Revisiting Hotels and Other Lodgings: American

Transcription

Revisiting Hotels and Other Lodgings: American
Revisiting Hotels and Other Lodgings: American Tourist Spaces through the Lens of Black
Pleasure-Travelers, 1880-1950
Author(s): Myra B. Young Armstead
Source: The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, Vol. 25, The American Hotel (2005), pp.
136-159
Published by: Florida International University Board of Trustees on behalf of The
Wolfsonian-FIU
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Myra B. Young Armstead
RevisitingHotels and OtherLodgings:AmericanTouristSpaces
throughthe Lens of Black Pleasure-Travelers,1880-1950
MyraB. YoungArmsteadis professorofhistoryat BardCollege,whereshe chairsherdepartresearchand teachinginterests
mentand cochairstheAmericanstudies program.Herprimary
Americansocial history
witha focuson UnitedStates urbanhistory
are in nineteenth-century
Americanhistory.
She has published"Lord,Please Don't TakeMe inAugust":
and African
Americansin Newportand Saratoga Springs,1870-1930 (1999) and MightyChange,
African
in theHudson Valley(2003).
TallWithin:
BlackIdentity
in thelatenineteenth
andsocialhistory
converged
cameraandthe
when
the
introduction
of
the
handheld
century
classin theUnitedStatescoincided.
Technology
ofa blacktourist
emergence
The
Butthesetwodevelopments
sharedmorethana momentin history.
cameracouldbe usedto providevisualconfirmation
ofprescribed
social
relations
at mainstream
vacationspotsimplicitly
andideals.Blacktourists
fortourist
defiedprevailing
expectations
spacesduringan eraofofficially
Blackbodiesrecordedunwittingly
on film
sanctioned
racialsegregation.
reflected
theblackbelief
destinations
inherently
populartourist
enjoying
as consumers,
wereentitled
to occupysuchplaces
thatAfrican
Americans,
white
the
small
black
middle
andupperclasses
Moreover,
despite
hostility.
thatcouldclaimleisuretimeandleisurespacesalsoenlisted
photography
fashion.
theirown
andotherprintmediain deliberate
Bydocumenting
tourist
andholidayvenuesintotheearlytwentieth-century
experiences
African
Americans
eraofcontinuing
racialseparation,
createdvisualtexts
thatassertedtheirrespectability
andrightful
placewithintheranksof
"good" society.
Waiters at the United
States Hotel dining
room (detail), Saratoga
Springs, New York,
c. 1890s (see fig. 2).
Losing Groundin MainstreamVenues
in thelatenineteenth
The pleasure
-traveling
publicofblackAmericans
likeitswhitecounterpart,
consisted
ofthemosteconomically
century,
American
segmentoftheAfrican
population.Thiselitegroup
privileged
amountedto roughly10 percentoftheblackpopulationandincluded
- doctors,lawyers,
writers,
professors,
publishers,
clergymen,
professionals
office
as
well
as
successful
holders
politicians,
independent
judges,political
These
"aristocrats
of
color"
were
linked
nationally
through
entrepreneurs.
a network
ofblackfraternities,
fraternal
social
clubs.1
and
sororities,
lodges,
Thisgroupexpandedto someextentin theearlytwentieth
as the
century
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CM
<
o
137
fig.i
Twoblackmenstrolling
on Broadway,Saratoga
Springs,NewYork,
oppositethe United
States Hotel,c. 1907.
The BolsterCollection
at theSaratoga Springs
HistoryMuseum.
Photographby
JesseSumnerWooley.
<Q
138
oftheautomobile
madeless-expensive
short,day,orweekend
popularity
excursions
accessibleto a middlestratum
ofblacks-civilserviceworkers,
socialworkers,
andthelike.
porters,
After
theCivilWar,blackswhocouldafford
to patronizeresorthotelsand
othernewvacationspotsjoineda newclassofwealthy
Americans
created
nineteenthindustrialization.
African
Thus,manyupper-class
by
century
Americans
ofthenation'smonied
playgrounds
enjoyedthecelebrated
whites.A setofblackvacationers
fromallpointsin thecountry
summered
in latenineteenthandearlytwentiethnortheastern
like
resorts
century
Newportin RhodeIsland,SaratogaSpringsin NewYork,Atlantic
City,
Isle
and
Sea
on
the
and
Harbor
on
shore, Sag
CapeMay,
Jersey
LongIsland.
inVirginia
inWestVirginia
Further
andHarpersFerry
south,SilcottSprings
others.In theMidwest,African
attracted
Americans
vacationedat Bois
BlancIsland,a northern
nearMackinawIsland.2
Michiganretreat
An earlytwentiethofBroadway,
themajorthoroughcentury
photograph
fareofSaratogaSprings,
includestwowell-dressed
blackgentlemen
with
white
thepresenceofAfrican
visitors,
promenading
along
confirming
Americans
atthisspa(fig.1). Yettheplacement
ofthefigures
inthepicture
attests
to themounting
tideofwhiteopposition
to blackcommingling
withwhitesthattypified
theinfamous
eraofracerelations
segregationist
Reconstruction.
thevanishing
following
Byemphasizing
pointfrom
severaldifferent
the
underscores
the
boulelines, photographer
expansive,
vard-like
thanthetwoblackfigures,
qualityofthestreetrather
justright
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a decadeafter
ofcenterin theforeground.
The imagewastakenroughly
the1896 Plessy
Court
decision
v.Ferguson
legallyauthorizing
Supreme
racialsegregation
as nationalpractice.
Racialproscriptions
againstblacks
in 1883 of
werealreadyspiraling
aftertheSupremeCourt'sdeclaration
theunconstitutionality
oftheCivilRightsActof1875,whichhad sought
to makehotelsandothersuchfacilities
accessibleto African
Americans.
After
theseproscriptions
bylawandcustomallover
Plessy,
proliferated
Black
thecountry.
ofstatus,increasingly
found
vacationers,
regardless
at mainstream
closedto thementirely,
accommodations
traveldestinations
fromthoseoffered
to whitesbytime(blackswereservedon
separated
or
at
different
to themin distinct
locations.
different
hours)oroffered
days
So, forexample,itwasnotunusualthatfromthe1880suntilitwas
in 1926, blackscoulduse theroundyellowwood pavilionon
destroyed
PabloBeach,ConeyIsland,Florida,on Mondaysonly.Similarly,
in 1882,
Detroit'sKirkwood
Hotel deniedroomsto theFiskJubileeSingersas a
matter
ofpolicy.The manager
tolda localnewspaper
thatAfrican
American
to hisbusiness.3
guestswereharmful
theso-called
ofsegregation
JimCrowsystem
Bytheearlytwentieth
century
vacation
facilities.
wasfirmly
established
andaffected
bothpublicandprivate
In 1916,forexample,
thecommissioners
oftheStateReservation
at
SaratogaSpringsannouncedtheirdecisionto installseparateblackand
in theparkandto limittheformer
whitebathhouses
"as thenumberof
coloredpeopleapplying
fortreatment
is notoverone percentofthe
The commissioners
number
of
both
races
at
capitulated
aggregate
present."4
to thediscomfort
andvigorousopposition
expressed
amongthewhite
ofblacksoccupying
thesamepleasure
anyexisting
practice
publicregarding
Theverynextyear,
W.E. B. Du Bois(1868-1963)observed
spacesaswhites.
thattheissueof"everracediscrimination"
madeit
generally
recurring
whether
to
"a puzzlingqueryas to whatto do withvacations,"
traveling
nationalor regionalpopularresorts,
majorcities,or remotegetaways.5
EvenBookerT. Washington
(1856-1915), theGreatAccommodationist
whilehe personally
whourgedblacksto acceptsegregation
patiently
at
"a
midtown
hotel"
whenever
he visited
the
facilities
first-class,
enjoyed
in thelastfouryearsofhislifethebiteof
NewYorkCity,experienced
in a strange
there.He becameembroiled
JimCrowwhiletraveling
andhis"wife"accusedhimof
scandalin 1911 whena whitecarpenter
District
andofaccosting
to breakintotheirhousein theTenderloin
trying
After
thatincident,
in a sexually
manner.
thewomanverbally
suggestive
HotelManhattan
foundhisaccessto thestylish
suddenly
Washington
His appealto thehotelownerfellon deafears,andhe never
withdrawn.
in thatcity.One yearbeforehe died,
facilities
againenjoyedcomparable
wasreducedto sendingthemaitred' oftheMcAlpinHotel
Washington
in NewYorka copyofhislatestbookandpromising
to eathismealsin
to staythere.He received
hisroom,notthehoteldiningroom,ifpermitted
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in
<
O
139
one allegedmisstep
no replyto thisrequest.6
bythisprominent,
Apparently,
RaceMan wassufficient
to casthimintothesameheapas
"exceptional"
Americans
certaintravelamenities.
otherAfrican
regarding
Thispattern
ofdiscrimination
continued
aftertheFirstWorldWarinto
therules
theDepressionandtheSecondWorldWarera.Indeed,flouting
in recreation
couldbe
ofsegregation
andleisure,howeverinnocently,
fromangry
forAfrican
Americans
andleadto physical
reprisals
dangerous
whites.7
American
WendellDabney,an African
editor,
newspaper
thatblackvisitors
to Cincinnati
facedin the1920s:
thesituation
explained
are
Hotels,restaurants,
eatinganddrinking
places,almostuniversally
ofcoloredbloodcanbe
closedto allpeopleinwhomtheleasttincture
The Bartenders'
Unionhaspasseda resolution
its
detected.
forbidding
members
to waiton a coloredperson,andtheyliveup to it.... Atthe
Stinton
Hotel,... thecoloredmanis notwelcomeevento standing
howprominent
he is,ifhe desiresto see a
roominthelobby.No matter
he musttakethefreight
whitemanon one oftheupperfloors
elevator,
oftheelevator,
the"JimCrow"compartment,
orthelowercompartment
we maycallit.8
to
CM
<
Q
140
in Ocean City,New Jersey,
in the1930s,blackvacationers
faced
Similarly,
to one contemporary
sociological
study.9
bathingrestrictions,
according
northern
even
within
African
American
of
cities,
Ironically,
ghettos major
in certainhotels:theJimCrowsystem
blackswerenotpermitted
keptthe
a segregated
establishment
famedHotelTheresa,a Harlemlandmark,
Americans
until1940. Not untilafter
thendiditbecome
closedto African
likeLena Home
foritsclientele
ofpopularblackentertainers
celebrated
an informal
As lateas 1943, afterconducting
andDuke Ellington.
survey
of105 northeastern
travel
blackjournalist
establishments,
GeorgeS. Schuyler
havemotoredallacrosstheUnited
complained,
"Manycoloredfamilies
accommodations
at a single
Stateswithoutbeingableto secureovernight
He
from
his
that
tourist
or
hotel."
concluded
investigation blacks
camp
abroadthanintheUnitedStates.10
wouldhavean easiertimetraveling
As themomentum
towardJimCrowhardenedintoa racializedcaste
andthefirst
decadesofthe
century
system
duringthelatenineteenth
to
it
was
left
to
African
American
twentieth
century,
mainly
proprietors
For
forblacktourists
andtravelers.
providehotelsand boardinghouses
the
Banneker
in
the
last
of
the
nineteenth
instance,
quarter
century,
clientele.
Hotelin Cape May,New Jersey,
cateredto an all-blacktraveling
Cincinnati's
DumasHouse hostedblackguestsat leastthrough1894.n
Forseveraldecadesafter1910,Ella HolmesoperatedherHolmesCottage
forsummering
blackson Walworth
Streetin SaratogaSprings.Reporting
oftheVincennes
on a tripto Chicagoin 1921, Du Boiswrotefavorably
Hotel: "I stayedat theVincennes.
Aroundmewereghostsofwhitefolks
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fig.2
Waiters at the United
States Hotel dining room,
Saratoga Springs,
New York,lantern slide of
original photograph,
c. 1900. Collection of
Brookside Museum,
Saratoga County
Historical Society.
Photograph by
Jesse Sumner Wooley.
m
whousedto liveat thisbeautiful,
hotel.Now Negroes
quiet,andexclusive
2
ownitanditis stillbeautiful
thank
neither
exclusive
andquietbut,
heaven,
<
nordear.EveryNegrointheUnitedStatesoughtto takea tripto Chicago, O
141
u
withhisfamily."
justto stopat theVincennes
CM
An equallyacceptable
alternative
in mainstream
to blackownedoperations
resorts
establishments
in major
andpleasurecapitalswerewhite-owned
citiescatering
to an exclusively
blackclientele.In theearlytwentieth
Cincinnati's
Old St. ClairHotel,patronizedbywealthy
whites,
century,
was converted
its
white
owner
into
a
first-class
hotel
for
blacks
and
by
renamedtheHotelSterling.13
andtheGordon
OnlyplacesliketheSterling
hotelsin Cincinnatihostedleadingmembersofthenationalblack
Du Bois and MarcusGarvey(1887-1940) amongthem.
community,
their
theseluminaries
couldnotfindaccommodations
Despite
prominence,
in hotelswithwhitecustomers.
Whitebusinessadventurers
apparently
and
capitalizedon thissituation,as did theirblackcounterparts,
the
blacks
need
for
travel
amenities
exploited
profitably special
among
blackorwhiteowned,places
Whether
producedbytheJimCrowsystem.
liketheSterling,
Holmes
Gordon,Banneker,
Cottage,andtheVincennes
as insular
leisureresidences
within
hostilevacation
functioned
environments.
»
As JimCrowsolidified,
blacktourists
wererendered
invisible
inwhite
ofmainstream
resorts.
Instead,thevisualrecordshows
representations
blacksmainly
as servants
andhelpersforwhites.Thus,imagesofblack
waiters
at theirpostsin thediningroomofSaratoga's
standing
attentively
UnitedStatesHotel (fig.2) anda blacknursemaid
thechildren
watching
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fig.3
A nursemaid in Saratoga
Springs watches her
charges, c. 1910.
The Bolster Collection
at the Saratoga Springs
History Museum.
CM
<
142
underhercarein thatspa'sCongressPark(fig.3) confirmed
thepreferred
racialorder.Theyreplacedtheperipheral
noticeofblackvacationers
at
white
in
tourist
shown
the
of
two
black
men
venues,
popular
photo
on Broadway
strolling
oppositethehotel(see fig.1). Theseimagesraise
thedignified
andpresentation
ofAfrican
questionsaboutwhether
carriage
Americans
withinresortsettings
inheredin themas independent
usersof
suchspaces,as itdoesforthetwoblackmenpromenading
on Broadway,
whoappearto be takingin thesightsfortheirownenjoyment.
Instead,
themeticulous
dressandbearingofthewaiters,
seenagainstthebackdrop
oftheimpressive
room
underscore
theprivilege
interior,
dining
ironically
oftheinvisible
whitehotelpatrons.The neatnessofthemaid'sattire
reflects
thepropriety
ofherwhiteemployer
andheremployer's
similarly
children.
Evenassuming
thatthewaitersandmaidin thephotographs
choseto projecta publicimageofself-respect
in theseposes,thepoint
is thatthecamerapermitted
suchan impression
withinthecontextof
butnotconsumption.
servanthood,
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in All-BlackVenues
FramingRespectability
to developblackleisurespacesin
Besidesseizingtheinitiative
serving
resorts
andmetropolitan
African
Americans
established
centers,
developed
theirownall-blacktourist
venues.Throughtheirphotographic
inventory
assessment
thatcountered
oftheseplaces,theyrevealeda selfprevailing
notionsofthemas "a race"andas individuals.
Majorexamplesofvenues
fortheblackeliteincludeOak Bluffs
on Martha'sVineyard,
Massachusetts,
in
Beach
in
Anne
Arundel
and
Idlewild
Highland
County,
Maryland,
northern
Buttherewerecertainly
morelocalizedversions
smaller,
Michigan.
Beachin Florida,forinstance.14
ofthemorecelebrated
spots American
AmerOak Bluffs
wasneverfrequented
byAfrican
Technically,
exclusively
icans.Rather,
at a timewhenmainstream
vacationhavensstrictly
observed
Bluffs
an exclusionary
toward
Oak
evolved
as
the
sole
blacks,
policy
a noticeableblackcommunity
townon Martha'sVineyard
thattolerated
ofbothpermanent
visitors.
The towninitially
residents
andsummer
summer
centerin the
campmeetingandrevival
developedas a Methodist
antebellum
of
the
nineteenth
the
period
century.
Eventually, religious
made
for
more
varied
secularpursuits,
and
faded
and
atmosphere
way
blackscameto thetownas bothyear-round
smallbusinessoperators
and
leisure
serviceworkers
from
the
Around
industry.
profiting
burgeoning
theturnofthetwentieth
CharlesShearer(1854-1934), whohad
century,
first
arrived
withhisfamily
to starthisownlaundry
forwhite
operation
hisfacility
intoa guesthouse,
summer
transformed
residents,
including
to African
of
tenniscourts,catering
Americans.
One ofthedaughters
thisformer
Bostonhotelmaitred' hadrecognizedtheneedforsuitable
forblackvisitors
there.Mrs.Anthony
Smithoperated
accommodations
another"deluxe"black-run
innforAfrican
Americans
in
Oak Bluffs
thefirst
After
ReverendOscarDennison
partofthetwentieth
century.
a blackchurchmissionin Oak Bluffs,
hispresenceandcongreestablished
andanchortheyear-round
African
American
gationhelpedsolidify
This
another
of
the
town's
relative
indication
population. church,
openness
an increasein blacksummer
towardblacksin an unfriendly
age,spurred
tourists
fromnearbycities.In time,certainstreets
andneighborhoods
in
Oak Bluffs
werefirmly
as blacksummer
enclaves.Bytheend
established
oftheSecondWorldWar,theresortwasfirmly
established
amongblacks
as a beachfront
havenandas a specialspotwhereone couldrubshoulders
with"certainprominent
fromaroundthenation.15
personalities"
theirexperiences
Blackvisitors
to Oak Bluffs
documented
visually
through
as a recordoftheirtravelandstatusamongthatclassof
photography
Americans
whocouldparticipate
in leisureactivities.
Take,forexample,
thewell-dressed
shownformally
groupofblacktourists
posingsometime
at theturnofthelastcentury
outsideofThayerCottage,an Oak Bluffs
there,despitethefactthat
roominghouseon thereligious
campground
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<
143
welcomeAfrican
thecampground
didnotgenerally
we no
Americans
duringthisera(fig.4).16Although
the
the
know
the
of
tourists, photolonger
identity
is a documentofmanythings:notonly
graphitself
theirpresenceat thevacationsite,butalso,as the
suggests,
yetmodestclothing
qualityoftheirstylish
theirability
to afford
sucha vacationandtheir
ofmiddle
-class
embraceofcontemporary
standards
thesitters
as
self-restraint.
The photograph
captures
in one oftheritualsoftourism
a groupparticipating
MichelFrizot:the
as discussedbyphotohistorian
a
thesub"official"
beside
landmark
pose
whereby
withthat
jectsstaketheirclaimuponor association
in
the
the
site.Furthermore, cottage
photograph
mix
elements
a
of
historicist
typical
displays bourgeois
in
American
oftheperiod.TheseAfrican
tourists,
in dress
otherwords,decidedly
linkedthemselves,
tastes.
andlocation,to mainstream
10
<
144
GroupoutsideThayer
Cottage,Oak Bluffs,
Martha'sVineyard,
Massachusetts,c. 1890.
Martha'sVineyard
HistoricalSociety.
wasestablishing
AroundthesametimethatOak Bluffs
forAfrican
a similar
resortwas
itselfas a summer
retreat
Americans,
in
the
Denied
accessto
further
south
ChesapeakeBayregion.
developing
a Maryland
vacationstop,Frederick
Douglass'sson,Charles(1844-1920),
a
beachfront
of
bought nearby
parcel land,whichhe andhiswifeestablished
whoalsopurchased
after1893 as a seasidehavenforfamily
andfriends
theplacewaslater
in
the
area.
At
first
called
land
Arundel-on-the-Bay,
renamedHighlandBeach.Thisleisuresetwaslimitedto a tightcircleof
blackelites.In 1922 itwasincorD.C. -based,high-ranking
Washington,
in
the
first
black
town
as
Maryland.17
porated
middle
-classvalues
claimedmainstream
HighlandBeachvacationers
withinthe
In
these
the
are
distributed
evenly
(figs.5-7).
images subjects
frameto conveya senseofbalanceandorderin theirlives,evenas they
- croquet,possibly
"relax."The photoencasesthemin activities
picnicking,
withinthelistofacceptable
and/orfashionable
bathing thatallfellneatly
reached
attheturnofthetwentieth
century.
Croquet,inparticular,
pastimes
in theUnitedStatesin thelatenineteenth
as
a peakofpopularity
century
classes
via
and
the
American
middle
and
a Frenchimport England,
upper
As a sport
associateditwiththeleisurelifeofthewealthy
in Britain.
bymixedsexes,croquetwasrather
uniqueforthetime,so the
practiced
of
men
and
women
at
together playdidnotchallengesocial
presence
ofhuman
convention
(fig.5). Croquetandpicnicsaremanifestations
which
were
ofthe
on
lawns
in
both
of
or
pacifications
activity
backyards,
The vegetation
andtreesaredwarfed
wilderness.
bythehumanimprint
withthecultivation
associateblackvacationers
on bothscenesandtherefore
ofthewildor withdomesticitya corevalueoftheage. Thus,the
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fig. 5
(above, left)
Patrons at croquet,
Highland Beach,
Maryland, c. 1898.
Gregoria Fraser Goins
Papers, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
fig. 6
(above, center)
Picnickers under a
swing, Highland Beach,
Maryland, 1899.
Gregoria Fraser Goins
Papers, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
fig.7
(above, right)
Swimmers, Highland
Beach, Maryland.
Gregoria Fraser Goins
Papers, Moorland Spingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
treeseentowering
overthepicnicking
potentially
overwhelming
groupis
harnessed
of
bytheswingandthebenchbeneathit andbytheplacement
womenon both(fig.6). As theswingwasa favorite
in
mainstream
prop
photographic
posesofwomenduringthisperiod,theyoungblackwoman
on thetreeswingvisually
anchorstheshotandembodiesitsintent.
sitting
The parasolsandswimwear
donnedbythefemalebathersdefinethemas
bathersofthelateVictorian
respectable
period(fig.7). The menin both
announce
their
and
images
vigilance honor,almostas sentries
amongthe
oftheirstances.One holdsa lady'shandbagand
women,bytherigidity
formoregentlemanly
parasol(see fig.6), puttingasideanyapprehensions
andtheotherhasgraciously
loweredhimself
behindthewoman
concerns,
seatedon theswing,holdingon to one oftheropes.A singlemaleamong
thewomen,seenattheleftneartheshoreline
(seefig.7), standsatattention
likesomesortofwatchman,
a thick,
stick.Thus,themen
clublike
clutching
in bothimagesadvertise
theirreadiness
to guardandprotect
womankind.
As a trio,theseHighlandBeachphotographs
screamAfrican
American
to
social
cultural
norms.18
and
conformityprevailing
In theMidwest,Idlewildemergedin theearlytwentieth
as the
century
foremost
blacksummer
a
like
Beach
where
African
spot place
Highland
American
vacationers
evincedbourgeoisvalues.Foundedin 1912 on
acres
of
in LakeCounty,
overcut
timberland
theresort
2,700
Michigan,
drewpatronslikeDr. DanielHale Williams
(1858-1931), a heartsurgeon,
founder
ofChicago'sProvident
and
manin
Hospital, an influential
whowasalsoone ofthelargest
owners
medicine,
contemporary
property
at Idlewild.Williams
builtOakmere,a summer
cottage,andcreateda
the
of
same
name
across
the
street.
theOakmereHotel
park
Eventually,
wasestablished
nearthepark.The exterior
architecture
oftheOakmere
the
and
displayed simplicity rusticity
increasingly
prizedamongrural
vacationers
in the1910s and 1920s as a reflection
oftheburgeoning
movement
His
modest
but
"modern"
camping
(fig.8).
bungalowis
"madeluxurious
withelectricity
and Orientalrugs"(fig.9).19The limited
a
stark
fromtheoverstuffed
homesofthelate
furnishings
departure
Victorian
reflect
the
extent
to
which
"bareness
andrestraint
period may
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EL
145
fig.8
(right)
OakmereHotel,Idlewild,
Michigan. State Archives
of Michigan.
fig9
(below, right)
Daniel Hale Williams in
his parlor, Idlewild,
Michigan. Daniel Hale
Williams Papers,
Moorland-Spingarn
Research Center,
Howard University.
C-4
<f
a.
<
146
20
[were]slowlybeingacceptedbythemiddleclass"in theyearsafter1900.
at thepicture'scenter,
is definedas an educatedmanbythe
Williams,
thatsurround
him- books,papers,and evena
instructional
materials
hisunsmiling
with
humanskull.Byhisneatattire,
face,hispreoccupation
his
house
and
Williams
reading,
unpretentious furnishings,
sobriety
projects
evenas he relaxesin hisretreat.
and seriousness
Throughthecamera,
he remainsa
Williamsconveysthemessagethatalthoughvacationing,
staidand thoughtful
to sacrifice
a commitment
to
individual,
unwilling
- a perennial
work
virtueamongAmericans
ofhisclass- forplay.Williams
alsosoldlandto hiswealthy
an enclave
friends,
thereby
virtually
creating
oflikemindsandtastes.Thattasteis evidentin theinterior
ofan Idlewild
hoteldiningroom,whereorderandmodesty
areprojectedthrough
the
cameralens(fig.10).21
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fig.10
(above, left)
Idlewilddiningroom
c. 1920,
interior,
thoughtto be at the Club
El-Morocco.State
ArchivesofMichigan.
fig.11
(above, right)
Gass Point,Idlewild,
Michigan.State Archives
ofMichigan.
ClaimingtheLandscape
wellthatmiddleIdlewild'sfounders
understood
As realestatespeculators,
classblackshungered
forland,placeswheretheywouldbe assureda
dividedthe
welcome,andspacestheycouldclaim.Thesespeculators
Americans
as summer
vacation
terrain
intoplotsandsoldthemto African
fromthesweltering
citiesofChicago,Detroit,Indianapolis,
and
retreats
after
scenic
views
at
the
resort
were
named
Cleveland.
prominent
Eventually,
wasnamedforCharlieGass,
blacklandowners.
GassPoint,forexample,
who soldplotsat Idlewildwhileemployedas a shoeshinemanat the
PantlindHotelin downtown
GrandRapids,Michigan(fig.11). Similarly,
a,
in the1920s,Dr. Williams
purchaseda largeplotandnamedit the
c
DanielHale Williams
Subdivision.22
147
The importance
ofsuchgestures
cannotbe overstated.
The practiceof
in
views
and
sites
has
a
the
commodification
ofthe
naming
longhistory
As historian
Dona Brownhasshown,"The namingofunnamed
landscape.
was
to making
theregionscenic:The morenamed
and
crucial
places things
themoreplacesfortourists
to visit,andthemoreorderly
and
things,
thelandscapebecame."23
as
was
the
fact
differentiated
Equally significant
thatthelandscapehad beennamedfora blackman.Historically
and
menlikeGasscouldclaima bitoftheAmerican
ideologically
dispossessed
for
themselves.
Understood
thisway,thesweeping
viewof
landscape
in thehorizontal
GassPointpictorially
thateverything
and
proclaims
vertical
vision
to
African
of
Americans.
range
belongs
EmbracingthePastoral
Fromthevisualrecord,itis evidentthatblackAmericans
sharedthesame
mainstream
in
domestictravelers
passionforthepastoralthattypified
theperiodstudiedhere.Duringthelatenineteenth
andearlytwentieth
Americans*
withnature
andencounters
centuries,
soughtrusticretreats
as antidotes
to whatwereperceived
as theunhealthful,
and
stultifying,
residential
corrupting
aspectsofmodernizationcongested
arrangements,
andintellectually
vistas,andtheescalating
aesthetically
uninspiring
pace
ofwork.As partofthisnationaldrift,
African
Americans
withthemeans,
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un
<
<
148
fig.12
(top)
Idlewild Lake, Idlewild,
Michigan. State Archives of
Michigan.
fig. 13
(bottom)
The bridge to Idlewild
Island, Idlewild, Michigan.
State Archives of Michigan.
fromcitiesto beaches,
time,andinclination
optedto removethemselves
andwildspacesto enjoytherestorative
country
getaways,
qualities
associated
withtr^ese
settings.
In theirvacationselections
andphotographic
recordofthem,African
in a nationalcritiqueofindustrial
Americans
lifeand
participated
urbanization.
One blackschoolprincipal,
whodecidedin 1917 "to leave
thecityforabsoluterest"byvacationing
on thehomesteadofanother
in ruralGeorgia,reported:"Everydaywas
African
American
family
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fig.14
(above, left)
Boathouse at Highland
Beach, Maryland, c. 1929.
Gregoria FraserGoins
Papers, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
fig.15
(above, right)
Porch at Highland Beach,
Maryland, 1929.
Gregoria Fraser Goins
Papers, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
backto nature,.
. . a longwaysfromtherailroad."24
Du Bois'srapturous
in
mustbe appreciated
ofIdlewild 1921, bordering
on poetry,
description
- forsheenof
in thissamesense.He wrote,"Forsheerphysical
beauty
ofshrub,forshining
waterandgoldenair,fornoblenessoftreeandflower
riverandsongofbirdandthelow,movingwhisper
ofsun,moonandstar;
I haveseenfortwenty
itis thebeautifulest
stretch
years."25
AtIdlewild,theabsence,or nearabsence,ofanyhumansin thesephotothevirtues
ofnature.A sereneLakeIdlewildbalances
graphscelebrates
theexpanseofthesky,offset
onlybya fewtalltrees(fig.12). Andin the
theforeground,
photooftheapproachto Idlewild,thelakedominates
butthistimea loneindividual
runstowardtheislandacrossa quaint
woodenbridge,awayfromtheviewer,in a hurriedescapefromthe
itimplies(fig.13).
mainlandandallthecomplications
also celebrated
lifeat HighlandBeach.A groupof
Photographs
country
havebeencaptured
threewomen,including
one whoappearsto be elderly,
bythecameratakinga momentto admirethewaterandthepristine,
bucolicshorein thedistance(fig.14). A country
porch,filledwithempty
rattanfurniture,
beckonsanywhomayapproachto slowdownandquite
sita spell(fig.15). The low cameraanglesweepstheviewerfully
literally
acrosstheporchtowardthevanishing
point,in thecenteroftheshot,an
seatawaiting
a wearyoccupant.
yetanotherunfilled
opendoorrevealing
Householdwickerfurnishings
connotedforlatenineteenthandearly
twentieth
Americans
themoreleisurely
-century
pace ofundeveloped,
because
of
their
Asian
societies,
origin.Significantly,
preindustrial
perhaps
in orderto preserve
itsrusticcharacter,
Beach
didnotpermit
Highland
to be truetoday;theretreat
commercial
andthiscontinues
development,
nowclaimsaboutsixty
homes.
De-RacializingSpace
The security
thoseinruralareas,
offered
ownedresorts,
byblackespecially
in themindsofblacksto
joinedwitha generalbeliefin nature'sbenefits
with
investtheseparticular
powersduring
spaces
specialhealth-inducing
theJimCrowera.In black-owned
rusticspaces,therewasthetranquility
thatcamefromhavingescapedtherhythms
ofa workroutine.Butthere
wasalso theserenity
thatcamefromhavingescapedtheprotocolsof
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C't
149
fig.16
Groupoutside Idiewild
ClubHouse, Idlewild,
Michigan,c. 1926.
Ben C. WilsonCollection,
AfricanaStudies
Western
Program,
MichiganUniversity.
150
and systemic
racialdiscrimination.
Du Bois expressed
this
systematic
sentiment
mainstream
resorts
or
tourist
centers
at
which
bycontrasting
- placeslikeAtlantic
blackswerepermitted
withcertainlimitations
City,
- withIdlewild,a resortcreated
New YorkCity,and evenOak Bluffs
forAfrican
Americans:
"Not forone momentin finejoyoflife,
specifically
absolutefreedom
fromthedesperate
ofthecolorlineandforthe
cruelty
- not
of
the
silence
which
is
Peace
and
wooing
great
deep Contentment
foronelittleminute
cantheyrivalorcatchthebounding
pulseofIdlewild."26
ForAfrican
American
ownedresorts
a
tourists,
then,blackrepresented
return
to a primeval
naturethat
de-racialized
nature,buta completely
therefore
exudedhealing,humanizing
in
a
andUtopian
qualities singular
Americans
viewedphotographs
ofblack-owned
way.So whenAfrican
could
infuse
these
with
a
curative
resorts,
country
they
places
power
a
In
"race"-free
character.
the
blacks
would
bearing distinctly
country,
notonlybe healedofthedetrimental
effects
ofcitylife,theywouldalso
a
balm
for
the
of
wounds
lifeundersegregation.
experience soothing
shouldbe
HighlandBeach'sdecisionto ban commercial
development
in thislightas well.
understood
Affirming
Citizenship
African
American
intheideologyoftheAmerican
tourists
believed
landscape
anditsnationalistic
association
withthefrontier
wherethe"American
- vigorous,
Character"
andregenerated.
youthful,
pure- is formed
tourist
venuesgranted
Black-owned
African
Americans
therights
ofland
that
were
tied
to
of
American
ownership historically
conceptions
citizenship
andtherightto vote.Historian
S.
Shaffer
has
described
how
Marguerite
in theearlytwentieth
"tourism
solidified
intoa popularleisure
century
that
a
national
for
all
Americans.
As early
activity" helpedshape
identity
as the1830s theactofsurveying
theAmerican
landscapedeveloped,both
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fig.17
Map of lots in Idie wild,
Michigan, 1919.
Ben C. Wilson Collection,
Africana Studies
Program, Western
Michigan University.
inprescriptive
intoa patriotic
exercise.
andintouring
practices,
guidebooks
locationsacrossstateandregionaltopographies,
Traversing
representative
theAmerican
tourist
encountered
andreconstructed
a narrative
history
thatincludedNativeAmerican
colonial
settlements,
Revolutionary
villages,
andsitesofagricultural
innovation
andindustrial
battlefields,
development.27
in thecelebration
ofthe
As travelers,
African
Americans
participated
In an especially
nationwithwhichtheyidentified.
151
tellingphotograph,
summer
visitors
to Idlewildin the1920spose in front
oftheclubhouse
nextto an American
andyet
flag(fig.16). Quietly,
unselfconsciously,
full
of
African
at a
the
shot
the
Americans
defiantly,
proclaims
citizenship
oftheircivilrights.
timeofseverecompromise
MarketingBlackTouristSpaces
As theadvertising
threedecadesofthe
industry
explodedin thefirst
twentieth
African
Americans
formal
century,
exploited
waysofpublicizing
safetraveloptionsamongthemselves.
Blackresorts
likeIdlewildand
American
Beachin Floridaweremarketed
realestatecorporations
through
- photographs,
andpublicity
mediaofallsorts
brochures,
guidebooks,
andnewspapers,
to namea few.The printing
andcirculation
ofmaps,for
to
sell
Idlewild
land
example,
helped
merely
bygivingtangible,
physical
substanceto African
American
dreams(fig.17). Takingadvantageof
newmarketing
Idlewildboostersevenprovideda twentytechnology,
silentpromotional
filmto advertise
three-minute
thedeveloping
resort's
amenities.28
In themid-1920s,FrankB. Butler(1885-1973), a realestate
a corporation
to developthe
broker,
grocer,andcivicleader,formed
seasideresortthatwouldbearhisname.The founder
ofButlerBeachin
St.Augustine,
a
Florida,presents thoroughly
professional
imageof
himself
andhisrealestatecompany,
whichspecialized
invacation
properties,
in a photograph
fromabout1925 (fig.18).29He standsalertandtrim
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fig.18
(right)
FrankButlerat thefront
counterofButlerRealty
African
offering
Americansbeachfront
inSt. Augustine,
property
Florida,c. 1925. Courtesy
ofFloridaState Archives.
fig.19
(below,right)
MackWilson'spavilion,
c. 1927. Fromthe Eartha
M.M. WhiteCollection,
CarpenterLibrary,
ofNorth
University
Florida,Jacksonville,
Florida.Thisfacility
was
thefirstrecreationalspot
on ManhattanBeach in
northeastern
Florida
U"3
C-4.
operatingtwenty-four
hoursa dayto offer
lodging,food,and
entertainment
to an
all-blackclientele.
g
<
Q
152
in thebackoftheframeamidan orderly
a
layoutthatexudesefficiency,
businessman
pictureoftheconsummate
readyto serve.In thisimage,
whichprobably
textin blacknewspapers
and
accompanied
advertising
themodestoffice
is furnished
withwickerseatingandtable,
magazines,
the
suggesting unhurried,
charming
idyllsin storeforthehappypurchasers
inwhatappearsto be a largemapon theleftwall.
ofthelotsfeatured
MackWilson,whorana sortofone-stopoperation"providing
entertainforAfrican
American
seaside
ment,dining,lodging,and bathingfacilities"
vacationers
on Florida'sManhattan
was
about
Beach, hardly
shy
announcing
hisservices(fig.19). A c. 1927 photograph
ofhisestablishment
illustrates
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fig.20
Postcard of summer
cottages, Highland Beach,
Maryland, 1930.
Gregoria Fraser Goins
Papers, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center,
Howard University.
wallsas a billboard,
howhe usedtheexterior
proclaiming
messagesto
block
oceanbathersand beachdenizensin apparently
hand-painted
lettersto say"MackWilsonCafeOpen NightandDay."The garishness
andabundanceofhissignagewasin keepingwiththespiritoftheRoaring
a decadeofheightened
massmarketing.
Twenties,
Notably,thereis one
for
professionally
printed
poster forOrangeCrushsoda.The market
in 1916, had expandedgreatly,
most
thiscarbonateddrink,invented
because
of
aggressive
advertising.
likely
resorts.
Postcards
mediumforall-black
providedanotheradvertising
in
wasnotpermitted
The publication
ofpostalcardsbyprivateoutfits
theUnitedStatesuntil1898. ThenitwasnotuntiltheFirstWorldWar
thatAmerican
postcardprinting
technology
caughtup withGerman
becauseofthewar.
competitorsat thetimebarredfromtheU.S. market
into
the
American
manufacturers
vacuum,
experienced
Rushing
postcard
theGreatWar,whentheviewcard,as
a boomin thedecadefollowing
postcardandthehistoric-site
postcard,
opposedto thegreeting
enjoyed
A
for
Beach
view
card
advertises
Highland
examplesof
greatpopularity.
thesimple,rusticstructures
andwaterside
plots(upperrightquadrant)
availableto blackpatronsofthisretreat
(fig.20). The blankedging
a perimeter
forthefourphotosmarks
thecardas a "white
-border"
forming
between
the
handwritten
of
the
1916
and
1930;
typeproduced
postcard
cornerofthisparticular
viewcard
scripton thelowerright-hand
a
date
1930.
supplies
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153
fig. 21
(right)
Cover of the Negro
Motorist Green-Book
(New York: Green, 1940).
General Research and
Reference Division,
Schomburg Center for
Research in Black Culture,
the New York Public
Library,Astor, Lenox, and
Tilden Foundations.
fig. 22
(far right)
The Negro Motorist
Green-Book (New York:
Green, 1938), 21. General
Research and Reference
Division, Schomburg
Center forResearch in
Black Culture,the New
York Public Library,
Astor, Lenox, and
Tilden Foundations.
154
HistorianLizabethCohen'sworkon American
offers
consumption
thatmaybe appliedto themarketing
ofblacktourist
compelling
insights
spacesduringthe1930s andintothepostwarera.Probablythemost
forblacktravelers,
consultedsourceofinformation
theNegroMotorist
Green-Book
didnot
(laterknownas theNegroTraveler's
Green-Book),
until
but
continued
when
the
1936,
publication
through1967,
appear
achievements
ofthecivilrights
movement
anddesegregation
rendered
itsinformation
lesscompelling.
VictorH. Green,theguide'seditor,
"The idea of'The GreenBook' is
explainedtheneedforhispublication:
to compilefactsandinformation
connected
withmotoring,
whichthe
Greenwassavvyaboutthe
NegroMotoristcanuse anddependupon."30
use oftheautomobilebyvacationing
Americans.
He enlisted
growing
in hiseffort
thehelpofreadersandblackbusinesses
to producea statenationalrosterof"hotels,roadhouses,taverns,
by-state
nightclubs,
tourist
trailer
and
service
homes,
stations,
parks camps,restaurants,
garages,
summer
barbershops,beautyparlors,
dancehalls,[and]theatres"31
resorts,
thatwereopenandhospitable
to blacktravelers
(figs.21, 22). By1940
theGreen-Book
for
included
states
theSouth)
listings forty-three (excluding
and"Washington,
forNewYorkCityapartfromNewYork
D.C., entries
and
a
section
ofaccommodations
labeled
State,
"Southward,"
consisting
belowtheMason-Dixonline.32
The comprehensiveness
ofthevolumesandthediligence
withwhichGreen
thisgoalsuggests
thathe,alongwithhisadvertisers
andsubscribers,
pursued
the
issue
of
black
travel
as
a
nationalistic
approached
consumption
enterprise.
To Cohen,American-made
consumer
itemsweresymbols
ofthenation,
so thatacquiring
themwasa wayoffulfilling
Whenvacation
citizenship.
aresimilarly
seenas politicized
tripsacrosstheAmerican
countryside
consumer
Americans
who "purchased"
items,African
cross-country
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enhancedtheirstatusas Americans.
Thisviewwasespecially
holidays
the
1930s
and
when
theDepressionandSecond
1940s,
prevalent
during
WorldWarturnedconsumption
intoa patriotic
act.Thisattitude
would
Green's
solicitations
for
diverse
additional,
explain
geographically
listings
- notthatthisrequestwasunrelated
fromhisreaders
to hisconcernfor
thepublication's
sales,butbybuildinga listofvacationoutletshe faciliin a politicalandsocialsense.Blacks
tatedAfrican
American
citizenship
in thegrowing
couldbelongmorefully
to theircountry
byparticipating
nationalpreoccupation
withmotoring
forpleasure.33
theutility
ofCohen'sargument,
thefederal
WorksProgress
Augmenting
in 1935 towardtheproduction
Administration
turneditsattention
of
nationaltravelguides,theAmerican
Guideseries.The Rooseveltadministration
showedan unprecedented
to theneedsofAfrican
sensitivity
itsownDirectory
Hotelsand GuestHouses
Americans,
publishing
ofNejyro
in theUnitedStatesthrough
theNationalParkServicein 1939.34
Tradeassociations
ofblackentrepreneurs
in resortcenters
alsopromoted
inpatriotic
theirfacilities
termsduringthisperiod.In thesummer
of
calledtheAtlantic
1945, forexample,an all-blackbusinessorganization
Board
of
Trade
a
substantial
illustrated
brochure
City
produced
advertising
an assortment
ofblackownedamenities
at thefamousbeachresort.The
brochure
textrevealstheextentto whichboththeconvention
committee
anditsblackconsumer
basewereinvested
inprojecting
an optimistic
Americanism.
Awareofthestakesofa hard-fought
in
war whichintolerance
towardanother
was
a
theboardanticipated
group(Jews)
majorcomponent,
American
anditsaftermath,
a future
inwhichallpeople,including
victory
in
African
"live
freedom."
themselves
as
Americans,
might
Identifying
American
offered
to assist
"citizens,"theboardmembers
full-fledged
other"citizens"at a timeofnationalcrisis:"Atlantic
is
City todayserving
thousandsofreturning
veterans... [and] manytiredand wartorn
workers....Our citizensarehappyto add thisveryvitalcontribution
folkandto offer
itsgood health-giving
and
[leisure]to thesedeserving
recreational
facilities
towarda biggerand betterpost-war
It is
period."35
notablethatthetextneverexplicitly
mentions
African
it
Americans; does
notcontaina singleuse oftheword"Negro"or "coloredpeople"- the
to blacksat thetime.Rather,
theauthors
themore
politereference
prefer
forwhichis suppliedby
obliqueallusionto "ourpeople" thereferent
of
African
American
board
members
an
portraits apparently
displaying
combination
of
in
and
friendliness
their
seriousness,
rectitude,
appropriate
to look
expressions
(fig.23). Atlantic
Cityblackbusinesspeoplepreferred
the
of
in
discrimination
the
travel
which
beyond history
industry
(from
as sellersin a sheltered
andpromotetheiractivity
theybenefited
market)
to allAmericans
as a patriotic
serviceto veterans,
theirfamilies,
and
exhausted
warlaborers.
Thus,to investin anAtlantic
industry
Cityholiday
wasto contribute
to thewelfare
ofthenationalpublic.
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155
fig. 23
(right)
Atlantic City Board of
Tradebrochure,
1945.
Moorland-Spingarn
Research Center,
Howard University.
fig. 24
(below, right)
Atlantic City Board of
Trade brochure, 1945.
Moorland-Spingarn
Research Center,
Howard University.
fig.25
(below)
Advertising brochure
issued by the Idlewild,
Michigan, Chamber of
Commerce, c. 1950, as
illustrated in Ronald J.
Stephens, Images of
America, Idlewild:
The Black Eden of
Q
156
Michigan (Charleston,
SC: Arcadia, 2001), 68.
Phil Giles Enterprises,
Idlewild Chamber of
Commerce. Courtesy of
Ronald J.Stephens.
Therewasmoreatworkin thecatchy
coverofthesamebrochure
(fig.24).
women
in
suits
to
welcome
readers
Threefetching
young
appear bathing
to theircity.Here,theBoardofTradereflected
itsappreciation
forthe
to anybody.
theboardmayhave
Moreover,
powerofsexto sellanything
in
takena lessonfromHollywood,whichin the1940sinvested
heavily
womento advertise
moviepostersandpin-upadsfeaturing
leggy,beautiful
movies.Likethefilmstudios,theBoardofTradehoped
to sellentertainment.
Andjustas thestudiosused
"fairskinnedandsmiling"
whitegirlsfortheirpromowereselectivein
tions,theseblackbusinessmen
African
American
employing
onlylightcomplexioned
womenwithamiableexpressions
fortheirad.36
afterthe
CohenarguesthatAmerican
consumption
as thepurchase
SecondWorldWarbecamepoliticized,
ofgoodsto meetindividual
goalscameto be associated
withnationalprosperity
throughthesupportoffree
enterprise
duringthecoldwar.Thistypeofthinking
American
permeated
societyandis keyto understanding
themessageconveyed
Idlewild,
advertising
bya brochure
theMichigansummer
retreat
(fig.25). Appearing
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fig. 26
Edward Mitchell
Bannister at Battery Park,
Newport, Rhode Island,
painting the U.S.S.
Richmond and Newport
harbor, c. 1887. The
Newport Historical
Society. P39. Photograph
by Jonas Bergner.
waspublishedbytheIdlewildChamberof
around1950, thepamphlet
Phil
Commerce.The leftpanelpromotesa majorIdlewildoperation,
GilesEnterprises.
The activities
thehappycouple
surrounding
symbolically
at theheartoftherightpanelfallwellwithintherangeof"wholesome,"
so prizedduringthe1950s.
and "family"
-basedpursuits
"traditional,"
The hikingcircleon thelowerleftcornerofthisrightpanelunderscores
- mother,
thepointbydepicting
theidealfamily
offour
father,
son,and
The
use
of
the
circle
motif
itself
in
fact
connotes
daughter.
perfection
andcompletion.
in
this
is first
communication,
then,
Implicit
pictorial
theidea thatan Idlewildexperience
to supportan
alloweda vacationer
American
business.Moreover,
thetextofthebrochure,
whichincludes
thephrase"allaroundyou . .. it'syoursto enjoy,"givesAfrican
Americans
a senseofownership
andpridein theleisurespacesthattheyhad carved
out forthemselves.37
Conclusion
LikeEdwardMitchell
Bannister
at
(1828-1901),thepainter
photographed
theNewport,
RhodeIsland,harbor(fig.26), privileged
African
American
tourists
between1880 and 1950 achieveda communion
withthenational
in
unheralded
the
of
black
in
the
UnitedStates.
landscape
history
people
- thatis,
The significance
ofthisimageofa blackartisttakinga prospect
- cannotbe overemphasized.
a landscape
Barredfrommainstream
creating
- theirownhotels,
African
Americans
constructed
alternatives
hotels,
country
cottages,and beachsideresorts or supportedwhite-owned
establishments
thatwelcomedthem.There,theymaintained
hospitality
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157
standards
ofdecorumin theirbearingandaccoutrements.
contemporary
land,andnamedit in honorofthemselves.
There,theypurchased
- finding
theterrain
withintent
There,theytraversed
respitein theface
ofmodernity
and emotional,
and
intellectual
restoration
as
spiritual,
humanbeingsin thefaceofJimCrow.There,theyaffirmed
themselves
oftheAmerican
the
of
as members
bodypolitic.Through necessity
all-blackresorts,
blacktourists
domesticvacationtravel
reconfigured
suchthatthey,
became
of
the
andartassociated
too,
literature,
part
history,
withthecommercialization
oftheAmerican
landscape.^
Acknowledgments
I wishto thankKirstenBuickat the University
ofNewMexicoand JuliaRosenbaumat Bard
Collegefortheirearlyreviewsofthisessay and expressmydeepest gratitudeto DonnaWells
and JoellenElBashirofMoorland-Spingam
ResearchCenterfortheirassistance insecuring
vitalimages.
Notes
158
1. E. Franklin
Frazier,BlackBourgeoisie
(New York:Collier,1957), 31-76; BartLandry,
andLos Angeles:University
ofCalifornia
TheNewBlackMiddleClass(Berkeley
Press,1987),
18-36; WillardB. Gatewood,Aristocrats
ofColor:TheBlackElite1880-1920(Bloomington:
IndianaUniversity
Press,1990), 210^6.
2. Gatewood,Aristocrats
ofColor,3-4, 12, 19, 41-42, 110, 124-25, 200-1; MyraB. Young
in Newport
and Saratoga
Armstead,
"Lord,PleaseDon't TakeMe inAugust":AfricanAmericans
ofIllinoisPress,1999), 18; DavidM. Katzman,Before
1870-1930(Urbana:University
Springs,
ofIllinoisPress,1973),
theGhetto:
BlackDetroitin theNineteenth
(Urbana:University
Century
"The HistoryofBlacksin Resort
124, 128, 141, 154, 158-59, 161, 176, 200; Armstead,
Towns:Newport,RhodeIslandandSaratogaSprings,
NewYork1870-1930" (Ph.D. diss.,UniofChicago,1987), 18.
versity
3. Katzman,Before
theGhetto,
94-95.
4. Seventh
AnnualReportoftheCommissioners
titSaratogaSprings
1916
oftheStateReservation
NY: Lyon,1916), 23.
(Albany,
5. Crisis14 (August1917): 169.
T. Washington:
TheWizardofTuskegee,
6. LouisR. Harlan,Booker
1901-1915
Press,1986), 379-iO4.
(New York:OxfordUniversity
7. WilliamM. TuttleJr.,Race Riot:Chicagoin theRed Summer
of1919
ofIllinoisPress,1970).
(Urbana:University
ColoredCitizens:
and Biographical
8. WendellP. Dabney,Cincinnati's
Historical,
Sociological
(Cincinnati:
Dabney,1926), 75.
ofa SatelliteCommunity,"
9. J.EllisVoss,"SummerResort:An EcologicalAnalysis
ofPennsylvania,
1941), 39.
(Ph.D. diss.,University
10. GeorgeS. Schuyler,
"VacationDaze," CommonGround3, no. 3 (Spring1943):
41-42, 44; quotationon 41.
11. £atewood,Aristocrats
"Lord,PleaseDon't TakeMe inAugust,"74;
ofColor,75; Armstead,
Dabney,Cincinnati'sColoredCitizens,129-32.
12. Crisis22 (August1921): 158.
13. Dabney,Cincinnati'sColoredCitizens,194; TheNegroWorld(7 June1924): 5.
14. Gatewood,Aristocrats
"Lord,PleaseDon't TakeMe inAugust,"
ofColor,201-2; Armstead,
18-19; LawrenceOtisGraham,OurKind ofPeople:InsideAmerica'sBlackUpperClass
(New York:HarperCollins,
1999), 151-81.
15. AdelaideM. Cromwell,
"The HistoryofOak Bluffs
as a PopularResortforBlacks,"Dukes
26, no. 1 (August1984): 3-8; Graham,OurKind ofPeople,156-58.
Intelligencer
County
16. Cromwell,
L. Holland,"TheAfrican-American
52; see alsoJacqueline
"HistoryofOak Bluffs,"
Presenceon Martha'sVineyard,"
DukesCounty
Intelligencer
SpecialEdition (October1997):
as Memories,"in A NewHistory
7-10; MichelFrizot,"Ritualsand Customs:Photographs
ed. MichelFrizot(Cologne:Konemann,1998), 750, 748; BobbieKalman,
ofPhotography,
HistoricCommunities:
TheVictorian
Home(New York:Crabtree,
1997), 6-7.
This content downloaded from 159.178.22.27 on Sat, 05 Dec 2015 06:36:11 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
17. Gatewood,Aristocrats
ofColor,37, 43^5, 55, 58, 59, 66, 101,137,180, 201;
Graham,OurKind ofPeople,178-79; "HighlandBeach,Maryland,"
www.
.org/cities/index
.cfm?townname
each&page=home
=HighlandB
mdmunicipal
(accessed12 July2003).
18. See VirginiaScottJenkins,
TheLawn:A History
D.C.:
ofan AmericanObsession
(Washington,
Smithsonian
Institution
Press,1994); JamesCharltonandWilliamThompson,Croquet:The
GuidetoHistory,
Rules,and Records
Strategy,
(New York:TurtlePress,1977);
Complete
andMichaelColmer,BathingBeauties:TheAmazingHistory
ofFemaleSwimwear
(London:
American
insistence
on mediating
theirencounters
withnature,
Sphere,1977). Regarding
BacktoNature:TheArcadianMythin UrbanAmerica(Baltimore:
see PeterJ.Schmitt,
JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Press,1990), 20-32; JamesL. Machor,PastoralCities:Urban
Idealsand theSymbolic
ofWisconsinPress,1987),
LandscapeofAmerica(Madison:University
and theAmericanMind(New Haven,CT: Yale
121-210; and RoderickNash, Wilderness
Press,1967), 44-66.
University
19. LewisWalkerand Ben C. Wilson,BlackEden:TheIdlewildCommunity
(East Lansing:
Press,2002), xiii,6-28, 39-41, quotationon 41; Edwin
MichiganStateUniversity
"The Emergence
oftheCampingMovement,"CampingMagazine(June1929).
DeMerritte,
Interlude:
AmericanInteriors
theCamera'sLye,1860-1917
20. WilliamSeale,TheTasteful
through
(New York:Praeger,1975), 170.
in theUnitedStates
21. See also CindyS. Aron,Working
at Play:A History
ofVacations
Press,2001).
(New York:OxfordUniversity
22. WalkerandWilson,BlackEden,xi-xii,1-13, 23-26, 30-39.
23. Dona Brown,Inventing
in theNineteenth
NewEngland:RegionalTourism
Century
D.C.: Smithsonian
Institution
Press,1995), 63.
(Washington,
24. H. H. Thweatt,"The BestSummerI EverSpent,"Crisis14 (August1917): 169-71.
25. W. E. B. Du Bois,"Hopkinsville,
Chicago,and Idlewild,"Crisis22 (August1921): 159.
26. Ibid.,160.
and NationalIdentity,
27. Marguerite
S. Shaffer,
SeeAmericaFirst:Tourism
1880-1940
D.C.: Smithsonian
Institution
Press,2000), 170, 202-20. Fortheriseof
(Washington,
in thelate1820s andearly1830s,see also Brown,Inventing
domestictourism
NewEngland,
in theWhite
Mountains
and EricPurchase,OutofNowhere:
Disasterand Tourism
JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Press,1999).
(Baltimore:
28. WalkerandWilson,BlackEden,47-48.
29. MarciaDean Phelts,An AmericanBeachforAfricanAmericans
PressofFlorida,1997), 9-13.
(Gainesville:
University
in
30. See LizabethCohen,A Consumer's
Republic:ThePoliticsofMassConsumption
America(New York:Knopf,2003); TheNegroMotorist
Green-Book
Postwar
(New York:Green& Smith,1937), n.p. (introduction).
31. TheNegroMotorist
Green-Book
(New York:Green,1938), n.p. (frontcover).
32. TheNegroMotorist
Green-Book
(New York:Green,1940), passim.
33. Cohen,Consumer's
Green-Book,
1937;NegroMotorist
Green-Book,
Republic;NegroMotorist
1940.
1938;NegroMotorist
Green-Book,
34. UnitedStatesDepartment
oftheInterior
NationalParkService,UnitedStatesTravelBureau
ofNegroHotelsand GuestHousesin theUnitedStates,1939, MoorlandSpingarn
Directory
D.C. (hereafter
ResearchCenter,HowardUniversity,
Moorland-Spingarn);
Washington,
SeeAmericaFirst,202-20; NegroMotorist
Green-Book,
1940,4, 26-27, 31. On
Shaffer,
racialpolicies,see,forexample,NancyJoanWeiss,
theRooseveltadministration's
progressive
FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsin theAgeofF.D.R.(Princeton,
NJ:Princeton
Press,1983).
University
35. Atlantic
CityBoardofTradeBrochure,1945, Moorland-Spingarn.
TheEroticHistory
NY: Prometheus
36. Ibid. See alsoTom Reichert,
(Amherst,
ofAdvertising
and the
Sunkissed:
Swimwear
Books,2003); JoshuaJamesCurtisandAnnRutherford,
Hollywood
Beauty,1930-1950(Portland,OR: Collector'sPress,2003).
37. RonaldJ.Stephens,
Idlewild:TheBlackEdenofMichigan(Chicago:Arcadia,2001);
WalkerandWilson,BlackEden,63.
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159