e d
i n Tabl e 6 . 8 .
journalists
The r e s u l t s
include
all
show t h a t
their
22% t o
convictions
38% o f o f f i c i a l s
in
their
writings.
believe that
Sim ilarly,
when j o u r n a l i s t s were asked t o i n d i c a t e t he reasons and t he degree t o which
t hey
include
their
s t a t ed t h a t t hey
convictions
i ncl uded
all
in
their
writings,
or most o f t h e i r
18% and 33% as shown i n Tabl e 6 . 9 .
- 279 -
t hose
convictions
among them who
ranged between
Tabl e 6. 7
O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s ’ React i ons t o t he J o u r n a l i s t s
Inc lu sio n of t h e i r Convictions in t h e i r W r it in g s .
1
1
than
|N ^
1
%
1
4. 4
1 6
|1 6
1 13
1 4
1 4
1
1
1
1
1
1^^
35.6
28.9
8.9
8 .9
1
1
2
16
I n c l u d e some
I n c l u d e few
R a re ly i n c l u d e
In c l u d e none o f t h e i r
1
1
1
1
1
1
15
7
3
1 35.6
1 33.3
1 1 5 .6
1 6.7
1
1
1
2
0
1
4.4
0
100
1
a comparison o f t he r e s u l t s
However,
that,
%
1
T o ta l
Journalists
1
1
Mi ss i ng dat a
1
No.
In c l u d e a l l c o n v i c t i o n s
In c l u d e most
con victio ns
I
O ffic ia ls
1
1
I
‘
1
|4 5
1
2.2
2.2
1
100
shown i n Tabl es 6. 8 and 6. 9 show
w i t h o n l y one e x c e p t i o n ( n o t f r e e t o choose t he t o p i c ) more o f f i c i a l s
jo u rn a lis ts
rated
t he
reasons
g i v en
as e x t r e m e l y
important.
The
c o rre s p o n d in g
per cent ages
designating
t he
reason
government
l eagues,
d esire
restrictions
pl ease
to
18 ver sus 9,
officia ls
be
read ers,
o fficia ls
cen sor shi p,
and
were r e s p e c t i v e l y
38 ver sus 27,
in
ver y
jo u rn a lis ts
censure
44 ver sus
33,
f rom
col
and 38 ver sus 18.
22 ver sus
th e ir
w ritin g s .
13,
Thi s means t h a t
tend t o o v e r - r a t e t he reasons f o r t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
convictions
or
not f r e e t o choose, f e a r o f l o s i n g j o b s ,
from u n io n s ,
11 ver sus 8,
include t h e ir
believe,
to
of
important
reluctance to
journalists
on t he whol e, t h a t t hey ar e l e s s r e s t r i c t e d t han o f f i c i a l s b e l i e v e
them t o be when i t
comes t o
includin g t h e ir
per sonal
convictions
in th e ir
writings.
Thi s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s f u r t h e r dr a mat i se d i n t he o f f i c i a l s '
ists'
for
ra tin g s
in c lu d in g
t he
t he
reason as
le tte r's
convictions
per cent ages o f t he two groups a r e ,
censorship,
4 ver sus 29
"not
for
in
at
all
th e ir
important"
when i t
writings.
The c o r r e s p o n d i ng
respectively,
censur e
280
from
and j o u r n a l
comes
to
9 ver sus 18 f o r government
colleagues,
13 ver sus 29
for
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- 282
restrictions
topics
to
from press u n i o n s ,
22 ver sus 38 f o r
7 versus 20 f o r f e a r o f l o s i n g j o b s ,
pl ease r e a d e r s .
Thi s a f f i r m s
l a c k o f f reedom t o choose
and 4 ver sus 25 f o r t he d e s i r e
t he c o n c l u s i o n t h a t
officia ls
vi ew j o u r
n a l i s t s as r e l u c t a n t t o expr ess t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s t han t he j o u r n a l i s t s vi ew
o f t hems el ves .
Both o f f i c i a l s
or di sagr eement w i t h
four
were asked t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r
positions
p e r t a i n i n g t o t he
t r a d i t i o n s and h e r i t a g e t o modern l i f e .
ically
1.
suita bility
o f Arab
They were asked t o respond s p e c i f
t o t he f o l l o w i n g f o u r s t at eme n t s:
I b e l i e v e t h a t f o r every
i n our h e r i t a g e .
probl em which we now f ac e t h e r e i s a s o l u t i o n
2.
C l i n g i n g t o t he t r a d i t i o n s
civilisa tion .
3.
Many o f
life .
4.
agreement
our
traditions
i s t he i d e a l
do
not
suit
way t o b u i l d our cont emporary
t he
r e q ui re men t s
of
our
We w i l l not be ab l e t o
r e a l i s e our cont emporary pr ogr es s
s u b s t i t u t e our decayed val ues w i t h new ones.
Tabl e
6.10
summarises
t he
reactions
of
modern
unl ess
we
o f f i c i a l s and j o u r n a l i s t s
to
t hese f o u r q u e s t i o n s .
A gener al
bot h
groups
their
inspection
seem t o
sup po r t
than d i s a g r e e ,
of
want
(28)
tio ns
do
them s t i l l
not
suit
in
indicates, f i r s t
cake and eat
For exampl e,
(14)
heritage;
74.8% ver sus (9)
is
results
have t h e i r
61.6% ver sus
(34)
ing to t r a d i t i o n s
more o f
to
t hese
traditions.
probl em has a s o l u t i o n
t han d i s a g r e e ,
of
twice
33.3% w i t h
and al most
build
t he
agree t han d i s a g r ee w i t h
life
(23)
all,
when i t
that
comes t o
as many o f f i c i a l s
t he
four
agree
st at ement t h a t every,
t i mes
as many
agree
19.8% w i t h t he st at ement t h a t c l i n g
t he best way t o
modern
it
of
future.
Yet
considerably
t he p o s i t i o n t h a t many t r a d i
50.6% ver sus (19)
41.8%,
and
nearly
t h r e e t i mes as many o f them agree as d i s a g r ee w i t h t he p o s i t i o n t h a t moder
nity
r e q u i r e s r e p l a c i n g t he o l d val ues w i t h
26.8%.
The s i t u a t i o n
r ep ea t s
itse lf
with
- 283
new ones(33)
t he
73.2% VERSUS (12)
journalists.
More o f
them
S '+ j
>,
o> <0
c
284
3:
agree t han d i s a g r ee w i t h t h e s t at eme nt t h a t ever y pr obl em has a s o l u t i o n i n
heritage
(23) 50.6% ver sus (18)
to tr a d i ti o n s
37.9%.
i s t he i d e a l
do not
with
t he
ones
(33) 73.2% ver sus
st at ement
with
which
c on s i d e r
t hese
attained
up u n t i l
t hey
way t o b u i l d
t he
future
Yet , f o u r t i mes as many o f them s t i l l
many t r a d i t i o n s
lence
39.6% and w i t h t he st at eme nt t h a t c l i n g i n g
realise
suit
that
t he
modernit y
(8)
that
t he
as
13th
meet i ng
These
vi ew
t he
c e n t ur y
t he
68.2% versus (8)
replacing
On t he
tra d itio n s .
of
A.D.,
demands
t he
yet
of
old
17.6%,
and
v al ues w i t h
new
may r e f l e c t
re s u lts
basis
52.6% ver sus (17)
agree w i t h t he st at ement t h a t
(31)
requires
17.6%.
Kuwaitis
traditions
life
modern
(24)
glories
t hey
modern
t he
ambi va
one
hand,
t hey
which
the
Arabs
become f l u s t e r e d
life
requires
when
changi ng
t h e ir tra d itio n s .
Tabl e 6 . 1 1
Number o f Responses Showing C o n s e r v a t i v e o r L i b e r a l
o f T r a d i t i o n s i n Modern L i f e .
Journalists
O fficials
1 Cons
1
1----------------1
1
Every problem has a s o l u t i o n
in herita g e
28
34
t he
total
responses o f t he o f f i c i a l s
ments
were
re-tab u la te d
as
in
1
Cons
1
23
1
1
19
1
1
1
two
9
1
1
1
1
1
33
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
1
1
groups
is
t he
more
and t he j o u r n a l i s t s
Tabl e
6 . 1 1.
285
It
is
18
1
1
24
1
23
Li b
1
1
1
1
1
1
t r a d i t i o n s w i t h new ones 1
1
of
14
1
1
M o d e rn ity r e q u i r e s r e p l a c i n g o l d
which
1
1
Many t r a d i t i o n s do not s u i t
modern l i f e
out
1
1
1
C l i n g i n g t o t r a d i t i o n i s t he be s t
way t o b u i l d t he f u t u r e
To f i n d
L ib
1
1
1
17
8
1
31
8
1
1
1
1
33
conservative,
th
t o t hese f o u r s t a t e
wor t h
noting
that
t he
table
contains
conservativ e
journalists.
firs t
Thus,
two
r esponse
issues,
was
be
liberal
a conservative
s t at eme nt s ,
would
and
but
t he
r es p o n s e s
response
di sagr eement
exa c t
opposite,
would
with
= 0. 98,
for
not
significant.
2
6. 12 (C) X
each
table.
significant;
However,
and
It
in
last
di sagr eement
was
Tabl e
6.12
or
with
A
t he
t he
liberal
firs t
two
square i n Tabl e 6.12
that
in
(D)
Tabl e
6. 12
(A)
= 0. 62,
also
not
i n Tabl e 6. 12 (B) X^ = 5. 52 ( P < . 0 5 ) .
= 5.56 ( P< . 0 5 ) .
o fficia ls
two.
with
A chi
found
by
be agreement
t he
but agreement w i t h t he l a s t two i s s u e s .
calculated
made
Al so i n Tabl e
Thus o f f i c i a l s were found t o be more c on s e r v a
t i v e than j o u r n a l i s t s .
TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
Thi s
t he
st udy
press
in
institutions,
It
examined
was desi gned t o examine t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
a traditional
i.e.
system,
especially
a modern c o n s t i t u t i o n ,
t he degree
to
which
that
with
influences
on
modern p o l i t i c a l
a p a r l i a m e n t and f r e e e l e c t i o n s .
government
officia ls
set
t he agenda f o r t he press i n Kuwai t .
In a d d i t i o n t o a g e n d a - s e t t i n g h y p o t h
eses,
agenda
this
directions
journalists
measured.
t he
st udy
examined
a beyond
which
two
o f t he i ss ues were d e f i n e d and t he p o s i t i o n s o f t he pr e s s ,
t he
relationship
between o f f i c i a l s ,
pr esent ed t o f i n d out i f
settin g findings
t he
two
inquiry
si des
of
in
t he
i s sues
were
Fi v e hypot heses were advanced i n t he p r ev i o u s c h a pt er t o examine
I n t h i s cha pt er each h y p o t he s i s w i l l
ing
on t he
setting
it
i s p r o v i d ed
hypotheses
and
is
journalists
press
in
Kuwai t .
be advanced and p e r t i n e n t dat a w i l l
suppor t ed o r r e f u t e d .
i n Tabl e 6. 13.
other
and t he
findin gs
c h a pt er t o avoi d c l u t t e r i n g t he t e x t . )
- 286 -
are
(All
be
A summary f o r agenda
tables r e l a t i n g to l i s t
pr esent ed
at
t he
end
of
t he
Table 6 . 1 2
Number o f R e s p o n s e s C o n n o t i n g C o n s e r v a t i v e o r L i b e r a l
P o s i t i o n s o f O f f i c i a l s and J o u r n a l i s t s on t he Role o f
T r a d i t i o n s i n Modern L i f e .
Issues
O ffi
c ia ls
-
(A)
1. Every probl em has a s o l u t i o n
in heritage
-
YES
1
1
28
25.8
23
25.2
1
1
51
NO
1
1
14
1 6 .2
18
1
32
15.8
1
42
41
= 0.98
2.
(B)
C l i n g i n g t o t r a d i t i o n i s t he best
way t o b u i l d t h e f u t u r e
YES
3 . Many t r a d i t i o n s
do not s u i t
34
24
1
1
29.69
2 8.31
1
17
1
1
13.31
12.69
1
43
41
1
1
1
9
(P<.05)
YES
1
1
19
14
8
13
NO
1
1
23
28
31
1
1
1
1
26
1
42
39
1
4. Mod er n i t y r e q u i r e s r e p l a c i n g o l d
t r a d i t i o n s w i t h new ones
58
26
84
-
X% = 5 . 5 6
(D)
83
(not s i g n i f i c a n t )
X^ = 5 . 5 2
modern l i f e
-
1
1
1
(C)
'
-
NO
-
J ou rn
a lis ts
27
54
81
(P<.05)
YES
NO
20
1
1
12
1 0 .5
8
1
9.5
1
1
33
34.5
33
31.5
1
66
43
41
1
86
= 0. 62 ( n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
287 -
HYPOTHESIS NO. 1
There i s a p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n between t he o v e r a l l
d i f f e r e n t i a l coverage o f t he i s sues appe ar i n g i n t he press and
t he o v e r a l l degree o f i mpor t anc e assi gned t o t hese i ssues by
Thi s hy p o t h e s i s was s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t he d a t a.
lation
between
overall
cials
degree o f
are
overall
in
calculated
c o n f i r ms
diffe re ntia l
i mpor t ance assi gned t o
pr esent ed
coefficient
Thi s
t he
t he
Tabl e
6 . 1 4.
f rom t hese
notion
that
coverage
The rank o r d e r c o r r e
of
t he
press
and
t he
t hese i ss ues by government o f f i
The Spearman
dat a was r s
government
rank
order
correlation
= .366 N = 36,
(P < . 0 5 ) .
officia ls
in
Kuwai t
m a i n t ai n
s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on t he pr ess .
Thi s n o t i o n i s
officia ls.
S e c r e t ar y
between
For
further
exampl e,
s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t he r e s u l t o f i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
an o f f i c i a l
i n one o f t he Ku w a i t i
t he
government
and
t he
who occupi es
m inistries
pr ess
in
t he
positio n
of
has d e s c r i b e d t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
terms
of
t he
agenda
setting
h y p o t he s i s by s ayi ng :
" I t i s not c e r t a i n which o f t he two i n s t i t u t i o n s , t he government
or t he pr e s s , b u i l d t he agenda f o r t he press i n some i s s u e s , such
as Arab u n i t y and t he P a l e s t i ni a n - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t .
I t i s un de r
stood among Arabs o u t s i d e Kuwai t t h a t t he Kuwai t i press has
al ways t he i n i t i a t i v e mai nl y i n s e t t i n g t he d i a l o g u e s and debates
around Arab s o l i d a r i t y and Arab j u s t i f i a b l e causes.
But i n
Kuwai t , i t i s not c e r t a i n who i n i t i a t e s t he press c o n t en t and
i n s t i g a t e s t he d i r e c t i o n s o f p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r t hose i s s u e s .
It
i s assumed, however, t h a t t he government adopts Arab l e ad er s
i n i t i a t i v e s and shows a d m i r a t i o n and accept ance f o r Pan Arab
policies.
The government s i g n a l s t o t h e pr ess t o echo such
p o l i c i e s i n newspapers d a i l y t r e a t m e n t s o f t he news," (Emphasis
added).
The same o f f i c i a l
believes t h a t :
" I t remains t r u e t h a t t h e r e ar e some i ssues on which t he go v er n
ment i s i n f u l l char ge, s e t t i n g t he pr ess agenda, s p e c i f i c i s sues
such as s e c u r i t y , o i l we a l t h and f i g h t i n g t e r r o r i s m .
The go ver n
ment, t hr ough r e l e v a n t m i n i s t e r s , set s t he l i m i t s w i t h i n which
publicatio n is permitted.
Al t ho ug h such government c o n t r o l does
not i mpl y d i r e c t i n t e r f e r e n c e i n press a f f a i r s , but i t c oul d be
achi eved i n a way t h a t r e f l e c t s government p o l i c i e s . "
- 288
Under
It
i s wor t h m e n t i on i n g here t h a t
t he press
shows i n c r e a s i n g
d e s i r e not t o pl unge i t s e l f i n t o t he s e c u r i t y i s sues i n
detail.
t he
s er i ou s ness
gravity
o f t he s i t u a t i o n
and
un d e r s t a n d i n g
i ss u es t h r e a t e n i n g t he home f r o n t ,
s a f e t y o f t he c o u n t r y and i t s
press
p l ay s
t he
role
of
it
t he
pl ay s a g r e a t e r r o l e
stab ility.
a watchdog
Whether i t
for
t he
Perceiving
of
t he
i n s e c u r i n g t he
knows i t
security
s i gns o f
of
t he
or
not,
country
t he
as
s i g n i f i c a n t l y as t he government does.
Anot her o f f i c i a l
expr essed,
views about
t he
relationship
between t he
government and t he press o f Kuwai t :
" I t i s not t he law o f p u b l i c a t i o n t h a t r e s t r i c t s t he freedom o f
t he pr ess .
On t he c o n t r a r y t he law o f p u b l i c a t i o n s def ends t he
press a g a i n s t a g g r e s s i v e o f f i c i a l s and t h e i r i n t e r f e r e n c e i n
press a f f a i r s . "
I t i s t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he newspapers and o f f i c i a l s t h a t
has t he g r e a t r o l e i n f o r mi n g t he p o l i c y and d i r e c t i o n o f p u b l i
c a t i o n s i n newspapers.
The f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f newspaper owners pl ay an e f f e c t i v e and
s t r on g r o l e i n t he news p o l i c y .
In a t r a d i t i o n a l o i l c o u n t r y
l i k e Kuwai t , t he main source f o r we a l t h i s t he government.
For
t hose owners t o b u i l d c a p i t a l s , t hey need t o pl ease t he go v er n
ment and s a t i s f y t he needs t o f u l f i l t he r e q u i re me n t o f f o l l o w i n g
pr o- gover nment news.
To a g r e a t e x t e n t , t he owners are al ways
w i l l i n g t o meet government t erms and accept t he f l o w o f agenda
f r om government sources ont o t h e i r news desks.
The presence o f Arab j o u r n a l i s t s i n Kuwai t (more t han 70 per cent
o f t he e d i t o r i a l s t a f f ) i n c r ea s e s t he p o s s i b i l i t y o f t he i n v o l v e
ment by government o f f i c i a l s i n press a f f a i r s .
For none o f t he
n o n- Ku wai t i Arab j o u r n a l i s t s , i s o f hi gh p r o f e s s i o n a l r an k .
They
under st and t h a t t h e i r presence i n Kuwai t i s t empo r ar y.
The
m a j o r i t y o f t hose j o u r n a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t t hey have come t o
Kuwai t t o earn a l i v i n g .
The t as k o f r a i s i n g hot i s s ues a g a i n s t
government, w e l l , w i l l c o s t them t h e i r j o b s . "
Thi s hy p o t h e s i s was f u r t h e r
ists.
For example,
notion
of o f f i c i a l s '
superiority
pr e s s ,
he c ons i der ed
t he
suppor t ed by t he i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
an E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f
in
o f a maj or newspaper c onf i r med t he
t erms o f
relationship
sl o ga n;
"All
Kuwaitis
ar e
buildin g
between t he
an ot he r example o f i n t e g r a t i o n among Ku w a i t i
K uwai t i
journal
members
- 289 -
t he
press
agenda f o r
t he
as
c i t i z e n s which comes under t he
of
one Kuwai t i
family."
Such
ties,
i n hi s words,
ally
happens
i n f l a m m a t or y
do not p e r mi t t he press t o make m i s t ak e s ,
in
some
i t em s ,
and
businessmen.
f ound
to
s up po r t
Western
newspapers which
times,
on news s t o r i e s
or a t
The
the
E ditor-in-C hief's
assumpt i on
that
t h r i v e on
as o c c a s i o n
scandal s
and
t o embarrass p o l i t i c i a n s
answer,
existing
on t he
whol e,
governments
was
control
t he
press.
HYPOTHESIS NO. 2
There i s a p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n between t he
o v e r a l l degree o f i mpor t ance assi gned t o t he i s s ues appe ar i n g i n
t he press by t he j o u r n a l i s t s and by government o f f i c i a l s .
This
hy p o t h e s i s
was a l s o
substantiated
c o r r e l a t i o n between t he o v e r a l l
nalists
and
by
government
by t he
d a t a.
The rank
order
i mpor t ance appear i ng i n t he press by j o u r
officia ls
ar e
pr esent ed
i n Tabl e
6. 15.
The
Spearman rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t c a l c u l a t e d f r om t hese dat a was,
rs
= .646,
government
pr ess
in
N = 36
(P = < . 0 0 1 ) .
officia ls,
Kuwai t .
a
considerable
Government
influence jo u r n a lis ts ,
Fur t he r mo r e,
to
officia ls
extent,
confirm
s et
coul d w e l l
t he
t he
notion
agenda
use d i f f e r e n t
for
that
t he
means t o
t he r e b y i n f l u e n c i n g t he press agenda.
t hese f i n d i n g s
inte rv ie ws with j o u r n a l i s t s .
upper hand i n d e f i n i n g t he
were s u b s t a n t i a t e d
For exampl e,
by t he r e s u l t s
t he f a c t t h a t o f f i c i a l s
news has been c l e a r l y
managing e d i t o r s o f a d a i l y moderate newspaper.
suppor t ed
of
have an
by one o f
t he
His answers, a t t he i n t e r
vi ew, were found t o i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g o p i n i o n s :
" I t i s obvi ous
t h a t j o u r n a l i s t s ar e mos t l y o f no n- Ku wai t i o r i g i n
and t h a t t hey ar e f rom r a d i c a l Arab S t a t e s .
As a consequence, i n
g e n e r a l , t hey p r e s e n t r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e i r newspapers most
o f t he t i me .
Thi s s i t u a t i o n hel ps t he regime t o be pr esent ed as
a r a d i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n ver y keen t o modernise t he c o u n t r y and
l i s t e n t o t he c a l l s f o r r ef or m r a i s e d by t he pr e s s .
But t hese
j o u r n a l i s t s , as n o n - K u w a i t i s , under st and t he l i m i t s o f freedom o f
o p i n i o n and t he f r o n t i e r s o f p u b l i c a t i o n .
They a l s o now un de r
st and t h a t when t he government deci des t o have a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n
on t he i s s u e s ,
t hey must f o l l o w t he l i n e .
290 -
t he
On semi - weekl y b a s i s , t he Ku w a i t i government i n v i t e s j o u r n a l i s t s
t o t he M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n .
The M i n i s t e r d i c t a t e s under t he
t i t l e o f g i v i n g news b r i e f s , t he p o l i c i e s on l o c a l and f o r e i g n
issues.
In o t h e r words, t he government appears as t he main
i n s t i g a t o r who deci des what must or must not be p u b l i s h e d .
I t must be noted t h a t j o u r n a l i s t s as w e l l as o f f i c i a l s under stand
t he p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u
t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t he p r e s s , i n K uwai t .
The Amir o r c h e s t r a t e s t he
n a t i o n a l c o n c e r t s , he, and o n l y he, i s i n a p o s i t i o n t o harmonise
t he r e l a t i o n s between a l l p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s .
The f a c t t h a t may not be known t o many peopl e i s t h a t when t he
s e c u r i t y f o r c e s a r r e s t any j o u r n a l i s t who has a l l e g e d l y t h r e a t
ened n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , and supposi ng he were a member o f my
s t a f f , I would be t he f i r s t person t o welcome hi s e x p u l s i o n f rom
Thi s person would r e p r es e n t a t h r e a t t o Kuwai t and
more so t o my newspaper.
(He meant e x p u l s i o n o f f o r e i g n j o u r n a l
i s t s and not o f t he l o c a l s ) . "
HYPOTHESIS NO. 3
There i s a p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n between t he o v e r a l l
d i f f e r e n t i a l coverage o f t he i s su es appear i ng i n t he press and
t he o v e r a l l degree o f i mpor t ance assi gned t o t hese i s sues by t he
jo urnalists.
Thi s
hyp o t h e s i s was s u b s t a n t i a t e d
by t he
findings.
The d i f f e r e n t i a l
coverage o f t he i ssues ap pe ar i n g i n t he press and t he degree o f i mpor t ance
assi gned
to
t he
i ssues
by
journalists
Spearman rank o r d e r c o e f f i c i e n t
N = 36,
(P = < . 0 1 ) .
among j o u r n a l i s t s
are
pr esent ed
in
Tabl e
c a l c u l a t e d from t hese dat a was
6 . 1 6.
The
r s = .510,
Thi s c o n f i r ms t he n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a hi gh tendency
to r e f le c t
conservative o f f i c i a l s '
st ands on t he i ssues
and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r agenda t o o .
Such a n o t i o n
is
further
journalists.
views
with
daily
newspaper c on f i r med t he f a c t
two e s t a b l i s h m e n t s
For
substantiated
exampl e,
that
a Ch i e f
results
Editor
of
of
a
t he
in te r
conservative
" t he government and t he press are
s h a r i n g t he r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
shoul d not be p u b l i s h e d i n t he p r e s s . "
by t he
for
d e f i n i n g what shoul d or
He b e l i e v e d t h a t :
"On c e r t a i n i s s u e s , t he government has t he upper hand t o deci de
what shoul d or shoul d not be r e l e a s e d .
Those i ss ues are gener
a l l y t he ones r e l a t i n g t o o i l w e a l t h , i ssues r e l a t i n g t o n a t i o n a l ,
s e c u r i t y and i ss u es r e l a t i n g t o t he measures t aken t o f i g h t
terrori sts.
- 291
On t hose i s s u e s , t he gover nment ' s p o s i t i o n i s pr es ent ed i n every
c ol umn / i nc h
appearing, in
newspapers.
Al t hough
gover nment ' s
i n t e r f e r e n c e i s i n d i r e c t , i t i s t he power t h a t p e r mi t s or p r e
vent s p u b l i s h i n g t he news.
The c o - o p e r a t i o n between newspapers owners and government o f f i
c i a l s by a l l means i s based on a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I t hel ps
t o decrease government anger , i t a l s o pr e v en t s t he press from
bei ng s u b j e c t o a g g r es s i v e government a c t s .
In a n ot he r
comment,
regardless
of
t he
Kuwai t
an
honest
is
a hi gh
source
ranking
and t he
transmitter
instigator
of
news.
r e s e r v a t i o n s t o be noted by j o u r n a l i s t s
First,
t hey
needed
interpretations
for
t o t he c l a s s i f i e d
information.
lacking
in
to
cla rify
such news.
t he
of
seemed t o
believe
t he agenda,
There
were,
t he
skill
in
certain
be f o r e t hey wr ot e i n t h e i r paper s.
gover nment ' s
Secondl y,
positio n
and
explore
t he
t hey needed t o g i v e more concern
on many occasi ons
and
knowledge
to
journalists
evaluate
news
were
found t o
and make
not have access t o t he news i n d e t a i l
t i mes
professionalism
t hey
l acked
T h e r e f or e,
troversial
news.
s e n s it iv e issues,
pr ess
however,
d e c i s i o n s because t hey di d
because
that,
i n f o r m a t i o n and j udge what t he government meant by s e c r e t
Ironically,
t he
o fficia l
Thirdly,
found
i n most T h i r d
right
and some
World
media.
s a f e r t o abandon p u b l i s h i n g any con
j o u r n a l i s t s t hemsel ves sometimes f e a r d i s c u s s i n g
particularly
mi s s i n g l i n k s i n such news.
it
as
t he
be
because t hey are aware t h a t t h e r e ar e o f t e n
They t end t o w a i t f o r b u r e a u c r a t i c sources t o
add any d e t a i l s and comments f rom t he gover nment ' s p o i n t o f vi ew.
HYPOTHESIS NO. 4
There i s a s i m i l a r i t y i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n t aken by
t he government o f f i c i a l s and t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n taken
by t he j o u r n a l i s t s on i s s u es p r e v a l e n t i n t he Kuwai t i pr es s .
Thi s
hy p o t h e s i s
was
substantiated
by
d a t a.
On t he
c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s t aken by government o f f i c i a l s
in
t he
K uwai t i
government
press
is
pr es ent ed
o f f i c i a l s on t he s c a l e
in
Tabl e 6. 17.
one
hand,
t he
on i ssues p r e v a l e n t
The
mean
scores
of
( - 50 f o r c o n s e r v a t i v e s , +50 f o r l i b e r a l
292 -
attitudes)
is
t aken by t he
sent ed i n
(X - 3 , 6 ) .
On t he
j o u r n a l i s t s on i s s u es
Tabl e 6 . 1 8.
conservative,
o t h e r hand,
p r e v a l e n t i n t he Ku w a i t i
disposition
press i s p r e
The mean scor es f o r j o u r n a l i s t s on a s c al e ( - 50 f o r
+50 f o r l i b e r a l
attitudes)
is
(X - 4 . 0 0 ) .
Thi s c o n f i r ms t he n o t i o n t h a t t he d i s p o s i t i o n t aken by both o f f i c i a l s
side
of
t he
officia ls
is
issues.
strive
ings,
c o n f i r ms
journalists,
uphol d i t s
also to
therefore,
enced
Thi s
once
agai n
as a main c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e i n Kuwai t ,
guard t he regi me,
and t o
dominated by a s t r on g t endency t oward t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
security
influence
and
t he
con f i r med
t he
by
t he
positio n
influence
t he
attitudes
fact
t aken
of
that
by
t he
t he
of
government.
t i o n on i s s u es p r e v a l e n t i n t he K u w a i t i
to
of
keep t he
journalists.
interviews
journalists
of jo u r n a li s ts ,
notion
government
f o r whom t h e i r dut y i s t o
and s t r i v e
t he a t t i t u d e s
findin gs
t he
with
status
These f i n d
o fficia ls
had been h e a v i l y
O fficials
quo,
were
and
in flu
ab l e
to
t o t ak e t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i
press and r e l e v a n t t o t he c on ser va
t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n taken by t he government.
The n o t i o n was a l s o
con f i r med
by t he dat a pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6. 19 i n
which t he score o f government o f f i c i a l s '
si des o f t he i ssues i n a t o t a l
liberal
si des
Tabl e 6. 20.
ists'
of
i s sues
Similarly,
conservative
issues.
t he
attitudes
number o f 36.
were
found
to
fall
on 26 c o n s e r v a t i v e
Whi l e t he d i s p o s i t i o n s on t he
cover 10 i s s u es pr esent ed
dat a pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6.21 show t h a t t he j o u r n a l
scores f a l l
on 22 s i des o f t he
In anot he r a n a l y s i s t he f i n d i n g s
C o e f f i c i e n t between t he o v e r a l l
i s s ues
in a t o ta l
o f 36
showed a hi gh Pearson C o r r e l a t i o n
a t t i t u d e s o f t he o f f i c i a l s
s i g n i f i c a n t a t r = .787 n = 36 (P < . 0 0 1 ) .
Thi s
hy p ot he s i s
in
was
E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f of a d a ily
further
s uppor t ed
^
by
an i n t e r v i e w i n
which
t he
newspaper i n Kuwai t p o i n t e d out t h a t government
293 -
officia ls
ists.
sometimes
use
tacit
a n d / or
subtle
measures
to
control
journal
For example:
"The Amir ( r u l e r ) i s al ways keen on i n v i t i n g j o u r n a l i s t s t o meet
him.
He o c c a s i o n a l l y has a f r a n k d i s c u s s i o n o f a l l i ss ues o f
concer n, and j o u r n a l i s t s t ak e t he A m i r ' s p o i n t s as messages t o be
conveyed t o t he p u b l i c .
There i s anot he r t r a d i t i o n a l r o u t i n e i n which t he Crown P r i n c e ,
who i s a t t he same t i me t he Prime M i n i s t e r , i n v i t e s j o u r n a l i s t s
t o meet him p r i v a t e l y a t home or i n hi s o f f i c e .
In t hese meet
i n gs t he c o - o r d i n a t i o n between t he government and t h e press i s
d e f i n e d w i t h o u t d i r e c t i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t he a f f a i r s o f o t h e r s .
If
any c u r r e n t event or u r g e n t i s s u e suddenly oc c u r s , c o n s u l t a t i o n s
and d i al o g u e s are c a l l e d f o r .
The M i n i s t e r o f I n f o r m a t i o n (a member o f t he r u l i n g f a m i l y ) has
semi - weekl y meeti ngs w i t h e d i t o r s - i n - c h i e f and managing e d i t o r s .
Such r o u t i n e hel ps t o c l a r i f y government p o l i c i e s .
I t c oul d be
hot or cool d i s c u s s i o n , but a t t he end i t s a t i s f i e s government
wi shes and demands."
The
manner
in
which
journalists
related
themsel ves
p o l i c i e s was e x p l a i n e d by a n ot he r E d i t o r - i n - C h i e f when he
to
government
said:
" I n t he press we do not care much how i s s ues are r a i s e d .
There
i s no d e f i n i t e l i n e between t he press and t he government.
In our
newspaper we ar e convi nced t h a t t he government i s no l es s p a t
r i o t i c or l ess r e s p o n s i b l e t han t he pr es s.
Take, f o r example,
t he t e r r o r i s t s i s s u e , t he t r e a t m e n t o f t he i s su e i n t he press was
i n harmony w i t h t he a u t h o r i t y ' s p o s i t i o n .
Both t he pr ess and t he
government c a l l e d f o r t a k i n g s t r o n g measures a g a i n s t t e r r o r i s t s
and f o l l o w i n g h a r d l i n e p o l i c i e s a g a i n s t any persons who planned
t he a t t a c k s and c a r r i e d out t he v i o l e n t campaign a g a i n s t Kuwai t .
The press c a l l f o r tough measures a g a i n s t t e r r o r i s t s i n s p i r e d t he
government t o g i v e t he i s s u e t he ut most a t t e n t i o n and c o n c e r n . "
Thi s n o t i o n i s f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t he r e s u l t s o f i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
journalists
in radica l
newspapers.
per argued t h r ou g h o u t t h a t
cial
s our ces,
A p o p u l a r c ol u m n i s t i n a d a i l y
" u nd oub t e dl y t he press get s i t s
a
news f rom o f f i
but t h e r e are j o u r n a l i s t s who s t r i v e t o produce o p i n i o n s t h a t
may c o n t r a d i c t t hose o f o f f i c i a l s " .
is
newspa
Kuwai t i c i t i z e n . He
It
is
pertinent
here t o not e t h a t
t hen r a i s e d s ev er al p o i n t s :
"There are some i s s u es on which a l l j o u r n a l i s t s
a v o i d wi der
d i s c u s s i o n or e l a b o r a t i o n .
J o u r n a l i s t s do not wi sh t o undermine
t he e f f o r t s t aken by t he government t o keep o r d e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n
mat ters of s e c u r i t y .
- 294 -
he
However, i f t he government f i n d s i t necessary t o p u b l i c i s e an
i s s u e , t he press does not h e s i t a t e t o g i ve p r i o r i t y and emphasis
to t h a t issue.
A ver y good example o f t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he press and t he
government i s t he sup po r t which t he f or mer gi ves t o t he l a t t e r as
i t r e s i s t s t he l i b e r a l demands i n t r o d u c e d by t he members o f t he
N a t i on a l Assembly.
G e n e r a l l y , t he pr ess s t i l l has a g r e a t deal o f autonomy, but i t
i s s t i l l a l s o c on s i d er ed t he vessel which c a r r i e s what ever t he
government wi shes t o s h i p .
In o t h e r words, what t he government
wants t o convey t o t he p u b l i c mi nds, t he press i s con si d er ed t he
best means o f t r a n s m i t t i n g such i n f o r m a t i o n .
A hi gh
ranking
journalists
o fficia l
traceable
newspapers.
to
sees
t he
t he
relationship
conservative
positio n
and
of
t he
t he
owners
of
He argued t h a t :
"The more j o u r n a l i s t s t ak e t he gover nment ' s s i d e t he more t h e i r
o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n becomes secur e.
By secure I mean t he
degree o f t o l e r a n c e by t he owners o f t he newspapers f o r t h e i r
members o f s t a f f .
Thi s t o l e r a n c e c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t he j o u r n a l
i s t s ' a b i l i t y t o r e l a t e t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s t o t hose o f t he owners.
I n ma t t e r s whi ch are r e l a t e d t o t r a d i t i o n a l views and c on s er v a
t i v e a t t i t u d e s o f t he owners o f newspapers, j o u r n a l i s t s a r e ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , not f a r removed f r om t he p o s i t i o n o f t he go ver n
ment.
The press t h e r e f o r e becomes t he means t hr ou gh which j o u r
n a l i s t s r e f l e c t t he t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s e r v a t i v e b e l i e f s o f go v er n
ment o f f i c i a l s t hr ou gh t he press agenda."
HYPOTHESIS NO. 5
There i s a s i m i l a r i t y i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n t aken by
t he government o f f i c i a l s and t he d i s p o s i t i o n t aken by t he press
on i s s ues which appeared i n t he press c o n t e n t .
Thi s hyp o t h e s i s
was a l s o s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t he d a t a.
The p o s i t i o n s
t he pr ess emphasized
i n t he press c o n t en t i s pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6 . 2 3.
total
pr ess
t he
scores
number o f
topic
square
in
t he
topics
rooted,
c o n t en t
m ultiplied
show t h a t
which
by t he
t he
conservative
press covered 21 i ssues i n a t o t a l
t he
total
libera l
tion
of
c o n s e r v a t i v e scor es
scores f o r
t he i s su es
conservative
scor es
on
of
t he
36 i s s u e s .
i ss ue
pr esent ed
of
t he
were
in ta b le
total
- ^ 5 -
The
r e s u l t e d f rom t he c a l c u l a t i o n
number o f
press
column
i nches
disposition
It
for
t aken
of
of
each
by t he
was a l s o found t h a t
greater
6. 24.
c o n t en t
than t h e
The t o t a l
total
propor
scor es was 59.4%
while
t he
proportion
notion
that
t he
strive
to build
press
for
liberal
scor es
was h e a v i l y
t he agenda f o r
was
Thi s
c on f i r ms
t he
by government
officia ls
who
i n a way t h a t would r e f l e c t
t he
influenced
t he
press
40.6%.
p o l i c y o f t he government and uphol d t he s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
Thi s
notion
views w i t h
was f u r t h e r
substantiated
summarised t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
understanding
for
t he
by t he
and j o u r n a l i s t s .
of
t he
national
findin gs
A hi gh
between t he o f f i c i a l s
sake
s t a t u s quo.
o f t he
ranking
in te r
o fficia l
and t he press as mutual
interests
of
Kuwai t .
he
ad mi t t e d t h a t :
"There i s no doubt t h a t t he Kuwai t i pr ess , l i k e any press i n
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , has i t s i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l o b l i g a t i o n s .
But
t he law o f p u b l i c a t i o n i n Kuwai t d e f i n e s t he l i m i t s i n which t he
press can pl ay i t s r o l e and av oi d becoming c a p t i v e t o t he p r i v a t e
i n t e r e s t s o f c e r t a i n groups a t home or abr oa d. "
He added:
" Non- Kuwai t i Arabs who work i n Kuwai t i newspapers a l l o w f u r t h e r
r i s k t o t he press t o be m a n i p u l a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y because t hose
j o u r n a l i s t s are g e n e r a l l y o f r a d i c a l backgrounds.
But i n such
i m p o r t a n t i ssues as s e c u r i t y , w e a l t h , and r e l a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n
c o u n t r i e s , t hose j o u r n a l i s t s are t o l d t o echo t he gover nment ' s
p o s i t i o n . The s t a t e , t o m a i n t a i n law and o r d e r , must have an open
eye t o p r o t e c t t he c i t i z e n s and guard t he independence o f Kuwai t
as we l l as o t h e r G u l f c o u n t r i e s .
As a c o u n t r y w i t h laws and a
c o n s t i t u t i o n , Kuwai t expect s t he press t o p r o t e c t t he p o l i t i c a l
and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a g a i n s t a l l t h r e a t s , r e g a r d i n g i t as but
a n ot he r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t shoul d share t he s o c i a l r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y o f p r o t e c t i n g t he i ndependence o f K u w a i t " .
Thi s
radical
social
notion
was observed
journalists.
ideals,
pointed
t hr o u g h o u t
t he
For
exampl e,
a
out
that
analysis
his
results
p o pu l ar
of
journalist
of
t he
interviews
known
relationship
for
hi s
between
t he government and t he press has l ed him t o t he f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s :
"The main f a c t o r l e a d i n g t o press f a i l u r e t o emphaslise o b j e c t i
v i t y on t he i s s u e s , i s t he work power o f huge numbers o f immi
g r a n t j o u r n a l i s t s o f E g y p t i a n , P a l e s t i n i a n and Lebanese o r i g i n s .
T h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n Kuwai t i s s i m i l a r t o o t h e r Arab groups i n
Kuwai t .
Thi s e x i s t e n c e i s al ways connected w i t h t h e i r j o bs and
t he demands t o secure them.
No Arab i n Kuwai t , however s t r o n g hi s n a t i o n a l i s t f e e l i n g s , has
any i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t and j o u r n a l i s t s ar e not a p a r t f rom t h i s
fact.
They do not p l ay an a c t u a l r o l e i n t he i n t e l l e c t u a l
296
with
b a t t l e s t o defend t he freedom o f Kuwai t .
ments, not p o s i t i v e ones by any means.
They are pas s i ve e l e
The i mmi gr ant j o u r n a l i s t i s r e q u i r e d t o be a machine or a t y p e
w r i t e r w i t h keys whi ch c oul d be pressed by t he newspaper owner t o
produce t he press m a t e r i a l t he owner wi shes t o see.
Naturally,
Kuwai t i j o u r n a l i s t s are ex cl ud ed.
The K uwai t i c i t i z e n s wo r ki ng
f o r t he press have a wide margi n o f freedom.
At l e a s t t hey do
not f e a r c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e i r j o b c o n t r a c t s or e x p u l s i o n from
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t he K uwai t i press i s s t i l l f r e e r and
more i n f l u e n t i a l i n t he a f f a i r s o f Kuwai t than any o t h e r Arab
newspapers.
I t i s however a comparison between compl ete darkness
and a spot o f l i g h t a t t he end o f a l ong dar k t u n n e l . "
ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDES
As
some o f
while
menti oned
e a r l i e r , t he
which y i e l d e d c l e a r l y
other
i ss ues y i e l d e d
pr ess c o n t en t a n a l y s i s
produced 36 i s s u e s ,
conservative
and
clearly
liberal
A t t i t u d e s o f t he press were r e p o r t e d
press
content,
interpretations
responses and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
f rom t he press coverage coded i n t he
w h i l e government o f f i c i a l s '
computed and s t a t i s t i c a l l y
responses
and j o u r n a l i s t s '
a t t i t u d e s were
anal ysed f rom dat a ob t ai n e d f r om t he
question
nai r e .
In
t he
f o l l o w i n g w i l l be
three varia bles
ar e
pl aced
pr es ent ed
- t he o f f i c i a l s ,
on t he
t hose
groups
cont i nuum e x t r e m e l y
e x i s t i n g vi ews,
moder at i on
hand t he
minded,
It
or
individuals
in
this
c o n d i t i o n s or i n s t i t u t i o n s .
caution
relating
to
t er m
liberal
reflects
t he
ideologies
suggested i n
that
that
t he
Chapter
analysis
of
can be seen t o
t he
f rom
- as t hese
e x t r e me l y
on t he
one,
t he
liberal.
hand st ands
di sposed t o
m a i n t ai n
T h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n i s marked by
norms,
dispositions
5,
to
or are
traditional
not bounded by a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ,
section,
s t ud y ,
to
yielded
and t he press
conservative
who tend
or
was
attitudes
t he j o u r n a l i s t s
The t er m c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n
for
t he
of
while
t hose
on t he
who are
other
b r o ad
or t ho do x y or t r a d i t i o n a l i s m .
in
t he
social
influence
- 297 -
t he
theoretical
structure
of
generalisation
Kuwai t
socio-political
and
attitudes
t he
of
social
gr oups,
show t h a t t he c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n on t he i ssues r e p r e
s en t s ,
on t he whol e, t he a t t i t u d e s o f t he regi me, t he Ami r , t he Cabi net and
t he government o f f i c i a l s .
same i s s u es r e f l e c t s ,
t he
gover nment ' s
However,
bot h
opposition,
In t he meantime,
on t he whol e,
policies
t he
are
and
government
c on si d er ed
t he l i b e r a l
d i s p o s i t i o n on t he
t he a t t i t u d e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s who oppose
ar e
drawn
and t hose
agents
of
from
different
social
who are j u x t a p o s e d t o
devel opment .
groups.
it,
Rel evant
even i n
literature
revi ewed i n Chapter 3 r e v e a l ed t he e x t e n t t o which t he government , w i t h t he
s u p e r v i s i o n o f t he Ami r,
in
Kuwai t .
Both
t he
under t ook d a r i n g and generous devel opment p r o j e c t s
government ,
with
its
bureaucrats,
sought t he means f o r r a p i d s oc i o- economi c p o l i t i c a l
and
t he
liberals
modernisation.
D iffer
ences a r i s e mai nl y over t he means and t h e manner i n which such devel opment
shoul d be achi eved.
The Kuwai t i
government
f o r m a t i o n o f Kuwai t i
shown
in
Chapter
began
in
t he
early
1950s an e f f e c t i v e
s o c i e t y i n pr of ound s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l ways.
3 that
the
government
promoted
change
with
trans
I t was
a vi ew
to
m od er n i s i n g t he new s t a t e and t o changi ng t he gloomy d e s e r t f ace o f Kuwai t .
Thi s a p p a r e n t l y
however,
forward-looking
vitiated
and o t h e r
N a t i on a l
authoritarianism
options
t he
itse lf
bia,
in
le ft
by t he o c c a s i o n a l
regime l e ad e r s .
Assembly
favour
on
were
of
nationalists
two
regime
Oman and
seemed
to
autocratic
For exampl e,
occasions;
exposed
t oo
as
and
liberal
1976
t he
S h i ' i t es
contradict
t he
and
d rift
l e g i t i m a c y a t home was based.
- 298
government was,
1986.
in
of
Tendencies
balanced
its
and Sunnies
inte lle ctuals.
notably
of
d e c i s i o n s t aken by t he Amir
regime
Gulf t r a d i t i o n a l i s t
Bah r a i n,
policy
t h e regime p r o mpt l y d i s s o l v e d t h e
in
fundamentalists,
to other a u t o c r a t ic
Qat ar ,
and e n l i g h t e n e d
security
po litical
as opposed t o
Further,
regimes
by
allying
such as Saudi
affairs,
modernisation
to
t he
upon
Ara
Kuwai t i
which
its
In what f o l l o w s
t he dat a f o r
i s t s on t he i ssues w i l l
be pr e s e n t e d .
each
t he
group
liberal
r eg a r d i n g
spect rum over
desi gned.
The f i r s t
t he
set
relates
d i s p o s i t i o n s on
of
t he
to
(-1)
relates
t he
for
four
"of
val ues
low c o n s e r v a t i s m " .
Each respondent
r an g i n g from (+50) f o r
The o b j e c t
also
to
o fficia ls
Sim ilarly
v a l ue s .
c o r r e s p o n d i ng
proportion
i n g t hese
total
and i n
to
t he
of attitud es
findings
t he
conservative"
second s et
on t he
liberal
or
which
si des
of
val ues
t o (+1) f o r " o f low l i b e r a l i s m " .
o f each group on t he i s s u e s ,
and
s i m i l a r i t y between t he a t t i t u d e s
t he
second
relevant
column t he
val ues,
and
s cal e
of
for
re lia b ility
(issues).
correlation
Tau
of
posi
conservative-
score o f respondent s
t he f i n a l
i n per cent age t er ms .
it ems
Kendal l
6.17 and 6.18 shows t he a t t i t u d i n a l
column p r e s e n t s t he a c t u a l
a test
non-parametri c
scor e.
Tabl es
The t h i r d
i s s u e and t he t o t a l
runni ng
" e x t r em e l y
with
t hemsel ves
location
differences
column i n
o f r es pondent s,
liberal
for
The f i r s t
tion
Each respondent was gi ven a score
"extremely l i b e r a l "
t he
and
two set s o f dat a were
was gi v en a score on a s cal e o f f o u r
was t o det er mi ne t he
det er mi ne
issues,
r a n g i n g f r om ( - 5 0 )
t o t he respondent s who pl aced
issues.
t o t he respondent s who pl aced themsel ves
on t he c o n s e r v a t i v e si des o f t he i s s u e s .
on a s c al e o f
and j o u r n a l
In o r d e r t o anal yse t he p o s i t i o n s o f
contrary
aggr egat e
of o f f i c i a l s
fourth
column
t he
Bef or e pr oceedi ng i n r e p o r t
was c a r r i e d
out
for
each
i t em
The it ems c o n s t r u c t i o n was checked by
coefficient
correlation
between
coefficient
each
i t em
r e v e a l ed
and t he
significant
r e l a t i o n a t (N = 90, P = < . 0 0 1 ) .
As
shown
proportion
while
of
in
71.1% o f
a proportion
same i s s u e s .
Tabl e
6. 17
Char t
government
of
6.1,
o fficia ls
28.9% were found t o
Within t h i s
42.2% o f o f f i c i a l s
and
were o f
f r ame,
however,
hol d
findings
r eve al
conservative
that
a
attitudes,
hol d l i b e r a l a t t i t u d e s
on
t he
t he dat a show t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f
low c o n s e r v a t i s m .
- 299 -
t he
By addi ng t he p r o p o r t i o n
of
13.3%, shown i n t he same t a b l e t o be o f moderate c o n s e r v a t i sm , t he m a j o r i t y
of
conservative
attitudes.
r espondent s
(55.5%)
were o f
low t o
moderate
Thi s l e a n i n g t owards moder at i on was d i s t u r b e d ,
conservative
however,
by t he
f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a p r o p o r t i o n o f 13.3% o f e x t r e m i s t or ver y c o n s e r v a t i v e
officia ls
By
among t he gi ven p o p u l a t i o n .
t he
same t o k e n ,
t he
findin gs
shown i n t he l ower s e c t i o n
6.17 show a low t endency o f government o f f i c i a l s
to lib e r a l
a proportion
liberal
majority
to
of
their
liberal
o f 28.9% o f f i c i a l s
17.8% are o f
colleagues
officia ls
By
relating
observed
pattern
of
similar
conservative
of
71.1%.
t he
extremists
and l i b e r a l
findin gs
would
of
on
be t h a t
conservative
over
government
bot h
of
camp i t
liberal
correlative
i n any s o c i a l ,
cluster
low a t t i t u d e s .
o fficia ls,
it
c l ass ed
observed
religious
in
cent re
pattern
then
or p o l i t i c a l
or
dat a
Tabl e
o b t ai n ed
6. 18
and
f rom
plotted
t he
in
is th a t,
group,
t he
over
moderate
w h i l e t he l i b e r a l
journalists'
6. 2
300 -
was f o l l o w e d
of
propor
amounted
similar
to
t he e x t r e m i s t s
to
all
on
t he p r o p o r
is r e l a t iv e ly
population
by
28.9% had
t he t o t a l
Ironically,
officia ls
11.1% o f t he t o t a l
Char t
t he
moderate
sim ilar.
and hel d ver y
c on s i s t e d o f 13.3%.
The same a n a l y s i s a p p l i e d t o government o f f i c i a l s
t he
officia ls
a total
was found t h a t
as
t i o n o f e x t r e m i s t c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
s t r on g t o extreme a t t i t u d e s ,
ver y
low t o
Thi s
15.6% i n
bot h si des c o n s t i t u t e a m i n o r i t y among o f f i c i a l s .
The c o n s e r v a t i v e c on s i s t e d o f
close
and
ranges
t he
a
was found t h a t t he m a j o r i t y o f 55.5%
T h e r e f or e
o fficia ls
dispositional
o fficia ls
71.1% had moderate t o
government
extremists
P roportio nally
t he
low a t t i t u d e s .
The
side,
In
side of issues,
population.
majority
moderate t o
tion
t he
In t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
in a t o t a l
a
low t o moderate a t t i t u d e s .
attitudes.
amounted t o 13.3% o f t he t o t a l
whelming m a j o r i t y
scales.
on
s t an d i n g on t he
o f Tabl e
sample.
r ev eal ed
was a l s o a p p l i e d t o
Findings
that
t he
pr esent ed
in
proportion
of
Char t 6. 1
O f f i c i a l s A t t i t u d e s on C o n s e r v a t i v e / L i b e r a l
Dichotomy
50 I
45
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
-4
-5
+1
+2
+4
+5
40
35
A ttitu de s of
30
O fficials
25
(%)
20
15
10
XX
5
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
0
■1
where ( - 1 )
( +1)
Char t 6. 2
+3
) = o f 1ow c o n s e r v a t i sm
o f low l i b e r a l i s m and (+5) = e x t r e me l y l i b e r a l
J o u r n a l i s t s A t t i t u d e s on C o n s e r v a t i v e / L i b e r a l
Dichotomy
50 I
I
45
40
35
A ttitu de s of
30
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
-2
-3
-4
Journalists
25
(%)
20
15
10
5
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
-5
+1
+2
+3
+4
XX
0
+5
' cons e r v a t i v e and (-51 = o f low c o n s e r v a t i sm
b e r al i sm and (+5) = e x t r e m e l y 1i ber al
- 301
j o u r n a l i s t s w i t h c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s was 58.9% o f t he t o t a l
population.
At
scores con
t he
same t i m e ,
t he
proportion
s i s t e d o f 41.1% o f t he t o t a l
For
sc al es
was
conservative
of
moder at i on
found
that
proportion
t udes
out
of
of
t he
bulk
low commitment
to
58.9% j o u r n a l i s t s
o f 47.9% were found t o
on t he
issues.
In
with
hol d
similar
of
respondent s
c o n s e r v a t i sm.
with
findings,
moderate
that
moderate
32.3% out o f 41.1% o f
total
Most j o u r n a l i s t s
t i v e v a l ue s .
this
low
to
liberal
p r ef e r e n c e s
liberal
sub- gr oup.
liberal
(47.9%) were found t o have
of
mo d e r a t i on ,
there
among e i t h e r t he c o n s e r v a t i v e or l i b e r a l
among t he j o u r n a l i s t s ,
Regardi ng
t he
It
was found
attitudes
numbered
moderate t o low c on s e r v a
who occupi ed p o s i t i o n s
was
no
Reinfor
instance of
journalists.
ext r emi sm
The o v e r a l l
finding
t he n, was one o f pronounced mod er a t i on.
t endency
to
conser vati veness
o fficia ls
on t he i s s u e s ,
c ur ve o f
each group over
t he
t he cur ve i s i r r e g u l a r
a
journalists
camp were found t o hol d moderate t o low a t t i t u d e s .
i mpr es si on
it
journalists.
32.3% ou t o f t he 41.1% o f j o u r n a l i s t s
i n t he l i b e r a l
cing
with
t he
low t o moderate c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i
among t h e i r
journalists
occupi ed
For example,
conservative
proved t o be an over whel mi ng m a j o r i t y
t hose
liberal
population of j o u r n a l i s t s .
journalists
or
journalists
l i b e r a l ness
among
Char t s 6.1 and 6. 2 i l l u s t r a t e t he
conservative
i n both cases,
and
and
liberal
di chot omy.
Whilst
a pronounced bump i n t he c e n t r e over
bot h d i s p o s i t i o n s i s v i s i b l e .
Extreme c on s e r v a t i sm was not r e g i s t e r e d among t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
t he
number
of
conservatives
journalists,
there
conservative
scores
tively.
Whilst
is
is
a noticeable
between t he
11% o f
greater
this
o f f i c i a l s than
and i n t e r e s t i n g
two gr oups;
journalists
h i g h e r than among o f f i c i a l s ,
amongst
score hi gh
effect
in
amongst
o f moderate
55.5% and 47.9% r es p e c
c o n s e r v a t i sm,
is c le arly
o f extreme c o n s e r v a t i sm o n l y among o f f i c i a l s .
- 302 -
i.e.
sim ilarity
Whilst
apparently
o f f s e t by t he presence
As f a r as t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
of
t he
findin gs
findings
in
of
conservative
t he
attitudes.
liberal
On t he
attitudes
Tabl e
6. 18
contrary,
on t he
attitudes
are concer ned,
t he l i b e r a l
i l l u s t r a t e once more t h a t ,
j o u r n a l i s t s , there
32.3% o f
issues.
is
journalists
T h e r e f or e
it
si des
s im ilar to
t he
an absence o f extreme
scored
low t o
can be concl uded
moderate
that
t he
over whel mi ng m a j o r i t y o f j o u r n a l i s t s over bot h t he c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
s i des
of
t he
journalists
issues,
exhibit
moderate
and 32.3% l i b e r a l s
commitments.
47.9%
conservative
demonst r at e an over whel mi ng 80.2% d i s p o s i
t i o n t o moder at i on.
One coul d say i n
6.18 r eveal
1.
conclusion,
therefore,
that
dat a i n
Tabl es 6.17 and
some i n d i c a t i v e p o i n t s t h a t coul d be i n t e r p r e t e d as f o l l o w s :
That t he m a j o r i t y
tive
in
of
attitudes.
Amongst
t he
are on t he whole c on s er v a
officia ls
population,
a majority
of
71.1% adopted t he c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n s on t he i s s u e s .
By comparing
this
side of
with
issues,
t he 28.9% o f
t he
conclusion
o fficia ls
to
who chose t he
be d e r i v e d i s
r esear c h gener al h y p o t h e s i s ;
that
liberal
t he
t hese dat a s up po r t
t he
t h a t t he m a j o r i t y o f government o f f i c i a l s
ought t o stand i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e camp s u p p o r t i n g t he regime t o which
t hey bel ong and g u ar d i ng i t s
2.
That
government
officia ls
socio-political
are
more
norms and t r a d i t i o n s .
conservative
than
journalists.
T h e i r c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n on t he i ss ues exceeded i n terms o f number
o f respondent s t he number o f j o u r n a l i s t s ,
a majority
disposition.
of
journalists
The r a t i o
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he f a c t t h a t
are found t o be o f
of
conservative
(moderate)
officia ls
is
conservative
71.1% t o
58.9%
for journalists.
3.
That
unlike
tain s
journalists,
a considerable
t he
number
population
of
o f government o f f i c i a l s
extremists
who
st and
firm ly
con
in
t he
c o n s e r v a t i v e si de i n s up po r t o f t he p o l i c y o f t he government on i ssues
- 303
both l o c a l
and f o r e i g n ,
dating to lib e ra l
The gener al
and are p r o ba bl y then u n l i k e l y
positio ns.
dispositio ns
level
of
regime
which
officia ls
o f t he o f f i c i a l s
sup po r t
and
concert
their
speak c l e a r l y
mai nt enance.
views
They
regarding
Kuwai t w i t h t he views o f t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
t he a u t h o r i t y
o f t hese o f f i c i a l s
at
exer cised d i r e c t l y
in
relation
t o bear on t he media.
sent
ties
its
However,
in
o fficia ls
tia l
principle
prevalent
i s s ues
in
level
is
not r eser ved
br ought d i r e c t l y
are bound by s t r o n g p r o
t hese
professional
variance.
between t he regime and o f f i c i a l s
r a t h e r than c y n i c a l .
to
p a r t o f which must be t o r e p r e
t i o n s are comp a t i b l e w i t h an i d e o l o g i c a l
tib ility
extent
Beyond t h i s t h e i r a u t h o r i t y i s
t o s up po r t t he r egi me,
ideology.
show t he
t o t he peopl e and i s
Of cour s e,
f o r t he hi gh
I t may be noted t oo t h a t
t he f or mal
only to t h e i r roles in a d m in is t r a t io n .
fessional
t o be accommo
obliga
Ideological
i s pr o ba bl y w i d e l y
compa
s ub s t an
Regime s u p p o r t i n g d i s p o s i t i o n s are s i g n i f i
cant i n i n f l u e n c i n g t he e x t e n s i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n c o n t a c t and i n f l u e n c e
beyond t he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
4.
Regardi ng j o u r n a l i s t s ,
t he f a c t t h a t
tive
e s p e c i a l l y t o t he media.
t hese f i n d i n g s made i t
58.9% o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s
positions
on i s su es t he r a t i o
than t h a t o f l i b e r a l
matters.
Thi s
numbers
holding
o fficia ls.
of
were found t o adopt con s e r v a
liberal
unlike
extreme
disposition
Not o n l y t h a t ,
showed moderate a t t i t u d e s
was
evident t h a t in sp i te of
o fficia ls
attitudes,
but i n both d i r e c t i o n s
i n c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
who were
in
was h i gh e r
both
found
cases,
in
considerable
conservative
and
1i b e r a l .
However,
t he
41.1% di d
earlier
ratio
not
both
come
in
of
conservative
as
Chapter
Chapter 3 on j o u r n a l i s t s
a
surprise
4 on
journalists
in
this
The Press
and
to
libera l,
st udy
in
t he
It
was
last
58.9% t o
menti oned
section
of
t h a t t he m a j o r i t y o f j o u r n a l i s t s who work i n
- 304 -
t he
Kuwai t i
search o f
press
are
security
Kuwai t was i n
no n - K u wa i t i
Arabs
who emi gr at ed
and income o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
possessi on o f
to
Kuwai t
in
The host government i n
c o n s i d e r a b l e r es our c es o f
sanction.
Job
l os s and d e p o r t a t i o n are e v e r - p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
More p o s i t i v e l y ,
t he media are f a c i l i t a t e d
o fficia ls
c on s t an t
flow
of
by t he regime t hr ough
news and i n f o r m a t i o n .
t he passage o f media r e s o u r c e s .
and
f av o u r
owners,
between
Brie fings
and
media
a
aid
influe nces of g i f t
representatives
drawn f r om t he merchant c l a s s )
i s much t o i nduce and t o encourage r e g i o n a l
with
and r e c e p t i o n s
Yet more i n f o r m a l
o fficia ls
who are mo s t l y
its
(especially
abound.
There
s up po r t i n a d d i t i o n t o t he
i n c l i n a t i o n s o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
5.
The
common
Arab
identity
of
c o u n t r y ' s media i s a f r a g i l e
ity,
c u l t u r e and p o l i t i c a l
theless
Kuwaitis
suppor t ed
t hey
Notwithstanding
qui s hed.
t he
n o n - K u wa i t i s
in
t he
o v e r l a y on t he h e t e r o g e n i t y o f n a t i o n a l
Our i n t e r v i e w f i n d i n g s ne v er
vi ew expressed by one e d i t o r - i n - c h i e f
t he
lim its
of
freedom and t he
"As non-
frontiers
of
They a l s o under st and t h a t when t he government deci des t o
a certain
f rom r a d i c a l
and
a ffilia tio n .
under st and
publication.
t ak e
t he
Kuwaitis
positio n
t he
on t he
constrain ts
backgrounds,
issues,
pl aced
t hey
must
on them,
follow
t he
line".
t he i n f l u e n c e o f which i s
are
not w h o l l y r e l i n
They tend t o sweep p a r t o f t h e i r b e l i e f s i n t o t he c o n t en t o f
t he pr es s .
On t he whole such l i b e r a l i s m
is
clear
in external
t han i n t he l o c a l l y more s e n s i t i v e i ssues such as s e c u r i t y ,
oil
i s s ues
we al t h
and def ence.
REPORTING ATTITUDINAL RESULTS
As menti oned e a r l i e r
r ev e a l ed
based.
36
i ssues
upon
i n t h e a g e n d a - s e t t i n g a n a l y s i s t he press c o n t en t
which
t he
analysis
of
groups
relationships
In t he f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n t he a t t i t u d e s o f o f f i c i a l s ,
- 305 -
was
j o u r n a l i s t s and
t he press w i l l
w ill
be anal ysed.
liberal,
t he
w ill
coded
liberal
three
of
government
on a s cal e
and
(0)
point
for
scal e
liberal
Finally,
For each group two l i s t s
be examined and r e s u l t s w i l l
attitudes
were
for
be pr esent ed and t he u n d e r l y i n g p a t t e r n s i n t hose a t t i t u d e s
in
t he
o fficia ls
of
three
don't
know.
(-1)
order
for
to
r e- coded
v a l ue s ,
was coded
to
(-4)
Then t he
in dicate
the
were
(-1)
for
for
coded
(0)
over
and
t he
original
conservative,
was
t he d o n ' t
attitudes
cases
For t he pr es s,
conservative
c o n s e r v a t i v e and
In order t o l o c at e
dat a
for
gener al
summed
( whi ch i n d i c a t e t he no n - r e s p o n s e ) .
c o n t en t
be r e p o r t e d .
conservative,
val ues
of a ttitu d e s ,
dat a
(+4)
for
re- coded
to
a
knows and (+1)
to
each
om ittin g
issue.
t he
zeros
t he scores o f t he pr ess
(1)
for
liberal
so as t o
i n d i c a t e t he gener al a t t i t u d e s o f t he press coverage t o each i s s u e .
GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS : ATTITUDINAL RESULTS
In t he f o l l o w i n g t he a t t i t u d e s
be r e p o r t e d .
It
was f ound,
findings
as pr es ent ed
(26 ou t o f
36)
attracted
t i o n t h a t government o f f i c i a l s
faith
officia ls
w ill
t h a t t he m a j o r i t y
For example,
conservative
o f t he government .
government
i n Tabl e 6. 19,
o f i ssues a t t r a c t e d c o n s e r v a t i v e responses.
i ss ues
of
72.2% o f a l l
t he
responses c or r e s p o n d i ng w i t h
p r e s en t an e a r l y
indica
on t he whole sup po r t t he government and keep
i n t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t t o which t hey bel ong and i n which t hey ser ve.
The same f i n d i n g s show t h a t most o f t he emphases by t he o f f i c i a l s were
gi ven t o
c er n.
local
For
example,
Tabl e 6. 19,
it
affairs
t he
Kuwai t .
of
i s s u es as compared w i t h
among 26
was found t h a t
Gulf,
Additionally,
c a t e g o r i e s which
but
with
i s s ues
with
conservative
18 i s s u es were l o c a l
strong
t he dat a r eveal
clearly
t hose o f e x t e r n a l
attracted
r e l ev a n c e
that
emphases
shown
in
and 4 i s s ues r e l a t e d t o
to
t he
t hese i ssues
conservative
- 306 -
i n t e r e s t o r con
responses
local
affairs
of
i n c l u d e two main
f r om government
officia ls.
These c a t e g o r i e s ar e " o i l
we al t h and o i l
prices"
and t he " r e l a
t i o n s h i p between t he government and t he n a t i o n a l Assembl y".
t he f i r s t ,
issues.
t he m a j o r i t y o f o f f i c i a l s
These i ss ues are
t he West ",
"the decline
showed c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s on seven
"OPEC caused t he d e c l i n e
in
prices
will
not lead t o de pr e s s i on f o r G u l f commerce",
"all
in
oil
prices
and
t empor ar y and not l a s t i n g " ,
in o i l
reserves",
l essen t he
is
drop
oil
revenues w i l l
oil
In r e l a t i o n t o
inter-Arab
c l a s ses b e n e f i t f r om o i l
con flicts",
not
"the
" l owe r p r i c e s
" Kuwai t a u t h o r i t y conserves
r evenues" and " K u w a i t i
foreign
i n v es t men t s c o n t r i b u t e t o t he n a t i o n a l w e a l t h " .
The emphasis by o f f i c i a l s
oil
on o i l
we a l t h i s o f g r e a t i mpor t ance because
we a l t h has always been t he s u b j e c t o f l ong p o l i t i c a l
firs t
shi pment
o f Kuwai t i
ex p or t ed o i l .
crude
The q u e s t i o n
i n 1946 and
has been whet her
m a i n t a i n a wi se p o l i c y i n t he use o f o i l
improve i t s
social
t he
i n cr ea sed
ov e r wh e l mi ng l y
lia b ility
quantity
regime would
of
be abl e
to
revenues t o modernise t he c o u n t r y ,
s uppor t ed
t o pursue a s uc c e s s f ul
t he
government
po li c y in o i l
The second maj or area as f a r as government o f f i c i a l s
s i n c e t he
s e r v i c e s and i n p a r t i c u l a r t o e s t a b l i s h a w e l f a r e s t a t e .
Government o f f i c i a l ' s
con f i r med i t s
t he
debat e,
between t he government and t he Na t i on a l
positio n
and
affairs.
are concerned i s
Assembly.
I t was
menti oned i n Chapter 3 t h a t d u r i n g t he dat a c o l l e c t i o n t he c o n f l i c t between
t he
government
hand,
t he
Terrorist
dent
in
and t he
government
attacks
which
assassination
was
greatly
himself
t he c e n t r e o f
was a t
p r e- o c c u p i e d
became a n a t i o n a l
t he Amir
in
n a t i o n a l Assembly
ni gh t ma r e,
was t he
Kuwai t .
with
worst.
t he
subject
of
On t he
interio r
especially
after
a mid-day
Simultaneously,
was knocki ng hard on t he n o r t h b o r de r o f t he s t a t e .
v er b al
its
t he
one
crises.
t he
in ci
at t empt ed
Iran-Iraq
The I r a n i a n s ,
war
once i n
ac c u s a t i o n s and once w i t h t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s ai ded by t he S h i ' i t es i n
Kuwai t , demonstrated t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t Kuwai t was a p a r t n e r t o
- 307 -
I r a q i n t he
war.
In t hese c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
t he
regime t r i e d
more t han once t o impose a
s t a t e o f emergency and t o t i g h t e n s e c u r i t y .
The
security
Na t i on a l
Assembly,
i ss ue
emphasi si ng
participation
by
on
t he
t he
other
need
as t he way t o m o b i l i s e
hand,
for
tried
to
pl ay down
more democracy
t he p u b l i c
and
t he
po litica l
behi nd t he regime a g a i n s t
domest i c and f o r e i g n t h r e a t s .
T h e r e f or e ,
tio ns,
i ss ues
prevalent
i n t he c o n f l i c t
t he government and t he Na t i o n a l
concern t o t he government o f f i c i a l s .
for
conservative o f f i c i a l s
men da t i ons " ,
es t s
than
The dat a y i e l d e d a tremendous sup po r t
policies
on t hese i s s u e s .
For example,
" t h e government i s more capabl e o f s a f e g u a r di n g p u b l i c
Pa r l i a m e n t
against
dissolution",
MPs a g a i n s t o t h e r s " and
between
t he
believethat
government
Iran",
o f t he
"Iran
"there
and t he
"open r e s i s t a n c e
security
against
were found t o be o f g r e a t
b e l i e v e t h a t " t he government f o l l o w s Assembly recom
certain
t he
Assembly,
between t he two i n s t i t u
to
Gulf
Khomini
states",
t he
In
Gulf
sup po r t
affairs, o fficia ls
regime w i l l
"Gulf
Gulf
doesn't
some MPs who c r e a t e c o n f l i c t s
Assembl y".
t he
undermines
are
"government
inter
states
cause
shoul d
by c o n t i n u i n g
threat
to
subsidise Iraq
t he war"
and "GCC
m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s are s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n f r o n t I r a n " ,
A third
area
in
o fficia ls'
concern
is
t he
terrorist
crisis
caused a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t he s e c u r i t y o f Kuwai t .
For exampl e,
tive
aims
officia ls
gover nment ",
"security
believe
"rejecting
arrangements
that
"terrorism
terrorists'
against
in
Kuwai t
demands
terrorists
weakens
to
c on s er v a
undermine
their
are s u f f i c i e n t "
which
t he
positions",
and " Kuwai t can
best f i g h t t e r r o r i s m w i t h o u t any arrangements w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s " .
Reading t he i m p l i c a t i o n s
t he
a t t it u d e s of o f f i c i a l s
on t he whol e,
loyal
i n tune w i t h
t o t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t ,
of
t hese
findings,
one would
concl ude
that
i n Kuwai t r e g a r d i n g i s sues o f l o c a l a f f a i r s a r e ,
t he
attitudes
ad opti ng i t s
- 308 -
of
government.
vi ews,
They ar e mos t l y
h o l d i n g t he
same i d e o l o g y
and showing t he same c o n v i c t i o n s
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between o f f i c i a l s
icant.
r es e r v ed
for
t he
and t he pr es s ,
r egi me.
Concerni ng t he
t h i s dat a i s g r e a t l y s i g n i f
I t was shown e a r l i e r t h a t one o f t he government o f f i c i a l s '
t as k s i s
t o i n f l u e n c e t he press and t o d i r e c t i t
i n a way t h a t would ensure a c o n t i
nuous
wide
flow
of
government
news
and
assumpt i on t hus was f o r o f f i c i a l s
a
coverage
of
its
vi ews.
The
t o pursue j o u r n a l i s t s t o d i r e c t t he press
c o n t en t i n f a v o u r o f t he i d e o l o g y o f t he r egi me.
They need t o put c e r t a i n
pr e s s ur e on j o u r n a l i s t s
i n o r d e r t o gai n t h e i r
l o y a l t y t o t he regime and t o
follow
line
a
however,
conservative
conservative
on
t he
issues.
attitudes
of
government
It
was
o n l y based on t he f a c t t h a t t he y are employed t o serve t he government,
but
t hese
attitudes
are
part
of
their
officia ls
f ound,
not
because
t he
writing
are
al s o
that
when
cognitive
and
valuative
b e l i e f system.
However, s i m i l a r t o any s o c i a l
s t r a t um , t he government o f f i c i a l s
group
i n c l u d e s a m i n o r i t y whose p o s i t i o n s on some i ssues are i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o
t he
dominant
positio n
involved,
on
10.
line
of
t he
o f t he regi me.
m ajority
beliefs,
For exampl e,
findings
a sub- gr oup o f government o f f i c i a l s
Obvi ousl y
it
is
not
expect ed
that
agree w i t h t he gover nment ' s p o s i t i o n on a l l
f o r government o f f i c i a l s
t o hol d l i b e r a l
such
to
foreign
that
liberal
shown
as
in
i ssues
unity
opposed
rights",
related
Tabl e
number around
"Arab
and
to
6. 20,
five
must
i ssues
relating
be i mme di a t e " ,
Arafat",
"the
Jordan/PLO
t he
original
show t h a t on t he 36 i s s ues
all
government
issues,
and i t
view
officia ls
w ill
was not unusual
views on ma t t e r s o f broad concer n,
officia ls
" t he
with
chose t o t ak e a l i b e r a l
affairs.
to
t hus
T her e f or e
tended
foreign
PLO i s
to
affairs.
it
was
cluster
disputes
in
under
t he
as
l a r ge
These i ss ues
more e f f e c t i v e
agreement
f ound,
are
l e ad er s
Palestinian
" t h e s o l u t i o n o f t he P a l e s t i n i a n probl em coul d be achi eved w i t h o u t
t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f Egypf ' and " t he I r a n / I r a q war ends by d e f e a t i n g I r a n " .
- 309 -
Regardi ng t he l i b e r a l
findin gs
revenues
and t he
positions
i n domest i c i s s u e s ,
was on t he i s su es r e l a t i n g t o t he e x p e n d i t u r e o f o i l
degree o f
improvement
in
i n d i c a t e d t h a t 58% o f government o f f i c i a l s
is
not spent w i s e l y "
quate because o f o i l
In anot he r
and 77% t h i n k
that
contradictory
positio n
a source
were not
in
of
threat
against
accord
believe that
"social
against
Arabs
attacks
services.
The f i n d i n g s
" Kuwai t o i l
services
income
ar e not ade
r ev e nu es " .
opposed t he government a t t i t u d e
terrorist
social
t he
o fficia ls
as
t he most s t r i k i n g
with
to
t he
t he
which
national
government
targets
government
t he
government,
considers
security,
and
t he
government
no n- Ku wai t i
especially
against
t he
after
Ami r .
p l a y i n g down t he t h r e a t which t he
numerous presence o f non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s
imposes on K u w a i t ' s s e c u r i t y .
t he
non-Arab
contrary,
officia ls
believed
They
that
foreigners
di d
On
threaten
s t a t e s e c u r i t y w h i l e n o n- K u wai t i Arabs d i d not .
Regardi ng t he o f f i c i a l s '
issues,
s t r o n g e s t c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s on t he gi ven
i t was f ound, as t he marked ( * ) mean scores (X) show i n Tabl e 6. 19,
t h a t t he
s t r o n g e s t a t t i t u d e s t aken by government o f f i c i a l s was on t he i s sue
"OPEC caused t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
-.92 with
t he p r o p o r t i o n
of
prices,
this
t h a t t he
number o f v a l i d cases was
which
(96%)
liberal
side.
tinguished
One p o s s i b i l i t y
in
oil
i s s u e was found
prices
Thi s was a h i g h l y
liberal
b ility
fu ll
at
The
mean score was
96% o f r es pondent s .
be o f c e r t a i n i mp or t an c e.
I t was found
l i m i t e d t o 25 ( ou t o f 45) r espondent s o f
variant
r esponse.
s i de and o n l y
2 (6%) went t o t he
i n s t a n c e o f r esponse;
Two reasons
mi ght
contradis
explain
this.
i s desi gn o f t he measurement s t at ement s i n which t he c r i s i s
was blamed on t he
vi ew o f t he government,
t he
to
went t o t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
f rom a normal
West".
conservative o f f i c i a l s
However,
23
not t he
group's
OPEC o r g a n i s a t i o n
o r was blamed on t he West,
point
of
vi ew.
which
based on t he
an a s s e r t i o n
The c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t s
t h a t both s i des coul d be blamed f o r t he c r i s i s .
- 310 -
is
based on
from t he p o s s i
A second e x p l a n a t i o n
coul d p o s s i b l y have been t he l a c k o f knowledge about t he i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y
d u r i n g t he c o l l e c t i o n o f t he dat a when t he o i l
p r i c e s were s h a r p l y d e c l i n
i n g w i t h o u t much d i s c u s s i o n about whose pl ans l ed t o t he d e s t r u c t i o n o f t he
oil
in dustry.
was
consistent
conservative
oil
prices
Response t o t he second i s s u e con c er n i ng o i l
with
other
o fficia ls,
will
not
of
findings.
which
77%
I t was
subject
were c o n f i d e n t
lead t o a de pr e s s i o n
in
prices,
to
that
hi gh
" t he
however,
scores
by
decline
in
G u l f commerce". A f i n a l
hi gh
score was found on t he i ss u e " P a r l i a m e n t i s secure a g a i n s t d i s s o l u t i o n " ,
r e s p e c t o f which 79% o f o f f i c i a l s
gr ant ed t he government g o o d w i l l
in
t owards
t he e l e c t e d MPs.
Ironically,
i n a few weeks t he c on f i d e n c e i n t he go v er n
men t ' s
turned
to
attitudes
dissolve
t he
Par liament
T h e r e f o r e t he l i b e r a l
The next
and t o
strongest
t o end t e r r o r i s m " .
-.63
be mi s p l a c e d ,
cancel
when
some a r t i c l e s
t he
Amir
in
t he
deci ded
to
constitution.
f o r eb o d i n g s came t r u e .
related to terrorism,
score o f
out
attitudes
ofo f f i c i a l s
were d i r e c t e d
namely " r e j e c t i n g t he t e r r o r i s t s '
It
was found t h a t
suppor t ed
t he
'no y i e l d i n g
to
t o an i ss u e
demands would hel p
w i t h a s t r o n g mean
terrorism'
positio n
t aken
by
t he government, o b j e c t i n g t o any n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h t e r r o r i s t s .
There i s
a wi despr ead coal escence o f a n x i e t y
t he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
were k i l l e d
about t e r r o r i s m
in
i n e x p l o s i o n s caused by t e r r o r i s t s
shop,
and t he Amir r ec e i v e d f a c i a l
there
were s ever al h i g h j a c k i ngs o f Ku w a i t i
Officials
Iran/Iraq
shoul d
affected
war.
80% o f
subsidise
I r aq
cials
is
other
Gulf
attracted
-.61.
Iran
states.
s t r on g
strong
in
t he war
asser ted
injuries
attitudes
o fficia ls
strongly
against
a ver y
S i m i l a r l y , a n ot he r
attitudes
between t he popul ace and
i n an o p e n - a i r p u b l i c c o f f e e
i n a bomb a t t a c k . Fur t her mor e,
a i r l i n e r s by t e r r o r i s t s .
in
respect
believed
Iran.
exp licit
- 311 -
of
that
t he
issue
t he
Gulf
of
t he
states
The mean scores o f o f f i
and
i s s ue r e l a t e d
by o f f i c i a l s .
More than 80 c i t i z e n s
visible
t o t he
Thi s was " t h e
threat
t o t he
I r a n / I r a q war
great
powers ar e
invited
to
patrol
t he
Gulf,
tion".
The mean score
is
as a r e s u l t
-.50
with
o f t he
Iranian
a proportion
of
t h r e a t to naviga
75% o f
conservative
o f f i ci a l s .
In an ot he r f i n d i n g ,
i ss u e o f Arab u n i t y
t h a t 84% o f a l l
t he l i b e r a l
sub- gr oup o f o f f i c i a l s
t o be t op o f t h e i r
officia ls
liberal
wanted "Arab u n i t y
c ons i der ed t he
prioritie s.
immediately",
It
was found
while a propor
t i o n o f 78% b e l i e v e d t h a t " t h e s o l u t i o n o f t he P a l e s t i n i a n probl em c oul d be
achi eved
without
t he
participation
liberal
agreement among o f f i c i a l s
"social
services".
services
are
not
is
Unex pec t edl y ,
adequate,
Egypt".
A third
because
issue
t he one o f wi de p u b l i c
a s p i r a t i o n common among K u w a i t i s ,
p r o j e c t s and more s o c i a l
of
of
oil
with
hi gh
concern about
b e l i e v e t h a t " t he s o c i a l
r ev e nu es " .
includin g o f f i c i a l s ,
Thi s
expresses
an
f o r more devel opment
services.
JOURNALISTS ATTI T UDINAL FINDINGS
In
t he
p r e s en t e d,
following,
their
mean
t he
findin gs
scor es
of
on each o f
journalists'
t he
attitudes
i ss ues w i l l
i s sues i n r e s p e c t o f which s t r on g a t t i t u d e s are shown w i l l
As pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6 . 2 1,
journalists
that
t he
r ev e al ed
majority
22
of
concer ned,
to
be
less
be
be anal ysed
and
be i l l u s t r a t e d .
t he s o r t i n g o f t he c o n s e r v a t i v e scores by
issues.
It
journalists
were found on t he whol e,
w ill
was found t h a t
exhibit
in
spite
conservative
of
t he
fact
dispositions
t hey
as f a r as t he number o f c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n s i s
conservative
overall
compared
with
conservative
o f f i c i a l s o v e r a l 1.
In r e v i e w i n g t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
were observed
main
areas
affairs,
pan-Arab
oil
and r e p o r t e d .
of
journalist
p o s i t i o n s on t he i ss ues c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s
F irstly,
interest.
it
was found
These
areas
that
are
w e a l t h , and t he Government and P a r l i a m e n t .
affairs,
journalists,
bei ng
in
- 312 -
t he
majority
there
pan-Arab
are
and
three
Gulf
In t he c at e gor y o f
Arab
ex-patriates,
were f ound t o hol d s t r o n g views on f o r e i g n
t o Arab a f f a i r s .
that
68% o f
without
For example,
jo urn alists
Arab
unity".
i n t he c at e gor y o f Arab u n i t y ,
believe
that
However,
a
hence,
"when i t
occurs,
49% ( on l y m a r g i n a l l y
occurs,
"Arab r en ai ss anc e
split
second i s s ue r e l a t i n g t o Arab u n i t y .
believe that
i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y t hose r e l a t e d
in
attitudes
it
c oul d
was found
be achi eved
occur s
around
t he
I t was found t h a t 51% o f j o u r n a l i s t s
Arab u n i t y must be based on a f r e e economy",
l ower )
were o f t he o p p o s i t e o p i n i o n ;
Arab u n i t y must be based on a c o n t r o l l e d economy".
echoes t he i d e o l o g y o f most r a d i c a l
"when i t
This,
Arabs who b e l i e v e i n c e n t r a l
in f a c t ,
r u l e and a
c o n t r o l l e d economy.
The most s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g among j o u r n a l i s t s was t h a t r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r
p o s i t i o n on t he i ss u e o f t he A r a b / I s r a e l i
journalists
con flict.
(76%) b e l i e v e t h a t " t he A r a b / I s r a e l i
I t was found t h a t most
c o n f l i c t coul d be r es o l v e d
by t r e a t y " .
Thi s i ss u e i s o f s t r o n g s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r many r easons.
significant
because
K uwai t i
t he
m ajority
of
Arab
journalists
press are e i t h e r o f P a l e s t i n i a n o r i g i n s ,
which t hey l e f t f o r r a d i c a l
settlement
for
t he
who
work
It
in
is
t he
or f rom o t h e r Arab s t a t e s
reasons and which oppose t he o p t i o n o f peacef ul
Palestinian
pr obl em. I t
is
also
significant
because
d u r i n g t he t i me t hese dat a were c o l l e c t e d
t he PLO, w i t h o t h e r Arab r e j e c -
tion ist
accept
Israel.
The
states,
in
a positio n
to
therefore,
is
press have f or es e en ,
that
t he
negotiations
ab l e
to
f or e s e e
what
majority of jo u r n a lis ts
f rom t he b e g i n n i n g ,
t he s t al e mat e i n t he Mi ddl e East c o n f l i c t ,
been
direct
with
The PLO approved UN r e s o l u t i o n s 424 and 339 o n l y i n November 1988.
inference,
Ku w a i t i
was not
in
t he
t he d e v el op i ng outcome o f
even t o t he p o i n t t h a t t hey have
has been hidden
in
diplomatic
circles
for
two
years.
The most
" t he o i l
pr edomi nant
we al t h and o i l
affair
prices".
i s t s were more c o n s e r v a t i v e on o i l
in
t he a t t i t u d e s o f t he
jo urn alists
As
t he dat a shows i n Tabl e 6. 21,
was
journal
i s s u es than was t he case w i t h o f f i c i a l s .
- 313 -
It
was found t h a t
attitudes.
Those
"dec li ne in o i l
to
Gulf
eight
oil
wealth",
"all
i s su es
i s s u es
are
(9 t o 16) j o u r n a l i s t s
"OPEC
caused
p r i c e s i s t e m p o r ar y " ,
commerce",
"Kuwaiti
ments
in
"dr op
income i s
c l a ss es
contribute
to
in
oil
t he
prices w i l l
we a l t h
l essens
"Kuwaiti
f rom o i l
national
crises
"oil
spent w i s e l y " ,
benefitted
t he
oil
in
oil
prices",
not cause de pr es s i on
inter-Arab
conflict",
a u t h o r i t y conserves o i l
revenues"
wealth".
show c o n s e r v a t i v e
and
Such
"foreign
impressive
invest
s up po r t
by
j o u r n a l i s t s f o r government views i s r e l e v a n t t o one o f t he hypot heses, t h a t
in a t r a d i t i o n a l
represents
t he
soc i o- ec onomi c system such as Kuwai t , where t he government
sov e r ei gn
and t he
press
as
a modern
d i s p u t e t he a u t h o r i t y o f government o f f i c i a l s ,
by pe r s uas i on
reflect
in
their
writing
t he
in stitu tio n
by
virtue
Because o f
affairs,
of
their
their
access
t hey are we l l
ment deal s w i t h o i l
Tabl e
6.21
vi ews,
to
honoured
government
pl aced t o t e s t ,
not
t he j o u r n a l i s t s by b e l i e f or
ideology
of
t he
s ove r ei gn
t hus i n t h e i r judgement, echo t he views o f t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
ists,
does
t he
and t o
gover nment ' s
information
and
The j o u r n a l
oil
policies.
relating
to o il
e v a l u a t e and j udge how t he go v er n
issues.
shows t h a t
journalists
si ded
with
t he
government
in
con
f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t he MPs which l ed i n 1986 t o t he d i s s o l u t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t .
For example,
ment
i n accord w i t h o f f i c i a l s ,
follows
Parliament's
j o u r n a l i s t s agreed t h a t " t h e go v er n
r ecommendat i ons",
that
" t he
government
is
more
capabl e o f s a f eg u a r d i n g p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s than P a r l i a m e n t " , t h a t " P a r l i a m e n t
is
secure
against
dissolution"
and t h a t
"the
government
does
not
amount
s up po r t
sup po r t
some MPs and undermines o t h e r s " .
It
shoul d
be
not ed,
however,
that
journalists
t o t he government p o s i t i o n
spond
t he
with
institutions.
attitudes
It
s i ons o r c h e s t r a t e d
journalists
t he
against
strike
of
P a r l i a m e n t does
t owards
was menti oned b e f or e t h a t j o u r n a l i s t s
their
positio n
i n many p o l i t i c a l
- 314 -
t he
two
gi ven
not
by
corre
politica l
have on many occ a
i s su es w i t h t he p o s i
t i o n taken by t he MPs and v i c e - v e r s a .
Amir d i s s o l v e d
Par liament
t he
demanding t he r esumpt i on o f
Chapter
4
that
suggested
press
when t he
amendments t o
up t o
t he
government.
It
ex-patria tes
point
press
conducted
parliamentary
press
t he
that
For example,
Law o f
t hey
a l ong and f i e r c e
life .
came under
It
campaign
was a l s o menti oned
government
Publication,
rejected
i n 1976 when t he f or mer
most
t he d r a f t
attack
in
1981
and
MPs si ded
with
t he
and vot ed a g a i n s t t he
i s t o be observed here t h a t s i n ce t he e a r l y a r r i v a l
to
Kuwai t ,
with
many
n a t i o n a l i s t s and t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s
joining
t he
in
journ alistic
o f Arab
r an k s ,
t he
i n s i d e and o u t s i d e P a r l i a m e n t have shown
s t r o n g s up po r t f o r t he no n - Ku wa i t i Arabs and demanded equal r i g h t s f o r Arab
f o r e i g n e r s al ong w i t h t he r i g h t s enj oyed by Kuwai t i
That
however,
t he
journalists
sheds
light
on
s uppor t ed
t he
government
a controversial
behi nd t he d i s s o l u t i o n o f P a r l i a m e n t .
citizens.
i ss ue
which
against
was
P a r l i am e n t ,
believed
to
be
I t was w i d e l y r ecogni sed t h a t d u r i n g
t he sessi on o f 1986 some MPs l acked t he a t t r i b u t e s o f as t u t e nes s and wisdom
needed f o r
tended
to
politicians
agitate
t he
who work
regime
t he Amir and t he Royal
in
public
life .
by a s s e r t i n g
F a mi l y,
For
c ha l l e n g e s
as shown i n t he
instance,
some MPs
t o t he a u t h o r i t y
case o f
t he
of
confrontation
between Dr. AL-Nafeesy and t he Deputy Prime M i n i s t e r r e f e r r e d t o i n Chapter
4.
Other MPs tended t o sabotage u r gen t d r a f t e d laws or t o put embargoes on
others.
The
low p r o f i l e
adopted
by
some MPs i n
critica l
c i r c u ms t a nc e s ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n m a t t e r s o f s e c u r i t y caused by t he I r a n / I r a q war, was pr o ba bl y
among t he
reasons f o r
These ci r c umst anc es
t he
t he d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
will
supportive a t t i t u d e s
have e x p l a i n e d
of j o u r n a l i s t s
in
o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s
part
t he
with
dat a
Parliament.
results
showing
t owards t he government a g a i n s t
Par li ament .
The f i n d i n g s o f l i b e r a l
6 . 2 2.
F irstly,
it
journalists'
was found t h a t
be achi eved i mm e d i a t e l y .
attitudes
are pr esent ed i n Tabl e
76% o f j o u r n a l i s t s wanted Arab u n i t y t o
Secondl y,
a smal l
- 315 -
majority
of
journalists
(52%)
have no c on f i de nc e
in
t he a b i l i t y
l e a d e r s h i p f o r t he P a l e s t i n i a n
ship.
as
Journalists
a
result
of
journalists
(69%)
t he
peopl e,
p r e f e r r i n g opponents t o h i s
also d i s c r e d it e d
Egypt/Israeli
mai n t a i ne d
Arabs i n Kuwai t ,
o f Yasser A r a f a t t o pursue an e f f e c t i v e
strong
apparently
Camp
David
tolerance
confident
Egypt's
for
(72%)
role
treaty
t he
that
in
leader
t he Mi ddl e East
in
1979.
presence
of
Finally,
no n- Ku wai t i
t hey do not t h r e a t e n t he
s e c u r i t y o f Kuwai t .
Regardi ng t he I r a n / I r a q war, t he j o u r n a l i s t s t ook l i b e r a l
three issues.
believe
Iran";
that
They c a l l
" t h e war
and t h a t
for
"open r e s i s t a n c e t o t he Khomini
between
Iran
and I r a q would end w i t h
p o s i t i o n s on
r e g i me " ;
t hey
t he d e f e a t o f
" I r a n t ends t o undermine t he G u l f s t a t e s by c o n t i n u i n g t he
wa r " .
In
i ssues
reputation
relating
to
by d e m o n s t r a t i ng
t he
press,
positively
most
(66%)
journalists
that
t hey
defended
had no " f e a r
l o s i n g t h e i r j obs when t hey [ w r o t e ] a g a i n s t t he gover nment ".
hypothetical
"Kuwaiti
their
[of]
However, such
courage was not s t r o n g enough f o r j o u r n a l i s t s t o deny t h a t t he
press i s censored and not as f r e e as t he government a l l e g e s " .
55%
t oo k t he p e s s i m i s t i c vi ew.
It
affairs
is
noticed
menti oned
that,
in
addition
above,
to
journalists
t he
two press
believed
that
arrangements a g a i n t s t e r r o r i s m ar e i n s u f f i c i e n t " ,
adequate because o f
oil
revenues"
and
Arab
i ss ues
countries,
than
journalists
retain
their
to
fact
and
local
would
in
"existing
security
"social
"government
s er vi ces
believes
c r e a t e t he c o n f l i c t between government and P a r l i a m e n t " .
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t he
positions
would
ones.
concede
own judgements
therefore
be
The e x p e c t a t i o n
to
government
on f o r e i g n
r e a c t i o n by t he government.
- 316 -
more
mi ght
positions
are not
some MPs
These f i n d i n g s are
t h a t more t han 90% o f j o u r n a l i s t s
t hey
that
local
are f rom o t h e r
receptive
to
foreign
more n a t u r a l l y
be t h a t
on
i s s ues w i t h o u t
local
fear
of
i s s ues
but
unpl eas a nt
So f a r as t he s t r o n g e s t a t t i t u d e s o f j o u r n a l i s t s are concer ned, i t was
f ound,
as shown marked ( * )
ing s i m i l a r i t y
nalists
t o mean t h a t t h e r e was a s t o n i s h
between t he h i g h e s t c o n s e r v a t i v e mean scor es gi ven by j o u r
(Issue
"rejecting
i n Tabl e 6. 21,
17
-
87%)
terrorists
and
demands
accord w i t h t he o f f i c i a l s ,
o fficia ls
w ill
(Issue
l ead
to
t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
18
t he
-
end
81%)
of
to
87% o f
journalists
were
found
to
b e l i v e t h a t t he best method t o f i g h t
and not t o y i e l d t o t h e i r t h r e a t s .
t he
"great
powers be i n v i t e d
navigation".
hol d
a conservative
is
to r e je c t
Interestingly,
The second h i g h e s t mean scor e
to
In
a t t i t u d e s were s t r o n g l y c o n s e r
terrorism
were s l i g h t l y more c o n s e r v a t i v e on t h i s
i ss u e
terrorism".
v a t i v e where t he mean scores on t he above p o s i t i o n was ( - . 7 5 ) ,
that
t he
which means
positio n
their
and
demands
however, t he j o u r n a l i s t s
i ss u e .
(-.62)
was gi ven t o t he a s s e r t i o n
p o l i c e t he G u l f a f t e r
A p r o p o r t i o n o f 80% o f j o u r n a l i s t s
Iranian
believed t h a t
that
threats
to
I r a n i s t he
aggr ess or which l ed t o f o r e i g n i n v o l v e me n t i n t he G u l f zone; a g ai n, t h i s
is
s l i g h t l y more c o n s e r v a t i v e than t he o f f i c i a l s were ( I ss u e 7 - 75%).
In a t h i r d
in
their
exampl e,
secure
hi gh mean sc or e ,
judgement
it
of
it
was found t h a t j o u r n a l i s t s were mi s l ed
government
policy
con c er n i ng
was found t h a t 80% o f j o u r n a l i s t s
against
dissolution".
Thi s
believed t h a t
conviction
because t he government was abl e t o hi de i t s
Parliament.
proved t o
For
"Parliament is
be wrong,
either
pl ans t o d i s s o l v e Pa r l i a m e n t or
because t he j o u r n a l i s t s were unabl e t o p r e d i c t t he course o f event s i n t he
conflict
between t he government and Pa r l i a m e n t which ended i n t he d i s s o l u
t i o n of Parliament.
It
is
spondence between o f f i c i a l s
A fourth
con flict
n o t i c e a b l e t h a t t h e r e i s an al most ex a c t c o r r e
and j o u r n a l i s t s on t h i s i s s u e .
s t r o n g c o n s e r v a t i v e p o s i t i o n was on t he i s s u e o f A r a b / I s r a e l i
where t he mean score f o r
journalists
was
(-.51).
The unexpected
t r e n d here was not o n l y t h a t 76% o f j o u r n a l i s t s were found i n sup po r t o f a
pe ace f u l
settlement,
but a l s o because t h e i r
- 317 -
c hoi c e was t aken ahead o f a l l
t he s p e c u l a t i o n about P a l e s t i n i a n
Finally,
journalists
findin gs
t h e i s s u e “ l ower o i l
(-.46),
authority
not
conserves o i l
wealth"
ments c o n t r i b u t e t o t he n a t i o n a l
income"
Iraq against
(-.45),
(-.37)
jo urn alists
who b e l i e v e
were s i m i l a r i t i e s
officia ls
liberal
scor e
for
^^2)
76%.
that
officia ls
"the
(.51)
liberal
second
"Arab
i n mean scor es o f
was
highest
that "social
The t h i r d
In
to
immediately".
There
bot h
be found among o f f i c i a l s '
liberal
findin gs
o f Arab u n i t y ,
meanscore
was
gi ven
(.49)
t he
highest
journalists
to
and
where t he mean
t he
was
proposition
I r a n " w i t h a score o f
74% was gi ven
to
t he
view
r ev e nu e" .
j o u r n a l i s t s were r e l a t i v e l y hi gh i n such
i s s ues as " n o n - K u wa i t i Arabs do not t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y "
(.38)
was gi ven t o an
c o n s e r v a t i v e r esponse on i ssues among
h i g h e s t mean score
In o t h e r c o n s i d e r a b l e s c or e s ,
Egypt"
(.52)
occur
must
s e r v i c e s are not adequate because o f o i l
of t he A r a b / I s r a e l i
range o f t he i s s u e s ,
84% and t he mean score f o r
liberal
invest
unity
I r a n / I r a q war would end w i t h t he d e f ea t o f
77%.
"foreign
67% ,
a p r o p o r t i o n o f 76% o f t he
gi v en t o t he i s sues
(.68)
(-.93),
constitutes
The same i s
responses.
mean scores were
The
that
journalists'
Thi s
commerce"
68%.
mean scores i n t he l i b e r a l
t o Arab u n i t y .
Gul f
Iran"
73% and
dat a i n Tabl e 6.22 shows t h a t t he h i g h e s t mean score
i s su e r e l a t e d
i n t he case o f
l ead t o de pr e ss i on o f
shoul d s u b s i d i s e
Regardi ng j o u r n a l i s t s
i n November 1988.
showed some hi gh mean scor es
prices w i l l
73% " G u l f s t a t e s
"Kuwaiti
concessi ons i n A l g i e r s
(.45)
72%,
"solutio n
c o n f l i c t coul d be a t t a i n e d w i t h o u t t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f
69% and " j o u r n a l i s t s d o n ' t f e a r l o s i n g j o b s "
318 -
(.32)
66%.
ATTITUDINAL F IN DINGS OF PRESS CONTENT
I t was menti oned i n Chapter 4 on t he press t h a t
t he gener al
disposi
t i o n o f newspapers ranges w i d e l y f rom t he f a r r i g h t c o n s e r v a t i v e t o t he f a r
le ft
libera l.
that
t he
hand,
press
t he
existing
guarded
Accordingly
set
c o n t en t
it
would
conservative
socio-political
by t he
was c l e a r f rom t he o u t s e t o f c odi ng a n a l y s i s
r ev e al
attitudes
system
government
socio-political
participation
set s
which
sustained
and ma i nt ai ne d
system o f government o f f i c i a l s .
r ev e al ed a set o f l i b e r a l
two
of
attitudes.
reflect
by
by
t he
t he
t he
and e q u i t a b l e
s i s t s o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
for
access t o o i l
quo;
t he
s o v e r ei g n ,
bureaucratic
manager i al
equality
status
one
traditional
t he pr ess c o n t en t a l so
a t t i t u d e s expressed i n c a l l s
modernisation,
On t he
women,
f o r change,
rights
revenue.
Thi s
to
swifter
political
liberal
s et con
t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s and a p p a r e n t l y a l a r g e s e c t i o n
o f t he media.
In t he p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s t he f i n d i n g s r eg a r d i n g t he a t t i t u d e s o f o f f i
cials
i n some d e t a i l .
over t he c o n s e r v a t i v e / l i b e r a l
In t he
following
section
spect rum was pr esent ed
o f t he press a t t i
t udes ob t a i n e d from t he c o n t en t o f newspaper samples w i l l
be i l l u s t r a t e d .
For c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s i n t he pr es s , t he dat a i n Tabl e 6. 23 showed
t h a t t he press c o n t en t r e v e a l ed 21 i s s u es e l i c i t i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e responses.
A n o t ab l e
pattern
in
t hese
dat a
showed t h a t
c o n s e r v a t i v e c o n t en t concerned o i l
conservative
scores o f t he pr ess
p r i c e s and o i l
includes
namely "OPEC caused t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
is
t e m p o r ar y " ,
"the
"Kuwaiti
oil
income
w e a l t h"
and
"Kuwaiti
i ncome".
It
is
drop
is
in
spent
foreign
not uncommon i n
oil
t he
six
w isely",
i n v e s t me n t s
- 319
area
i n t he o i l
inter-Arab
authority
contribute
in
t he
For example, t he
cat egor y,
" t he d e c l i n e i n o i l
lessens
" K u wa i t i
Kuwai t t o
we al th.
i ss ues
prices",
prices
pr edomi nant
to
prices
conflicts",
conserves
t he
oil
national
see e x t e n s i v e media coverage o f
oil
issues.
dictory
Tabl e
Such coverage i n t he Ku w a i ti
views
6.23
with
respect
r ev eal
that
to
press sometimes i n c l u d e s c o n t r a
government
there
is
a hi gh
a t t i t u d e s o f t he government on o i l
policy.
degree
However,
of
t he
concensus
i s su es and t he a t t i t u d e s
dat a
in
between
t he
shown i n pr ess
coverage.
A second
n o t ab l e
cor r espondence
Parliament
of
and
pattern
t he
views
of
t he
positions
For
example,
confrontatio n.
in
t he
t he
press
government
d e t ec t ed
it
coverage
was
in
in
its
press
found
that
is
t he
confrontation
c o n t en t
t he
over whel mi ng
with
c on c er n i ng
press
this
reflected
t he
p o s i t i o n o f t he government on i s s u es such as " t he government i s more capa
bl e o f
s a f eg u a r d i n g t he
doesn't
suppor t
against
dissolution"
conflict
MPs
and
in Parliament".
la r to that
be i n
some
public
porters.
a vis
undermine
others",
"Parliament
"the
government
believes
that
about
t he
Iran.
section.
MP's
regarding
The m a j o r i t y
" t he
some
government
is
secure
MPs
create
An e x p l a n a t i o n o f t hese p o s i t i o n s would be s i m i
Pa r l i a m e n t was c ar e l e s s
vis
than P a r l i a m e n t " ,
and
among t he j o u r n a l i s t s
uncertainties
security
interest
The main e x p l a n a t i o n s
arguments
security
and a p r e v a i l i n g
m a t t e r s and t h r e a t s
These were a l l e g a t i o n s
of
journalists
and most
seem t o
sense t h a t
to
Kuwai t i
made by government sup
newspapers
were
found
to
p r e f e r t he government p o s i t i o n as opposed t o t h a t p r e v a i l i n g i n P a r l i a m e n t .
A third
n o t ab l e p a t t e r n
t he i s s u e o f Arab u n i t y .
cials
and
journalists
belief
that
"Arab
"Arab
unity
must
groups
t he
press
is
For exampl e,
t he
press
r en ai s sanc e
be based
suggests
t he c o n s e r v a t i v e emphases i n t he press on
it
content
c oul d
was d i r e c t e d
to
be achi eved
without
economy".
However,
on a f r e e
that
was found t h a t
"when
st ages r a t h e r than i m m e d i a t e l y " .
320
it
oc c u r s ,
Arab
similar
to o f f i
emphasi si ng
t he
Arab
and
unity"
unlike
unity
must
t he
two
come i n
A fourth
s et o f c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s
was d i r e c t e d t o t he war between I r an
exhibited
and I r a q .
i n t he press c o n t en t
For example,
it
was found
t h a t t he press ma i nt ai ne d t he need f o r t he G u l f s t a t e s t o s uppor t t he I r a q i
m ilitary
campaign
against
de f eat ed
t he
m ilitary
smal l
next
Gulf s t at es
press was t h a t
cia lly
after
Iran
under
destination
i n c l u d i n g Kuwai t .
t he
"Gulf
t he
states
i mpr es si on
for
Iranian
that
forces
if
Iraq
would
was
be
t he
The a s s e r t i o n which was r a i s e d by t he
shoul d
subsidise
Iraq against
Iran"
espe
" t h e g r e a t powers become i n v o l v e d i n t he G u l f f o l l o w i n g I r a n ' s
threat to navigation".
On f o r e i g n i ssues i t
with
t he
distrustful
was found t h a t t he press c o n t e n t ,
attitudes
of
government
officia ls
in c o n t ra d ic ti o n
and
journalists,
c r e d i t e d Yasser Ar af at as t he a c t u a l
and acc e p t a b l e l e a d e r o f t he P a l e s t i
n i an s .
"solutio n
w ill
The a s s e r t i o n
be a t t a i n e d
pr e s s ,
by
was
t he
that
t he
PLO under
t he
t he
participation
have been v i n d i c a t e d ,
and n e g o t i a t i o n s
at
least
relating
Eg y p t " .
in
part,
t o t he
Egypt became t he main a c t o r s
t he Mi ddl e Eas t ,
of
in
In
of
Palestinian
Yasser A r a f a t " .
shows t h a t
t he
probl em
The
" t he s o l u t i o n w i l l
ev e n t ,
t hese
convictions
by t he outcome o f r e c e n t meeti ngs
situation
t he
t he
leadership
a l s o i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t he two gr oups,
come w i t h
of
efforts
in
t he Mi ddl e East . A r a f a t and
for
a pe ac ef ul
and Egypt has become t he c e n t r e f o r a l l
settlement
in
pe ac ef ul n e g o t i a
t i o n s on P a l e s t i n i a n i s s u e s .
So f a r as l i b e r a l
attitudes
in
t he press are concerned,
i n Tabl e 6.24 show t h a t t h e r e ar e 15 i s su es which e l i c i t
i n t he press c o n t e n t .
Thi s
figure
constitutes
liberal
47% o f t he t o t a l
attitudes
i s s u es
in
t he pr ess c o n t e n t .
Some n o t ab l e p a t t e r n s i n l i b e r a l
in
Tabl e
6.24 ar e,
firs tly ,
that
c o n f l i c t t he press showed l i b e r a l
Arab/Israeli
con flict w ill
in
a t t i t u d e s i n t he press coverage shown
i ssues
attitudes
relating
t he
Arab/Israeli
on two maj or i s s u e s ;
be r e s o l v e d t hr ough m i l i t a r y
- 321 -
to
t h a t " t he
confrontation"
and
that
" t h e Jordan/PLO agreement
Palestinian r ig h t s " .
ways;
that
relation
that
impedes r a t h e r
The p o s i t i o n s o f t he press coul d be e x p l a i n e d i n two
t he press was r e f l e c t i n g
t o t he c o n f l i c t
t i me
it
than hel ps t he r e g a i n i n g o f
would
with
have
t he e x i s t i n g Arab p o l i t i c a l
Israel
been
at
quite
that
t i me
i mpr obabl e
between t he Arabs and I s r a e l i s t o t ak e p l a c e .
been c ons i der ed worse than t r e a s o n .
Kuwai t ,
Israel
(1986 and b e f o r e ) .
for
direct
Any c a l l
Secondl y,
i n 1967.
especially
as I s r a e l
Par liament
t he whole
in
positio n
in
exile,
en t er ed
November
agenda.
including
negotiations with
kept occupyi ng Arab l ands t aken
into
its
1988 t owards
t he P a l e s t i n i a n N a t i on a l
new i n i t i a t i v e
direct
t i o n s between t he P a l e s t i n i a n s and t he I s r a e l i s .
was now put on t h a t
negotiations
Arab government s,
However, t h i s p o l i c y was e f f e c t i v e u n t i l
Council,
At
f o r t h i s would have
have agreed i n many Arab summits t h a t any d i r e c t
were u n l i k e l y ,
trends in
and s h i f t e d
face-to-face
negotia
A s e t t l e m e n t o f t he i s s u e
Regardi ng t he Jordan/PLO agreement,
t he d i f
f er en c es between King Hussein o f Jordan and t he PLO were a t t h e i r wo r s t a t
t h a t t ime.
tiations
The J or dani an approach was b a s i c a l l y
between r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f t he PLO and I s r a e l .
was t h a t t he PLO shoul d meet t he I s r a e l i s
Nat i ons
its
and w i t h i n
large
vi ew.
an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
contingent
of
in favour of d i r e c t
The PLO approach
under t he auspi ces o f t h e Uni t ed
c on f er en c e.
Palestinians,
nego
al ways
The Kuwai t i
f avour ed
t he
pr e s s ,
with
PLO p o i n t
of
Press s p e c u l a t i o n r e g a r d i n g King Hu s s ei n ' s n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e t owards
t he P a l e s t i n i a n s l ed t o t he c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t he t r e a t y would not l a s t l ong.
A
coverage
second
of
t he
n o t ab l e
pa tte rn in
Iran/Iraq
war.
t he
press
As i t
libera l attitudes
happened,
l e c t e d d u r i n g t he h e i g h t o f t he war, when i t
Kuwai t
was
expecting
c a p t ur e o f t he I r a q i
of
Fao
Iranians
is
l o c a t ed
c ons i der ed
an
Iranian raid
at
t he dat a
a few m i l es
Kuwai t
t o be
north
an a c t i v e
- 322 -
i n t he
here were c o l
was i n i t s most v i o l e n t phase.
any
time, e s p e c i a ll y
i s l a n d o f Fao by I r a n i a n t r o o p s
only
is
of
t he
in
K uwai t i
partner with
1986.
after
The i s l a n d
border,
I r aq
t he
in
and t he
t he war
because
Kuwai t
Additionally,
generous
subs i dy
to
t he
Iraqi
m ilitary
Kuwai t had been bac ki ng I r a q w i t h s t r a t e g i c
transportatio n
vital
offered
and d i p l o m a t i c
f o r t he I r a q i
not
supposed t o
t he
Iranians
s uppor t.
cause t o p r e v a i l ,
be f or mal
shoul d not
or
public.
acquire
fa cilitie s,
For t he Kuwai t i
al t h o u g h Kuwai t i
government
food
it
was
s up po r t f o r I r a q was
The i n t e n t i o n
evi dence t o
forces.
behi nd t h i s
ju s tify
an a t t a c k
was t h a t
on Kuwai t .
There was a l s o an u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o a g i t a t e t he S h i ' i t e r e s i d e n t s i n Kuwai t ,
whet her
t hey
were
Kuwaitis
or
non- Ku wai ti s,
danger t o t he s e c u r i t y o f t he s t a t e .
as
this
would
have
in stitutions
posed
a
i n Kuwai t ,
P a r l i a m e n t , t he press and t he government , c ons i der ed t he war t o be an i s s u e
for
debat e.
Some
believed
that
Kuwai t
o b v i o u s l y t he p o s i t i o n o f t he S h i ' i t e s .
pation
in
s uppor t
most j o u r n a l i s t s .
of
Iraq;
shoul d
neutral;
which
was
Others b e l i e v e d i n a c t i v e p a r t i c i
a view pr edomi nant
Both groups
st ay
influenced
among t he
nationalists
and
t he press t o encourage t he gov
ernment f o r f u r t h e r sup po r t f o r t he I r a q i s .
T h e r e f o r e t he r e v i ew o f press c o n t en t as pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6.24 shows
that
"open r e s i s t a n c e
Kuwait",
that
"the
war
under mi ni ng t he G u l f
po r t e d
flic t
by t he
t o t he Khomini
pr ess .
w ill
states
end
regime would p r o t e c t
by
historical
nationalists
On t hese f o u r
who
contradiction
historically
when t he
Iran",
by c o n t i n u i n g t he war"
w i t h t he gover nment ' s p o l i c y ,
pan-Arab
defeating
and
that
i s sues t he press were pl aced i n
con
t he
de s t r o y ed
is
sup
war
t o be
l es s w i t h
a n ot he r
some Kuwai t i
phase i n
between Arab and Per si an n a t i o n a l i s m .
Arabs
" Iran
of
were p r o p o s i t i o n s
s i d i n g more or
consider
t he s e c u r i t y
t he
Per si an
Empire
in
t he
Thi s arose
t he wake o f
I s l am i n t he s i x t h c e n t u r y .
A third
noticeable
pattern
c a t eg o r y r e l a t i n g t o t e r r o r i s m .
in
t he
l i b e r a l press
c o n t en t
is in
t he
The debate r e g a r d i n g t he best way t o f ac e
t he i n c r ea s ed v i o l e n c e ma n i f es t ed i n t e r r o r i s m r e v o l v e s f r om t he b e g i nn i ng
- 323
around two o p t i o n s .
rorists'
means
pressure;
to
which
negotiate
Kuwai t .
F irstly,
is
to
fight
t e r r o r i s m and not t o y i e l d t o t e r
t he gover nment ' s vi ew.
some deal s
and
to
turn
Secondl y,
terrorist
to find
attention
away f rom
For p a r t o f t he pr ess t he assumpt i on was t h a t any a c c e l e r a t i o n o f
t he c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t e r r o r i s m coul d lead t o more v i o l e n c e ,
ties
t he
among t he
public
and more d e s t r u c t i o n
t h a t i n many l e a d i n g a r t i c l e s
appropriate
engagement
example,
methods
with
It
was
noticed
and o p i n i o n columns t he press was u r g i n g f o r
ac hi eve
terrorism.
encourage
property.
a l ong
Some
public
t er m
of
t he
participation
solution
and
suggested
t he
methods
were,
for
which coul d be achi eved by emphasi si ng t he need f o r more p o l i t i c a l
pa rtici
for
l ow-i ncome
t h i s was t h a t t he more t he c i t i z e n s
t he
more
t hey
would
be
against external t h r e a t ,
Some a r t i c l e s
in clined
feel
to
s a f eg u a r d i n g
Kuwai t
country,
and more m o b i l i s a t i o n
in
end
t he
pation
to
to
of
more c a s u a l
Kuwaitis.
The
t h e i r country
make
R u b a i , MR and a member o f t he
by
liberal
editorial
sacrifices
for
intellectuals
board o f
their
comes.
AL-
AL-Watan newspaper.
He
participation,
t h a t any s e c u r i t y measures a g a i n s t t e r r o r i s m or a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l
autocratic
regime would not
regime l acked
l ead t o t he end o f t h a t
threat i f
t he
public
contrary,
would be ab l e t o m o b i l i s e
count ry
such as Dr.
emphasised t he need f o r more democracy and p o l i t i c a l
an
behi nd
i s generous t o them
no m a t t e r f r om where or by whom i t
were w r i t t e n
logic
noting
threa ts in
terrorism
or t h a t
s u p p o r t . The d e moc r a t i c system,
on t he
t he masses behi nd
pr e s e n t a p u b l i c def ence a g a i n s t t he s t a t e ' s enemies,
s e c u r i t y f o r c e s and
terrorists
or o t h e r s
( AL-Watan. 1 2 . 9 . 19 8 5 ) .
The a c t u a l
as
positio n
o f t he press c o n t en t
pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6 . 2 4,
shows t h a t
regarding t e r r o r i s m
t h e press
treatment
of
t he
issues,
i s s u es
emphasises t he c o n v i c t i o n t h a t " t e r r o r i s m i n Kuwai t i s p a r t o f t he i n t e r n a
tional
terrorist
campaign"
and
that
324
"rejecting
terrorist
demands
would
eventually
increase
terrorism".
Al s o
" Kuwai t can best f i g h t
terrorism
by
c o - o rd in a t io n with other c o u n t r ie s " .
A fourth
area o f
c at e gor y o f o i l
tions
not
t he press
because o f
cl as s es
striking
in
wealth.
in
t he
press
c o n t en t
was
oil
content;
t he
r ev e nu es " ,
have b e n e f i t t e d
in
t he
Three s t r on g a n t i - go v e r nm e n t p o s i
press
showed t h a t
lead t o d e pr e s s i on o f G u l f commerce", t h a t " s o c i a l
adequate
limited
attitudes
p r i c e s and o i l
were t r ac e d
prices w i l l
liberal
and t h a t ,
f rom o i l
"l ower
s e r v i c e s are
more i m p o r t a n t l y ,
r ev e nu es " .
oil
These r a i s e d
"only
an ot he r
set o f f i n d i n g s i n which t he press seemed t o t ak e a vi ew i n
sharp
c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t he government.
It
is
not
uncommon
government p o l i c i e s
about
economic
poorer.
income
Kuwai t ,
and p o i n t t o
inequality
Liberals
capita
in
in
t he
t he
to
world.
f o r t he
inefficiency
where
were a l e r t
however,
rich
this
Such
in
in
get
services,
richer
a country
criticism
some degree t o both t he government and t he
was,
freedom o f t he press were guar ant eed by law.
vi ew,
it
public
would m a i n t ai n
interests,
t he b e l i e f
and t h a t
t he
that
press
For
socially
criticise
or t o compl ai n
t he
t he
however,
poor
get
highest
per
a c c e p t ab l e
in
government
it
t he
freedom o f o p i n i o n and
From t he press p o i n t
t hey were a l e r t
is
to
and
with
pr es s .
would c u l t i v a t e a good i mp r e s s i o n w i t h t he p u b l i c i f
t he
press
and s e n s i t i v e
responsible
in
of
to
alliance
w i t h t he p u b l i c a g a i n s t any wr ongdoi ng by t he government.
Looki ng
fina lly
at
st and out as p a r t i c u l a r l y
s i des
of
t he
issues.
marked ( * )
figures
t he
of
issue
( - 25 9)
was
highest
spect rum.
not
score
in
in
unity,
only
t he
Al t hough
t o t he
pr e s s ,
some i ssues
s i g n i f i c a n t on bot h t he c o n s e r v a t i v e and l i b e r a l
the
conservative
i n Tabl e 6. 23,
Arab
relating
t he
Arab
unity
highest
on
content
unity
as
shown
in
t he
t he press gave t he s t r o n g e s t emphasis t o
"Arab
pr ess
attitudes,
must
t he
- 325 -
in
conservative
over
seems
come
t he
whole
unattainable
s t ag e s " .
side
The
but
score
also
t he
conservative/liberal
in
t he
f or e s e e a b l e
future,
t o most people
among Arab o f f i c i a l s
it
is a routine topic
and t he p u b l i c
and commitment t o Arab u n i t y
an
assurance
of
more
is
at
i n t he Arab media as we l l
large.
In t he
t he ground f o r
r eader s
and
more
cred ib ility
income
f rom
becomes c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t
t he more any paper r e l a t e s
and t he more emphasis i t
put s on Arab u n i t y ,
gai ns
f rom r ea de r s.
subject
for
daily
For t he
consumpti on
concern
for
among r ea d e r s ;
ad ver ti sement s.
its
It
p o l i c y t o Arabism
t he more r e s p e c t and t r u s t
Arab o f f i c i a l s
political
pr es s ,
as
t he
and
i s s ue
o f Arab
debat e.
There
unity
is
it
is
a
hardly
a
s i n g l e meeti ng between Arab o f f i c i a l s w i t h o u t t he i s s u e o f Arab u n i t y bei ng
listed
at
t he t op o f t he agenda.
and m i l i t a r y
probl ems o f t h e i r
ure t o p r o j e c t a f i r m p o l i c y
For
t he
countries
public,
t he
cultural,
economic
are t he consequence o f Arab f a i l
and commitment t owards t he u n i t y
of a ll
Arab
peopl es and s t a t e s .
The second h i g h e s t scor e i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e press c o n t en t
related
to
t he
Parliament".
i ss u e
that
" t he
government
As was menti oned b e f o r e ,
Pa r l i a m e n t evoked a sharp debat e.
ing
showed
strong
sup po r t
for
follow
t he
( - 230) was
recommendations
r e l a t i o n s between t he government and
The p o s i t i o n o f t he press i n t h i s
t he
of
government
side.
Al so t h i s
find
hi gh score
i n d i c a t e s t he wi de coverage o f t he i s su e i n t he pr es s .
The t h i r d
issue
highest
"Kuwaiti
remai ns,
believe
oil
however,
that
conservative
revenue
that
al t h o u g h
is
there
oil
spent
ar e
wealth
score
was
wisely"
some
has
gi ven
to
registered
peopl e
p r o v i d ed
of
oil
wealth.
(-157).
public
enormous
The
The f a c t
prominence
income
for
c o u n t r y (US$7.89bn i n 1987) t he e f f i c i e n c y o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i s s t i l l
Fur t her mor e,
citizens.
ists
is
income.
However, among our t h r e e r esear c h v a r i a b l e s ,
wisely
It
t he
low.
access t o t hese enormous incomes i s very unequal among Kuwai t i
and t he pr ess ,
spent
who
officia ls,
t h e r e was appar ent agreement t h a t o i l
and t h a t
seems t h a t
foreign
this
i n ves t men t
contributes
journal
we al t h i n Kuwai t
to
t he
national
c o n v i c t i o n was based on t he f a c t t h a t ,
- 326 -
unlike
o t h e r Arab o i l
s t a t e s where t he Royal F a m i l i e s do not d i f f e r e n t i a t e between
t he s t a t e
income and t h e i r
and o t h e r
Sheiks
Besi des t h i s ,
own income,
have s p e c i f i c
t he K uwai t i
salarie s
Royal
Fami l y ,
t he Amir
as members o f t he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
t hey are businessmen and have t h e i r
own independent sources
o f income.
Secondl y,
t he Kuwai t i
i n ves t men t o f
ticularly
in
its
oil
government
revenue
Britain.
in
A recent
has pursued a v i g o r o u s
foreign
countries,
example
i n Europe and i n p a r
has been t he
21% o f t he shares i n B r i t i s h Pet r ol eum (BP) l a s t y e a r ,
by t he B r i t i s h
i n v es t men t s
pl a c e d .
Department o f
are not o n l y
K uwai t i
t o t he t o t a l
oil
Industry
purchase
of
s ubs equent l y reduced
a 10% h o l d i n g .
revenues c i t e d
i n v es t men t adds an annual
above.
T he r e f or e ,
i n terms o f e x p e n d i t u r e
f rom o i l
i n v es t men t i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s .
Tabl e 6. 23,
to
Kuwai t i
These
i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g but are sometimes s t r a t e g i c a l l y
income f rom f o r e i g n
abl e r e p u t a t i o n
s u c c e s s f ul
Trade and
programme o f
e x h i b i t s awareness o f t h i s
30% t o 40%
Kuwai t has a c o n s i d e r
revenue and i n
terms
of
The press c o n t e n t , as shown i n
s i t u a t i o n and s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i t .
The f o u r t h h i g h e s t score i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s o f t he pr ess i s
t he
press
call
for
t he
t he score was ( - 1 1 5 ) .
Gulf
Finally,
press
coverage was noted
reads
"OPEC caused
score o f ( - 7 6 ) .
journalists,
states
t he
in
subsidise
t he f i f t h
Iraq against
in
oil
Iran,
where
h i g h e s t score i n t he c o n s e r v a t i v e
i t em number 9 shown i n
decline
In t h i s
to
prices
i t em t he pr e s s ,
and
Tabl e 6. 23.
not
t he
The i t em
West ",
s i m i l a r l y t o t he o f f i c i a l s
with
a
and t he
tended t o gi ve s t r o n g emphasis t o t he sharp d i v i s i o n among t he
members o f OPEC and t he tendency among members t o i n c r ea s e crude p r o d u c t i o n
i n response t o f a l l i n g
t he r e by
threatening
wo r l d p r i c e s but i n s p i t e o f OPEC quot a agreement s,
t he
destruction
of
t he
OPEC t r e a t y .
The t h r e e
vari
abl es i n our st udy agreed w i t h t he government and were i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n
from
t he
liberal
point
l ong and d e l i b e r a t e
of
pl ans
vi ew which
attributed
o f t he West t o
- 327 -
bring
t he whole
down p r i c e s ,
crises
to
to
t he
humiliate
t he
members
of
OPEC,
and
even
to
dest roy
t he
economy
of
t he
exporting
countries.
For t he
liberal
attitudes
concern were o f s p e c i a l
f ound,
score
(200)
ended by d e f e a t i n g
t he
issue
tion",
"social
t he
(93)
was r e l a t e d
fight
terrorism
i sm" .
It
shoul d
liberal
attitudes
hel d
in
issues,
t he
i t em
" t he
w ill
(117)
was r e l a t e d
t he
to
attitudes,
other
four
countries
hi ghest
journalists
which was found t o
except
was r e l a t e d
to
be shared i n t he
a m a t t e r t h a t c oul d w e l l
t he
confronta
i s su e
that
Finally,
in
highest
"Kuwai t c oul d best
affected
scores
t he
was
be
t he f o u r t h
press were found t o c o n t r a d i c t
and
of
w ill
r eve nu es" .
i s s u e which assumes t h a t
that
liberal
oil
t o t he
noted
war
be ended by m i l i t a r y
(99)
areas
t h a t t he h i g h e s t
Iran/Iraq
score
because o f
with
four
For example i t
Tabl e 6. 24,
highest
scor e
adequate
in
for
i n t he
t he t h r e e v a r i a b l e s ;
on t he
scores
services,
to
conflict
co-operation
be
figures
The second
highest
not
of highest
score
social
are
(*)
related
Iran".
t he t h i r d
services
series
t udes
was
" t he A r a b / I s r a e l i
while
press
i mpor t ance i n t he press c o n t e n t .
as i n d i c a t e d i n marked
liberal
o f t he
by
terror
associated
with
t he s i m i l a r
one r e l a t e d
liberal
a tti
to
attitudes
t he
of
a t t r a c t f u t u r e r es e ar c h .
ISSUES OF IMPORTANCE
In t he f o l l o w i n g ,
level
w ill
relationship
f u r t h e r f i n d i n g s o f agenda s e t t i n g i n t he i mpor t ance
be p r e s en t e d.
As
a
between j o u r n a l i s t s
beginning,
our
indicated
Pearson C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s
(r)
ists
emphases gi ven
to
certain
t he same i s s u e s .
i s sues
t he
i s sues
and t he
In t he meantime,
Pearson
Correlation
analysis
of
t he
certain
inter
positive
between t he emphases gi ven by j o u r n a l
t he
same a n a l y s i s
Coefficient
negat i ve.
328
between
showed t h a t
t he two
on
on o t h e r
groups
was
For
example,
t he
findin gs
pr es ent ed
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s on 28 i s s u e s .
t he da t a,
it
must be noted t h a t
i s based on t he t o t a l
in
Tabl e
6. 25
show a s e r i e s
Bef or e we proceed w i t h t h i s
our a n a l y s i s
of
o f t he 50 it ems u t i l i s e d
journalists
of
r e p o r t on
i n our i n s t r u m e n t and not on
t he 36 i ssues which were d e t ec t ed i n t he press c o n t en t and were u t i l i s e d t o
measure t he r e l a t i o n s h i p
cials
of
acr oss t he t h r e e
and t he j o u r n a l i s t s .
t he
Pearson
(P = <.08)
We a l s o draw a t t e n t i o n
Correlation
as
a
variables,
Coefficient
significant
level
r e l a t i o n s h i p on t he i s s u e s .
in
for
which
t he
t he pr es s,
t he o f f i
t o t he c r i t i c a l
we a r b i t r a r i l y
o fficia ls'
Taki ng t hese two p o i n t s
and
v al ues
s e l e c t ed
jo urn alists'
i n t o ac count ,
we w i l l
then proceed w i t h our a n a l y s i s .
ADDITIONAL FINDINGS OF IMPORTANCE
In
order
to
test
naire
we
o fficia ls
run
t he
relationship
and t he j o u r n a l i s t s
Pearson
Correlation
and t he mean r a t e s
detail,
reported
in
negative
correlations.
of
r ev e al ed
As was
critica l
because t he
val ue,
and
emphases on some i s sues
by e i t h e r
possible
out
some
c o r r e l a t i n g w i t h many i s s u e s .
of
list
i s sues
It
responses
val ue o f
is
with
mean
of
rates
of
which w i l l
be
i.e.
reporting
them,
i ssues o f
certain
positive
t he
(.05).
relatively
t he two gr oups.
of
t he
on some i s s u e s ,
significance
on t he t o t a l
point
above,
by
between
correlations,
of
possible to rep ort
to
of
significant
because,
overall
The r e s u l t s ,
t he
level
partly
journalists.
noted
t he
on t he 50 i ss ues o f t he q u e s t i o n
Coefficient
two set s
t i o n was found t o be c l o s e t o
them p a r t l y
between
correla
We p r e s e n t
c l o s e t o t he
t hey
However,
correlation;
i mp or t an ce,
and
add
to
t he
it
is
not
but
mai nl y
it
is
t hose
i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o p o i n t t o some p a t t e r n
i n which some i ss ues pr edomi nat e i n domest i c or f o r e i g n a f f a i r s .
To begi n w i t h dat a pr es ent ed i n Tabl e 6.25 show seven i s sues i n which
t he i mpor t ance o f some i s s ues assi gned by j o u r n a l i s t s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d
- 329 -
w i t h a l ong l i s t
t he domest i c
Conflicts
o f i s s ues assi gned by government o f f i c i a l s .
issue,
i.e.
that
t he
government
between t he Government and Na t i o n a l
For example,
knows t h a t
"Some MPs Creat e
Assembly"
assi gned by j o u r
nalists,
was found t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h 8 i s sues assi gned by government o f f i
cials.
The
Pearson
Moment
Tabl e 6. 25 shows t h a t
t he
Iran-Iraq
defeat"
(P < . 0 1 ) ,
(P <.03)
Iran"
war,
and
this
namely,
"Gulf
"The
Pr oduc t
issue
correlation
correlates
" t he
End o f
S t at e
shoul d
sufficiency
of
t he
coefficient
with
three
Iran-Iraq
subsidise
G.C.C.
War
i s sues
in
Iraq
m ilitary
pr esent ed
in
related
to
negotiations
or
or
st ay
neutral,
preparation
against
a t (P < . 0 2 ) .
The same i s sue was found t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h 3 i s sues r e l a t e d t o t e r r o r
ism.
Those
tions"
i ss ues
(P < . 0 4 ) ,
"Security
are
"Rejecting
"Restricting
Arrangements
Terrorists
Demands weakens t h e i r
entry
Arab
Vi sa
against
for
Terrorists"
S h i ' i tes"
(P < . 0 5 ) .
i s s ue c o r r e l a t e d w i t h 2 i s sues r e l a t e d t o o i l
we al th,
posi
(P <.02)
Finally,
t he
and
same
namely " C r i s e s i n o i l
p r i c e s ar e caused by OPEC" .05 or a t (P <.06) and "The Government Conserves
Oi l
Resources"
Anot her
(P < . 0 3 ) .
important
issue
is
" Resol vi ng
Peacef ul S e t t l e m e n t or by C o n f r o n t a t i o n " .
one by j o u r n a l i s t s ,
it
by government
shown
6. 25,
cient",
Tabl e
at
(P
(P <.04) w h i l e ,
Terrorists
tion
was
issues,
with
<.001),
(P <.07)
Recommendation"
officia ls.
t he
i s sues
with "Police
and " T e r r o r i s t
and
conflict,
"The
(P <.06)
F irstly,
it
"National
with 9 other
" S e c u r i t y Arrangements
The i s sue
correlates
obligated
Assembly
- 330 -
is
with
i.e.
to follow
not
of
two
subject
are
S uffi
Terrorists"
Undermine t he Government",
respectively.
i s not
by
correlatedhighly,
Arrangements a g a i n s t
furthermore,
Government
and
Conflict
Besi des bei ng r a t ed i s su e number
i n o t h e r two i s s u es r e l a t i n g t o T e r r o r i s m ,
Demands"
Arab-Israeli
Arab-Israeli
was a l s o found t o c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y
i s s u es assi gned
in
t he
at
"Rejecting
t he c o r r e l a
resolving
t he
other
domest i c
Nati onal
Assembly
for
resolution".
as
C o r r e l a t i o n i n t he f i r s t
i s s u e i s a t (P <.05) and i n t he second i s s u e i s a t
(P < . 0 3 ) .
By r e f e r r i n g
t o t he
same t a b l e
more i ssues
c o r r e l a t e w i t h o t h e r i s sues on t he o f f i c i a l s '
"Solutions
found
"Oil
to
for
Palestinian
coincide
with
five
sion".
Assembly i s
Each o f
t he
issues,
rest
great
officia ls'
t he
le ft
"Solution
with
for
t he
Egypt
future"
was
Participation",
"Kuwai t spends w i s e l y Oi l
i s s u es
side
Revenue",
and " J o u r n a l i s t s f e a r e x p u l
assi gned
by
journalists,
as
pre
c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h one or more than one i s sue
lis t
significance
of
jo urn alists'
For example, t he i s s u e
or
subject to r e s o l u t i o n " ,
sented i n Tabl e 6. 25,
t he
side.
urgent
Pr i c e s e f f e c t s on G u l f Commerce",
"National
in
Problem,
on t he
of
issues.
Many o t h e r
i n t he p o s i t i v e
correlation
i s sues
were
context,
also
found
of
t he whole p i c t u r e
i s pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6. 25.
L i k e t he f i n d i n g s i n t he p o s i t i v e f or m, t he dat a i n t h i s
negative c o r r e l a t i o n
officia ls.
i n many i s sues assi gned by j o u r n a l i s t s
Each i ss ue on t he j o u r n a l i s t s '
or more on t he o f f i c i a l s '
side.
st udy y i e l d e d
and government
s i de c o r r e l a t e s
w i t h one i ss ue
Tabl e 6. 26 however p r e s en t s c e r t a i n i s s ues
which c o r r e l a t e n e g a t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r s .
For example, t he i s s u e " J o r d a n i a n -
P a l e s t i n i a n agreement c h a l l e n g e s or c o n f i r ms t he P a l e s t i n i a n r i g h t s "
lates
negatively
with
R e l i g i o u s or S e c u l a r " ,
future
Arabs
time",
"Arab U n i t y
in
st ages
i mme di a t e " ,
"Arab U n i t y
:
" Ur gent s o l u t i o n f o r P a l e s t i n i a n probl em or l e f t f o r
"PLO e f f e c t i v e
under A r a f a t
Security",
prices
Thr eat en
or
corre
"Oil
or hi s
op ponent s " ,
t empor ar y
or
"Non- Kuwai t i
permanent"
and
"Oil
Revenues are l i m i t e d f o r c e r t a i n K u w a i t i s or f o r a l l " .
A second
For ei gn
it
strong
issue
in
terms
of
negative
correlations
I nvest ment s t r en g t he n s or weakens t he economy".
c or r e la t e s with 5 issues,
undermines
Gulf
T er r o r i s m "
and
states",
"Government
namely
"Rejecting
l eans
to
It
is
" K u wa i t i
was found t h a t
"The Great Powers i n t he G u l f " ,
Terrorist
some MPs".
- 331 -
Demands",
In
t he
"Kuwai t
"Iran
war
same t a b l e ,
on
t he
i s s u e "Government does not f o l l o w t he recommendation o f t he Na t i on a l Assem
bly"
appears t o c o n t r a d i c t w i t h 4 i s s u e s .
tion
between
this
i s s ue
"Ur gent s o l u t i o n or
his
op ponent s" ,
rary
and t he
le ft
for
"Non- Ku wa i t i
o r permanent"
and
"Oil
Findings
i s s ues
future
Arabs
show ne g a t i ve c o r r e l a
"Arab U n i t y
time",
Federal or
"PLO e f f e c t i v e
Thr eat en S e c u r i t y " ,
r evenues
ar e
lim ited
for
Central",
under A r a f a t
"Oil
prices
certain
or
tempo
Kuwaitis
or
for a ll".
A second
s t r on g
issue
I nvest ment
s t r e n g t he n s
or
correlates
with
5 issues,
undermines
Gulf
states",
T er r o r i s m "
and
in
t erms
weakens
t he
namely
"The
"Rejecting
"Government
of
leans
to
i mpor t ance
Economy".
It
Great Powers
Terrorist
some
is
was
in
Demands",
MPs".
In
"Kuwaiti
t he
F or ei gn
found
that
t he G u l f " ,
"Kuwai t
it
" Iran
war
same t a b l e ,
on
t he
i s su e "Government does not f o l l o w t he recommendation o f t he N a t i on a l Assem
bly"
appears t o c o r r e l a t e
tion
between t h i s
issue
" Ur gent s o l u t i o n or l e f t
tian
participation"
on t he j o u r n a l i s t s
side.
with
4 issues.
F i nd i n gs
and t he
i s s ues
"Arab U n i t y
for future time",
"Solution
show n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a
Federal or
w i t h or w i t h o u t Egyp
and "Government l eans t o some MPs".
side c o r r e l a t e
Central",
Many o t h e r i ss ues
n e g a t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r s on t he o f f i c i a l s '
The whole p i c t u r e i s pr esent ed i n Tabl e 6. 26.
- 332
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Table 6 . 1 7
Proportional Aggregate o f O f f i c i a l s in
Each A t t i t u d i n a l C a t e g o r y on O v e r a l l I s s u e s
Scal e
Attitude
Score
1
1 Ex t r e me l y C o n s e r v a t i v e
1
- 50
:
-39
:
1
6.7
1
4.4
1
CONSER
VATIVE
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Very C o n s e r v a t i v e
1
C o n s e r v a t i v e t o Large Degree
LIBERAL
Note :
:
1
:
1 1^^
: -1
1
1 4^^
- 19
Of Low Conser vat i sm
-9
TOTAL % =
Of Moderate L i b e r a l i s m
Liberal
t o Large Degree
4.4
1
Of Moderate Conser vat i sm
1
1 Of Low L i b e r a l i s m
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-29
1
1
1
1
1
1
71^%
1
1 : 10
1
8.9
1
11 : 20
1
6.7
21:
30
1
-
40
1
6.7
: 50
1
6.6
1
Very L i b e r a l
1
31:
Ex t r e me l y L i b e r a l
1
41
1
TOTAL % =
28.9%
Each r espondent has a score c a l l e d TOTAL where
(-50)
=
Hi ghe s t v al ue i n Co n s e r v a t i v e s c or e, and
(+50)
=
Hi ghe s t v a l ue i n L i b e r a l
scor e.
Both val ues decrease r e s p e c t i v e l y t o t he l owest v al ue ( - 1 o r +1)
X found t o be ( - 3 . 6 )
- 345 -
Table 6 . 1 8
Attitude
CONSER
VATIVE
P r o p o r t i o n a l Aggr ega te o f J o u r n a l i s t s in
Each A t t i t u d i n a l C a t e g o r y on O v e r a l l I s s u e s
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Scal e
1
Ex t r e me l y C o n s e r v a t i v e
1
Very Co n s e r v a t i v e
1 -39 :
LIBERAL
%
1
1
-40
1
1
6^
1
1
1
1
4^
1
1 -19 :
1 3^^
1
1
-9 : -1
1
1 1^4
1
1
TOTAL %
1
1 : 10
Of Moderate L i b e r a l i s m
1
Liberal
1
1
C o n s e r v a t i v e t o Large Degree 1 ^ 9 :
Of Moderate Conser vat i sm
Of Low Conser vat i sm
t o Large Degree
Very L i b e r a l
Ext r emel y L i b e r a l
1
Note :
1
1
1
1 Of Low L i b e r a l i s m
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Score
-20
=
58.9% 1
1
1 2^^
1
11 : 20
1
8^
1
21:
30
1
6^
1
31:
40
1
2^
1
-
1
1
1
41 : 50
1
TOTAL %
1
=
41. 1% 1
Each r es pondent has a score c a l l e d TOTAL where
( - 50 )
=
Hi ghe s t val ue i n Co nse r v at i v e score
(+50)
=
Hi ghe s t v al ue i n L i b e r a l
and
s c or e.
Both val ues decr ease r e s p e c t i v e l y t o t he l owes t v al ue ( - 1 o r +1)
X found t o be ( - 4 )
346 -
in
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Table 6. 23
The Press Scores I n d i c a t i v e of Conservative At t i t ud e s
as have been found in the Press Coverage.
I
Conservative At t i t u d e s
| Press Scores
I---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1. Arab r e n a is s a n c e wit hout Arab uni t y
2. Arab
I
u n i t y must come in stages
I
3. Arab uni t y must be based on a f re e economy
4. Solving P a l e s t i n i an problem w i l l
I
come under A r a f a t
5. Sol ut i on must come with the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of Egypt
|
6. E x i s t i n g pol i ce a u t h o r i t y i s enough to maintai n
law and order
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
7. Gulf st at es should subsi di se I raq agai nst I ran
8. Great powers are i n v i t e d to the Gulf f ol l owi ng
I r a n ' s t h r e a t to navi gat i on
9. OPEC caused the decl i ne in o i l
p r i ce s ,
not the West
10. The decl i ne in o i l
pri ces i s temporary
11. The drop in o i l wealth lessens i n t e r - A r a b c o n f l i c t s
12. Kuwaiti o i l
|
j
I
I
|
- 51 . 0 0
|
- 11 5. 00 *
- 30 . 0 0
|
-76 .0 0 *
|
- 8 . 00
I
I
revenue i s spent wi sel y
I
13. Kuwaiti a u t h o r i t y conserves o i l wealth
- 10 . 0 0
|
- 1 5 7 . 00 *
|
- 76 . 0 0
1
14. Kuwaiti f orei gn in v e s tm e n ts c o n t r i b u t e to
the
nat i onal income
|
- 5. 00
j
I
15. Securi t y measures agai nst t er r o r i sm are s u f f i c i e n t
|
- 4. 00
I
16. The government f ol l ows recommendations of Parl iament
|
- 23 0. 00 *
I
17. Thegovernment i s more capable of safeguarding
publ i c i n t e r e s t s
|
|
-37 .0 0
I
18. Parl iament i s secure agai nst d i s s o l u t i o n
|
- 36 . 0 0
I
19. TheKuwait government doesn' t s upport some MPs
and undermines o th e r s
|
j
I
I
- 9 . 00
I
I
I
I
-45.00
I
I
I
|
j
I
I
I
- 24. 00
|
I
I
|
I
I
I
- 25 9. 00 *
|
I
I
|
I
I
I
- 15. 00
I
I
I
I
|
-19 .0 0
I
20. TheKuwait government bel i eves t h a t some MPs cr eat e
c o n f l i c t in Parl iament
j
21. The
Kuwaiti Press i s f r e e .
|
-10.00
I
I
- 16. 00
Press Score = \/
1 of t opi cs X I of column inches per t opi c
where highest score i s ( - 25 9) and lowest i s ( - 4 )
* = Issues of highest frequency in press coverage
3 53
Tabl e 6. 24
The Press Scores I n d i c a t i v e o f L i b e r a l A t t i t u d e s
as have been found i n t he Press Coverage.
L ib e ra l
Attitudes
| Press Scores
|
1
1.
2.
Arab/Israeli
conflict w ill
end by m i l i t a r y
confrontation
|
j
1
1 17.00*
1
|
25^0
1
4JW
1
|
1 0 .0 0
1
Kuwai t s e c u r i t y
1
|
j
1
10^0
1
Iran
|
200XW*
1
Jordan/PLO agreement d i s p u t e s P a l e s t i n i a n r i g h t s
1
3.
Non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y
|
1
4.
5.
6.
Non- Kuwai t i Arabs do not t h r e a t e n s e c u r i t y
Open r e s i s t a n c e t o Khomini
Ira n /Ira q
war w i l l
regime w i l l
end by d e f e a t i n g
pro te c t
1
7.
I r a n undermines G u l f s t a t e s by c o n t i n u i n g t he war
|
10^0
1
8.
GCC m i l i t a r y
j
3L.00
1
9.
Lower o i l
j
|
1
47^0
1
|
9^,00
1
99 . 00*
1
j
17^0
1
13. R e j e c t i n g t e r r o r i s t demands would i n c r e a s e t e r r o r i s m
|
1
41^0
1
14. Kuwai t can best f i g h t t e r r o r i s m i n c o - o p e r a t i o n
w i th o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by t e r r o r i s m
|
|
93JM*
1
5^,00
1
p r e p a r a t i o n s ar e not s u f f i c i e n t
prices w i l l
l ead t o de pr e s s i o n f o r
G u l f commerce
10. Only some c l a s s es have b e n e f i t t e d f rom o i l
revenue
1
11. So c i al
s e r v i c e s ar e not adequate because o f o i l
revenue
|
|
1
12.
T e r r o r i s m i n Kuwai t i s p a r t o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
campaign
|
1
1
1
15. J o u r n a l i s t s f e a r l o s i n g j o bs i f
Press Score =
J
t he y w r i t e a g a i n s t
t he government
1' of t opi cs X
|
j
1
2 of column inches per t opi c
where the highest score i s (200) and lowest i s (4)
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363
364 -
SUMMARY
In
this
results
c h a pt er
were
f r equency
subjected
among both
officia ls
and
from press
hypot heses.
tion
statistical
findin gs
and
pr e s en t e d,
analysis
rank
order
The two
c o n n e c t i on
groups
with
t he
are
role
correlation
found
of
t he
includin g
r ev e al ed a hi gh e d u c a t i o n a l
journalists.
in
were
level
to
lean
heritage
and
and w i t h new val ues and m o d e r n i s a t i o n .
The mean r a t i n g s
lated
t hor ough
findings
cross-tabulations
c o n s e r v a t i sm
in society,
r esear c h
a
The demographic
t owards
tradition
t he
to
distributions,
coefficients.
more
where
of o f f i c i a l s
content,
were u t i l i s e d
to
test
Re s ul t s o f t he anal ys es y i e l d e d
with
t he
t he f i r s t
positive
i ndex c a l c u
t h r e e r esear ch
rank o r d e r
(1) on t he i mpor t ance assi gned by government o f f i c i a l s
correla
and
j o u r n a l i s t s t o t he i s s u e s ,
( 2) between t he i mpor t ance assi gned by o f f i c i a l s
and t he s a l i e n c e ,
found i n t he c o n t en t a n a l y s i s o f t he same i s s u e s ,
and,
(3) t he i mpor t ance assi gned by j o u r n a l i s t s and t he s a l i e n c e
gi ven by t he press t o t he same i s s u e s .
Additionally,
data
yielded
press
in
acr oss
t he
t he
t he
t he
dispositions
samples,
t he
on t he i s sues
substantiated
between
actual
conservative/liberal
three
dispositio ns
t he codi ng and r e - c o d i n g o f t he a t t i t u d i n a l
t he
fourth
conservative
officia ls,
di chot omy.
m ajority
rather
and
of
t han
fifth
dispositio ns
were
and
t he
also
showed,
found
t ak e
conservative
to
The a t t i t u d i n a l
hypot heses,
t he
journalists
The dat a
libera l.
of
p a r t o f t he
in
three
which
samples
a
that
findings
sim ilarity
was
h y p ot he
s i sed .
Finally,
certain a ttitu d in a l
overall
strong
conservative
related
to o i l
wealth,
bi as
security
p a t t e r n s on t he i s sues were d e t e c t e d .
was found
on l o c a l
issues,
and t he measures t aken
against te rr o rism .
- 365 -
mai nl y
by t he
An
t hose
government
CHAPTER V I I
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The
r ese ar c h
under t aken
r esear c h i n t he Arab Wor l d,
st udy
of
agenda-setting
This,
I believe,
in
this
fills
a
gap
To t he best o f my knowledge,
in
an Arab
makes t he st udy a l l
press i s t he f r e e s t ,
st udy
country,
in
it
and c e r t a i n l y
mass
is
media
t he f i r s t
so i n
Kuwai t .
t he more i m p o r t a n t because t he Kuwai t i
most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and p r o f e s s i o n a l o v e r a l l
o f any i n
t h i s p a r t o f t he w o r l d .
U.S.
The
st udy
also
for
instance.
goes
beyond
early
r esear ch
These s t u d i e s were,
of
agenda-setting
on t he whol e,
in
t he
l i m i t e d t o showing a
c o r r e l a t i o n between t he media agenda and t he p u b l i c agenda w i t h r e s p e c t t o
c e r t a i n issues.
t he
The p r e s en t s t u d y , on t he o t h e r hand, at t e mp t s t o a s c e r t a i n
relationship,
c e n t re s
in that
in
British
between t he
c o u n t r y which
to protect t h e ir
positio ns.
Kuwai t ,
interests
A specific
lite ra tu re
seek t o
press
r ev e al ed
that
power
i n f l u e n c e t he media agenda i n o r d e r
and o p t i m i s e t h e i r
r ese ar c h
agenda and s p e c i f i c
s oci o- economi c and p o l i t i c a l
s t r a t e g y was f o l l o w e d because a r ev i ew o f
any
contribution
to
agenda-setting
must
not o n l y demonst r at e t h a t t he media agenda and t he p u b l i c agenda c o i n c i d e ,
but a l s o r eve al
t he f i r s t
t he u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e t he media agenda i n
pl ac e .
The st udy
Hence t he
starts
with
' Beyond Agenda S e t t i n g '
a r ev i ew o f t he
approach.
literature.
Thi s r e v i ew shows
t h a t al t h o u g h t he concept o f a g e n d a - s e t t i n g was i n t r o d u c e d by W a l t er L i p p man i n
1922,
agenda-setting
h a l f a c e n t ur y l a t e r ,
lished
a positive
became a r es ear c h
i n 1972 t o
rank
order
be p r e c i s e ,
correlation
area
mass communication
when Shaw and McCombs e s t a b
between t he
t he press i n a gi ven p e r i o d and t he p u b l i c agenda.
366
in
i s sues
ap pe ar i n g
in
Shaw and McCombs'
tion
at
st udy ushered i n a r es ear ch area i n mass communica
a t i me when t he f i e l d
Consequent l y,
much so t h a t
was s t a r v i n g
many s t u d i e s were under t aken
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g came t o
i n t he f i e l d .
Not u n e x p e c t ed l y ,
however,
new i deas and d i r e c t i o n s .
t he
U.S.
on t h a t
topic,
so
a r ecogni sed r es ear ch area
e a r l y r es ear c h i n t h i s
area was,
(1) t he p u b l i c agenda s e t t i n g i n which
r es ear c h q u e s t i o n was "how do t he mass media put an agenda i t em
on t he p u b l i c agenda?"
r ese ar c h
in
constitute
dominated by two r esear ch t r a d i t i o n s
t he c e n t r a l
for
question
and (2)
became
p o li c y agenda-setting,
"How
does
a
public
i n which t he c e n t r a l
i s s ue
get
on
t he
policy
ag enda?" .
Si nce most o f t he e a r l y
agenda-setting
r i e d out at t i mes o f e l e c t i o n campai gns,
tia l
o f t he media f o r
structuring
what t he i m p o r t a n t i s sues f o r
t he
l ong
di sc ar d ed
hypodermic
one way power over t he p u b l i c .
studies
some o f them f ocused on t he p o t en
i s s u es o r ,
t he p u b l i c
notion
i n t he U.S. were c a r
i n o t h e r words,
were.
that
fo r defining
That p o s i t i o n was a k i n t o
t he
media themsel ves do have a
There were a s s e r t i o n s
such as t he f o l l o w
ing:
"...
e d i t o r s and b r oa d c a s t er s p l ay an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t he
shapi ng o f our s o c i a l r e a l i t y as t hey go about t h e i r d a y - t o - d a y
t a s k s o f choosi ng and d i s p l a y i n g news . . .
Here may l i e t he most
i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s o f mass communi cat i ons, i t s a b i l i t y t o m e n t a l l y
o r d e r and o r g a n i s e our w o r l d f o r u s . "
(Shaw & McCombs, 1977, p . 5 Emphasis not i n o r i g i n a l )
OR
" . . . The
set s the
power i s
t a l k and
r es er v ed
As
power o f t he pr ess i n Ameri ca i s a p r i m o r d i a l one.
It
agenda o f p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n ; and t h i s sweeping p o l i t i c a l
u n r e s t r a i n e d by any law.
I t de t er mi n es what peopl e w i l l
t h i n k about , an a u t h o r i t y t h a t i n o t h e r n a t i o n s i s
f o r t y r a n t s , p r i e s t s , p a r t i e s and man da r i ns . "
( Whi t e, 1972, p . 327.
Emphasis not i n t h e o r i g i n a l )
r es ear ch
sophistication
on
agenda-setting
were a t t a i n e d
abl es were s t u d i e d .
pr ogr es sed,
and a m u l t i t u d i n o u s
These v a r i a b l e s
related
367 -
to
however,
host
of
new
levels
different
such f a c t o r s
of
vari
as t he k i nds
o f event s and i s s u e s ,
nel,
t he p o s i t i o n s
t he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and bi as es o f e d i t o r s
and c a p a b i l i t i e s
o r media pe r s on
o f t he mass medium obser ved,
t he
degree o f emphasis t he i s su es r e c e i v e d as evi nced by t he f r equenc y o f t h e i r
presentation
in
t he
media,
and
t he
audi ence
interest
in
t he
i s sues
pre
sented as evi dence o f t he s a l i e n c y o f t hese i ssues among them ( L i t t l e - J o h n ,
1983).
Other
agenda-setting
studies
investigated
which led t o t he appearance o f c e r t a i n
raised
such as:
initiate d,
by
Are t he
t o t a l l y or in p a r t,
po liticians,
Bybee,
1977);
net works or
public
What
t he share
papers o f
What
is
t he
1977);
and c o n d i t i o n s
i s s ues i n t he media.
Quest i ons were
appear i n t he media f i r s t
and
of
t he
local
hi gh c i r c u l a t i o n )
like?
media
with
difference
between
bi ases
of
devi sed and
po litica l
each medium w i t h
and
s e t t i n g t he
agenda
i ssues? (Palmgreen and
Clark,
1977);
agenda
to
and
aggr egat e
i ssues? ( W i l l i a m s and
i n m e d i a - r i c h and
What ar e t he
(McCombs,
r egar d
Hilyard
(e.g.
and s o c i a l
( Chaf f ee and Wi l so n,
e.g.
media
in dividual
ti o n s of agenda-setting f o r pu bl ic r e l a t io n s ?
and Smelak,
and n a t i o n a l
To what degree does a g e n d a - s e t t i n g d i f f e r
medi a- poor communit ies?
structural
(Bechtolt,
r egar d t o
w i t h r egar d t o c e r t a i n
agenda w i t h r e s p e c t t o economic,
Lar sen,
factors
f r om w i t h i n t he media or f rom w i t h o u t ,
officia ls,
is
f o r a gi ven p u b l i c or
1977);
i s su es t h a t
t he
implica
1977); What are t he
agenda-setting
(Williams
1978)?; What i s t he t i me l ag between t he appearance o f an i s s u e
i n t he media and i t s
endorsement by t he p u b l i c
(Stone and McCombs,
1981)?;
and. What i s t he o p t i m a l l y e f f e c t i v e t i me span f o r a gi ven i s s u e as f a r as
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g i s concerned? ( Wi n t er and Ey al ,
As r esear ch
me t ho d o l o g i c a l
on a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
sophistication.
1981).
accumul at ed,
Asp ( 1983) ,
t he demand
f o r exampl e,
i n c r ea s ed
for
devi sed a "mat ch
i n g i ndex" t o a s c e r t a i n t he degree o f corr espondence between t he agendas o f
t he media and t he p u b l i c ,
sised
t he
mediati ng
and W i l l i a m s ,
variables
involved
- 368 -
Shapi r o and C u t b i r t h
in
agenda-setting.
(1983) empha
Chang
(1984)
showed
that
in itia te
l e ad er s
(e.g.
and i n f l u e n c e
be r t s o n
and
Stein
President
t he
(1984)
Reagan)
media agenda i n
showed
that
may
at
two
different
two o p p o s i t e
t he
topic's
t i mes
directions;
amenability
to
Cul
human
i n t e r e s t i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
Graber (1980) e x p l a i n e d
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g as an a d j u s t me nt
(1981)
pr o c es s,
frame paradigm f o r a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
have
been
McQuail
devi sed
(1983)
by
DeGeorge
and Eyal
devi sed
a time
In t he same v e i n , a g e n d a - s e t t i n g models
( 1981) ,
McQuail
and
Windahl
t o p r o v i d e a framework which would account f o r
(1981)
and
t he agenda-
s e t t i n g pr ocess.
In
addition
to
reviewing
Ameri can
t h e s i s a l s o examines t he B r i t i s h
influenced
of
that
t he d i r e c t i o n
literature
therefore,
are
seen
a permeable
around
system,
a f f e c t e d by o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s
internal
and e x t e r n a l
t empor ar y
t he
search
a social
as i t
Thus,
it
for
t he
Thi s exa mi n at i on
shown
builders
perspective,
in stitu tio n
a f f e c t s them,
was
agenda
From t h i s
economic and p o l i t i c a l
institu tion s.
agenda-setting,
st udy t o a g r e a t e x t e n t because t he b u l k
looked beyond a g e n d a - s e t t i n g .
as
on
l i t e r a t u r e on t he t o p i c .
of th is
revolved
r esear ch
which
and,
t he media
is
as
much
and which i s s u b j e c t t o
influences
that
(in
as are o t h e r
t he
West;
con
t he main
f ocus o f r es e ar c h ) t he media are s t r u c t u r a l l y or g an i s ed as busi ness o r g a n i
sations
not
only
subject
to
internal
and e x t e r n a l
economic
a l s o f aced w i t h a t t a i n i n g
v ia b le r e l a t i o n s with other social
serving
t hose who own and c o n t r o l
t he
interests
t he c o n t e x t u a l
t he
economic
capitalism
West erguard
(1982)
and
them,
and dominant val ues o f a c a p i t a l i s t
domain
establishment
of
of
t he
media
as
and as an i n s t i t u t i o n
was
examined
( 1977) ,
Bagdi ki an
by
Gol di ng
( 1983) ,
and
( 1969) ,
E llio tt
t he
3 69
in
in stitutions,
t he
For example,
hands
of
by t he dominant c u l t u r e
Murdock
( 1979) ,
p o litica l
and
Gol di ng
Gol di ng
domain
but
and r e a c t i n g t o
society.
instrument
influenced
Miliband
and
an
demands,
and
t he
of
( 1977) ,
Mi d d l e t o n
a c c o r d i ng
to
t he
p luralists'
argument was e x p l o r ed and mapped out by Bl uml er ( 1969) ,
and G u r ev i t c h ( 1975) ,
Thi s
section
setting.
( 1981) ,
Bl uml er
Cohen and Young ( 1973) , and Whale (1977) .
also
A r ev i ew
of
examines
t he
role
of
t he
of
such
scholars
Goldenberg ( 1975) ,
work
pr e s sur e
as
groups
on
agenda-
Pal et z
and
Entham
and t he Glasgow U n i v e r s i t y Group (1976 and 1980)
p o i n t e d out t he degree t o which t he media agenda responds t o t he pr es sur es
and
demands
of
interest
groups
who
media c o n t en t i n t h e i r own f a v o u r .
use
Last,
various
t ec h n i q u e s
but not l e a s t ,
to
influence
t he r ev i ew o f t he
lite ra tu re
concl udes by showing bot h t he need f o r and t he p o s s i b l e c o n t r i
bution
studying
agenda-setting
at
153 r es ear c h
there
of
are
least
in
Third
World
publicatio ns
countries.
At
in agenda-setting.
present
However,
r es e ar c h i n t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g process has been l i m i t e d t o 12 n a t i o n s most
o f which
t he
have been
'First
f ocus
Wor l d'
around
in
t he
Un i t ed
(Sal wen,
which
this
St a t e s
1985).
st udy
was
and c o u n t r i e s
Kuwai t
was
conducted
in stitu tion ally
s e l e c t ed
because
as
t he
t he
in
r es ear c h
s oci o- economi c
devel opment o f t h a t c o u n t r y and t he devel opment o f i t s media r ender i t most
s u i t e d f o r exami ni ng t he complementary r o l e s pl ayed by government o f f i c i a l s
this
i n s e t t i n g t he agenda f o r
t he pr e s s .
p a r t i c u l a r r es ear ch f ocus would be f r u i t f u l
The s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t
has been borne out by our
f i ndings.
The r e v i ew o f
lite ra tu re
gi v es
s t r on g evi dence o f t he f e a s i b i l i t y
a p p l y i n g t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g hypot heses t o T h i r d World media s t u d i e s .
is,
f o r example,
t he f a c t t h a t mass media di d
p r o d u c t o f t he i n t e r n a l
social
of
There
not emerge as an autogenous
e v o l u t i o n o f t hese c o u n t r i e s .
Thi s d e v e l o p
ment has come as an e x t e n s i o n o f t he Western media ( Gol d i n g 1977). There i s
a l s o t he f a c t t h a t t he t y pe o f r ese ar c h a c q ui r ed i n t he T h i r d World must be
desi gned t o
medi a
deal
with
in stitu tio n s
communi cat i on
not
in
as
a social
is o la tio n ,
370 -
but
pr o c es s;
together
it
studies
with
t he
other
institutions
ally
and w i t h i n a wi d e r s o c i a l
(Halloran,
1981).
Halloran
context,
himself
has
n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n
observed
that
few,
if
s t u d i e s i n t he T h i r d World were desi gned t o i n v e s t i g a t e t he power,
sation
and c o n t r o l
of
t he media.
Among t he many t o p i c s
r esear c h was t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f t he media.
reasons,
this
"Unbal anced,
thesis
was
desi gned
or uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n
to
r ed r es s
any,
organi
he suggested f o r
For t h i s and o t h e r
what
Halloran
called
t he
o f r es ear c h where t he q u a n t i t y o f mass
communication r esear ch i s dominated by r esear ch f r om t he Western i n d u s t r i a l
nations"
(Ibid,
1986, p . 9) .
Then comes a b r i e f
ries,
Kuwai t
sur vey o f t he
grew from t he
bers o f t r i b e s
history
18th c e n t ur y
and f i she r men
smal l
met on i r r e g u l a r
o f Kuwai t .
Over t he c e n t u
fortress,
"Kut",
oc c a s i o n s ,
to
where mem
a pr osper ous
w e l f a r e - s t a t e and m u l t i - n a t i o n a l
s o c i e t y w i t h one o f t he h i g h e s t per c a p i t a
income i n t he wo r l d a t p r e s e n t .
In t he p r e - o i l
t he
ge og r aph i c a l
factor,
i.e.
that
Kuwai t
era,
its
was on t he
growt h depended on
commercial
caravan
r o u t e between I n d i a and Pe r s i a i n t he East and t he Med i t er r a nea n and Europe
in
t he
West.
The
strategic
factor
was
of
similar
i mp or t an ce,
B r i t i s h found out t owar ds t he end o f t he e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
t he Ottomans i n
Shat A l - A r a b ;
I r aq
and t he Per s i ans
as a r e s u l t ,
l ed
to
t he
British-Kuwait
agreement
1899
by
around
i mpor t ance and Kuwai t
Thi s s t r a t e g i c a l l y
of
t he
At t h a t t i me
had been exhausted i n b a t t l e
t he p o r t o f Basra l o s t i t s
assumed t he r o l e o f Tr adi ng Cent r e.
as
important
which
location
Kuwai t
became
a
B r i t i s h p r o t e c t o r a t e , y e t an a c t i v e pr osper ous p o r t .
After
t hus
sur veying
t he
socio-political
devel opment under t aken i n Kuwai t ,
t he
social
formation
analysis
of
of
this
socio-political
power c oul d be d e f i n e d
structure
and t he
mode o f
two approaches were adopted t o feed i n t o
st ud y .
power.
The
It
firs t
was found
i n t erms o f t r a d i t i o n a l
Fami l y and t he merchants on t he one hand,
- 371 -
approach
for
bases,
and emergent
dealt
example,
with
that
t he
such
i n c l u d i n g t he Royal
power bases t o
be
found
in
t he
nationalists,
second approach,
is
takes a d i f f e r e n t
t he
within
social
dispositions;
Bedouin
a positio nal
definition,
inter-relationship
analysis,
t he
and t he
approach
in
media,
which t he
based on t he r o l e
conser vati veness
defined
and
other.
division
of
The
power
p l a y i n g and t he i n t r a
each and among o t h e r
groups were
on t he
gr oups.
a c c o r di n g
liberalism.
to
Those
On t h i s
their
who
and
level
of
ideological
suppor t ed
t he
s t a t u s - q u o and defended t he e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l
system were found t o be t he
Royal
t he
Fami l y
Ruler's
and
t he
staff,
social
Bedouin.
t he
Cabi net and
classification
includes
pi on changi ng t he s t a t u s - q u o ,
Those
Sub-groups
t he management
ruling
bot h on t he s o c i a l
t he
n a t i o n a l i s t s and,
groups
of
the
n a t i o n a l i s t s are
radical
gr oups.
t o some
system
bureaucrats.
t hose who demand l i b e r a l
are
ties,
of
The
t he
t he
t he
second
changes and cham
and t he p o l i t i c a l
extent,
t he M a r x i s t s ,
are
levels.
journalists.
Nasserists
Sub
and
other
C e r t a i n secondary t r e n d s ar e composed o f members o f m i n o r i
such as t he
S h i ' i tes,
Musl i ms,
or
f undament al
Sunni es connected
to
t he o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t he Musl im Br ot h er ho od .
In terms o f p o l i t i c a l
Ruling
F ami l y .
century,
lies
to
emi gr at ed
t he A1-Sabah f a m i l y
s till
govern
nated
Having
hi s
existing
in
Kuwai t w i t h
half
t he
brother
in
Kuwai t
continuity
in
t he
o f t he f a m i l y
t he most power f ul
f rom
central
Ar a b i a
group i s
in
t he
A1-Sabah
early
c o n s i d er ed one o f t he e a r l i e s t r o y a l
' A r ab i a n
G u lf.
legitimacy
It
legitimacy
has c o n t i n u e d ,
except
1896 and pr o cl a i med
tio n of t h e ir grandfather,
in
is
u n di s put e d
The Al -Sabahs base t h e i r
tribes
influence,
on two f a c t o r s ;
sevent eent h
fami
s i n c e t he n,
when Mubarak
assassi
h i m s e l f t he Amir o f Kuwai t .
t he f ou nde r o f Kuwai t ,
early
18th
one i s
Sabah I ,
century.
t he f r e e e l e c
by t he e x i s t i n g
The
second
is
t he
r u l e r s h i p w i t h o u t any opponents what soever c l a i m
i n g t he r i g h t t o govern or t o share l e g i t i m a c y .
When o i l
c e n t ur y
and
was d i sc o v e r e d
was ex p or t ed
in
in
t he
Kuwai t
late
in
t he
'fo rtie s,
- 372 -
'th irtie s
t he
of
fortune
the
of
present
t he
Royal
Fami l y
was
equal
to
that
of
t he
K uwai t i
peopl e,
who b e n e f i t e d
f rom
oil
revenues by e n j o y i n g hi gh p e r - c a p i t a income, f r e e p u b l i c s e r v i c e s , and f r e e
housi ng
for
low income c i t i z e n s .
The o i l
revenues
added more
power
and
s t r e n g t h t o t he A1-Sabah f a m i l y and c o n s o l i d a t e d t he i n t e g r a t i o n among i t s
members i n c l u d i n g t he Amirs who t r a d i t i o n a l l y
o t h e r members.
f rom
t he
enabl ed
Fur t her mor e,
oil
revenues,
him t o
t he mer chant s.
t axes
or
t he a v a i l a b i l i t y
added
ent r ench
to
himself
t he
and
separ at ed t hemsel ves f rom a l l
o f s t r on g f i n a n c e s r e s u l t i n g
Amir's
his
financial
On t he c o n t r a r y ,
it
regime a g a i n s t any pr e s sur e from
He no l o n g e r needed t he mer chant s'
suppor t.
independence;
financial
t he a v a i l a b i l i t y
contributions,
of fin a n c ia l
sources
enabl ed him t o run generous devel opment programmes, e s t a b l i s h i n g a w e l f a r e
state
for
t he
firs t
f r e e educati on,
citizens
t i me
i n t he
r eg i o n o f t he Ar abi an G u l f .
By a l l o w i n g
f r e e h e a l t h car e or h i g h l y s u b s i d i s e d houses f o r low income
and j obs
for
public
servants,
t he Amir succeeded i n e s t a b l i s h i n g
s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s between t he peopl e and t he government; t he same i s t r u e o f
t he
regime
ground
of
popul ace.
future).
large.
To t r a d i t i o n a l
legitimacy,
t he
capacity
(However,
this
norms and forms was added a f u r t h e r
to
f or ebodes
meet
a
o f Kuwai t i
po litica l
new e x p e c t a t i o n s among t he
l ess c e r t a i n
When one adds t o t h i s t he p o l i t i c a l
nisatio n
solid,
at
institutions,
legitimacy
in
t he
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and t he moder
it
is
realised
howmuch more
more s t a b l e and unshaken t he p o l i t i c a l system has become.
It
i s p e r t i n e n t here t o not e,
t he A1-Sabah
family
however, t h a t some s p e c i a l
have added t o
f o r some 350 peacef ul y e a r s .
the ir
They s k i l f u l l y
highly
specialised
of
elected
an
debat es.
Nati onal
Most i m p o r t a n t l y ,
centres.
Assembly
and
power,
Kuwai t
families,
ver y r e c e p t i v e t o s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
share p o l i t i c a l
educational
success t o r u l e
U n l i k e many Ar abi an G u l f r o y a l
Al -Sabahs have been, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
nisation.
p o litica l
a t t r i b u t e s in
sendi ng Kuwai t i
t he
moder
you t h
to
They have p e r m i t t e d t he c r e a t i o n
participated
in
discussions
and
t hey have shown a hi gh degree o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
- 37 3 -
efficiency
i n t op e x e c u t i v e
post s
which
are
occupi ed
by Shaikhs
f rom A l -
Sabah,
However,
Fami l y
such
positive
seem c o u n t e r - p o i s e d
o c c u r r ed
twice
between
in
t o t he
with
t en y e a r s .
1965-1977,
addition
attributes
or der ed
In
t he
suspensi on o f
imposed s t r on g c o n t r o l
t he
credited
set back
in
to
of
some A r t i c l e s
A1-Sabah
parliamentary
1976 t he Ami r ,
dissolution
t he
Royal
rule
which
Sabah A1- Sal i m who r u l e d
t he
Nati onal
Assembly
i n t he c o n s t i t u t i o n .
in
He a l s o
on t he pr ess by g i v i n g t he government t he r i g h t
to
suspend any p u b l i c a t i o n f o r two y ea r s w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i o n or r e f e r e n c e t o
t he Co ur t s.
1981,
t he
Sim ilarly,
pr e s en t
Ami r ,
after
t he
Jaber
restoration
A1-Ahmed,
or der ed
its
Assembly i n
dissolution
agai n
in
1986 usi ng h i s pr edecessor s same measures a g a i n s t t he N a t i o n a l Assembly and
t he pr es s.
1967
Besi des,
parliamentary
Their
in te ntio n
Bedoui ns'
Bedouin
A1-Sabah were d i s c r e d i t e d when t hey i n t e r f e r e d
elections
was
to
add
by
showing
more
favouritism
parliamentary
l a c k o f necessary q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .
to
c o u n t er
nationalists
t he
gr owi ng
influence
r e g a r d l e s s o f t he damage t o
for
allies
t he
i n t he
Bedouins.
regardless
of
t he
The government encouraged t he
of
t he
emergent
power
of
t he
per for mance o f t he
Na t i o n a l Assembly t h a t t hey caused.
It
was found t h a t
t h e merchant
economic s t a t u s and p o l i t i c a l
of
t he
their
traditional
influence.
who
nominated
economic power t h r ou g h o u t
and i n f l u e n c e
modified
during
tribes
their
t he
c l a s s came second i n t erms o f
t he
Being t he descendent s o f members
Sabah
centuries,
I,
uprisings
reduction in t h e i r
of
to
accommodate
1921
political
and
1938 and
power.
reached t he h i g h e s t peak i n t h e i r
t he
t he
374
mer chant s,
oil
era
era,
influence.
besi des
p o litica l
F ami l y .
autocratic
In t he p r e - o i l
political
t he
mai nt ai ned
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t he A1-Sabah Royal
tactics
socio
rule
l ed
power
The merchants
of
t he
Amir
to a fu rth e r
t he merchants had
They were t he main
suppliers
dence
o f t he A m i r ' s
on t he
and t he gover nment ' s
mer chant s'
he had bar gai ned f o r .
financial
t he
'fiftie s ,
gave
The A m i r ' s
them more
influence
t he
of
t he merchants
merchants
proceeded
i n t he
to
'fiftie s .
wi t h dr a w
from t he
l e a v i n g t he arena t o t he Amir and t he Royal
F ami l y .
cover y
of
r ema i ni ng
po litica l
l osses
of
irrevocable
without
gains.
mer chant s'
In
t he merchants
influence
A t i me
than
Consequent l y,
scene,
o il,
depen
I t was t h a t which aggr avat ed t he A m i r ' s revenge when
he or der ed t he i s o l a t i o n
in
support
revenues.
were
was y e t
lost
not
to
their
however
come
in
which
t he
Amir
political
A f t e r t he d i s
once
power.
Such
suppl ementar y
more
needed
t he
aid.
1953,
it
was
reported
that
t hrown i n t o an economic d i s a s t e r .
by members o f t he Royal
to avert d is a s t e r ,
t he meantime,
Fa mi l y,
He nc e f o r t h
t he
the
Royal
F ami l y .
oil
era,
Amir
and
t he
whole
country
were
C o r r u p t i o n i n hi gh p l a c e s , mo s t l y f i l l e d
l ed t o a severe d e p r e s s i o n .
t he Amir c a l l e d
he o f f e r e d
t he
upon t he merchants
for
In an a t t e mp t
new l o an s .
In
them generous terms o f access t o t he o i l
we al th.
re-occupied
only
merchants
positio n
to
i n t he
secondary p o l i t i c a l
role,
t hey mai n t a i ne d an e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n cont emporary p o l i t i c a l
in s ti
tutions.
t he mer chant s' s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
second
influence
it
As f o r
an economic
was noted t h a t ,
in
spite
Some o f them, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
of t h e ir
hol d hi gh post s i n t he Ca b i n e t , w h i l e
o t h e r s are MPs i n t he N a t i o n a l Assembly.
I t was a l s o noted t h a t t hough, as
a gr oup, t he merchants s u f f e r e d severe l osses i n t he p o l i t i c a l
nevertheless
ma i nt ai ned
great
influence
e l d e r l y merchants are so s k i l l e d
government seek t h e i r a d v i c e .
t ee
of
el even
d r a f t i n g team.
merchants
was
at
t he
individual
level.
Most
i n f i n a n c i a l ma t t e r s t h a t t he Amir and t he
In t he e a r l y days o f i ndependence, a commi t
selected
to p a rtic ip a te
in
t he
constitution
In 1976, merchant MPs j o i n e d t he n a t i o n a l i s t s i n p r o t e s t i n g
a g a i n s t t he government by r e s i g n i n g f rom t he Na t i on a l Assembly.
parliamentary
sphere, t hey
crisis,
merchant
MPs once more si ded w i t h
- 375 -
t he
In t he 1986
nationalists
against
t he
government
by w i t h d r a w i n g
sessi on f o r o r g a n i s i n g t he j u d i c i a l
f rom t he
Na t i on a l
t he
new s t a t e
in
t he
law.
As f o r t he emergent power o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
independence
Assembly
ex per i enc ed
rapid
i t was noted t h a t a f t e r
and maj or
p o litica l
r ef or ms
which caused i m p o r t a n t changes i n t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t and among t he p o l i t i c a l
elites.
The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t he N a t i o n a l
political
Assembly l ed t o t he wi den i n g o f
debates and d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
issues.
The spread o f educa
t i o n among K u w a i t i s i n t h e i r c o u n t r y and abroad produced a new i n t e l l i g e n t
sia,
t he r e by
flourishing
increasing
and
intellectual
t he
number
sophistication
per sonnel
of
who were
of
reformists
t he
press
la rgely
con s eq ue nt l y s t r eng t hen ed t he p o l i t i c a l
this
new
political
po litical
e n v i r o nmen t ,
t he
and
added
to
in te lle ctuals.
t he
need
drawn from no n- Ku wai t i
power o f K uwai t i
nationalists
radical
became
group i n o p p o s i t i o n t o government p o l i c i e s ,
t he
The
for
more
Arabs who
gr oups.
most
In
vocal
writing
i n t he news
papers and a d v o c a t i ng t h e i r demands i n t he Na t i on a l
Assembly.
The n a t i o n
alists'
demands
for
Western
influence,
centred,
for
control
revenues t o devel op t he
fare
In
and above a l l
regional
and
state,
calling
pan-Arab
opposi ng
t he
security
( G. C. C. ),
on
supporting
Palestinian
tiatives
cause,
to
domestically,
calling
t he
arrangements
wealth,
social
i ndependence
and f o r
justice
nationalists'
of
against
for
Arab
for
calling
f rom
t he use o f o i l
and s o c i a l
wel
a p a r l i a m e n t and f o r freedom o f t he pr e s s .
affairs,
calling
establish
o f t he o i l
for
Iraq
on
t he
Iran,
Gulf
and
t he
co-operation
calling
cen t r e d
Co-operative
supporting
more i n t e r - A r a b
unity,
demands
for
a
on
Counci l
PLO and
t he
and more i n i
brave
decision
to
r e p l a c e t he non-Arab manpower wo r k i ng i n Kuwai t w i t h Non- Kuwai t i Arabs.
The n a t i o n a l i s t s '
t he
power
menti oned
of
t he
that
political
N a t i on a l
with
Dr.
Shaikh A bd ul l ah A1- Sal i m,
i n f l u e n c e has been h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
Assembly
Al-Katib,
and t he
t he
power
national
of
t he
activists'
pr es s .
It
influence
was
on
1950-1965, t he N a t i on a l Assembly and o t h e r modern
- 376 -
constituents
who caused
calls
for
in
t he
Kuwai t
was unbounded.
dissolution
more r ef o r m.
of
t he
It
was t he
Nati onal
nationalists,
however,
Assembly
by t h e i r
persistent
They had been t he power t h a t
initiated
t he demand
f o r t he r e s t o r a t i o n o f t he N a t i o n a l Assembly i n 1981; y e t t h e i r demands f o r
a secular
N a t i on a l
state
restoring
Assembly,
t he
independence o f p o l i t i c a l
t he pr e s s ,
and t he j u d i c i a l
institutions,
in stitutions
t he
l ed once more
t o t he d i s s o l u t i o n o f t he N a t i o n a l Assembly i n 1986.
Among o t h e r
social
gr oups,
pr es ent ed
Bedouins a r r i v e d on t o t he p o l i t i c a l
in
Chapter
III,
t he
scene i n t he m i d - s i x t i e s .
ment needed t o r e s t o r e a s u p p o r t i v e bal ance i n t he N a t i on a l
need t o
ensure m a j o r i t y
Bed ou i n' s
po litical
vot es f o r
t he regime l ed t o
i n f l u e n c e i n Kuwai t .
Traditionally,
and
al ways have been,
t he
Ami r . In c o n t r a s t t o t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
are w h o l l y
as t he
loyal
tribes
po litica lly
with
c ent re of
t he
oil
revenues
on t he
Assembly.
Its
emergence o f
t he
t he Bedouins a r e ,
politica l
life .
one hand,
and t he mer chant s,
conservative
a rightful
Thus, t he new economic and p o l i t i c a l
t he
The go v er n
t o t he A1-Sabah f a m i l y and s t r o n g s u p p o r t e r s o f
pr o- gov er nment ,
head o f a l l
t he
sedent ar y
t he Bedouins
and c o n s i d e r
t he Amir
c l a i m t o obedi ence and r e s p e c t .
ci r c u ms t a nce s t h r u s t t he Bedouins i n t o
Hence,
and t he
to
recapitulate,
gr owi ng
need o f
t he
t he
i n c r ea s ed
government
to
ensure m a j o r i t y vot es i n t he f ac e o f t he gr owi ng i n f l u e n c e o f t he n a t i o n a l
ists,
in to
on t he o t h e r ,
t he
City
of
i nduced
Kuwai t ,
The
deal
government
transforming
community, w i t h t he e f f e c t s
modern ( o i l )
t he
of t h e ir
to
them
draw t housands
increasingly
in to
a
settle d
economy and r e l a t e d i n c r e a s i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s .
government
and
t he
r e l a x i n g t he n a t u r a l i z a t i o n
gr ant ed them a l s o f i n a n c i a l
c ar e ,
Bedouins
gr owi ng access t o t he b e n e f i t s o f t he
Bedoui ns,
as
earlier
not ed,
came t o
by which t he government al l owed them t o o b t a i n Kuwai t i
medical
of
social
citizenship
law i n f a v o u r o f t he Bedouins.
incentives
security
in
and s u i t a b l e
- 377 -
t he
j obs
f orm o f
in
by
The government
free
public
a tacit
housi ng,
offices.
free
Under
t he
terms
of
government
N a t i on a l
that
tacit
s e l e c t ed
Assembly
government.
It
deal,
N a t i on a l
Bedoui ns,
some e n l i g h t e n e d
and t hus
was not
Assembly
to
with
and e l d e r l y
become a r ubber
unexpect ed
f a v o u r o f t he government,
t he
t he
that
managed t o
f rom 38% i n
t he
t he
assistance
Bedoui ns,
stamp i n
sedent ar y
i n c r ea s e t h e i r
1963 t o 48% i n
t he
t o run f o r
t he
t he
hands o f
Bedouins,
t he
with
t he
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n MPs i n
1975,
has not been enj oyed by any o t h e r s i n g l e p o l i t i c a l
of
a proportion
that
group i n t he P a r l i a m e n t
o f Kuwai t .
These s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
Kuwai t ,
provide
pl ace.
It
mat i on
t he
relationships
backdrop
for
social
parliamentary
po litical
society
The gr owi ng n a t i o n a l
in
with
alliance
n o n- Ku wai t i
with
modern
po litica l
restless.
po litica l
oil
revenues
opportunitie s for a ll
Arab s t a t e s
by I r a q ,
t he
fe lt
so
as
to
Kuwaitis.
that
groups
have t aken
and
need
to
international
base
political
in stitu tio n s.
pendence,
t he
its
established,
modern
with
state
rich
and
to
intellectuals
Kuwai t
became
Assembly,
better
demanding
no l e s s
than
an i n c r ea s e i n t he p u b l i c
public
services
and
equal
They have demanded s t r o n g e r a l l i a n c e s w i t h
legitimacy
identity
of
state
s t r e s s e s and e x t e r n a l
immigrating
institutions,
realise
Therefore,
constitution
transfor
welfare
f o r c e s o f Ku w a i t i
i n sup po r t o f t he P a l e s t i n i a n cause.
national
in
They st r e s s e d t h e i r demands f o r a
i n t he e a r l y days o f i ndependence,
t he
social
internal
Arabs
f r e e e l e c t i o n s and an e l e c t e d Na t i o n a l
of
devel opments
a modern
radical
s o c i a l l y vocal and p o l i t i c a l l y
state
to
system has c r e a t e d
challenges.
use
social
i s e v i d e n t t h a t t he r a p i d soci o- economi c and p o l i t i c a l
f rom a p a t r i a r c h a l
modern
t he
among d i f f e r e n t
The t h r e a t o f annex at i on
h i g h l i g h t e d t he need t o ensure
of
t he
on a modern
in
Kuwai t
regi me.
The new s t a t e
constitution
l e s s than two yea r s
was
drafted,
t he
and
from i t s
N a t i on a l
s t r on g
inde
Assembly
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t he new s t a t e guar ant eed.
resources,
an e l e c t e d
378 -
parliament
in
a setting
A
of
diverse
sent s
ideological
ideal
Kuwai t i
and s o c i a l
ci r c u mst a nc e s
press
convictions
for
flourished in
s t r on g
such
become one o f t he most po wer f ul
It
press p a r a l l e l e d
liberal
gr oups.
For
per
was
published in
uprisin g,
in
launched
from
modern
1938,
st udy
that
that
as
a
S im ilarly,
sev er al
periodicals
especially
lay at
was t h a t t he f i r s t
result
and A1-Sayasah were
government.
heart
papers which
of
in
had
movement l ed by
mer chant s'
t he
The
maj or
some o f
media
newspa
p o litica l
which were
constituted
modern Kuwai t i
histo ry
uprisin g
Kuwai t i
second
a
devel opment .
was named a f t e r
independence i n
inte lle ctual.
1961,
A
t he f i r s t
since t h e i r
as
moderate
inception,
t he Ku w a i t i
papers
but
m illion
four
hundred thousand
other
in
spite
in
perio dicals
affluence
incomes,
been t he
Times ( E n g l i s h )
sy mpa t h et i c
to
t he
two o f which were
bent .
found t h a t ,
and
have,
In t he 1970s t h r e e d a i l i e s were e s t a b l i s h e d ,
was
and
t he
Kuwai t i
Soon a f t e r w a r d s ,
It
all
it
and devel opment o f t he
i ssued i n 1928 by a Kuwai t i
published
with a radical
tisement
of
C a i r o.
publication
mouthpi ece o f t he government .
Financial
decades
t he
Al -Ray Al-Am and t he E n g l i s h D a i l y News were p u b l i s h e d i n 1961.
Both were c o n s e r v a t i v e
z i n es
two
were p u b l i s h e d
few o t h e r weekly magazines appeared u n t i l
liberal
within
c i r c u ms t a n c e s ,
1921, t he f i r s t
after
f rom
t he
t he c o u n t r y ' s name, A1 K u w a i t i ,
newspaper,
t hese
t he r i s e
o f t he Amir i n
1928.
abroad,
In
t he devel opment o f t he p o l i t i c a l
rule
i n s t i t u t i o n which
Thus i t
a way
instance,
a g a i n s t t he a u t o c r a t i c
media.
pre
i n t he Mi ddl e East .
has been noted i n t h i s
Kuwai t i
and a spr e ad i ng e d uc a t i on
t he
1987),
level
pr omot i on
of
low
population
t he t o t a l
published
in fluencin g
a hi gh
of
between
in
Kuwai t
(one
number o f paper s, maga
1950
and
and owner shi p,
professionalism,
1978
was
104.
i n c r ea s ed a d v e r
competition,
and above
t he guarant eed f reedom o f e x p r e s s i on were, t he main c o n d i t i o n s o f power
success
Ku w a i t i
pr e s s .
which
after
t he
The r e l a t i o n
country's
independence
characterised
t he
between t he government and t he press has been
- 379 -
governed by t he Law o f
Publication
which f o r b i d s
q u o t i n g him w i t h o u t a u t h o r i s a t i o n .
It
is
also
criticism
not p e r m i s s i b l e
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t would " a f f e c t t he val ue o f t he n a t i o n a l
misgivings
Nati onal
about
t he
Assembly
Ku w a i t i
in
1976,
t he
interests
of
government
added more r e s t r i c t i o n s
t o t he Law.
suspend o r even cancel
a foreign
assistance
from a f o r e i g n
interest".
(Law o f
c ur r e nc y or c r e a t e
After
t he
state
state,
t he
to publish
economy".
press by way o f amending A r t i c l e s
ernment t he power t o
o f t he Amir or
The a r t i c l e s
of
or o r g a n i s a t i o n ,
gave t he gov
or o b t a i n s
"35"
" ser ves
any s o r t
contradicts
Amending A r t i c l e s
t he
on t he
any p u b l i c a t i o n which
o r whose p o l i c y
Publication,
dissolution
t he
of
national
and A r t i c l e
"59"
1976).
In s p i t e o f t he a g g r es s i v e measures t aken by t he government , t he press
has
sur vi ved
and
to
power,
rule
with
criticise
as
Rugh
t he
considerable
t he
executives.
noticed,
actions
are
in
or
order"
t he
cancellations
(Rugh,
press
t he
government
significant
mild,
government
occasionally
po litical
in volving
brief
cases.
policies
uses
that
"But
as a
suspensi ons
p . 106).
t he
It
t he
Counci l
of
Ministers
was advanced i n
gov er nment ' s
points
was
by t he
Chapter
of
empowered
to
IV t h a t whenever
view a n d / or
used
t he gover nment ' s responses o f t e n t ook t he shape o f l e g a l
harsh
prose
Between 1976-1980, d u r i n g t he p e r i o d o f suspensi on o f p a r l i a m e n t ,
government
cases,
The
contradict
l e s s than t h r e e months r a t h e r than l o n g e r suspen
which
contradicted
criticism ,
cutions.
1979,
some
relative ly
Information Minister for
si on
freedom t o
t he
interests
t oo k
legal
ac c u s a t i o n s
of
t he
press,
either
Cour t s
owing
by t he
to
revolved
state,
i n t r u d i n g upon p r i v a t e
t he
action
against
around
financial
life .
four
offences,
Eventually,
government
conviction
or
some e d i t o r s - i n - c h i e f .
offences:
religious
against
t he
violations,
and
t he many cases r a i s e d a g a i n s t t he
by
that,
main
In most
in d iv id u a ls ,
t he
gu ar d ed.
- 380 -
freedom
were r e j e c t e d
of
t he
press
by t he
must
be
The r o l e o f t he Kuwai t i
Under t he
pr ess ,
shelter
o f t he C o n s t i t u t i o n ,
with
r egar d
t he Cour t s showed s t r o n g i ndependence,
charges t h a t
t a k i n g t he
y ear
Cour t s i n de f e n d i n g t he press was r emar k abl e.
t he
t he Cour t s
cleared
examined
newspapers
from
r e s p o n s i b l e media.
52
all
cases,
in
char ges,
The c o n f l i c t
It
all
t he
by t he
but
one
emphasi si ng
of
t he
which
need
total
was
noted
Kuwai t i
that
most
journalists
t he
for
Court s
free
guarant eed
and saf eguar ded i t s
crisis.
pr ess
bei ng
per sonnel
l ess
than
were
no n- Ku wai t i
Ar abs,
20 per cent o f t he t o t a l
i n c l u d i n g t he s t a f f wo r k i n g i n t h e government-owned media
statio ns,
television
and o t h e r p e r i o d i c a l s ) .
n a l i s t s were o f P a l e s t i n i a n o r i g i n ,
per cent age
of
Until
1975,
23% o f Eg y p t i a n ,
Lebanese o r i g i n .
T h e r e f or e,
t he
low i n comparison w i t h t hose o f f e r e d
t he
media
(radio
45% o f t he j o u r
14% o f Sy r i a n and an
i ss u e o f Kuwai t i z i n g
t he media manpower was under debate on many oc c a s i o ns .
are r e l a t i v e l y
and
i n which t he press
per sonnel
equal
of
between t he government and t he press was
o f government t h r e a t s ,
e x i s t e n c e i n t i mes o f p o l i t i c a l
It
government ,
and t he Ku w a i t i Cour t was t he l e g a l power which
t he champion s a f e t y i n t he f ac e
t he
was c a l c u l a t e d t h a t i n one
an honour abl e b a t t l e on b e h a l f o f freedom o f e x p r e s s i o n ,
was t he champion
f reedom o f
r e j e c t i n g so many government
i n many cases was accused,
s i d e o f t he accused newspapers.
Cour t s
to
However,
salaries
i n t he p r i v a t e s e c t o r .
In s p i t e o f r epeat ed encouragement by newspaper owners and e d i t o r s t o j o i n
t he press s t a f f ,
an i n c r ea s e i n t he number o f l o c a l j o u r n a l i s t s
f rom among
K u w a i t i s was not r e p o r t e d a t a l l .
Because o f
Ar abs, t h e i r
of
t he
ranking
t he f a c t
of
t he m a j o r i t y
l o c a t i o n i n t he s o c i a l
interviews
journalists
conducted
and
adm in istrative jo u rn a lis ts
ity
that
no n- Ku wai t i
journalists
t he
course
hi gh
ranking
of
were
unabl e
- 381 -
to
this
officia ls
journalists
were e x p a t r i a t e
s t r u c t u r e was i n v e s t i g a t e d .
during
sim ilarly
of
st udy
with
hi gh
show t h a t
bot h
agreed t h a t
defend t he
The r e s u l t
t he m a j o r
freedom o f
t he
press
as
po p u l a r
boards
in
principle
liberal
which
assessment,
t hey
shoul d
journalist
produce
however,
t he
put
do.
it,
material
On t he
"required
to
that
owners
t he
does not i n c l u d e l i b e r a l
o p p o s i t i o n as do most Ku w a i t i
contrary,
journalists
t hey were,
be t y p e w r i t e r s
want
journalists
to
as
with
a
k ey
see".
Such
who champion t he
and t he s t a f f o f l i b e r a l
paper s,
such as A l - T a l i a , A1-Watan and, t o some e x t e n t , A1-Qabas.
Even though
majority
of
t he
its
and e f f e c t i v e .
role
o f t he
journalists
press was weakened by t he f a c t
were n o n - K u w a i t i s ,
A1 Rumaihi, a Ku w a i t i
it
journ alistic
that
was o c c a s i o n a l l y
figure,
t he
s t r on g
n o t i c e d t h a t t he
power o f j o u r n a l i s t s was o r c h e s t r a t e d w i t h t he power o f t he N a t i on a l Assem
b l y which pr esent ed a b u f f e r f o r them a g a i n s t a government which f l e x e d i t s
muscl es a g a i n s t f o r e i g n j o u r n a l i s t s
of t h e ir
r es i de nc e v i s a s .
Their
depended on t he n a t i o n a l i s t s
stable
co-existence
po litical
social
and t he Na t i o n a l
between
t hemsel ves
one can say t h a t
product
o f t he modern C o n s t i t u t i o n
between
t he
gr owi ng
po litica l
t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
and t he t r a d i t i o n a l
rial
l i n k a g e t o Kuwai t was weak.
Assembly t o
and
a
They
secure a f a i r l y
traditional
hierarchical
system.
To c oncl ude,
i.e.
who coul d be s u b j e c t e d t o c a n c e l l a t i o n
government
alliances
search o f p o l i t i c a l
Arab
on
t he
radical
who i n h e r i t e d
t he
It
is,
ambitions
in
of
gr owi ng
Kuwai t
is
a
po litical
power,
other.
journalists
t he
is
who
from i ndependence,
also
t he
i mmi gr at ed
story
to
of
Kuwai t
new
in
s e c u r i t y on t he one hand, and t he Kuwai t i
radical
fin a lly,
It
t he Cabi net and t he manage
views
story
from p r o g r e s s i v e
i n 1961, u n t i l
- 382
Arab
o f t he heated p o l i t i c a l
t he N a t i on a l Assembly which dominated t he Kuwai t i
t he y e a r s ,
in
1962 t o e s t a b l i s h a bal ance
t he
conservative r u l i n g f a m il y ,
nationalists
other.
drafted
o f t he pr ess
t he N a t i o n a l Assembly and t he press on t he one hand,
o fficia ls
between
t he s t o r y
political
t he p r e s e n t .
life
states
on
debates
in
throughout
From t he
investigation
t he h i s t o r i c a l
of
and f u n c t i o n a l
t he Ku w a i t i
socio-political
anal y ses o f t he K uwai t i
press,
g e n e r a l i s a t i o n was deduced as a gui de f o r t he s t ud y .
in a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
system such as t h a t
20 year s was e f f e c t e d a s u b s t a n t i a l
and
traditional
highest
society
per-capita
i n t he G u l f ,
to
I t was concl uded t h a t
o f Kuwai t
ur bani s ed
income i n t he wo r l d and w i t h
and
a theoretical
i n whi ch,
in
l e s s t han
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f rom a mer chant ,
a modern,
relations,
state,
with
one
tribal
of
t he
t he best ed u c a t i on system
and j o u r n a l i s t s a l i k e s t r o v e t o i n f l u e n c e
t he c o n t en t o f t he press and t o b u i l d t he press agenda i n terms r e l e v a n t t o
th is transforming society.
of social
change i n a way t h a t ser ves t he i n t e r e s t s
They at t e mp t t o make sure t h a t
press
by
s t r i v e t o lead t he process
all
means.
their
O fficial
inducement and s a n c t i o n .
i s t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
o f t he e x i s t i n g s t a t e .
views and news ar e
policy
and
Some j o u r n a l i s t s ,
practice
portrayed
alternates
by t he
between
i n a l l i a n c e w i t h t he n a t i o n a l
however, c o n s i d e r t hemsel ves t he agents o f d e v e l o p
ment t o whom o t he r s must l i s t e n f o r gui dance as t o how t he f u t u r e o f Kuwai t
shoul d
be worked
out.
Both
groups
claim
t he
right
to
assume a share
in
b u i l d i n g t he press agenda, a r o l e most u s u a l l y r eser v ed f o r j o u r n a l i s t s .
On t he b a si s o f t he t h e o r e t i c a l
press
(1)
and t he
social
power
in
t h e r e would be a p o s i t i v e
presentation
Kuwai t ,
rank
five
order
and t he anal yses o f t he
hypotheses were d e r i v e d :
correlation
between t he
that
overall
differential
i mpor t ance found i n t he pr ess coverage f o r t he i s s u e s and t he
diffe re ntia l
i mpor t ance assi gned by government o f f i c i a l s .
be
a
positive
i mpor t anc e
rank
assi gned
order
by
assi gned by j o u r n a l i s t s .
tion
between t he o v e r a l l
correlation
officia ls
for
between
t he
t he
same i s sues
(2)
overall
and
There would
differential
t he
i mpor t ance
(3) There would be a p o s i t i v e rank o r d e r c o r r e l a
differential
i mpor t ance found i n t he press c o v e r
age and i mpor t ance assi gned f o r t he same i ssues by j o u r n a l i s t s .
- 383
As t he above t h r e e hypot heses are based on t he o v e r a l l
issues,
r e f l e c t i n g t he methods used i n a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r es e a r c h , two h y p o t h
eses are based on t he
t he
sample a t t i t u d e s
one hand was t o
government
liberal
officia ls
find
and
out t he
t aken on t he i s s u e s .
relationship
journalists
on t he
The quest on
between t he
spect rum o f
attitudes
of
conservative
and
d i s p o s i t i o n s and t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he a t t i t u d e s
ment o f f i c i a l s
and t he press f r om t he o t h e r .
t h r e e hypotheses deal
two hypotheses deal
cials
with overall
was
that
there
t aken by bot h o f f i c i a l s
pr e s s .
Consequent l y,
i mpor t ance o f t he i s s u e s ,
if
t he above
t he f o l l o w i n g
w i t h t he cor r espondence between t he a t t i t u d e s o f o f f i
N o . (4)
o f go v er n
is
a
and t he pr es s.
sim ilarity
h y p o t he s i s
dispositio ns
N o . (5)
t aken
in
t he
T he r e f or e,
conservative
hy p o t h e s i s
dispositions
on issues p r e v a l e n t i n t he Kuwai t i
was t h a t
by
both
there
is
a sim ilarity
o fficia ls
and
t he
press
t he
hypot heses,
in
on
i ss u es p r e v a l e n t i n t he c o n t en t o f t he l a t t e r .
To
acquire
methods
of
an
e m p i r i c a l assessment
measurements
were adopt ed,
of
a
above
c o n t en t
analysis
press agenda, a sur vey t o d e f i n e t he government o f f i c i a l s '
ists'
agendas,
an i n t e r v i e w p r o t o c o l
f i n d i n g s and t o e n r i c h t he da t a.
officia ls,
journalists
t he r es ear ch
maj or K uwai t i
samples.
newspapers,
while
define
t he
and t he j o u r n a l
t o add more accur acy t o t he r es ear ch
For each o f t he t h r e e gr oups,
and t he p r e s s ,
The press
to
three
government
45 s u b j e c t s were chosen t o r e p r e s e n t
sample c o n s i s t ed o f 45 e d i t i o n s o f t h r e e
each sample f o r
officia ls
c on s i s t ed o f 45 s u b j e c t s .
The press c o n t en t
January
1986.
analysis
t he press c o n t e n t .
covered a p e r i o d o f f i v e
was a d mi n i s t er ed
to
months b e g i nn i ng
a sample o f
K uwai t i
and j o u r n a l i s t s w i t h t he l a s t 15 days o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h
Also,
some o f f i c i a l s
384 -
and j o u r n a l i s t s were i n t e r v i e w e d .
In
this
spite
st udy
s up po r t
t he
any
t he
set
need
to r e f le c t
are
seen
that
hypot heses
t he
press
this
line
Rat her ,
which
directed
positions
certain
t hey
pr ess ur es
their
ar e
occupy
groups,
are
influence
angel s
positio n
on
in
in
t he
i s sues
re fle c t th e ir liberal
is
at
t he
tugs,
expressed
exclu
consistent
with
r es e a r c h .
literature
underlying
vi ew,
As
rela
social
l ead them
pinnacles
mortals
owned,
pursuit
lends
not
i n ways t h a t
From t h i s
ordinary
t he
t he
Thi s
of
of
wisdom
and
a r t i c u l a t i o n o f what peopl e shoul d
in stitu tion s
in
to
results
is
agenda-setting
journalists
s itting
c on s i d er ed
caught
encount er ed
Kuwai t
r es ear c h
attention
i n t he p r e s s .
gu ar di an
t hey
of
in
t he
above.
st udy b e n e f i t t e d from t he B r i t i s h
i mposi ng on t he popul ace t h e i r i m p a r t i a l
think.
de s i g n ,
menti oned
agenda
c o n v en t i o n a l
go beyond
dynamics which
as
r esear c h
to
t hese i n f l u e n c e s
not
five
t he
Thi s
agenda-setting
in
journalists.
menti oned e a r l i e r ,
to
t he
conclusion
by t he
current
ting
lim itations
substantiate
to
sively
of
of
oper at ed
pulls,
their
in
t he
who,
because o f
or
contro lled
pr ess ur es
trade.
media
and
Thus,
does
not
t he
by
counter
in
Kuwai t ,
exclusively
vi ews, but a l s o s uppor t s t he c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i c i e s o f
t he government and t he R u l i n g F a mi l y.
They are expect ed t o p r e s e n t , and a t
t i mes
even though t hey do not
def end,
conservative
endorse them t hemsel ves.
positions,
Such a s i t u a t i o n would n a t u r a l l y
entiation
amongst t he j o u r n a l i s t s
sity
t he
in
tive/libe ral
t ake
into
latter
lines.
account
in tegrate i t
c on s er v a
But what ever t he pe r sua s i on o f j o u r n a l i s t s ,
t hey must
actual
or
in
i magined
t he
leading to d i v e r
f o r me r ,
positio n
of
t he
government
and
i n t o t h e i r news.
On t he whol e,
o fficia ls
polarization
as t he pr e s s ,
lead t o d i f f e r
al ong
t he
The t h e o r e t i c a l
tion.
and
as w e l l
necessarily
or g an i s ed
framework devel oped i n t h i s
t he
relationship
itse lf
around
between
t he
385 -
st udy r e f l e c t s t h a t p o s i
journalists
socio-political
and
government
devel opment
which
characterises
cont emporary
Ku w a i t i
s el ves on a f r e e ,
diversified
ver y g r e a t e x t e n t ,
especially
press
of
change,
other
society.
and s o p h i s t i c a t e d
countries.
which r e v o l v e
around t he
The
ent renched and deepl y e s t a b l i s h e d .
press
forces
nationalists
Kuwaitis
pr es s .
when t he K uwai t i
Arab
Thus,
them
Thi s i s t r u e t o a
is
pushi ng
pride
compared w i t h
for
t he
mod er n i t y
and i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
and
are w e l l
But t he a u t h o r i t y o f t he government and
p o s i t i o n o f t he Royal Fami l y i s even more deepl y r oo t e d .
The
c u l t u r e l e g i t i m a t e s t he i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t he Royal Fami l y and t he government
t o saf eguar d t he s t a t e ,
even when t h i s
controlling
The two groups
ev e r ,
and
t he pr es s.
t hey
work
co-operatively
includes
in fluencin g jo u r n a lis ts
know t h e i r
for
t he
bounds and l i m i t s ,
attainment
of
their
or
how
mutual
go al s.
Anot her c o n s i d e r a t i o n
is p o l i t i c a l
s tab ility,
which not o n l y p e r p e t u
at es t he p o s i t i o n o f t he government and t he Royal
an i n t e r n a l
without
s i t u a t i o n which a l l o w s t he c r i t i c i s m or s up po r t o f o t h e r groups
precipitating
pr omi nent
positio n
stab ility
is
goal
of
all
orientations.
nation,
ag gr e s s i on
in
trade,
social
or
gr oups, r e g a r d l e s s
The s t a b i l i t y
pl ay s a d e l i c a t e
role
conservative
orientations
t he
their
of
and
of
Royal
Fami l y ,
participation.
Thi s
o f t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
to a tta in
was
their
reflected
prevalent in
t he pr e s s ,
such as,
t i v e use and
f a i r d is t r i b u t i o n of
Kuwait's
po litical
t u r n becomes t he main
is
or
not
conservative
based on s t a g
The p r e s s ,
which i s
p ri
i n m a i n t a i n i n g t he bal ance between t he
and merchants on t he one hand and,
st eady e f f o r t s
in
theirliberal
and change.
Given
and ba nk i ng,
sought by t hese groups
on m o d e r n i s a t i o n
orientations
in sta b ility.
i n v est men t
prosperity,
v a t e l y owned,
libera l
economic
commerce,
a pre-requisite for
but r a t h e r
o fficia ls
Fami l y but a l s o p r o v i d e s
t he
Ca bi n et ,
on t he o t h e r ,
jo urn alists
t he p r o g r e s s i v e
and i n t e l l e c t u a l s
a m b i t i o n s and enhance t h e i r
in
t he
i s sues
government
po litical
which were found t o
f o r exampl e, t hose r e l a t i n g t o t he e f f e c
oil
- 386 -
wealth.
in
be
The f a c t t h a t t he hypot heses advanced i n t h i s st udy were s u b s t a n t i a t e d
by t he data
f rom which
collected
g i ves
t hey were d e r i v e d
t he r e s u l t s
of t h i s
thereof
in
Also,
news r e f l e c t s
Golding's
no ti on
Golding's
is
voice
that
If
t he t h e o r e t i c a l
this
is
r ea s on i ng
in f a c t
true,
with
t he work
consistent
then
of
i n t h e i r st udy o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e and t he media
class
t he
adequate.
on t he whol e,
Britain.
v o i c e o f t he c a p i t a l i s t
Ku w a i t i
is
st udy a r e ,
Gol di ng and Mi d d l e t o n (1982)
coverage
some assurance t h a t
assumpt i on
similar
of
t he
British
that
t he
news
is
t o t he view menti oned her e,
Royal
Fami l y
journalists
and t he
suffer
t he
that
government.
in tervention
f rom
t he newspaper owners and o t h e r p r e s s u r e groups found s u p p o r t i n t h e r e s u l t s
of th is
cials
s t ud y .
In our case,
it
influence,
and a t t i mes
in itia te ,
Kuwai t .
(1975)
Thi s
contention
is
is f a i r
also
beha v i ou r and a t t i t u d e s
directly
t he a g e n d a - s e t t i n g o f t he press i n
consistent
n o t i o n o f t he i n s t i t u t i o n a l
l i s h m e n t over t he pr e s s ,
t o concl ude t h a t government o f f i
control
with
and
Gurevitch's
e x e r t e d by t he p o l i t i c a l
or t a c i t l y .
of j o u r n a l i s t s ,
Blumer
Such c o n t r o l
and i s
refle cted
estab
i n f l u e n c e s t he
i n t he views t hey
expr ess i n p r i n t .
The f i n d i n g s a r e , moreover,
in
1986,
officia l
in
which
agenci es
t he
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t hose o f t he Turk
influence
of
on t he media was e v i d e n t .
between t he agendas o f t he o f f i c i a l s
nalists,
practitioners
The s i g n i f i c a n t
press
t he o f f i c i a l s
The i n t e r v i e w s
i n d i c a t e t h a t K uwai t i
agenda.
Through
highlight
per sonal
t he d i f f e r e n t i a l
p e r t a i n t o c e r t a i n t o p i c s deemed v i t a l
t he economy and n a t i o n a l
security.
or
in
and j o u r
government
o f bot h t he o f f i
c o n t ac t s
and
correla tio ns
and t he pr e s s , t he o f f i c i a l s
somehow a f f e c t media c o n t e n t .
c i a l s and j o u r n a l i s t s
t he
relations
and t he j o u r n a l i s t s and t h e press i n d i c a t e t h a t Ku w a i ti
officia ls
to
public
st udy
f or mal
contribute
gatherings,
i mpor t ance o f d a i l y
news as t hey
t o t he n a t i o n such as,
f o r example,
In t h i s
- M 7-
case,
j o u r n a l i s t s do not w r i t e
i n a vacuum,
nor can t hey a f f o r d t o i g n o r e t he government o f f i c i a l s '
subtle
or d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e .
Al t hough p a r a l l e l s
were drawn between t he f i n d i n g s
of th is
o t h e r a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r es e ar ch f i n d i n g s and c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n s ,
borne i n mind t h a t
is
not
id en tical
f er en c es
in
t he r es e ar c h
to
t he
r esear ch
setting
r ese ar c h
settings
i n which t h i s
setting
out
it
shoul d be
st udy was conducted
i n Western
shoul d be s p e l l e d
st udy and
countries.
The d i f
in order to de lin ea te
t he s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t he f i n d i n g s .
The main
traditional
course
of
society
t he
in
which
t he
has
modernisation.
t he pr es s,
other
difference
Third
World
political
embarked
They
operating w i th in
affected
t he most
which
dominant
and i n f l u e n c e d
in stitution.
It
on a r a p i d
have modern Western
is
embodied i n t he person o f t he Ami r .
is
pr omi nent
were
that
was
shown,
The
Kuwai t
and
fairly
by
t he
is
a
s uc c e s s f ul
such
society.
in stitu tio n
in
as
Like
Kuwai t
government
is
and
Thi s st udy showed t h a t a g e n d a - s e t t i n g
threatened.
is
institu tion s,
orchestrated
for
was o f g r e a t concern t o t he government ,
interests
settings
t he framework o f a t r a d i t i o n a l
countries,
in stitu tio n ,
r ese ar c h
Law o f
representing that
example,
that
t he media c o n t en t
e s p e c i a l l y when t he l e t t e r ' s
Publication
pre
in
Kuwai t ,
vital
in
fact,
r e i t e r a t e s t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he government and t he mass media.
The
generalisation
officia ls
limited
It
to
influence
of
t he
journalists
d e v el op i ng
nations.
i s a s t andar d e x p e c t a t i o n
results
of
this
st udy
and s e t t he press agenda)
The Mi ddl e
East area i s
as j o u r n a l i s t s
consider
media as l e g i t i m a t e ,
in
Kuwai t ,
which
st udy
t he
indicate
lim itations
j u s t and f a i r .
enj oy s
is
government
c ons equent l y
a case i n
poin t.
i n t h a t p a r t o f t he wo r l d t h a t t he government
e i t h e r r e g u l a t e s t he media d i r e c t l y o r i n f l u e n c e s i t s
i n t e r v i e w dat a f rom t h i s
(i.e.
a truly
that
c o n t en t t a c i t l y .
imposed by t he
The
as w e l l
government on t he
I f t hese k i nds o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e x i s t
Western and r a t h e r
- M 8-
free
pr e s s ,
one would
ex pec t
that
t he
case
societies.
Further
predomi nant
government
setting
is
would
be
r es ear ch
is
even
therefore
institu tion s
concerned.
stronger
Further
in
in
other
Mi ddl e
needed t o a s c e r t a i n
such
r ese ar c h
societies
is
also
as
t he r o l e
far
needed t o
East er n
as
of
agenda-
spell
ou t
t he
dynamics and na t ur e o f t he r e l a t i o n s h i p s between j o u r n a l i s t s and government
officia ls.
with
The
in tervie w
agenda-setting,
aspect s
social
of
such
control
a
protocol
devel oped
attitudes,
and
relationship
employed,
t he
for
perceptions
desi gned
contribute
to
to
ascertain
to
be
lim its
of
deviations
that
known,
t he
dealt
mai nl y
influence.
such
as
f rom
In f a c t ,
relationship,
knowledge and f i l l
st udy
of
need
b e f or e p u b l i c a t i o n i s suspended, and t he l i k e .
is
this
means
o fficia l
if
result
t he
Other
of
lines
an e n t i r e st udy
would
definitely
t he
gap i n
our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f agenda-
in
Kuwai t
is
setting.
Al t hough t he r es e ar c h
in
agenda-setting
studies
r es ear c h are s t i l l
in
all
t he
may ver y w e l l
circulation
is
by
in stitu tion ,
t he
be
or
industry
literature
Ba g d i k i a n ,
business.
1983),
unaffected
lishments,
(e,g,
by t he
in
Western
liberties
and t he
1977;
influence
t he
media
is
and
societie s
freedom o f
of
institutions
i n Kuwai t ,
a ll,
this
s till
f o r example,
was
i n Western s o c i e t y
it
has been shown e a r l i e r
Gol d i n g ,
checks
results
is
t he
extent
of
revenue i n t he Western pr ess which i n f l u
needs and d e s i r e s
t he
social
institution
After
t he
press.
curtailed,
and
- 389 -
1982;
and
jo urn alists
are not unaware and
industrial
and busi ness e s t a b
of
bal ances o f
are
i n t he r ev i ew o f t he
Gol di ng and M i d d l e t o n ,
t he p o i n t was made t h a t
Due t o
in stitutions
As i t
t he
from t hose used
g e n e r a l i s a t i o n t h a t t he press
pr edomi nant
pr edomi nant
and t he a d v e r t i s i n g
different
societie s,
The o v e r a l l
influenced
ence t he media c o n t e n t .
not
Western
Whereas t he pr edomi nant i n s t i t u t i o n
political
B ritish
in
instructive.
societies
pertains.
setting
based
democr aci es,
on
solid
The power
any
of
interference
t he
grounds
t he
political
of
civil
government
with
freedom
to
of
speech i s
u n ac ce pt ab l e.
It
is acceptable,
however,
for
and o t h e r pr es s ur e groups t o p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s ,
in fluencin g
t he media c o n t en t
directly
or
b u s i n es s ,
industry
even when i t
comes t o
indire ctly.
Thus,
whereas
media i n Western democracies ser ve t he i n t e r e s t o f t he c a p i t a l i s t s
i n f l u e n c e d by them,
t he media i n
a traditional
society
serve t he
t he
and are
interest
o f t he r u l e r and t he government and are i n f l u e n c e d by them.
The
results
lim itations
d e v e l op i ng
of
this
st udy
o f t he r es e a r c h .
nations is
constraints
that
lected,
Efforts
ernment
officia ls
Fur t he r mo r e,
shoul d
It
is
nevertheless
wor t h
noting
fraught with d i f f i c u l t i e s
have a c e r t a i n
b e a r i n g on t he
were made,
exampl e,
for
to
Thi s
many
cases,
r es e a r c h ,
particularly
were d o u b t f u l
that
within
collecting
validity
select
t he devel opment o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e
even f o r s c i e n t i f i c
viewed
dat a
of
t he
dat a
t he
in
col
random samples o f gov
to
be al most
impossible.
t h a t would not be mi s con
Aski ng or answer i ng q u e s t i o n s ,
i s u s u a l l y suspect i n d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s .
amongst
t he
and burdened by pr o c ed ur al
proved
s t r u e d was anot her i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
be
government
officia ls,
r e g a r d i n g t he purpose o f t he q u e s t i o n i n g ,
t he
In
subjects
and t hey had t o be
r eassur ed over and over agai n t h a t t he dat a would o n l y be used i n aggr egat e
f orm and t h a t
per sonal
their
trust
anonymi t y was assur ed.
had t o
be e s t a b l i s h e d
or c o n d u c t i ng an i n t e r v i e w ,
t o be a l l e v i a t e d .
within
dity
to
o f t he dat a i s
secure
pleted
in
valid
t he
For
presence
of
analysis,
lim itations,
concerned.
d a t a.
spite
of
c o mp l e t i ng
such assur ances,
t he
questionnaire
and w o r r i e s about t he abuse o f i n f o r m a t i o n had
In t he f i n a l
t he c o n t e x t o f t hese
be f o r e
In
In t h i s
exampl e,
t he
t he r e s u l t s
particularly
research,
al most
researcher
concerns on t he spo t .
- 390
all
who
shoul d be con s i d er ed
so f a r
as t he v a l i
much e f f o r t
was e x e r t e d
questionnaires
answered
t he
were
com
respondent's
Anot her
systems
in
conclusion
which
in stitutions
t he
press
in
Third
World
emerging
or groups who are bent on mo d e r n i s a t i o n and change,
t he media
attain
participates
socio-political-economic
a certain
co-operatively
degree o f freedom and d i v e r s i t y ,
espe
t o t he e x t e n t t h a t t he media are p r i v a t e l y owned, which r e f l e c t s t he
need f o r
Thus
that
with
would most l i k e l y
cia lly
is
it
soci o- economi c devel opment and f o r
has
been
shown t h a t
t he
press
mer chant s, as t he source o f f i n a n c e ,
ideas;
and i t s
was
participation.
established
Kuwai t
and t he n a t i o n a l i s t s ,
F ami l y .
alists,
as t he source o f
Thi s p a t t e r n may not
may be f o l l o w e d i n many T h i r d World d e v el op i ng n a t i o n s .
t hr ough
t he j u n t a )
by t he
c o n t en t was s u p p l i e d by t he i n t e l l e c t u a l s w i t h t he b l e s s i n g
o f t he Amir and t he Royal
conduits
in
which t he
established
ruler
or
be a t y p i c a l ,
and
The media serve as
emerging
authority
(e.g.
channel t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t groups such as t he n a t i o n
intellectuals
bounds t h a t
ultimately
serve
t he
i n a beni gn f orm and w i t h i n
interests
of
t he
rulers.
specific
Since
in
such
s o c i e t i e s t he i n t e r e s t s o f t he r u l e r and t he government are u s u a l l y synony
mous w i t h
national
interests,
i s seen as n a t u r a l
Finally,
but
importantly,
it
shoul d be noted t h a t
it
tries
so as t o p r o v i d e a range o f t r u l y
t he
extent
try,
Third
that
best e x p l o r a t o r y .
Wor l d.
However,
strongly
indicative
t he
require,
Third
It
further
is
shoul d
this
t he a u t ho r
be r e p l i c a t e d
empirical
r es ear ch
thesis
breaks
in p rin c ip le ,
Even
remains
so,
other
coun
knowledge r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
would
i n terms
be
war r ant ed
substantially
convi nced t h a t
of o f f i c i a l s / j o u r n a l i s t s / m e d i a
Worl d.
in
As
to
t he
based on r esear ch r e l a t i n g t o one coun
which has been i d e n t i f i e d
Kuwai t .
in
Thus,
t he p r e s e n t t h e s i s
Kuwai t ,
o f t he media
a g e n d a - s e t t i n g r ese ar c h i n a T h i r d World c o u n t r y .
such,
of
at
influence
and l e g i t i m a t e .
new ground i n p o l i c y
is
t he
most
to
r es ear c h w i l l
be
relationships
convincing
c o r r o b o r a t i o n by a d d i t i o n a l
- 391 -
this
specific
r es e ar ch
case- study.
el sewher e
findings
More r esear ch
is
needed t o
area which r e q u i r e s
an a s t u t e
spell
out
t he
na t u r e
i n t he T h i r d Wor l d.
appr oach,
t he
relationship
Thi s i s a s e n s i t i v e
a sensible dipl om ati c
commitment t o detached s y s t em a t i c i n q u i r y .
392
of
manner,
and
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405 -
"European
Interests
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Gul f
A P P E N D I C E S
APPENDIX I
The A r a b i c T r a n s l a t i o n o f t he Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
and t he General Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
APPENDIX I I
The Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
APPENDIX I I I
-
The General Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
APPENDIX IV
The I n t e r v i e w Pr o t o c o l
APPENDIX V
The P i l o t Study
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9
APPENDIX I I
THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Thi s q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n s i s s u e s whi ch ar e c u r r e n t l y common in th e pr e s s .
We would l i k e t o know your per sonal p o s i t i o n on each o f them.
Note t h a t each i ss ue i s pr es ent ed i n a b i - p o l a r s c a l e .
Please p l ac e a mark
i n each s c al e which c or r esponds w i t h you r p o s i t i o n on t he i s s ue as shown i n
t he f o l l o w i n g example.
V o t i n g and r un ni ng f o r o f f i c e o f
Kuwai t women runs a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n .
2
1
3
1
1
Some-
1
1
what
1
I m p o r - 1 i mp or -
i mp o r - I t a n t
tant
I
1
1
2
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1
4
1
1
mely
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I impor-j
1
3
5
| Extre-1
1
1
K uwai t i women shoul d be p e r m i t t e d
t o vot e and run f o r o f f i c e now.
1
tan t
4
know
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1 Some- 1
| Extre
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1 what
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I I mpor
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1
1 tant
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
I f t he st at ement on t he l e f t expr esses y o u r p o s i t i o n , i n d i c a t e how s t r o n g l y
you f e e l by p l a c i n g a mark i n t he a p p r o p r i a t e space.
I f you f e e l ver y
s t r o n g l y , mark D.
I f you f e e l l e s s s t r o n g l y , mark C.
I f you f e e l s t i l l
l es s s t r o n g l y , mark B.
I f y o u r f e e l i n g i s even
l e s s s t r o n g , mark A. But
i f you d o n ' t have any p o s i t i o n , then mark zer o.
S i m i l a r l y , i f t he st at ement on t he r i g h t expresses y ou r p o s i t i o n very
s t r o n g l y , mark 4 .
I f you f e e l l e s s s t r o n g l y , mark 3.
I f you f e e l s t i l l
l e s s s t r o n g l y , mark 2.
I f you r f e e l i n g i s even
l e s s s t r o n g , mark 1. But
i f you d o n ' t have any p o s i t i o n then mark ZERO.
Now pl ease proceed t o t he next page and i n d i c a t e yo u r answers,
428
I .
ISSUES RELATING TO ARAB UNITY
(1)
Arab r en ai s s anc e can occur
w i t h o u t Arab U n i t y .
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When i t occur s Arab U n i t y must
happen i n s t a g e s .
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1
4
Arab r e n ai ss anc e i s i m p o s s i b l e
w i t h o u t Arab U n i t y .
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|
I what
1 I mpor 1 i mp o r - I
I impor-1 t a n t
1 tant
I
1 tant
1
1
1
1
6
1
7
4
1
Extre-1
mely
j
Im p o r-j
tant
9
I
1
1
8
1
4
1
E x tre -1
mely
j
Im p o r-1
tant
9
1
1
When i t occur s Arab U n i t y must be
based on s e c u l a r bases.
1
1
1
2
1 Some- 1
1
I m p o r - 1 i mp or 1 mely
1 Don't
im p o r-1 ta n t
I tant
1 impor- 1 know
what
1
1
When i t occurs Arab U n i t y
must be based on r e l i g i o u s bases
1 Some1
2
1
When i t occur s Arab Uni t y ' must
be t o t a l and immedi ate.
1 Some- 1
1
1
1 what
i mp or - I t a n t
I tant
I
6
3
1
4
1
1 Very
| Extre-1
|
i mp o r - I mely
1 tant
I I mpor - I
I
1
1 tant
1 Impor- -1
1
1
I
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
(4)
1
be based on a f r e e economy.
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
When i t occur s Arab Un i t y must
be based on a c o n t r o l l e d economy,
5
1 Some- 1
1 E x tre -1
1 Very
1 what
1 I m p o r - 1 i mp or 1 mely
| Don't
I i mp o r - I t a n t
I tant
I i m p o r - j know
I tant
I
1 tan t
1
1
1
1
(5)
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
f o l l o w a f e d e r a l government
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 Some- 1
1
1 Very
I what
I I m p o r - 1 impor I
I tant
I impor-1 tant
1
I
I tant
I
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
Some- 1
1 Very
| Extre-1
what
1 I mpor 1 i mp or - 1 mely
|
11 im p o r - 1 t a n t
1 tant
I I mpor - I
j
j
11 t a n t
1
1 tant
1
1
11
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
f o l l o w a c o n t r o l l e d government
system.
system.
1
1
5
1
1
1
2
3
4
1
E x tre -1
1 Some-
I what
I I mpor I i m p o r - I mely
j
I impor-I tant
I tant
I Im p o r-1
I tant
j
I
1
1 tant
Don ' t
i m p o r - 1 know
tant
I
4
1
5
1
6
1
II.
ISSUES RELATING TO THE ARAB- ISRAELI CONFLICT
(6 )
The A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t can be
r e s o l v e d o n l y by p e ac e f u l means.
1 Very
1
mely
j
1
1
7
1
8
| Extre-1
1
9
1
The A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t can be
r e s o l v e d only by m i l i t a r y
c o n fro n ta tio n .
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1 E x tre -1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
| Don ' t
1 what
I tant
I i m p o r - I know
I i mpor-1 t a n t
I tant
I
I tant
I
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
430
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 Very
| Extre-1
1 Some- 1
1 what
1 I mpor -( i m p o r - I mely
|
I tant
I Impor-1
I im p o r-1 t a n t
I tant
I
1
1
1 tant
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
(7)
To r eg a i n P a l e s t i n i a n r i g h t s
Arabs must si gn pe ac ef ul
settlement with I s r a e l .
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Any peace w i t h I s r a e l i s t a n t a
mount t o t r e a s o n and s u r r e n d e r ,
1
5
1 Very
1 E xtre-I
1 Impor- I i mpor - I mely
j Don ' t
i tant
1 i m p o r - 1 know
1 im p o r- 1 t a n t
I tan t
1
1 tant
1
1
1 Some
what
1
3)
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
1 Some-
1
1
2
1
3
1 Very
1
impor-
1
Impor- I i mpor tant
1 tant
1
tant
1
1
1
1
9)
1
1
1
1
5
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1 Extre-1
1 mely
j Don ' t
I tant
I
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
5
1 E x tre -1
1 Very
I mpor- I i mpor- 1 mely
j Don ' t
1 tant
I i m p o r - 1 know
impor -| t a n t
1 tant
1
tant
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1 Some-
1
what
i mpor tant
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 Very
| Extre-1
I mpor- I im p o r - I mely
j
tant
1 tan t
1 Im p o r-1
1
1
1 tant
7
1
8
1
9
1
There i s no h u r r y t o s o l ve t he
A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t because
t i me i s on Arab s i d e .
S u p p o r t i ng t he moderate el ement s
i s t he best way t o c a p t u r e
Palestinian rig h ts .
1 Some1 what
1
4
We shoul d s ol v e t he A r a b - I s r a e l i
c o n f l i c t i mme di a t e l y be f o r e
P a l e s t i n i a n r i g h t s ar e l o s t .
j what
1
1
1
5
431 -
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
| Extre-1
what
1 Impor- I i m p o r - 1 mely
j
1 i mpor - I t a n t
1 tant
1 Impor-1
1 tant
I
1
1 tant
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
S u p p o r t i ng t he e x t r e m i s t Arab
S t a t e s i s t he best way t o a t t a i n
v i c t o r y over I s r a e l .
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
|
1 what
1 Impor- 1 i mp o r - I
1 i mpor - 1 t a n t
1 tant
j
1 tant
1
1
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
4
1
Extre- 1
mely
j
Impor-1
tant
1
9
1
(10)
Solving the P a l e s t i n i an problem
w i l l be a t t a i n e d by the PLO under
Ar a f a t l eadershi p.
1
1
2
1
3
4
1
5
1
Some- 1
| Extre-1
1 Very
what
1 I mpor - 1 i mp o r - 1 mely
| Don ' t
i m p o r - 1 t an t
1 tant
1 i mp o r - 1 know
t an t
I
I
1
1 tant
1
(11)
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
|
1 Very
I I m p o r - 1 i mpor-I
1 tan t
1
t an t
I
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
4
1
Somewhat
1
5
E x tre -1
mely
j Don ' t
i mpor-j know
tan t
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
|
1 Very
1 I m p o r - 1 impor-I
im p o r - I t an t
1 t an t
1
tant
1
1
1
Some-
1
what
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Some- 1
| Extre
1 Very
what
1 I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - I mely
impor-I t an t
I t an t
I Im por
t an t
1
1
1 tan t
1
6
I
7
1
8
1
9
under the opposi t ion Arab st at es,
5
PLO-Jordanian agreement
w i l l d i s s i pa t e r i g h t s .
1
1
5
i
under moderate Arab st a t e s .
1
(12)
4
1
Solving the Pa l e s t i ni an problem
w i l l be at t a i n e d by those who
oppose Yaser A r a f a t .
1
1
I
1
j
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
|
Some- 1
1 Very
what
1 I m p o r - 1 impor-I
impor-I t an t
j t an t
I
tant
1
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
4
Extre
mely
Impor
t an t
9
Supporting the PLO-Jordanian
agreement i s a sure way to r e t a i n
P a l es t i n i an r i g h t s .
4
1
5
Extre-1
mely
| D o n 't
i m p o r - I know
tan t
1
4
1
5
432 -
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
| Extre
Some- 1
1 Very
what
1 I mpor - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
I tant
i mp or - 1 t an t
I Impor
t an t
1
1
1 tant
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
(13)
The A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t
cannot be sol ved w i t h o u t t he
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f Egypt .
The A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t can
be s ol ved w i t h o u t Egypt .
1
1
Somewhat
I
I Imporim p o r-I tan t
tant
Very
| Ext rei m p o r - I mely
tant
I impor
tant
Some- I
what
I Imporimpor-I t a n t
tant
Don ' t
know
Very
| E xtrei m p o r - I mely
tant
I I mpor
tant
1
III.
ISSUES RELATING TO SECURITY IN KUWAIT
(14)
Non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s do not
t h r e a t e n Kuwai t s e c u r i t y and
shoul d re m ain.
Non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s t h r e a t e n
Kuwai t s e c u r i t y and t hey must be
expel l e d .
1
1
Somewhat
1
I Very
I I mpor - I i m p o r - j
im p o r-I tan t
j tant
tan t
I
I
|Extre-|
mely
j Don't
| i m p o r - j know
Itant
I
| Some-
|
| Very
| Ex t r e-
j what
j I m p o r - | i m p o r - j mely
j im p o r-| ta n t
j tant
j Imp or
Itant
j
|
j tant
1
(15)
Non- Kuwai t i Arabs c o n s t i t u t e a
t h r e a t t o Kuwai t i s e c u r i t y and
shoul d be r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r own
countries.
1
1
Some- I
what
1 Impori mp o r - I t a n t
tant
I
1
Non- Kuwai t i Arabs do not
t h r e a t e n Ku w a i t i s e c u r i t y and
shoul d be r e t a i n e d .
I
Very
| Extrei mp o r - I mely
tant
1 i mp o r
tant
Don't
know
2
433
I Some1
I Very
| Ex t r e1what
| I mpor - | i m p o r - j mely
I impor -I t a n t
j tant
j ImporI tant
I
j
I tan t
(16)
Non- Kuwai t i S h i i t e s c o n s t i t u t e a
t h r e a t t o Ku w a i ti s e c u r i t y and
t hey must be pr e v en t e d f rom
e n t e r i n g Kuwai t .
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1 Extre-1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
| Don ' t
1 what
I im por-I tant
I tant
1 tant
1
1 tant
1
1
1
1
(17)
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
Only a ver y l i m i t e d el ement o f
o f no n- Ku wai t i S h i i t e s ar e a
t h r e a t t o Ku w a i t i s e c u r i t y ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s no need t o
ban a l l n o n- Ku wai ti S h i i t e s f r om
e n t e r i n g Kuwai t .
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 Extre1 Very
I I m p o r - 1 i mp o r 1 mely
I tant
j Imporim p o r-1 t a n t
1 tant
tant
1
1
1 Somewhat
1
1
1
1
Open r e s i s t a n c e t o t he
Khomeni regime w i l l
t h r e a t e n Kuwai t s e c u r i t y ,
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
Open r e s i s t a n c e t o t he Khomeni
regime i s t h e be st way t o
p r o t e c t Kuwai t s e c u r i t y .
1
I
Somewhat
I
I Very
|E x tre -|
I I mpor - I i mp o r - I mely
( Don't
im p o r-I t an t
j tant
j i m p o r - j know
tant
tant
1
| Some
| what
| i mp or
tant
Very
| Ext r ei m p o r - I mely
tant
I Im por
I mpor
tant
tant
1
Existin g police a u th o ritie s
are s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n law
and o r d e r ,
( 18)
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
The e x i s t i n g p o l i c e a u t h o r i t i e s
and p r a c t i c e ar e i n s u f f i c i e n t TO
ensure K u w a i t ' s s e c u r i t y ,
5
Some 1
| Extre-1
1 Very
j Don ' t
what
1 I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - j mely
I tant
1 i m p o r - I know
i m p o r 1 t a n t
tan t
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
tan t
4
1
1
5
434
1
1
1 Somewhat
I impor
1 tant
1
1
6
1
1
1
- 1
2
Imp or-
tant
1
1
1
3
4
1 Very
| Extre
1 i m p o r - I mely
I tant
I Impor
1
7
1
1
1
8
1
tant
9
IV .
I S SUES RELATING TO IRAN-IRAQI WAR
(19)
The I r a n - I r a q war can be sol ved
o nly by agreement between a l l
Iran.
parties p a r ti c u l a r ly
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
|
1 what
I I mpor - 1 i m p o r - I
I im p o r - I t a n t
1 tant
1
I tant
I
1
1
1
1
(20)
1
2
1
3
The I r a n - I r a q war w i l l be ended
o n l y when I r a n i s de f eat ed or
weakened enough
1
4
1
5
Extre-1
mely
| Don ' t
i m p o r - 1 know
tant
I
4
5
1
1
1
The G u l f S t a t e s are o b i i gated t o
s u b s i d i s e I r a q ' s war agai nst
1
1
1 Some1
1
1
1
3
( Very
1
4
5
1
| Extre-1
I
1
1
1
(21)
1
2
1
1
3
1
tant
4
I
5
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
5
1
1 Very
| Extre-1
1 Some- 1
1 what
1 Impor - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
| Don ' t
I impor -I t a n t
I tant
j i m p o r - I know
1 tant
I
1
1
1 tan t
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
7
1
8
1
9
5
- 4 35
1
1
The G u l f St a t e s shoul d not
s u b s i d i s e I r a q and shoul d
be n e u t r a l i n I r a n / I r a q war.
1
1
1
2
1
what
1 Im por
1 i mp o r - I t a n t
I tant
1
1
1
6
1
7
1
3
1
4
1 Very
1 Extre1 i mpor - 1 mely
1 tant
I Impor1 tant
1
8
1
9
An I r a n i a n t h r e a t t o n a v i g a t i o n
w i l l b r i n g th e navi es o f t he
g r e a t powers t o p o l i c e t he G u l f
The g r e a t powers ar e a l r e a d y
in vite d to protect navigation
i n t he G u l f .
1
6
1 Some-
what
I Impor - | i m p o r - 1 mely
| Don ' t
1 tant
im p o r-I tan t
I tant
1
2
1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
1 E x tre -1
I what
1 I mpor I imp or- 1 mely
j
1 im p o r-I tan t
1 tant
I Im p o r-1
1 tant
1
I tant
I
1
Ira n .
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1 Extre1 Some- 1
1 Very
1 what
1 I mpor 1 i mpor - 1 mely
I ImporI i mp o r - I t a n t
1 tant
1 tant
1
1 tant
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
I r a n cannot undermine t he Gul f
regimes even i f i t c o n t i n u e s
the war with I r a q .
(22)
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
I r a n w i l l undermine t he G u l f
regimes by c o n t i n u i n g t he I r a n I raq war
5
| Extre 1
1
1 Very
1 D o n 't
i mp o r - 1 t a n t
j im p or 1 know
1 tant
t an t
1
1
1 tan t
Somewhat
1
Î3)
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
| Extre
1 Very
I I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - I mely
i mpor-I t an t
I impor
I t an t
1 tant
1
1
1 t an t
1 Some-
1
what
1
24)
5
M i l i t a r y and s e cu r i t y arrangements of the Gulf Co- operat i ve
Council are abl e to p r o t e c t the
Gulf States from any I r a n i a n
threat,
1
1
1
I
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
I
1
1
Some-
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
11
| Extre
1 Very
what
I1 I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
impor-I t a n t
1 t an t
1 im p o r
tant
I1
1
1 tan t
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
5
6
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
1
5
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Some- 1
| Extre
1 Very
what
I I mpor - 1 im p o r - I mely
i mp or - 1 t an t
1 t an t
j Impor
t an t
1
1 tant
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
The I r a n - I r a q war r e f l e c t s the
conf 1i ct between Arab and
Persian nat i onal i sm.
5
1
1
I Don't
1 know
1
1
1
I
1
!
1
5
- 436 -
1
1 Some- 1
| Extre-1
1 Very
I what
I I mp or - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
j
1 Impor-I
1 i m p o r - 1 t an t
1 t an t
I t an t
1
I
1
1 t an t
1
1 Don't
I know
1
1
1
Mi 1i t a r y and s e c u r i t y a r r a n g e ments of the Gul f Co- operat i ve
Council iare i n s u f f i c i e n t to
face any I r a n i a n t h r e a t .
The I r a n - I r a q war r e f l e c t s the
c o n f l i c t between the S h i ' i t e s
and Sunnies.
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
| Extre
Some- 1
1 Very
what
1 I mpor - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
j tant
I Impor
i mp o r - 1 t an t
tant
1
1
1 t an t
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
V.
ISSUES RELATING TO DECL I NE OF OIL PRICES
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE FUTURf OF THE GULF REGION
(25)
The sharp d i v i s i o n among OPEC
members caused t he c r i s e s i n
o i l prices.
Western c o u n t r i e s bear t he
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t he o i l c r i s i s
t hey d e l i b e r a t e l y pl anned f o r t he
end a l ong t i me ago.
1
1
I
I Very
|Extre-|
I I m p o r - j i m p o r - | mely
j Don't
im p o r-I tan t | tan t
| i m p o r - | know
tant
tant
Some-
what
| Some|
| Very
| Extre-|
j what
j I m p o r - | i mp o r - | mely
j
| im p o r-| t a n t
| tant
| I mpor - |
tant
tant
1
(26)
The d e c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s i s a
t empor ar y c o n d i t i o n whi ch w i l l
not l a s t f o r as l ong as some
peopl e b e l i e v e .
1
1
Somewhat
1
1
2
1
1
3
Very
im p o r-I ta n t
I tant
1
(27)
1
1
4
1
5
| Extre-1
| Don ' t
1
1 tant
I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
tant
1
1
There are no i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t o i l
p r i c e s w i l l improve i n t he near
future.
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1 Some- 1
| Extre
1 Very
1 what
1 I m p o r - 1 i mp o r - I mely
I tant
I I mpor
I i mp o r - I t a n t
I tant
I
1
1 tant
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
The d e c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s
d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n s t he r e g i o n s i n
t he G u l f and c o n s t i t u t e s a means
t o p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t he
The d e c l i n e in o i l p r i c e s has
no adverse e f f e c t s on G u l f
c o u n t r i e s and w i l l t h e r e f o r e
not a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t he
s e c u r i t y and s t a b i l i t y o f t he
Gul f St at es .
G ulf.
1
SomeI
I Very
|E x tre -|
what
I I mpor - I i m p o r - | mely
| Don't
i mp o r - I t a n t j t a n t
tant
tant
437
| Some|
| Very
| what
| I mpor - | i m p o r - |
j impor-j tant
j tant
tant
| Extremely
j I mpor
tant
(28)
The d e c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s w i l l
not a f f e c t t he commercial
a c t i v i t i e s i n t he G u l f .
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 Very
Some 1
1
what
1 I mpor- I impor- I
impor I t an t
1 tant
1
tant
I
1
1
1
1
1
29)
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1 Very
1 Some- 1
1 what
1 Impor- I imp or1 i mpor - 1 t a n t
1 tant
1 tant
1
1
E x tre -1
4
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 tan t
1
4
O il revenues ar e w i s e l y spent
to a t t a i n national goals.
1
1
1 Some1 what
1
1
I impor -
1
tant
1
1
1
2
1
3
5
1
1
1
4
1
5
1
3
1
4
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
| E x tre -1
1
1 Very
what
1 I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
j
1 tant
1 impor- 1 t a n t
1 Impor-1
I tant
I
1
1
1 tant
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
5
438
1
| Extre-1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
|
I what
I I m p o r - 1 i mp o r - 1 mely
1 tant
1 Im p or-1
1 im p o r-1 t a n t
I tant
I
1
1 tant
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
O i 1 revenues are not w i s e l y
spent t o a t t a i n n a t i o n a l g o a l s.
1 Very
1 Extre-1
Impor- 1 impor- I mely
| Don ' t
tant
I tant
I tant
1
1
2
1
l ead t o i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t e r - A r a b
c o n f l i c t much more than i t was
before.
1 Extre-1
I mely
j Don ' t
30)
1
5
1
ISSUES RELATING TO OIL WEALTH
1
1
1 Some-
mely
j Don ' t
i m p o r - 1 know
tant
1
I.
1
5
1
hel p t o i n t e g r a t e i n t e r n a l Arab
s t a t e s and w i l l c on s eq ue nt l y
l essen t e n s i o n s among Arab
countries.
1
1
1
4
lead t o commercial de pr es s i on
and may cause d e f e c t s in a l l
commercial a c t i v i t i e s in t he G u l f
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
| E xtre
1 Some- 1
1 Very
1 what
I I m p o r - 1 i mp o r - 1 mely
I i mp or - I t a n t
I tant
I I mpor
1
1 tant
1 tant
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
(31)
Kuwaiti a u t h o r i t i e s are doing
Kuwaiti a u t h o r i t i e s pursue a
pol i cy which w i l l d i s si pa t e
and waste o i l revenue.
t h e i r best to conserve o i l
revenue and oversee spending
them wi sel y.
1
1
Some
what
impor
t an t
I Very
Im p o r -| im p or
tant
I t an t
Extre
mely
impor
t an t
Don ' t
know
Some
what
impor
t ant
Impor
t ant
Very
| Extrei mpor-| mely
t an t
I Impor
t an t
1
(32)
There i s plent y of o i l in
Kuwait and t here i s no need
to r e s t r i c t producti on.
Oil production should be
r e s t r i c t e d and conserved as
nat i onal r e s o u r c e .
2
1
1
SomeI
I Very
|E xtre-|
what
I Impor-j impor-j mely
j Don't
i mpor-j t an t
| t an t
| i m p o r - j know
tant
j
I
j t an t
j
| Some|
j what
j Impor-|
| i m p o r - j t an t
j t an t
j
| Very
| Extrei mpor-j mely
| tant
| Impor
j
j t an t
1
(33)
Oil revenues benef i t ed l i m i t e d
groups in Kuwaiti soci et y.
Al l social classes and groups
in Kuwait benef i t ed from o i l
revenue.
1
1
\
Some1
i Very
Extrewhat
j Im p o r -j i m p o r - | mely
i mpor-j t an t
j t an t
j impor
t an t
I
I t an t
Don't
know
1
- 439
I SomeI
I Very
| Extrej what
j Impor-j i mpor-j mely
j i m p o r - j t an t
j t an t
j ImporI tant
I
I t an t
(34)
Ser vi ces, i ncl udi ng heal t h
and educati on, are more than
adequate because of o i l wealt h.
1
1
2
1
3
1
|
Some- 1
1 Very
what
j I m p o r - 1 impor-j
i tan t
im p o r-1 ta n t
j
t an t
j
1
1
1
(35)
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
In sp i t e of o i l
such as heal t h and educati on.
5
Ext r e- 1
mely
j Don't
i mpor-j know
tan t
4
j
1
revenue t here are
g r e a t d e f i c i e n c i e s in services
5
Kuwaiti p o l i c i e s on f o r e i g n
investments are so e x c e l l e n t
t h a t they now c o n s t i t ut e an
im p o r t a n t nat i onal revenue source
1
1
1
2
1
3
4
1
|
1 Some- 1
1 Very
j what
j I mpor - 1 impor-j
i im p o r - j t an t
j tant
j
j tan t
j
1
Ex t r e
mely
Impor
t an t
7
9
1
6
1
1
8
1
Kuwait f o r e i g n in v e s tm e nts
have become so excessive t ha t
they represent a danger to
waste o i l reve n ue s .
1
Somewhat
I
I Very
| Extre-j
I Impor-j i m p o r - j mely
j Don't
im p o r - j t ant
j t an t
tan t
tan t
V II.
ISSUES RELATING TO TERRORISM
(36)
T e r r o r i s m in Kuwait i s organised
and aimed at undermin ing the
re g im e .
1
1
2
1
3
1
|
Some- 1
1 Very
what
j I m p o r - 1 i mpor-j
j t an t
impor-i t an t
1
t an t
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
Extre-1
mely
j Don ' t
i m p o r - j know
tant
j
4
1
5
440
| Some|
| Very
| Extre-|
j what
j
j impor-j t an t
| t an t
j Impor-j
t an t
t an t
Terrorism in Kuwait i s not
organised to undermine the
regime but is a part of
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t er r o r i sm.
1
1
j
j
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
| Extre
Some- 1
1 Very
what
j I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - j mely
1 tant
j Impor
i mpor-j t an t
t an t
j
1
1 t an t
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
(37)
The government's r ef usal to any
negot i at i on with t e r r o r i s t s w i l l
The g overn m ent' s r ef usal to
negot i at e or y i e l d to p re s s u re
weaken t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n K u w a it.
from t e r r o r i s t s encourages
and leads to more t e r r o r i s m.
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
5
1
1
| Extre-1
1 Very
1 I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
| Don ' t
I i mpor-I know
I t an t
tant
1
I
1 t an t
1
Some-
what
1
(38)
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
Re st ri ct ing entry of c e rta in
Arab groups w i l l h elp p re v e n t
t e r r o r i sm.
1
1
2
1
3
1
|
1
1 Very
j I mpor - 1 i mpor-j
j
i m p o r - j t an t
j t an t
tant
j
1
1
Somewhat
1
(39)
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
5
1
Secur i t y arrangements under
taken in Kuwait are s u f f i c i e n t
to p re v e n t t e r r o r i sm,
1
1
2
1
3
1
Some 1
1 Very
|
what
1 Impor- -j impor-j
impor- j t ant
i t an t
j
t an t
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
1
I
j
1
2
1
3
1
Some- 1
|
1 Very
what
1 I mpor - 1 impor-i
j tant
impor-j t a n t
j
t an t
j
1
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
4
Ex t r e
mely
Impor
tant
9
1
1
j
j
j
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
Some- 1
|
1 Very
what
j I m p o r - 1 impor-I
impor-j t an t
j tant
i
tant
i
1
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
4
Extre
mely
Impor
t an t
9
Securi t y arrangements undertaken
in Kuwait are i n s u f f i c i e n t to
p re v e n t t e r r o r i sm.
5
Extre-1
mely
j Don ' t
i m p o r - 1 know
tant
j
4
1
R e s t r i c t i n g ent ry of c e r t a i n
Arab groups has no impact on
re d u c in g or p r e v e n t i n g t er r o r i sm.
Ext r e- 1
mely
j Don ' t
i m p o r - i know
tant
j
4
1
5
- 441 -
1
1
1
i
i
i
Somewhat
import an t
1
6
1
2
1
3
1
|
1
1 Very
1 I mpor - 1 i mpor-i
j tant
j t an t
i
1
1
1
1
7
1
8
1
4
Extre
mely
Impor
t an t
9
(40)
Kuwait is not in need of
o t h e r Arab States in her
Kuwait needs to s t a r t arrange
ments with ot her Arab States in
her f i g h t agai nst t e r r o r i s m.
f i g h t agai nst t e r r o r i sm.
1
1
SomeI
I Very
|E x tre -|
what
1Impor-j i mpor-j mely
j Don't
i mpor-j t a n t
j tant
j i mpor-j know
tant
t an t
| Some
j what
j impor
t an t
Impor
t ant
Very
| Ext r eimpor-j mely
t an t
j Impor
t an t
1
(41)
To f i g h t t er r o r i sm succ es sf ul l y ,
Kuwait must co- or di nat e her
e f f o r t s with ot her nat i ons.
To f i g h t t e r r o r i s m succesf u l l y , Kuwait must r e l y
e n t i r e l y on h e r s e l f .
1
1
Some- I
I Very
| E xtrewhat
j Impor-I i mpor-j mely
i mpor-I t an t
j t an t
j impor
t an t
t an t
Don’ t
know
I Some1
I Very
| Extre-]
j what
j Impor-j impor-j mely
j
I i mpor-j t a n t
j tant
j Im por-j
t an t
t ant
1
V III.
ISSUES RELATING TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PARLIAMENT OF KUWAIT
(42)
The government need not be
obl i ged to f o l l ow the recommen
dati ons of the Par l i ament .
1
Some- I
I Very
what
j Impor-j impori m p o r - j t an t
j t an t
tant
The government must be obl i ged to
f o l l o w the d i r e c t i o n s and recom
mendations of the Parl i ament .
1
Extre-]
mely
j
im p o r - j
Don’ t
know
tant
1
442 -
] Some]
] Very
]Extre-]
j what
j
j i mpor-j t a n t
j t an t
j Impor-j
t an t
tant
(43)
P a r l i am e n t i s more capabl e o f
c h a r t i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and
car e f o r p u b l i c i n t e r e s t than
t he government.
Government i s more c apabl e o f
c h a r t i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and
car e f o r p u b l i c i n t e r e s t than
t he P a r l i a m e n t .
1
1
1
1
I
I
i
Somewhat
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
1 Very
|
1 Impor- j i m p o r - j
j tant
j
im p o r - j t a n t
tant
j
1
1
(44)
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Extre 1
mely
1 Do n ' t
im p or j know
tant
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
1 Some-
1
1 Very
| E xtre
1 what
j Impor j i m p o r - j mely
j tant
j im p or
j im p o r - j t a n t
i tan t
i
1
1 tan t
1
(45)
1
1
j
j
j
1
5
1
5
The P a r l i a m e n t i s so secure
t h a t under no c i r cu mst a nc e s
can i t be d i s s o l v e d .
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
4
Some- 1
1 Very
| Extre
what
j Impor ■j i m p o r - j mely
impor-j t an t
i tant
j impor
tant
j
1
1 tant
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
j
j
i
1
1
2
1
3
1
Some- 1
1 Very
what
j Impor j imporimpor-j t an t
j tant
tan t
j
1
1
j
j
i
7
1
6
1
1
8
4
1
E x tre -1
mely
j
I mp o r - j
tant
i
9
1
In s p i t e o f t he P a r l i a m e n t ’ s
powers and i n f l u e n c e i t must be
c a u t io u s because i t i s s u b j e c t
t o d i s s o l u t i o n a t any t i me .
1
5
1
1
j D o n 't
j know
1
1
j
j
i
1
1
5
The government does not s up po r t
c e r t a i n groups w i t h i n t he
P a r l i a m e n t and such p o l i c y i s
non- exi s t e n t .
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1 Very
1
j I mpor j i mpor j tant
tan t
i
1
j
j
j
7
1
Some-
what
6
1
1
8
4
1
Extre-1
j
I mp o r - j
tant
j
mely
9
1
The government s up po r t t o c e r t a i n
groups i n P a r l i a m e n t t h r e a t e n s
democracy i n Kuwai t .
5
1
1
1
2
1
1 Don't
j know
1
1 Some- 1
j what
j I mpor
1 im p o r-1 t a n t
j tant
j
1
1
5
443
6
1
7
1
3
1
4
1
1 Very
1 Extre-1
j i mpor - j mely
j
j I mp o r - j
j tant
j tant
j
1
1
8
1
9
j
(46)
The Ku w a i ti government b e l i e v e s
t h a t c e r t a i n MPs ar e c r e a t i n g
c o n f l i c t between Government and
P ar li ament .
1
1
1
I
j
1
1
2
3
Some- 1
what
I I mpor
impor-j tan t
tant
j
1
1
1
1
4
1
In c o n t r a s t w i t h t he a g g r e s s i v e
ness o f some MPs, t he Kuwai t i
government does not b e l i e v e t h a t
c e r t a i n MPs ar e c r e a t i n g c o n f l i c t
between Government and P a r l i a m e n t
5
Very
1 E x tre -1
impor - j mely
j Don't
tant
3
2
1
1
j tan t
j
1
1
1
5
2
1
3
1
4
1
Some- 1
1 Extre-1
1 Very
what
j I m p o r - 1 i mp o r j mely
j
impor-j t a n t
j tant
j Im p o r - j
tant
j
j tant
j
1
1
j
j
1
4
1
6
1
7
1
IX .
ISSUES RELATED TO THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS IN KUWAIT
(47)
Kuwai t i pr ess i s f r e e and i t
does not f ace any government
8
1
9
1
In s p i t e o f t he wi de range o f
freedom t o t he p re s s , i t f aces
government c e n s o rs h ip and s t a t e
c e n s o rs h ip .
control.
1
1
i
j
i
1
1
2
Some- 1
what
i I mpor
tan t
I
1
1
(48)
1
2
1
3
1
1 Very
1
i impor - j
j tan t
j
j
1
1
3
1
4
1
5
E x tre -1
mely
j Don't
i m p o r - j know
tan t
j
4
1
5
To pl ease o f f i c i a l s , news
paper owners r e s t r i c t news
which mig ht cause ang er t o
1
1
1
j
j
j
Somewhat
1
1
1
2
1
j I mpor
tant
j
1
2
1
3
1
4
3
1
4
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 E x tre -1
1 Some- 1
1 Very
1 what
1 I m p o r - 1 i mp o r i mely
j
impor-j t a n t
j tant
j Im p o r - j
tant
j
j tant
j
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
Kuwai t i j o u r n a l i s t s never h e s i
t a t e t o p u b l i s h news which mi ght
c o n t r a d i c t vi ews.
1
5
1 Very
1 E x tre -1
j impor - j mely
j Don't
j tant
j tant
j
1
1
1
1
5
44 4
1
Some
what
i mp or
tant
6
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1 E x tre -1
1 Very
I m p o r - 1 i mp o r j mely
j
tant
j tant
1 I mp o r - j
j tant
j
1
7
1
8
1
9
1
(49)
Because t hey do not f e a r
a u t h o r i t y , j o u r n a l i s t s w r i t e news
r e g a r d l e s s o f government rewards
o r pun ishment.
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
5
1
| Extre-1
Some- 1
1 Very
what
I I m p o r - 1 i m p o r - 1 mely
| Don ' t
impor -I ta n t
I tant
1
tant
I
1
1 tant
1
(50)
1
2
1
3
1
4
5
1
Because i t r e f l e c t s p o l i t i c a l
groups i d e o l o g i e s , t h e Ku w a i t i
press sounds p a r t i a l and not
c a r r y i n g i t s s o c i a l re s p o n
s ib ility .
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
| Extre-1
1 Very
j D o n 't
im p o r-j t a n t
1 tant
tan t
j
tan t
i
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
1
j
j
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Some- 1
| Extre
1 Very
what
impor-j t a n t
j tant
j Impor
tant
j
1
1 tan t
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
Ku w a i t i pr ess c a r r i e s s o c i a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and r e f l e c t s t he
public in te re s ts .
Somewhat
1
F ear i ng t he l o s s o f t h e i r j o bs
and bei ng s u b j e c t t o i n v e s t i g a
t i o n , no j o u r n a l i s t avoi ds
w r i t i n g a n t i - g o v e r nm e n t news.
5
- 445 -
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
| Extre
1 Some- 1
1 Very
j what
j I mpor
j tant
j impor-j t a n t
j tant
i
1
1 tant
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
APPENDIX
I I I
THE GENERAL QUESTIONNAIRE
Pl ease p r o v i d e t he f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n which w i l l
pur poses.
1.
What school c e r t i f i c a t e s do you hold?
Edu c at i o n:
1.
E lem entary
Preparatory
Secondary
U n i v e r s i t y degree
Post Graduate
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
be used f o r comparison
What i s you r c u r r e n t o cc u pa t i on ?
A.
Occupat i on 1.
O ffic ia l:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
Occupation 2.
S e c r e t ar y
Under S e c r e t a r y
Management D i r e c t o r
Head o f S ec t i o n
Others
J o u rn a lis t:
1.
Head o f O r g a n i s a t i o n
2.
3.
Editor-in-Chief
Managing E d i t o r
Head o f E d i t o r i a l Se c t i o n
Journalist
Se n i o r E d i t o r
Editor
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
R e p o rt e r
Correspondent
P lease i n d i c a t e yo u r c a r e e r e x p e r i e n c e :
1.
2.
3.
4.
10 - 12 year s
13 - 15 y e a rs
16 - 18 year s
7.
8.
9.
19 - 21 y e a rs
22 - 24 year s
25 and over
How many newspapers do you read d a i l y ?
1,
5.
4.
5.
6.
Less than 3 y e a rs
4-6years
7 - 9 y e a rs
Only one
2.
Two
3.
Three
4.
Four
What aspect s o f s t o r i e s do you f av o ur ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Local News
F o reig n news
P olitica l articles
5.
6.
7.
S c ie n tific a rtic le s
Soci al a f f a i r s
L i t e r a t u r e and t he A r t s
Economic a r t i c l e s
8.
Sp ort
-
446
6.
7.
Please i n d i c a t e t o what e x t e n t , i n y o u r vi ew, j o u r n a l i s t s endeavour t o
i n c l u d e t h e i r per sonal c o n v i c t i o n s i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s :
1.
Personal
co n v ic tio n
i n ALL.
2.
Personal
c o n victio n
in
3.
Personal
conviction i n
4.
Personal
c o n v i c t i o n 1 n FEW.
5.
Personal
conviction
6.
Personal c o n v i c t i o n NEVER.
Please i n d i c a t e t he degree t o whi ch t he f o l l o w i n g reasons keep
j o u r n a l i s t s f r om e x p r es s i n g t h e i r per sonal c o n v i c t i o n s i n w r i t i n g :
I
I Ext r emel y
I important
SomeVery
what
i mp or impor tant
tant
I
I
Of I Not
Imi nor j i mpor Ii m p o r - I t a n t
I t ance | a t a l l
Government censor
Censure from c o lle a g u e s
R e s t r i c t i o n from P.Uni ons
Not f r e e t o choose
Fear o f l o s i n g j ob
D e s i r e t o pl ease re a d e rs
Pl ease i n d i c a t e you r p o s i t i o n on t he f o l l o w i n g st at ement s?
Strongly
Agree
Every probl em has a
s o l u t i o n i n our h e r i t a g e
C l i n g i n g t o ol d t r a d i t i o n s
i s t he way t o b u i l d a new
c ivilisa tion
Many t r a d i t i o n s do not s u i t
t h e demands o f new l i f e
447 -
I
I S tro n gly
Agree j D is a gre e
D i sagree
(continued)
Strongly
Agree
Modern devel opment w i l l
not occur unl es s we
r ep l a c e o l d val ues w i t h
new ones
448
|
| Strongly j
| Agree j Di sagr ee j D is a g r e e
APPENDIX IV
THE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
In itia l
c o n t ac t
in itia l
and
inte rvie w
appoi nt ment s
meeti ng w i t h t he s u b j e c t .
to
be ar r anged
by
phone
or
Dur i ng t h a t t i m e :
THE INTERVIEW
Cont act s u b j e c t and put him or her a t ease by t a l k i n g
common
interest,
until
he/ she
is
ready
f o r t he
about m a t t e r s o f
in te rvie w
(up t o
5 minutes).
-
E x p l a i n t o t he s u b j e c t t he goal o f t he i n t e r v i e w .
-
Thank
you
ver y
in tervie w w i l l
much
allowing
one
to
t ak e no more than 15 mi n ut es.
o f t he whole m a t t e r ,
University
for
I am c u r r e n t l y
of Leicester,
part of a doctoral
intervie w
you.
The
whole
As I want you t o be aware
s t u d y i n g mass communicat ion a t t he
Mass Communications Cent r e.
Thi s i n t e r v i e w i s
thesis.
I am hopi ng t o f i n d out t he p o s i t i o n t aken by persons l i k e you on i ss ues o f
public
concern
and
how t hese
Kuwai t press c o n t e n t .
i s su es
found
In o t h e r words,
their
way t o
be p a r t
t he media,
and has t he a b i l i t y
t hose i ssues t o newspapers'
c o n t ent ?
My i n t e r e s t ,
to ascertain
members.
But ,
a t a t i me
...
of
Is i t
t he press
or a n ot he r power t h a t has t he means t o i n f l u e n c e
i n p a r t i c u l a r t he pr e s s ,
therefore,
t he
I am i n t e r e s t e d t o know which powers
i n s t i g a t e t hose i s sues and b r i n g them t o t he press agenda.
t h a t set s i t s own agenda,
of
is
cour se,
I can f i n d
t he o v e r a l l
this
positio n
t aken
by a l l
o n l y by i n t e r v i e w i n g one person
That i s why I am i n t e r v i e w i n g you now;
449
and power t o b r i n g
I am i n t e r e s t e d
in
yo u r
positio n
on t he
p a t t e r n and w i l l
As a m a t t e r o f
issues,
F irst
let
answers w i l l
be p a r t
o f an o v e r a l l
not be anal ysed i n d i v i d u a l l y .
fact,
there
p a r t i n t he i n t e r v i e w .
individual
but y o u r
is
no way o f
identifying
t hose who have t aken
I am i n t e r e s t e d i n aggr egat e i n f o r m a t i o n and not i n
answers.
me go over t he f i v e
i s su es
related
t o Arab U n i t y .
them and ask you as t o where you stand and then I w i l l
I w ill
cite
f o l l o w up w i t h some
q u e s t i o n s t o f i n d out which groups o r i n d i v i d u a l s s t a r t d i s c u s s i o n s i n such
i s sues and b r i n g i t
The
same
questions
t o p u b l i c concern t hr ou gh K u w a i t ' s newspapers.
will
be
asked
to
investig ate
t he
positio n
of
t he
r espondent s on t he f o l l o w i n g i ss u e c a t e g o r i e s :
The c o n f l i c t between t he Arabs ( P a l e s t i n i a n s )
-
and I s r a e l .
The I r a q i - I r a n i a n war.
The S e c u r i t y arrangements i n Kuwai t .
The c r i s i s o f d e c l i n i n g o i l
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o i l
prices.
r evenues.
T er r o r i s m .
R e l a t i o n s between t he government and t he N a t i on a l Assembly o f Kuwai t .
Freedom o f t he pr ess.
F o l l o w i n g each c a t e g o r y ,
1.
Now pl ease t e l l
That i s ,
subjects w i l l
be asked t he f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
me how t hese i s sues become a m a t t e r o f p u b l i c concern?
who you suppose ar e t he main i n s t i g a t o r s o f t hese i ssues?
O fficials
Journalists
- 450
Others
2.
(Probe)
Can you g i v e me an example?
3.
Of
gr oups,
t hese
who
has t he
most
influence
on what
appears
in
t he
to
t he
press?
Officials
(Probe)
Regardi ng
Journalists
Can you gi ve me an example?
t hese
issues,
do you
a t t e n t i o n o f t he media u n t i l
it
or
(Probe)
your
colleagues
bring
it
appears i n t he press?
Yes
5.
Others
No
What u s u a l l y happens?
Further probing,
t he s u b j e c t was asked t o det er mi ne f rom hi s p o i n t o f vi ew
t he e x t e n t t o which he b e l i e v e s t he f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s
restrict
t he r o l e o f
t he media and i n f l u e n c e t he freedom o f t he j o u r n a l i s t s t o choose and deci de
t he v al ue o f news?
(a)
Law o f P u b l i c a t i o n s :
- e x p l a i n __________________________________________________________________
(b)
Government c e n s o r s h i p :
- e x p l a i n __________________________________________________________________
( c)
Government annual
subsidies:
- e x p l a i n __________________________________________________________________
- 451
(cl)
Owner o f newspapers'
interests
- explain
ê)
Journalists'
awareness o f l o s i n g t h e i r j o b :
- e x p l a i n ____________________________________
(f)
O f f i c i a l s per sonal
friendships with jo u r n a lis ts :
- e x p l a i n __________________________________________
(g)
P u b l i c a t i o n s Law
Yes
No
(h)
Government Censor shi p
Yes
No
- e x p l a i n ______________________________________________________
6.
Please
indicate
how o f t e n
you
see or
meet members
of
t he
following
groups ( ex cl ude you r own g r o u p s ) .
(a) O f f i c i a l s _________________
(Never
7.
(Probe)
them?
/
Once i n a w h i l e
(b) J o u r n a l i s t s ________________
/
F r eq u e n t l y
Would you g i v e me an example o f how
/
Dur i ng work t i me)
and where you see or meet
_____________________________________________________________________
8.
Do you u s u a l l y d i sc u s s p u b l i c a t i o n concerns?___ _________________________
9.
Who do you t h i n k has more say on what f i n a l l y appears i n p r i n t ?
Journalists
O fficials
Others
(choose one)
45 2 -
Who
APPENDIX V
THE PILOT STUDY CODING FORM
Card
No.
1.
Case No.
1
2
3
4
Newspaper I D
AL-Watan
AL- Si yasa
AL-Anba
AL-Qabas
AL-Ray AL-Am
6
7
8
9
10
Date (numeral
11
12
13
14
I tem L o c a t i o n
F r on t Page
Local Page
E d i t o r i a l Page
15
16
17
Type o f St or y
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
18
19
Source o f I tem -
News St or y
Leadi ng E d i t o r i a l
Column
Feat ur e
Readers' L e t t e r s
Pi ctures only
Others
20
21
22
23
24
Local News Agency
For ei gn Agency
Re po r t e r s or cor r e s po nde nt s
Contributors
Others
Length o f C o l u m n p e r Inch
Less t han
-10
21
31
41
-51
over
453
.
10
20
30
40
50
60
61
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Card
No.
Local A f f a i r s
1.
The Royal F a m i l y ' s eagerness t o a l l o w people
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o l i t i c a l decisions
37
The Royal F a m i l y ' s eagerness t o desi gn a
de moc r a t i c system i n Kuwai t
38
The Royal F a m i l y ' s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r u l e t he
c o u n t r y under t r i b a l law
39
The Kuwai t Government t ends t o s a t i s f y t he
Empire r e g a r d l e s s o f t he Kuwai t p e o p l e ' s i n t e r e s t s
40
The Government r anks p u b l i c i n t e r e s t a t t he t op
of i t s p r i o r i t i e s
41
The Kuwai t Government deal s s e r i o u s l y w i t h MPs'
amendments and d e c i s i o n s
42
7.
MPs' debates r e f l e c t p e o p l e ' s r i g h t s and o b j e c t i v e s
43
8.
Kuwai t N a t i o n a l i s t s group r e p r e s e n t s p e o p l e ' s
p o l i t i c a l and economic i n t e r e s t s
44
Kuwai t T r a d i t i o n a l i s t s group r ep r es e n t s p e o p l e ' s
p o l i t i c a l and economic i n t e r e s t s
45
Kuwai t I s l a m i c f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s r e p r e s e n t t he
p e o p l e ' s p o l i t i c a l and economic i n t e r e s t s
46
Kuwai t Budwians group r e p r e s e n t s t he p e o p l e ' s
economic and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s
47
Others
48
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
10.
11.
12.
9.
F or ei gn A f f a i r s
1.
2.
3.
4.
The A r a b - I s r a e l i d i s p u t e would not be r e s o l v e d
w i t h o u t i n s t r u c t i n g peace i n i t i a t i v e s
49
The A r a b - I s r a e l i d i s p u t e would not be r es o l v e d
w i t h o u t t he use o f A r ab i c m i l i t a r y f o r c e
50
Arab u n i t y i s t he main way f o r t he Arabs t o s ol ve
t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and economic c ha l l e n g e s
51
Arab u n i t y i s t he main way f o r t he Arabs t o gai n
t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e s p e c t o f o t h e r n a t i o n s
52
- 454 -
Card
No.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The G.C.C. p r o t o c o l i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r
t he members t o gai n p r o s p e r i t y and s t a b i l i t y i n
t he whole G u l f r eg i o n
53
M i l i t a r y t r e a t i e s among G.C.C. members hel p t o c o n f r o n t
any e x t e r n a l t h r e a t t o t h e i r n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y
S e c u r i t y arrangements among G.C.C. members w i l l hel p
t o i n s u r e f i r m c o n t r o l a g a i n s t any i n t e r n a l t h r e a t s
55
Economic and commercial agreements among G.C.C.
members w i l l i n c r ea s e busi ness and advent ur es
among G u l f s t a t e c i t i z e n s
56
Others
57
54
Security A f fa ir s
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Any t h r e a t t o t he s e c u r i t y o f Kuwai t i s t he
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f l o c a l Shi a Muslims
58
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f f o r e i g n Shi a Muslims
59
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t he I s l a m i c Republ i c o f I r a n
60
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r a d i c a l Arab St at es
61
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t he Western c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s
62
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f East er n Communist c o u n t r i e s
63
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the I s r a e l and Z i o n i s t groups
64
The weak s e c u r i t y system i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
e f f e c t i v e t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s i n Kuwai t
65
S e c u r i t y i n Kuwai t c oul d be improved by
e x p u l s i o n o f Arab f o r e i g n e r s
66
S e c u r i t y i n Kuwai t c oul d be improved by
e x p u l s i o n o f non-Arab f o r e i g n e r s
67
S t a b i l i t y i n Kuwai t coul d be achi eved by
i mp r ov i n g s e c u r i t y arrangements
68
Others
69
455
Card
No.
11.
M i l i t a r y and Defence
1.
The need f o r m i l i t a r y t i e s and defence
arrangements w i t h i n t he West
70
arrangements w i t h t he East
71
arrangements w i t h o t h e r Arab St a t e s
72
arrangements w i t h G.C.C. members
73
Warning o f I r a q - I r a n war t h r e a t s f o r t he
s t a b i 11t y and s e c u r i t y i n t he G u l f
74
Warni ng o f I r a q - I r a n war f o r secure o i l
shi pment i n t he Gul f
75
7.
Cal l
for f a i r
76
8.
Cal l
f o r s up po r t f o r
I r aq a g a i n s t I r an
77
9.
Cal l
f o r s up po r t f o r
Iran against Iraq
78
10.
Others
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
s e t t l e m e n t f o r t he I r a q - I r a n war
79
Economic A f f a i r s
Cal l f o r u s i ng o i l revenues t o speed up
devel opment p r o j e c t s i n Kuwai t
80
2.
Cal l
f o r equal
81
3.
Cal l
f o r more i n v es t men t i n Arab c o u n t r i e s
82
4.
Cal l
f o r more i n v e s t me n t i n Western c o u n t r i e s
83
5.
Cal l
f o r i n c r e a s i n g s t a t e a i d t o Arab c o u n t r i e s
84
6.
Cal l
f o r a c ut i n f i n a n c i a l
85
7.
Cal l
for financial
8.
Cal l
f o r c u t t i n g ai d t o f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s i n need
87
9.
Cal l
f o r more r e s t r i c t i o n a g a i n s t greedy merchants
88
1.
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f we al t h among K u w a i t i s
ai d t o Arab c o u n t r i e s
a i d t o f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s i n need
456 -
86
Card
No.
13.
14.
10.
Ca l l
11.
Others
1
2
Development
1.
Cal l
2.
Cal l f o r t he government t o i n c r e a s e t he subsi dy
for private in d u s tr ia l projects
4
3.
Cal l
f o r b u i l d i n g a petro-chemical
5
4.
5.
Ca l l
Cal l
for va ria tio n of national
for fis h in g industry
6.
Others
t o encourage i nv es t men t i n i n d u s t r i a l
projects
industry
sources
3
6
7
8
So c i al A f f a i r s
1.
The need t o e s t a b l i s h more s o c i a l and
professional organisations
Cal l
t o s up po r t t he smal l
3.
Ca l l
t o sup po r t t he s o c i a l
4.
The need t o i n c r ea s e i l l i t e r a c y
5.
Cal l
6.
The need t o improve women's s o c i a l
7.
Kuwai t i women have gai ned t h e i r r i g h t s and t h e r e
i s not need f o r more women's r i g h t s
15
8.
Cal l
f o r l e s s dowry demands
16
9.
Ca l l
f o r l ess wedding c e l e b r a t i o n cos t s
17
10.
The i mpact o f i n c r e a s i n g mar r i age s t o f o r e i g n
women i n t he s o c i a l and t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e
18
Others
19
Cultural
1.
communi t i es '
9
2.
11.
15.
f o r r ed u c i ng p r i c e s and t he c os t o f l i v i n g
activities
10
a c t i v i t i e s o f Kuwai t women
campaign i n Kuwai t
t o a l l o w women t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n v o t i n g
11
12
13
rights
14
Affairs
Cal l f o r i n c r e a s i n g c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o
match t he r a p i d m a t e r i a l i s t i c devel opment
- 457 -
20
Card
No.
2.
3.
4.
5.
16.
21
C l i n g i n g t o o l d t r a d i t i o n s i s t he o n l y way
t o b u i l d a new modern c i v i l i s a t i o n
22
Kuwai t A r t s impose hard c r i t i c i s m f o r t r a d i t i o n s
and customs t h a t are out o f dat e
23
Others
24
Educat i on
1.
2.
Kuwai t ed u c a t i on was moderni sed t o match
t he r a p i d changes i n t he c o u n t r y
25
Kuwai t ed u c a t i on was c l a s s i c a l l y desi gned,
t h e r e f o r e i t f a i l e d t o match t he r ap i d
changes i n t he c o u n t r y
26
Ca l l f o r bo r r o wi ng t he e d u c a t i o n a l methods
o f o t h e r Arab c o u n t r i e s
27
4.
Cal l
f o r emphasi si ng I s l a m i c e d uc a t i on i n school s
28
5.
Cal l
f o r f o l l o w i n g t he Western methods i n e d u c a t i on
29
3.
G i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o modern sci ences
30
7.
The e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have succeeded
i n e s t a b l i s h i n g d i s c i p l i n e i n p u b l i c s chool s
31
The e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have succeeded
i n emphasi si ng c o - o p e r a t i o n between school s
and f a m i l i e s
32
The Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y has succeeded i n s pr eadi ng
i t s s o c i a l impact o f f t he campus
33
10.
The Kuwai t U n i v e r s i t y has no impact o f f i t s
34
11.
Others
3.
8.
9.
17.
The need t o emphasise t r a d i t i o n and h e r i t a g e
w i t h i n c u r r e n t r a p i d changes
campus
35
Sp o r t A f f a i r s
1.
2.
C o n s i d e r i ng s p o r t as a means o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t
and p u b l i c l e i s u r e
36
Spor t s games among G u l f St at es hel ps t o emphasise
f r i e n d s h i p and mutual u n d e r s t a n d i n g
37
458
Card
No .
3.
4.
5.
18.
Spor t s games have i n c r ea s ed a n i m o s i t y
p r e j u d i c e among peopl e
V i o l e n c e i n s p o r t s games harmed
s o c i a l and h u ma n i s t i c goal s
and
38
t he a c t ua l
39
Others
40
Crime Mag ni t ude
1.
The magni tude o f cr i me i n Kuwai t i s mai nl y caused
by t he i n f l u x o f m i g r a n t s f rom o t h e r c o u n t r i e s
41
The magni tude o f cr i me i n Kuwai t caused a s e r i o u s
t h r e a t f o r t he n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f t he c o u n t r y
42
T e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s i n Kuwai t are imposi ng a s e r i o u s
t h r e a t f o r t he n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o f t he c o u n t r y
43
H i g h j a c k i n g o f a i r c r a f t imposes anot he r t h r e a t
t o Kuwai t s e c u r i t y
44
F or ei gn non-Arab l a b o u r i s one o f t he
main sources o f new cr i me i n Kuwai t
45
The imbal ance between men and women i n Kuwai t
leads t o t he magni tude o f moral cri me
46
The moral cr i mes ar e a r e s u l t o f t he i n c r ea s e
i n f o r e i g n non-Arab l a b o u r
47
C o r r u p t i o n and p r e me d i t at ed cr i me are a
new phenomenon i n Kuwai t
48
O f f i c i a l s ' cri mes are i n c r e a s i n g l y spr eadi ng
among p o l i t i c i a n s and government i n Kuwai t
49
Bureaucracy and r o u t i n e ar e c h a r a c t e r i s i n g
t he new management i n Kuwai t
50
11.
B r i b e r y i s i n c r e a s i n g among Ku w a i t i
51
12.
The Kuwai t government f aces s e r i o u s l y t he
moral cr i mes i n t he c o u n t r y
52
The Kuwai t government i s det er mi ned t o f i g h t
a g a i n s t b r i b e r y , c o r r u p t i o n and mis-management
r o u t i n e i n Kuwai t
53
The N a t i on a l Assembly i s t he scene where
most cri mes are announced
54
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
13.
14.
- 459
officia ls
Card
No.
15.
The N a t i on a l Assembly caused accused o f f i c i a l s t o
r e s i g n because democracy i s p r e v a i l i n g i n Kuwai t
55
Others
56
I t i s obvi ous t h a t t he government i n Kuwai t
b r i n g s s t r o n g pr e s s ur e t o bear t o mi n i mi se t he
f reedom o f t he press
57
2.
Censor shi p o f t he media i s a r o u t i n e p r a c t i c e i n Kuwai t
58
3.
The government t h r e a t e n s t he media by u si ng t he
p u b l i c a t i o n law a g a i n s t j o u r n a l i s t s and j o u r n a l s
59
Th r e a t en i ng t o s e i ze p u b l i c a t i o n s i s an ot he r
weapon which t he government uses a g a i n s t t he media
60
Taki ng t he media t o c o u r t i s a n ot he r o b s t a c l e
t h a t t he media c o n t i n u a l l y f aces
61
Th r e a t en i ng t o f i n e and e x p u l s i o n o f f o r e i g n
j o u r n a l i s t s i s a n ot he r way t o ensure j o u r n a l i s t s '
l o y a l t y t o government o f f i c i a l s
62
Others
63
16.
19.
Media
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
460 -

POLITICS AND THE PRESS IN KUWAIT A STUDY OF AGENDA

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