The Neuroscience of Investment Behavior

Transcription

Dr. Helmut Henschel,
Beyond Behavioral Finance
-The Neuroscience of Investment Behavior
Copenhagen, November 29, 2005
"So far as I know, anything worth
hearing is not usually uttered at
seven o'clock in the morning; and if
it is, it will generally be repeated at a
more reasonable hour for a larger
and more wakeful audience."
Moss Hart
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Dr. Helmut Henschel, WestLB Senior Consultant
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email: dr_helmut.henschel@westlb.de
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Bullet Points
Behavioral Finance shows, that in conflict to
Modern Financial Theory, we do not always
behave rationally.
Most of our action is governed by the
subconscious, by emotions.
There is no rational behavior without emotions.
Knowing about emotions can help to control
and employ them for better investment
decisions.
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Content
page
1 MFT, behavioral finance and neuroscience
5
2 The new neuroscience
20
2.1 Rediscovery of emotion and the subconscious
20
2.2 The nucleus accumbens: forecasting is fun
71
2.3 Dopamine, the neurotransmitter of happiness
78
2.4 Subconscious perception and act: mother’s little helper 98
2.5 Descartes’ error, no rational decisions without emotion 100
2.6 Memories are made of this
113
2.7 Hemispheres, cranial volume, and intelligence
129
2.8 Citations
139
3 Conclusion: seven suggestions (not only) for investors
143
4 Current developments in neuroscience
190
6 Nothing to worry about?
239
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Investment and Investment Analysis - Rational?
CAPM, MPT, and MFT: rational expectations and decisions
Emotions lead to irrational/bad decisions.
“Be fearful only when others are greedy and greedy only
when others are fearful” (Warren Buffett)
Emotions are important, but only the emotions of the other
market participants. They can be used to their detriment.
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Failings of modern finance theory
Modern finance theory explains the reality of financial markets
but insufficiently:
e.g. many players are reluctant to use the benefits of
diversification for risk reduction,
e.g. trading volume is much higher than could be explained
by new information,
e.g. actively managed equity funds still dominate,
e.g. volatility of stock prices is much higher than could be
explained by theory
Behavioral Finance - a supplement to modern finance theory,
analysis of human behavior for better forecasts, decisions
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Failings of modern portfolio theory
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Cognition, valuation, decision
Three stages of human action
What is the situation, where are we?
To see, perceive, recognize, explain, forecast
2.
What do I want?
To evaluate, weight, judge
3.
What has to be done?
To decide, take action
Behavioral Finance shows that there are deficiencies at each of the
three stages, often systematic, sometimes avoidable.
1.
The three stages describe the logical process. De facto there is
strong interaction. E.g. the justification of decisions taken
dominates not only the valuation but even the perception.
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Behavioral Finance
Faulty Perception, Evaluation, and Decision
Erkenntnisdefizite
(1) Heuristiken - mentale Modelle
(2) Verzögerte Wahrnehmung
(3) Selektive Wahrnehmung
(4) Wahrnehmungsschwellen
(5) Risiken überschätzt
(6) Selbstüberschätzung - Overconfidence
Bewertungsprobleme
(1) Präferenzen und Vorurteile
(2) Reaktionsschwellen
(3) Widersprüche bei der Risikobewertung
(4) Konformismus, Herdentrieb, Ansteckung
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Inkonsequenz bei der Entscheidung
(1) Entscheidungsheuristiken
(2) Bewahrung des status quo
(3) Splittingeffekte
(4) Buchhaltungs-Alchemie
(5) Framing
(6) Aversion to Regret
(7) Dispositionseffekt
(8) Mehrheitsentscheidungen
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Behavioral finance - the idea
Behavioral finance is based on the behavioral psychology of B.
F. Skinner (1938).
According to Skinner it is not possible to know the reasons for
human (mis)behavior but luckily also not necessary.
Each and every behavior has been learned and thus can be
unlearned (conditioning).
Behavioral finance: apparently irrational reactions of investors to
certain stimuli - no questions as to causes
Neuroscience tries to peep into the black box.
Stimulus
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Response
Reaktion
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Behavioral Finance - based on miracles?
Neuroscience tries
to peep into the
black box.
Stimulus
black box
Response
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MFT - Behavioral Finance - Neuroscience
MFT postulates efficient markets. All information is processed
instantaneously and rationally and reflected in current prices.
Behavioral finance proves, with often very entertaining
examples, that perception, valuation, and decision making of
investors can not always be explained rationally. Subjective
emotions often dominate.
Neuroscience asks for the causes and shows that the emotions
are indispensable. There is no rational behavior without
emotions! First principles of emotion management are under
construction.
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The Adaptive Market Hypothesis: Market Efficiency
From an Evolutionary Prespective (Andrew W. Lo)
The Efficient Markets Hypothesis postulates that market prices
incorporate all information rationally and instantaneously.
However, the emerging discipline of behavioral economics and
finance has challenged this hypothesis, arguing that markets are
not rational, but are driven by fear and greed instead.
Recent research in the cognitive neurosciences suggests that
these two perspectives are opposite sides of the same coin.
A new framework reconciles market efficiency with behavioral
alternatives by applying the principles of evolution---competition,
adaptation, and natural selection---to financial interactions.
Much of what behavioralists cite as counterexamples to
economic rationality is consistent with an evolutionary model of
individuals adapting to a changing environment via simple
heuristics.
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Neuroeconomics – Mind Games
ALTHOUGH Plato compared the human soul to a chariot pulled by
the two horses of reason and emotion, modern economics has
mostly been a one-horse show. It has been obsessed with reason.
In decisions from how much to produce to whether to save and
invest, humans have been assumed to be coolly rational
calculators of their own self-interest. Over the past few years,
however, evidence from psychology has persuaded many
economists that reason does not always have its way. Now,
judging from a series of presentations at the American Economic
Association meetings in Philadelphia, a burgeoning new field
dubbed "neuroeconomics" seems poised to provide fresh
insights on how the two horses together produce economic
behaviour.
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Neuroeconomics – Paul Zak
Yet another new term in neuro-, suggesting that the prefix is
rapidly becoming a successor to e-, cyber- and other fashionable
affixes of the last decade.
A proponent of this new field is Paul Zak, Claremont University.
He said: “Most economists theorize about how human beings
behave instead of going out to observe. In Neuroeconomics, our
goal is to observe and measure what’s happening in the brain
when people are making decisions”.
His team uses MRI and blood sampling to observe the way a
person’s brain works, for example during a game of trust. There
may be biochemical underpinnings to our willingness to be cooperative and generous in economic negotiations, associated with
a hormone called oxytocin.
Neuroeconomics aims to understand human social interactions
through every level from synapse to society.
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Neuroeconomics – Richard Peterson
NEUROECONOMICS THEORY
Neuroeconomics is a new academic discipline bridging the
theoretical divide between neuroscientific research regarding
human choice behavior and economic theory. Neuroeconomics is
the domain of economists, neuroscientists, psychologists, and
physicians who are attempting to understand the neural basis of
judgment and decision making, social behavior, and market
economies. Experimental paradigms encompassed within this
field include game theoretical constructs, mathematical modeling
of neural learning and valuation, analysis of interactions among
motivation, emotion, and behavior, trust and attachment, and
addiction. Experimental methodologies include neuroimaging,
genetic profiling, psychopharmacological (and diet)
manipulations, psychophysiology (EMG, ERP, and EEG), and
single neuron recording, among others.
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Neuroeconomics - Boring on Hayek
"Half the time I read [Hayek's The Sensory Order] with amazement
at the extent of his reading and comprehension . . he is right . .
most of the time."
" . . I feel sure that no one has done this particular kind of job [i.e.
a physicalistic system of psychology, mind, and consciousness]
nearly so well."
"I do not for a moment believe it is the last word on this matter
[i.e. a physicalistic system of psychology, mind and
consciousness], but it is the best word I have ever heard spoken
from this platform." (Edwin Boring, "Elementist Going Up", The
Scientific Monthly, March, 1953, p. 183)
Edwin Boring, Psychology, Harvard, is internationally known for
his famous survey of psychology
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Neuroeconomics - Edelman on Hayek
"I must say that I have been deeply gratified by reading a book
[Hayek's The Sensory Order] of which I had not been aware when I
wrote my little essay on group selection theory . . I was deeply
impressed . . I recommend this book to your attention, as an
exercise in profound thinking by a man who simply considers
knowledge for its own sake.”
"[Hayek] made the quite fruitful suggestion, that whatever kind of
encounter the sensory system has with the world, a corresponding
event between a particular cell in the brain and some other cell
carrying the information from the outside word must result in
reinforcement of the connection between those cells. These day,
this is known as a Hebbian synapse, but von Hayek quite
independently came upon the idea. " Gerald Edelman, Nobel Prize
winner in Physiology or Medicine, and Chairman of the Dept. of
Neurobiology at the Scripps Research Institute
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Neuroeconomics - Fuster on Hayek
"The first proponent of cortical memory networks on a major scale
was neither a neuroscientist nor a computer scientist but .. a
Viennese economist: Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992). A man of
exceptionally broad knowledge and profound insight into the
operation of complex systems, Hayek applied such insight with
remarkable success to economics (Nobel Prize, 1974), sociology,
political science, jurisprudence, evolutionary theory, psychology,
and brain science." ( p. 87)
"It is truly amazing that, with much less neuroscientific knowledge
available, Hayek's model comes closer, in some respects, to being
neurophysiologically verifiable than those models developed 50 to
60 years after his." (p. 89) Joaquin Fuster, UCLA School of
Medicine, is a leading authority on the prefrontal cortex and the
neuronal basis of memory.
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Freud‘s „Id“, the third humiliation of the human race
Man had the perception that everything revolves around her.
Copernicus proved: Not the sun revolves around us be we
revolve around the sun. Abruptly we were dislodged from the
center of the universe to the periphery.
As the deputy of God we set out to govern the world until
Charles Darwin discovered that we are not that special. Just an
update of the ape, product of desultory evolution, like all other
creatures.
But one distinction remained for humans: reason, rationality.
Then Freud revealed that reason is just the flimsy and fragile
surface. Below blazes the chaos of instincts, compulsions, and
emotions. For Freud this presented the third humiliation of
mankind. Man is not even in command of his own head.
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Strizz, FAZ 23. Januar 2004
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Freud‘s „Id“, the third humiliation of the human
race - again accepted reluctantly if at all
Copernicus: The Flat Earth Society still objects: “While the
Society is not a "crackpot" group, it is opposed to the
fashionable, politically correct Spherical Earth theory, which is
expounded every day by so-called "scientists", the media and
political leaders. The Society asserts that the Earth is flat and
has five sides ...” ( www.flat-earth.org/society/about.html)
361-year abyss between Galileo's indictment for heresy 1632 and
the church’s acquittal of him in 1993
Darwin: 137-year gap between Darwin's Origin of Species 1859
and acceptance of evolution by pope John Paul II 1996
In November of 2003 the Texas State Board of Education
approved a list of biology textbooks that scientists believe do
justice to Darwin‘s theory.
29 Jan. 2004, “evolution” removed from Georgia schoolbooks
Freud: Discussion in FAZ 2003/2004
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Fundamentalism
A fundamentalist is someone who
voluntarily decides that he will no longer
change his mind in any significant way.
“Howard Gardner, The Art and Science of Changing Our Own and
Other Peoples Mind, Harvard Business School Press 2004
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Doonesbury, 1. November 2004
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Fundamentalism: Intelligence and Education no Help
In theory education is supposed to help us think independently.
But that's not how it works in the real world. Highly educated
people may call themselves independents, but when it comes to
voting they tend to pick a partisan side and stick with it. Collegeeducated voters are more likely than high-school-educated voters
to vote for candidates from the same party again and again.
That's because college-educated voters are more ideological. A
college-educated Democrat is likely to be more liberal than a
high-school-educated Democrat, and a college-educated
Republican is likely to be more conservative than a high-schooleducated Republican. The more you crack the books, the more
likely it is you'll shoot off to the right or the left.
Once you've joined a side, the information age makes it easier for
you to surround yourself with people like yourself. If there is one
thing we have learned, it's that we are really into self-validation.
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13
Caught Between Church and State
Shortly after the 1925 Scopes "monkey trial," the historian F. L. Allen
concluded that fundamentalism had been permanently discredited by
the prosecution of John T. Scopes, who had taught Darwin's theory of
evolution. This was a serious historical misjudgment, as most recently
demonstrated by the renewed determination of anti-evolution
crusaders to force public school science classes to give equal time to
religiously based speculation about the origins of life.
Texas, then as now one of the largest textbook purchasers, led the
drive to extirpate evolution. Censorship was soon institutionalized in a
state commission that scrutinized all potential textbooks.
The caution inspired by such pressure extended beyond the Bible Belt
and persisted for decades. Perhaps the most insidious effect of the
campaign against evolution has been avoidance of the subject by
teachers who want to forestall trouble with fundamentalist parents.
Recent surveys of high school biology teachers have found that
avoidance of evolution is common among instructors throughout the
nation. The singular achievement of the fundamentalist minority has
been to render evolution controversial enough to silence many
teachers who know better.
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When Sentiment and Fear Trump Reason and Reality
The success of the scientific method, which changed the world beyond belief in the
four centuries since Galileo, made the power and efficacy of that method evident.
The Taliban government in Afghanistan destroyed the world's largest standing
statues of Buddha, created almost 2,000 years ago. They claimed that Islamic law
prohibited idolatrous images of human faces that might be used for worship.
Those images come to mind with recent incidents in the United States. The "realitybased community," as one White House insider so poetically referred to, is losing the
fight for hearts and minds to a well-orchestrated marketing program that plays on
sentiment and fear. The intrusion of religious dogma into the highest levels of
government is stunning.
Science and religion are separate entities: science is a predictive discipline based on
empirically falsifiable facts; religion is a hopeful discipline based on inner faith.
Theologians as ancient as St. Augustine and Moses Maimonides recognized that
science, not religion, was the method to try to understand the physical world. Yet it is
precisely this ancient wisdom that is now under attack.
Foes of evolution do not operate with the direct and brutal actions of the Taliban.
They have marketing skills. The fundamentalist attack is on the basic premise that
physical phenomena have physical causes that can be revealed by the scientific
method.
Most under attack is our remarkable ability to understand nature. In places like
Afghanistan the enemies of truth are the enemies of freedom and democracy. If the
scientific method is out of the mainstream in our country it is time to take a stronger
stand against the effort to undermine empirical reality in favor of dogma.
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In Kansas, Darwinism Goes on Trial Once More
Six years after Kansas ignited a national debate over the teaching of evolution, the
state is poised to push through new science standards this summer requiring that
Darwin's theory be challenged in the classroom.
A parade of Ph.D.'s testified Thursday about the flaws they saw in mainstream
science's explanation of the origins of life. It was one part biology lesson, one part
political theater, and stage for the movement known as intelligent design, which
posits that life's complexity cannot be explained without a supernatural creator.
If the board adopts the new standards, Kansas would join Ohio, which took a similar
step in 2002, in mandating students be taught that there is controversy over
evolution. Legislators in Alabama and Georgia have introduced bills to allow
teachers to challenge Darwin in class, and the battle over evolution is simmering on
the local level in 20 states.
The proposed changes to the state's science standards perhaps most significant
shift would be in the very definition of science - instead of "seeking natural
explanations for what we observe around us," the new standards would describe it
as a "continuing investigation that uses observation, hypothesis testing,
measurement, experimentation, logical argument and theory building to lead to more
adequate explanations of natural phenomena."
The experts testifying avoided mention of a divine creator, instead painting their
position as simply one of open-mindedness, arguing that Darwinism had become a
dangerous dogma.
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Intelligent design rears its head
Intelligent design derives from an early-19th-century explanation of the natural world given by William
Paley’s watchmaker analogy. If you found a watch in a field, you would infer that so fine and intricate a
mechanism could not have been produced by unplanned, unguided natural forces. Proponents of
intelligent design are renewing Paley's argument with molecular biology, claiming that living things are full
of examples at the molecular level that you could not get from “successive, slight modifications”. Hence
the molecular machines inside living beings are evidence of an intelligent designer—God.
Intelligent design is not science because its claims cannot be tested by experiment and propose no new
hypotheses of their own. But if intelligent design has few friends among scientists, it has won a significant
following among the general public. Evolution seems to stick in the craw of anyone with strong beliefs, not
just those who are religious. Stalin's Soviet Union rejected evolution. The Nation of Islam, an American
Muslim group, also rejects it. Religious conservatives have a special reason for disliking natural selection.
If God has a plan for the world then it is much easier to imagine evolution occurring under divine guidance
than as a result of random mutations. Intelligent design has proved tempting to conservative Christians
everywhere. The Catholic Church has long turned its back on a literal reading of the Book of Genesis. It
does not seem to be doing the same with intelligent design.
With its claims of scientific respectability intelligent design promises to reconcile anti-evolutionism with
science. Strict creationism has been long discredited. Intelligent design is a different matter. Its
proponents accept that the earth is billions of years old, that gene mutation and natural selection occur.
They concede that scientific method, not biblical authority, is the arbiter of truth. Religious Americans are
jumping at the chance to teach an alternative that claims to be science.
The argument over intelligent design is likely to damage science teaching. This not because bad science
standards will necessarily be adopted but because of the unwillingness of state Boards of Education to
offend any sort of pressure group. Instead, they avoid controversial topics. In 2000 only ten states taught
evolution fully, in 13 the treatment was considered useless or absent. These failings shame American
teaching, and the manufactured controversy over intelligent design will do nothing to make them better.
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Evolution und Vernunft
"Im Licht der Vernunft", schrieb Kardinal Christoph Schönborn in der "New York
Times", könne man "leicht und klar Ziel und Plan in der natürlichen Welt,
einschließlich der Welt des Lebendigen, erkennen". Wissenschaftliche Theorien, die
versuchten, den Plan in der Natur als das Ergebnis von Zufall und Notwendigkeit
wegzuerklären, seien nicht "eine Abdankung der menschlichen Vernunft".
Längst hat aber die Evolutionstheorie zum Beispiel das Phänomen der evolutionären
Konvergenz aufgenommen. Dabei geht es um die Tatsache, daß die Evolution aus
sehr verschiedenen Richtungen oftmals die gleiche biologische Lösung ansteuert.
Jedenfalls ist Evolution kein Komplott desillusionierter Materialisten. Umgekehrt wird
ein Schuh daraus: Die kreationistische Sicht der Evolution operiert mit einer
übernatürlichen Instanz, die eher einem Ingenieurbüro gleicht als dem Schöpfergott:
Kreationismus ist Evolution für Kontrollfanatiker.
Offenbar lassen sich die Pläne eines Offenbarungsgottes nicht so leicht nach- und
hochrechnen, wie es die Kreationisten gerne hätten. Dem Anspruch auf Vernunft
entspricht die kreationistische Forderung, das "argument from design" nicht etwa als
religiöse These, sondern als wissenschaftlichen Befund zu vertreten. In den Schulen
möge man gefälligst nicht nur die Evolutionstheorie lehren, so heißt es, sondern die
Kontroverse um sie. Aber Evolution ist eine Tatsache. Um sie gibt es keine
wissenschaftliche Kontroverse. Nirgendwo streiten Wissenschaftler um das Pro oder
Kontra des Gedankens einer Entwicklung. Die wissenschaftliche Kontroverse, die in
den Schulen abgebildet werden soll, ist insoweit nur behauptet.
Die katholische Kirche hat längst klargestellt, daß sie nach ihrem Galilei-Syndrom
nicht auch noch ein Darwin-Syndrom mit sich herumzuschleppen gedenkt.
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Renaissance of the science of emotion
Only now Freud’s views are attested by Neuroscience.
As keynote speaker drawing the „Decade of the Brain 1990-2000“
to a close, Antonio R. Damasio identified three possible reason
for the long black hole of almost a century between Freud and
the new blossoming of the Science of Emotion:
Sexual fantasies were more attractive to the researchers than
analysis of electrochemical processes in the brain.
There is “a long philosophical tradition of not trusting emotions,
regarding them as unruly phenomena that can wreck havoc on
decision-making.”
Neuroscience did not have the necessary instruments.
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Neuroscience used to neglect emotions
With the traditional tools of neuroscience insights on emotion
were hard to obtain.
Destruction of brain areas in animal experiment: detect
changes in the animal’s ability to perceive, learn, control
movements. The emotions of animals are difficult to define and
to detect.
Non-invasive experiments with brain damaged humans: ethical
objections and only very few cases (the emotion nuclei are well
protected in the center of the brain), difficulties in defining and
measuring emotions.
Rediscovery of the Science of Emotion owed to new chemistry
(psychotropic drugs) and new physics (new technical
equipment).
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Fähigkeiten nach Abschneiden der oberen Hirnteile
vorhanden:
Fähigkeit
G rob-G leichgew icht
Verdauung
Extensions-,W isch-Refl.
W egziehen beiReiz
Prim itiv-Lernen beiReiz
Standstarre,Schlaf
Beißen,Schw anzschlag
G eschm ack,M im ik
Augenm otorik,Sakkaden
Augenausricht.aufReiz
Kauen,schlucken
Lernen kurzzeitig
Essen ablehnen
Augenfolgebew egung
Zuw endung/Abw endung
Lernen schneller
Affekte,Em otionen
Bew egungen flüssig
Tem p.-Regelung
Riechen
Lernen:essbar,ruhig
Selbstversorgung
N est,N achw uchs
W illkürlich zielbew usst
M ustererkennung
Bew usstsein,Codes
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New tools for neuroscience
After electroenzephalogram (EEG) and computer-tomographe
(CT) new imaging techniques: positron-emission-tomographe
(PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and especially
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
The scans can not only show which areas of the brain receive
fresh, oxygenated blood at any given time, but also the electrical
activity when individual neurons fire, chemically discharging e.g.
dopamine.
Current research centers on
the strength of neural activities associated with specific
perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and activities,
the exact areas of the brain where these activities take place.
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In the last decades we have learned more
about the brain than in all of the history of
mankind before.
Christoph Koch (CalTec), FAZ, February 20, 2004
If the human mind was simple enough to
understand, we'd be too simple to
understand it.
Emerson Pugh
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fMRI
Reading
Enjoying
Orientation
With functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) Researchers can
observe the working brain.
Depending on the individual tasks
specific patterns show up.
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The Doctor Can See You Now
GE
imagination
at work
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Lufthansa Magazin, Sommer 2003
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Inside the brain of a human emotion machine
Six emotions:
Agrravation / Anger
Surprise
Disgust
Sadness / Grief
Axiety / Fear
Joy / Happiness
in different regions of the
brain
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Abgeleitete Gefühle
Nach Goleman
Dankbarkeit und Verpflichtung
Robert B Cialdini, Influence, Science and Practice, 4. Aufl.
Needham, Ma. 2001
Gier, Neid und Geiz, die Gefühle der Investoren
Wollust, schlechtes Gewissen und Reue
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The anatomy of anxiety
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Erläuterung des Funktionsdiagramms
1. Hören und Sehen: Bilder und Geräusche werden zunächst vom Thalamus verarbeitet. Dort werden sie
gefiltert und zu den Mandelkernen oder dem entsprechenden Bereich der Hirnrinde weitergeleitet.
2. Riechen und Fühlen: Gerüche und taktile Reize gehen am Thalamus vorbei auch direkt zum
Amygdalum. Deshalb rufen Gerüche oft stärkere Erinnerungen und Gefühle hervor als Geräusche.
3. Thalamus: Zentrale für Bilder und Geräusche, differenziert Bilder nach Größe, Form und Farbe,
Geräusche nach Lautstärke und Dissonanz und sendet sie an den entsprechenden Bereich der Hirnrinde.
4. Cortex, Hirnrinde: Erfasst die Bedeutung von Bildern und Geräuschen und macht sie damit bewusst.
Das Stirnhirn, spielt eine wichtige Rolle beim Abschalten von Ängsten, wenn die Gefahr vorbei ist.
5. Mandelkern, Amygdalum: Löst die Angstreflexe aus. Information, die durch das Amygdalum geht
bekommt eine emotionale Bedeutung. Die Stria terminalis verbindet den Mandelkern mit dem
Hippokampus.
6. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, BNST: Anders als die unmittelbaren Angstreflexe des Amygdalum
sind die BNST-Reaktionen andauernde Furchtgefühle.
7. Locus coeruleus: Einer der Hirnnervenkerne, Produzent von Noradrenalin, das über den Hypothalamus
auf das vegetative Nervensystem wirkt. Bekommt Signale vom Amygdalum und veranlasst die klassischen
Angstreflexe: Adrenalinausschüttung, Herzrasen, hoher Blutdruck, Transpiration, Pupillenerweiterung.
8. Hippokampus: Gedächtniszentrale, organisiert im Neocortex Abspeicherung neuer Information von den
Sinnesorganen mit den Emotionen, die bei der Passage durch das Amygdalum angehängt wurden.
9. Der Hypothalamus: Die Regelzentrale für alle vegetativen nervösen Vorgänge, steht mit der Hypophyse,
der Zentrale für die hormonelle Steuerung, in sehr engen Wechselbeziehungen (Zwischenhirnhypophysensystem), das präoptische Areal des Hypothalamus bei Männern doppelt so groß wie bei Frauen.
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Brain
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/brain/brain.shtml
System: Nervous
Location: Inside your skull
Physical description: Pale grey, the size of a small cauliflower and the texture of pate
Function: To control your body and house your mind
Body and mind
Information, in the form of nerve impulses, travels to and from your brain along your spinal cord. This allows your brain to monitor
and regulate unconscious body processes, such as digestion and breathing and to coordinate most voluntary movements of your
body. It is also the site of your consciousness, allowing you to think, learn and create.
Your brain is made of many parts, each of which has a specific function. It can be divided into four areas: the cerebrum, the
diencephalons, the brain stem and the cerebellum.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of your brain. It sits on top of the rest of your brain, rather like a mushroom cap covering its stalk. It
has a heavily folded grey surface, the pattern of which is different from one person to the next. Some of the grooves in its surface
mark out different functional regions.
The front section of your cerebrum, the frontal lobe, is involved in speech, thought, emotion, and skilled movements. Behind this is
the parietal lobe which perceives and interprets sensations like touch, temperature and pain. Behind this, at the centre back of your
cerebrum, is a region called the occipital lobe which detects and interprets visual images. Either side of the cerebrum are the
temporal lobes which are involved in hearing and storing memory.
The cerebrum is split down the middle into two halves called hemispheres that communicate with each other.
Cerebellum
Your cerebellum is the second largest part of your brain. It sits underneath the back of your cerebrum and is shown in brown in the
diagram above. It is involved in coordinating your muscles to allow precise movements and control of balance and posture.
Diencephalons
Your diencephalons sits beneath the middle of your cerebrum and on top of your brain stem. It contains two important structures
called the thalamus and the hypothalamus. Your thalamus acts as a relay station for incoming sensory nerve impulses, sending them
on to appropriate regions of your brain for processing. It is responsible for letting your brain know what's happening outside of your
body.
Your hypothalamus plays a vital role in keeping conditions inside your body constant. It does this by regulating your body
temperature, thirst and hunger, amongst other things. And by controlling the release of hormones from the nearby pituitary gland.
Brain stem
Your brain stem is responsible for regulating many life support mechanisms, such as your heart rate, blood pressure, digestion and
breathing. It also regulates when you sleep and wake.
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Forecasting is fun: the nucleus accumbens
In the hemline of the bridge connecting the two brain sides
Part of the limbic system, that is in charge of emotions: fury,
fear, lust, sexual arousal and aggression (sex and crime)
The brain nucleus for hope, euphoria but also addiction
Activated in situations that involve reward and punishment
Active with calculation of probabilities
Central in search for analogies, especially left nucleus
accumbens lodges patterns even when we positively know that
there aren’t any.
Representation of samples and gambler‘s fallacy, the feeling:
“now it is the turn for red“
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The nucleus accumbens of the basal forebrain
The nucleus accumbens
contains neurons that are part of
the basal ganglia. Thus, this
structure may play a role in the
regulation of movement,
including the control of complex
motor activity and the cognitive
aspects of motor control. In
addition, this structure has been
found to possibly be the area
that "becomes activated in
situations that involve reward
and punishment."
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Addicted to forecasting
Neuroscience tracks neural activity. Where are forecasts
generated, where are they processed?
Every action is based on forecasts, sometimes explicitly, mostly
just implicitly.
All forecasts are an extrapolation of analogies (trends, patterns,
similarities, causations).
That is why our brain compulsively looks for analogies,
causation in random events, order in chaos, it forecasts.
We always find analogies to base forecasts on, even if we
positively know there aren’t any.
... and proofs (heuristics of availability, selective perception,
cognitive dissonance, technical analysis, data mining).
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We always find patterns, analogies
Isn‘t that impressive?
Yes, especially the 4th quarter
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We always find patterns, analogies
Beautiful mood isn‘t ?
Very stable support lines!
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Learning from experience? Chance or causality?
Rain forest
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Learning from experience: a theory of superstition
Superstitions sees causation that don‘t exist
Allegedly the physicist Niels Bohr had a horse shoe over the
door to his office, as a lucky charm for his research. Asked if he
really believed in that he is said to have relied: „Of course not,
but I heard that it works even if you don‘t believe in it.“
I am not superstitious but that does not oblige me to pass under
a ladder.
It may not help but it also doesn't hurt.
Don‘t take chances!
Decision making often takes the form of pattern matching rather
than of explicit weighing of costs and benefits.
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Happiness is pleasant anticipation
and dopamine is the neurotransmitter of happiness
Neurotransmitter dopamine, most important amplifier in
learning activities
Good vibrations when forecasting
„To the alliance of curiosity and desire sponsored by dopamine
belongs creativity as well.“ Stefan Klein
„The Brain Runs on Fun.“ American saying
Dopamine causes happiness by pleasant anticipation. When we
enjoy, relish, savor though, parts of the brain are activated that
are in charge of conscious perception. And here the
neurotransmitter is not dopamine but opioides, drugs produced
by the brain that resemble opium.
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The expectation of achieving a desired
outcome is always full of relish.
Aristotle
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Dopamin und Opioide
„Bei Vorfreude läuft ein Zentrum im Vorderhirn zu großer
Tätigkeit auf - der Nucleus accumbens. ...Er wird vom
Lustmolekül Dopamin gesteuert und trägt wesentlich dazu bei,
dass wir uns gute Erfahrungen merken. Wenn wir hingegen
genießen, regen sich Teile des Großhirns, die für die bewusste
Wahrnehmung zuständig sind. Und nicht Dopamin dient hier als
Bote, sondern die Opioide, körpereigene Substanzen, die dem
Opium ähneln. ... ... An der Entstehung aller Genüsse sind die
Opioide beteiligt. Im Kern sind also alle Genüsse gleich.“
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Dopamine discharge at the time of the forecast
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Timeline of dopamine discharge, pleasant anticipation
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Rewards that we are sure to get, then
provide but little pleasure.
Ovid
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Dopamine and learning
If we are immediately rewarded for positive forecasts, no
matter what the future brings, it is difficult to learn from
mistakes.
On the other hand it is just the dopamine discharge cause be
the present expectation of a future reward that sweetens the
waiting time.
If you can anticipate and dream of future rewards you are
prepared to make the effort, to study and toil.
That holds true for mental efforts as well as physical fitness
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Dopamin und Sucht
Handlungen, die eine Dopaminauschüttung auslösen, will man
sobald und so oft wie möglich wiederholen. Wer diesen Drang
nicht beherrschen kann (Kontrollverlust), ist süchtig.
Wenn die durch die Handlung bewirkte Dopaminauschüttung
schwächer ist, weil die Rezeptoren nicht hinreichend
ausgebildet sind, oder schwächer wird, weil die Wirkung ja
schon erwartet wurde, folgt die Erhöhung der Dosis.
Bis hin zum „Goldenen Schuss“
Jede Art von Sucht manipuliert das Belohnungssystem in ihrer
eigenen Form, aber immer ist der Nukleus Accumbens aktiv.
Das ist die Basis für einige viel versprechende Ansätze
Medikamente zu entwickeln mit denen die Andockstellen der
Suchtdrogen besetzt werden.
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Dopamine and exercise
Exercise, sport cause discharge of dopamine
Exercise, sport improve capacity for remembering
Exercise, sport increase blood circulation also in the brain
(cerebral perfusion)
Discharge of growth factors, i.e. BNF
Improved resistance, i.e. apoplectic stroke
Faster regeneration
Protection against dementia
Protection against depression
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Dopaminmangel Ursache für Parkinson-Krankheit
Dopaminbildende Nervenzellen gehen zugrunde
Medikamentöser Ausgleich des Dopaminmangels kann die
motorischen Beeinträchtigungen über längere Zeit mindern
Unter Einfluss von Dopamin entstehen im Hippocampus aus
Stammzellen neue Nervenzellen
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Centers of dopamine discharge
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No risk - no fun / Forecasting is fun
Dopamin discharge higher when more difficult to forecast.
People enjoy surprises.
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Juice or water - model of dopamine discharge
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Changes in predictability of sequential stimuli
modulate brain response in the ventral striatum
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Juice or water - brain activity
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Hedonic adaptation
Rewards that we are sure to get, then provide but little
pleasure.
Ovid
The sense of well-being returns to the mean
Jackpot versus paraplegia
Pay rise
Investment performance
Exceptions: Chronic pain, loud noise
It is the surprising punch line that make the joke funny.
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We love excitement
Some brokers know,
how to catch a bird.
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Kreativität durch Pruning (Auslichten, Beschneiden)
„Dem Bund aus Neugier und Begehren, den Dopamin im Gehirn
stiftet, gehört auch die Kreativität an.“ Stefan Klein
Ein völlig unkreativer Mensch erlitt mit 51 einen Gehirnschlag,
verursacht durch zwei kleine Gerinnsel auf beiden Seiten der
Gehirns. Seiher schreibt er Gedichte, schafft Skulpturen, malt of
10 oder mehr Stunden am Tag. Lythgoe und seine Kollegen
erklären dieses Phänomen mit Disinhibition. In Gehirn sind die
Neuronen der hunderttausende von Synapsen miteinander
vernetzt. Dies können entweder stimulierend oder inhibierend auf
die Nervenzelle wirken, an die sie Informationen weiterleiten. In
diesem Fall denken die Wissenschaftler, dass gerade genug
inhibierende Verbindungen im Gehirn beschädigt worden sind, so
dass sich die zuvor unterdrückte Kreativität entfalten konnte.
Mark Lythgoe nach Cornelia Thomas, Das Gehirn bricht sich
unaufhaltsam Bahn, FAZ, 6. Juli 2004, S. 33
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Wenn die Neuronen gefeuert haben
- eine weitere Fundierung der Prospect Theory
W ert
Unsymmetrische
Risikopräferenz (Kahneman
und Tversky 1979)
Durch geeignete Sichtweise
können Entscheidungen V erlust
manipuliert werden
Thalers vier Regeln zur
Erhöhung der Attraktivität
G ew inn
1. Betrachte Gewinne getrennt.
2. Füge Verluste zusammen.
3. Betrachte großen Verlust und kleinen Gewinn isoliert.
4. Füge großen Gewinn mit kleinen Verlust zusammen.
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High on dopamine, electrified investors
Our overconfidence is immune to learning. We get our reward
now, even if forecasts later turn out to be wrong.
Heuristics of availability, experiences that are not representative
but dominate memory, especially when positive emotions had
been experienced.
High stakes trigger dopamine discharge (lottery, penny stocks,
IPOs) however small the chances of winning.
When expected rewards don’t materialize, dopamine level and
mood go south, a possible reason for the sometimes extreme
overreaction when earnings forecasts are just barely missed.
Does this mean that the investor should suppress his emotions?
No: but recognize and manage!
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The power of emotions - humiliation?
Since Freud we know that conscious awareness is only the tip of
the iceberg of our intellect, below and much bigger is the
subconscious mind.
Freud felt deeply humiliated by this domination of the “Id”.
Today we recognize our “Id” as an indispensable assistant, who
perceives things that we fail to see and lets us act, without the
need for reflection and attention.
Perception: Skin reaction to not recognized acquaintances
(Damasio), the 24th picture, furious face
Action: driving, centipede, golf
But even if we act consciously, reflected, and rational, emotions
are of critical importance.
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Mother‘s little helpers
Bewusstsein ist seit Freud nur die Spitze des Eisberges unseres
Geistes, darunter und sehr viel größer liegt das Unbewusste.
angeborene, instinkthafte Reaktionen
Hautreaktion auf nicht erkannte Bekannte (Damasio), Spinnen,
wütendes Gesicht
kulturell erworbene Reaktionen
Dankbarkeit, Mitgefühl
Erlernte Reaktionen
Radfahren, Autofahren, Golf, Ballgefühl
1 und 2 erkennen, kontrollieren
3 aktiv steuern
But even if we act consciously, reflected, and rational, emotions
are of critical importance, an indispensable helper.
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The error of René Decartes
Descartes established the credo of rational, cartesian thinking:
„Cogito ergo sum.“ or „Je pense donc je suis.“
His view was: only by thinking man becomes human, rational
action must disregard emotion.
Modern neuroscience begs to differ, and radically so.
Antonio R. Damasio: without emotion there is no incentive for
rational decision, it just does not happen! (Descartes‘ Error, New
York 1994)
„Long before the dawn of humanity, beings were beings.“
Emotions are the engine of thinking.
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The amygdala (corpus amygdalum)
Part of the limbic system, processing scent information, center
of instinctive reactions, fear and anger
Instantaneous reactions of the whole body, connected to the
adrenaline system, much faster than cortex
With hippocampus welds emotions to memories
a) Increasing gains activate left
amygdala
b) Increasing losses activate right
amygdala
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The prefrontal cortex
Magazine of memories with attached emotions (know-feelcombinations, Damasio: „somatic marker“)
In charge of planning of actions and of rational evaluation of
possible outcomes
Moderates the emotional input from the amygdala
Input from amygdala to prefrontal lobe (via hippocampus) very
much stronger than the other way round. That may explain the
difficulties of psychoanalysis and why it is so hard to act against
our emotions.
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Antonio Damasio’s Iowa gambling task
Patients with damaged ventromedial prefrontal (VMF) cortex can
not remember and therefore anticipate the emotion of winning
and loosing. They develop no long-term winning strategies but
gamble on short-term gains.
Patients with damaged amygdala can not generate and therefore
feel the emotion of winning and loosing. Without emotional input
„rational“ probands just don’t care.
The strength of emotions is measured by SCR (skin conductivity
response), the stronger the emotion, the more humid the skin
and the lower the electrical resistance as compared to normal in
µS/sec.
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The Iowa Gambling Task
Four stacks of cards to choose from
A und B bad, possible gain of $ 130 - maximal loss $ 1,500
C und D better, maximal gain lower, much lower maximal loss
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The Iowa Gambling Task: measured emotion before
good decks (C,D)
bad decks (A,B)
µS/sec at card selection
SCR (skin conductivity response)
damaged amygdala resp. ventromedial prefrontal (VMF) cortex
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The Iowa Gambling Task: measured emotion after
good decks (C,D)
bad decks (A,B)
µS/sec after reward (gain)or punishment (loss)
SCR (skin conductivity response)
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The Iowa Gambling Task: learning curve
good decks (C,D)
bad decks (A,B)
normal (n=13)
amygdala (n=5)
learning curve of card selection1 to 100
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VMF (n=5)
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The Iowa Gambling Task, readings
EKG
Tachogram
Atmung
SCR (rechts)
SCR
(links)
Zygomatic
EMG
Corrugator
EMG
Spiel
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The somatic-marker-hypothesis
Antonio Damasio: We make judgements not only by assessing
probabilities and consequences, but also, „and primarily“, by
evaluating their emotional attributes, the somatic marker.
The „right“ decision is taken only when also felt to be „good“.
There is no rational behavior without emotion.
Without emotion the conscious mind is only a
paper tiger, unable to stick to its chosen course.
4Ws: Why do We Want What? All our objectives are based on
emotion.
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Aversion to Regret
Facing the consequence of a decision can trigger emotions like satisfaction, relief, or
regret, our assessment of what was gained as compared to what would have been
gained by making a different decision. These emotions are mediated by a cognitive
process known as counterfactual thinking. Normal subjects respond consistent with
counterfactual thinking; they choose to minimize future regret. Patients with
orbitofrontal cortical lesions, however, don’t regret or anticipate negative
consequences of their choices.
Regret is an emotion that accompanies negative outcomes to decisions for which we
have been responsible. Minimizing anticipated regret means avoiding the possibility of
a big negative value when, you compare what you got to what you could have had.
Standard economic theory predicts that rational decision-makers will base their
choice on the probability that a particular outcome will be favorable. However, many
deviations from this prediction are observed, because humans are often anything but
rational. Patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions (OFC) can elaborate plans and
options and even recognize the incongruence between how they should behave and
how they actually behave, yet in real life their choices are inadequate in a manner
suggesting a missing sense of responsibility for the consequences of their own
decisions. This observation predicts that such patients should not feel regret and that
their choices should not be weighted by possible future regrets.
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Behavior: Simian Economics
Monkeys show the same “irrational” aversion to risks as humans
When faced with an exchange whose outcome is predictable only on average, most
people prefer to avoid the risk of making a loss than to take the chance of making a
gain when the average expected outcome of the two actions would be the same.
There has been a lot of discussion about whether it is the product of cultural
experience or is a reflection of a deeper biological phenomenon. So Keith Chen and
colleagues decided to investigate its evolutionary past, experimenting with monkeys.
First they introduced their monkeys to the idea of a cash economy. They did this by
giving them small metal discs while showing them food. The monkeys quickly learned
that humans valued these inedible discs so much that they were willing to trade them
for scrumptious pieces of apple, grapes and jelly. Once the price had been
established, though, it was changed. The size of the apple portions was doubled,
effectively halving the price of apple. The result was that apple consumption went up in
exactly the way that price theory (as applied to humans) would predict.
Then they tested their animals' risk aversion by offering them three different trading
regimes in succession. What the responses have in common is a preference for
avoiding apparent loss. That such behaviour occurs in two primates suggests a
common evolutionary origin.
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„Id“ perceives faster than the conscious mind
An interesting side outcome of the Iowa gambling task was that
the normal subjects’ subconscious perception of the relative
attractiveness of the decks was much faster.
After 10 drawings they started to worry when choosing the “bad”
decks A or B, skin resistance decreased.
With 50 drawings players started to voice concerns, that A and B
might be “somewhat risky”.
After 80 drawings most where fully aware of the odds.
The normal probands then only chose C or D.
The brain damaged subjects were equally aware of the odds but
did not go for a winning strategy. They did not care.
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Memory of emotionally arousing material superior
What did you do or experience yesterday, one week ago, one year
ago, or in your childhood? If you try to answer this question, you
will typically remember most easily those episodes of your life with
the greatest emotional impact, i.e., particularly positive or
particularly negative events. Experimental psychology has
confirmed that memory for emotionally arousing material is
generally superior to memory for emotionally neutral material, and
neurobiological research indicates that this superiority critically
depends on neuromodulatory processes within the amygdala, a
small almond-shaped structure in the medial temporal lobe of the
brain. My current research projects are dedicated to the role that
sleep and different sleep stages play in emotional and nonemotional memory processes as well as neuromodulatory
influences of glucocorticoids on these processes.
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John Locke - Erinnerung bei stärkeren Emotionen
Die Aufmerksamkeit und die Wiederholung tragen
viel dazu bei, gewisse Ideen im Gedächtnis zu
fixieren. Der tiefste und dauerhafteste Eindruck wird
aber naturgemäß zuerst durch Ideen hervorgerufen,
die von Freude oder Schmerz begleitet sind.
John Locke, Versuch über den menschlichen Verstand
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Träges Hirn verwischt Erinnerungen
Besonders wenn Details eine Rolle spielen, kann das Gedächtnis
kaum zwischen real Erlebtem und fälschlich Hinzugefügtem
unterschieden. Craig Stark und Yoko Okado machten sich auf die
Suche nach den Gehirnprozessen, die zum Abspeichern von
fehlerhaften Erinnerungen führen. Mit dem Kernspintomografen
beobachteten sie die Gehirne von Testpersonen beim Betrachten von
Fotoserien. Jeweils 50 Bilder zeigten, wie ein Mann einer Frau die
Brieftasche stiehlt und dann flieht. Im zweiten Durchgang waren die
Bilder aber in manchen Details verändert.
Zwei Tage später wurden die Versuchspersonen nach ihren
Erinnerungen befragt. Stark und Okado stellten fest, dass sie mit ihren
Kernspin-Aufnahmen vorhersagen konnten, welche Probanden deutlich
von den Störinformationen beeinflusst wurden. Bei allen Beteiligten war
nicht nur die für Gedächtnisarbeit zuständige Hirnregion Hippocampus
aktiv, sondern auch ein anderer Bereich: der präfrontale Kortex. Bei
Versuchspersonen, deren Erinnerungen zahlreiche Fehlinformationen
enthielten, war der präfrontale Kortex auffallend träge. Stark und Okado
schließen daraus, dass die Hirnregion besonders wichtig ist, um den
Kontext und die Quelle einer Erinnerung abzuspeichern.
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Therapie: correcting the somatic markers ex post
Our decisions are based on probabilities and expected
consequences and their emotional attributes.
Memories, including the emotional attributes (somatic markers)
are opened and saved like a word document.
I.e. decrease level of anxiety
often describe in relaxed setting (psychoanalysis)
recall and practice to relax (behavioral psychology)
recall and attach new emotion (NLP)
CISD, Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, for the military
What is the emotion attached to this memory - do I want to
change that?
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A Pill That Helps Ease Grip of Irrational Fears
A tuberculosis drug with surprising effects on the brain has given psychiatrists hope
that a new approach to phobias and other severe anxiety disorders may be in the
offing. The drug, D-cycloserine, an antibiotic, does nothing to soothe panic or calm
nerves. Instead, it increases learning and memory, and may help people overcome
their fears faster in psychotherapy, which can be costly and take years.
Researchers at Emory found that people who combined the drug with behavioral
treatment to conquer their fear of heights improved drastically after only two
sessions, instead of the usual eight. Elsewhere, researchers are studying its effects
on social phobia, panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
"Treating anxiety with Valium or antidepressants works on the symptoms, but
doesn't really get rid of the fear except to cover it up in the moment," said Dr.
Michael Davis, a psychiatrist at Emory. "Psychotherapy is really the best way to
treat these disorders, and this makes it better and faster."
For panic disorder, phobias and other severe anxiety disorders, psychiatrists often
rely on a specific type of treatment called exposure therapy, in which patients
gradually learn to feel comfortable in situations they dread. Studies have shown that
a glutamate receptor in the amygdala, a part of the brain that governs emotion,
plays a role in learning to adjust to threatening stimuli. Since D-cycloserine is known
to act on these receptors, Dr. Davis decided to test whether it might accelerate the
breaking of people's fearful associations, a process called extinction.
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Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Psychological counseling after catastrophes
damage control by the responsible organization
requested by insurance
..., to prove our concern
Often less advantages than disadvantages
Propensity fort self-healing underestimated
Phobia-Spiral reinforced instead of attenuated
more effective: CISD, Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
Counseling creates its victims
Heart attacks in Israel: PTSD- counseling 19%, repression 7%
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Correcting the somatic markers ex ante
Preparation abates or even avoids affright
Clausewitz: Every soldier must mentally anticipate everything
that may happen in war.
Mental Training: Be Prepared
Gulf war 1991: 3% PTSD
earth quakes, floods: 5%
lethal car accidents: 20%
rape: >50%
11th September 2001: population of Manhattan 40%
Relapse of heart attacks in Israel
19% with PTSD-Treatment, 7% with suppression
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Verdrängen, die traumatische Amnesie
Bei extremem Stress werden die Rezeptoren im Hippocampus
mit Cortisol überschwemmt. Die traumatische Erfahrung wird
nicht mehr zu einem einheitlichen Ganzen geordnet. Häufig
ergibt sich ein Durcheinander von überdeutlichen Details und
Erinnerungslücken.
Wenn dieser Schutzmechanismus versagt, kann die Erinnerung
aus der aktiven Erinnerung „verdrängt“ werden, doch auch das
Unbewusste kann noch erhebliche Störungen auslösen.
Therapie 1: Psychoanalyse, Verhaltenstherapie, PTSD etc. bauen
die somatic markers, die extremen Emotionen, ab.
Therapie 2: Auslösung einer Cortisolschwemme während der
Erinnerung durch Chemie (Pille des Vergessens) oder extreme
physikalische Reize.
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Traumata in der Literatur
Psychologen sprechen angesichts nicht zu bewältigender Situationen von Trauma.
Angst, Wut und Ausweglosigkeit steigern sich zu einem derartigen Albtraum, daß
der betroffene Mensch nicht mehr fliehen kann, in Hilflosigkeit erstarrt, seinen
Körper unbeteiligt als etwas Fremdes erlebt. Das Erleiden von Gewalt - von
Vergewaltigung, Folter, Vernachlässigung, Krieg, Katastrophen, Unfällen - kann in
einen Ausnahmezustand münden. Wissenschaftliche Fundierung findet Hannes
Fricke in der modernen Traumaforschung, die er auf die Literatur.
Im Unterschied zur Psychoanalyse befasst sich die Traumatologie mit einer
hirnphysiologisch nachweisbaren anthropologischen Konstante. Traumatische
Erlebnisse lassen sich also im historischen Rückblick auf die gleichen empirischen
Gesetzmäßigkeiten wie heute zurückführen. Denn sie werden in sonst
unzugänglichen Regionen des Gehirns abgespeichert, im "heißen" statt "kalten"
Gedächtnis. Dabei zerfallen die Informationen in willentlich nicht mehr abrufbare
Fragmente, ohne räumliche, zeitliche und kausale Ordnung. Sie suchen den
betroffenen Menschen unvorbereitet und unvorhersehbar heim, ausgelöst durch
bestimmte Reize (Trigger), die tief eingeschriebene Erinnerungen aktualisieren und
so die traumatische Situation erneut heraufbeschwören (Flashback). Dieser
Teufelskreis hat seit jeher bestanden und Spuren in der Literatur hinterlassen.
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But Sweetie, you love lima beans
If children's happiest food memories were leafy green rather than
beefy, what difference in what people might eat.
Now it is possible to change those memories - as an adult.
Psychologists fooled college students into thinking that as
children they had become sick when eating certain foods.
The students answered questions about their early eating
memories. Later, they were presented with a bogus food history
profile that embedded a single falsehood - that they had gotten
sick when eating pickles or hard-boiled eggs. This is called the
false feedback technique, where you gather data from the
subjects and use it to lend credibility to this false profile.
About 40 percent confirmed later that they remembered getting
sick or believed it to be true. The believers said that they would
be much more likely to avoid eating pickles or hard-boiled eggs.
People who were told that they loved asparagus as children were
much more drawn to that slender delicacy.
The experience of taste is as open to tampering as other
memories.
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Vergessen - Talent, Kunst oder Wissenschaft
Je mehr man erinnert, umso mehr kann man lernen. Die
Kapazität unseres Gedächtnisses ist kein limitierender Faktor.
Das gilt allerdings nur für das Langzeitgedächtnis, die Kapazität
des Kurzzeitgedächtnisses wird dagegen durchaus belastet,
wenn wir Unwichtiges nicht vergessen können.
Experimente lassen vermuten, dass das schlechtere
Erinnerungsvermögen von kleinen Kindern und alten Menschen
mit der Unfähigkeit verbunden sein könnte, Unwichtiges zu
vergessen. „Directed Forgetting“ wird gelernt und verlernt.
Das Kurzzeitgedächtnis profitiert vom absichtlichen Vergessen.
„Directed forgetting“ spielt aber auch beim Bewältigen
traumatischer Erlebnisse eine wichtige Rolle.
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Fünf Gedächtnisstufen
1. "Bahnung". Schon in der 23. Schwangerschaftswoche kann sich
ein werdendes Baby an Geräusche gewöhnen.
2. "Automatisierung", von Bewegungen/Fertigkeiten. Tretend,
boxend übt das Ungeborene einfache Bewegungsmuster ein.
Fachleute sprechen auch vom "prozeduralen Gedächtnis".
3. „Perzeptuelles Gedächtnis“, bildet sich nach der Geburt, wenn
Stimme, Geruch der Mutter dem Säugling rasch vertraut werden.
4. Der Beginn des bewussten Welt- und Faktenwissens, entsteht
am Ende des ersten Lebensjahres. Jetzt finden Kinder ein
Spielzeug wieder, das die Erwachsenen versteckt haben.
5. Das "episodische" oder "autobiografische" Gedächtnis. Dieses
ermöglicht es, Erlebnisse so detailliert und im Zusammenhang
mit Zeit, Raum und emotionaler Stimmung festzuhalten, dass
wir sie jederzeit nacherleben können. Kinder erreichen diese
Gedächtnisstufe im Vorschulalter, also mit vier, fünf Jahren.
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Gedächtnisbildung im Schlaf
Otto Loewi entdeckte 1924 das Acetylcholin.
Der Hippokampus gilt als Zwischenlager für frisch Erlerntes. Von
dort werden die noch ungefestigten Gedächtnisinhalte an die
jeweils zuständigen Bereiche des Neokortex weitergegeben und
dauerhaft verankert. Einer neueren These zufolge laufen wichtige
Teile dieses Prozesses während des Tiefschlafs ab. Während
dieser Schlafphase, die durch besonders langsame Hirnwellen,
sogenannte Deltawellen, charakterisiert ist, werden neue Inhalte
des deklarativen Gedächtnisses im Hippokampus reaktiviert und
an den Neokortex weitergereicht. Versuche lieferten Hinweise
darauf, daß dieser Prozess durch die im Tiefschlaf verringerte
Konzentration an Acetylcholin leichter abläuft.
Schlaf begünstigt das prozedurale Gedächtnis noch deutlich
stärker als das deklarative Gedächtnis.
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Problemlösung im Schlaf
Otto Loewi, chemische Übertragung von Nervenreizen, MedizinNobelpreis 1936. An einem Morgen im Jahr 1921 hatte er
plötzlich die Idee für ein ausgeklügeltes Experiment. Die
Erleuchtung war ihm über Nacht gekommen. F. A. Kekulé wurde
1865 beim Schlummern die Molekülgestalt des Benzols deutlich.
Erinnerungen werden zunächst im Hippocampus gebildet und
gespeichert (Kurzzeitgedächtnis). Die Ablage in der Hirnrinde
(Langzeitgedächtnis) erfolgt im Schlaf.
Born und Wagner zeigten, daß im Schlaf nicht nur eine
Überführung vom Kurz- in das Langzeitgedächtnis stattfinden
kann, sondern auch eine Anpassung des neu Erlernten an schon
vorhandene Inhalte des Langzeitgedächtnisses. Demnach findet
eine Umstrukturierung mentaler Inhalte statt, die neue Einsichten
ermöglicht.
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Brain, organ that lets us think that we think
(Ambrose Bierce, Devil‘s Dictionary)
60 million years development from ape to human brain
Selective advantages:
Avoiding predators
Finding food and sex partners
Development of simple rules for survival
Only recently selective advantages of:
Algorithms of exchange rate arbitrage
Derivative products and collateralized mortgage obligations
Economic-Value-Added, Two-Stage-Dividend-Discount-Model
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Aesthetics is hard-wired in the brain
Even babies have an innate sense of beauty, choosing to gaze longer at lovelier faces.
Parents have the same bias. Still, the headline yesterday in Science Times was jolting:
“Researchers made a startling assertion: parents take better care of pretty children.”
Researchers at the University of Alberta observed that at the supermarket, less
adorable tykes were more often allowed to engage in potentially dangerous activities like standing up in the shopping cart. Good-looking children got more attention from
their parents. "When it came to buckling up, pretty and ugly children were treated in
starkly different ways, with seat belt use increasing in direct proportion to
attractiveness," the article said. "When a woman was in charge, 4 percent of the
homeliest children were strapped in, compared with 13.3 percent of the most attractive
children." With fathers, it was even worse, "with none of the least attractive children
secured with seat belts, while 12.5 percent of the prettiest children were."
Dr. Andrew Harrel, the research team's leader, put the findings in evolutionary terms:
pretty children represent a premium genetic legacy, so get top care. "Like lots of
animals," he said, "we tend to parcel out our resources on the basis of value.“ A beauty
bias against children seems so startling because you grow up thinking parents are the
only ones who will give you unconditional love, not measure it out in coffee spoons
based on your genetic luck - which, after all, they're responsible for.
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Rechte und linke Hirnhälfte
Normalerweise Bildverarbeitung in beiden Hirnhälften
Nach chirurgischer Trennung kein Austausch mehr zwischen den
Hirnhälften, links im Augenwinkel wird nur rechts empfangen
(rationale) linke Hälfte macht bessere Prognosen, Sprache, Mathe
(emotionale) rechte Hälfte sieht Muster, wo keine sind
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Pollyanna-Typen
Pollyanna-Typen denken immer positiv, assoziieren positiv auch
bei beunruhigenden Wörtern (z.B. Hass … Liebe).
fMRI zeigt aber, dass bei Projektion im linken Gesichtsfeld die
rechte Hirnhälfte negativ erregt wird. (Nur) Diese Wörter werden
verzögert an das Sprachzentrum in der linken Hirnhälfte
weitergegeben, während gleichzeitig der für positive Gefühle
zuständige linke Schläfenlappen sehr aktiv wird. Bei neutralen
Wörtern gibt es keine Verzögerung.
Pollyanna-Typen nehmen das Negative also unbewusst
durchaus wahr, aber ihr Gehirn schützt sie vor den negativen
Gefühlen.
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Unterschiedliche Reaktion der Hirnhälften
Linke Hirnhälfte ist aktiver, besonders bei riskanten
Entscheidungen
Rechte Hirnhälfte wird vom Risiko nicht beeindruckt
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Gray Matter and the Sexes: Still a Gray Area
Lawrence H. Summers suggested that one factor in women's lagging
progress in science might be differences between the sexes.
Has science found evidence of sex disparities in skills, or perhaps the
drive to succeed, that could help account for the persistent paucity of
women in science? Researchers say that yes, there are a host of
discrepancies between men and women.
A century ago, the French scientist Gustav Le Bon pointed to the
smaller brains of women and said that explained their "fickleness,
inconstancy, absence of thought and logic, and incapacity to reason".
Overall size aside, some evidence suggests that female brains are
relatively more endowed with gray matter while men's brains are
packed with more white matter, the tissue between neurons. New
brain imaging studies, suggest that men and women with equal I.Q.
scores use different proportions of their gray and white matter when
solving problems like those on intelligence tests.
Men, they said, appear to devote 6.5 times as much of their gray
matter to intelligence-related tasks as do women, while women rely
far more heavily on white matter to pull them through a ponder.
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Gray Matter and the Sexes: Still a Gray Area
John Tierney, Scrabbling to the top: Researchers at the University of
Pittsburgh have shown that women have less appetite for competition
than men do.
Helen Fisher et al., Neural Mechanisms of Mate Choice: A
Hypothesis: "Charles Darwin distinguished between two types of
sexual selection, intrasexual selection, by which members of one sex
evolve traits that enable them to compete directly with one another to
win mating opportunities; and intersexual selection, by which
individuals of one sex evolve traits that are preferred by members of
the opposite sex.“
Males are rewarded with mating opportunities when they reach the
top. Sometimes that is their only chance. They compete with
everybody.
Women are rather rewarded for being lovely. Working to get to the top
May even make them less lovely. They compete with each other.
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This Is Your Brain on Motherhood
A mother's brain, as commonly envisioned, is impaired by a full-scale assault on
sanity and smarts. So strong is this last stereotype that when a satirical Web site
posted a "study" saying that parents lose an average of 20 I.Q. points on the birth of
their first child, MSNBC broadcast it as if it were true.The more visibly "encumbered"
we are, the more bias we attract: When volunteer groups were shown images of a
woman doing various types of work, but in some cases wearing a pillow to make her
look pregnant, most judged the "pregnant" woman less competent.
But what if just the opposite is true? What if parenting really isn't a zero-sum,
children-take-all game? This is, in fact, what some leading brain scientists now
believe. Becoming a parent, they say, can power up the mind with uniquely
motivated learning.
The human brain creates cells throughout life, cells more likely to survive if they're
used. Emotional, challenging and novel experiences provide particularly helpful use
of these new neurons, and what adjectives better describe raising a child? Aging
makes us cling ever more fiercely to our mental ruts. The unique bond with our
children can yank us out of them.
Learning and memory skills can be improved by bearing and nurturing offspring. A
team of neuroscientists found that mother lab rats, just like working mothers, excel
at time-management and efficiency, racing around mazes to find rewards and get
back to the pups in record time. Other research is showing how hormones elevated
in parenting can help buffer mothers from anxiety and stress - a timely gift from a
sometimes compassionate Mother Nature. Oxytocin, produced by mammals in labor
and breast-feeding, has been linked to the ability to learn in lab animals.
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Cranial volume and intelligence
Volume should matter. If evolution resulted in an ever increasing
size of the brain and specifically the cortex, this must present a
selective advantage.
Thinking and planning instead of just following the instincts
obviously improved the odds as to survival and reproduction.
Therefore it was all the more galling that all attempts failed to
prove a correlation between brain size and intelligence (and thus
the superiority of a certain sex or race).
This seems to change now but the results are quite surprising.
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Intelligence depends on brain size - but not cortex
The latest research by Paul Zak: Size matters.
IQ and brain size are correlated after all.
But not all the brain, especially not the highly developed
neocortex that distinguishes man from all other species.
It is the volume of amygdala and hippocampus that determines
intelligence.
The volume of the cortex, although obviously a selective
advantage, is not a sufficient or even necessary condition for
high intelligence.
Feeling emotions, being able to match them to memories, and to
employ both for purposeful decisions - that makes the
successful animal.
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... aber Lehrbuchwissen ist die zentrale
Bedeutung der Mandelkerne noch nicht
A. Waldeyer, A. Mayert, Anatomie des Menschen, 15. Aufl.
Berlin - New York 1986, S. 315: „Der Mandelkern. ...
Seinem Feinbau nach ist er vom Basalganglion
abzuleiten. Funktionell gehört er zum limbischen
System. Außerdem hat er regulatorische vegetative
Funktionen. Experimente mit Tieren zeigen jedoch,
dass der Mandelkern entbehrlich ist.“
Kommentar: Denken und Fühlen sind wohl auch entbehrlich.
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Gegen anatomielose Seelenmedizin
Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), Direktor der Psychiatrischen
Universitätsklinik Heidelberg, dann München. Betrachtete die
neuroanatomische Basis für psychiatrische Erkrankungen als
spekulativ und in der Praxis unbrauchbar. Stützte sich daher auf
eine Krankheitssystematik, die ausschließlich klinische
Syndromprofile als Abgrenzungskriterien akzeptierte.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1938), Begründer der Psychoanalyse, zu
nächst Neuropathologe am Neurologische Institut in Wien.
Empfand jedoch - ähnlich wie Kraepelin – die Schwierigkeiten,
für psychiatrische Erkrankungen eine anatomisch-klinische
Übereinstimmung zu finden, und entwickelte so eine
anatomielose „Seelenmedizin“.
Das Kind wurde mit dem Bade ausgeschüttet.
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Citations 1
Of all ways of defining man, the worst is the one which makes
him out to be a rational animal.
Anatole France 1844-1924
You must capture and keep the heart of the original and
supremely able man before his brain can do its best.
Andrew Carnegie 1835-1919
An adjudgement can be disproved a prejudice never.
Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach 1830-19
The intuitive esprit is a sacred gift and the rational intellect a
loyal servant. We have created a society that forgot the gift and
praises the servant.
Albert Einstein 1879-1955
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Citations 2
Great ideas rather spring from a great emotion than from a great
intellect.
Fjodor Michailowitsch Dostojewskij 1821-1881
The blending of psychology and economics will lead nowhere.
The mix is becoming popular simply because conventional
economics has failed to explain how asset prices are set.
Merton H. Miller 1994
Man may be able to do what he wants, but he can not choose to
want what he wants.
Arthur Schopenhauer 1788-1860
To be productive you must enjoy.
Theodor Fontane
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Citations 3 David Myers
David Myers, Psychologist, Hope College; author, "Intuition"
As a Christian monotheist, I start with two unproven axioms:
1. There is a God. 2. It's not me (and it's also not you).
Together, these axioms imply my surest conviction: that some of
my beliefs (and yours) contain error. We are, from dust to dust,
finite and fallible. We have dignity but not deity.
And that is why I further believe that we should
a) hold all our unproven beliefs with a certain tentativeness (except
for this one!),
b) assess others' ideas with open-minded skepticism, and
c) freely pursue truth aided by observation and experiment.
This mix of faith-based humility and skepticism helped fuel the
beginnings of modern science, and it has informed my own
research and science writing. The whole truth cannot be found
merely by searching our own minds, for there is not enough there.
So we also put our ideas to the test. If they survive, so much the
better for them; if not, so much the worse.
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Citations 4 Robert Sapolsky
Neuroscientist, Stanford University, author, "A Primate's Memoir"
Mine would be a fairly simple, straightforward case of an
unjustifiable belief, namely that there is no god(s) or such a thing
as a soul (whatever the religiously inclined of the right persuasion
mean by that word). ...
I'm taken with religious folks who argue that you not only can, but
should believe without requiring proof. Mine is to not believe
without requiring proof. Mind you, it would be perfectly fine with
me if there were a proof that there is no god. Some might view this
as a potential public health problem, given the number of people
who would then run damagingly amok. But it's obvious that there's
no shortage of folks running amok thanks to their belief. So that
wouldn't be a problem and, all things considered, such a proof
would be a relief - many physicists, especially astrophysicists,
seem weirdly willing to go on about their communing with god
about the Big Bang, but in my world of biologists, the god concept
gets mighty infuriating when you spend your time thinking about,
say, untreatably aggressive childhood leukemia.
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Conclusion: seven suggestions (not only) for investors
Man is not just a thinking machine but at least as much a feeling
machine. With no emotion as to the consequences of actions
there is no right or wrong.
The act of prediction is addictive. We are hard wired to make
forecasts based on repetition and alteration.
A brain that predicts gains looks like a brain that is high on
drugs or sex. Illusion of control, pharmacologically addiction
prone.
Work your dopamine, you can’t possibly fight it.
Seven suggestions
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1: Define the right (accessible) objectives
Happiness, well-being is not identical to performance. Thrill, fun,
status gain are as legitimate. Saving is not always just deferred
consumption. Investing in equities, riding the roller coaster of
equity markets, can be fun (and thus consumption).
„Hedonic Investment“, motivation and emotion of an investor
developing complex investment strategies may be comparable to
a sky diver preparing to jump.
Self-commitment, burning the bridges makes use of cognitive
dissonance (endowment effect).
Think positively. Happiness by pleasant anticipation of gains,
however improbable they may be, nobody can take away again.
But beware of euphoria, the hangover wont take long to come.
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1a: Don‘t worry, be happy - the brain runs on fun
Good moods, while they last, enhance the ability to think flexibly
and with more complexity, thus making it easier to find solutions to
problems, whether intellectual or interpersonal. One way to help
someone think through a problem, is to tell her a joke.
Laughing, like elation, seems to help people think more broadly and
associate more freely, noticing relationships that might have eluded
them otherwise - a mental skill important for creativity, recognizing
complex relationships, foreseeing the consequences of a decision.
The intellectual benefits of a good laugh are most striking when it
comes to solving a problem that demands a creative solution. One
study found that people who had just watched a video of television
bloopers were better at solving a puzzle long used by
psychologists to test creativity.
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1b: Good mood enhances performance, not (only)
the other way round
Andrew Lo et al, 2004
Online-Traders with more self-control underperform.
Improving mood the night before explains 24% of the variance
of performance of the best third of outperformers.
Deteriorating mood the night before explains 35% of the
variance of performance of the worst third of underperformers.
Only trade when in the mood!
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1c: Lustgewinn durch Träumen von Gewinnen
Darüber sprechen, ausmalen
Diversifizieren
Lotterie: 1 € Einsatz Gewinn 1 Mio €
a) oder
1€
Gewinn 10 Mio €
b) oder
10 €
Gewinn 10 Mio €
c) oder
10 €
Gewinn 1 Mio €
Chance 1/1Mio
Chance 1/10 Mio
Chance 1/1Mio
Chance 1/100.000
Bei sehr kleinen Wahrscheinlichkeiten bewirken selbst
deutliche Veränderungen keine Verhaltensänderung.
Wer 10 € investieren will, kauft vermutlich lieber 10 x a) als b)
oder c)
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1d: Schopenhauer
Wer viel lacht, ist glücklich, und wer viel weint, ist unglücklich.
...Dieserwegen sollen wir der Heiterkeit, wann immer sie sich
einstellt, Tür und Tor öffnen: Denn sie kommt nie zur unrechten
Zeit; statt daß wir oft Bedenken tragen, ihr Eingang zu gestatten,
indem wir erst wissen wollen, ob wir denn auch in jeder Hinsicht
Ursach haben, zufrieden zu sein; oder auch, weil wir fürchten, in
unsern ernsthaften Überlegungen und wichtigen Sorgen dadurch
gestört zu werden: Allein was diese bessern ist ungewiss,
hingegen ist Heiterkeit ein unmittelbarer Gewinn. Sie allein ist
gleichsam die bare Münze des Glücks und nicht, wie alles andere,
bloß der Bankzettel, weil nur sie unmittelbar in der Gegenwart
beglückt, weshalb sie das höchste Gut ist für Wesen, deren
Wirklichkeit die Form einer unteilbaren Gegenwart zwischen zwei
unendlichen Zeiten hat.
Schopenhauer, Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit
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1e: Goethe
Weißt du, worin der Spaß des Lebens liegt?
Sei lustig! – Geht es nicht, so sei vergnügt.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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1f: Die Kirche im Dorf lassen
Unser Gehirn neigt dazu, die Folgen positiver wie negativer
Entwicklungen auf die Stimmung zunächst maßlos zu
überschätzen.
Lebenszufriedenheit pendelt sich (wieder) ein.
Lottogewinn und Querschnittslähmung
Gehaltserhöhung
Erfolgreiche und weniger erfolgreiche Investments
Ausnahmen: chronische Schmerzen, Lärm
Homöostase, wir haben eine starke Tendenz zum
Gleichgewicht, physiologisch und psychologisch (Hedonische
Adaption)
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1g: Fighting hedonic adaptation: variety
There is nothing wrong with homeostasis that lets us cope with
a dire strait but hedonic adaptation to good news takes away
the pleasure we deserve. That should be fought against.
Strategies to avoid hedonic adaptation could be:
Behavioral activities (Sport, Sex, Socializing)
Cognitive activities (trying to see the best, count your
blessings, Pollyanna)
Volitional activities (striving for achievable personal goals,
devoting effort to meaningful causes)
Strategies of creativity, distraction, variety, and surprise: it is
the surprising punch line that makes the joke funny.
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1h: Recognize and neutralize spoil sports
Bad mood reduces intellectual capacities.
Cognitive Control, not speaking up freely, ties up intellectual
resources. This are the (hidden) costs of political correctness.
Here could also be an additional cause for the inferiority of
committee decisions.
Increasing demand on explanation and documentation of
investment decisions by asset managers may reduce the risk
of litigation but will also reduce performance.
The same holds true for the present regulatory bubble.
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1i: Zerredete Entscheidungen - auch nicht besser
Viele Anlage-Alternativen bei begrenzter Information und
Verarbeitungskapazität (Verfügbarkeitsheuristik)
Beardstown ladies:1983-91 +8% wird zu -6%
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1j: Glücklich ist, wer vergisst, …
The brain runs on fun
besseres Problemlösungsverhalten, Kreativität
Wir wollen glücklich sein
Kognitive Dissonanz, was wir haben ist besser
Wir gucken uns die Welt schön
Erfolge schreiben wir uns zu, Misserfolge anderen
Unangenehme Situationen vermeiden wir (krankhaft)
Regel: Ändern, was zu ändern ist, alles andere akzeptieren
Aber: Wer glücklich ist, ändert nichts, neigt zur Passivität
Selbstreparaturmechanismen:
Hedonische Adaptation bestraft Passivität
Wir suchen Spannung, den Kitzel
Wir sind neidisch, konstruktiv oder destruktiv
$ Amerikaner wollen auch nach oben
€ Deutsche wollen „Die da Oben“ runterholen
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1k: Das Geheimnis von Glückspilzen
Nur zu gern schieben wir die Verantwortung für eigenes Scheitern und
Malheure auf höhere Mächte. Das Verhalten ist sehr menschlich,
hindert uns jedoch daran, Herausforderungen aktiv anzugehen und zu
einem Glückspilz zu werden.
"Wiseman gab 1994 eine Anzeige auf, in der er ausgesprochene
Glückspilze und Pechvögel suchte. Er kam zu dem Schluss, dass man
rund zwölf Prozent aller Menschen als Sonntagskinder bezeichnen
könne, während neun Prozent scheinbar ständig vom Pech verfolgt
würden.
Daraufhin begann Wiseman die Persönlichkeitsmerkmale dieser
beiden Extremgruppen zu untersuchen und stellte fest, dass sich
Glückspilze dank ihrer Denk- und Verhaltensweisen eher als andere
Menschen Glück verheißende Situationen schaffen, diese erkennen
und auch nutzen. Daher gewinnen sie öfter bei Preisausschreiben weil sie sich häufiger daran beteiligen.
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1l: Laugh Your Way to Good Health and a Longer Life
Happy people will be healthier, live longer, have more sex than unhappy
people. That's why they're happy. Or the other way round, you too watching old movies and eating the wrong things instead of exercising
with good friends before a vegan dinner and some cultural event - could
be healthier, live longer and have more sex. If you would only cheer up.
Negative affect is associated with a greater risk of heart disease,
diabetes and disability. Positive affect is connected to greater longevity.
Even worse, "A lack of positive affect rather than negative affect predicts
mortality, stroke and the development of disability in older adults." You
don't even have to be depressed to fare worse; a lack of happiness will
wreck your golden years.
The researchers asked 116 men and 100 women to record how happy
they felt during the day. They also tested blood pressure and heart rate,
and cortisol levels in saliva. Cortisol is a stress hormone, the less the
better. And they conducted mental stress tests and took blood samples
to determine response to stress. Naturally, the happier people were
better off.
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1m: Go On, Laugh Your Heart Out
Laughter may be good for your heart. Laughing causes the tissue that
forms the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, to expand and
thereby increase blood flow - exactly what aerobic exercise does.
Researchers had 20 healthy volunteers watch a 15-minute segment
from "Kingpin," a 1996 Woody Harrelson comedy, and then 48 hours
later view the opening battle scene from "Saving Private Ryan". After
each movie, researchers used ultrasound to measure changes in blood
vessel reactivity. On average, blood flow increased 22 percent after the
Harrelson movie, comparable to the increase brought on by aerobic
exercise, and decreased 35 percent after "Saving Private Ryan."
While a comedy can be good for people, a stress-inducing movie can
have a negative effect on cardiac health, said Dr. Michael Miller.
“Anything that evokes an emotional response has an impact on the
heart" that can be negative as well as positive. He speculates that
laughter induces the release of beneficial endorphins, just as exercise.
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2: Recognize (= perceive and accept) your emotions
The conscious mind works on 40-60 bits/sec and keeps track
of a maximum of 7 objects, that is only a fraction of the
processing capacity of the subconscious.
The „Id“ often perceives faster and always more.
Be conductive to ideas that are not (yet) based on
information to the conscious mind (brainstorming).
To the „(number-)crunch” factor add the „hunch” factor.
Be conductive to but not just a conduct of ideas from the
subconscious. “Id” is trigger happy and tends to decide on
scant information (heuristics of availability, anchors,
similarities, attention, Antonio’s pizza).
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2a: Co-ordination between the "thinking" and the
"feeling" regions
Colin Camerer, of the California Institute of Technology, has
conducted experiments in which brain-scanned participants play
strategic games with anonymous partners. In these, a subject
chooses his own actions and also tries to anticipate the choices
of the other player. When players are doing the best that they can
to "win" the game by anticipating their opponents' moves, their
brains tend to show a high degree of co-ordination between the
"thinking" and the "feeling" regions.
Economic equilibrium, by this measure, is an identifiable "state of
mind".
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2b: An emotional registry for investors?
Establish an emotional registry (Antoine Bechara)
To the rational analysis of the cortex the limbic system adds the
valuations and prejudice from emotions felt in similar situations
in the past. The emotional registry helps to realize and thus
neutralize these prejudices.
a) How did I feel last time and b) what was the outcome?
(a) explains why if wish to act.
(b) could be the basis to decide against this emotional urge.
Alongside your trading records, keep feeling records especially important for young investors.
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2c: Soros’ “Emotional Registry”
“My father will sit down and give you theories to explain why
he does this or that, But I remember seeing it as a kid and
thinking, Jesus Christ, at least half of this is bull---t. I mean,
you know the reason he changes his position on the market or
whatever is because his back starts killing him. It has nothing
to do with reason. He literally goes into a spasm, and it’s this
early warning sign.”
(Robert Soros, describing his father George, quoted by Jason
Zweig, Money Magazine, Money and the Mind, How
Neuroscientists Are Cracking the Code of Investment
Behavior, Presentation at AIMR Annual Conference, Toronto,
14. Mai 2002)
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2d: Inkubation (Ap Dijksterhuis)
People should consciously think about the decisions they make.
When faced with decisions such as whether to buy a house or
whether to switch jobs, thorough conscious contemplation is
expected to lead to the best decisions.
But although consciousness can be said to be “smart” and
rational, it is also of very limited capacity. This means that when
making decisions about rather complex, multifaceted issues,
conscious thought can be maladaptive and lead to poor
decisions. This conclusion is less sobering than it may seem,
because it does not mean that people are poor decision makers:
“Unconscious thought” (i.e., chewing on a problem without
directed conscious thought) can lead to very sound decisions.
The great inventor Thomas Alva Edison supposedly, fell into a
trance when looking for solutions to difficult problems .
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2e: Intuition often superior to analytical dissection
Susanne Haberstroh, (University of Erfurt)
Spontaneous judgments are based on an automatic counting of
instances. This leads to accurate judgments, even though people
do not have an insight into the aggregation or the judgment
process. When people think carefully about their judgment, they
consider additional information, leading to biased judgments.
Jamin Halberstadt & Steve Catty, (Otago University)
Explicitly analyzing the reasons for a judgment – the opposite of
intuition -- can interfere with its quality. We argue that reasons
analysis disrupts the use of very simple “fast and frugal” heuristic
cues, leading to an overemphasis on seemingly important, but
ultimately irrelevant information. In several new studies
participants used subjective familiarity as a cue to judgments
about the objective popularity of music. Participants more often
(correctly) chose the more subjectively familiar of two songs as
the more objectively popular one when they made their judgments
intuitively rather than following reasons analysis.
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2f: Irrational choices
I do not believe that people are capable of rational thought when
it comes to making decisions in their own lives.
People believe they are behaving rationally and have thought
things out, of course, but when major decisions are made - who to
marry, where to live, what career to pursue, what college to
attend, people's minds simply cannot cope with the complexity.
When they try to rationally analyze potential options, their
unconscious, emotional thoughts take over and make the choice
for them.
Roger Schank, Psychologist and computer scientist; author,
"Designing World-Class E-Learning".
.
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2g: Entscheidungen reifen lassen
Das Schlimmste in allen Dingen ist die
Unentschlossenheit
Napoleon Bonaparte
Unentschlossenheit bindet Kapazitäten. Deshalb haben wir eine
Tendenz, vorschnell zu entscheiden und (oft wider besseres
Wissen) an einmal getroffenen Entscheidungen festzuhalten.
Bei der Rechtfertigung hilft die kognitive Dissonanz.
Erfolgreiche Strategen sind bereit, die Unentschlossenheit zu
ertragen bis die unbewussten Denkprozesse alle Informationen
verarbeitet haben.
Entscheidungen reifen lassen, Inkubation
Winner take all principle of neural signal-extraction
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2h: Implizites Lernen (wie beim Sport)
Intuitive decision making is a central mode of deciding in fastpaced sports such as ball games. Johnson and Raab (2003)
showed that intuitive option-generation results in better choices
than deliberative and prolonged option generation. Their TakeThe-First heuristic describes how people generate options and
explains dynamical inconsistencies in a given situation.
One means of becoming an expert in intuitive decision making is
through implicit learning. Implicit learning results in knowledge of
situation-action relations that can not be verbalized. The benefits
of intuitive versus deliberative decision making, by means of
implicit or explicit learning strategies, are discussed as
ecological rationality. This approach defines what strategies will
be successful on the road to excellence, dependent on the type of
sport-specific situation.
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2i: Emotion + Ratio für erfolgreiches Handeln
Andrew Lo et al. 2002: Online-Trader mit stärkerer
Selbstkontrolle underperformen, Allerdings ist starke emotionale
Reaktion ebenfalls performance-schädlich.
A longstanding controversy is whether financial markets are
governed by rational forces or by emotional responses. We study
the importance of emotion in the decision-making process of
professional securities traders by measuring their physiological
characteristics during live trading sessions. We find significant
correlation between electrodermal responses and transient
market events, and between changes in cardiovascular variables
and market volatility.
„From an evolutionary perspective, emotion is a powerful
adaptation that dramatically improves the efficiency with which
animals learn from their environment and their past.“
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2j: Risiko- und Belohnungsschätzung im ACC
Gyrus cinguli anterior im medialen frontalen Cortex
Fehlererkennung und –korrektur; error-related negativity (ERN)
beginnt nach 100 Millisekunden, also bevor der Fehler bewusst
erkannt wurde.
Längerfristige Einschätzung von Gewinn und Verlust wenn bei
komplexen Strategien ein Verlust positiv sein kann (weil ein
größerer vermieden wird) oder Gewinn negativ sein kann (weil
ein größerer verpasst wird).
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2k: Intuition
Intuition will tell the thinking mind
where to look next.
Jonas Salk
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3: Accept the limits to your knowledge
My main topic is evaluation and decision making, but first a
glance at perception and memory.
The amount of information around us is unlimited. A very minor
part of it we can apprehend with our senses.
Of this we perceive only what fits in our (sometimes extremely
distorted) model of reality.
Some of that we remember somehow for some time but in a form
that can be severely altered with the next recall.
(Only) when the memorized item is marked with an emotion it is
taken into account for evaluation and decision making.
Winner Take All Nature of Neural Processing
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3a: Gut gepanzert
Unser Gehirn ist gegen physische Einflüsse von außen recht gut
geschützt. Noch viel stärker aber ist der Schutz vor
Informationen, besonders vor verwirrenden oder unangenehmen
Informationen.
Die Sensoren außen am Panzer übermitteln nur einen Bruchteil
der außen verfügbaren Informationen nach innen und wir können
die Wiedergabe beliebig manipulieren.
Störungen an der Schnittstelle zwischen Informationen von
außen und dem Innenraum empfinden wir manchmal als
religiöses Erlebnis.
“What humans actually see is a reflexive manifestation of past
rather than a logical analysis of the present.“ Dale Purves and R.
Beau Lotto, Why We See What We Do, An Empirical Theory of
Vision, Sunderland, MA, 2003
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3b: Mit wenig Wissen umgehen
Dinge wahrzunehmen ist der Keim der Intelligenz.
Laotse
Es ist kein Verlass auf die Erinnerungen, und dennoch
gibt es keine Wirklichkeit außer der, die wir im
Gedächtnis tragen.
Klaus Mann
Unser Leben baut nicht unser Gedächtnis, vielmehr baut
unser Gedächtnis unser Leben. Die Summe der
Miteinander verwobenen Erinnerungen ist so etwas wie
eine Ich-Maschine.
Frank Ochmann + Markus Tollkopf
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3g: Beware of guru-economics (Hans-Helmut Kotz)
It‘s not what a man don’t know that makes him a fool, but what
he does know that ain’t so. (Josh Billings)
Le défi américain (JJSS 1968)
Eurosclerosis (Herbert Giersch, Jahresgutachten 1976/77)
USA „vercartert“ (1977-81, overconsumption, undersaving, and
underinvestment - „A wasting disease“)
The Japanese Challenge (Hermann Kahn 1979, 1990)
The European Century
„From the (neoclassical) perspective it is all the more galling that
those economies in which banks play a greater role vis-à-vis
auction type securities markets ... Appear to be doing better and perhaps for that very reason.“ Benjamin Friedmann 1990
New economy, the end of cycles (USA 2000 „The Model“)
The Old Europe
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3d: Biased research
Students of Behavioral Finance are well aware of:
Selective perception
Anchors
Heuristics of representation
Illusion of knowledge nurtured by supportive media reports
But even seemingly objective research as well creates a
distorted view of reality
only positive results are published
Buy-recommendation by far outnumber Sell-recommendations
Spurious Sense-Making: We tend to defend rationally what has
been decided automatically on the subconscious level.
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3e: Due diligence but not general distrust
A reasonable level of control is the basis of trust
Power corrupts
Corporate governance
Auditing
Due diligence
General distrust is a wasting disease
envy and jalousie are never satisfied
level of well-being is reduced
resources spend on self-preservation, control, (over)regulation
are diverted from happiness, consumption, production, growth
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3f: Black swans – learning to expect the unexpected
The black swan is an outlier, an event that lies beyond the realm
of normal expectations. Most people expect swans to be white
because that’s what their experience tells them; a black swan is
by definition a surprise. Nevertheless people tend to concoct
explanations for them after the fact, which makes them appear
more predictable, and less random, than they are. Our minds are
designed to retain, for efficient storage, past information that fits
into a compressed narrative. This distortion, called hindsight bias
prevents us from adequately learning from the past. …
A vicious black swan has an additional elusive property: its very
unexpectedness helps create the conditions for it to occur.
Nassim Nicholas Taleb, 8. April 2004
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4: Recognize your prejudices
Behavioral finance: investors often act irrationally.
Neuroscience has some evidence as to why that is so.
Basis for critical reflection of this behavior applied to perception,
valuation, decision, the whole panoply of behavioral finance.
Erkenntnisdefizite
(1) Heuristiken - mentale Modelle
(2) Verzögerte Wahrnehmung
(3) Selektive Wahrnehmung
(4) Wahrnehmungsschwellen
(5) Risiken überschätzt
(6) Selbstüberschätzung - Overconfidence
Bewertungsprobleme
(1) Präferenzen und Vorurteile
(2) Reaktionsschwellen
(3) Widersprüche bei der Risikobewertung
(4) Konformismus, Herdentrieb, Ansteckung
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Inkonsequenz bei der Entscheidung
(1) Entscheidungsheuristiken
(2) Bewahrung des status quo
(3) Splittingeffekte
(4) Buchhaltungs-Alchemie
(5) Framing
(6) Aversion to Regret
(7) Dispositionseffekt
(8) Mehrheitsentscheidungen
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4a: ... and thus neutralize unfounded urges
When I realize, that my preference for BAYER over BASF is due
to the fact that I live in Bayer town Wuppertal (home bias), I can
put that into perspective and relativize.
When I realize that only the disposition effect lets me stick to my
looser shares, I can sell them.
Gefahr erkannt - Gefahr gebannt or: Un homme averti en vaut
deux or: once burned twice shy?
Martin Weber’s student’s portfolios
Antonio’s pizza
Hans Eberspächer’s spittle
Highway amygdala - prefrontal cortex: scant oncoming traffic
We have to keep trying. Heisenberg’s Unschärferelation applied
to emotion: any emotion reflected is not the same any more.
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4b: Blinde Risikoaversion kontrollieren
Shiv, Loewenstein, Bechara nach Ernst Fehr, 2005
Lotterie mit PFC-Patienten und normaler Kontrollgruppe
20 mögliche Ziehungen mit sofortiger Auszahlung
1 $ Einsatz, 50% Wahrscheinlichkeit für 2,50 $ Gewinn
Erwartungswert also 1,25 $
PFC-Patienten spielten rational = 20 mal
Gesunde reagierten auf Verlust mit Zurückhaltung bei
künftigen Spielen.
Verlust begründet also irrationale Risikoaversion
Bei bekannten Wahrscheinlichkeiten sollte man sich zu
Rationalverhalten zwingen können.
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5: Nurse your emotional intelligence
Daniel Goleman 1994
Be aware of your own emotions.
emotion management (becalm, comfort, encourage)
Dr. Spitzbart’s mental hygiene, anchors and selective
perception
Committment, self-bondage, burned bridges - amplify the
cognitive dissonance, the endowment effect
Self-motivation, deferred reward - the basis of learning
Discipline, the marshmallow test
Recognize your neighbor's emotions (empathy)
relationship management
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5a: Empathy – the Mirror Neuron
Empathy with others seems to be due to a type of brain cell called a mirror neuron.
Seeing a clip from a James Bond movie in which a large, hairy spider is climbing
over our hero's naked body the observer can feel—literally feel—Bond's fear. This
ability not merely to know what someone else is feeling, but actually to feel it, is an
important social attribute. Only in the past few years its neurological basis has
begun to be understood. It seems to rely on a type of nerve cell known as a mirror
neuron, that is active when the individual whose brain it is in is engaged in some
action or experiencing some sensation or emotion, and also when that particular
action, sensation or emotion is being observed in someone else.
Action-sensitive mirror neurons were the first to be found, discovered in rhesus
monkeys. Dr Keysers chose to study an emotion, disgust. He put his volunteers in
a brain scanner and wafted disgusting odours into their nostrils. The disgusting
odours activated part of the brain called the anterior insula. He then played film
clips of people's faces registering disgust and found activity in exactly the same
part of the brain. The sense of touch, too, is mirrored in this way.
Understanding what someone else thinks is the necessary first step to deceiving or
even controlling them. The actions of mirror cells may have wide ramifications.
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5b: Gefühlsmanagement - Impulse Control
Augusta Lewis Troup Middle School, New Haven
Social Competence Program, 3 Stunden pro Woche
Red light
1. Stop, calm down, and think before you act.
Yellow light
2. Say the problem and how you feel.
3. Set a positive goal.
4. Think of lots of solutions.
5. Think ahead to the consequences.
Green Light
6. Go ahead and try the best plan.
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5c: Dress Up: All that Glisters is Gold
Aesthetics is hard-wired in the brain - even babies have an innate sense of beauty,
choosing to gaze longer at lovelier faces. Parents have the same bias.
Researchers at the University of Alberta observed that at the supermarket, less
adorable tykes were more often allowed to engage in potentially dangerous
activities. "When it came to buckling up, pretty and ugly children were treated in
starkly different ways, with seat belt use increasing in direct proportion to
attractiveness. Like lots of animals, we tend to parcel out our resources on the
basis of value.“
An analysis by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis suggests that the goodlooking get more money and promotions. Being tall, slender and attractive could be
worth a "beauty premium". Researchers report that taller men are more likely to win
in business. Correlating 16-year-olds' height with their later salaries shows
beanstalks grow up to earn about $789 more a year for each extra inch of height.
Malcolm Gladwell did a survey of half the Fortune 500 C.E.O.'s, and found that the
average C.E.O., at 6 feet, is about 3 inches taller than the average American man.
Research also shows that obese women get 17 percent lower wages than women
of average weight and that dishy professors get better evaluations from their
students.
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6: Muster courage for contrarian investments
Better performance than dead fish.
You have to deal with maverick risk, the risk of being wrong and
alone. And this risk is real. Fund managers who correctly saw the
equity bubble, were not in the business any more, when proven
right in mid 2000. Although right in the long term, they had been
wrong longer than their clients were willing to tolerate.
But it is even worse. As Bob Shiller states in his ”Irrational
Exuberance”, every era, every location has its Zeitgeist. Strong
pressure to group conformity is mainly on the subconscious
level. Deviating behavior is felt by the other group members as a
threat to their reliance on doing the right thing themselves. They
don’t like that at all. Contrarian investors not only have to
consider maverick risk, but also, and mainly, have to fight a very
strong subconscious inclination to follow the crowd.
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6a: Social exclusion really hurts
Feeling the Pain of Social Loss (Jaak Panksepp)
Poets have long waxed lyrical about the pain of a broken heart.
But, as Panksepp found, this metaphor may reflect real events in
the mammalian brain. A brain neuroimaging study reveals that the
brain areas that are activated during the distress caused by social
exclusion are also those activated during physical pain. Thus, we
now have an explanation for the feeling of physical pain that
accompanies emotional loss - whether that be the loss of a loved
one, rejection by one's social group, or the distress of separation
experienced by young animals.
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6b: Caveman - or is women’s sensitivity superior?
New Clues to Women veiled in black
1.7 Women to every depressed man, similar in 9 other countries.
Women often claim to be more sensitive than men.
From the evolutionary perspective that could make sense: the
men as the roaming hunter and the women as the gatherers
and housekeepers in control of the habitat.
Inclination to “overthinking”, to dwell on petty sights, to
mentally replay testy encounters, and to wallow in sad feelings.
To ruminate over the common curveballs of life, like criticism at
work or school or rejection by a friend.
Dwelling on problems causes the initial sadness to snowball.
Man are more likely than women to distract themselves, often by
going off and doing something active, a healthy reaction.
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6c: more Contrarian Investments - Influence
Robert B.Cialdini, Influence, Science and Practice, 4. Aufl.
Needham, Ma. 2001, 8 Grundlagen und damit Angriffspunkte zur
Einflussnahme auf Entscheidungen
1. Instinktreaktionen: Teuer=Gut, aber bitte mit Begründung
2. Geben und Nehmen: Verpflichtungen erfüllen
3. Committment and Consistency: sich treu bleiben
4. Social Proof: die Mehrheit hat recht
5. Sympathie: Attraktivität, Ähnlichkeit, Schmeichelei, Kooperation
6. Autorität: Titel, Kleidung, Auftreten, Auto, Größe
7. Knappheit: je weniger desto lieber
8. Primitiver Automatismus: Kurzschlussreaktion auf nur ein
Merkmal.
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6d: mehr Contrarian Investments
Einmal gefasste Meinungen sind nur schwer zu ändern.
Überzeugung mit Argumenten ist kaum möglich, weil man an die
zugrunde liegenden Gefühle nicht rankommt
Man nimmt selektiv nur bestätigende Informationen war
(confirmatory bias) oder sucht sogar aktiv danach
zu jeder Expertenmeinung lässt sich auch ein Experte finden,
der genau das Gegenteil behauptet.
Wenn das so ist, wird die Schweigespirale zum Rationalverhalten
Warum streiten, wenn ohnehin nichts dabei rauskommt?
Lieber den Boten bestrafen als die Botschaft akzeptieren!
Zwei mögliche Strategien für Nonkonformisten
Beschränkung der Kontakte auf Gleichgesinnte (Sekten)
Maverick Position, Nonkonformismus als Masochismus (Russel)
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6e: Organize for embarrassment
In der ex-post-Analyse sollte mehr zwischen dummen und
intelligenten Fehlern unterschieden werden. intelligenten Fehler
sollten belohnt werden.
In Anlagediskussionen sollten lebhafte
Meinungsverschiedenheiten nicht nur akzeptiert sondern
ermutigt werden. Ideen, die jeder teilt, sind entweder nichts
sagend oder überholt.
Wenn mutige Entschlüsse erschwert werden, können die
Entscheidungen und ihre Resultate nur mittelmäßig sein.
Siehe für eine ausführliche Darstellung schon Lawrence S. Spidell,
Embarrassment and Riches: The Discomfort of Alternative Investment
Strategies, Comfort and peace of mind at non-financial portfolio
returns that come at a high price, in: The Journal of Portfolio
Management, Fall 1990, S. 6-11
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7: Discipline
Winning investment bets is fun, but normally takes hard training.
Persistent outperformance on financial markets requires:
solid proficiency of financial instrument and analytical tools,
control of illusions as to the reliability of our return forecast
(low) and risk evaluations (even worse),
Discipline, to stay on course when all others sway.
Discipline is rarely fun
Entertainment value of disciplined strategies no match for
exploding tech stocks, penny stocks, gambling
Discipline by definition means to follow preset rules instead of
following the current emotional urges.
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Wohin geht die Hirnforschung medizinisch?
Nach (PET) und fMRI optische Scans mit Infrarot-Spektroskopie
Alzheimer Früherkennung mit PET
Auslösen von Gefühlen durch elektro-magnetische Stimulierung
Pille des Vergessens
Verlässliche Tests der Risikobereitschaft, besonders die
Erkennung von psychopathischer Risikoneigung (Zocker)
Medikamente zur Regulierung von Dopamin und anderen
Neurotransmittern. Serotoninblocker z.B. schon zur Behandlung
von Depressionen und Phobien freigegeben.
Drogen erhöhen die Dopaminauschüttung (Heroin, Kokain) oder
vermindern die Serotoninauschüttung (Ecstasy) - Bekämpfung
der Sucht mit Ersatzdrogen oder elektrischer Stimulierung.
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Psychotropic drugs
2003 retail drug sales worldwide were $317 billion. In the United
States alone, consumers spent $163 billion on drugs. The use of
drugs that affect the central nervous system, antidepressants
and others, increased 17 percent.
Antidepressants are the third biggest class of pharmaceuticals
by sales in the United States, totaling $11 billion in 2003. Drugs
in the top two categories — statins to reduce cholesterol levels
and proton pump inhibitors to prevent heartburn, gastritis, ulcers
and other digestive problems — had sales of about $14 billion
and $13 billion, respectively. All CNS drugs amounted to 37 bn.
One problem is that need can be manufactured by advertising.
Even children know from television that if you are sad and
worried, there is a pill for you. It is a lot harder to find out that
there are other ways to feel better, physically and emotionally,
than taking drugs.
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Psychotropic drugs and investment decisions
Robert D. Rogers, Oxford: dietary manipulation of concentration
of neuromodulators changes behavior in risky situations
Ingestion of amino acid drink lacking serotonin precursor 1tryptophan reduces volunteer’s attention to gains but not to
prospective losses.
The beta-adrenoceptor- blocker propanolol did not alter
volunteer’s attention to gains but did reduce their attention to
losses particularly, while considering high risk choices.
The selective noradrenaline reuptake blocker reboxitine
enhances attention to losses.
All these manipulations also markedly alter interaction with other
players in Prisoner’s Dilemma tasks for monetary reward.
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Behavior: Uncertain Expectations
Life is full of "what-ifs," yet each of us has to collapse multiple uncertainties
into a binary yes/no in order to be able to make any decisions at all. Yu and
Dayan have constructed a computational model that combines two types of
uncertainty--the first incorporates the predictive value of a validated cue, and
the second quantifies the likelihood that the existing cue is no longer valid and
that a new one needs to be identified--and propose that these are encoded by
the neuromodulators acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE); to be
precise, by cholinergic and noradrenergic circuits, respectively.
In their generalized Posner task, a red arrow points toward the side where the
target will appear most of the time, whereas arrows of other colors are randomly
oriented. As the predictive value of the red arrow declines, acetylcholine
increases. At unspecified times, the red arrow stops carrying information, and
another arrow becomes the predictive cue. During this changeover,
norepinephrine increases, signaling the need to search for the cuing color.
When the exquisite balance of these systems is disrupted, inappropriate
behaviors ensue: A drop in norepinephrine leads to perserverence and a lack of
adaptability; conversely, a drop in acetylcholine results in hyperdistractability.
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Behavior: Simian Economics
Monkeys show the same “irrational” aversion to risks as humans
When faced with an exchange whose outcome is predictable only on average, most
people prefer to avoid the risk of making a loss than to take the chance of making a
gain when the average expected outcome of the two actions would be the same.
There has been a lot of discussion about whether it is the product of cultural
experience or is a reflection of a deeper biological phenomenon. So Keith Chen and
colleagues decided to investigate its evolutionary past, experimenting with monkeys.
First they introduced their monkeys to the idea of a cash economy. They did this by
giving them small metal discs while showing them food. The monkeys quickly learned
that humans valued these inedible discs so much that they were willing to trade them
for scrumptious pieces of apple, grapes and jelly. Once the price had been
established, though, it was changed. The size of the apple portions was doubled,
effectively halving the price of apple. The result was that apple consumption went up in
exactly the way that price theory (as applied to humans) would predict.
Then they tested their animals' risk aversion by offering them three different trading
regimes in succession. What the responses have in common is a preference for
avoiding apparent loss. That such behaviour occurs in two primates suggests a
common evolutionary origin.
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SSRIs – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Noelle, daughter of Jeb Bush,
tried for falsification of Xanax
prescription
Approaching „Soma“ of Aldous
Huxley‘s „Brave New World“
Evidenced in English ground
water
Standard in therapy of
adolescents, possibly
associated with higher suicide
risk
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Talk is cheap - And surprisingly effective
FOR almost a century after Sigmund Freud pioneered psychoanalysis, “talk therapy”
was the treatment of choice for many mental illnesses. Advances in neurology and
pharmacology, have called such therapy into question. When psychological and
emotional disturbances is traced to faulty brain chemistry and corrected with a pill,
the idea that sitting and talking can treat clinical depression might seem outdated.
Robert DeRubeis and his colleagues have conducted the largest clinical trial to
compare talk therapy with chemical antidepressants. The result: talking works as
well as pills do. Better, if you take into account the lower relapse rate.
The study looked at cognitive therapy, which tries to teach people how to change
harmful thoughts and beliefs. Patients learn to recognise negative thoughts to
replace them with positive ones. In the study of 240 patients one group was treated
with cognitive therapy, a second with Paxil, an antidepressant drug, and the third
group were given placebo pills. After 16 weeks of treatment, the results for those on
cognitive therapy and drugs were identical. 58% had shown improvement. Only 25%
of those on the placebo improved. The surprising advantage of cognitive therapy is
that it seems to keep working even after the therapy sessions. A year after
treatments ended, only 31% had relapsed into their former state, while 76% of those
on antidepressants, and then been taken off them, had done so.
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THE RESPONSIBLE PARENT'S GUIDE TO HEALTHY
MOOD-BOOSTERS FOR ALL THE FAMILY
Could we live happily ever after? Perhaps. One's interest in the
genetically pre-programmed states of sublimity sketched in The
Hedonistic Imperative is tempered by the knowledge that one is
unlikely to be around to enjoy them. In centuries to come, our
baseline of emotional well-being may indeed surpass anything
today's legacy wetware can even contemplate. Right now,
however, a future Post-Darwinian Era of paradise-engineering can
seem an awfully long way off.
There's clearly a strong causal link between the raw biological
capacity to experience happiness and the extent to which one's
life is felt to be worthwhile. So one very practical method of lifeenrichment consists in chemically engineering happier brains for
all in the here-and-now. Yet how can this best be done?
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Gedächtnisforschung, -stimulierung
Supercharging the brain, Economist, Sept. 11, 2004
Eric Kandel (Nobelpreis Medizin 2000) entwickelt eine Pille gegen
das Vergessen (CREB, cyclic response element binding protein).
MCI, mild cognitive impairment, Vorstufe zu Alzheimer?
Modafinil (Provigil, Alertec) cognitive enhancers
Pillen für das Vergessen (Adrenalin-Blocker)
Stephan Klein, Niemand hat die Pflicht, sich zu erinnern, FAZ 24.
Juni 2004 S.35
Wo war denn noch gleich…? Ochmann/Tollkopf 2004
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Gefühlskälte - Alexithymie
Sie kennen keine Freude, empfinden keine Trauer und werden selten
wütend. Fast jeder Siebte erfüllt die Kriterien einer "Alexithymie".
Emotionen entstehen tief im Gehirn, im limbischen System. Um als
Gefühle wahrgenommen zu werden, muss der Frontalcortex die von
dort ausgesandten Informationen analysieren. Man hat Hinweise,
dass bei alexithymen Menschen die beiden Hirnbereiche
unzureichend miteinander kommunizieren.
Der Gyrus cinguli dient als Brücke zwischen limbischem System und
Frontalcortex dem Bewusstwerden von Emotionen. Wird seine
Aktivität nicht richtig moduliert, hat das Konsequenzen. Psychiater
vermuten, dass einige psychosomatische Beschwerden von der
Unfähigkeit herrühren, eigene Emotionen in Worte zu fassen, um sie
mental verarbeiten zu können. Außerdem macht eine Alexithymie
anfälliger für Drogen. Unter Süchtigen finden sich prozentual gesehen
mehr alexithyme Personen. Einige Drogen wie Kokain rufen intensive
Gefühle hervor - vermutlich verstärken sie die Kommunikation
zwischen limbischem System und Frontalcortex so extrem, dass
selbst alexithyme Menschen emotionale Fülle empfinden.
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Schmerzforschung
Soziale Ablehnung wird wie schmerz empfunden (siehe auch
Anregung 6a)
Mitleiden geht über einen Teil, aber nicht über die volle painmatrix
Placebos beeinflussen auch die Schmerzempfindung, nicht nur
die Erwartung
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Schlafforschung
It is an axiom of sleep research that not all sleep is equal. A night's sleep is
divided into five continually shifting stages, defined by types of brain waves
that reflect either lighter or deeper sleep. Toward morning, there is an
increase in rapid eye movement, or REM sleep, when the muscles are relaxed
and dreaming occurs, and recent memories may be consolidated in the brain.
Sleep-deprived snooze-button addicts are likely to cut short their quota of
REM sleep, impairing their mental functioning during the day.
Feeling alert is not just a matter of getting the right dose of different kinds of
sleep. The body has its own alarm clock, a circadian rhythm in which
fluctuations in hormones like cortisol, melatonin, ghrelin and growth hormone
regulate sleepiness and alertness, as well as other body functions. And sleep
patterns can run on a schedule different from a person's body clock. Trying to
sneak in more sleep when someone is used to getting up early can cause the
body to switch to an alert mode, making any extra sleep light and fragmented.
On the other hand, if someone's body is on a later cycle from habitually
staying up late, waking up early is that much harder because the body is not
yet pumping out peak levels of cortisol and other hormones that help wake
people up.
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Neurophysiologie des Träumens
Stuff that dreams are made on, Economist, 11. September 2004
über Arbeiten von Matthias Bischof und Claudio Bassetti
Träume erzeugt oder vermittelt durch „right inferior lingual
gyrus“.
Fraglich ob man nur in der Rem-Phase träumt.
Fraglich ob Träume zum Aufbau des Langzeitgedächtnisses
nötig sind.
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102
Neurophysiologie der Sucht
Handlungen, die eine Dopaminauschüttung auslösen, will man
sobald und so oft wie möglich wiederholen. Wer diesen Drang
nicht beherrschen kann (Kontrollverlust), ist süchtig.
Wenn die durch die Handlung bewirkte Dopaminauschüttung
schwächer ist, weil die Rezeptoren nicht hinreichend
ausgebildet sind, oder schwächer wird, weil die Wirkung ja
schon erwartet wurde, folgt die Erhöhung der Dosis.
Jede Art von Sucht manipuliert das Belohnungssystem in ihrer
eigenen Form, aber immer ist der Nucleus Accumbens aktiv.
Das ist die Basis für Hirnschrittmacher oder Medikamente, mit
denen die Andockstellen der Suchtdrogen besetzt werden.
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Neuroscience of Addiction: Nicotine
Larry had already tried to quit and failed four times in the last five years. Every
aspect of his waking life, from morning coffee to nighttime television, was entwined
with smoking. When he described the effects of smoking, he lapsed into a dreamy
adoration usually reserved for lovers. Patients accept treatments because they are
better than the disease. The central challenge of treating any addiction is that the
treatment is almost never as pleasurable as the addiction itself.
Like opiates and cocaine, nicotine is known to stimulate the release of dopamine in
the reward pathways of the brain. This explains its pleasurable and powerfully selfreinforcing effects. Nicotine also releases an array of other neurotransmitters like
serotonin, norepinephrine and vasopressin that mediate its other effects, like arousal,
alertness and relaxation.
I decided to give him high-dose nicotine replacement. Only one form of nicotine
replacement can approach the delivery system of a cigarette - nasal nicotine spray.
Because it is absorbed rapidly into the bloodstream through the nasal mucosa, it
produces a spike of nicotine in the brain, just as inhaled nicotine in tobacco smoke
does.
I simply switched Larry's nicotine system from lethal tobacco to a plastic spray bottle,
but left his nicotine addiction untouched. And though little is known about the very
long-term risks of nicotine in humans, I wager that they pale next to the certain lethality
of cigarettes. After all, it's the smoke that kills, not the nicotine. .
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103
Spielsucht
"Die Glücksspiel-Mentalität wächst, Fragen an Gerhard Meyer
25 Millionen Euro sind im Jackpot. Die Spieler stürmen die
Annahmestellen. Kann Lottospielen süchtig machen?
Ja, aber nicht so leicht wie andere Glücksspiele. Süchtige
suchen schnelle Spielabfolgen. Das höchste Suchtpotential
haben Automaten, weil im Sekundentakt das nächste Spiel
möglich ist. Dadurch erlebt man kaum den Verlust. Wenn man
verloren hat, kann man sofort weitermachen - und die
Hoffnung auf Gewinn kommt wieder ins Spiel. Dieser Prozess
ist im Lotto gestreckt.
Christian Büschetief: Bei Spielsüchtigen zeigte sich eine
geringere Aktivität des Belohnungssystems (Nucleus
Accumbens)
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Psychochirurgie
Behandlung von therapiefraktären Angst- und Zwangskranken
mit Hirnschrittmacher.
Hochfrequente Stromstöße zum Nucleus Accumbens
Eher reversibel als Ausschaltungsoperationen.
Linderung auch bei Gilles-de-la-Tourette-Syndrom (TS), einer
neuropsychiatrischen Erkrankung, die durch Tics charakterisiert
ist. Bei den Tics handelt es sich um unwillkürliche, rasche,
meistens plötzlich einschießende und mitunter sehr heftige
Bewegungen, die immer wieder in gleicher Weise einzeln oder
serienartig auftreten können.
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104
The Behavior of Genes, Nature or Nurture
Many people are leery of attributing other components of behavior to genes - personality or
intelligence, or social traits like fidelity, for example. They're troubled by the ethical implications
of genetic determination; it is as if giving a nod toward the genes automatically diminishes the
role of the environment and free will. It is nature versus nurture: a debate that has spawned
extremist views on both sides, from Nazism (nature) to Marxism (nurture).
Animal behaviors may be simpler than human behaviors, but they all involve molecules known
to operate in human brains. What these studies show is that the genome is responsive over
different scales of time. Like voles and fruit flies, individuals may differ in gene activity because
of DNA variations they inherited. These differences evolve over very long periods of time, from
generation to generation. This is nature.
Individuals may also differ in gene activity because of variations in their environment, like the
rats and honeybees. These differences occur over shorter times, within individual lifetimes. This
is nurture.
In the past, biological conceptions of behavior that are influenced by genetics tended to be rigid
and deterministic, spurring misguided concepts like "a gene for aggression." In contrast, social
and behavioral scientists have long emphasized the flexible nature of behavior, and as a result
have tended to ignore genes entirely. But as much as people like to divide themselves into
nature or nurture camps, what genes actually do in the brain reflects the interaction between
hereditary and environmental information.
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Evidence that psychopaths are born, not made
Rather than being shaped by nature or nurture, most behavioural traits are the result
of an interaction between the two. Nevertheless, one can be the dominant factor. A
study suggests that in psychopathy, the genetic side is very important indeed.
The researchers have drawn their conclusion from a study of twins on the books of a
long-term project known as the Twins Early Development Study, which has been
following several thousand twins since their births in 1994 and 1995. Among other
things, many of the twins have been assessed both for a tendency to bad behaviour
and for the display of callous-unemotional traits, such as a lack of feelings of guilt
after doing something wrong, or not having at least one good friend.
Twins come in two varieties: fraternal, in which the individuals have half their genes
in common and identical, in which the individuals have all their genes in common.
Behavioural traits with a large genetic component are more likely to be shared by
identical twins. Traits with a large environmental component will be shared by
identical and fraternal twins in equal measure. Applying appropriate statistical
techniques allows the relative contributions of genes and environment to be worked
out. The researchers identified the naughtiest 10% of the individuals in their
sample—in other words those with severe conduct disorder. Their analysis showed
that bad behaviour without psychopathy has relatively little genetic component—less
than a third. By contrast, four-fifths of the difference in behaviour between the
general population and children with psychopathic traits seems to lie in the genes.
The genes in question are too abundant to be there by chance—in other words they
are being kept in the population by natural selection because psychopathic
behaviour sometimes confers a selective advantage.
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Replication of the Stockholm Adoption Study
BACKGROUND: Two forms of alcoholism with distinct clinical features and
mode of inheritance were first distinguished in the Stockholm Adoption Study.
This involved a large sample of children born in Stockholm, Sweden, who
were adopted at an early age and reared by nonrelatives. Type 1 alcoholism
had adult onset and rapid progression of dependence without criminality,
whereas type 2 had teenage onset of recurrent social and legal problems from
alcohol abuse.
METHODS: A replication study was carried out with 577 men and 660 women
born in Gothenburg, and adopted at an early age/by nonrelatives. The genetic
and environmental backgrounds of the adoptees were classified by the exact
procedures calibrated by discriminant analysis in the original study.
RESULTS: Both type 2 and severe type 1 alcoholism were confirmed as
independently heritable forms of alcoholism in male adoptees. The lifetime
risk of severe alcoholism was increased 4-fold in adopted men with both
genetic and environmental risk factors characteristic of type 1 alcoholism. In
contrast, the risk of type 2 alcoholism was increased 6-fold.
CONCLUSION: Type 1 and type 2 alcoholism are clinically distinct forms of
alcoholism with causes that are independent but not mutually exclusive.
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Linkage of Alcoholism to Serotonin 5-HT1B Receptor
Background Is the 5-HT1B gene (HTR1B) is linked to alcoholism with
aggressive and impulsive behavior in the human, as represented by 2
psychiatric diagnoses: antisocial personality disorder and intermittent
explosive disorder comorbid with alcoholism?
Methods Linkage was first tested in 640 Finnish subjects, including 166
alcoholic criminal offenders, 261 relatives, and 213 healthy controls. This was
followed by a study in a large multigenerational family derived from a
Southwestern American Indian tribe (n=418). All subjects were psychiatrically
interviewed and typed for a HTR1B G861C polymorphism and for a closely
linked short-tandem repeat locus, D6S284. Linkage was evaluated in sib pairs.
Results In Finnish sib pairs, antisocial alcoholism showed significant
evidence of linkage to HTR1B G861C (P=.04) and weak evidence with D6S284
(P=.06). By association analysis, the 183 Finnish antisocial alcoholics had a
significantly higher HTR1B-86IC allele frequency than the other 457 Finns we
studied (P=.005). In the Indian tribe, significant sib pair linkage of alcoholism
to HTR1B G861C (P=.01) was again observed, and there was also significant
linkage to D6S284 (P=.01).
Conclusion These results suggest that a locus predisposing to antisocial
alcoholism may be linked to HTR1B at 6q13-15.
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106
Some Politics May Be Etched in the Genes
Political scientists have long held that people's upbringing determine their political
views, but on the basis of a new study, a team of political scientists is arguing that
people's reaction to issues like the death penalty is strongly influenced by genetic
inheritance.
Calculating how often identical twins agree on an issue and subtracting the rate at
which fraternal twins agree provides a rough measure of genes' influence on that
attitude. On school prayer, for example, the identical twins' opinions correlated at a
rate of 0.66. The correlation rate for fraternal twins was 0.46. This translated into a 41
percent contribution from inheritance. Attitudes about issues like school prayer,
property taxes and the draft were among the most influenced by inheritance. Others
like modern art and divorce were less so. And in the twins' overall score genes
accounted for 53 percent of differences.
The researchers found that the twins' self-identification as Republican or Democrat
was far more dependent on environmental factors than was their social orientation.
Inheritance accounted for 14 percent of the difference in party, the researchers found.
"We are measuring two separate things here, ideology and party affiliation".
The researchers are not optimistic about the future of bipartisan cooperation or
national unity. Because men and women tend to seek mates with a similar ideology,
they say, the two gene pools are becoming, if anything, more concentrated, not less.
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Re-cognition of Race
The recognition that races are real should have several benefits. To begin with, it
would remove the disjunction in which the government and public alike defiantly
embrace categories that many, perhaps most, scholars and scientists say do not
exist.
Second, the recognition of race may improve medical care. Different races are
prone to different diseases. The risk that an African-American man will be afflicted
with hypertensive heart disease or prostate cancer is nearly three times greater than
that for a European-American man. On the other hand, the former's risk of multiple
sclerosis is only half as great.
Geneticists have started searching for racial differences in the frequencies of
genetic variants that cause diseases. They seem to be finding them. Race can also
affect treatment. African-Americans respond poorly to some of the main drugs used
to treat heart conditions - notably beta blockers and angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitors. Pharmaceutical corporations are paying attention. Many new drugs now
come labeled with warnings that they may not work in some ethnic or racial groups.
Here, as so often, the mere prospect of litigation has concentrated minds.
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107
Wohin geht die Hirnforschung erkenntnistheoretisch?
Neurophysiologie des Bewusstseins und freien Willen
Neurophysiologie der vagabundierenden Ängste
Gedankenhygiene, gezielte selektive Wahrnehmung
Neurophysiologie des Mitleids und des Gewissens
Neurophysiologie des Glaubens und der Religion
Neurophysiologie der Kriminalität
Neurophysiologie der Sucht (Drogen, Rauchen, Spielen, Internet)
Neurodidaktik, Optimierung des Lernens
Konzept der AI (artificial intelligence) steht vor neuen
Herausforderungen, wenn Intelligenz Emotionen erfordert.
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FAZ- Diskussion: Freier Wille oder beherrscht vom ES?
Klaus Lüderssen (Strafprozessrechtler, 4. November 2003),
Hans-Ludwig-Kröber (Experte für forensische Psychiatrie, 11. November 2003),
Eberhard Schockenhoff (Theologe, 17. November 2003),
Gerhard Roth (Hirnforscher, 1. Dezember 2003)
Reinhard Olivier (Mathematiker, 13. Dezember 2003),
Herbert Helmrich (Jurist, 30. Dezember 2003),
Wolf Singer (Neurophysiologe, 8. Januar 2004),
Lutz Wingert (Philosoph, biowissenschaftlicher Naturismus, 12. Januar 2004),
Thomas Buchheim (Philosoph, 19. Januar 2004),
Christian Schwägerl (Wissenschaftsjournalist, Neurodämmerung, Wer den Geist
schützen will, sollte seine Moleküle kennen, 23. Januar 2004)
Karl Clausberg und Cornelius Weiller (Neurologen, 31. Januar 2004)
Ottfried Höffe (Philosoph, 11. Februar 2004)
Christoph Koch (Neurophysiologe, 20. Februar 2004)
Martin Stingelin (Literaturwissenschaftler, 26. Februar 2004)
Gerd Kempermann (Hirnforscher, 2. März 2004)
Michael Hagner, (Wissenschaftshistoriker, 22. März 2004)
Holk Cruse, (Prof. für Biologische Kybernetik, Motorkontrolle, Autonome Roboter) 5. April 2004
Christian Geyer (Leitartikel 10. April 2004)
Gerhard Kaiser (Literaturwissenschaftler, 17. April 2004)
Christian Geyer, 30.Juni 2004, Hirn als Paralleluniversum
Christian Geyer, 5. Juli 2004, Frieds Brainstorming (zur neuronalen Geschichtswissenschaft)
Patrick Bahners, 21. Juli 2004, Der Intelligenztest - Wolf Singer gratuliert Angela Merkel
Friedrich Wilhelm Graf. 23. Juli 2004, Denk mal höher! (zur Neurotheologie)
Christian Geyer, 5. August 2004, Was läuft in diesem Kino?
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108
Bewusstsein: Grenze für die Naturwissenschaft?
Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert gilt als Blütezeit des Fortschrittsoptimismus und der
Wissenschaftsgläubigkeit. Der Mediziner und Physiologe Emil Du Bois-Reymond
nahm die 45. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte 1872 zum Anlaß, um
über die "Grenzen des Naturerkennens" zu sprechen. Er fand zwei Grenzen, die die
Naturwissenschaft nie würde überschreiten können: das Wesen der Materie und das
des Bewußtseins. Er schloss mit dem berühmt gewordenen "Ignorabimus": Wir
werden es niemals wissen.
Doch bewahrheitet sich die Rede vom "naturwissenschaftlichen Zeitalter": Während
die Kirche traditionell einen Prozeß anstrengte, um zu entscheiden, ob ein Wunder
stattgefunden hatte, machten die Spiritisten Experimente. Subjektiver gingen die
Literaten mit der eingeforderten Beschränkung aufs Rationale um. Der Mediziner
Arthur Schnitzler versucht über das Protokollieren von Gedankenströmen in
Tagträumen einen Schritt auf die andere Seite der Vernunft. Der Ingenieur Robert
Musil unterschied das wissenschaftlich faßbare "Ratioide" vom nichtratioiden Feld der
menschlichen Erfahrung. Und Gottfried Benn erzählte seinen Sprung aus dem
Arztberuf in die Literatur als Sturz in den Wahnsinn. Die Wissenschaft ruiniert
Sinnangebote, kann sie aber nicht ersetzen.
Was das Bewußtsein angeht, teilen viele Autoren noch heute das "Ignorabimus". Zu
erwarten ist aber, dass sich unsere Intuitionen darüber, was gute Erklärung und was
erklärungsbedürftiges Phänomen ist, nach künftiger neurowissenschaftlicher
Erkenntnis und philosophischer Begriffsarbeit verändern, so daß zumindest nicht
ausgeschlossen ist, doch noch eine Verbindung zwischen dem Wissen über das
Gehirn und dem eigenen Erleben zu finden.
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The Quest for Consciousness
After the Double Helix: Francis Crick unravels the Mysteries of the State of
Being,
Body and mind are the twin problems around which Dr. Crick's life has
spiraled, much like the double helix structure of DNA that he and James D.
Watson discovered half a century ago. In his 28 years at the Salk Institute his
work has focused on the mind, and consciousness.
For the past decade he has been working with. Christof Koch, a professor of
computation and neural systems at CalTech. Together they have developed a
framework, which Dr. Koch has spelled out in his new book, "The Quest for
Consciousness: A Neurobiological Approach.“
Using M.R.I., Dr. Koch's team has shown that in trace conditioning, an area of
the brain known as the anterior cingulate cortex is activated. They have found
that when they remove this area from mice, they cannot be trace conditioned,
indicating that this area is critical for consciousness. The advent of M.R.I.
made it possible to see which parts of the brain are active during a "percept"
— as when someone sees a face. Understanding the neural correlates of
consciousness N.C.C’s, will explain awareness. Instead of asking the
philosophical question of what consciousness is, they try to understand what
is going on at the neurological level when consciousness is present.
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109
Inside the Injured Brain, Many Kinds of Awareness
Neuroscientists now understand some of the physiology behind
unconscious states, from deep sleep to coma. New research, has
allowed for clearer distinctions between the uncounted number
of people who at some time become comatose, the 10,000 to
15,000 Americans who subsist in vegetative states and the
estimated 100,000 in states of partial consciousness.
The most familiar unconscious state is sleep, which in its
deepest phases is characterized by little electrical activity in the
brain and almost complete unresponsiveness. Coma is in fact a
continuum. Doctors rate the extent to which a comatose person
shows pain responses and reactions to sounds on a scale from
3, for no response, to 13, for consistent responses.
In 2002, a panel of experts established a new diagnosis: the
minimally conscious state. Recovery from severe brain damage
is viewed as a step-wise progression: people who regain
conscious awareness pass from a coma to a vegetative state to
minimal consciousness.
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Consciousness Versus Reality 1
Donald Hoffman, Cognitive scientist
I believe that consciousness and its contents are all that exists.
Space-time, matter and fields never were the fundamental denizens
of the universe but have always been, from their beginning, among
the humbler contents of consciousness, dependent on it for their
very being.
The world of our daily experience is a species-specific user
interface to a realm far more complex, a realm whose essential
character is conscious. It is unlikely that the contents of our
interface in any way resemble that realm.
Indeed the usefulness of an interface requires, in general, that they
do not. For the point of an interface, such as the Windows interface
on a computer, is simplification and ease of use.
Evolutionary pressures dictate that our species-specific interface,
this world of our daily experience, should itself be a radical
simplification, selected not for the exhaustive depiction of truth but
for the mutable pragmatics of survival.
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110
Consciousness Versus Reality 2
Jean-Pierre Changeux, THE PHYSIOLOGY OF TRUTH
Edmund T. Rolls: Changeux on the promise of neuroscience
Eminent French neuroscientists have a tradition of producing
books on scientific topics of general interest for a wide audience.
Here, Jean-Pierre Changeux draws on provocative new findings
about the neuroscience and psychophysics of perception and
judgement both in humans and in non-human primates. His case is
that belief in objective knowledge is a characteristic feature of
human cognition, and the scientific method its most sophisticated
embodiment. Professor Changeux seeks to explain the ways in
which modern science has made it possible to understand how
language, truth and even morals are related to our genes and gene
products, and to interactions with the environment. Changeux
promises a radical understanding in neurophysiological terms of
how perception, exploration, trial and error, cognitive games, the
cultural. (“He provides grouns for concluding that we can know the
world as it really is.”)
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Ein Homunculus im Gehirn?
Das Konzept einer zentralen Kontrollinstanz als Ort des
Bewusstseins wurde von der Neurobiologie längst zugunsten der
Dezentralität in Form rückgekoppelter Schaltkreise verworfen.
Christof Koch und Francis Crick sehen eine derartige Instanz
aber für das Vor- oder Unbewusste, wenn Sie den Zombiemodus
beschreiben, der es erlaubt, ohne Nachdenken und Planen zu
reagieren, und ohne bewusste Wahrnehmung.
Um wirklich bewusst zu werden, müssen sich solche "dynamischen Koalitionen" von Nervenzellen (hauptsächlich in
Thalamus und Mandelkernen) im Wettbewerb gegen andere
temporäre Nervennetze durchsetzen, Schwellenwerte der
Erregung, Frequenzwettstreite und Kontrollinstanzen überwindend. So, schreiben Crick und Koch, entsteht Bedeutung.
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Neurophysiologie des Glaubens und der Religion
Welche Hirnbereiche sind bei religiösen Erfahrungen besonders
aktiv?
Nähe zu Epilepsie
Augustinus und andere Kirchenväter waren Epileptiker
Hemmung der Aufnahme externer Sinnesempfindungen
Im Grenzbereich zwischen autonomen und externen Reizen
Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century von
Laurence O. McKinney Amer Inst for Mindfulness
Neurotheology: Brain, Science, Spirituality, Religious Experience
von Rhawn Joseph, u. a.
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Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century
by Laurence O. McKinney
The most lively, readable and authoritative work on the interface
between mind science and religion, Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in
the 21st Century has become the classic in its field, a standard by which
others are measured.
Teachers, scientists, students, and readers worldwide have found
answers they wanted to basic riddles we all face. McKinney’s ability to
trace the basis and evolution of religious and metaphysical practice with
modern brain scanning technology has been praised by experts in every
field including leading Christian theologian Harvey Cox, the Dalai Lama,
and visionary writer Arthur C. Clarke.
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Gott im Gen 1
Christ oder Atheist - entscheidet darüber nur eine Kaskade biochemischer
Reaktionen und elektrischer Impulse im Hirn? Nach neuester Forschung ist
die Suche nach Gott im Erbgut verankert.
Völlig ins Gebet versunken, erlebt die Franziskanerschwester einen Moment tiefster
religiöser Verbundenheit, ein "greifbares Gefühl der Nähe zu Gott und der
Verschmelzung mit ihm". Hirnforscher halten ihren Bewusstseinszustand direkt im
Gehirn fest. Deshalb kniet die Franziskanerin auf dem Boden eines radiologischen
Labors. In dem Augenblick, in dem sie sich Gott am nächsten fühlt, zieht sie eine
Schnur. Andrew Newberg, der Leiter der Studie, spritzt ihr daraufhin eine radioaktiv
markierte Substanz, die sich im Gehirn überall dort anreichert, wo besonders viele
Nervenzellen aktiv sind. Dann wird die Nonne in einen Tomografen geschoben.
Tatsächlich zeigen die Aufnahmen charakteristische Veränderungen der
Hirnaktivität, bei Franziskanerinnen beim Gebet oder Buddhisten bei ihrer
Meditation. In einem vorderen Bereich des Gehirns, der für Aufmerksamkeit und
Konzentration zuständig ist, ist die Aktivität erhöht. Weiter hinten seitlich im Kopf, wo
vor allem die Orientierung des Menschen im Raum gesteuert wird, ist die Aktivität
dagegen drastisch reduziert. In diesem Bewusstseinszustand kann das Gehirn die
Grenze zwischen eigenem Körper und Außenwelt nicht mehr ziehen; der Eindruck,
mit der Welt oder mit Gott zu verschmelzen, wird ganz real empfunden. Newberg ist
überzeugt: "Wir haben den Beweis für einen neurologischen Prozess erbracht, der
es uns Menschen ermöglicht, mit einem tieferen, geistigen Teil von uns selbst in
Verbindung zu treten."
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Gott im Gen 2
Eine Untersuchung von 1600 Zwillingspaaren am Londoner St. Thomas
Hospital ergab: Nicht die Bereitschaft zum Kirchgang wird vererbt - sie hängt
ganz wesentlich von der Erziehung ab. Aber vererbt wird der Glaube an Gott.
Tim Spector: „Hier stellten wir einen vererbten Effekt von 40 Prozent fest",
sagt Die Ergebnisse decken sich mit Aussagen des Molekularbiologen Dean
Hamer: Nicht die Religiosität an sich wird vererbt, sondern eine gewisse
Bereitschaft, spirituelle Grenzerfahrungen zu machen. "Der Hang zur
Spiritualität ist ein Teil unseres genetischen Make-ups." Hamer behauptet, ein
Gottesgen lokalisiert zu haben. Der Sinn fürs Übersinnliche soll in einer
Erbanlage namens VMAT2 stecken.
Hamer hatte 1998 mit einer Studie über Rauchen und Suchtverhalten
begonnen. Mehr als 1000 Männer und Frauen beantworteten einen 240 Fragen
umfassenden Psychotest, der Temperament und Charakter der Probanden
ergründete. Ein Wesensmerkmal, das abgefragt wurde, war die so genannte
Selbst-Transzendenz, die Fähigkeit, über seine Grenzen hinaus zu wachsen,
sich mit dem Universum eins zu fühlen, sich in bestimmten Situationen völlig
verlieren zu können und übernatürlichen Erklärungen Glauben zu schenken.
In einer Variante des Gens VMAT2 zeigten die Testpersonen nur
durchschnittliche Selbst-Transzendenz. War das Gen in der zweiten Variante
vorhanden, die sich in einem einzigen biochemischen Buchstaben des
genetischen Alphabets von der anderen unterscheidet, dann waren sie
mystischen und spirituellen Vorstellungen gegenüber extrem offen.
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Neurophysiologie des Humors
Siehe auch unter dem Thema Dopamin
Siehe auch unter dem Thema 1a: Don‘t worry, be happy
„Beyond an understanding of comprehension itself, medical
studies, planned to begin next year, may explore the relation of
laughter to serotonin levels, or test for links to the immune
system.“
Most gags consist of an unreal image with a rather ordinary
caption.
There is always, of course, the Heisenbergian concern that the
more humor is studied, the more elusive it will become. Humor is
like Groucho Marx. It refuses to join any club that would have it
as a member.
Mr. Mankoff preferred to paraphrase E.B. White, who said that
dissecting humor was like dissection a frog: nobody is much
interested, and the frog dies.
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Why people laugh
One description of how laughter is provoked is the incongruity theory that says that
all written jokes and many other humorous situations are based on an incongruity—
something that is not quite right. In many jokes, the teller sets up the story with this
incongruity present and the punch line then resolves it, in a way people do not
expect. Alternatively, the very last words of the story may introduce the absurdity
and leave the listeners with the task of reconciling it.
Why do people laugh at all? Laughter is very contagious and this suggests that it
may have become a part of human behaviour because it promotes social bonding.
When a group laughs, the message seems to be “relax, you are among friends”.
Appletree Rodden sees religion and humour as different, and perhaps competing,
ways for people to accept death and the general unsatisfactoriness of the world.
95% of the writings from important Christian scholars disapprove of humour, linking
it to insincerity and idleness.
Another theory of why people laugh—the superiority theory—says that people laugh
to assert that they are on a level equal to or higher than those around them. Bosses
tend to crack more jokes than do their employees. Women laugh much more in the
presence of men, and men generally tell more jokes in the presence of women.
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Hey, big spender - the neuroscience of saving
Margo Wilson and Martin Daly, McMaster University, Hamilton
Study with 200 young men and women
Time preference individually different but consistent – at first
Four (alternative) sorting tasks
12 attractive members of the opposite sex
12 non-lookers
12 beautiful cars
12 unimpressive cars
Result: men (case 1) and women (case 3) discounted the future
more steeply.
Activity in the nucleus accumbens (forecasting, rewards,
euphoria, hope, addiction)
Men: mating opportunity mindset: “I want that now.”
Women: status symbols, more susceptible to display of wealth
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Neurophysiologie des Vertrauens
Getting to Know You: Reputation and Trust in a Two-Person
Economic Exchange, Brooks King-Casas u.a., Science 1 April
2005: 78-83
Using a multiround version of an economic exchange (trust
game), reciprocity expressed by one player strongly predicts
future trust expressed by their partner—a behavioral finding
mirrored by neural responses in the dorsal striatum. Here,
analyses within and between brains revealed two signals—one
encoded by response magnitude, and the other by response
timing. Response magnitude correlated with the "intention to
trust" on the next play of the game, and the peak of these
"intention to trust" responses shifted its time of occurrence by
14 seconds as player reputations developed.
Economist 14. Februar 2004, S.77-79
Dazu auch: Männer und Mäuse, FAZ 5.7.04, S. 29
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Hormone May Increase People's Trust in Strangers
The hormone oxytocin circulates widely in the body during childbirth
and lactation - prompts warm relations and mating in other mammals.
A simple administration of a hormone can consistently alter trust.
In the study 178 male college students played a simple investment
game. Investors began with 12 monetary units, of which they could
send 12, 8, 4 or none to an unseen, anonymous "trustee." Those who
inhaled oxytocin before playing the game invested an average of 10
monetary units, 17 percent more than did players who got a placebo
spray. In the oxytocin group, 45 percent invested all their money,
compared with 21 percent in the placebo group.
Oxytocin is a kind of brain messenger that primes animals to
overcome their natural aversion to others. This may be an especially
important ability in people with autism.
The prospect of used-car dealerships infusing the air with oxytocin to
increase sales is far-fetched. The half-life of oxytocin in the air (in a
spray) is just two or three minutes.
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The Chemistry of Trust, Paying through the nose
Michael Kosfeld and Markus Heinrichs of the University of Zurich explored the
biological underpinnings of trust. They found that trust is surprisingly mechanistic:
sniffing oxytocin increases a person's level of trust in others. Oxytocin, a hormone
produced by part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Oxytocin is a peptides that
can cross into the brain if administered as a nasal spray.
To probe oxytocin's role in promoting trust between people, the researchers
invented a game involving an “investor” and an anonymous “trustee” in whom
money, in the form of “monetary units” worth 40 Swiss centimes (32 cents) was
invested. Each investor received 12 units. He could choose to keep all of them, or to
give four, eight or all 12 of them to the trustee which would result in their value being
tripled. All the investors and all the trustees had something sprayed up their noses
before the experiment started. In some cases, though, there was no oxytocin in this
spray. Of the investors who were sprayed with oxytocin, 45% invested the maximum
of 12 units, while only 21% of those who received the control spray did so. On
average, the oxytocin-sprayed group transferred 17% more money to their trustees
than the controls. Oxytocin, therefore, seems to promote trust.
While these results could be misused, the authors hope their findings will instead be
used to treat mental disorders such as extreme social phobia. Nevertheless, beware
of strange odours or mysterious vapours in the boardroom.
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Neurophysiologie der Liebe
Drei Grundformen
Begierde, Sinneslust, Sex
Romantische Liebe, Schmetterlinge im Bauch
Long-term attachment
Economist 14. Februar 2004, S.77-79
Dazu auch: Männer und Mäuse, FAZ 5.7.04, S. 29
Stephan Klein, Das Glückshormon, Ausführungen zum
präoptischen Areal
Helen Fisher 2002, The neural mechanisms of mate choice
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A Gene for Romance? So It Seems (Ask the Vole)
Biologists have been making considerable progress in identifying genes that shape an animal's behavior
toward others of its species. Social behavior genes present a particular puzzle since they involve neural
circuits in the brain, often set off by some environmental cue
One gene was long known to promote faithful pair bonding and good parental behavior in the male prairie
vole. Researchers discovered how the gene is naturally modulated in a population of voles so as to
produce a spectrum of behaviors from monogamy to polygamy, each of which may be advantageous in
different circumstances. The male mouse depends on pheromones to decide how to behave toward other
mice. It detects the pheromones with the vomeronasal organ, an extra scent-detecting tissue in the nose.
The male mouse's rule for dealing with strangers is simple - if it's male, attack it; if female, mate with it.
But male mice that are genetically engineered to block the scent-detecting vomeronasal cells try to mate
rather than attack invading males.
A second gene, much studied by fruit fly biologists, is known to be involved in the male's courtship
behaviors. The gene is called fruitless because when it is disrupted in males they lose interest in females
and instead form mating chains with other males. Female flies genetically engineered with the male form
of fruitless aggressively pursued other females, performing all steps of male courtship except the last.
Fruitless serves as a master switch of behavior, just as other known genes serve as master switches for
building an eye or other organs. Other such behavior switch genes may well exist but could have evaded
detection because disrupting them - the geneticist's way of making genes reveal themselves - is lethal.
An organism's genome is closely linked to its environment, and that there can be elaborate feedback
between the two. A remarkable instance of genome-environment interaction has been discovered in the
maternal behavior of rats. Pups that receive lots of licking and grooming during the first week of life are
less fearful in adulthood and more phlegmatic in response to stress. A gene in the brain is chemically
modified during the grooming period and remains so throughout life. It makes the gene produce more of
a product that damps down the brain's stress response.
A question of some interest is how far the genetic shaping of behavior exists in people. Activities like the
suckling of babies, maternal behavior and sexual drives are likely to be shaped by genes, but that sexual
drives are also modulated by experience. Researchers can rigorously explore how behavioral genes
operate in lower animals by performing tests that are impossible or unethical in people.
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The Smell of Power - Odour and Mating Preferences
What’s a girl to do when faced with the choice between a powerful man who has
great DNA but is likely to love her and leave her, and a bloke who will hang around
and bring up the kids but may not be Mr Right? Ideally, she should fool the latter into
bringing up the former's children. And this seems to be exactly what happens.
A preference for the scent of dominants has been found in the females of other
species. But whether the odour of power is attractive to women had not been
established.
Deciding who is and is not a dominant male the researchers turned to male
students. They were asked to rate such things as their tendency to correct others, to
want to control conversations, and to surpass others' accomplishments.
The volunteers had to wear cotton pads under their armpits for 24 hours to collect
the sweat, The female volunteers had to smell the pads and rate them for “intensity”,
“sexiness” and “masculinity”. And to vouchsafe whether they were single or in an ongoing relationship with a man, and to submit to a saliva test that would show the
phase of their menstrual cycle.
The upshot of was that women did, indeed, find the odour of dominants sexier than
that of wimps—but only when first the woman was in a relationship and second was
in the most fertile phase of her cycle. In other words, dominant males' scent was
only more attractive when a woman could both conceive and cuckold her mate.
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Neurophysiologie der Rache – oder Rache ist süß
Egoistisches oder kooperatives Verhalten, Siel von Dominique
de Quervain, Universität Zürich
Wenn ein Spieler seinen Gewinn dem Partner schenkte, wurde
der Betrag von Spielleiter verdoppelt.
Wenn der Beschenkte sich dafür nicht erkenntlich zeigte, konnte
er von den anderen Spielern mit Strafpunkten belegt werden.
Die Verteilung der Strafpunkte aktivierte genau denselben
Hirnbereich, der auch für freudige Empfindungen und emotionale
Belohnung zuständig ist.
Schon die Vorstellung der Rache löst die Belohnung aus. Man
muss also nicht unbedingt tätig werden.
Häufiger Abruft der Vorstellung von Revanche kann aber süchtig
machen. Rachsucht!
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Fairnesspräferenz
Egoistisches oder kooperatives Verhalten
Auch altruistische Marktteilnehmer lassen sich nicht gerne
ausnutzen.
Ein paar Egoisten genügen, um alle Kooperation zu stoppen.
Nur wenn die fairen Individuen die Möglichkeit haben,
unkooperatives Verhalten zu sanktionieren, lässt sich eine
stabile Kooperation erzielen.
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Smile
Some people are not good for anything.
But they still can put a smile on your
face when you push them down a flight
of stairs.
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Neurophysiologie der Lüge
Traditioneller Lügendetektor: emotionale Erregung gemessen
über Atem, Puls, Blutdruck, elektrischer Hautwiderstand
Neu: Messung der emotionalen Erregung über Blutfluss im
Gehirn mit Ultraschall-Doppler
fMRI: Aktivität im Stirnhirn, Schläfenlappen, limbischen System
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Society for Neuroscience 34rd Annual Meeting
Over 31,000 neuroscientists met in San Diego for Neuroscience
2004, from Saturday, October 23, to Wednesday, October 27. The
Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting is the premier venue to
meet and exchange the latest discoveries.
The ability to process more than 15,400 scientific abstracts has
been greatly facilitated by the electronic submission process.
Over 99.8 percent of the abstracts were submitted electronically.
Improved Abstracts CD A CD-ROM containing all abstracts and
an Itinerary Planner is provided free to all members in place of
the printed Abstracts volume. In response to feedback from
meeting attendees, a number of improvements will be made to
this year's CD including the ability to print abstracts more easily
and to search for presentations of interest more efficiently.
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Neuroscience: Nothing to worry about?
In a free society everybody is free to worry as she pleases,
however absurd this may seem to a third party:
A chain smoker may sue his barbecuing neighbor.
A disco freak may suffer agonies hearing the dog next door.
A free climber may only invest in bonds.
In the spring of 2002 the Economist devoted its cover story to
neuroscience and expressed amazement that so far nobody
seems to worry.
Quite in contrary to gene technology, neuroscience has so far
escaped the radar screen of our concerned contemporaries.
Although here the possibility for manipulation „poses far more of
a threat to human dignity and autonomy than does cloning.“
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Die falsche Warnung der Forscher
Jens Johler und Christian Stahl: Es gibt Menschen und Mächte, die nicht wissen sollten, wie das Gehirn funktioniert.
Experimente, die auf die Kontrolle der Gedankenwelt abzielen, sind nichts Neues. Schon während des Zweiten
Weltkriegs gab es Experimente, mit denen Forscher versuchten, das Bewußtsein zu beherrschen. Deutsche Ärzte
verabreichten in Konzentrationslagern Mescalin und andere Drogen, um herauszufinden, welches die ideale
Wahrheitsdroge wäre. Das amerikanische "Office for Strategic Services" unternahm ähnliche Experimente. Mitte der
Siebziger flog die Sache mit den Menschenexperimenten auf. Zwar vernichtete CIA-Chef Richard Helms den größten
Teil der Akten, aber was dem Reißwolf entging, reichte aus, um die Öffentlichkeit zu schockieren.
Die Grundfrage lautete: "Können wir einen Menschen so weit beeinflussen, daß er unsere Befehle auch gegen seinen
Willen ausführt, selbst entgegen dem Selbsterhaltungstrieb?" Das Ziel war klar formuliert, nur die Mittel waren noch
unvollkommen. Aber die Wissenschaft rastet nicht, sie rast. Was einmal Fortschritt heißen durfte, ähnelt mehr und mehr
besinnungsloser Raserei. Einen besonderen Beschleunigungsschub bekam die Bemühung, "das Rätsel des
menschlichen Geistes zu lösen", dadurch, daß der amerikanische Kongreß das letzte Jahrzehnt des vergangenen
Jahrhunderts zur "Dekade der Hirnforschung" ausrief.
Gerade haben elf führende deutsche Hirnforscher ein "Manifest" veröffentlicht, in dem sie Auskunft geben über
Gegenwart und Zukunft der Hirnforschung. Das Manifest skizziert die schöne neue Welt der Zukunft: In nicht allzu weiter
Ferne werden wir mit Hilfe der Gehirnforschung imstande sein, Alzheimer und Parkinson zu heilen; wir werden neue
Psychopharmaka für die Behandlung von Schizophrenie und Depressionen entwickeln; wir werden auch
Neuroprothesen haben wie eine künstliche Retina und intelligente Ersatzgliedmaßen. Und ebenso werden uns die
Forschritte der Hirnforschung "vermehrt in die Lage versetzen, psychische Auffälligkeiten und Fehlentwicklungen, aber
auch Verhaltensdispositionen zumindest in ihrer Tendenz vorauszusehen - und ,Gegenmaßnahmen' zu ergreifen".
Versuche gibt es schon. Es gibt sogar den Antrag, die Messung von Gehirnströmen als neue Form des Lügendetektors
bei Gericht zuzulassen. Was es noch nicht gibt, ist der Gehirnscan bei der Einreise nach Amerika: Hier ist ein Bild von
Usama Bin Ladin. Das Feuer deiner Neuronen wird mir sagen, ob du mit ihm sympathisierst oder nicht.
Unsere elf führenden Gehirne sehen diese Gefahr auch: "Solche Eingriffe in das Innenleben, des Menschen sind mit
vielen ethischen Fragen verbunden, deren Diskussion in den kommenden Jahren intensiviert werden muß." In den
kommenden Jahren? Besser sofort! Das ist nicht wissenschaftsfeindlich. Es gab in den letzten Jahren die ethische
Diskussion über embryonale Stammzellen, PID, therapeutisches Klonen und das genetische Design von Tier und
Mensch. Aber im Fall der Hirnforschung geht es nicht um einen Neuentwurf der Spezies Mensch, hier geht es um
Kontrolle, Macht, Entmündigung. "In diesem zukünftigen Moment", heißt es im Manifest, "schickt sich unser Gehirn
ernsthaft an, sich selbst zu erkennen." Verkenne dich selbst! In Wahrheit geht es durchaus nicht um "wir" und "unser"
und darum, daß irgendein Gehirn sich selbst erkennt. Es geht darum, daß Forscher mit Computern, Elektroden, Chips
und Drogen sich "in diesem zukünftigen Moment" anschicken, zum Angriff auf unsere Gehirne überzugehen.
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Neuroscience and Neuroethics
Children with ADHD are often given methylphenidate after a physician
considers their need. High school and college students without benefit of
evaluation are using the same drug in the hope of improving their exam
performance. Aside from the health risks associated with such drugs, what is it
that bothers us here?
Perhaps it is our belief that the playing field should be level--we worry about the
students who can't access the drug. Well, what about the kids who can't afford a
preparatory course for taking a standardized test?
The ability to peer into brain processes also intensifies old privacy questions.
Suppose that fMRI records become individually diagnostic with respect to some
behavioral anomaly or predictive of some future tendency. In the future, brain
imaging techniques could conceivably be employed in the context of a court
procedure as a test of truth-telling or subpoenaed in a case involving violence.
Finally, special issues arise when we penetrate into the philosophical territory
where dualists and determinists debate over free will. As we learn more about the
neurobiology of choice and decision, will we reach a point at which we feel less
free? Perhaps more important for society, will we eventually know enough to
change our view about individual responsibility for antisocial acts?
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Das Manifest - Elf führende Neurowissenschaftler
über Gegenwart und Zukunft der Hirnforschung
Was wissen und können Hirnforscher heute?
Angesichts des enormen Aufschwungs der Hirnforschung in den
vergangenen Jahren entsteht manchmal der Eindruck, unsere
Wissenschaft stünde kurz davor, dem Gehirn seine letzten
Geheimnisse zu entreißen. Doch hier gilt es zu unterscheiden:
Grundsätzlich setzt die neurobiologische Untersuchung des
Gehirns auf drei verschiedenen Ebenen an. Die oberste erklärt die
Funktion größerer Hirnareale, beispielsweise spezielle Aufgaben
verschiedener Gebiete der Großhirnrinde, der Amygdala oder der
Basalganglien. Die mittlere Ebene beschreibt das Geschehen
innerhalb von Verbänden von hunderten oder tausenden Zellen.
Und die unterste Ebene umfasst die Vorgänge auf dem Niveau
einzelner Zellen und Moleküle. Bedeutende Fortschritte bei der
Erforschung des Gehirns haben wir bislang nur auf der obersten
und der untersten Ebene erzielen können, nicht aber auf der
mittleren.
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Die oberste Organisationsebene
Verschiedene Methoden ermöglichen einen Einblick in die oberste
Organisationsebene des Gehirns: Bildgebende Verfahren wie die
Positronenemissionstomografie (PET) und die funktionelle
Magnetresonanztomografie (fMRT), die den Energiebedarf von Hirnregionen
messen, besitzen eine gute räumliche Auflösung, bis in den Millimeterbereich.
Zeitlich gesehen hinken sie den Vorgängen allerdings mindestens um Sekunden
hinterher. Die klassische Elektroenzephalografie (EEG) dagegen misst die
elektrische Aktivität von Nervenzellverbänden quasi in Echtzeit, gibt aber nicht
genau Aufschluss über den Ort des Geschehens. Etwas besser - etwa im
Zentimeterbereich - liegt die räumliche Auflösung bei der neueren
Magnetenzephalografie (MEG), mit der sich die Änderung von Magnetfeldern um
elektrisch aktive Neuronenverbände millisekundengenau sichtbar machen lässt.
Insbesondere durch die Kombination mehrerer dieser Technologien können wir
das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Hirnareale darstellen, das uns kognitive
Funktionen wie Sprachverstehen, Bilder erkennen, Tonwahrnehmung,
Musikverarbeitung, Handlungsplanung, Gedächtnisprozesse sowie das Erleben
von Emotionen ermöglicht. Damit haben wir eine thematische Aufteilung der
obersten Organisationsebene des Gehirns nach Funktionskomplexen
gewonnen.
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Die unterste neuronale Organisationsebene
Auch hinsichtlich der untersten neuronalen Organisationsebene
hat die Entwicklung völlig neuartiger Methoden wie etwa der Patchclamp-Technik, der Fluoreszenzmikroskopie oder des XenopusOocyten-Expressionssystems zu einem Erkenntnissprung geführt.
Inzwischen wissen wir sehr viel mehr über die Ausstattung der
Nervenzellmembran mit Rezeptoren und Ionenkanälen sowie über
deren Arbeitsweise, die Funktion von Neurotransmittern,
Neuropeptiden und Neurohormonen, den Ablauf intrazellulärer
Signalprozesse oder die Entstehung und Fortleitung neuronaler
Erregung. Selbst was in einem einzelnen Neuron passiert, können
wir mit hoher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösung analysieren
sowie in Computermodellen simulieren. Dies ist von großer
Bedeutung für das Grund legende Verständnis der Arbeitsweise
von Sinnesorganen und Nervensystemen sowie für die gezielte
Behandlung neurologischer und psychischer Erkrankungen
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Die mittlere neuronale Organisationsebene
Zweifellos wissen wir also heute sehr viel mehr über das Gehirn als noch vor
zehn Jahren. Zwischen dem Wissen über die obere und untere
Organisationsebene des Gehirns klafft aber nach wie vor eine große
Erkenntnislücke. Über die mittlere Ebene - also das Geschehen innerhalb
kleinerer und größerer Zellverbände, das letztlich den Prozessen auf der
obersten Ebene zu Grunde liegt - wissen wir noch erschreckend wenig. Auch
darüber, mit welchen Codes einzelne oder wenige Nervenzellen untereinander
kommunizieren (wahrscheinlich benutzen sie gleichzeitig mehrere solcher
Codes), existieren allenfalls plausible Vermutungen. Völlig unbekannt ist
zudem, was abläuft, wenn hundert Millionen oder gar einige Milliarden
Nervenzellen miteinander "reden".
Nach welchen Regeln das Gehirn arbeitet; wie es die Welt so abbildet, dass
unmittelbare Wahrnehmung und frühere Erfahrung miteinander verschmelzen;
wie das innere Tun erlebt wird und wie es zukünftige Aktionen plant, all dies
verstehen wir nach wie vor nicht einmal in Ansätzen. Mehr noch: Es ist
überhaupt nicht klar, wie man dies mit den heutigen Mitteln erforschen könnte.
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Was wissen und können Hirnforscher in zehn Jahren
Was wir in zehn Jahren über den genaueren Zusammenhang von
Gehirn und Geist wissen werden, hängt vor allem von der Entwicklung
neuer Untersuchungsmethoden ab. Das "Wo" im Gehirn, über das uns
heute die funktionelle Kernspintomographie Auskunft gibt, sagt uns noch
nicht, "wie" kognitive Leistungen durch neuronale Mechanismen zu
beschreiben sind. Für einen echten Fortschritt in diesem Bereich
benötigen wir ein Verfahren, das die Registrierung beider Aspekte in
einem ermöglicht.
Wie entstehen Bewusstsein und Ich-Erleben, wie werden rationales und
emotionales Handeln miteinander verknüpft, was hat es mit der
Vorstellung des "freien Willens" auf sich? Die großen Fragen der
Neurowissenschaften zu stellen ist heute schon erlaubt - dass sie sich
bereits in den nächsten zehn Jahren beantworten lassen, ist allerdings
eher unrealistisch. Selbst ob wir sie bis dahin auch nur sinnvoll angehen
können, bleibt fraglich. Dazu müssten wir über die Funktionsweise des
Gehirns noch wesentlich mehr wissen.
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Sehr wohl aber kann es der Hirnforschung innerhalb der nächsten Dekade gelingen,
Erkenntnisse zu erarbeiten, die für Antworten auf diese übergeordneten Fragen
entscheidend sein werden. So wollen wir herausfinden, wie Schaltkreise von
Hunderten oder Tausenden Neuronen im Verbund des ganzen Gehirns Information
codieren, bewerten, speichern und auslesen. Die mittlere Ebene - die Untersuchung
der Arbeitsweise von kleineren Bereichen des Nervensystems, von Mikroschaltkreisen
- gelangt also zunehmend in den Mittelpunkt der Forschung. Das bisher übliche
Verfahren, solche Fragen an Gehirnschnitten zu untersuchen, gehört dann
wahrscheinlich der Vergangenheit an, da es nur Momentaufnahmen in einem nicht
mehr als Ganzen funktionierenden Schaltwerk darstellen kann. Stattdessen können wir
in zehn Jahren wahrscheinlich die räumliche und zeitliche Verteilung von neuronaler
Erregung bis auf die Ebene aller beteiligten Neurone in einem Mikroschaltkreis mit
bildgebenden Verfahren hoher zeitlicher Auflösung im intakten Nervensystem
erfassen. Multiple-Photonenmikroskopie, funktionelle Farbstoffe und
molekulargenetische Methoden versetzen uns in die Lage, die Regeln des
Informationsflusses innerhalb einzelner Neurone und im Verbund von Neuronen zu
erkennen.
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Ganz wesentlich unterstützt wird das Verständnis der Arbeitsweise von
Mikroschaltkreisen durch eine detailreiche Modellierung mit Hochleistungsrechnern.
Diese Modellierung orientiert sich weniger an den Konzepten der Informatik und
künstlichen Intelligenz als vielmehr an den wirklichen physiologischen Vorgängen. Und
zwar nicht nur an denen der unteren Ebene - einzelnen Neuronen mit ihren
Ausstattungen an Kanälen und Rezeptoren -, sondern vor allem auch an den
neuronalen Prozessen der bisher noch so wenig verstandenen mittleren Ebene. So
wird sich neben der experimentellen Neurobiologie die theoretische Neurobiologie als
Forschungsdisziplin durchsetzen, die dann ähnlich wie die theoretische Physik
innerhalb der Physik eine große Eigenständigkeit besitzt.
Am Ende der Bemühungen werden die Neurowissenschaften sozusagen das kleine
Ein-Mal-Eins des Gehirns verstehen. Daraus lassen sich dann strenge Hypothesen
zum Studium übergeordneter Hirnfunktionen ableiten: beispielsweise wie das Gehirn
seine zahlreichen Subsysteme so koordiniert, dass kohärente Wahrnehmungen und
koordinierte Aktionen entstehen können. Ohne diesen entscheidenden Zwischenschritt
über die "mittlere" Organisationsebene bleiben die Aussagen über den
Zusammenhang zwischen neuronal beobachtbarer Aktivität und kognitiven Leistungen
weiterhin spekulativ
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Vor allem was die konkreten Anwendungen angeht, stehen uns in den nächsten zehn
Jahren enorme Fortschritte ins Haus. Wahrscheinlich werden wir die wichtigsten
molekularbiologischen und genetischen Grundlagen neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen
wie Alzheimer oder Parkinson verstehen und diese Leiden schneller erkennen,
vielleicht von vornherein verhindern oder zumindest wesentlich besser behandeln
können. Ähnliches gilt für einige psychische Krankheiten wie Schizophrenie und
Depression. In absehbarer Zeit wird eine neue Generation von Psychopharmaka
entwickelt werden, die selektiv und damit hocheffektiv sowie nebenwirkungsarm in
bestimmten Hirnregionen an definierten Nervenzellrezeptoren angreift. Dies könnte die
Therapie psychischer Störungen revolutionieren - auch wenn von der Entwicklung zum
anwendungsfähigen Medikament noch etliche weitere Jahre vergehen werden.
Zudem werden Neuroprothesen wie intelligente Ersatzgliedmaßen oder das künstliche
Ohr immer weiter perfektioniert. In zehn Jahren haben wir wahrscheinlich eine
künstliche Netzhaut entwickelt, die nicht im Detail programmiert ist, sondern sich nach
den Prinzipien des Nervensystems organisiert und lernt. Das wird unseren Blick auf
das Sehen, auf die Wahrnehmung, vielleicht auf alle Organisationsprozesse im Gehirn
tief greifend verändern.
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Ebenso werden uns die zu erwartenden weiteren Fortschritte in der
Hirnforschung vermehrt in die Lage versetzen, psychische
Auffälligkeiten und Fehlentwicklungen, aber auch
Verhaltensdispositionen zumindest in ihrer Tendenz
vorauszusehen - und "Gegenmaßnahmen" zu ergreifen. Solche
Eingriffe in das Innenleben, in die Persönlichkeit des Menschen
sind allerdings mit vielen ethischen Fragen verbunden, deren
Diskussion in den kommenden Jahren intensiviert werden muss.
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Was werden Hirnforscher eines Tages wissen und
können?
In absehbarer Zeit, also in den nächsten 20 bis 30 Jahren, wird die
Hirnforschung den Zusammenhang zwischen neuroelektrischen
und neurochemischen Prozessen einerseits und perzeptiven,
kognitiven, psychischen und motorischen Leistungen andererseits
soweit erklären können, dass Voraussagen über diese
Zusammenhänge in beiden Richtungen mit einem hohen
Wahrscheinlichkeitsgrad möglich sind. Dies bedeutet, dass man
widerspruchsfrei Geist, Bewusstsein, Gefühle, Willensakte und
Handlungsfreiheit als natürliche Vorgänge ansehen wird, denn sie
beruhen auf biologischen Prozessen .
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können?
Eine "vollständige" Erklärung der Arbeit des menschlichen
Gehirns, das heißt eine durchgängige Entschlüsselung auf der
zellulären oder gar molekularen Ebene, erreichen wir dabei
dennoch nicht. Insbesondere wird eine vollständige Beschreibung
des individuellen Gehirns und damit eine Vorhersage über das
Verhalten einer bestimmten Person nur höchst eingeschränkt
gelingen. Denn einzelne Gehirne organisieren sich aufgrund
genetischer Unterschiede und nicht reproduzierbarer
Prägungsvorgänge durch Umwelteinflüsse selbst - und zwar auf
sehr unterschiedliche Weise, individuellen Bedürfnissen und einem
individuellen Wertesystem folgend. Das macht es generell
unmöglich, durch Erfassung von Hirnaktivität auf die daraus
resultierenden psychischen Vorgänge eines konkreten
Individuums zu schließen.
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können?
Im Endeffekt könnte sich eine Situation wie in der Physik ergeben:
Die klassische Mechanik hat deskriptive Begriffe für die Makrowelt
eingeführt, aber erst mit den aus der Quantenphysik abgeleiteten
Begriffen ergab sich die Möglichkeit einer einheitlichen
Beschreibung. Auf lange Sicht werden wir entsprechend eine
"Theorie des Gehirns" aufstellen, und die Sprache dieser Theorie
wird vermutlich eine andere sein als jene, die wir heute in der
Neurowissenschaft kennen. Sie wird auf dem Verständnis der
Arbeitsweise von großen Neuronenverbänden beruhen, den
Vorgängen auf der mittleren Ebene. Dann lassen sich auch die
schweren Fragen der Erkenntnistheorie angehen: nach dem
Bewusstsein, der Ich-Erfahrung und dem Verhältnis von
erkennendem und zu erkennenden Objekt. Denn in diesem
zukünftigen Moment schickt sich unser Gehirn ernsthaft an, sich
selbst zu erkennen.
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können?
Dann werden die Ergebnisse der Hirnforschung auch zu einer
Veränderung unseres Menschenbildes führen. Sie werden
dualistische Erklärungsmodelle - die Trennung von Körper und
Geist - zunehmend verwischen. Ein weiteres Beispiel: das
Verhältnis von angeborenem und erworbenem Wissen. In unserer
momentanen Denkweise sind dies zwei unterschiedliche
Informationsquellen, die unserem Wahrnehmen, Handeln und
Denken zu Grunde liegen. Die Neurowissenschaft der nächsten
Jahrzehnte wird aber ihre innige Verflechtung aufzeigen und
herausarbeiten, dass auf der mittleren Ebene der Nervennetze eine
solche Unterscheidung gar keinen Sinn macht. Was unser Bild von
uns Selbst betrifft, stehen uns also in sehr absehbarer Zeit
beträchtliche Erschütterungen ins Haus. Geisteswissenschaften
und Neurowissenschaften werden in einen intensiven Dialog treten
müssen, um gemeinsam ein neues Menschenbild zu entwerfen.
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können?
Aller Fortschritt wird aber nicht in einem Triumph des neuronalen
Reduktionismus enden. Selbst wenn wir irgendwann einmal
sämtliche neuronalen Vorgänge aufgeklärt haben sollten, die dem
Mitgefühl beim Menschen, seinem Verliebtsein oder seiner
moralischen Verantwortung zugrunde liegen, so bleibt die
Eigenständigkeit dieser "Innenperspektive" dennoch erhalten.
Denn auch eine Fuge von Bach verliert nichts von ihrer
Faszination, wenn man genau verstanden hat, wie sie aufgebaut
ist. Die Hirnforschung wird klar unterscheiden müssen, was sie
sagen kann und was außerhalb ihres Zuständigkeitsbereichs liegt,
so wie die Musikwissenschaft - um bei diesem Beispiel zu bleiben zu Bachs Fuge Einiges zu sagen hat, zur Erklärung ihrer
einzigartigen Schönheit aber schweigen muss.
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The Neuroscience of Investment Behavior

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